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StivenLancheros

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Origin.", "Growth and acquisitions.", "History of Premier Parks.", "Acquisition of Six Flags by Premier Parks.", "Asset sales and shareholder revolt.", "Bankruptcy.", "Emergence from bankruptcy.", "2010–present.", "Marketing efforts.", "TV commercials.", "Licensing with other brands and companies.", "Other assets." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The name \"Six Flags\" originally referred to the flags of the six different nations that have governed Texas: Spain, France, Mexico, the Republic of Texas, the United States and the Confederate States of America. Six Flags parks are still divided into different themed sections, although many of the original areas from the first three parks have been replaced. Six Flags Theme Parks originated in 1957 with the creation of The Great Southwest Corporation by Angus G. Wynne and other investors. Construction of Six Flags Over Texas started in 1960 and the park opened the next year for a short (45-day) season. The park initially featured a Native American village, a gondola ride, a railroad, some Wild West shows, a stagecoach ride and \"Skull Island\", a pirate-themed adventure attraction. There was also an excursion, inspired by the historical La Salle Expeditions in the late 1600s, called \"LaSalle's River Adventure\", aboard French riverboats through a wilderness full of animated puppets. Over the years, all of those attractions, except the railroad, were replaced by others, such as roller coasters, swing rides, log flumes and shoot-the-chute rides, as well as an observation tower.", "The original Six Flags park, Six Flags Over Texas in Arlington (between Dallas and Fort Worth) was sold in 1966 to a subsidiary of the Pennsylvania Railroad, which was actively pursuing non-railroad investments in an effort to diversify its sources of income. (In 1968, the Pennsylvania Railroad merged with the New York Central Railroad to form Penn Central Corp.) With the new owners came a more abundant supply of capital for geographic expansion and park additions. Six Flags opened Six Flags Over Georgia in 1967 and Six Flags Over Mid-America in 1971, which were the last two original parks constructed by the company. Six Flags continued to grow by acquiring independent parks. Six Flags purchased AstroWorld in Houston, Texas in 1975, Great Adventure in Jackson, New Jersey in 1977 and Magic Mountain in Valencia, California in 1979. These purchases were followed by Penn Central selling assets to Bally Manufacturing in 1982. In 1984, the Great America theme park in Gurnee, Illinois was acquired from the Marriott hotel chain. Also in 1984, as a result of its acquisition of Great America, Six Flags acquired the rights to Time Warner/Warner Bros.' \"Looney Tunes\" animated characters for use in Six Flags properties. Bally surrendered control of the chain to Wesray Capital Corporation in a 1987 leveraged buyout. Time Warner quickly began to gain more leverage in the company, gaining a 19.5% stake in Six Flags in 1990 and then 50% in 1991, with the remaining shares of the company being split by Blackstone Group and Wertheim Schroder & Company. Time Warner purchased the remaining stake in Six Flags in 1993, changing the company's name from \"Six Flags Corp\". to \"Six Flags Theme Parks, Inc\". In 1996, Six Flags began to manage Fiesta Texas theme park in San Antonio, Texas, and purchased the park from USAA in 1998.", "Premier Parks originally operated as the Tierco Group, Inc., an Oklahoma-based real estate company. The company purchased the Frontier City theme park in Oklahoma City in 1982 for $1.2 million, although Tierco had no intention of entering the amusement park business. Company officials described Frontier City as \"beat up\" and \"run down\"; they planned to demolish it, subdivide the land and build a shopping center. However, given an oil bust in Oklahoma, developers lost interest in converting the park into a shopping center. In 1984, Tierco hired Gary Story as general manager of Frontier City and invested about $13 million into improving the park. As the new head of Frontier City, he quadrupled the park's attendance and revenues. Under his leadership, two rides, a ticket booth, sales office, and a petting zoo were added to the park. Food service improved. In 1988, Tierco shifted its strategic direction to amusement parks. It sold much of its property in the late 1980s, generating capital to reinvest in Frontier City. As this reinvestment paid off, more capital became available, creating further growth. By 1991, Tierco opened White Water waterpark in Oklahoma City (the name later became White Water Bay). The company realized the key to boosting a park's attendance was to add new and exciting rides and make it family-friendly. Tierco acquired the financially troubled Wild World in Largo, Maryland, in 1992 and later changed that park's name to Adventure World. With a $500,000 investment, Tierco expanded Wild World's kiddie section and remodeled its buildings to give the park a tropical look and feel. Story was promoted to executive vice president after the purchase of Wild World. In 1994, he was promoted again to president and chief operating officer (COO). More flat rides and two roller coasters were added to that park. Since Tierco was on its way to becoming a \"premier\" regional theme park operator, in 1994 it changed its name to Premier Parks, Inc. Kieran E. Burke, chairman and chief executive officer (CEO), noted that the new name signified the beginning of a new era for the company. In the second half of the 1990s, Premier picked up speed. In 1995, the company acquired these Funtime, Inc. properties: Geauga Lake near Cleveland, Ohio, Wyandot Lake in Powell, Ohio and Darien Lake near Buffalo, New York. In 1996, Premier added to its portfolio, buying Elitch Gardens in Denver, Colorado, the Waterworld USA waterparks in Sacramento and Concord, California, Riverside Park in Agawam, Massachusetts, and Great Escape and Splashwater Kingdom in Lake George, New York. Geauga Lake, Wyandot Lake and Adventure World included water parks, while Frontier City was 14.8 miles away from White Water Bay that required separate admission. Riverside added one just before being sold. Premier Parks, in 1995 and 1996, added water parks to Darien Lake, Lake Compounce (immediately before the Kennywood sale), Elitch Gardens, and Great Escape. Premier went public in 1996 and raised nearly $70 million through an initial offering at $18 per share. The company planned to use the money to expand its ten parks and acquire others. In 1997, Premier purchased Kentucky Kingdom in Louisville and Marine World near San Francisco. A second public offering, at $29 per share, raised an additional $2 million. Nearly 8.8 million people visited Premier's parks in 1996. In December 1997, Premier entered a definitive agreement to purchase a controlling 94 percent interest in Walibi Family Parks in Europe. The deal was finalized in March 1998 adding five Walibi Parks and Bellewaerde to the chain. Premier added amusement park rides and roller coasters to Marine World in 1999.", "Six Flags Theme Parks, Inc. was purchased in whole on April 1, 1998, from Time Warner by Premier Parks for $1.86 billion. Premier began to apply the Six Flags name to several smaller parks that the company had already owned: Darien Lake, Elitch Gardens, Kentucky Kingdom and Marine World. Adventure World was rebranded as Six Flags America. In 1999, Premier Parks purchased Warner Bros. Movie World Germany and the yet-to-be-built Warner Bros. Movie World Madrid from Warner Bros.. As part of the acquisition, Premier Parks had the opportunity to open more European theme parks with Warner Bros. Movie World branding. Warner Bros. Movie World on the Gold Coast, Australia was not part of the deal. The same transaction saw Premier Parks obtain exclusive rights for Warner Bros. licensing in Europe and Latin America, in addition to their existing rights for the United States and Canada. In March 1999, Premier Parks purchased Reino Aventura for an estimated $59 million. In 2000, Premier Parks assumed the \"Six Flags Theme Parks, Inc\". name and continued re-branding its parks, including Geauga Lake park into Six Flags Ohio and Riverside Park to Six Flags New England. The company also rebranded one of the recently acquired Walibi parks — Walibi Flevo as Six Flags Holland, and Mexico's Reino Aventura as Six Flags Mexico. In 2001, Six Flags acquired the former SeaWorld Ohio from Anheuser-Busch, merged it with the adjacent Six Flags Ohio and re-branded the combined park as \"Six Flags Worlds of Adventure\". The park was positioned to compete against northern Ohio's Cedar Point. In May 2001, Six Flags negotiated with the city of Montreal to operate La Ronde in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Six Flags acquired the assets of the park and has a long-term contract to lease the land from the city. Walibi Wavre was rebranded as Six Flags Belgium.", "In 2004, Six Flags began to close and sell properties in an effort to help alleviate the company's growing debt. On March 10, Six Flags sold its European parks, with the exception of the Movie World park in Madrid, Spain, to Star Parks, a division of Palamon Capital Partners. The Madrid park was sold back to Time Warner and renamed \"Parque Warner Madrid\". In April, Six Flags determined that the investment required to keep Worlds of Adventure competitive with Cedar Point would be too great, leading to that park being sold to Cedar Fair. These sales raised $345 million in an effort to relieve Six Flags' massive debt. In 2005, Six Flags endured even more turmoil. Some of the company's largest investors, notably Bill Gates's Cascade Investments (which then owned about 11% of Six Flags) and Daniel Snyder's Red Zone, LLC (which owned 12%), demanded change. On August 17, 2005, Red Zone began a proxy battle to gain control of Six Flags' board of directors. On August 29, 2005, Six Flags New Orleans was severely damaged by Hurricane Katrina, and has since sat abandoned. On September 12, Six Flags Chief Executive Officer Kieran Burke announced that Six Flags AstroWorld would be closed and demolished at the end of the 2005 season. The company cited issues such as the park's performance, and parking issues involving the Houston Texans football team, Reliant Stadium, and the Houston Livestock Show and Rodeo, leveraged with the estimated value of the property which included the park. Company executives were expecting to receive upwards of $150 million for the real estate but ended up receiving $77 million when the bare property (which cost $20 million to clear) was sold to a development corporation in 2006. On November 22, Red Zone announced it had gained control of the board. Kieran Burke was removed on December 14 and replaced by Mark Shapiro, former executive vice president of programming at ESPN. Six Flags then named former Representative Jack Kemp, entertainment mogul Harvey Weinstein and Michael Kassan, the former president of the Interpublic Group of Companies Incorporated, to their newly revamped board of directors. Even with the new management team, the sell-off would continue into 2006. On January 27, Six Flags announced the sale of Frontier City and White Water Bay after the 2006 operating season. At the same time, Six Flags announced it would close corporate offices in Oklahoma City, moving its headquarters to New York City. Six Flags CEO Mark Shapiro said he expected the parks to continue operation after the sale, a lesson the company learned after its public relations debacle with the closure of AstroWorld. In June, Six Flags announced it was considering closing or selling up to six of its parks, including Elitch Gardens, Darien Lake, WaterWorld in (Concord, California), Wild Waves and Enchanted Village in Federal Way, Washington, Splashtown in Houston, Texas and, most notably, Six Flags Magic Mountain. In addition, Six Flags announced the sale of Wyandot Lake in Powell, Ohio to the neighboring Columbus Zoo and Aquarium. Ultimately, Six Flags Magic Mountain was spared, with the remaining six parks sold on January 11, 2007, to CNL Lifestyle Properties for $312 million: $275 million cash and a note for $37 million.", "The company's cash flow had decreased by over $120 million annually during the Shapiro years. In October 2008, Six Flags was warned its stock value had fallen below the required minimums to remain listed on the New York Stock Exchange. With the financial crisis of 2007–2008 weighing both on consumer spending and the ability to access credit facilities, Six Flags was believed to be unable to make a payment to preferred stockholders due in August 2009. Management saw the business as a sound one, noting that attendance across the company's parks increased slightly in 2008 compared to 2007. Six Flags CEO Mark Shapiro said that the company's problem was the declining attendance and cash flow created by his new management initiatives. If not resolved, the company warned in its 2008 annual report that the situation might require a Chapter 11 bankruptcy filing, with Six Flags already retaining counsel should that occur. The company stated at the time that it expected business to continue as normal in the event of such a filing, although one analyst believed attendance at the company's parks would decrease by six percent, suggesting parents would be leery of letting their children ride a roller coaster operated by a bankrupt company. In April 2009, the New York Stock Exchange announced it would delist Six Flags' stock on April 20, a decision that the company did not intend to appeal. On June 1, 2009, Six Flags announced they would delay their $15 million debt payment further using a 30-day grace period. Less than two weeks later, on June 13, the firm filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection, but issued a statement that the parks would continue to operate normally while the company restructured. On August 21, 2009, Six Flags' Chapter 11 restructuring plan was announced in which lenders would control 92% of the company in exchange for cancelling $1.13 billion in debt. One component of the restructuring was negotiating a new lease agreement with the Kentucky State Fair Board, which owned much of the land and attractions for Six Flags Kentucky Kingdom. Six Flags had asked to forgo rent payments for the remaining nine years of its current lease agreement in exchange for profit-sharing from the park's operations. When it appeared that the offer had been rejected, Six Flags announced in February 2010 that it would not re-open the park. However, the Kentucky State Fair Board stated at the time that they were still open to negotiating a revised lease agreement. On April 28, 2010, the company's bondholders reached an agreement on a reorganization plan. Junior note holders, including hedge funds Stark Investments and Pentwater Capital Management, assumed control of the company, while senior note holders were paid in cash. Despite objections from some parties who stood to gain nothing, the bankruptcy judge approved the plan on April 30, 2010. As part of the settlement, chairman of the board Dan Snyder was removed, while chief executive officer Mark Shapiro briefly remained in his post.", "Six Flags officially emerged from bankruptcy protection as Six Flags Entertainment Corp. on May 3, 2010, and announced plans to issue new stock on the New York Stock Exchange. Amid suspected disagreements regarding the future of the company with the board, Shapiro left the company and Al Weber, Jr. was brought in as interim president and CEO. The company announced their corporate headquarters would move from New York City to Grand Prairie, Texas.", "Six Flags announced that Jim Reid-Anderson would replace Weber and become chairman, president and chief executive officer (CEO) on August 13, 2010. John Duffey also joined the company in 2010, taking the role of chief financial officer (CFO). As of October 1, 2012, Al Weber, Jr. had retired as chief operating officer (COO) with no immediate successor. On April 10, 2014, Six Flags announced a strategic partnership with Meraas Leisure and Entertainment (now known as DXB Entertainments) to build a Six Flags-branded theme park in Dubai, reviving the project. On June 23, 2014, Six Flags also announced a strategic partnership with Riverside Investment Group to build multiple Six Flags-branded theme parks in China over the decade. On February 18, 2016, Six Flags announced that Jim Reid-Anderson had been promoted as executive chairman and John M. Duffey succeeded him as president and CEO. On January 11, 2016, Six Flags announced Six Flags Zhejiang, then named Six Flags Haiyan, in China. On the same day, a website was created along with concept art for the property. A month later on February 2, 2016. Six Flags announced Six Flags Hurricane Harbor Oaxtepec. The water park, originally named Parque Acuatico Oaxtepec, is a 76-acre park located in Morelos that went bankrupt in 2011. On March 21, 2016, Six Flags announced a partnership with NaVi Entertainment to build a Six Flags-branded theme park and a Six Flags Hurricane Harbor-branded water park in Vietnam. On March 29, 2016, Six Flags announced the revival of its previously canceled Six Flags Dubai. As part of the second phase of the Dubai Parks and Resorts project in Jebel Ali, the park is expected to open in 2019. On July 20, 2016, Six Flags announced an agreement with Riverside Investment Group Co. Ltd. for the development of a second Six Flags-branded theme park in China together with a water park. The two parks will be located in Bishan District, a district of Chongqing. On April 27, 2017, the company announced it would take over operations of Waterworld California in Concord, California making it Six Flags' 20th property. On July 18, 2017, Six Flags announced that president and CEO John M. Duffey had retired from the company and Jim Reid-Anderson had re-assumed the roles of chairman, president and CEO. On March 22, 2018, Six Flags and Riverside Group announced a partnership with Turner Asia Pacific to bring Tuzki and other Turner-owned IPs to its theme parks in China. On May 22, 2018, Six Flags announced the purchase of operating leases for five parks owned by EPR Properties. The parks are Darien Lake, Frontier City, Wet'n'Wild Phoenix, Wet'n'Wild SplashTown and White Water Bay. On October 9, 2018, Six Flags and Rockford Park District announced a lease agreement allowing Six Flags to operate Magic Waters Waterpark beginning Spring 2019. On October 24, 2018, Six Flags announced that the future of its Six Flags Dubai theme park was \"uncertain\" following losses at the company and its partner DXB Entertainments. On April 24, 2019, DXB Entertainments canceled Six Flags Dubai, stating that the development and establishment of a Six Flags theme park was not in the best interest of the company or its shareholders. Plans were made to direct the available proceeds to enhance the existing theme parks of Motiongate and Bollywood Parks. On October 2, 2019, Reuters reported that Six Flags Entertainment Corporation had approached competitor Cedar Fair with an acquisition offer. Sources said that Cedar Fair was considering Six Flags' cash-and-stock offer, but there was no certainty that a deal would be reached. On October 4, 2019, Cedar Fair rejected Six Flags’ offer to purchase. On October 24, 2019, Six Flags Entertainment Corporation announced that Jim Reid-Anderson would retire and Mike Spanos would be President and CEO of the company on November 18, 2019. On January 10, 2020, Six Flags indicated that its projects in China have not progressed as expected and could be canceled due to debt problems with its partner Riverside Investment Group. On March 13 2020, with only a few parks already opened for the 2020 season, Six Flags announced that all its properties will suspend operations due to the COVID-19 pandemic. During the closure, parks donated supplies and food to their local communities. As of June 2020, some Six Flags operations are still currently suspended. On May 13 Six Flags announced that when the parks reopen guests will be required to reserve their place online to enter the park, including purchasing their tickets to the park and parking. Six Flags Great Adventure opened its drive-through safari to the public on May 30. Frontier City became the first park of the company to reopen on June 5, with new health and safety protocols. Soon after Frontier City's announcement, several other parks in the company announced reopening dates. In June, Six Flags America became a testing site for COVID-19, utilizing the parks' parking lot for Maryland state health officials to conduct testing for residences of the state.", "", "In 2004, although DC Comics and \"Looney Tunes\" as well as \"Scooby-Doo\" still had a major presence at the parks, Six Flags began a new series of commercials for the parks. The commercials introduced a new mascot: \"Mr. Six\", a seemingly feeble old man in a tuxedo and red bow tie. In many of the commercials, Mr. Six would slowly exit a multi-colored bus, only to start frenetically dancing to the Vengaboys' \"We Like to Party\". The commercials were an immediate hit and Mr. Six almost instantly became the de facto mascot and his presence was felt for years after the character was retired. These ads have become widely parodied on the Internet, with faces from other Internet memes being superimposed over Mr. Six's face. From 2008 to 2010, Six Flags' TV ads consisted of a \"Fun-O-Meter\" in which the beginning of the ad showed something boring or embarrassing and a man's face judges it \"One Flag!\" or sometimes \" Oh! Two Flags!\" Then roller coasters and attractions of Six Flags are shown and says \"Six Flags! More Flags, More Fun!\" for Six Flags parks. However, the thick accent of the Asian man in the original commercials had drawn criticism for being an offensive caricature. In 2009, the Mr. Six character came back from retirement and replaced the Asian man in Six Flags' ads, still using the Fun-O-Meter. In 2011, Six Flags' TV ads got a brand-new slogan \"Go Big! Go Six Flags!\" for its theme parks.", "Six Flags has licensed its name and its theme park creations to other companies, who have used these assets to create licensed products. One notable example is the theme park simulation game Roller Coaster Tycoon 2, which featured recreations of Six Flags parks and rides that could be expanded and operated at the player's discretion. Six Flags has approximately 18 known partners. These partners include Dole, Armitron, Mike and Ike, Barcel, Good Humor, Nathan's Famous, Coca-Cola, Icee, Ortega, Cold Stone Creamery, J&J Snack Foods, Red Gold, Coppertone, Johnny Rockets, Samsung, Dasani, Mars and Tyson Foods. These businesses help the park generate more income. Most importantly it provides more jobs for prospective employees. For example, Barcel USA expanded its partnership in 2013. This helps to import food and beverages to increase sponsorships within the United States. In 2008, Six Flags partnered with Brash Entertainment to create a video game based on the Six Flags parks named \"Six Flags Fun Park\". The game was first released on the Nintendo DS on October 28, 2008. The Wii version was delayed while the PC and PlayStation 2 versions were canceled after Brash Entertainment went out of business. On February 24, 2009, the rights to the Wii version were taken over by Ubisoft, who released it on March 3, 2009. The game allows players to explore the themed areas and mini-games representative of a visit to a Six Flags park. In the game, players are tasked with quests that encourage them to explore the park's universe. After creating a unique custom character, Six Flags Fun Park patrons can win prizes and compete with other players in 40 mini-games. Although the video game is called \"Six Flags Fun Park\", it lacks any major reference of Six Flags outside of the names of the different areas. This caused some to speculate that the video game was created separately, then the rights to the name of the game were sold as a way to pay for the game's development. When the game was released, it eventually ended up getting abysmal ratings across the board. IGN gave the Wii version a 4.5 out of 10, saying \"The quests are uninteresting and the game's '40 Thrilling Games' (as touted by the box) are far from entertaining.\" In late 2010, Six Flags began the process of removing non-Warner Bros. licensed theming from attractions. They terminated licenses with Thomas the Tank Engine, The Wiggles, Tony Hawk, Evel Knievel, and \"Terminator\". However, since then there has been an expansion of licensing agreements with Warner Bros., with whom the company has had a long-standing relationship with. The expansion lies specifically with Warner Bros.' DC Comics brand, where the two teamed up to create the innovative as well as many other roller coasters and other rides. On May 18, 2017, Six Flags and Riverside Group signed an agreement with Paws, Inc. to use Garfield in children's areas in Six Flags-branded theme parks in China.", "On June 19, 2007, Six Flags announced it had purchased 40% of Dick Clark Productions, which owns rights to \"American Bandstand\" and other shows and productions. In 2012, Jim Reid-Anderson stated that the company would sell its stake in Dick Clark Productions." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Selected species." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "\"Puccinellia agrostidea\" Sorensen Bent alkali grass or tundra alkali grass<br> \"Puccinellia ambigua\" Sorensen - Alberta alkali grass<br> \"Puccinellia americana\" Sorensen - American alkali grass<br> \"Puccinellia andersonii\" Swallen - Anderson's alkali grass<br> \"Puccinellia angustata\" (R.Br.) Rand & Redf. - Narrow alkali grass<br> \"Puccinellia arctica\" (Hook.) Fern. & Weath. - Arctic alkali grass<br> \"Puccinellia bruggemannii\" Sorensen - Prince Patrick alkali grass<br> \"Puccinellia convoluta\" (Hornem.) Hayek -<br> \"Puccinellia coreensis\" Honda - Korean alkaligrass<br> \"Puccinellia deschampsioides\" Sorensen - Polar alkali grass<br> \"Puccinellia distans\" (Jacq.) Parl. - Spreading alkali grass, weeping alkali grass or reflexed saltmarsh-grass<br> \"Puccinellia fasciculata\" (Torr.) E.P.Bicknell - Torrey alkali grass or Borrer's saltmarsh-grass<br> \"Puccinellia fernaldii\" (A.Hitchc.) E.G.Voss = \"Torreyochloa pallida var. \"fernaldii\"<br> \"Puccinellia festuciformis\" (Host) Parl. -<br> \"Puccinellia groenlandica\" Sorensen - Greenland alkali grass<br> \"Puccinellia howellii\" J.I.Davis - Howell's alkali grass<br> \"Puccinellia hultenii\" Swallen - Hulten's alkali grass<br> \"Puccinellia interior\" Sorensen - Interior alkali grass<br> \"Puccinellia kamtschatica\" Holmb. - Alaska alkali grass<br> \"Puccinellia kurilensis\" (Takeda) Honda - Dwarf alkali grass<br> \"Puccinellia langeana\" (Berlin) T.J.Sorensen ex Hultén -<br> \"Puccinellia laurentiana\" Fern. & Weath. - Tracadigash Mountain alkali grass<br> \"Puccinellia lemmonii\" (Vasey) Scribn. - Lemmon's alkali grass<br> \"Puccinellia limosa\" (Schur) Holmb. -<br> \"Puccinellia lucida\" Fern. & Weath. - Shining alkali grass<br> \"Puccinellia macquariensis\" (Cheeseman) Allan & Jansen<br> \"Puccinellia macra\" Fern. & Weath. - Bonaventure Island alkali grass<br> \"Puccinellia maritima\" (Huds.) Parl. - Seaside alkali grass or common saltmarsh-grass<br> \"Puccinellia nutkaensis\" (J.Presl) Fern. & Weath. - Nootka alkali grass<br> \"Puccinellia nuttalliana\" (J.A.Schultes) A.S.Hitchc. - Nuttall's alkali grass<br> \"Puccinellia parishii\" A.S.Hitchc. - Bog alkali grass or Parish's alkali grass<br> \"Puccinellia perlaxa\" (N.G.Walsh) N.G.Walsh & A.R.Williams - Plains saltmarsh-grass<br> \"Puccinellia phryganodes\" (Trin.) Scribn. & Merr. - Creeping alkali grass<br> \"Puccinellia poacea\" Sorensen - Floodplain alkali grass<br> \"Puccinellia porsildii\" Sorensen - Porsild's alkali grass<br> \"Puccinellia pumila\" (Vasey) A.S.Hitchc. - Dwarf alkali grass<br> \"Puccinellia pungens\" (Pau) Paunero -<br> \"Puccinellia rosenkrantzii\" Sorensen - Rosenkrantz's alkali grass<br> \"Puccinellia rupestris\" (With.) Fern. & Weath. - British alkali grass or stiff saltmarsh-grass<br> \"Puccinellia simplex\" Scribn. - California alkali grass<br> \"Puccinellia stricta\" (Hook.f.) C.Blom - Australian saltmarsh-grass<br> \"Puccinellia sublaevis\" (Holmb.) Tzvelev - Smooth alkali grass<br> \"Puccinellia tenella\" Holmb. ex Porsild - Tundra alkali grass<br> \"Puccinellia tenuiflora\" (Griesb.) Scribn. & Merr. -<br> \"Puccinellia vaginata\" (Lange) Fern. & Weath. - Sheathed alkali grass<br> \"Puccinellia vahliana\" (Liebm.) Scribn. & Merr. - Vahl's alkali grass<br> \"Puccinellia wrightii\" (Scribn. & Merr.) Tzvelev - Wright's alkali grass" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Ride experience.", "Theme.", "Trains and station.", "Rollbacks.", "Incidents." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Plans to build Kingda Ka were announced on September 10, 2003, at an event held for roller coaster enthusiasts and the media. The event revealed the park's goal to build \"the tallest and fastest roller coaster on earth\", reaching and accelerating up to in 3.5 seconds. On January 13, 2005, Kingda Ka's tower construction was completed, and on May 21, 2005, the ride opened to the public. Kingda Ka became the \"tallest\" and \"fastest\" roller coaster in the world, taking both world records from Top Thrill Dragster at Cedar Point. It lost the title of world's fastest when Formula Rossa at Ferrari World opened in November 2010. Intamin designed both Kingda Ka and Top Thrill Dragster, and the two share a similar design and layout that differs primarily by the theme and the additional hill featured on Kingda Ka. Both rides were built by Stakotra and installed by Martin & Vleminckx. On August 29, 2013, Six Flags Great Adventure officially announced for the 2014 season. The new attraction was attached to the Kingda Ka coaster. The drop tower features three gondolas integrated into the existing structure which was also built by Intamin. Kingda Ka closed at the start of the 2014 season in order to construct Zumanjaro: Drop of Doom on to Kingda Ka. Kingda Ka reopened on weekends on Memorial Day Weekend and fully reopened when Zumanjaro: Drop of Doom was completed on July 4, 2014.", "Kingda Ka's layout and experience is nearly identical to that of Top Thrill Dragster. After the train has been locked and checked, it moves slowly out of the station to the launch area, then passes through a switch track which allows four trains on two tracks to load simultaneously. When the signal is given to launch, the train rolls back slightly so that the catch car can latch on to the middle car, and the brakes retract on the launch track. As the brake fins are retracting, a recording announces: \"Arms down, head back, hold on!\" The train is launched approximately five seconds later. When the train is in position, the hydraulic launch mechanism accelerates it from in 3.5 seconds. The hydraulic launch motor is capable of producing 20,800 peak horsepower (15.5 MW). At the end of the launch track, the train climbs the main tower (top hat) and rolls 90 degrees to the right before reaching a height of. It then descends straight down through a 270-degree, clockwise spiral. It climbs the second hill of, producing a moment of weightlessness before being smoothly brought to a stop by the magnetic brakes; it then makes a left-hand U-turn and enters the station. The ride lasts 28 seconds from the start of the launch.", "Kingda Ka is located in the jungle-themed area of the park known as The Golden Kingdom. The ride portrays a mythical Bengal tiger named after one that was housed in the nearby Temple of the Tiger attraction, an interactive exhibit that was closed in 2010. The ride's queue line is surrounded by bamboo, which augments the jungle-themed music that plays in the background.", "Kingda Ka's four trains are color-coded for easy identification (green, dark blue, teal, and orange) and are numbered; the four colors are also used for the seats and restraints. Each train seats 18 people (two per row). The rear car has one row, while the rest have two. The rear row of each car is positioned higher than its front row for better visibility. Each of Kingda Ka's trains has an extra row of seat mounts. The panels could be removed for the installation of additional seats in the future. This modification would increase the capacity of each train from 18 to 20, and the hourly capacity of the coaster from 1400 to 1600 riders per hour. Kingda Ka's station is prepared for this modification, with entrance gates for the currently-nonexistent row of seats. Kingda Ka's over-the-shoulder restraint system consists of a thick, rigid lap bar and two thin, flexible over-the-shoulder restraints. Because the over-the-shoulder portions of the restraint are not rigid, the hand grips are mounted to the lap bar. Kingda Ka's restraints are also held down by a belt, in case the main locking system fails. To speed loading, riders are asked to secure their own restraints if possible. Kingda Ka's station has two parallel tracks, with switch tracks at the entrance and exit. Each of the station's tracks is designed to accommodate two trains, so each of the four trains can be operated from its own station. While all of the trains are mechanically identical and able to load and unload at each of the four individual station bays, the original plan was for all trains to operate at the same time and for each train to load and unload at their own station. During normal operation, trains on one side are loaded while trains on the other side are launched. When both sides of the station are in use, an employee directs riders in line to go to a particular side, where they can choose to sit anywhere within the train. During recent seasons, it has become common that only one train bay (the forward one on the side opposite of the parking lot) will be used for the loading, unloading, and dispatching of the trains and that the other train or trains in operation on any given day wait either in the station behind a loading/unloading train or outside of the station on the brakes that follow the second hill. Two operators load, check and dispatch each train; another launches the trains. Kingda Ka's music is by Safri Duo; almost their entire Episode II album is played in the queue and station. Survivor's \"Eye of the Tiger\", played by DJ Quicksilver, may also be heard in the queue and station.", "A train may occasionally experience a rollback following a launch. A rollback occurs when the train fails to make it over the top of the tower and descends back down the side it was launched. Kingda Ka includes retractable magnetic brakes on its launch track to prevent a train from rolling back into the loading station.", "On June 8, 2005, a bolt failed inside a trough through which the launch cable travels. This caused the liner to come loose, creating friction on the cable and preventing the train from accelerating to the correct speed. The cable rubbing against the trough caused sparks and shards of metal to fly out from the bottom of the train. The ride was closed for almost two months following the incident. Damage occurred to the launch cable, which was frayed and required replacement, including minor damage to seals and brake fins. The incident caused stress on a number of fins, and Six Flags did not have enough replacement fins. Extra brake fins had to be ordered from Intamin in Switzerland, and the ride had to undergo thorough testing following the repair. Kingda Ka reopened on August 4. Kingda Ka was struck by lightning in May 2009 and suffered serious damage. The ride was closed for three months for repairs and reopened on August 21, 2009. On August 27, 2011, Kingda Ka suffered unspecified damage shortly before Hurricane Irene, and Six Flags Great Adventure did not open. It is unknown whether additional damage occurred due to the storm, but the coaster was damaged to the extent that it could not run before Irene. Kingda Ka remained closed until the start of the 2012 operating season on April 5. Shortly before 5 p.m. on July 26, 2012, a young boy was sent to the hospital after suffering minor injuries from being struck by a bird during normal operation. The ride resumed normal operation shortly after the incident." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Company profile.", "Personenverkehr.", "Arriva.", "DB Fernverkehr.", "DB Regio.", "Infrastructure.", "DB Netze.", "DB Engineering&Consulting.", "Logistics.", "Foreign firms.", "History.", "1999 to present.", "Train categories.", "Codeshare agreements.", "Tickets." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Deutsche Bahn Group is divided into various organizational units that perform their tasks with subsidiaries.", "DB Personenverkehr is the group that manages passenger travel within Germany. Originally called \"\" (\"English\": Travel and Tourism), this group is responsible for the managing, servicing and running of German passenger services. This group is divided into three business areas:, and Arriva.", "placed a bid in May 2010 for the UK-based transport company Arriva. Arriva runs bus and rail companies in 12 European countries. The merger was approved by the European Commission in August 2010, subject to DB divesting Arriva services in Germany (these are now run as ). The merger became effective on 27 August 2010. Services in the UK formerly run as are now operated by a new subdivision of the company, Arriva UK Trains. It operates the Chiltern Railways, and CrossCountry franchises as well as open-access operator Grand Central. It also operates the London Overground concession as Arriva Rail London. The former Tyne & Wear Metro operations, already started by DB Regio UK, ended in 2017, while Arriva Trains Wales services passed to Transport for Wales in 2018.", "is a semi-independent division of that operates long-distance passenger trains in Germany. It was founded in 1999 in the second stage of the privatisation of German Federal Railways under the name of and renamed in 2003. Additionally operates a few long-distance coach services throughout Germany, called \".\"", "DB Regio AG is the subsidiary of that operates passenger trains on short and medium distances in Germany. Unlike its long-distance counterpart,, it does not operate trains on its own account. Traffic is ordered and paid for by the (states) or their respective (Regional train operation supervisors). Some states have awarded long-term contracts to (usually 10 to 15 years), in others, DB Regio's operations are decreasing, in North Rhine-Westphalia, their market share is expected to be lower than 50%. The bus services consist of 25 bus companies, which have subsidiary companies themselves.", "", "The infrastructure division is divided into the \"DB Netz\" (rail infrastructure), DB Station&Service (stations and services) and DB Energie (Energy) business units.", "\"DB Engineering & Consulting\", which is responsible for construction supervision, construction planning and maintenance, is also assigned to this department without being part of a business area. Via its subsidiary DB Engineering&Consulting, DB signed a memorandum of understanding with Iranian rail operator Bonyad Eastern Railways (BonRail) in May 2017 and shortly after a consulting contract with Islamic Republic of Iran Railways; both projects were abandoned after the United States imposed new sanctions against Iran and said firms doing business with Iran would be barred from doing business with the United States. The California High-Speed Rail Authority's (CHSRA) board approved on November 15, 2017 an early train operator contract with DB Engineering & Consulting USA. The firm is the U.S. arm of Deutsche Bahn AG. As early train operator, DB Engineering & Consulting will assist CHSRA with planning, designing and implementing the state's high-speed rail program. In Germany, DB E&C acts as a planning office and in construction supervision for Deutsche Bahn construction sites.", "The Transport and Logistics division acted in the market with the business units DB Schenker Logistics and \"DB Schenker Rail\", which were combined under the umbrella of DB Schenker, and the Intermodal division, which operates in combined transport. In 2016, rail freight transport was separated from logistics and \"DB Schenker Rail\" was renamed DB Cargo.", "DB also has interests abroad, owning the United Kingdom's largest rail freight operator, DB Cargo UK, which also operates the British Royal Train and also has interests in Eastern Europe. It is possible to obtain train times for any journey in Europe from's website. Trans-Eurasia Logistics is a joint venture with Russian Railways (RŽD) that operates container freight trains between Germany and China via Russia.", "While the railway network in Germany dates back to 1835 when the first tracks were laid on a route between Nuremberg and, has been a relatively recent development in German railway history. On January 1, 1994, and were merged to form one company, and so, they became. At the same time, adopted its current logo and \"DB\" abbreviation. modernised the logo and typographer designed a new corporate font known as DB Type. When Deutsche Bahn was formed in January 1994, it became a joint stock-company, and were designed to operate the railways of both the former East and West Germany after unification in October 1990 as a single, uniform, and private company, but there are three main periods of development in this unified German railway: its formation, its early years (1994–1999), and the period from 1999 to the present. Originally, DBAG had its headquarters in but moved to in central Berlin in 1996, where it occupies a 26-storey office tower designed by at the eastern end of the Sony Center and named. As the lease was to expire in 2010, DB had announced plans to relocate to, and in 2007 a proposal for a new headquarters by 3XN Architects won an architectural competition which also included Foster + Partners, and. However, these plans were put on hold due to the financial crisis of 2008, and the lease was extended. Construction of the new headquarters building was started in 2017 under the title \"\" according to the designs by 3XN. Finished in February 2020, the Cube will house the legal offices of Deutsche Bahn, but not become the main headquarters.", "The second step of the (Railway reform) was carried out in 1999. All rolling stock, track, personnel, and real assets were divided between the holdial subsidiaries of DBAG: (long-distance passenger service, later renamed (operating the stations). This new organisational scheme was introduced not least to implement European Community directive 91/440/EEC that demands access to railway systems free of discrimination. In December 2007, DB reorganised again, bringing all passenger services into its arm, logistics under and infrastructure and operations under. The DB is owned by the Federal Republic. By the Constitution, the Federal Republic is required to retain (directly or indirectly) a majority of the infrastructure (the present ) stocks. In 2008, it was agreed to \"float\" a portion of the business, meaning an end to the 100% share the German Federal Republic had in it, with a plan that 25% of the overall share would be sold to the private sector. However the onset of the financial crisis of 2007–08 saw this cancelled. In 2014, the Jewish community of Thessaloniki demanded that the, which is the successor of the, should reimburse the heirs of Greek Holocaust victims of Thessaloniki for train fares that they were forced to pay for their deportation from Thessaloniki to and Treblinka between March and August 1943. In June 2018 controversy grew in the United Kingdom over widespread cancellations of railway services and numerous delayed services operated by Deutsche Bahn in Britain, under its Northern brand. This resulted in Britain's Minister of Transport, Chris Grayling, setting up an enquiry into whether the Deutsche Bahn subsidiary had breached its contractual agreement to provide railway services in the north of England. He warned that if the company was found to be in breach of its contractual agreements it could be banned from running railway services in the United Kingdom.", "Trains in Germany are classified by their stopping pattern: Train categories no longer used include: In the early days of DBAG, the most basic train categories, which were in use since the early days of rail travel in Germany, were also used: There are several other operators in Germany which sometimes offer other categories, also, a local transport authority or tariff associations might brand the trains in a different way than DB does. For example, in the Nuremberg region, RE and RB trains are not differentiated, but called R instead. In some regions, such as, private operators do use the RE and RB labels, in others, such as Saxony, they do not. In online and print information systems of DB, private trains officially labelled RB and RE by their operators, might get a different label, for example \"ABR\" for trains operated by Abellio, though on platforms, trains and maps or timetables issued by the local transport authority overseeing regional train services, these abbreviations usually do not appear.", "In conjunction with Emirates, China Airlines, TAM Airlines, Turkish Airlines, Biman Bangladesh Airlines, and, operates the AIRail Service between Frankfurt Airport and Köln Hauptbahnhof/Bonn Hauptbahnhof,,, Hamburg, Hanover,, Munich, Nuremberg, and. has the IATA designator 2A.", "DB offers two different pricing models: Local trains (S, RB, RE, IRE) also accept tickets issued by local transport associations, which can also be used on buses, trams, and U-Bahn trains. DB offers concessionary fares with the \"BahnCard\", which is available as \"BahnCard 25\" (25% discount on Flexpreis and Sparpreis), \"BahnCard 50\" (50% discount on Flexpreis and 25% discount on Sparpreis), and \"BahnCard 100\" (unlimited travel on all Deutsche Bahn trains, a few private train companies and also in many local transport associations). Other special tickets, such as Interrail or the \"Länder-Tickets\", give unlimited journeys on local trains and in many transport associations within a state, are also available. These Länder-Tickets offer group tickets, where up to five people can travel on a single ticket." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Childhood (1371–1382).", "Reign.", "First years (1382–1384).", "Neapolitan threat (1384–1385).", "Charles's reign (1385–1386).", "Restoration and capture (1386–1387).", "Husband's co-ruler (1387–1395)." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Mary was born in the latter half of 1371 to Louis the Great, King of Hungary and Poland, and his second wife, Elizabeth of Bosnia. She was the second daughter of her parents. They had been childless for over a decade before Mary's older sister, Catherine, was born in 1370. Mary and Catherine gained another sibling, Jadwiga, in 1374. Since Louis had fathered no sons, the expectation that he would bequeath Hungary, Poland, and his claims to the Kingdom of Naples and Provence to his daughters made them desirable spouses for members of the European royal families. Before Mary's first birthday, her father made a promise to Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor, that Mary would marry the emperor's second son, Sigismund of Luxembourg. Louis confirmed his promise in a deed in June 1373. Mary and Sigismund were closely related, because her paternal grandmother, Elizabeth of Poland, was the sister of his great-grandfather, Casimir III of Poland. Pope Gregory XI issued the dispensation necessary for their marriage on 6December 1374. The leading Hungarian and Polish lords confirmed Louis's promise of Mary's and Sigismund's marriage on 14April 1375. Mary's older sister, Catherine, who had been betrothed to Louis of France, died in late 1378. Louis the Great confirmed his earlier promise of Mary's and Sigismund's marriage to Sigismund's brother, Wenceslaus, King of the Romans, in Zólyom (now Zvolen in Slovakia) in 1379. Louis and Wenceslaus also agreed that they would acknowledge Urban VI as the lawful pope against Clement VII. Mary was formally engaged to Sigismund in Nagyszombat (now Trnava in Slovakia) in the same year. Sigismund, who had meanwhile become Margrave of Brandenburg, came to Hungary. Louis summoned the Polish prelates and lords to Kassa (now Košice in Slovakia) in September 1379, persuading them to acknowledge Mary's right to succeed him in Poland. The contemporaneous Jan of Czarnków, who was biased against Louis, recorded that the Poles yielded to the monarch's demand only after he had prevented them from leaving the town by shutting its gates. At a meeting with Leopold III, Duke of Austria in early 1380, Louis strongly hinted that he would bequeath Hungary to his younger daughter, Jadwiga, who had been engaged to LeopoldIII's son, William. Upon Louis's demand, a delegation of the Polish noblemen again paid homage to Sigismund and Mary on 25July 1382. According to the historian Oscar Halecki, Louis wished to divide his kingdoms between his two surviving daughters, but Pál Engel and Claude Michaud write that the ailing king wanted to bequeath both Hungary and Poland on Mary and Sigismund.", "", "Louis the Great died on 10 September 1382. Cardinal Demetrius, Archbishop of Esztergom, crowned Mary \"king\" with the Holy Crown of Hungary in Székesfehérvár on 17September, a day after her father's burial. Mary's title and her rapid coronation in the absence of her fiancé, Sigismund, show that her mother and her mother's supporters wanted to emphasize Mary's role as monarch and to postpone or even hinder Sigismund's coronation. The queen mother, Elizabeth, assumed regency. Palatine Nicholas Garai and Cardinal Demetrius became her main advisors. Most of Louis's barons preserved their offices; the queen mother only dismissed the master of the cupbearers, George Czudar, and his brother Peter, voivode of Ruthenia. According to the 15th-century historian Jan Długosz, the Czudar brothers surrendered forts to the Lithuanians, who had \"[h]eavily bribed\" them. Queen Elizabeth had Peter Czudar imprisoned before 1November; her charters only stated that he \"had obviously been disloyal\" without specifying the reasons for his arrest. All royal charters issued during the first six months of Mary's reign emphasized that she had lawfully inherited her father's crown. However, most Hungarian noblemen were strongly opposed to the very idea of a female monarch. They regarded Charles III of Naples as Louis the Great's legitimate heir because Charles was the last male offspring of the Capetian House of Anjou. Charles could not openly lay claim to Hungary, because his rival for the Kingdom of Naples, Louis I, Duke of Anjouwho was Charles VI of France's unclehad invaded Southern Italy in the previous year. Noblemen from Greater Poland offered to pay homage to either Mary or Jadwiga at a meeting in Radomsko on 25November, but they stipulated that the queen and her husband should live in Poland. The assembly of the nobility of Lesser Poland passed a similar resolution in Wiślica on 12December. On the latter occasion, in response to Queen Elizabeth's demand, the noblemen also promised that they would not pay homage to anyone else than either Mary or Jadwiga. Mary's fiancé, Sigismund, who had stayed in Poland, returned to Hungary. Bodzanta, Archbishop of Gniezno, the Nałęcz family, and their allies in Greater Poland favored a native prince, SiemowitIV of Masovia. To avoid a civil war, Queen Elizabeth sent envoys to the Polish noblemen's next assembly which met in Sieradz in late February 1383. Her envoys absolved the Poles from their 1382 oath of loyalty to Mary on 28March, announcing that the queen mother would send her younger daughter, Jadwiga, to Poland. John of Palisna, Prior of Vrana, rose up in open rebellion against the rule of Mary and her mother in the spring of 1383. The queens made Stephen Lackfi Ban of Croatia. The royal army marched to Croatia and laid siege to Vrana, forcing John of Palisna to flee to Bosnia. The defenders of Vrana surrendered to Mary, who had been present during the siege along with her mother, on 4November. To strengthen Mary's position against Charles of Naples, Queen Elizabeth sent her envoys to France and opened negotiations on the marriage of Mary to the younger brother of CharlesVI of France, Louis, who had once been engaged to Mary's sister, Catherine. Mary and the queen mother only left Croatia and Slavonia early next year. Queen Elizabeth replaced Stephen Lackfi with Thomas Szentgyörgyi, who used draconian measures to put an end to a conspiracy against the queens in Zadar in May 1384. Although the last Diet was held in the early 1350s, the queens convoked a Diet to deal with the grievances of the noblemen. Mary confirmed her father's decrees of 1351 summarizing the noblemen's privileges on 22June 1384. The negotiations of Mary's marriage in France caused a new rift within the Hungarian nobility, because the Lackfis, Nicholas Zámbó and Nicholas Szécsi and other high officers, who had been appointed during Louis the Great's reign, continued to support Mary's fiancé, Sigismund, in accordance with Louis the Great's will. The queen mother replaced them with Nicholas Garai's supporters in August 1384. The prelates were also opposed to the French marriage, because the French supported Clement VII whom the Hungarian clergy considered an antipope. Mary's sister, Jadwiga, went to Poland where she was crowned on 16October 1384. Cardinal Demetrius, who had accompanied Jadwiga to Poland, remained absent from the queens' court after his return to Hungary. The royal government could not properly function during his absence because he was the keeper of the royal seal.", "Louis I of Anjou died on 10 September 1384, enabling his rival, CharlesIII of Naples, to stabilize his rule in Southern Italy during the next months. The consolidation of CharlesIII's position in Naples also contributed to the formation of a party of noblemen who supported his claim to Hungary. John Horvat, Ban of Macsó (now Mačva in Serbia), and his brother, Paul, Bishop of Zagreb, were the leading figures of their movement. Sigismund of Luxembourg tried to persuade the queen mother to consent to his marriage to Mary, but she refused him. He left Hungary in early 1385. The queens and their supporters initiated negotiations with the representatives of the opposition, but no reconciliation was reached at their meeting in Požega in the spring of 1385. After a French delegation came to Hungary in May 1385, Mary was engaged to Louis of France. Louis of France thereafter signed his letters \"Louis of France, King of Hungary\", according to Jean Froissart. In the same month, the queen mother dismissed Stephen Lackfi, accusing him of high treason. She also sent letters to Zagreb and other places in the kingdom, forbidding the local inhabitants to support Lackfi, Nicholas Szécsi, Bishop Paul Horvat and their relatives. John and Paul Horvat and their allies formally offered the crown to CharlesIII of Naples and invited him to Hungary in August. In the same month, Mary confirmed TvrtkoI of Bosnia's acquisition of Kotor in Dalmatia. Sigismund stormed into Upper Hungary, accompanied by his cousins, Jobst and Prokop of Moravia, and occupied Pozsony County. The queen mother replaced Nicholas Garai with Nicholas Szécsi, and made Stephen Lackfi voivode of Transylvania and Nicholas Zámbó master of the treasury. Charles III of Naples landed at Senj in Dalmatia in September 1385 and marched to Zagreb. Sigismund of Luxembourg came to Buda and persuaded the queen mother to give her consent to his marriage to Mary. The marriage took place in Buda in October, but Sigismund was not crowned king and received no governmental function. The queen mother convoked a new Diet and Mary again confirmed the noblemen's liberties, but the queens' rule remained unpopular. Sigismund left Buda and mortgaged the territories west of the River Vág to his Moravian cousins. Charles of Naples had meanwhile left Zagreb, stating that he wanted to restore peace and public order in Hungary.", "Many noblemen joined Charles of Naples who marched towards Buda. Mary and her mother received him ceremoniously before he reached Buda, and he entered the capital in the two queens' company in early December 1385. Mary renounced the crown without resistance in the middle of December out of fear that Charles would kill her. Charles first adopted the title governor, but the Diet elected him king. Charles was crowned king of Hungary in Székesfehérvár on 31December. According to the contemporaneous Lorenzo de Monacis, Mary and her mother, who attended Charles's coronation, visited Louis the Great's tomb during the ceremony where they burst into tears because of their ill fate. Charles did not detain Mary and her mother who continued to live in the royal palace in Buda. Queen Elizabeth and Nicholas Garai decided to get rid of Charles. They persuaded Blaise Forgách, the master of the cupbearers, to join them, promising him the domain of Gimes (now Jelenec in Slovakia) if he murdered the king. Upon Queen Elizabeth's request, Charles visited her and her daughter on 7February 1386. During the meeting, Blaise Forgách attacked the king, seriously injuring him on the head. The wounded King Charles was carried to Visegrád where he died on 24February.", "Mary was restored to the throne, with her mother ruling in her name. The queen mother informed the citizens of Kőszeg already on 14February that \"Queen Mary had regained the Holy Crown\". However, the Horvat brothers rose up in open rebellion on behalf of the murdered king's son, Ladislaus of Naples. Mary's husband, Sigismund, and his brother, Wenceslaus, invaded Upper Hungary in April. After weeks of negotiations, the queens acknowledged Sigismund's position as consort in a treaty which was signed in Győr in early May. They also confirmed Sigismund's mortgage of the lands west of the Vág to Jobst and Prokop of Moravia. After the treaty was signed, the queens returned to Buda and Sigismund went to Bohemia, suggesting that he was dissatisfied with the treaty. Queen Elizabeth, who according to the 15th-century historian Johannes de Thurocz was \"driven by folly\", decided to visit the southern counties of the kingdom that were controlled by supporters of Ladislaus of Naples. The queen mother and Mary set out for Đakovo, accompanied by Nicholas Garai and a modest following around 15July. However, John Horvát, John of Palisna and their retainers ambushed and attacked the queens and their retinue at Gorjani on 25July. The queens' small entourage fought the attackers, but all were killed or captured. Blaise Forgách and Nicholas Garai were beheaded and their heads were thrown into the queens' carriage. Elizabeth took all blame for the rebellion and begged the attackers to spare her daughter's life, according to Johannes deThurocz's account. Mary and her mother were imprisoned. They were held in captivity in Gomnec Castle, which was a fortress of the Bishopric of Zagreb. In the queens' absence, the barons of the realm convoked a Diet under the newly carved \"seal of the regnicoles\". On Queen Mary's behalf, they promised a general pardon, but the Horvats refused to submit. The two queens were dragged to Krupa, and from there to Novigrad Castle on the coast of the Adriatic Sea. The barons or the Diet elected Stephen Lackfi palatine and made Sigismund of Luxembourg regent. John Horvat's henchmen strangled Queen Elizabeth in Mary's presence in early January. In the same month, Sigismund invaded Slavonia, but could not defeat the rebels. Taking advantage of the anarchy in Hungary, Polish troops invaded Lodomeria and Halych in February. Only Vladislaus II of Opole, who claimed the two realms for himself, protested against their action. Sigismund was crowned king on 31March as it was decided that the kingdom could no longer be without an effective ruler. One of his supporters, Ivan of Krk, laid siege to Novigrad Castle with the assistance of a Venetian fleet, which was under the command of Giovanni Barbarigo. They captured the castle and liberated Mary on 4June 1387. She was especially grateful to Barbarigo; she knighted him and granted an annuity of 600 golden florins to him.", "Mary met her husband in Zagreb on 4July. She officially remained Sigismund's co-ruler until the end of her life, but her influence on government was minimal. Sigismund's land grants were always confirmed with Mary's own great seal during the first year of their common rule, but thereafter the grantees rarely sought her confirmation. Royal charters counted her regnal years not from her ascension, but from her husband's coronation. Nevertheless, Mary persuaded her husband to torture and execute John Horvat who was captured in July 1394 although Sigismund would have been willing to spare his life. Mary was pregnant when she decided to venture out alone on a hunt in a Buda forest on 17May 1395. Her horse tripped, threw her and landed on top of her. The trauma induced labor and she gave birth prematurely to a son. The queen succumbed to the fatal injuries; being far from any kind of assistance, her son died as well. She was buried in the cathedral of Várad (now Oradea in Romania). Mary's sister, Jadwiga, claimed the crown, but Sigismund retained it without much difficulty." ] }

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{ "title": [ "The paradox.", "Standard assumptions.", "Simple solutions.", "Vos Savant and the media furor.", "Confusion and criticism.", "Sources of confusion.", "Criticism of the simple solutions.", "Solutions using conditional probability and other solutions.", "Refining the simple solution.", "Conditional probability by direct calculation.", "Bayes' theorem.", "Direct calculation.", "Strategic dominance solution.", "Solutions by simulation.", "Variants.", "Other host behaviors.", "\"N\" doors.", "Quantum version.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Steve Selvin wrote a letter to the \"American Statistician\" in 1975 describing a problem based on the game show \"Let's Make a Deal\",, dubbing it the \"Monty Hall problem\" in a subsequent letter. The problem is mathematically equivalent to the Three Prisoners Problem described in Martin Gardner's \"Mathematical Games\" column in \"Scientific American\" in 1959 (Gardner 1959a) and the Three Shells Problem described in Gardner's book \"Aha Gotcha\". The same problem was restated in a 1990 letter by Craig Whitaker to Marilyn vos Savant's \"Ask Marilyn\" column in \"Parade\":", "Under the standard assumptions, the probability of winning the car after switching is. The key to this solution is the behavior of the host. Ambiguities in the \"Parade\" version do not explicitly define the protocol of the host. However, Marilyn vos Savant's solution () printed alongside Whitaker's question implies, and both and explicitly define, the", "The solution presented by in \"Parade\" shows the three possible arrangements of one car and two goats behind three doors and the result of staying or switching after initially picking door 1 in each case: A player who stays with the initial choice wins in only one out of three of these equally likely possibilities, while a player who switches wins in two out of three. An intuitive explanation is that, if the contestant initially picks a goat (2 of 3 doors), the contestant \"will\" win the car by switching because the other goat can no longer be picked, whereas if the contestant initially picks the car (1 of 3 doors), the contestant \"will not\" win the car by switching (Carlton 2005,", "Vos Savant wrote in her first column on the Monty Hall problem that the player should switch. She received thousands of letters from her readers—the vast majority of which, including many from readers with PhDs, disagreed with her answer. During 1990–1991, three more of her columns in Parade were devoted to the paradox (vos Savant 1990–1991). Numerous examples of letters from readers of Vos Savant's columns are presented and discussed in \"The Monty Hall Dilemma: A Cognitive Illusion Par Excellence\" (Granberg 2014). The discussion was replayed in other venues (e.g., in Cecil Adams' \"The Straight Dope\" newspaper column, (Adams 1990)), and reported in major", "", "When first presented with the Monty Hall problem, an overwhelming majority of people assume that each door has an equal probability and conclude that switching does not matter (Mueser and Granberg, 1999). Out of 228 subjects in one study, only 13% chose to switch (Granberg and Brown, 1995:713). In her book \"The Power of Logical Thinking\", quotes cognitive psychologist Massimo Piattelli-Palmarini: \"No other statistical puzzle comes so close to fooling all the people all the time [and] even Nobel physicists systematically give the wrong answer, and that they \"insist\" on it, and they are ready to berate in print those who propose the right answer.\" Pigeons repeatedly exposed to the problem show that they rapidly learn to always switch, unlike humans (Herbranson and Schroeder, 2010). Most statements of the problem, notably the one in \"Parade Magazine,\" do not match the rules of the actual game show (Krauss and Wang, 2003:9) and do not fully specify the host's behavior or that the car's location is randomly selected.(Granberg and Brown, 1995:712; ; ) Krauss and Wang (2003:10) conjecture that people make the standard assumptions even if they are not explicitly stated. Although these issues are mathematically significant, even", "As already remarked, most sources in the field of probability, including many introductory probability textbooks, solve the problem by showing the conditional probabilities that the car is behind door 1 and door 2 are and (not and ) given that the contestant initially picks door 1 and the host opens door 3; various ways to derive and understand this result were given in the previous subsections. Among these sources are several that explicitly criticize the popularly presented \"simple\" solutions, saying these solutions are \"correct but... shaky\" (Rosenthal 2005a), or do not \"address the problem posed\" (Gillman 1992), or are \"incomplete\" (Lucas et al. 2009), or are \"unconvincing and misleading\" (Eisenhauer 2001) or are (most bluntly) \"false\" (Morgan et al. 1991). Sasha wrote that \"any explanation that says something like 'the probability of door 1 was 1/3, and nothing can change that...' is automatically fishy: probabilities are expressions of our ignorance about the world, and new information can change the extent of our ignorance.\" Some say that these solutions answer a slightly different question – one phrasing is \"you have to announce \"before a door has been opened\" whether you plan to switch\" (Gillman", "The simple solutions above show that a player with a strategy of switching wins the car with overall probability, i.e., without taking account of which door was opened by the host (Grinstead and Snell 2006:137–138 Carlton 2005). In contrast most sources in the field of probability calculate the conditional probabilities that the car is behind door 1 and door 2 are and given the contestant initially picks door 1 and the host opens door 3 (, Morgan et al. 1991, Chun 1991, Gillman 1992, Carlton 2005, Grinstead and Snell 2006:137–138, Lucas et al. 2009). The solutions in this section consider just those cases in which the player picked door 1 and the host opened door 3.", "If we assume that the host opens a door at random, when given a choice, then which door the host opens gives us no information at all as to whether or not the car is behind door 1. In the simple solutions, we have already observed that the probability that the car is behind door 1, the door initially chosen by the player, is initially. Moreover, the host is certainly going to open \"a\" (different) door, so opening \"a\" door (\"which\" door unspecified) does not change this. must be the average probability that the car is behind door 1 given", "By definition, the conditional probability of winning by switching given the contestant initially picks door 1 and the host opens door 3 is the probability for the event \"car is behind door 2 and host opens door 3\" divided by the probability for \"host opens door 3\". These probabilities can be determined referring", "Many probability text books and articles in the field of probability theory derive the conditional probability solution through a formal application of Bayes' theorem; among them Gill, 2002 and Henze, 1997. Use of the odds form of Bayes' theorem, often called Bayes' rule, makes such a derivation more transparent (Rosenthal, 2005a), (Rosenthal, 2005b). Initially, the car is equally likely to be behind any of the three doors: the odds on door 1, door 2, and door 3 are. This remains the case after the player has chosen door 1, by independence. According to Bayes' rule, the posterior odds on the location of the car, given that the host opens door 3, are equal to the prior odds multiplied by the Bayes factor or likelihood, which is, by definition, the probability of the new piece of information (host opens door 3) under each of the hypotheses considered (location of the car). Now, since the player initially chose door 1, the chance that the host opens door 3 is 50% if the car is behind door 1, 100% if the car is behind door 2, 0% if", "Consider the event \"Ci\", indicating that the car is behind door number \"i\", takes value \"Xi\", for the choosing of the player, and value \"Hi\", the opening the door. The player initially chooses door i = 1, C = X1 and the host opens door i = 3, C = H3. In this case, we have: \"P(H3|X1) = 1/2\" because this expression only depends on \"X1\", not on any \"Ci\". So, in this particular expression, the choosing of the host doesn't depend on where the car is, and there's", "Going back to Nalebuff (1987), the Monty Hall problem is also much studied in the literature on game theory and decision theory, and also some popular solutions correspond to this point of view. Vos Savant asks for a decision, not a chance. And the chance aspects of how the car is hidden and how an unchosen door is opened are unknown. From this point of view, one has to remember that the player has two opportunities to make choices: first of all, which door to choose", "A simple way to demonstrate that a switching strategy really does win two out of three times with the standard assumptions is to simulate the game with playing cards (Gardner 1959b; ). Three cards from an ordinary deck are used to represent the three doors; one'special' card represents the door with the car and two other cards represent the goat doors. The simulation can be repeated several times to simulate multiple rounds of the game. The player picks one of the three cards, then, looking at the remaining two cards the 'host' discards a goat", "A common variant of the problem, assumed by several academic authors as the canonical problem, does not make the simplifying assumption that the host must uniformly choose the door to open, but instead that he uses some other strategy. The confusion as to which formalization is authoritative has led to considerable acrimony, particularly because this variant makes proofs more involved without altering the optimality of the always-switch strategy for the player. In this variant, the player can have different probabilities of winning depending on the observed choice of the host, but in any case the probability of winning by switching is at least (and can be as high as 1), while the overall probability of winning by switching is still exactly. The variants are sometimes presented in succession in textbooks and articles intended to teach the basics of probability theory and game theory. A considerable number of other generalizations have also been studied.", "The version of the Monty Hall problem published in \"Parade\" in 1990 did not specifically state that the host would always open another door, or always offer a choice to switch, or even never open the door revealing the car. However, vos Savant made it clear in her second follow-up column that the intended host's behavior could only be what led to the probability she gave as her original answer. \"Anything else is a different question.\" \"Virtually all of my critics understood the intended scenario. I personally read nearly three thousand letters", "D. L. Ferguson (1975 in a letter to Selvin cited in ) suggests an \"N\"-door generalization of the original problem in which the host opens \"p\" losing doors and then offers the player the opportunity to switch; in this variant switching wins with probability formula_5. This probability is always greater than formula_6, therefore", "A quantum version of the paradox illustrates some points about the relation between classical or non-quantum information and quantum information, as encoded in the states of quantum mechanical systems. The formulation is loosely based on quantum game theory. The three doors are replaced by a quantum system allowing three alternatives; opening a door and looking behind it is translated as", "The earliest of several probability puzzles related to the Monty Hall problem is Bertrand's box paradox, posed by Joseph Bertrand in 1889 in his \"Calcul des probabilités\" (Barbeau 1993). In this puzzle, there are three boxes: a box containing two gold coins, a box with two silver coins, and a box with one of each. After choosing a box at random and withdrawing one coin at random that happens to be a gold coin, the question is what is the probability that the other coin is gold. As in the Monty Hall problem, the intuitive answer is, but the probability is actually. The Three Prisoners problem, published in Martin Gardner's \"Mathematical Games\" column in \"Scientific American\" in 1959 (1959a, 1959b), is equivalent to the Monty Hall problem. This problem involves three condemned prisoners, a random one of whom has been secretly chosen to be pardoned. One of the prisoners begs the warden to tell him the name of one of the others to be executed, arguing that this reveals no information about his own fate but increases his chances of being pardoned from to. The warden obliges, (secretly) flipping a coin to decide which name to provide if the prisoner who is asking is the one being pardoned. The question is whether knowing the warden's answer changes the prisoner's chances of being pardoned. This problem is equivalent to the Monty Hall problem; the prisoner asking the question still has a chance of being pardoned but his unnamed colleague has a chance. Steve Selvin posed the Monty Hall problem in a pair of letters to the \"American Statistician\" in 1975,. The first letter presented the problem in a version close to its presentation in \"Parade\" 15 years later. The second appears to be the first use of the term \"Monty Hall problem\". The problem is actually an extrapolation from the game show. Monty Hall \"did\" open a wrong door to build excitement, but offered a known lesser prize – such as $100 cash – rather than a choice to switch doors. As Monty Hall wrote to Selvin: A version of the problem very similar to the one that appeared three years later in \"Parade\" was published in 1987 in the Puzzles section of \"The Journal of Economic Perspectives\" (Nalebuff 1987). Nalebuff, as later writers in mathematical economics, sees the problem as a simple and amusing exercise in game theory. Phillip Martin's article in a 1989 issue of \"Bridge Today\" magazine titled \"The Monty Hall Trap\" (Martin 1989) presented Selvin's problem as an example of what Martin calls the probability trap of treating non-random information as if it were random, and relates this to concepts in the game of bridge. A restated version of Selvin's problem appeared in Marilyn vos Savant's \"Ask Marilyn\" question-and-answer column of \"Parade\" in September 1990. Though vos Savant gave the correct answer that switching would win two-thirds of the time, she estimates the magazine received 10,000 letters including close to 1,000 signed by PhDs, many on letterheads of mathematics and science departments, declaring that her solution was wrong. Due to the overwhelming response, \"Parade\" published an unprecedented four columns on the problem. As a result of the publicity the problem earned the alternative name Marilyn and the Goats. In November 1990, an equally contentious discussion of vos Savant's article took place in Cecil Adams's column \"The Straight Dope\" (Adams 1990). Adams initially answered, incorrectly, that the chances for the two remaining doors must each be one in two. After a reader wrote in to correct the mathematics of Adams's analysis, Adams agreed that mathematically he had been wrong. \"You pick door #1. Now you're offered this choice: open door #1, or open door #2 and door #3. In the latter case you keep the prize if it's behind either door. You'd rather have a two-in-three shot at the prize than one-in-three, wouldn't you? If you think about it, the original problem offers you basically the same choice. Monty is saying in effect: you can keep your one door or you can have the other two doors, one of which (a non-prize door) I'll open for you.\" Adams did say the \"Parade\" version left critical constraints unstated, and without those constraints, the chances of winning by switching were not necessarily two out of three (e.g., it was not reasonable to assume the host always opens a door). Numerous readers, however, wrote in to claim that Adams had been \"right the first time\" and that the correct chances were one in two. The \"Parade\" column and its response received considerable attention in the press, including a front-page story in the \"New York Times\" in which Monty Hall himself was interviewed. Hall understood the problem, giving the reporter a demonstration with car keys and explaining how actual game play on \"Let's Make a Deal\" differed from the rules of the puzzle. In the article, Hall pointed out that because he had control over the way the game progressed, playing on the psychology of the contestant, the theoretical solution did not apply to the show's actual gameplay. He said he was not surprised at the experts' insistence that the probability was 1 out of 2. \"That's the same assumption contestants would make on the show after I showed them there was nothing behind one door,\" he said. \"They'd think the odds on their door had now gone up to 1 in 2, so they hated to give up the door no matter how much money I offered. By opening that door we were applying pressure. We called it the Henry James treatment. It was 'The Turn of the Screw.'\" Hall clarified that as a game show host he did not have to follow the rules of the puzzle in the vos Savant column and did not always have to allow a person the opportunity to switch (e.g., he might open their door immediately if it was a losing door, might offer them money to not switch from a losing door to a winning door, or might allow them the opportunity to switch only if they had a winning door). \"If the host is required to open a door all the time and offer you a switch, then you should take the switch,\" he said. \"But if he has the choice whether to allow a switch or not, beware. Caveat emptor. It all depends on his mood.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Order-zero graph.", "Edgeless graph." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The order-zero graph, formula_1, is the unique graph having no vertices (hence its order is zero). It follows that formula_1 also has no edges. Thus the null graph is a regular graph of degree zero. Some authors exclude formula_1 from consideration as a graph (either by definition, or more simply as a matter of convenience). Whether including formula_1 as a valid graph is useful depends on context. On the positive side, formula_1 follows naturally from the usual set-theoretic definitions of a graph (it is the ordered pair (\"V\", \"E\") for which the vertex and edge sets, \"V\" and \"E\", are both empty), in proofs it serves as a natural base case for mathematical induction, and similarly, in recursively defined data structures formula_1 is useful for defining the base case for recursion (by treating the null tree as the child of missing edges in any non-null binary tree, every non-null binary tree has \"exactly\" two children). On the negative side, including formula_1 as a graph requires that many well-defined formulas for graph properties include exceptions for it (for example, either \"counting all strongly connected components of a graph\" becomes \"counting all \"non-null\" strongly connected components of a graph\", or the definition of connected graphs has to be modified not to include \"K\"). To avoid the need for such exceptions, it is often assumed in literature that the term \"graph\" implies \"graph with at least one vertex\" unless context suggests otherwise. In category theory, the order-zero graph is, according to some definitions of \"category of graphs,\" the initial object in the category. formula_1 does fulfill (vacuously) most of the same basic graph properties as does formula_9 (the graph with one vertex and no edges). As some examples, formula_1 is of size zero, it is equal to its complement graph formula_11, a forest, and a planar graph. It may be considered undirected, directed, or even both; when considered as directed, it is a directed acyclic graph. And it is both a complete graph and an edgeless graph. However, definitions for each of these graph properties will vary depending on whether context allows for formula_1.", "For each natural number \"n\", the edgeless graph (or empty graph) formula_13 of order \"n\" is the graph with \"n\" vertices and zero edges. An edgeless graph is occasionally referred to as a null graph in contexts where the order-zero graph is not permitted. It is a 0-regular graph. The notation formula_13 arises from the fact that the \"n\"-vertex edgeless graph is the complement of the complete graph formula_15." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "History.", "Applications.", "Thermodynamics.", "Medicine." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "A PV diagram plots the change in pressure \"P\" with respect to volume \"V\" for some process or processes. Typically in thermodynamics, the set of processes forms a cycle, so that upon completion of the cycle there has been no net change in state of the system; i.e. the device returns to the starting pressure and volume. The figure shows the features of a typical PV diagram. A series of numbered states (1 through 4) are noted. The path between each state consists of some process (A through D) which alters the pressure or volume of the system (or both). A key feature of the diagram is that the amount of energy expended or received by the system as work can be estimated as the area under the curve on the chart. However, note that this only applies when the vertical axis is pressure (not volume), and that pressure is equal to external pressure. An example is, during gas expansion, the work done by gas on the piston is equal to the integral of external pressure over the change in volume, but not the integral of internal pressure over the change in volume; If the external pressure is zero (as in gas expanding into vacuum), the work done by gas is zero. For a cyclic diagram, the net work is that \"enclosed\" by the curve. In the example given in the figure, the processes 1-2-3 produce a work output, but processes from 3-4-1 require a smaller energy input to return to the starting position / state; thus the net work is the difference between the two. Note that this figure is highly idealized, and a diagram showing the processes in a real device would tend to depict a more complex shape of the PV curve. (See section Applications, below).", "The PV diagram, then called an indicator diagram, was developed by James Watt and his employee John Southern (1758–1815) to improve the efficiency of engines. In 1796, Southern developed the simple, but critical, technique to generate the diagram by fixing a board so as to move with the piston, thereby tracing the \"volume\" axis, while a pencil, attached to a pressure gauge, moved at right angles to the piston, tracing \"pressure\". The gauge enabled Watt to calculate the work done by the steam while ensuring that its pressure had dropped to zero by the end of the stroke, thereby ensuring that all useful energy had been extracted. The total work could be calculated from the area between the \"volume\" axis and the traced line. The latter fact had been realised by Davies Gilbert as early as 1792 and used by Jonathan Hornblower in litigation against Watt over patents on various designs. Daniel Bernoulli had also had the insight about how to calculate work. Watt used the diagram to make radical improvements to steam engine performance and long kept it a trade secret. Though it was made public in a letter to the \"Quarterly Journal of Science\" in 1822, it remained somewhat obscure. John Farey, Jr. only learned of it on seeing it used, probably by Watt's men, when he visited Russia in 1826. In 1834, Émile Clapeyron used a diagram of pressure against volume to illustrate and elucidate the Carnot cycle, elevating it to a central position in the study of thermodynamics. Later instruments (\"illus.\") used paper wrapped around a cylindrical barrel with a pressure piston inside it, the rotation of the barrel coupled to the piston crosshead by a weight- or spring-tensioned wire. In 1869 the British marine engineer Nicholas Procter Burgh wrote a full book on the indicator diagram explaining the device step by step. He had noticed that \"a very large proportion of the young members of the engineering profession look at an indicator diagram as a mysterious production.\"", "", "PV diagrams can be used to estimate the net work performed by a thermodynamic cycle. The net work is the area enclosed by the PV curve in the diagram. This usage derived from the development of indicator diagrams which were used to estimate the performance of a steam engine. Specifically, the diagram records the pressure of steam versus the volume of steam in a cylinder, throughout a piston's cycle of motion in a steam engine. The diagram enables calculation of the work performed and thus can provide a measure of the power produced by the engine. To exactly calculate the work done by the system it is necessary to calculate the integral of the pressure with respect to volume. One can often quickly calculate this using the PV diagram as it is simply the area enclosed by the cycle. Note that in some cases specific volume will be plotted on the x-axis instead of volume, in which case the area under the curve represents work per unit mass of the working fluid (i.e. J/kg).", "In cardiovascular physiology, the diagram is often applied to the left ventricle, and it can be mapped to specific events of the cardiac cycle. PV loop studies are widely used in basic research and preclinical testing, to characterize the intact heart's performance under various situations (effect of drugs, disease, characterization of mouse strains), The sequence of events occurring in every heart cycle is as follows. The left figure shows a PV loop from a real experiment; letters refer to points. As it can be seen, the PV loop forms a roughly rectangular shape and each loop is formed in an anti-clockwise direction. Very useful information can be derived by examination and analysis of individual loops or series of loops, for example: See external links for a much more precise representation." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Queen and empress.", "Conflict with Albert II.", "Later life.", "Literary references." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Barbara was born in Celje, in the Duchy of Styria (today Slovenia), as the daughter and youngest child of Herman II, Count of Celje, and Countess Anna of Schaunberg. Barbara was engaged in 1405 to Sigismund of Luxemburg, King of Hungary, a younger son of Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor. The marriage likely took place in December 1405.", "Sigismund succeeded to the rule in Germany (1410), Bohemia (1419) and was crowned Holy Roman Emperor himself in 1433, giving her the equivalent titles. She spent most of her time on her Hungarian fiefdoms, while her spouse devoted his time elsewhere. She served as the regent of Hungary during his absences in 1412, 1414, 1416 and 1418. In 1429, she participated at the congress of Łuck. She was crowned Queen of Hungary in 1408, Queen of Germany in 1414 (being the last consort to be crowned in Aachen), Holy Roman Empress in 1433 and Queen of Bohemia in 1437, shortly before her husband's death. She is remembered by many contemporaries as emperor's young, vital and beautiful consort at the Council of Constance. In 1409, Barbara gave birth to a daughter, Elisabeth, Sigismund's only surviving issue and heiress, who married King Albert II of Germany.", "Day before the death of her gravely ill husband on 9 December 1437 at Znojmo, as a pretext to confiscate her large fiefdoms in the Hungarian kingdom (where she rivaled the king himself in number of fiefdoms and castles), she was quickly accused by her son-in-law Albert II of Germany of the Habsburg dynasty and his chancellor Kaspar Schlick of plotting against Sigismund, for which she was swiftly transported to prison in Bratislava castle and later forced to relinquish most of her possessions, including her dowry. Conflict with the new king was inevitable, and Barbara soon decided to find shelter in the Polish royal court, where she was in exile from 1438 to 1441. The Polish king decided to give her financial support by granting her Sandomierz as a fief, according to the chronicle of Jan Długosz.", "In 1441, two years after the death of her arch-rival King Albert II of Germany, she moved to Mělník in Bohemia - a fiefdom given to her by her deceased husband. All her Hungarian fiefdoms were already lost; some of them belonged to her daughter, Queen Elisabeth. Later she reconciled with her daughter and renounced her rights to Hungarian possessions (1441). She spent the rest of her life as Dowager Queen in Bohemia. She seems to have retreated from political life, although the Habsburg court saw her as dangerous and tried to accuse her of heresy, alchemy, and immoral and agnostic behavior, for which she received the sobriquet \"Messalina of Germany\". She died of the plague epidemic in Mělník and was buried in St. Andrew's chapel of St. Vitus Cathedral in Prague.", "Barbara is featured as the main character in the wraparound narrative of the story collection \"Waggish Tales of the Czechs\". Referred to as \"Queen Barbota,\" Barbara is portrayed as a somewhat ribald character who, bedridden and bored during her pregnancy, engages her women-in-waiting in telling her moral tales. According to the book's foreword, these are \"lusty, uproarious, sometimes cruelly brutal yarns, recited with the coarse gusto and abounding virility of a healthy outdoor people.\" Queen Barbota takes great delight in them." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Gemayel family.", "Early activities in the Kataeb Party.", "Military command.", "Conflict with the PLO.", "Tensions within the Lebanese Front.", "Israeli invasion of Lebanon and Gemayel's election.", "Time as President-elect.", "Assassination.", "Personal life.", "Political views.", "On relationship with the United States.", "On relationship with European countries.", "On relationship with Arab countries.", "On Israel.", "Institutions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Bachir Gemayel was born in the Achrafieh neighborhood of Beirut on 10 November 1947, the youngest of six children. The Gemayel family originated from Bikfaya village in the Matn District of Lebanon and is one of the most influential Christian families in the country. His father was Pierre Gemayel, who founded the Phalange party in 1936 as a youth movement. He attended the Jesuit Collège Notre Dame de Jamhour and the Institution Moderne du Liban (IML)- Fanar. He completed his university education at St. Joseph University (Université Saint-Joseph - USJ) in Beirut. After teaching for three years at the Lebanese Modern Institute, he graduated in 1971 with a bachelor's degree in law and another in political sciences in 1973. In 1971, Gemayel studied at The Center for American and International Law near Dallas, Texas in the United States. Qualifying in 1972, he joined the bar association and opened an office in Hamra Street, West Beirut.", "Gemayel's father Pierre Gemayel studied pharmacology in Europe and founded the Phalange Party in 1936 (also known as Kataeb) upon his return to Lebanon, modelling the party after the Spanish and Italian Fascist parties he had observed there. It swelled to 40,000 members. Although he became a Lebanese minister, and was targeted in at least two assassination attempts, Pierre Gemayel never rose to the prominence of his sons,", "Gemayel became a member of the Kataeb Party's youth section when he was 12 years old. He realized the dangers that surrounded Lebanon in 1958, and spent a lot of time with the organized political wing of the Kataeb Party. He attended the meetings organized by the Kataeb Student Section, and was the president of the Kataeb Circle in St. Joseph University between 1965 and 1971. In the late 1960s, he underwent paramilitary training in Bikfaya, and he was appointed squad leader of a militia unit of the Kataeb Regulatory Forces (RKF), the party's military wing formed in 1961. In the early 1970s, he formed the \"Bikfaya Squad\" within the RKF, where he became acquainted with the basics of military combat. In 1968, he participated in a student colloquium organized by the newspaper \"Orient\", following events which occurred across Lebanese universities between the Muslim and leftist Pan-Arabist students supporting the Palestinians in Lebanon on one side, and Lebanese Christian nationalist (Phoenicist) students (whom Gemayel represented) on the other. After the 1968-69 clashes between the Lebanese Army and the PLO, Gemayel gathered a group of Christian students, and started training them in the Kataeb-run Tabrieh training camp, located near Bsharri in the Keserwan District mountains. This was the start of what would later become the Lebanese Forces. At this stage, he was a junior militia commander under the orders", "", "In 1975, Gemayel was accused by the LNM of being responsible for the Black Saturday massacre of Palestinians and Lebanese Muslims. According to Phalange member Karim Pakradouni, Gemayel admitted to him that while being in an emotional state over the killing of four Phalangists earlier that day, he ordered his militiamen into the streets. He added that when the situation developed into something he did not agree with and civilians were being killed, he tried but failed to stop the killings. However, according to Michel Samaha, another Phalange member, Gemayel was outside Beirut, arriving after the killing of civilians had started. Michel Samaha added that Gemayel was one of the many senior members of the Phalange Party who tried to stop the massacre. Christian East Beirut was ringed by heavily fortified Palestinian", "Despite its increasing success in its battles against the PLO and the Syrian troops two factors led to the eventual demise of the Lebanese Front. Following the killing of many Phalangist members, in addition to a senior Phalangist by members of the Marada Brigade militia, which was led by a fellow member of the Lebanese Front, Tony Frangieh, Gemayel called for a meeting to decide on what to do about this situation. At first, the decision was to capture Tony Frangieh and force him to surrender the members of the Marada militia who killed the Phalangists. However, there was concern about the consequences of this move. So, the decision was changed after many talks between the Phalangists present at the meeting. It was decided that the goal of the operation would be to capture the members of the Marada militia who killed the Phalangists and", "Israel invaded Lebanon in 1982. Defense Minister of Israel, Ariel Sharon, met with Gemayel months earlier, telling him that the Israeli Defense Force were planning an invasion to uproot the PLO threat to Israel and to move them out of Lebanon. While Gemayel did not control Israel's actions in Lebanon, the support Israel gave the Lebanese Forces, militarily and politically, angered many Lebanese leftists. Gemayel met with Hani Al Hassan (representative of the PLO) and told him that Israel would enter and wipe them out. He told", "25 August : Deployment of International Separation Forces (mainly American, French, and Italian) 30 August : Yasser Arafat leaves Beirut to Athens 1 September : Meeting between Presidents Gemayel and Elias Sarkis with American Defense Secretary Caspar Weinberger 2 September : Opening the path of Sodeco that was previously considered as a separation line between East and West Beirut 4 September : The Lebanese Army enters West Beirut", "On 14 September 1982, Gemayel was addressing fellow Phalangists at their headquarters in Achrafieh for the last time as their leader and for the last time as commander of the Lebanese Forces. At 4:10 PM, a bomb was detonated, killing Gemayel and 26 other Phalange politicians. The first testimonies stated that Gemayel had left the premises on foot or in an ambulance (bearing the number 90). A report from a hospital came to say he had just arrived. Then the commander of military intelligence Jonny Abdu reported that Bachir Gemayel had been taken to a hospital in Haifa by helicopter. The search and rescue teams on the field were unable to find him or his body. His body was finally identified five and a half hours after the explosion by a Mossad agent in a church close to the site of the explosion where the dead were being collected. The face on the body was unrecognizable; he was identified by the white-gold wedding ring he was wearing and two letters he was carrying addressed to Bachir Gemayel. It was concluded that he had been one of the first people moved to the church after the explosion. Rumors persisted that Gemayel had survived, until it was confirmed the following morning by the Lebanese Prime Minister Shafik Wazzan that he had indeed been killed in the attack. Habib Shartouni, a member of the Syrian Social Nationalist Party and also a Maronite Christian, was later arrested for the assassination. His sister was living in the apartment above the room Gemayel was staying in. He had visited her the previous day and planted the bomb in her apartment. The next day, he called her and told her to get out of the building. Once she was out, he detonated the bomb from a few miles away using a remote detonator. When he came back to check on his sister, he was immediately arrested. Shartouni later confessed to the crime, saying he had done this because “Bachir had sold the country to Israel.” A reporter was heard telling him in reply, \"You didn't kill a man, you killed a country.\" He was imprisoned for 8 years until Syrian troops took over Lebanon at the end of the war and freed him on 13 October 1990. Amine Gemayel did not condemn the actions taken by Habib Shartouni because of immense Syrian pressure. Many point fingers at the Syrian government and then-Syrian President Hafez al-Assad for having knowledge of the assassination attempt and for covertly backing Shartouni.", "Bachir Gemayel's widow, Solange Gemayel, works to keep his legacy alive through the Bachir Gemayel Foundation, a political and informational organization. His eldest daughter, Maya, was murdered on 23 February 1980 at 18 months of age by a car bomb intended for her father.", "", "The relations between Lebanon and the United States had a high priority rating on Gemayel's agenda, and occupied a sizeable portion of his time and efforts. Bachir Gemayel believed that the U.S. and Lebanon are natural allies since they enjoy a common cultural affinity, similar ideological beliefs, free economic systems and strong commitment to human rights and dignity. He believed in the U.S. leadership of the Free World and he was confident that Washington would strengthen its ties to Lebanon. The Lebanese people, he declared, do not wish that their American friends fight their battle and suffer casualties. However, they look to", "The relations between Lebanon and the European countries deteriorated because Gemayel saw the latter trying to solve the Middle-East problem at the expense of Lebanon. In", "Gemayel firmly believed that Lebanon has a great role to play in emancipation of the Arab world but that Lebanon must be respected and trusted as an equal and be free of foreign intervention (including Arab intervention) and that Arab governments must understand that Lebanon is a sovereign state and has right to reject any policy contrary to its national interests. He warned the Arab world not to exploit the friendship and cooperation of the Lebanese people by attempting to", "Gemayel defined his attitude towards Israel clearly: \"This is our answer with regard to our relations or our dealings with Israel: We are nobody's agents or lackeys, we are Lebanese. As for the Israeli arms present in the country, this can be explained by the fact that some villages might have felt themselves threatened, and were cornered into getting supplies from anywhere that might be convenient including Israel. When a person feels threatened by danger, he will accept help from the devil. A very critical situation would develop if we were forced to turn towards Israel for help.\" As for his attachment to the South of Lebanon, Gemayel expressed this by appealing to all \"to work for the preservation", "Al-Ashbal: its first camp was organized under Gemayel's patronage in Byblos scout camping grounds (1975). Popular Committees: launched by Gemayel in 1976, their aim is the people's participation in the organization of daily life. Hamat Airport: created by Gemayel in 1976 for special tourist trips and for the export of agricultural products... Radio Free Lebanon : founded by Gemayel in 1978 to explain to the world the reality of the Lebanese cause. Radio 102 : out of Gemayel's desire for a commercial station in order to alleviate the burden of the war (1979). Delta Computer : founded in 1979 as a specialized information body related to all components of social organization. Help Lebanon : founded to take care of children and alleviate the consequences of the war. Lebanese Broadcasting Corporation (LBC) : launched in 1980 as a national, educational, cultural and non-commercial television. Gamma Group : an institution including specialists to plan the building of a modern state in all of its sectors (1982). The Lebanese Cultural Association : created in 1982 to deal with intellectual, literature and artistic affairs as well as Lebanese civilization. Achrafieh Merchants Committee : created in 1982 to revive the economy and trade and organize the market. Achrafieh Festival Committee : created in 1982 to organize fairs and exhibitions and to encourage artistic activities." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Main attractions.", "Twin towns — sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A settlement on the right bank of the Radbuza river was first established in the mid-13th century, on land owned by the archbishops of Prague. The town was besieged and defended during the Hussite wars between 1422 and 1431. The German Elector John, Count Palatine of Neumarkt (\"Johann von Pfalz-Neumarkt\") helped relieve the town. After the death of Louis II of Hungary at the Battle of Mohács in 1526, Archduke Ferdinand of Austria became King of Bohemia and the country became a constituent state of the Habsburg Monarchy to 1918. After 1539 Bischofteinitz belonged to the House of Lobkowicz. After the Thirty Years War the town passed to the counts on Trauttmansdorff, in whose possession the castle remained until 1945. Bischofteinitz developed into an important, if minor, provincial centre bordering Bavaria. During the late 19th century and especially after 1918 Czechs began moving into the district in large numbers. In 1938 the town and region were annexed into Nazi Germany as part of the Sudetenland. Until 1945 the area was populated by native Germans who spoke a Northern Bavarian dialect (\"Nordbairisch\"). These people were expelled by the Beneš decrees following World War II. On 1 December 1930 Horšovský Týn had 3,117 inhabitants; on 17 May 1939 there were 2,995 inhabitants and on 22 May 1947 2,393 inhabitants.", "The main attraction is a castle that was rebuilt in 1547 by Agostino Galli. Much of the original Gothic castle, the palace portals and some rooms have been preserved. In the town itself there are two Gothic churches and a former Capuchin monastery.", "Horšovský Týn is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "Language.", "History.", "Culture.", "Traditional Cheyenne plains culture.", "Role models.", "Ethnobotany." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The Cheyenne Nation is composed of two tribes, the \"Só'taeo'o\" or \"Só'taétaneo'o\" (more commonly as \"Suhtai\" or \"Sutaio\"; singular: \"Só'taétane\") and the \"Tsétsêhéstâhese\" (more commonly as the \"Tsitsistas\"; singular: \"Tsétsêhéstaestse\"), which translates to \"those who are like this\". These two tribes had always traveled together, becoming fully merged sometime after 1831, when they were still noted as having separate camps. The Suhtai were said to have originally had slightly different speech and customs from their traveling companions. The name \"Cheyenne\" may be derived from Dakota Sioux exonym for them, \"Šahíyena\" (meaning \"little \"Šahíya\"\"). Though the identity of the \"Šahíya\" is not known, many Great Plains tribes assume it means Cree or some other people who", "The Cheyenne of Montana and Oklahoma speak the Cheyenne language, known as \"Tsêhésenêstsestôtse\" (common spelling: Tsisinstsistots). Approximately 800 people speak Cheyenne in Oklahoma. There are only a handful of vocabulary differences between the two", "Late history The earliest known written historical record of the Cheyenne comes from the mid-17th century, when a group of Cheyenne visited the French Fort Crevecoeur, near present-day Peoria, Illinois. The Cheyenne at this time lived between the Mississippi River and Mille Lacs Lakeeconomy was based on the collection of wild rice and hunting, especially of bison, which lived in the prairies 70–80 miles west of the Cheyenne villages. According to tribal history, during the 17th century, the Cheyenne had been driven by the Assiniboine (Hóheeheo'o – \"wrapped ones or swaddled\", adaptive from the Lakota/Dakota word \"Hóhe\", meaning \"rebels\") from the Great Lakes region to present-day Minnesota and North Dakota, where they established villages. The most prominent of the ancient Cheyenne villages is Biesterfeldt Village, in eastern North Dakota along the Sheyenne River. The tribal history also relates that they first reached the Missouri River in 1676. A more recent analysis of early records posits that at least some of the Cheyenne remained in the Mille Lac region of Minnesota until about 1765, when the Ojibwe defeated the Dakota with firearms — pushing the Cheyenne, in turn, to the Minnesota River, where they were reported in 1766. On the Missouri River, the Cheyenne came into contact with the neighboring Mandan, Hidatsa (Tsé-heše'émâheónese, \"people who have soil houses\"), and Arikara people (Ónoneo'o), and they adopted many of their cultural characteristics. They were first of the later Plains tribes into the Black Hills and Powder River Country. About 1730, they introduced the horse to Lakota bands (Ho'óhomo'eo'o – \"the invited ones (to Cheyenne lands i.e. the Black Hills)\"). Conflict with migrating Lakota and Ojibwe people forced the Cheyenne further west, and they, in turn, pushed the Kiowa to the south. By 1776, the Lakota had overwhelmed the Cheyenne and taken over much of their territory near the Black Hills. In 1804, Lewis and Clark visited a surviving Cheyenne village in what is now North Dakota. Such European explorers learned many different names for the Cheyenne, and did not realize how the different sections were forming a unified tribe. The Cheyenne Nation is descended from two related tribes, the \"Tsétsêhéstâhese / Tsitsistas\" (Cheyenne proper) and \"Só'taeo'o / Só'taétaneo'o\" (better known as Suhtai or Sutaio), the latter may have joined the Tsétsêhéstâhese in the early 18th century. Their oral history relays that both tribal peoples are characterized, and represented by two cultural heroes or prophets who received divine articles from their god \"Ma'heo'o\" (′′Sacred Being, God′′, commonly in English \"Maheo, Mahiu\", this is a post-missionary term, formerly the plural \"Ma'heono\" was used), which the Só'taeo'o called \"He'emo\" (′′Goddess, Female Sacred Being, God′′, equivalent to \"Ma'heo'o\" in the Tsétsêhéstâhese dialect). The Tsétsêhéstâhese / Tsitsistas prophet \"Motsé'eóeve\" (Sweet Medicine Standing, Sweet Root Standing, commonly called \"Sweet Medicine\") had received the \"Maahótse\" (in English known as \"Mahuts\", a bundle of (Sacred) Arrows or the (Sacred) Arrows Bundle) at \"Nóávóse\" (′′medicine(sacred)-hill′′, name for Bear Butte, northwest of Rapid City, South Dakota), which they carried when they waged tribal-level war and were kept in the \"maahéome\" (Arrow Lodge or Arrow Tepee). He organized the structure of Cheyenne society, their military or war societies led by prominent warriors, their system of legal justice, and the Council of Forty-four peace chiefs, the latter was formed from four \"véhoo'o\" (chiefs or leaders) of the ten principal \"manaho\" (bands) and an additional four ′′Old Man′′ meeting to deliberate at regular tribal gatherings, centered around the Sun Dance. Sweet Medicine is the Cheyenne prophet who predicted the coming of the horse, cow, whiteman, etc. to the Cheyenne. He was named for \"motsé'eonȯtse\" (sweetgrass), one of the sacred plant medicines used by many Plains peoples in ceremonies. The Só'taeo'o prophet \"Tomȯsévėséhe\" (\"Erect Horns\") had received the \"Ésevone\" (aka \"Is'siwun\" – \"Sacred (Buffalo) Hat Bundle\") at \"Toh'nihvoos\" (′′Stone Hammer Mountain′′) near the Great Lakes in the present state of Minnesota. The \"Ésevone / Hóhkėha'e (Sacred Buffalo Hat)\" is kept in the \"vonȧhéome\" (old term) or \"hóhkėha'éome\" (new term) (\"Sacred Hat Lodge, Sacred Hat Tepee\"). Erect Horns gave them the accompanying ceremonies and the Sun Dance. His vision convinced the tribe to abandon their earlier sedentary agricultural traditions to adopt nomadic Plains horse culture. They replaced their earth lodges with portable tipis and switched their diet from fish and agricultural produce, to mainly bison and wild fruits and vegetables. Their lands ranged from the upper Missouri River into what is now Wyoming, Montana, Colorado, and South Dakota. The \"Ésevone / Hóhkėha'e\" (\"Sacred Buffalo Hat\") is kept among the Northern Cheyenne and Northern Só'taeo'o. The \"Tséá'enōvȧhtse\" (′′Sacred (Buffalo) Hat Keeper′′ or ′′Keeper of the Sacred (Buffalo) Hat′′) must belong to the Só'taeo'o (Northern or Southern alike). In the 1870s tribal leaders became disenchanted with the keeper of the bundle demanded the keeper Broken Dish give up the bundle; he agreed but his wife did not and desecrated the Sacred Hat and its contents; a ceremonial pipe and a buffalo horn were lost. In 1908 a Cheyenne named Three Fingers gave the horn back to the Hat; the pipe came into possession of a Cheyenne named Burnt All Over who gave it to Hattie Goit of Poteau, Oklahoma who in 1911 gave the pipe to the Oklahoma Historical Society. In 1997 the Oklahoma Historal Society negotiated with the Northern Cheyenne to return the pipe to the tribal keeper of the Sacred Medicine Hat Bundle James Black Wolf. The \"Maahótse\" (Sacred Arrows) are symbols of male power and the power of the \"Ésevone / Hóhkėha'e\" (Sacred Buffalo Hat) is female. The Sacred Buffalo Hat and the Sacred Arrows together form the two great covenants of the Cheyenne Nation. Through these two bundles, Ma'heo'o assures continual life and blessings for the people.", "Over the past 400 years, the Cheyenne have changed their lifestyles. In the 16th century, they lived in the regions near the Great Lakes. They farmed corn, squash, and beans, and harvested wild rice like other indigenous peoples of the Northeastern Woodlands. They migrated west in the 18th century and hunted bison on the Great Plains. By the mid-19th century, the US forced them onto reservations. The traditional Cheyenne government system is a politically unified system. The central traditional government system of the Cheyenne is the Arrow Keeper, followed by the Council of Forty-Four. Early in Cheyenne history, three related tribes, known as the \"Heviqsnipahis\", the \"Só'taeo'o\" and the \"Masikota\", unified themselves to form the \"Tsé-tsêhéstâhese\" or the \"Like Hearted People\" who are known today as the \"Cheyenne\". The unified tribe then divided themselves into ten principal bands: Each of the ten bands had four seated chief delegates; the remaining four chiefs were the principal advisers of the other delegates. Smaller bands or sub-bands had no right to send delegates to the council. This system also regulated the Cheyenne military societies that developed for planning warfare, enforcing rules, and conducting ceremonies. Anthropologists debate about Cheyenne society organization. On the plains, it appears that they had a bilateral band kinship system. However, some anthropologists reported that the Cheyenne had a matrilineal band system. Studies into whether, and if so, how much the Cheyenne developed a matrilineal clan system are continuing.", "While they participated in nomadic Plains horse culture, men hunted and occasionally fought with and raided other tribes. The women tanned and dressed hides for clothing, shelter, and other uses. They also gathered roots, berries, and", "A Cheyenne woman has a higher status if she is part of an extended family with distinguished ancestors. Also, if she is friendly and compatible with her female relatives and does not", "An infusion of the pulverized leaves and blossoms of tansy is used for" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Nowadays." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Based on the historical evidence, the first mentioning about the village of Horoměřice dates back to 1273. Back then it was owned by the Strahov Monastery. Today in the central part of Horoměřice there is a simple castle from the 18th century, which belonged to Strahov Monastery until 1945. In the past, the village inhabitants were agricultural workers. Although the village is surrounded by fields, today almost none of the inhabitants are agricultural workers. Also it's worth mentioning, Horoměřice is known as the birthplace of Benedikt Roezl, a famous botanist and orchids collector.", "Horoměřice is rather small but growing village, the municipality covers an area of 8.04 km2 and as of 01/2018 it has a population of 4,100. Today Horoměřice is a nice village to live with all necessary supplements: there are kindergartens, primary schools, a pharmacy, GP doctor's office, post office, grocery shops (one supermarket and some small groceries), car service, hotel and restaurants. Last 10 years the western part of the village is growing significantly with fully new family houses and apartment buildings. It makes the village more modern and cozy. A very close location to Prague border makes the village a very favorable place to live, therefore the price for the land and properties raised significantly last years. The majority of inhabitants now work in Prague traveling there every day. Greatly set public transport allow to do it in an easy and fast way - average travel to the closes Prague metro can take 7–15 minutes by bus depending from which bus stop in Horoměřice to travel." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Fictional account.", "Appearances.", "Interpretations.", "Adaptations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Éomer was the son of Théodwyn and Éomund. After their parents' death Éomer and his sister Éowyn were adopted by their uncle Théoden, king of the Rohirrim. He was the leader of the forces of Rohan who attacked and killed the Uruk-hai who had kidnapped the hobbits Merry Brandybuck and Pippin Took. Against orders, impressed by Aragorn, he helped Aragorn, Gimli and Legolas by lending them horses and guiding them to where the attack had taken place. On his return to Edoras, Éomer reported this meeting to Théoden, and was imprisoned on the orders of Gríma Wormtongue, Théoden's sinister advisor. Aragorn, Gimli and Legolas arrived in Edoras with the wizard Gandalf, who released the king from Gríma's spell. Éomer was released and restored to honour. He fought at the battle of Helm's Deep, where the forces of Rohan drove Saruman's army of Orcs and Dunlendings from the walls of the Hornburg, buying enough time for Gandalf to arrive with Erkenbrand and his men of the Westfold of Rohan. Éomer played a major role in the Battle of the Pelennor Fields, the pivotal battle of \"The Return of the King\". After fighting bravely, he was dismayed to find Théoden mortally wounded. Théoden appointed him King of Rohan with his dying breath. Seeing Éowyn seemingly dead on the battlefield, Éomer threw himself and the remaining Rohirrim at the enemy. Aragorn arrived unexpectedly from Pelargir, and joined forces with Éomer, fulfilling his prediction that they would meet in the midst of their enemies. They routed the Orcs, and won the battle. Éomer accompanied Aragorn to the Gates of Mordor for the final stand against Sauron. This distracted Sauron long enough for the One Ring to be destroyed in Mount Doom, leading to his downfall. Theoden was taken back to Edoras to be buried, and Éomer became King of the Mark.", "The Tolkien scholar Tom Shippey contrasts Éomer's behaviour with that of Faramir, son of the Ruling Steward of Gondor. In his view, Faramir is courteous, urbane, and civilised where Éomer is \"compulsively truculent\", in both cases reflecting the character of their nations: Gondor \"a kind of Rome\", subtle and calculating, Rohan a simple but vigorous Anglo-Saxon society. The critic Paul Kocher notes that in his first meeting with Aragorn on the plains of Rohan, Éomer is moved by affection more than just by the policy of the Mark, and indeed he risks both his command and his life by assisting him, contrary to orders.", "In the 1978 animated adaptation of \"The Lord of the Rings\" by Ralph Bakshi, Éomer has no lines and is not fully animated. He appears, also without lines, in the 1980 Rankin/Bass animated version of \"The Return of the King\". In Peter Jackson's \"The Lord of the Rings\" film trilogy, Éomer was played by New Zealand actor Karl Urban. His role is somewhat diminished in comparison to the books. In \"\", he is exiled by Gríma before meeting Aragorn. As an outcast, he leads a troop of riders loyal to Théoden northward out of Rohan rather than being imprisoned in Edoras." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Background.", "1945–75.", "Movements.", "Modernism.", "Electronic music.", "Computer music.", "Polystylism (eclecticism).", "Historicism.", "Neoromanticism.", "Art rock influence.", "New Complexity.", "Developments by medium.", "Opera.", "Chamber.", "Concert bands (wind ensembles).", "Cinema.", "Festivals." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "At the beginning of the twentieth century, composers of classical music were experimenting with an increasingly dissonant pitch language, which sometimes yielded atonal pieces. Following World War I, as a backlash against what they saw as the increasingly exaggerated gestures and formlessness of late Romanticism, certain composers adopted a neoclassic style, which sought to recapture the balanced forms and clearly perceptible thematic processes of earlier styles (see also New Objectivity and Social Realism). After World War II, modernist composers sought to achieve greater levels of control in their composition process (e.g., through the use of the twelve-tone technique and later total serialism). At the same time, conversely, composers also experimented with means of abdicating control, exploring indeterminacy or aleatoric processes in smaller or larger degrees. Technological advances led to the birth of electronic music. Experimentation with tape loops and repetitive textures contributed to the advent of minimalism. Still other composers started exploring the theatrical potential of the musical performance (performance art, mixed media, fluxus).New works of Contemporary classical music continue to be created. Each year, the Boston Conservatory at Berklee presents 700 performances. New works from Contemporary classical music program students comprise roughly 150 of these performances.", "To some extent, European and the US traditions diverged after World War II. Among the most influential composers in Europe were Pierre Boulez, Luigi Nono, and Karlheinz Stockhausen. The first and last were both pupils of Olivier Messiaen. An important aesthetic philosophy as well as a group of compositional techniques at this time was serialism (also called \"through-ordered music\", \"'total' music\" or \"total tone ordering\"), which took as its starting point the compositions of Arnold Schoenberg and Anton Webern (but was opposed to traditional twelve-tone music), and was also closely related to Le Corbusier's idea of the \"modulor\". However, some more traditionally based composers such as Dmitri Shostakovich and Benjamin Britten maintained a tonal style of composition despite the prominent serialist movement. In America, composers like Milton Babbitt, John Cage, Elliott Carter, Henry Cowell, Philip Glass, Steve Reich, George Rochberg, and Roger Sessions, formed their own ideas. Some of these composers (Cage, Cowell, Glass, Reich) represented a new methodology of experimental music, which began to question fundamental notions of music such as notation, performance, duration, and repetition, while others (Babbitt, Rochberg, Sessions) fashioned their own extensions of the twelve-tone serialism of Schoenberg.", "", "Many of the key figures of the high modern movement are alive, or only recently deceased. Despite its decline in the last third of the 20th century, there remained at the end of the century an active core of composers who continued to advance the ideas and forms of modernism, such as Pierre Boulez, Pauline Oliveros, Toru Takemitsu, George Benjamin, Jacob Druckman, Brian Ferneyhough, George Perle, Wolfgang Rihm, Richard Wernick, Richard Wilson, and Ralph Shapey. Serialism is one of the most important post-war movements among the high modernist schools. Serialism, more specifically named \"integral\" or \"compound\" serialism, was led by composers such as Pierre Boulez, Bruno Maderna, Luigi Nono, and Karlheinz Stockhausen in Europe, and by Milton Babbitt, Donald Martino, Mario Davidovsky, and Charles Wuorinen in the United States. Some of their compositions use an ordered set or several such sets, which may be the basis for the whole composition, while others use \"unordered\" sets. The term is also often used for dodecaphony, or twelve-tone technique, which is alternatively regarded as the model for integral serialism. Modernist composers active during this period include Scottish composer James MacMillan (who draws on sources as diverse as plainchant, South American 'liberation theology', Scottish folksongs, and Polish avant-garde techniques of the 1960s), Finnish composers Erkki Salmenhaara, Henrik Otto Donner, and Magnus Lindberg, Italian composer Franco Donatoni, and English composer Jonathan Harvey.", "", "Between 1975 and 1990, a shift in the paradigm of computer technology had taken place, making electronic music systems affordable and widely accessible. The personal computer had become an essential component of the electronic musician’s equipment, superseding analog synthesizers and fulfilling the traditional functions of composition and scoring, synthesis and sound processing, sampling of audio input, and control over external equipment.", "Some authors equate polystylism with eclecticism, while others make a sharp distinction.", "Musical historicism—the use of historical materials, structures, styles, techniques, media, conceptual content, etc., whether by a single composer or those associated with a particular school, movement, or period—is evident to varying degrees in minimalism, post-minimalism, world-music, and other genres in which tonal traditions have been sustained or have undergone a significant revival in recent decades. Some post-minimalist works employ medieval and other genres associated with early music, such as the \"Oi me lasso\" and other laude of Gavin Bryars. The historicist movement is closely related to the emergence of musicology and the early music revival. A number of historicist composers have been influenced by their intimate familiarity with the instrumental practices of earlier periods (Hendrik Bouman, Grant Colburn, Michael Talbot, Paulo Galvão, Roman Turovsky-Savchuk). The musical historicism movement has also been stimulated by the formation of such international organizations as the Delian Society and Vox Saeculorum.", "The vocabulary of extended tonality, which flourished in the late 19th and very early 20th centuries, continues to be used by contemporary composers. It never has been considered shocking or controversial in the larger musical world—as has been demonstrated statistically for the United States, at least, where \"most composers continued working in what has remained throughout this century the mainstream of tonal-oriented composition\"", "Some composers have emerged since the 1980s who are influenced by art rock, for example, Rhys Chatham.", "New Complexity is a current within today's European contemporary avant-garde music scene, named in reaction to the New Simplicity. Amongst the candidates suggested for having coined the term are the composer Nigel Osborne, the Belgian musicologist Harry Halbreich, and the British/Australian musicologist Richard Toop, who gave currency to the concept of a movement with his article \"Four Facets of the New Complexity\". Though often atonal, highly abstract, and dissonant in sound, the \"New Complexity\" is most readily characterized by the use of techniques which require complex musical notation. This includes extended techniques, microtonality, odd tunings, highly disjunct melodic contour, innovative timbres, complex polyrhythms, unconventional instrumentations, abrupt changes in loudness and intensity, and so on. The diverse group of composers writing in this style includes Richard Barrett, Brian Ferneyhough, Claus-Steffen Mahnkopf, James Dillon, Michael Finnissy, James Erber, and Roger Redgate.", "", "Notable composers of operas since 1975 include:", "Some notable works for chamber orchestra:", "In recent years, many composers have composed for concert bands (also called wind ensembles). Notable composers include:", "Contemporary classical music can be heard in film scores such as Stanley Kubrick's \"\" (1968) and \"Eyes Wide Shut\" (1999), both of which used concert music by György Ligeti, and also in Kubrick's \"The Shining\" (1980) which used music by both Ligeti and Krzysztof Penderecki. Jean-Luc Godard, in \"La Chinoise\" (1967), Nicolas Roeg in \"Walkabout\" (1971), and the Brothers Quay in \"In Absentia\" (2000) used music by Karlheinz Stockhausen.", "The following is an incomplete list of Contemporary-music festivals:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Flight experience.", "NASA career.", "Apollo 13.", "Apollo–Soyuz Test Project.", "Post-NASA career.", "Death.", "Awards, honors, and organizations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "John Leonard Swigert Jr. was born on August 30, 1931 in Denver, Colorado to parents John Leonard Sr. (1903–1973) and Virginia Swigert (1906–1993). Swigert's father was an ophthalmologist. At the age of 14, he became fascinated by aviation. While he would have been content just watching planes take off from nearby Combs Field, young Jack became determined to do more than be a spectator. He took on a newspaper route to earn money for flying lessons, and by age 16 he was a licensed private pilot. He was a member of the Boy Scouts of America and attained the rank of Second Class Scout. He attended Blessed Sacrament School, Regis Jesuit High School, and East High School, from which he graduated in 1949. Swigert received a Bachelor of Science degree in mechanical engineering from the University of Colorado in 1953, where he also played football for the Buffaloes. He later earned a Master of Science degree in aerospace engineering from the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute (Hartford campus) in 1965, and a Master of Business Administration degree from the University of Hartford in 1967. His recreational interests included golf, handball, bowling, skiing, swimming, and basketball. His hobbies included photography.", "Following his graduation from Colorado in 1953, Swigert joined the U.S. Air Force. Upon graduation from the Pilot Training Program and Gunnery School at Nellis Air Force Base, Nevada, he was assigned as a fighter pilot in Japan and Korea. In 1953, he survived his plane crashing into a radar unit on a Korean airstrip. After completing his tour of active duty in the Air Force, he served as a jet fighter pilot with the Massachusetts (1957–1960) and Connecticut Air National Guard (1960–1965). Swigert held a position as engineering test pilot for North American Aviation before joining NASA. He was previously an engineering test pilot for Pratt & Whitney, from February 1957 to June 1964. He logged over 7,200 hours in flight, including more than 5,725 hours in jet aircraft.", "After unsuccessfully applying for NASA's second and third astronaut selections, Swigert was accepted into the NASA Astronaut Corps as part of NASA Astronaut Group 5 in April 1966. Swigert became a specialist on the Apollo command module: he was one of the few astronauts who requested to be command module pilots. Swigert was a member of Apollo 7's astronaut support crew, the first support crew for an Apollo mission.", "Swigert was one of three astronauts aboard the Apollo 13 Moon mission launched April 11, 1970. Originally part of the backup crew for the mission, he was assigned to the mission three days before launch, replacing astronaut Ken Mattingly. The prime crew had been exposed to German Measles (the rubella virus) from Charles Duke and, because Mattingly had no immunity to the disease, NASA did not want to risk him falling ill during critical phases of the flight. The mission was the third crewed lunar-landing attempt, but was aborted after the rupture of an oxygen tank in the spacecraft's service module. Swigert was the astronaut who made the dramatic announcement, \"Houston, we've had a problem here\". The statement was then repeated by commander of the flight Jim Lovell. Swigert, along with fellow astronauts Lovell and Fred Haise, traveled around the Moon and returned safely to Earth on April 17 after about 5 days and 23 hours, and received the Presidential Medal of Freedom the next day.", "NASA Director of Flight Crew Operations Deke Slayton, who selected the astronauts, recommended Swigert as command module pilot for the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project, the first joint mission with the Soviet Union. Slayton felt Swigert deserved another chance to fly after having been selected for Apollo 13 two days before launch, and performing well. During 1972, the Apollo 15 postal covers incident caused NASA investigators to inquire into other astronauts. A number of Apollo astronauts, including Swigert, had made agreements with West German stamp dealer Hermann Sieger, whose brainchild the Apollo 15 covers was, to autograph philatelic items in exchange for a payment of about $2,500. Swigert originally denied involvement when interviewed by NASA investigators. According to Christopher C. Kraft, the investigators subpoenaed his bank records, finding more funds than expected, and records of a predated charitable donation. Swigert's subsequent admission caused NASA Deputy Administrator George M. Low to remove him from Apollo–Soyuz.", "Aware that his spaceflight career was most likely over, Swigert took a leave of absence from NASA in April 1973 to become executive director of the Committee on Science and Astronautics, U.S. House of Representatives. Swigert eventually left NASA and the committee in August 1977 to enter politics. He ran for the U.S. Senate in 1978, but was soundly defeated in the Republican primary in September by congressman Bill Armstrong. In 1979, Swigert became vice president of B.D.M. Corporation in Golden. He left in 1981 to join International Gold and Minerals Limited as vice president for financial and corporate affairs. In February 1982, Swigert left International Gold and Minerals Limited to run for U.S. Congress in the newly-created 6th district as a Republican. Swigert developed a malignant tumor in his right nasal passage, which he disclosed to voters. Doctors told him he would finish radiation treatments June 15 and make a complete recovery. He developed back pain in August and he was diagnosed with bone marrow cancer. On November 2, 1982, he won the seat with 64% of the popular vote.", "On December 19, seven weeks after the election, he was airlifted from his home in Littleton to Georgetown University Hospital in Washington, D.C. He died of respiratory failure at its Lombardi Cancer Center on December 27, seven days before the beginning of his congressional term. He was 51. Fifteen astronauts were among the thousand mourners at his full military honors' funeral in Denver, presided over by Archbishop James Casey, which included a missing man flyover by A-7 Corsairs of the Colorado Air National Guard. He is buried alongside his parents in Mount Olivet Cemetery in suburban Wheat Ridge.", "Swigert received the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA) Octave Chanute Award for 1966 for his participation in demonstrating the Rogallo Wing as a feasible land landing system for returning space vehicles and astronauts. President Richard Nixon awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom to the Apollo 13 crew shortly after the conclusion of their mission. Following a sparse parade, Swigert received the City of New York Gold Medal on June 3. He received the City of Houston Medal for Valor, 1970. Swigert received the American Astronautical Society Flight Achievement Award for 1970. He was given University of Colorado-Boulder's Distinguished Engineering Alumnus Award in 1970. Vice President Spiro Agnew presented the crews of Apollo 11, 12, and 13 with the NASA Distinguished Service Medal in 1970. The Apollo 13 crew also received the AIAA Haley Astronautics Award in 1971, which included a small monetary award and a medal. Swigert was awarded the 1972 Antonian Gold Medal. He was presented an Honorary Doctorate of Science degree from American International College in 1970, an Honorary Doctorate of Laws degree from Western State University in 1970, and an Honorary Doctorate of Science from Western Michigan University in 1970. In 1982, Swigert was among 14 Apollo astronauts inducted into the International Space Hall of Fame. In 1988, Swigert was inducted into the Colorado Aviation Hall of Fame. In 1995, Swigert was portrayed by Kevin Bacon in Ron Howard's film \"Apollo 13\". In 1997, Swigert, along with 23 other Apollo astronauts, was posthumously inducted into the U.S. Astronaut Hall of Fame. He was elected in September 2003 to the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Alumni Hall of Fame. In 1997, a statue of Swigert made by George and Mark Lundeen was placed on display in the U.S. Capitol Building as one of two statues given by the state of Colorado to the National Statuary Hall Collection. As of December 2008 the statue is on display in Emancipation Hall in the United States Capitol Visitor Center. A duplicate statue is currently on display at Denver International Airport. The Space Foundation was founded in 1983 in part to honor the memory and accomplishments of Swigert. In 2004, the Space Foundation launched the John L. \"Jack\" Swigert Jr. Award for Space Exploration, which is presented annually to an individual, group, or organization that has made a significant contribution to space exploration. On August 18, 2009, the Space Foundation and Colorado Springs District 11 partnered to open the Jack Swigert Aerospace Academy. Swigert was a member of numerous organizations. He was a fellow of the American Astronautical Society; associate fellow of the Society of Experimental Test Pilots and the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics; and member of the Quiet Birdmen, Phi Gamma Delta, Pi Tau Sigma, and Sigma Tau." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Inspiration and recording.", "Personnel.", "Release and legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Miss You\" was written by Mick Jagger jamming with keyboardist Billy Preston during rehearsals for the March 1977 El Mocambo club gigs, recordings from which appeared on side three of double live album \"Love You Live\" (1977). Keith Richards is credited as co-writer as was the case for all Rolling Stones originals written by either partner or in tandem. Jagger and Ronnie Wood insist that \"Miss You\" wasn't conceived as a disco song, while Richards said, \"...'Miss You' was a damn good disco record; it was calculated to be one.\" In any case, what was going on in discotheques did make it to the recording. Charlie Watts said, \"A lot of those songs like 'Miss You' on 'Some Girls'... were heavily influenced by going to the discos. You can hear it in a lot of those four-to-the-floor and the Philadelphia-style drumming.\" For the bass part, Bill Wyman started from Preston's bass guitar on the song demo. Chris Kimsey, who engineered the recording, said Wyman went \"...to quite a few clubs before he got that bass line sorted out\", which Kimsey said \"made that song.\" Wyman recalled: \"When I did the riff for 'Miss You' – which made the song, and every band in the world copied it for the next year: Rod Stewart, all of them – it still said Jagger/Richard. When I wrote the riff for 'Jumpin' Jack Flash', it became Jagger/Richard, and that's the way it was. It just became part and parcel of the way the band functioned.\" Jagger sang a good part of the chorus using falsetto \"ooh\"s often in unison with harmonica, guitar and electric piano. Unlike most of \"Some Girls\", \"Miss You\" features several studio musicians. In addition to Sugar Blue who, according to Wood, was found by Jagger busking on the streets of Paris, Ian McLagan plays understated Wurlitzer electric piano, and Mel Collins provides the tenor saxophone solo for the instrumental break. The 12\" version of the song runs over eight minutes and features additional instrumentation and solos, particularly on guitar. It was remixed by Bob Clearmountain, then an up-and-coming mixer and engineer. This song, the first edit the Stones did for a 12\" single, also contains tape repeats and an additional set of lyrics in the second verse, after the line \"Hey, let's go mess and fool around you know, like we used to.\" The extended version can be found on the \"Don't Stop\" CD single and in edited form on the album \"Rarities 1971–2003\" and on the 1990 CD single version of \"Angie\".", "Personnel per \"Some Girls\" CD credits.", "\"Miss You\" became The Rolling Stones' eighth and final number one hit in the United States on its initial release in 1978. It hit the top on 5 August 1978, ending the seven-week reign of \"Shadow Dancing\" by Andy Gibb. It also reached number three in the United Kingdom. The song was originally nearly nine minutes long, but was edited to nearly five minutes for the album version, and to three-and-a-half minutes for the radio single. In order to properly edit the radio single without audible bumps and glitches, a separate mix was constructed and then edited for continuity. The B-side of the single was another album track, \"Far Away Eyes\", a tongue-in-cheek country tune sung by Jagger in a pronounced drawl. A live recording was captured during the Rolling Stones' 1989-1990 Steel Wheels/Urban Jungle Tour and released on the 1991 live album \"Flashpoint\". Other live versions have been recorded and/or filmed, including a November 1981 performance included on \"Let's Spend the Night Together\" (1983), July 1995 performances released on \"Totally Stripped\" (2016), a July 2013 performance on \"Hyde Park Live\", and a March 2016 performance included as a bonus track on \"\". In 2010, \"Rolling Stone\" magazine rated \"Miss You\" number 498 in its list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Context.", "Battle.", "Interpretations.", "Adaptations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "This was the final battle against Sauron in the War of the Ring, fought at the Morannon, the Black Gate of Mordor. The Army of the West, led by Aragorn, marched on the gate to distract Sauron's attention from Frodo Baggins and Sam Gamgee, who were dangerously carrying the One Ring through Mordor. It was hoped that Sauron would think Aragorn had the Ring and was now trying to use it to overthrow Mordor. As the journey progressed, Aragorn was credited openly as \"the King Elessar\" by their heralds to challenge Sauron. Aragorn had around 7,000 soldiers of Gondor and Rohan, some 6,000 foot and 1,000 horse. The army included: King Éomer of Rohan, Prince Imrahil of Dol Amroth, Elladan & Elrohir (the twin sons of Elrond), Beregond, and five members of the Fellowship of the Ring (Aragorn, Gandalf, Legolas, Gimli and Pippin Took). They were ambushed by Orcs and Easterlings on the very spot where Faramir and the Rangers of Ithilien had ambushed a company of Haradrim some two weeks earlier, but the enemy was beaten back without much loss. Aragorn realized that this was an intentionally weak feint, meant to lure them into thinking that Sauron's army was exhausted. Later, some whose fear overcame them were sent to retake and hold the island of Cair Andros. Thus the Army of the West was less than 6,000 strong at the Black Gate.", "The battle took place on 25th March. Before the battle began, Sauron sent the Black Númenórean called the Mouth of Sauron, to speak with the Captains of the West. He tried to trick Gandalf into believing Sauron held Frodo captive, displaying as evidence Sam's sword, an Elven cloak, and Frodo's \"mithril\" shirt. The Mouth threatened that Frodo would be tortured if the West did not agree to Sauron's terms of surrender. Gandalf took the items from the Mouth of Sauron, and dismissed him. The forces of Sauron advanced and surrounded the Men of the West. Sauron's army outnumbered that of the West by at least ten to one. The Army of the West divided itself into two rings upon hills of rubble opposite the gate: Aragorn, Gandalf, and the sons of Elrond \"with the Dúnedain about them\" were on the left, with Éomer, Imrahil, and the Knights of Dol Amroth on the right. Against them were hordes of Orcs, Trolls, and Men, Easterlings and Haradrim. The Olog-hai, improved Trolls, appeared for the first time. During the battle, the hobbit Pippin Took, marching as a Guard of the Citadel of Minas Tirith, killed a Troll. The surviving Nazgûl hovered over the Army of the West and spread fear and confusion. The giant Eagles of the Misty Mountains, led by Gwaihir the Windlord, attacked the Ringwraiths. At that moment, when all hope seemed lost, Frodo put on the One Ring, revealing to Sauron that Frodo was inside Mount Doom, and the Ring was in peril. He immediately summoned the Nazgûl from the battle to intercept Frodo; the army of Mordor, bereft of Sauron's attention, was thrown into disarray. Gollum bit the Ring off Frodo's finger. As Gollum celebrated, he fell with the ring into the Crack of Doom, destroying Sauron's power. The Nazgûl perished. Barad-dûr, the Black Gate and the Towers of the Teeth collapsed as their foundations were built with the power of the Ring. Sauron perished; his gigantic shadow formed in the sky and reached out in wrath, but was blown away and his spirit was left forever bodiless and impotent. The Orcs and other creatures of Sauron were left directionless with his demise, and were easily defeated by the Army of the West. Some killed themselves, while others fled. The proud Easterlings and Haradrim fought on bravely, though eventually many surrendered, to be sent home in peace by Aragorn as he established the renewed and united Kingdoms of Gondor and Arnor.", "The Tolkien scholar Tom Shippey writes that Tolkien, a Roman Catholic, comes very close to allegory and writing about Christian revelation in moments of what Tolkien called \"eucatastrophe\". When the One Ring is destroyed and Sauron is overthrown for ever, an eagle comes as messenger to report the glad news. The eagle sings a song that, Shippey notes, sounds very much like Psalms 24 and 33 in the Bible, complete with Authorised Version words like \"ye\" and \"hath\". When the eagle sings \"and the Black Gate is broken\", Shippey writes, the surface meaning is the Gate of the Morannon, but it could \"\"very easily\" apply to Death and Hell\", as in. In his view, this degree of double meaning was \"deliberate\", as the date was 25 March, for the Anglo-Saxons the date of Christ's Crucifixion, and the Annunciation, and the last day of Creation. The Tolkien critic Paul H. Kocher states that while commentators have noted the \"self-sacrificial courage\" of the hobbits Frodo and Sam crossing Mordor to destroy the One Ring, far fewer had spoken of the \"equal if less solitary unselfish daring\" of the 7,000 men who offered battle at the Morannon. Kocher notes that if Frodo and Sam had completed their mission an hour later, the whole army would have been lost, given the \"desperate\" odds; the hobbits saved the army, but just as much, the army \"saved the hobbits and so the West\". Gregory Bassham and Eric Bronson's \"The Hobbit and Philosophy\" notes that the hobbit Pippin, who starts out on the quest playful and childish, is radically altered by his experiences, as shown by his killing of a troll in the Battle of the Morannon.", "In 1957, Morton Grady Zimmerman and colleagues proposed to Tolkien with a screenplay that they make a film of \"Lord of the Rings\" combining animation, miniatures and live action. The final drama of the Battle of the Black Gate was to feature Gandalf's turning each of the ringwraiths to stone in front of the watching armies. Tolkien strongly opposed to their approach and nothing came of it. Peter Jackson's film adaptation of \"\" is interspersed with scenes of Frodo and Sam at Mount Doom, and focuses mainly on the characters of Gandalf, Aragorn, and the rest of the Fellowship. Aragorn fights a troll, a departure from the book; Large numbers of extras were used for the battle, and some hundreds of soldiers from New Zealand's army to give an impression of the battle's enormous scale. Jackson had at one stage intended Aragorn to fight the Dark Lord Sauron in person, but \"wisely\" reduced this to combat with a troll." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Concept.", "Recording.", "Packaging.", "Release and sales.", "Critical reception.", "Aftermath and legacy.", "Track listing.", "Personnel.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"The Final Cut\" was conceived as a soundtrack album for \"Pink Floyd – The Wall, the\" 1982 film based on Pink Floyd's 1979 album \"The Wall.\" Under its working title \"Spare Bricks\", it would have featured new music rerecorded for the film, such as \"When the Tigers Broke Free\". Bassist, vocalist, and primary songwriter Roger Waters also planned to record a small amount of new material, expanding \"The Wall\"'s narrative. As a result of the Falklands War, Waters changed direction and wrote new material. He saw British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher's response to Argentina's invasion of the islands as jingoistic and unnecessary, and dedicated the new album—provisionally titled \"Requiem for a Post-War Dream\"—to his father, Eric Fletcher Waters. A second lieutenant of the 8th Royal Fusiliers, Eric Waters died during the Second World War at Aprilia in Italy, on 18 February 1944. Waters said: Guitarist David Gilmour was unimpressed by Waters' politicising, and the new creative direction prompted arguments. Five other tracks not used on \"The Wall\" (\"Your Possible Pasts\", \"One of the Few\", \"The Final Cut\", \"The Fletcher Memorial Home\", and \"The Hero's Return\") had been set aside for \"Spare Bricks\", and although Pink Floyd had often reused material, Gilmour felt the songs were not good enough for a new album. He wanted to write new material, but Waters remained doubtful as Gilmour had lately contributed little new music. Gilmour said: The title \"The Final Cut\" is a reference to William Shakespeare's \"Julius Caesar\": \"This was the most unkindest cut of all\". \"When the Tigers Broke Free\" was issued as a single on 26 July 1982, with \"Bring the Boys Back Home\" on the B-side, the single was labelled \"Taken from the album \"The Final Cut\"\" but was not included on that album until the 2004 CD reissue.", "\"The Final Cut\" is an anti-war concept album that explores what Waters regards as the betrayal of fallen British servicemen—such as his father—who during the Second World War sacrificed their lives in the spirit of a post-war dream. This post-war dream was that their victory would usher in a more peaceful world, whose leaders would no longer be so eager to resolve disputes by resorting to war. The album's lyrics are critical of Thatcher, whose policies and decisions Waters regarded as an example of this betrayal. She is referred to as \"Maggie\" throughout the album. The opening track, \"The Post War Dream\", begins with a recorded announcement that the replacement for the \"Atlantic Conveyor\", a ship lost during the Falklands campaign, will be built in Japan. Waters' lyrics refer to his dead father, the loss of Britain's shipbuilding industry to Japan, and Margaret Thatcher, before moving on to \"Your Possible Pasts\", a rewritten version of a song rejected for \"The Wall\". In \"One of the Few\", another rejected song, the schoolteacher from \"The Wall\" features as the main character, presented as a war hero returned to civilian life. He is unable to relate his experiences to his wife, and in \"The Hero's Return\" is tormented by the loss of one of his aircrew. \"The Gunner's Dream\" discusses the post-war dream of a world free from tyranny and the threat of terrorism (a reference to the Hyde Park bombing). It is followed in \"Paranoid Eyes\" by the teacher's descent into alcoholism. The second half deals with various war issues. While \"Southampton Dock\" is a lament to returning war heroes and other soldiers heading out to a likely death, \"Not Now John\" addresses society's ignorance of political and economic problems. \"Get Your Filthy Hands Off My Desert\" deals with Waters' feelings about war and invasion, and \"The Fletcher Memorial Home\" (the title is a nod to Waters' father) reflects a fantastical application of \"the final solution\" on a gathering of political leaders including Leonid Brezhnev, Menachem Begin and Margaret Thatcher. The album's titular song deals with the aftermath of a man's isolation and sexual repression, as he contemplates suicide and struggles to reconnect with the world around him. The album ends with \"Two Suns in the Sunset\", which portrays a nuclear holocaust: the final result of a world obsessed with war and control.", "American composer Michael Kamen, who had contributed to \"The Wall\", co-produced, oversaw the orchestral arrangements, and mediated between Waters and Gilmour. He also stood in for keyboardist Richard Wright, who had left the band under pressure from Waters during the recording of \"The Wall\". James Guthrie was studio engineer and co-producer, while Mason's drumming was supplemented by Ray Cooper on percussion; when Mason was unable to perform the complex time changes on \"Two Suns in the Sunset\", he was replaced by Andy Newmark. Mason also suggested the repeated reprises of \"Maggie, what have we done\" be rendered instrumental rather than sung. Raphael Ravenscroft was hired to play the saxophone. Recording took place in the latter half of 1982 across eight studios, including Gilmour's home studio at Hookend Manor, and Waters' Billiard Room Studios at East Sheen. The other venues were Mayfair Studios, Olympic Studios, Abbey Road Studios, Eel Pie Studios, Audio International and RAK Studios. Tensions soon emerged, and while Waters and Gilmour initially worked together, playing the video game \"Donkey Kong\" in their spare time, they eventually chose to work separately. Engineer Andy Jackson worked with Waters on vocals, and Guthrie worked with Gilmour on guitars. They would occasionally meet to discuss the work that had been completed; while this method was not in itself unusual, Gilmour began to feel strained, sometimes barely maintaining his composure. Kamen too felt pressured; Waters had never been a confident vocalist and on one occasion, after repeated studio takes, Waters noticed him writing on a notepad. Losing his temper, he demanded to know what Kamen was doing, only to find that Kamen had been writing \"I Must Not Fuck Sheep\" repeatedly. Like previous Pink Floyd albums, \"The Final Cut\" used sound effects combined with advances in audio recording technology. Mason's contributions were mostly limited to recording sound effects for the experimental Holophonic system, an audio processing technique used to add an enhanced three-dimensional effect to the recordings; \"The Final Cut\" is the second album ever to feature this technology. The technique is featured on \"Get Your Filthy Hands Off My Desert\", creating a sound of an explosion that surrounds the listener. Sound effects from earlier Floyd albums are also used; the wind from \"Meddle\" is re-used, as are parts of \"The Dark Side of the Moon\", \"Wish You Were Here\", \"Animals\" and \"The Wall\". After months of poor relations, and following a final confrontation, Gilmour was removed from the credit list as producer, but was still paid production royalties. Waters later said that he was also under significant pressure and that early in production believed he would never record with Gilmour or Mason again. He may have threatened to release the album as a solo record, although Pink Floyd were contracted to EMI and such a move would have been unlikely. Mason kept himself distant, dealing with marital problems. In a June 1987 interview, Waters recalled \"The Final Cut\" as \"absolute misery to make\", and that the band members were \"fighting like cats and dogs\". He said the experience forced them to accept that they had not worked together as a band since their 1975 album \"Wish You Were Here\".", "Storm Thorgerson, a founder member of Hipgnosis (designers of most of Pink Floyd's previous and future artwork), was passed over for the cover design. Instead, Waters created the cover himself, using photographs taken by his brother-in-law, Willie Christie. The front cover shows a Remembrance poppy and four Second World War medal ribbons against the black fabric of the jacket or blazer on which they are worn. From left to right, the medals are the 1939–45 Star, the Africa Star, the Defence Medal, and the Distinguished Flying Cross. The poppy is a recurring design theme. The interior gatefold featured three photographs, the first depicting an outdoor scene with an outstretched hand holding three poppies and in the distance, a soldier with his back to the camera. Two more photographs show a welder at work, his mask emblazoned with the Japanese Rising Sun Flag, and a nuclear explosion; a clear reference to \"Two Suns in the Sunset\". The album's lyrics are printed on the gatefold. Side one of the vinyl disc carries an image of a poppy field and on side two, a soldier with a knife in his back lies face down amongst the poppies, a dog beside him. The back cover features a photograph of a soldier standing upright and holding a film canister, with a knife protruding from his back; the film canister and knife may reflect Waters' tumultuous relationship with \"The Wall\" film director Alan Parker.", "\"The Final Cut\" was released in the UK on 21 March 1983 and in the US on 2 April. It reached number one in the UK, surpassing \"The Dark Side of the Moon\" and \"The Wall\". It was less successful in America, peaking at number six on the \"Billboard\" album charts. Issued as a single, \"Not Now John\" reached the UK Top 30, with its chorus of \"Fuck all that\" bowdlerised to \"Stuff all that\". With over 1,000,000 units shipped in the United States, the Recording Industry Association of America certified \"The Final Cut\" Platinum in May 1983. It was given double Platinum certification in 1997. However, \"The Final Cut\" was the lowest-selling Pink Floyd studio album in the United States and worldwide since \"Meddle\". Gilmour claimed that this relative commercial failure supported his assertion that much of the material was weak. Waters responded: The album was accompanied by a short film, also titled \"The Final Cut\". It features four of the album's songs: \"The Gunner's Dream\", \"The Final Cut\", \"The Fletcher Memorial Home\" and \"Not Now John\". Produced by Waters and directed by brother-in-law Willie Christie, it features Waters talking to a psychiatrist named A. Parker-Marshall. Alex McAvoy, who played the teacher in \"Pink Floyd – The Wall\", also appears. \"The Final Cut\" was released on compact disc in 1983. A remastered and repackaged CD was issued by EMI in Europe and on Capitol Records in the US in 2004; this included an extra song, the previously released \"When the Tigers Broke Free\". In 2007, a remastered version was released as part of the \"Oh, by the Way\" boxed set, packaged in a miniature replica of the original gatefold LP sleeve.", "\"The Final Cut\" received mixed reviews. \"Melody Maker\" deemed it \"a milestone in the history of awfulness\", and the \"NME\"s Richard Cook wrote: \"Like the poor damned Tommies that haunt his mind, Roger Waters' writing has been blown to hell... Waters stopped with \"The Wall\", and \"The Final Cut\" isolates and juggles the identical themes of that elephantine concept with no fresh momentum to drive them.\" Robert Christgau wrote in \"The Village Voice\": \"it's a comfort to encounter antiwar rock that has the weight of years of self-pity behind it\", and awarded the album a C+ grade. More impressed, \"Rolling Stone\"'s Kurt Loder viewed it as \"essentially a Roger Waters solo album... a superlative achievement on several levels\". Dan Hedges of \"Record\" also approved, writing: \"On paper it sounds hackneyed and contrived – the sort of thing that was worked into the ground by everyone from P. F. Sloan to Paul Kantner. In Pink Floyd's case, it still works, partially through the understatement and ingenuity of the music and the special effects... but mostly through the care Waters has taken in plotting out the imagery of his bleak visions.\"", "With no plans to tour the album, Waters and Gilmour instead turned to solo projects. Gilmour recorded and toured \"About Face\" in 1984, using it to express his feelings on a range of topics from the murder of musician John Lennon to his relationship with Waters, who also began to tour his new solo album, \"The Pros and Cons of Hitch Hiking\". Mason released his second solo album, \"Profiles\", in August 1985. In 1985, faced with a potentially ruinous lawsuit from his record company and band members, Waters resigned. He believed that Pink Floyd was a \"spent force\". He applied to the High Court to prevent the Pink Floyd name from ever being used again. His lawyers discovered that the partnership had never been formally confirmed, and Waters returned to the High Court in an attempt to gain a veto over further use of the band's name. Gilmour's team responded by issuing a press release affirming that Pink Floyd would continue; he told a \"Sunday Times\" reporter that \"Roger is a dog in the manger and I'm going to fight him\". Waters wrote to EMI and Columbia declaring his intention to leave the group, asking them to release him from his contractual obligations. With a legal case pending, he dispensed with manager Steve O'Rourke and employed Peter Rudge to manage his affairs. He later contributed to the soundtrack for \"When the Wind Blows\" and recorded a second solo album, \"Radio K.A.O.S.\" Owing to the combination of Pink Floyd's partial breakup and Waters' dominance on the project, \"The Final Cut\" is sometimes viewed as a \"de facto\" Waters solo album. The personal quality assigned to the lyrics are related to Waters' struggle to reconcile his despair at the changing social face of Britain, and also the loss of his father during the Second World War. Gilmour's guitar solos on \"Your Possible Pasts\" and \"The Fletcher Memorial Home\" are, however, sometimes considered the equal of his best work on \"The Wall\". More recent reviews of the album have weighed its importance alongside the band's breakup. Writing for AllMusic, Stephen Thomas Erlewine said \"with its anger, emphasis on lyrics, and sonic textures, it's clear that it's the album that Waters intended it to be. And it's equally clear that Pink Floyd couldn't have continued in this direction.\" \"Stylus Magazine\" wrote: \"It's about pursuing something greater even when you have all the money that you could ever want. And either failing or succeeding brilliantly. It's up to you to decide whether this record is a success or a failure, but I'd go with the former every time.\" Rachel Mann of The Quietus said \"flawed though it is, \"The Final Cut\" remains a tremendous album\" and \"still has something fresh to say\". Mike Diver o\"f Drowned in Sound\" was less generous: \"Rays of light are few and far between, and even on paper the track titles – including 'The Gunner's Dream' and 'Paranoid Eyes' – suggest an arduous listen.\"", "All lead vocals performed by Roger Waters, except \"Not Now John\" by David Gilmour and Waters.", "Pink Floyd Additional musicians Production", "Notes Citations Bibliography" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "John Braine was born in the Westgate area of central Bradford, West Riding of Yorkshire. The family later moved to the suburb of Thackley on the northern edge of the city. Braine left St. Bede's Grammar School at 16 and worked in a shop, a laboratory and a factory before becoming, after the war, a librarian in Bingley, a small town five miles up the Aire Valley. Although he wrote 12 works of fiction, Braine is chiefly remembered today for his first novel, \"Room at the Top\" (1957). The novel was conceived when he was being treated for tuberculosis in a hospital near the Yorkshire Dales town of Grassington. He stated that his favourite author was Guy de Maupassant and that \"Room at the Top\" was based on \"Bel Ami\", but that \"the critics didn't pick it up\". \"Room at the Top\" was turned into a successful 1959 film, with Laurence Harvey as Joe Lampton and featuring an Oscar–winning performance by Simone Signoret. In September 2012, BBC television broadcast a two-part dramatisation that had been delayed because of a dispute over copyright. Matthew McNulty was in the lead role. After achieving literary success, Braine moved to the south of England, living for a time in Woking. He wrote several more novels, including \"Life at the Top\", a sequel to \"Room at the Top\". His 1968 novel \"The Crying Game\" is set in London and captures some of the atmosphere of the 'Swinging Sixties'. (It is not related to the 1992 film of the same name). His 1974 book \"Writing a Novel\" was a guide for aspiring novelists. Braine was mildly left-wing in his youth, but like his contemporaries (and fellow \"angry young men\") Kingsley Amis and John Wain, he later moved to the political right, and supported America's involvement in the Vietnam War. In 1967, Braine, Robert Conquest, Amis and several others signed a controversial letter to \"The Times\" titled \"Backing for U.S. Policies in Vietnam\", supporting the US government in Vietnam. Braine was married to Helen Wood and had four children. They separated in the early 1980s with Wood moving to Shropshire with her two youngest children. He died from a gastric haemorrhage in 1986 at age 64." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Protocol components.", "Authentication and authorization.", "Accounting.", "Roaming.", "Realms.", "Proxy operations.", "Security.", "Packet structure.", "Attribute value pairs.", "Vendor-specific attributes.", "Security.", "History.", "Standards documentation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "RADIUS is an AAA protocol that manages network access. AAA stands for authentication, authorization and accounting. RADIUS uses two packet types to manage the full AAA process; Access-Request, which manages authentication and authorization; and Accounting-Request, which manages accounting. Authentication and authorization are defined in RFC 2865 while accounting is described by RFC 2866.", "The user or machine sends a request to a Network Access Server (NAS) to gain access to a particular network resource using access credentials. The credentials are passed to the NAS device via the link-layer protocol—for example, Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) in the case of many dialup or DSL providers or posted in an HTTPS secure web form. In turn, the NAS sends a RADIUS \"Access Request\" message to the RADIUS server, requesting authorization to grant access via the RADIUS protocol. This request includes access credentials, typically in the form of username and password or security certificate provided by the user. Additionally, the request may contain other information which the NAS knows about the user, such as its network address or phone number, and information regarding the user's physical point of attachment to the NAS. The RADIUS server checks that the information is correct using authentication schemes such as PAP, CHAP or EAP. The user's proof of identification is verified, along with, optionally, other information related to the request, such as the user's network address or phone number, account status, and specific network service access privileges. Historically, RADIUS servers checked the user's information against a locally stored flat file database. Modern RADIUS servers can do this, or can refer to external sources—commonly SQL, Kerberos, LDAP, or Active Directory servers—to verify the user's credentials. The RADIUS server then returns one of three responses to the NAS: 1) Access Reject, 2) Access Challenge, or 3) Access Accept. Each of these three RADIUS responses may include a Reply-Message attribute which may give a reason for the rejection, the prompt for the challenge, or a welcome message for the accept. The text in the attribute can be passed on to the user in a return web page. Authorization attributes are conveyed to the NAS stipulating terms of access to be granted. For example, the following authorization attributes may be included in an Access-Accept: When a client is configured to use RADIUS, any user of the client presents authentication information to the client. This might be with a customizable login prompt, where the user is expected to enter their username and password. Alternatively, the user might use a link framing protocol such as the Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP), which has authentication packets which carry this information. Once the client has obtained such information, it may choose to authenticate using RADIUS. To do so, the client creates an \"Access- Request\" containing such Attributes as the user's name, the user's password, the ID of the client and the Port ID which the user is accessing. When a password is present, it is hidden using a method based on the RSA Message Digest Algorithm MD5.", "Accounting is described in RFC 2866. When network access is granted to the user by the NAS, an \"Accounting Start\" (a RADIUS Accounting Request packet containing an Acct-Status-Type attribute with the value \"start\") is sent by the NAS to the RADIUS server to signal the start of the user's network access. \"Start\" records typically contain the user's identification, network address, point of attachment and a unique session identifier. Periodically, \"Interim Update\" records (a RADIUS Accounting Request packet containing an Acct-Status-Type attribute with the value \"interim-update\") may be sent by the NAS to the RADIUS server, to update it on the status of an active session. \"Interim\" records typically convey the current session duration and information on current data usage. Finally, when the user's network access is closed, the NAS issues a final \"Accounting Stop\" record (a RADIUS Accounting Request packet containing an Acct-Status-Type attribute with the value \"stop\") to the RADIUS server, providing information on the final usage in terms of time, packets transferred, data transferred, reason for disconnect and other information related to the user's network access. Typically, the client sends Accounting-Request packets until it receives an Accounting-Response acknowledgement, using some retry interval. The primary purpose of this data is that the user can be billed accordingly; the data is also commonly used for statistical purposes and for general network monitoring.", "RADIUS is commonly used to facilitate roaming between ISPs, for example: RADIUS facilitates this by the use of \"realms\", which identify where the RADIUS server should forward the AAA requests for processing.", "A realm is commonly appended to a user's user name and delimited with an '@' sign, resembling an email address domain name. This is known as \"postfix\" notation for the realm. Another common usage is \"prefix\" notation, which involves prepending the realm to the username and using '\\' as a delimiter. Modern RADIUS servers allow any character to be used as a realm delimiter, although in practice '@' and '\\' are usually used. Realms can also be compounded using both prefix and postfix notation, to allow for complicated roaming scenarios; for example, somedomain.com\\[email protected] could be a valid username with two realms. Although realms often resemble domains, it is important to note that realms are in fact arbitrary text and need not contain real domain names. Realm formats are standardized in RFC 4282, which defines a Network Access Identifier (NAI) in the form of 'user@realm'. In that specification, the'realm' portion is required to be a domain name. However, this practice is not always followed. RFC 7542 replaced RFC 4282 in May 2015.", "When a RADIUS server receives an AAA request for a user name containing a realm, the server will reference a table of configured realms. If the realm is known, the server will then \"proxy\" the request to the configured home server for that domain. The behavior of the proxying server regarding the removal of the realm from the request (\"stripping\") is configuration-dependent on most servers. In addition, the proxying server can be configured to add, remove or rewrite AAA requests when they are proxied over time again. Proxy Chaining is possible in RADIUS and authentication/authorization and accounting packets are usually routed between a NAS Device and a Home server through a series of proxies. Some of advantages of using Proxy chains include scalability improvements, policy implementations and capability adjustments. But in roaming scenarios, the NAS, Proxies and Home Server could be typically managed by different administrative entities. Hence, the trust factor among the proxies gains more significance under such Inter-domain applications. Further, the absence of end to end security in RADIUS adds to the criticality of trust among the Proxies involved. Proxy Chains are explained in.", "Roaming with RADIUS exposes the users to various security and privacy concerns. More generally, some roaming partners establish a secure tunnel between the RADIUS servers to ensure that users' credentials cannot be intercepted while being proxied across the internet. This is a concern as the MD5 hash built into RADIUS is considered insecure.", "The RADIUS packet data format is shown to the right. The fields are transmitted from left to right, starting with the code, the identifier, the length, the authenticator and the attributes. RADIUS Codes (decimal) are assigned as follows: The Identifier field aids in matching requests and replies. The Length field indicates the length of the entire RADIUS packet including the Code, Identifier, Length, Authenticator and optional Attribute fields. The Authenticator is used to authenticate the reply from the RADIUS server, and is used in encrypting passwords; its length is 16 bytes.", "The RADIUS Attribute Value Pairs (AVP) carry data in both the request and the response for the authentication, authorization, and accounting transactions. The length of the radius packet is used to determine the end of the AVPs.", "RADIUS is extensible; many vendors of RADIUS hardware and software implement their own variants using Vendor-Specific Attributes (VSAs). Microsoft has published some of their VSAs. VSA definitions from many other companies remain proprietary and/or ad-hoc, nonetheless many VSA dictionaries can be found by downloading the source code of open source RADIUS implementations, for example FreeRADIUS or openRADIUS.", "The RADIUS protocol transmits obfuscated passwords using a shared secret and the MD5 hashing algorithm. As this particular implementation provides only weak protection of the user's credentials, additional protection, such as IPsec tunnels or physically secured data-center networks, should be used to further protect the RADIUS traffic between the NAS device and the RADIUS server. Additionally, the user's security credentials are the only part protected by RADIUS itself, yet other user-specific attributes such as tunnel-group IDs or vlan memberships passed over RADIUS may be considered sensitive (helpful to an attacker) or private (sufficient to identify the individual client) information as well. The RadSec protocol claims to solve aforementioned security issues.", "As more dial-up customers used the NSFnet a request for proposal was sent out by Merit Network in 1991 to consolidate their various proprietary authentication, authorization and accounting systems. Among the early respondents was Livingston Enterprises and an early version of the RADIUS was written after a meeting. The early RADIUS server was installed on a UNIX operating system. Livingston Enterprises was acquired by Lucent and together with Merit steps were taken to gain industry acceptance for RADIUS as a protocol. Both companies offered a RADIUS server at no charge. RADIUS was in 1997 published as RFC 2058 and RFC 2059, current versions are RFC 2865 and RFC 2866. The original RADIUS standard specified that RADIUS is stateless and should run over the User Datagram Protocol (UDP). For authentication it was envisaged that RADIUS should support the Password Authentication Protocol (PAP) and the Challenge-Handshake Authentication Protocol (CHAP) over the Point-to-Point Protocol. Passwords are hidden by taking the MD5 hash of the packet and a shared secret, and then XORing that hash with the password. The original RADIUS also provided more than 50 attribute or value pairs, with the possibility for vendors to configure their own pairs. The choice of the hop-by-hop security model, rather than end-to-end encryption, meant that if several proxy RADIUS servers are in use, every server must examine, perform logic on and pass on all data in a request. This exposes data such as passwords and certificates at every hop. RADIUS servers also did not have the ability to stop access to resources once an authorisation had been issued. Subsequent standards such as RFC 3576 and its successor RFC 5176 allowed for RADIUS servers to dynamically change a users authorization, or to disconnect a user entirely. Now, several commercial and open-source RADIUS servers exist. Features can vary, but most can look up the users in text files, LDAP servers, various databases, etc. Accounting records can be written to text files, various databases, forwarded to external servers, etc. SNMP is often used for remote monitoring and keep-alive checking of a RADIUS server. RADIUS proxy servers are used for centralized administration and can rewrite RADIUS packets on the fly for security reasons, or to convert between vendor dialects. The Diameter protocol was intended as the replacement for RADIUS. While both are Authentication, Authorization, and Accounting (AAA) protocols, the use-cases for the two protocols have since diverged. Diameter is largely used in the 3G space. RADIUS is used elsewhere. One of the largest barriers to having Diameter replace RADIUS is that switches and Access Points typically implement RADIUS, but not Diameter. Diameter uses SCTP or TCP while RADIUS typically uses UDP as the transport layer. As of 2012, RADIUS can also use TCP as the transport layer with TLS for security.", "The RADIUS protocol is currently defined in the following IETF RFC documents." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Rules.", "UCI.", "BIU.", "Interscolar.", "Bike design.", "Frames.", "Brakes.", "Rim vs. disk.", "Rim grinding.", "Rim tar.", "Brake boosters.", "Other considerations.", "Wheels.", "Gear ratios.", "20′′ – 'Mod Bikes'.", "26′′ – 'Stock Bikes'.", "24′′ – 'Street trials hybrid Bikes'.", "Course design.", "Street trials." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The general principle in a bike trials competition is to ride a number of pre-marked sections (usually 2 laps of 10 sections or 3 laps of 7 sections), the winner being the rider with the fewest points at the end of the competition. Currently there are two official types of competition rules, enforced by the UCI and BikeTrial International Union. The maximum number of points that can be obtained in each section is 5, the lowest (and best) score is 0 points or 'clean'. The most common way to gain a point is by putting a foot down within a section; for this reason points are sometimes known as 'dabs'. Certain rules enforce the number of points gained within a section, for example, putting both feet down or a hand will result in 5 points. Exceeding the time limit for the course will either result in 5 points (BIU rules) or an additional point for every 15 seconds over the limit (UCI rules).", "Within UCI rules, if any part of the bike except the tires touch any object in the course, a dab will be given. The UCI rules were changed to this format after too many competitions ended in a draw and riders were forced to ride an extra section. UCI rules also allows riders to compete in both mod and stock categories. When a rider is in a section, neither tire is allowed to cross the side boundary tape even if the wheel is in the air. The rider's hands must remain on the handlebars. Before beginning a section, a rider is allowed to walk through it, and examine all the elements, but must not enter it with their bike. The UCI Mountain Bike & Trials World Championships are held annually and crown a 20-inch and 26-inch wheel trials world champion.", "The rules are unlike UCI scoring and parts of the bike (for example, bash guard or bash ring, cranks and pedals) can rest on an object without resulting in a 'dab'.", "The rules are the same as the \"BIU\" but only people belonging to a club or school can compete in these, these are for lower level students to learn how to compete.", "", "Trials bikes are often designed without regard for attaching a seat. Competition riding does not require the rider to sit down and the omission allows for a lighter bike which interferes less with the body movements of the rider. For the same reason most trials frames are as low as possible, often to such a degree that at top dead centre, the pedals are higher than the frame is above the bottom bracket (BB). In terms of geometry, trials frames, especially those biased towards competition, tend to have BB spindles positioned significantly higher than the line between the axles. BB rise is one of the significant dimensions used in describing a trials frame with rises between 30 and 75 mm being common in 26\" frames. Many competition style 24\" frames aim to place the BB at the same height relative to the ground as a 26\" frame and so have a BB rise 25 mm (1\") more than a similar feeling 26\" frame. Street riding biased 24 and 26\" frames tend to have lower BB's than competition frames. Trials frames will often have holes in the front of the head tube and elsewhere such as the BB shell, the seat tube and the dropouts to reduce frame weight. This feature is not commonly seen in mountain bikes, mostly due to mountain bikes' increased exposure to mud and dust and the attendant maintenance problems having an easy route for dirt to take into the headset and BB particularly will cause. The disc brake mounts on trials frames will be more heavily reinforced than those on normal mountain bikes as trials riding routinely requires much higher brake forces than seen in mountain bike riding, especially forces acting backwards on the rear brake. Unlike virtually all other off-road bike frames in production, trials frames, especially stock frames are often made without disk mounts. Most trials frames have four-bolt mounts specifically for hydraulic rim brakes, as this is the most popular choice for the rear brake in a trials bike. The four-bolt mount is not commonly seen on any bicycle frame other than trials bikes. Current production trials frames are most commonly made in various aluminium alloys, but frames are available made from steel, titanium, magnesium, and carbon fibre.", "", "Trials brakes must create more stopping torque than standard bicycle brakes and are set up, especially on the rear, with more emphasis on locking the wheel they act on than bringing the bike to a smooth halt from speed. For larger wheeled trials bikes, brakes that act directly on the rim are more popular, namely hydraulic rim brakes and cable actuated V Brakes, though disk brakes are also used, especially on the front wheel, by most riders. Virtually all competition only riders on 26\" wheeled bikes use hydraulic rim brakes on both wheels, while for 20\" competition the split is more even between rim brakes and disks. The main reason for the preference for rim brake on the back of 26\" wheeled bikes is that there is significant wind-up between the wheel rim and the hub while hopping on the back wheel thanks to the longer spokes and bigger wheel and disk diameter used compared to a 20\" wheel. This occurs because disk brakes hold the hub still rather than the rim. The effect is noticeable as a springiness in the bike when on the back wheel and this feels less precise and confidence inspiring to many riders than a rim brake, which holds the wheel directly at the rim.", "To make a rim brake lock the wheel as firmly as possible a number of techniques are used. The most common is where the braking surface of the rim is roughened using an angle grinder. This creates what trials riders refer to as a ground rim. Rim grinds can vary from quite light where the rim surface is very slightly roughened, all the way to a 'harsh' grind, where the rim has deep grooves (Heading for 1 mm deep if very harsh) in it. A grind may be referred to as 'dead' if it has been used a lot and the brake pads have started to polish it back smooth. Depending on the weather conditions and the brake pad compound chosen, different levels of grind are required for peak brake performance. Ground rims give consistent lock and hold in all but the muddiest conditions, making them more popular in wetter climates than smooth rims.", "Other methods of increasing braking power for rim brakes include rubbing a very thin layer of roofing or road tar on the braking surface of a smooth rim. This works by effectively sticking the brake pads to the rim and for this reason, much harder pads than are suitable for ground rims can be used with good results and excellent pad durability compared to ground rims. Since the pads stick to the rim, the brake often doesn't release as cleanly as a ground brake or a disk however. The main downside to this method is that, similar to a smooth rim, even small amounts of moisture will drastically reduce the stopping performance of this braking setup. Some spray-on products are available to coat rims to give a tar like stopping performance. Generally only riders who live in very dry climates or ride only on dry surfaces in dry weather favour this method of enhancing the brake.", "Rim brakes are also often enhanced by fitting 'brake boosters'. These are horseshoe shaped plates which are bolted between the brake pistons (Or arms in the case of V Brakes), forming a bridge over the tyre. This increases the force needed to push the brakes apart, giving a stiffer feel at the brake lever and in many cases better brake bite and hold. In hydraulic rim brakes this has a second benefit which is to protect the brake line which loops over the tyre between the brake pistons from being accidentally hit and broken.", "Street biased riders tend to choose disk brakes more often. Part of this is that disks are almost invariably better at controlling the speed of a bike while it is rolling, that is they can take more energy per unit time from the rider (i.e. they have more power, which is why they dominate all other off-road cycling disciplines), but most disks will not hold a wheel locked as firmly as a rim brake, making them less desirable for competition trials. Rim brakes set up for trials tend to squeal or howl if they are pulled while the wheel is turning, occasionally leading to trials riders attracting undesirable attention or being considered a nuisance for noise pollution. UCI regulations only stipulate that the bike must have a working front and rear brake.", "Trials bike rims are significantly wider than those used for cross country, downhill and BMX bikes. Wider rims mean that any given tyre fitted to the rim will hold a bigger volume of air thanks to the tyre beads being held further apart by the rim. This means the tyre has a wider contact patch and therefore can be run at lower tyre pressure. The change in volume of a tyre on a wide rim when landed on a sharp corner will tend to be greater than that of a narrow rim, which again leads to improved pinch puncture resistance, critical for trials as landing on sharp edges is a very common requirement of both competition and street trials. A wider rim also makes it much harder for a tyre to roll off the rim when exposed to side loads, again a very common occurrence in trials riding. The downside to having very wide rims is that trials rims are heavy compared to narrower rims. To save weight trials rims almost always have large holes through them between each spoke hole to save weight. To stop the tube from bulging through the holes when the tyre is inflated, a heavy plastic rim strip is used to cover the holes. The pressure in the tube will bulge the rim strip a small amount towards the centre of the wheel, but this will not lead to a tube failure. To increase the resistance of the tyres to pinch puncturing, most trials bikes are fitted with thicker walled tyres, especially on the rear wheel. These tyres are also used by downhill riders for the same reason. The tubes used in a trials bike tend to be similar to those used for downhill riding also. The hubs used for trials bikes tend to be very similar to those used for cross country mountain biking at the front, though the trials hubs tend to have more cutouts to save weight (Which would fill with mud if used for cross country, potentially making the hub heavier than if it was made from solid metal) and less emphasis on sealing at the bearings as surviving high mileage is not usually a priority with trials hubs. Rear trials hubs tend to be divided into two main types based on the dropout spacing they are designed for, 135 mm and 116 mm, sometimes referred to as 110 mm, with the remaining 6 mm occupied by snail cams, which are a popular means of tensioning the chain in horizontal dropout frames. Of the shorter hubs, almost all of them are'screw-on' hubs, where the sprocket or freewheel that is fitted to the hub screws onto the side of the hub. There are some hubs of this length that have a freewheel mechanism built into them, most of which are used mainly in BMX. There are also a small number of hubs with a splined section machined onto the side of the hub where a sprocket can be attached with no freewheel mechanism. 135 mm spaced trials hubs originally were taken from mountain bikes, but modern designs are focused on making room for as many sprockets as possible and often don't have the torque carrying capacity needed to be safe for trials use. Many of them also don't pick up drive quickly enough to give a trials rider the instant pedal response required for precision riding. For comparison some mountain bike hubs have as few as 16 clicks per revolution, or one click every 22.5 degrees rotation. The lowest click count in any trials hub on the market is 48, or one click every 7.5 degrees. If the hub has no freewheel mechanism built into it, then a front freewheel is required, which screws onto the crank. These were initially taken from BMX or singlespeed/utility bikes and use the same threads as screw-on rear hubs. It was found that most BMX freewheels weren't strong enough for trials use and for this reason trials specific freewheels were designed. Trials freewheels are available with up to 120 clicks per revolution to give excellent drive pickup. Since the torque capacity of the freewheel must be extremely high (Fitted to the crank the freewheel will see the highest torques in the bike drivetrain), instead of making a ratchet with 120 teeth and small ratchet pawls to engage them, the ratchet ring has 40 deep teeth which are less prone to chipping or rounding. These are engaged by 3 ratchet pawls at a time, with 9 in total in the freewheel. Each set of 3 pawls is offset by 1/120 of a revolution from the previous set. This is either achieved by using identical pawls with slight offsets in the machining of the seats for the pawls or by having the pawls in each set of 3 pawls shorter or longer than the other sets of 3.", "Virtually all trials bikes in current production have one gear. The gear ratio chosen by most riders results in the bike moving approximately the same distance per turn of the pedals regardless of the wheel size. The most popular gear ratios are given below and most riders will choose a rear cog size within 1 tooth of those given below: 18:15 (1.2:1 - the bike rolls 2.49 m (98\") for one complete turn of the cranks) for 26\" bikes. 18:14 (1.286:1 - the bike rolls 2.46 m (97\") for one complete turn of the cranks) for 24\" bikes. 18:12 (1.5:1 - the bike rolls 2.39 m (94\") for one complete turn of the cranks) for 20\" bikes. Most mountain bikes have several gears lower than are used for trials bikes but most mountain bike gears are higher. The gear ratio chosen for a trials bike is to provide the power and quick acceleration needed to move the bike at the typically low speeds of trials riding. According to current competition standards there are two classes of trials bike recognized. As the distinguishing characteristic of the classes is the bike's approximate wheel diameter, the classes are known as 20′′ and 26′′. These specific sizes were adopted from previously available bikes.", "The first purpose made and commercially available trials bikes were manufactured by Montesa a mototrials company and were based on the modified bmx bikes that riders had been using. As a result of being based on BMX bikes, the rear dropout spacing is 116mm. These 20′′ wheeled trials bikes have become known colloquially as Mod bikes. Some mod bikes have a 19\" rear wheel to make room for a bigger tyre, but the overall tyre diameter is similar regardless of the rim size, so this is mostly important as a compatibility issue for spare parts.", "Early mountain bikes were well suited to the trials riding and so a separate class was introduced for them. 'Stock Bikes' used to refer to a 26\" wheeled mountain bike kept in original or'stock' condition, i.e. not modified like a mod bike. Stock classed bikes were required to have at least six working gears and a seat. Now however, this designation is used to describe any trials bike with 26′′ wheels, as current 26\" trials bikes look about as similar to mountain bikes as 20\" trials bikes look like BMXs. Historically stock bikes all had 135 mm spaced dropouts to take a standard mountain bike rear hub. There is a subcategory of Stock trials bikes, sometimes called 'Modstock Bikes', which have 26\" wheels but have horizontal dropouts spaced at 116 mm, similar to mod bikes. Horizontal dropouts at both spacings are becoming more and more common in stock bikes as they eliminate the need for a chain tensioner, making the bike lighter (The chain is tensioned by moving the wheel backwards in the dropouts; vertical dropouts are designed to hold the wheel in one position only and therefore require a separate means of tensioning the chain to accommodate wear).", "These bikes have 24\" wheels and usually have horizontal dropouts, spaced at 135mm or 116 mm similar to 26\" bikes. They are not legally allowed to compete in competitions and were originally designed to suit riders with a more \"street\" style. (e.g. spins, manuals, bunnyhops). An increasing number of 24\" wheeled frames have become available designed for competition style riding rather than street riding. These offer a good compromise between the length of a 26\" frame for bridging between obstacles and the ease with which a 20\" bike can be lifted to the back wheel.", "UCI regulations stipulate that a course consist of at least 14 sections per course, including repeated sections. At most two sections can be composed entirely of artificial elements. Both sides of the course are marked with plastic tape, and there must be a clear stretch of 3 metres prior to the finish line, in order to prevent riders jumping over the line from an obstacle. Maximum obstacle jump heights are specified, from 0.80 to 1.80 metres depending on category. The sections, each approximately 60m in length, are laid out on a circuit to allow riders to ride from one section to the next, but whether the sections have to be completed in order depends on the individual competition.", "Street trials, or freestyle bike trials, is a non-competitive variant, using features found in the urban environment. It is the trials equivalent of street skateboarding or street freestyle BMX. More fluid than competitive trials riding, it encompasses the same skills: very precise control of the bike, through jumps and balancing on very narrow obstacles." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "Topography.", "Administration.", "Climate.", "History.", "Founding and Roman times.", "Middle Ages and Early Modern times.", "20th century and the \"Bonn Republic\".", "Bonn in the \"Berlin Republic\".", "Politics.", "City council.", "Landtag election.", "German federal election.", "Culture.", "Museums.", "Nature.", "Transportation.", "Air traffic.", "Rail and bus system.", "Road network.", "Port.", "Economy.", "Education.", "Demographics.", "Sports.", "International relations.", "Twin towns – sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Situated in the southernmost part of the Rhine-Ruhr region, Germany's largest metropolitan area with over 11 million inhabitants, Bonn lies within the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia, close to the border with Rhineland-Palatinate. Spanning an area of more on both sides of the river Rhine, almost three-quarters of the city lies on the river's left bank. To the south and to the west, Bonn is bordering the Eifel region which encompasses the Rhineland Nature Park. To the north, Bonn borders the Cologne Lowland. Natural borders are constituted by the river Sieg to the north-east and by the Siebengebirge (also known as the Seven Hills) to the east. The largest extension of the city in north–south dimensions is and in west–east dimensions. The city borders have a total length of. The geographical centre of Bonn is the Bundeskanzlerplatz \"(Chancellor Square)\" in Bonn-Gronau.", "The German state of North Rhine-Westphalia is divided into five governmental districts (), and Bonn is part of the governmental district of Cologne (). Within this governmental district, the city of Bonn is an urban district in its own right. The urban district of Bonn is then again divided into four administrative municipal districts (). These are Bonn, Bonn-Bad Godesberg, Bonn-Beuel and Bonn-Hardtberg. In 1969, the independent towns of Bad Godesberg and Beuel as well as several villages were incorporated into Bonn, resulting in a city more than twice as large as before.", "Bonn has an oceanic climate (\"Cfb\"). In the south of the Cologne lowland in the Rhine valley, Bonn is in one of Germany's warmest regions.", "", "The history of the city dates back to Roman times. In about 12 BC, the Roman army appears to have stationed a small unit in what is presently the historical centre of the city. Even earlier, the army had resettled members of a Germanic tribal group allied with Rome, the Ubii, in Bonn. The Latin name for that settlement, \"Bonna\", may stem from the original population of this and many other settlements in the area, the Eburoni. The Eburoni were members of a large tribal coalition effectively wiped out during the final phase of Caesar's War in Gaul. After several decades, the army gave up the small camp linked to the Ubii-settlement. During the 1st century AD, the army then chose a site to the north of the emerging town in what is now the section of Bonn-Castell to build a large military installation dubbed Castra Bonnensis, i.e., literally, \"Fort Bonn\". Initially built from wood, the fort was eventually rebuilt in stone. With additions, changes and new construction, the fort remained in use by the army into the waning days of the Western Roman Empire, possibly the mid-5th century. The structures themselves remained standing well into the Middle Ages, when they were called the Bonnburg. They were used by Frankish kings until they fell into disuse. Eventually, much of the building materials seem to have been re-used in the construction of Bonn's 13th-century city wall. The Sterntor (\"star gate\") in the city center is a reconstruction using the last remnants of the medieval city wall. To date, Bonn's Roman fort remains the largest fort of its type known from the ancient world, i.e. a fort built to accommodate a full-strength Imperial Legion and its auxiliaries. The fort covered an area of approximately. Between its walls it contained a dense grid of streets and a multitude of buildings, ranging from spacious headquarters and large officers' quarters to barracks, stables and a military jail. Among the legions stationed in Bonn, the \"1st\", i.e. the Prima Legio Minervia, seems to have served here the longest. Units of the Bonn legion were deployed to theatres of war ranging from modern-day Algeria to what is now the Russian republic of Chechnya. The chief Roman road linking the provincial capitals of Cologne and Mainz cut right through the fort where it joined the fort's main road (now, Römerstraße). Once past the South Gate, the Cologne–Mainz road continued along what are now streets named Belderberg, Adenauerallee et al. On both sides of the road, the local settlement, \"Bonna\", grew into a sizeable Roman town. Bonn is shown on the 4th century Peutinger Map. In late antiquity, much of the town seems to have been destroyed by marauding invaders. The remaining civilian population then took refuge inside the fort along with the remnants of the troops stationed here. During the final decades of Imperial rule, the troops were supplied by Franci chieftains employed by the Roman administration. When the end came, these troops simply shifted their allegiances to the new barbarian rulers, the Kingdom of the Franks. From the fort, the Bonnburg, as well as from a new medieval settlement to the South centered around what later became the minster, grew the medieval city of Bonn. Local legends arose from this period that the name of the village came from Saint Boniface via Vulgar Latin \"*Bonnifatia\", but this proved to be a myth.", "Between the 11th and 13th centuries, the Romanesque style Bonn Minster was built, and in 1597 Bonn became the seat of the Archdiocese of Cologne. The city gained more influence and grew considerably. The city was subject to a major bombardment during the Siege of Bonn in 1689. The elector Clemens August (ruled 1723–1761) ordered the construction of a series of Baroque buildings which still give the city its character. Another memorable ruler was Max Franz (ruled 1784–1794), who founded the university and the spa quarter of Bad Godesberg. In addition he was a patron of the young Ludwig van Beethoven, who was born in Bonn in 1770; the elector financed the composer's first journey to Vienna. In 1794, the city was seized by French troops, becoming a part of the First French Empire. In 1815 following the Napoleonic Wars, Bonn became part of the Kingdom of Prussia. Administered within the Prussian Rhine Province, the city became part of the German Empire in 1871 during the Prussian-led unification of Germany. Bonn was of little relevance in these years.", "During the Second World War, Bonn acquired military significance because of its strategic location on the Rhine, which formed a natural barrier to easy penetration into the German heartland from the west. The Allied ground advance into Germany reached Bonn on 7 March 1945, and the US 1st Infantry Division captured the city during the battle of 8–9 March 1945. Following the Second World War, Bonn was in the British zone of occupation. Following the advocacy of West Germany's first chancellor, Konrad Adenauer, a former Cologne Mayor and a native of that area, Bonn became the \"de facto\" capital, officially designated the \"temporary seat of the Federal institutions,\" of the newly formed Federal Republic of Germany in 1949. However, the Bundestag, seated in Bonn's Bundeshaus, affirmed Berlin's status as the German capital. Bonn was chosen as the provisional capital and seat of government despite the fact that Frankfurt already had most of the required facilities and using Bonn was estimated to be 95 million DM more expensive than using Frankfurt. Bonn was chosen because Adenauer and other prominent politicians intended to make Berlin the capital of the reunified Germany, and felt that locating the capital in a major city like Frankfurt or Hamburg would imply a permanent capital and weaken support in West Germany for reunification. In 1949, the Parliamentary Council in Bonn drafted and adopted the current German constitution, the Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany. As the political centre of West Germany, Bonn saw six Chancellors and six Presidents of the Federal Republic of Germany. Bonn's time as the capital of West Germany is commonly referred to as the \"Bonn Republic,\" in contrast to the \"Berlin Republic\" which followed reunification in 1990.", "German reunification in 1990 made Berlin the nominal capital of Germany again. This decision, however, did not mandate that the republic's political institutions would also move. While some argued for the seat of government to move to Berlin, others advocated leaving it in Bonn – a situation roughly analogous to that of the Netherlands, where Amsterdam is the capital but The Hague is the seat of government. Berlin's previous history as united Germany's capital was strongly connected with the German Empire, the Weimar Republic and more ominously with Nazi Germany. It was felt that a new peacefully united Germany should not be governed from a city connected to such overtones of war. Additionally, Bonn was closer to Brussels, headquarters of the European Economic Community. Former chancellor and mayor of West Berlin Willy Brandt caused considerable offence to the Western Allies during the debate by stating that France would not have kept the seat of government at Vichy after Liberation. The heated debate that resulted was settled by the \"Bundestag\" (Germany's parliament) only on 20 June 1991. By a vote of 338–320, the Bundestag voted to move the seat of government to Berlin. The vote broke largely along regional lines, with legislators from the south and west favouring Bonn and legislators from the north and east voting for Berlin. It also broke along generational lines as well; older legislators with memories of Berlin's past glory favoured Berlin, while younger legislators favoured Bonn. Ultimately, the votes of the eastern German legislators tipped the balance in favour of Berlin. From 1990 to 1999, Bonn served as the seat of government of reunited Germany. In recognition of its former status as German capital, it holds the name of Federal City (). Bonn currently shares the status of Germany's seat of government with Berlin, with the President, the Chancellor and many government ministries (such as Food & Agriculture and Defence) maintaining large presences in Bonn. Over 8,000 of the 18,000 federal officials remain in Bonn. A total of 19 United Nations (UN) institutions operate from Bonn today.", "", "The city council of Bonn used to be based in the Rococo-style and 1737 built'(old city hall) adjacent to Bonn's central market square. However, due to the enlargement of Bonn in 1969 through the incorporation of Beuel and Bad Godesberg, it moved into the larger Stadthaus facilities further up north. This was necessary for the city council to accommodate the increased number of representatives. The mayor of Bonn still sits in the ', which is also used for representative and official purposes. As of the 2014–2020 election cycle, the Christian Democrats (CDU) hold a plurality of mandates in the city council (27 seats), followed by the Social Democrats (SPD) with 20 seats, the Greens (Bündnis '90/Die Grünen) with 16 seats, the Liberals (FDP) with 7 seats, the Left (Die Linke) with 5 seats, the local Bürgerbund Bonn with 4 seats, the Alternative for Germany (AfD) with 3 seats, and independent candidates with a total of 4 seats. There are currently 86 seats in the city council of Bonn. The mayor is (CDU), directly elected in 2015.", "Four delegates represent the Federal city of Bonn in the Landtag of North Rhine-Westphalia. The last election took place in May 2012. The current delegates are Bernhard von Grünberg (SPD),Renate Hendricks (SPD), Joachim Stamp (FDP) and Rolf Beu (Bündnis 90/Die Grünen).", "Bonn's constituency is called \" (096). In the German federal election 2017, Ulrich Kelber (SPD) was elected a member of German Federal parliament, the Bundestag by direct mandate. It is his fifth term. Katja Dörner representing Bündnis 90/Die Grünen, Alexander Graf Lambsdorff for FDP and Claudia Lücking-Michel of the CDU were elected from regional lists.", "Beethoven's birthplace is located in Bonngasse near the market place. Next to the market place is the Old City Hall, built in 1737 in Rococo style, under the rule of Clemens August of Bavaria. It is used for receptions of guests of the city, and as an office for the mayor. Nearby is the \"Kurfürstliches Schloss\", built as a residence for the prince-elector and now the main building of the University of Bonn. The \"Poppelsdorfer Allee\" is an avenue flanked by Chestnut trees which had the first horsecar of the city. It connects the \"Kurfürstliches Schloss\" with the \"Poppelsdorfer Schloss\", a palace that was built as a resort for the prince-electors in the first half of the 18th century, and whose grounds are now a botanical garden (the Botanischer Garten Bonn). This axis is interrupted by a railway line and Bonn Hauptbahnhof, a building erected in 1883/84. The Beethoven Monument stands on the Münsterplatz, which is flanked by the Bonn Minster, one of Germany's oldest churches. The three highest structures in the city are the WDR radio mast in Bonn-Venusberg (), the headquarters of the Deutsche Post called \"Post Tower\" () and the former building for the German members of parliament \"Langer Eugen\" () now the location of the UN Campus.", "Just as Bonn's other four major museums, the \"Haus der Geschichte\" or Museum of the History of the Federal Republic of Germany, is located on the so-called \"Museumsmeile\" (\"Museum Mile\")\".\" The Haus der Geschichte is one of the foremost German museums of contemporary German history, with branches in Berlin and Leipzig. In its permanent exhibition, the Haus der Geschichte presents German history from 1945 until the present, also shedding light on Bonn's own role as former capital of West Germany. Numerous temporary exhibitions emphasize different features, such as Nazism or important personalities in German history. The \"Kunstmuseum Bonn\" or Bonn Museum of Modern Art is an art museum founded in 1947. The Kunstmuseum exhibits both temporary exhibitions and its permanent collection. The latter is focused on Rhenish Expressionism and post-war German art. German artists on display include Georg Baselitz, Joseph Beuys, Hanne Darboven, Anselm Kiefer, Blinky Palermo and Wolf Vostell. The museum owns one of the largest collections of artwork by Expressionist painter August Macke. His work is also on display in the August-Macke-Haus, located in Macke's former home where he lived from 1911 to 1914. The \"Bundeskunsthalle\" (full name: Kunst- und Ausstellungshalle der Bundesrepublik Deutschland or Art and Exhibition Hall of the Federal Republic of Germany), focuses on the crossroads of culture, arts, and science. To date, it attracted more than 17 million visitors. One of its main objectives is to show the cultural heritage outside of Germany or Europe. Next to its changing exhibitions, the Bundeskunsthalle regularly hosts concerts, discussion panels, congresses, and lectures. The \"Museum Koenig\" is Bonn's natural history museum. Affiliated with the University of Bonn, it is also a zoological research institution housing the \"Leibniz-Institut für Biodiversität der Tiere\". Politically interesting, it is on the premises of the Museum Koenig where the Parlamentarischer Rat first met. The \"Deutsches Museum Bonn\", affiliated with one of the world's foremost science museums, the Deutsches Museum in Munich, is an interactive science museum focusing on post-war German scientists, engineers, and inventions. Other museums include the Beethoven House, birthplace of Ludwig van Beethoven, the Rheinisches Landesmuseum Bonn (Rhinish Regional Museum Bonn), the Bonn Women's Museum, the Rheinisches Malermuseum and the Arithmeum.", "There are several parks, leisure and protected areas in and around Bonn. The \"\" is Bonn's most important leisure park, with its role being comparable to what Central Park is for New York City. It lies on the banks of the Rhine and is the city's biggest park intra muros. The Rhine promenade and the \"Alter Zoll\" (Old Toll Station) are in direct neighbourhood of the city centre and are popular amongst both residents and visitors. The \"Arboretum Park Härle\" is an arboretum with specimens dating to back to 1870. The \"Botanischer Garten\" (Botanical Garden) is affiliated with the university and it is here where Titan arum set a world record. The natural reserve of \"Kottenforst\" is a large area of protected woods on the hills west of the city centre. It is about in area and part of the Rhineland Nature Park (). In the very south of the city, on the border with Wachtberg and Rhineland-Palatinate, there is an extinct volcano, the Rodderberg, featuring a popular area for hikes. Also south of the city, there is the Siebengebirge which is part of the lower half of the Middle Rhine region. The nearby upper half of the Middle Rhine from Bingen to Koblenz is a UNESCO World Heritage Site with more than 40 castles and fortresses from the Middle Ages and important German vineyards.", "", "Named after Konrad Adenauer, the first post-war Chancellor of West Germany, Cologne Bonn Airport is situated north-east from the city centre of Bonn. With around 10.3 million passengers passing through it in 2015, it is the seventh-largest passenger airport in Germany and the third-largest in terms of cargo operations. By traffic units, which combines cargo and passengers, the airport is in fifth position in Germany. As of March 2015, Cologne Bonn Airport had services to 115 passenger destinations in 35 countries. The airport is one of Germany's few 24-hour airports, and is a hub for Eurowings and cargo operators FedEx Express and UPS Airlines. The federal motorway (\"Autobahn\") A59 connects the airport with the city. Long distance and regional trains to and from the airport stop at Cologne/Bonn Airport station. Other major airports within a one-hour drive by car are Frankurt International Airport and Düsseldorf International Airport.", "Bonn's central railway station, Bonn Hauptbahnhof, serves urban (S-Bahn, U-Bahn, sharing the same network with the neighbouring city of Cologne), regional (Regionalbahn), and long-distance destinations (ICE) such as Berlin, Hamburg, Munich, Zurich, Vienna, Brussels, Amsterdam and Paris. Daily, more than 67,000 people travel via Bonn Hauptbahnhof. In late 2016, around 80 long distance and more than 165 regional trains departed to or from Bonn every day. The other major railway station (Siegburg/Bonn) lies on the high-speed rail line between Cologne and Frankfurt. The bus system of Bonn is composed of roughly 30 lines which operate on a regular basis. During peaks, buses usually run every 5 minutes; off-peak buses run every 20 minutes. Several lines offer night services, especially during the weekends. Bonn is part of the Verkehrsverbund Rhein-Sieg (\"Rhine-Sieg Transport Association\") which is the public transport association covering the area of the Cologne/Bonn Region.", "Four German Autobahns run through or are adjacent to Bonn: the A59 (right bank of the Rhine, connecting Bonn with Düsseldorf and Duisburg), the A555 (left bank of the Rhine, connecting Bonn with Cologne), the A562 (connecting the right with the left bank of the Rhine south of Bonn), and the A565 (connecting the A59 and the A555 with the A61 to the southwest). Three Bundesstraßen, which have a general speed limit in contrast to the Autobahn, connect Bonn to its immediate surroundings (Bundesstraßen B9, B42 and B56). With Bonn being divided into two parts by the Rhine, three bridges are crucial for inner-city road traffic: the Konrad-Adenauer-Brücke (A562), the Friedrich-Ebert-Brücke (A565), and the Kennedybrücke (B56). In addition, regular ferries operate between Bonn-Mehlem and Königswinter, Bonn-Bad Godesberg and Niederdollendorf, and Graurheindorf and Mondorf.", "Located in the northern sub-district of Graurheindorf, the inland harbour of Bonn is used for container traffic as well as oversea transport. The annual turnover amounts to around. Regular passenger transport occurs to Cologne and Düsseldorf.", "The head offices of Deutsche Telekom, its subsidiary T-Mobile, Deutsche Post, Haribo, German Academic Exchange Service, and SolarWorld are in Bonn.", "The Rheinische Friedrich Wilhelms Universität Bonn (University of Bonn) is one of the largest universities in Germany. It is also the location of the German research institute Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) offices and of the German Academic Exchange Service (\"Deutscher Akademischer Austauschdienst\" – DAAD).", ", Bonn had a population of 327,913. About 70% of the population was entirely of German origin, while about 100,000 people, equating to roughly 30%, were at least partly of non-German origin. The city is one of the fastest-growing municipalities in Germany and the 18th most populous city in the country. Bonn's population is predicted to surpass the populations of Wuppertal and Bochum before the year 2030. The following list shows the largest groups of origin of minorites with \"migration background\" in Bonn.", "Bonn is home of the Telekom Baskets Bonn, the only basketball club in Germany that owns its arena, the Telekom Dome. The club is a regular participant at international competitions such as the Basketball Champions League. The city also has an seem-professional football team Bonner SC which was formed in 1965 through the merger of \"Bonner FV\" and \"Tura Bonn\". The Bonn Gamecocks American football team play at the 12,000-capacity Stadion Pennenfeld. The headquarters of the International Paralympic Committee has been located in Bonn since 1999.", "Since 1983, the City of Bonn has established friendship relations with the City of Tel Aviv, Israel, and since 1988 Bonn, in former times the residence of the Princes Electors of Cologne, and Potsdam, Germany, the formerly most important residential city of the Prussian rulers, have established a city-to-city partnership. Central Bonn is surrounded by a number of traditional towns and villages which were independent up to several decades ago. As many of those communities had already established their own contacts and partnerships before the regional and local reorganisation in 1969, the Federal City of Bonn now has a dense network of city district partnerships with European partner towns. The city district of Bonn is a partner of the English university city of Oxford, England, UK (since 1947), of Budafok, District XXII of Budapest, Hungary (since 1991) and of Opole, Poland (officially since 1997; contacts were established 1954). The district of Bad Godesberg has established partnerships with Saint-Cloud in France, Frascati in Italy, Windsor and Maidenhead in England, UK and Kortrijk in Belgium; a friendship agreement has been signed with the town of Yalova, Turkey. The district of Beuel on the right bank of the Rhine and the city district of Hardtberg foster partnerships with towns in France: Mirecourt and Villemomble. Moreover, the city of Bonn has developed a concept of international co-operation and maintains sustainability oriented project partnerships in addition to traditional city twinning, among others with Minsk in Belarus, Ulaanbaatar in Mongolia, Bukhara in Uzbekistan, Chengdu in China and La Paz in Bolivia.", "The city of Bonn is twinned with: Bonn city district has partnerships with: Bad Godesberg district has partnerships with: The city of Bonn also has project partnerships with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life (1938–1969).", "Brother's death.", "Education.", "Marriage.", "Prince of Spain (1969–1975).", "Reign (1975–2014).", "Transition.", "1981 coup d'état attempt.", "Later role in Spanish politics.", "2007 Ibero-American Summit.", "Botswana hunting trip.", "Abdication.", "Reactions.", "Retirement.", "Family and private life.", "Health.", "Budget of the royal house.", "Titles, styles, honours and arms." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Juan Carlos was born to Infante Juan, Count of Barcelona, and Princess María de las Mercedes of Bourbon-Two Sicilies in their family home in Rome, Italy, where his grandfather King Alfonso XIII of Spain and other members of the Spanish royal family lived in exile following the proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic in 1931. He was baptized as Juan Carlos Alfonso Víctor María de Borbón y Borbón-Dos Sicilias. He was given the name Juan Carlos after his father and maternal grandfather, Prince Carlos of Bourbon-Two Sicilies. His early life was dictated largely by the political concerns of his father and General Franco. He moved to Spain in 1948 to be educated there after his father persuaded Franco to allow it. He began his studies in San Sebastián and finished them in 1954 at the Instituto San Isidro in Madrid. He then joined the army, doing his officer training from 1955 to 1957 at the Military Academy of Zaragoza. Juan Carlos has two sisters: Infanta Pilar, Duchess of Badajoz (1936–2020); and Infanta Margarita, Duchess of Soria (born 1939). He also had a younger brother, Alfonso.", "On the evening of Holy Thursday, 29 March 1956, Juan Carlos's younger brother Alfonso died in a gun accident at the family's home Villa Giralda in Estoril, on the Portuguese Riviera. The Spanish Embassy in Portugal then issued the following official communiqué: Alfonso had won a local junior golf tournament earlier in the day, then went to evening Mass and rushed up to the room to see Juan Carlos who had come home for the Easter holidays from military school. It is alleged that Juan Carlos began playing with a gun that had apparently been given to Alfonso by General Franco. Rumors appeared in newspapers that the gun had actually been held by Juan Carlos at the moment the shot was fired. As they were alone in the room, it is unclear how Alfonso was shot, but according to Josefina Carolo, dressmaker to Juan Carlos's mother, Juan Carlos pointed the pistol at Alfonso and pulled the trigger, unaware that it was loaded. Bernardo Arnoso, a Portuguese friend of Juan Carlos, also said that Juan Carlos fired the pistol not knowing that it was loaded, and adding that the bullet ricocheted off a wall, hitting Alfonso in the face. Helena Matheopoulos, a Greek author who spoke with Juan Carlos's sister Pilar, said that Alfonso had been out of the room and when he returned and pushed the door open, the door knocked Juan Carlos in the arm, causing him to fire the pistol.", "In 1957, Juan Carlos spent a year in the naval school at Marín, Pontevedra, and another in the Air Force school in San Javier in Murcia. In 1960–61, he studied Law, International Political Economy and Public Finance at University of Madrid. He then went to live in the Palace of Zarzuela and began carrying out official engagements.", "Juan Carlos was married in Athens on 14 May 1962, to Princess Sophia of Greece and Denmark, daughter of King Paul of Greece, first in a Roman Catholic ceremony at the Church of St. Denis, followed by a Greek Orthodox ceremony at the Metropolitan Cathedral of Athens. She converted from Greek Orthodoxy to Roman Catholicism. They had three children: Elena (b. 1963), Cristina (b. 1965) and Felipe (b. 1968).", "The dictatorial regime of Francisco Franco came to power during the Spanish Civil War, which pitted a government of democrats, anarchists, socialists, and communists, supported by the Soviet Union and international volunteers, against a rebellion of conservatives, monarchists, nationalists, and fascists, supported by both Hitler and Mussolini, with the rebels ultimately winning. Franco's authoritarian government remained dominant in Spain until the 1960s. With Franco's increasing age, left-wing protests increased, while at the same time, the far right factions demanded the return of a hardline absolute monarchy. At the time, the heir to the throne of Spain was Juan de Borbón (Count of Barcelona), the son of the late Alfonso XIII. However, General Franco viewed him with extreme suspicion, believing him to be a liberal who was opposed to his regime. Juan Carlos's first cousin Alfonso, Duke of Anjou and Cádiz was also briefly considered as a candidate. Alfonso was known to be an ardent Francoist and would marry Franco's granddaughter, Doña María del Carmen Martínez-Bordiú y Franco in 1972. Ultimately, Franco decided to skip a generation and name Juan de Borbón's son, Prince Juan Carlos, as his personal successor. Franco hoped the young prince could be groomed to take over the nation while still maintaining the ultraconservative and authoritarian nature of his regime. In 1969, Juan Carlos was officially designated heir-apparent and was given the new title of Prince of Spain (not the traditional Prince of Asturias). As a condition of being named heir-apparent, he was required to swear loyalty to Franco's Movimiento Nacional, which he did with little outward hesitation. His choice was ratified by the Spanish parliament on 22 July 1969. Juan Carlos met and consulted Franco many times while heir apparent and often took part in official and ceremonial state functions, standing alongside the dictator, much to the anger of hardline republicans and more moderate liberals, who hoped that Franco's death would bring in an era of reform. During 1969–1975, Juan Carlos publicly supported Franco's regime. Although Franco's health worsened during those years, whenever he did appear in public, from state dinners to military parades, it was in Juan Carlos's company. Juan Carlos continued to praise Franco and his government for the economic growth and positive changes in Spain. However, as the years progressed, Juan Carlos began meeting secretly with political opposition leaders and exiles, who were fighting to bring liberal reform to the country. He also had secret conversations with his father over the telephone. Franco, for his part, remained largely oblivious to the prince's actions and denied allegations from his ministers and advisors that Juan Carlos was in any way disloyal to his vision of the regime. During periods of Franco's temporary incapacity in 1974 and 1975, Juan Carlos was acting head of state. On 30 October 1975, Franco gave full control to Juan Carlos; he died three weeks later, on 20 November. On 22 November, two days after Franco's death, the Cortes Españolas proclaimed Juan Carlos King of Spain. In his address to the Cortes, Juan Carlos spoke of three factors: historical tradition, national laws, and the will of the people, and in so doing referred to a process dating back to the Civil War of 1936–39. He swore using the following formula: \"I swear to God and the Gospels to comply and enforce compliance to the Fundamental Laws of the Realm and to remain loyal to the Principles of the National Movement\". On 27 November, a Mass of the Holy Spirit was celebrated in the church of San Jerónimo el Real in Madrid to inaugurate his reign. He opted not to call himself Juan III or Carlos V, but Juan Carlos I. Juan Carlos is reported to have been pressured by Valéry Giscard d'Estaing to personally tell Chilean dictator Augusto Pinochet, who had traveled to Spain for Franco's funeral, not to attend his coronation.", "", "Juan Carlos's accession met with relatively little parliamentary opposition. Some members of the Movimiento Nacional voted against recognising him, and more against the 1976 Law for Political Reform. But even most Movimiento members supported both measures. Juan Carlos quickly instituted reforms, to the great displeasure of Falangist and conservative (monarchist) elements, especially in the military, who had expected him to maintain the authoritarian state. In July 1976, Juan Carlos dismissed prime minister Carlos Arias Navarro, who had been attempting to continue Francoist policies in the face of the King's attempts at democratisation. He instead appointed Adolfo Suárez, a former leader of the Movimiento Nacional, as prime minister, who would go on to win the following year's election and become the first democratically elected leader of the new regime. Further legitimacy was restored to Juan Carlos's position on 14 May 1977, when his father (whom many monarchists had recognized as the legitimate, exiled King of Spain during the Franco era) formally renounced his claim to the throne and recognized his son as the sole head of the Spanish Royal House, transferring to him the historical heritage of the Spanish monarchy, thus making Juan Carlos both \"de facto\" and \"de jure\" king in the eyes of the traditional monarchists. On 20 May 1977, the leader of the only recently legalized Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE), Felipe González, accompanied by Javier Solana, visited Juan Carlos in the Zarzuela Palace. The event represented a key endorsement of the monarchy from Spain's political left, who had been historically republican. Left-wing support for the monarchy grew when the Communist Party of Spain was legalized shortly thereafter, a move Juan Carlos had pressed for, despite enormous right-wing military opposition at that time, during the Cold War. On 15 June 1977, Spain held its first post-Franco democratic elections. In 1978, the government promulgated a new constitution that acknowledged Juan Carlos as rightful heir of the Spanish dynasty and king; specifically, Title II, Section 57 asserted Juan Carlos's right to the throne of Spain by dynastic succession in the Bourbon tradition, as \"the legitimate heir of the historic dynasty\" rather than as the designated successor of Franco. The Constitution was passed by the democratically elected Constituent Cortes, ratified by the people in a referendum (6 December) and then signed into law by the King before a solemn meeting of the Cortes.", "There was an attempted military coup, known as 23-F, on 23 February 1981, when the Cortes were seized by members of the Guardia Civil in the parliamentary chamber. During the coup, the King, in the uniform of the Captain-General of the Spanish armed forces, gave a public television broadcast calling for unambiguous support for the legitimate democratic government. The broadcast is believed to have been a major factor in foiling the coup. The coup leaders had promised many of their potential supporters that they were acting in the King's name and with his approval, but were unable to demonstrate either, and the broadcast – coming just after midnight on the night of the coup – definitively showed the King's opposition to the coup makers. When Juan Carlos became king, Communist leader Santiago Carrillo nicknamed him \"Juan Carlos the Brief\", predicting that the monarchy would soon be swept away with the other remnants of the Franco era. After the collapse of the attempted coup, however, in an emotional statement, Carrillo remarked: \"Today, we are all monarchists.\" Public support for the monarchy among democrats and leftists before 1981 had been limited; following the king's handling of the coup it increased significantly.", "The victory of the PSOE in 1982 under González marked the effective end of the King's active involvement in Spanish politics. González would govern for 14 years, longer than any democratically elected Prime Minister. His administration helped consolidate Spanish democracy and thus maintained the stability of the nation. On paper, Juan Carlos retained fairly extensive reserve powers. He was the guardian of the constitution, and was responsible for ensuring that it was obeyed. In practice, since the passage of the Constitution (and especially since 1982) he took a mostly non-partisan and representative role, acting almost entirely on the advice of the government. However, he commanded great moral authority as an essential symbol of the country's unity. Under the constitution, the King has immunity from prosecution in matters relating to his official duties. Consequently, he exercised most of his powers through the ministers; his acts as King (and not as a citizen) were not valid unless countersigned by a minister, who became politically responsible for the act in question. The honour of the royal family is specifically protected from insult by the Spanish Penal Code. Under this protection, Basque independentist Arnaldo Otegi and cartoonists from \"El Jueves\" were tried and punished. The King gives an annual speech to the nation on Christmas Eve. He is the commander-in-chief of the Spanish armed forces. In July 2000, Juan Carlos was the target of an enraged protester when former priest Juan María Fernández y Krohn, who had once attacked Pope John Paul II, breached security and attempted to approach the king. When the media asked Juan Carlos in 2005 if he would endorse the bill legalising same-sex marriage that was then being debated in the \"Cortes Generales\", he answered \"\"Soy el Rey de España y no el de Bélgica\"\" (\"I am the King of Spain, not of Belgium\")a reference to King Baudouin of Belgium, who had refused to sign the Belgian law legalising abortion. The King gave his Royal Assent to Law 13/2005 on 1 July 2005; the law legalising same-sex marriage was gazetted in the \"Boletín Oficial del Estado\" on 2 July, and came into effect on 3 July. According to a poll in the newspaper \"El Mundo\" in November 2005, 77.5% of Spaniards thought Juan Carlos was \"good or very good\", 15.4% \"not so good\", and only 7.1% \"bad or very bad\". Even so, the issue of the monarchy re-emerged on 28 September 2007 as photos of the king were burnt in public in Catalonia by small groups of protesters wanting the restoration of the Republic.", "In November 2007, at the Ibero-American Summit in Santiago de Chile, during a heated exchange, Juan Carlos interrupted Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez, saying, \"\"¿Por qué no te callas?\"\" (\"Why don't you shut up?\"). Chávez had been interrupting the Spanish Prime Minister, José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero, while the latter was defending his predecessor and political opponent, José María Aznar, after Chávez had referred to Aznar as a fascist and \"less human than snakes\". The King shortly afterwards left the hall when President Daniel Ortega of Nicaragua accused Spain of intervention in his country's elections and complained about some Spanish energy companies working in Nicaragua. This was an unprecedented diplomatic incident and a rare display of public anger by the King.", "In April 2012, Juan Carlos faced criticism for an elephant-hunting trip in Botswana. The public found out about the trip only after the King injured himself and a special aircraft was sent to bring him home. Spanish officials stated that the expenses of the trip were not paid by taxpayers or by the palace, but by Mohamed Eyad Kayali, a businessman of Syrian origin. Cayo Lara Moya of the United Left party said the King's trip \"demonstrated a lack of ethics and respect toward many people in this country who are suffering a lot\" while Tomás Gómez of the Socialist party said Juan Carlos should choose between \"public responsibilities or an abdication\". In April 2012, Spain's unemployment was at 23 percent and nearly 50 percent for young workers. \"El País\" estimated the total cost of a hunting trip at 44,000 euros, about twice the average annual salary in Spain. A petition called for the king to resign from his position as honorary president of the Spanish branch of the World Wide Fund for Nature. The WWF itself responded by asking for an interview with the King to resolve the situation. In July 2012, WWF-Spain held a meeting in Madrid and decided with 226 votes to 13 to remove the King from its honorary presidency. He later apologised for the hunting trip.", "Spanish news media speculated about the King's future in early 2014, following public criticism over his taking an elephant hunting safari in Botswana and an embezzlement scandal involving his daughter Cristina, and her husband Iñaki Urdangarin. The King's chief of staff in a briefing denied that the 'abdication option' was being considered. On the morning of 2 June 2014, Prime Minister Mariano Rajoy made a televised announcement that the King had told him of his intention to abdicate. Later, the King delivered a televised address and announced that he would abdicate the throne in favour of the Prince of Asturias. Royal officials described the King's choice as a personal decision which he had been contemplating since his 76th birthday at the start of the year. The King reportedly said, \"No queremos que mi hijo se marchite esperando como el príncipe Carlos.\" (English: \"[I] do not want my son to wither waiting like Prince Charles.\") As required by the Spanish constitution, any abdication would be settled by means of an organic law. A draft law was passed with 299 in favour, 19 against and 23 abstaining. On 18 June, he signed the organic law passed by parliament several hours before his abdication took effect. Felipe was enthroned on 19 June 2014, and Juan Carlos's granddaughter Leonor became the new Princess of Asturias. Juan Carlos thus became the fourth European monarch to abdicate in just over a year, following Pope Benedict XVI (28 February 2013), Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands (30 April 2013), and King Albert II of Belgium (21 July 2013). The Spanish constitution at the time of the abdication did not grant an abdicated monarch the legal immunity of a head of state, but the government was planning to make changes to allow this. Legislation has been passed, although unlike his previous immunity, the new legislation does not completely shield the former sovereign. Juan Carlos must answer to the supreme court, in a similar type of protection afforded to many high-ranking civil servants and politicians in Spain. The legislation stipulates that all outstanding legal matters relating to the former king be suspended and passed \"immediately\" to the supreme court.", "The Spanish press gave the announcement a broadly positive reception, but described the moment as an \"institutional crisis\" and \"a very important moment in the history of democratic Spain\". Around Spain and in major cities (including London) the news was met by republican celebration and protests, calling for the end of the monarchy. Catalan leader Artur Mas said that the news of the King's abdication would not slow down the process of independence for Catalonia. Iñigo Urkullu, the President of the Basque government, concluded that the King's reign was \"full of light yet also darkness\" and said that his successor Felipe should remember that \"the Basque Question has not been resolved\". Other regional leaders had more positive evaluations of Juan Carlos following his decision to abdicate: Alberto Núñez Feijóo of Galicia called him \"the King of Democracy\" who \"guaranteed the continuation of constitutional monarchy\" and Alberto Fabra of the Valencian Community said that Spaniards are proud of their king who had been \"at the forefront of protecting our interests inside and outside of our borders\". British Prime Minister David Cameron stated: \"I would like to use this opportunity to make a tribute to King Juan Carlos, who has done so much during his reign to aid the successful Spanish transition to democracy, and has been a great friend of the United Kingdom.\" The President of the European Commission, José Manuel Barroso, said that Juan Carlos was a \"believer in Europeanism and modernity...without whom one could not understand modern Spain\". The Spanish public also gave a broadly positive opinion not only of the abdication but of his reign as a whole. According to a poll taken by \"El Mundo\", 65 percent saw the King's reign as either good or very good, up from 41.3 percent. Overall, 55.7 percent of those polled in the 3–5 June survey by Sigma Dos supported the institution of the monarchy in Spain, up from 49.9 percent when the same question was posed six months prior. 57.5 percent believed the Prince could restore the royal family's lost prestige. An overwhelming majority of Spaniards believed the new King, Felipe VI, would make a good monarch and more than three-quarters believed King Juan Carlos had been right to hand over the throne to his son.", "Juan Carlos continued to have a role as institutional representative. In December 2015, Juan Carlos attended the inauguration of Mauricio Macri as President of Argentina as top Spanish representative. The former King's public image was further tarnished in 2018 when recordings of the conversations of an alleged mistress, Corinna zu Sayn-Wittgenstein, with a former police chief were leaked to the press. She claimed Juan Carlos had obtained secret commissions on commercial contracts in the Gulf States, and had hidden Swiss bank accounts and property purchases under her name, stating that it was not \"because he loves me a lot, but because I reside in Monaco,\" where the declaration of such assets is not required. She further claimed the head of the Spanish intelligence service warned her that her life, and those of her children, would be at risk if she spoke of their association, which has never been officially confirmed. The allegations drew demands for Juan Carlos to be investigated for corruption. He announced by a letter to his son Felipe that his intention to retire from public life on 2 June 2019. In June 2019, the former King announced his retirement from official duties. In March 2020, after the publication of inquiries of the Swiss prosecutor's office in relation to an alleged 100 million dollar donation in 2012, attributed to the then monarch, to the profit of Corinna Larsen and linked to alleged fees from Saudi Arabia, the Republican Parliamentary Group and the Plural Group in the Congress of Deputies registered an initiative asking for the creation of a committee seeking to determine the \"civic, ethical and political\" responsibilities of the former head of state. According to \"The Telegraph\", his son Felipe, current King of Spain, appears as second beneficiary (after Juan Carlos I) of the Lucus Foundation, the entity on the receiving end of a €65 million donation by Abdullah bin Abdulaziz, King of Saudi Arabia. Shortly after, on 15 March 2020, the Royal Household issued a statement declaring that Felipe VI would renounce any inheritance from his father to which he could be entitled and that the former king would lose his public stipend from the State's General Budget. A mention that Juan Carlos had chosen Javier Sánchez-Junco Mans as lawyer was also included in the same statement. In June 2020, the public prosecutor's office of the Spanish Supreme Court accepted to pursue investigation against Juan Carlos pertaining his role as facilitator in the Phase II of the high speed rail connecting Mecca and Medina, the so-called \"AVE del desierto\", intending to delimitate the criminal relevance of the facts that took place after his abdication in June 2014.", "Juan Carlos and Sofía have had two daughters and one son: Juan Carlos is also the alleged father of Alberto Sola, born in Barcelona in 1956, also of a woman born in Catalonia in 1964, and of Ingrid Sartiau, a Belgian woman born in 1966 who has filed a paternity suit, but complete sovereign immunity prevented that suit prior to his abdication. Juan Carlos has had several extramarital affairs adversely affecting his marriage. In 1972, Juan Carlos, a keen sailor, competed in the Dragon class event at the Olympic Games, finishing 15th. In their summer holidays, the whole family meets in Marivent Palace (Palma de Mallorca) and the Fortuna yacht, where they take part in sailing competitions. The king has manned the Bribón series of yachts. In winter, the family often go skiing in Baqueira-Beret and Candanchú (Pyrenees). At present, his hobbies include classic sailing boats. Juan Carlos also hunts bears; in October 2004, he angered environmental activists by killing nine bears, one of which was pregnant in central Romania. It was alleged by the Russian regional authorities that in August 2006 Juan Carlos shot a drunken tame bear (Mitrofan the Bear) during a private hunting trip to Russia; the Office of the Spanish Monarchy denied this claim. Juan Carlos is a member of the World Scout Foundation and of the Sons of the American Revolution. Juan Carlos I is also a black belt in karate.", "A benign 17-19mm tumour was removed under general anaesthetic from King Juan Carlos's right lung in an operation carried out in the \"Hospital Clínic\" of Barcelona in May 2010. The operation followed an annual check-up, and Juan Carlos was not expected to need any further treatment. In April 2012, the King underwent surgery for a triple fracture of the hip at the San Jose Hospital, Madrid, following a fall on a private elephant-hunting trip to Botswana. He also underwent a hip operation in September 2013 at Madrid's Quirón hospital. In April 2018, Juan Carlos was admitted to hospital for a surgery on his right knee. On 24 August 2019 he had heart surgery.", "In 2011, after the King's son-in-law Iñaki Urdangarín (married to Cristina in 1997) became embroiled in a financial scandal and was accused of corruption (the \"Urdangarín affair\"), Juan Carlos detailed for the first time the yearly royal budget of 8.3 million euros, excluding expenses such as the electricity bill, paid by the State.", "In 1969, Juan Carlos was named as General Franco's successor and was given the title of 'Prince of Spain'. Upon the death of Franco in 1975, Juan Carlos acceded to the throne of Spain. The current Spanish constitution refers to the monarch by the simple title \"King of Spain\". Aside from this title, the constitution allows for the use of other historic titles pertaining to the Spanish monarchy, without specifying them. This was also reiterated by a decree promulgated on 6 November 1987 concerning titles of members of the royal family. Since his abdication in 2014, King Juan Carlos has retained, by courtesy, the title and style of King that he enjoyed during his reign." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origin and etymology.", "Myth.", "Ovid's version.", "Other versions.", "Interpretation.", "Cultural impact.", "Literature.", "John Dryden's translation.", "Music.", "Art.", "Science." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The myth of Myrrha is closely linked to that of her son, Adonis, which has been easier to trace. \"Adonis\" is the Hellenized form of the Phoenician word \"\"adoni\"\", meaning \"\"my lord\"\". It is believed that the cult of Adonis was known to the Greeks from around the sixth century B.C., but it is unquestionable that they came to know it through contact with Cyprus. Around this time, the cult of Adonis is noted in the Book of Ezekiel in Jerusalem, though under the Babylonian name Tammuz. Adonis originally was a Phoenician god of fertility representing the spirit of vegetation. It is further speculated that he was an avatar of the version of Ba'al, worshipped in Ugarit. It is likely that lack of clarity concerning whether Myrrha was called Smyrna, and who her father was, originated in Cyprus before the Greeks first encountered the myth. However, it is clear that the Greeks added much to the Adonis-Myrrha story, before it was first recorded by classical scholars. Over the centuries Myrrha, the girl, and myrrh, the fragrance, have been linked etymologically. Myrrh was precious in the ancient world, and was used for embalming, medicine, perfume, and incense. The Modern English word \"myrrh\" (Old English: \"myrra\") derives from the Latin \"Myrrha\" (or \"murrha\" or \"murra\", all are synonymous Latin words for the tree substance). The Latin \"Myrrha\" originated from the Ancient Greek \"múrrā\", but, ultimately, the word is of Semitic origin, with roots in the Arabic \"murr\", the Hebrew \"mōr\", and the Aramaic \"mūrā\", all meaning \"bitter\" as well as referring to the plant. Regarding \"smyrna\", the word is a Greek dialectic form of \"myrrha\". Myrrh in the Bible is referenced as one of the most desirable fragrances, and though mentioned alongside frankincense it is usually more expensive. Several Old Testament passages refer to myrrh. In the Song of Solomon, which according to scholars dates to either the tenth century B.C. as a Hebrew oral tradition or to the Babylonian captivity in the 6th century B.C., myrrh is referenced seven times making the Song of Solomon the passage in the Old Testament referring to myrrh the most, often with erotic overtones. In the New Testament the substance is famously associated with the birth of Christ when the magi presented their gifts of \"gold, frankincense, and myrrh\".", "", "Published in 8 A.D. the \"Metamorphoses\" of Ovid has become one of the most influential poems by the Latin writers. The \"Metamorphoses\" showed that Ovid was more interested in questioning how the laws interfered with people's lives than in writing epic tales like Virgil's \"Aeneid\" and Homer's \"Odyssey\". The \"Metamorphoses\" is not narrated by Ovid, but rather by the characters inside the stories. The myth of Myrrha and Cinyras is sung by Orpheus in the tenth book of \"Metamorphoses\" after he has told the myth of Pygmalion and before he turns to the tale of Venus and Adonis. As the myth of Myrrha is also the longest tale sung by Orpheus (205 lines) and the only story that corresponds to his announced theme of girls punished for forbidden desire, it is considered the centerpiece of the song. Ovid opens the myth with a warning to the audience that this is a myth of great horror, especially to fathers and daughters: The story I am going to tell is a horrible one: I beg that daughters and fathers should hold themselves aloof, while I sing, or if they find my songs enchanting, let them refuse to believe this part of my tale, and suppose that it never happened: or else, if they believe that it did happen, they must believe also in the punishment that followed. According to Ovid, Myrrha was the daughter of King Cinyras and Queen Cenchreis of Cyprus. It is stated that Cupid was not to blame for Myrrha's incestuous love for her father, Cinyras. Ovid further comments that hating one's father is a crime, but Myrrha's love was a greater crime. Ovid therefore blamed it on the Furies. Over several verses, Ovid depicts the psychic struggle Myrrha faces between her sexual desire for her father and the social shame she would face for acting thereon. Sleepless, and losing all hope, she attempted suicide; but was discovered by her nurse, in whom she confided. The nurse tried to make Myrrha suppress the infatuation, but later agreed to help Myrrha into her father's bed if she promised that she would not again try to kill herself. During the Ceres' festival, the worshiping women (including Cenchreis, Myrrha's mother) were not to be touched by men for nine nights; wherefore the nurse told Cinyras of a girl deeply in love with him, giving a false name. The affair lasted several nights in complete darkness to conceal Myrrha's identity, until Cinyras wanted to know the identity of his paramour. Upon bringing in a lamp, and seeing his daughter, the king attempted to kill her on the spot, but Myrrha escaped. Thereafter Myrrha walked in exile for nine months, past the palms of Arabia and the fields of Panchaea, until she reached Sabaea. Afraid of death and tired of life, and pregnant as well, she begged the gods for a solution, and was transformed into the myrrh tree, with the sap thereof representing her tears. Later, Lucina freed the newborn Adonis from the tree.", "The myth of Myrrha has been chronicled in several other works than Ovid's \"Metamorphoses\". Among the scholars who recounted it are Apollodorus, Hyginus, and Antoninus Liberalis. All three versions differ. In his \"Bibliotheca\", written around the 1st century B.C. Apollodorus tells of three possible parentages for Adonis. In the first he states that Cinyras arrived in Cyprus with a few followers and founded Paphos, and that he married Metharme, eventually becoming king of Cyprus through her family. Cinyras had five children by Metharme: the two boys, Oxyporos and Adonis, and three daughters, Orsedice, Laogore, and Braisia. The daughters at some point became victims of Aphrodite's wrath and had intercourse with foreigners, ultimately dying in Egypt. For the second possible parentage of Adonis, Apollodorus quotes Hesiod, who postulates that Adonis could be the child of Phoenix and Alphesiboia. He elaborates no further on this statement. For the third option, he quotes Panyasis, who states that King Theias of Assyria had a daughter called Smyrna. Smyrna failed to honor Aphrodite, incurring the wrath of the goddess, by whom was made to fall in love with her father; and with the aid of her nurse she deceived him for twelve nights until her identity was discovered. Smyrna fled, but her father later caught up with her. Smyrna then prayed that the gods would make her invisible, prompting them to turn her into a tree, which was named the Smyrna. Ten months later the tree cracked and Adonis was born from it. In his \"Fabulae\", written around 1 A.D. Hyginus states that King Cinyras of Assyria had a daughter by his wife, Cenchreis. The daughter was named Smyrna and the mother boasted that her child excelled even Venus in beauty. Angered, Venus punished the mother by cursing Smyrna to fall in love with her father. After the nurse had prevented Smyrna from committing suicide, she helped her engage her father in sexual intercourse. When Smyrna became pregnant, she hid in the woods from shame. Venus pitied the girl's fate, changing her into a myrrh tree, from which was born Adonis. In the \"Metamorphoses\" by Antoninus Liberalis, written somewhere in the 2nd or 3rd century A.D., the myth is set in Phoenicia, near Mount Lebanon. Here King Thias, son of Belus and Orithyia, had a daughter named Smyrna. Being of great beauty, she was sought by men from far and wide. She had devised many tricks in order to delay her parents and defer the day they would choose a husband for her. Smyrna had been driven mad by desire for her father and did not want anybody else. At first she hid her desires, eventually telling her nurse, Hippolyte, the secret of her true feelings. Hippolyte told the king that a girl of exalted parentage wanted to lie with him, but in secret. The affair lasted for an extended period of time, and Smyrna became pregnant. At this point, Thias desired to know who she was so he hid a light, illuminating the room and discovering Smyrna's identity when she entered. In shock, Smyrna gave birth prematurely to her child. She then raised her hands and said a prayer, which was heard by Zeus who took pity on her and turned her into a tree. Thias killed himself, and it was on the wish of Zeus that the child was brought up and named Adonis.", "The myth of Myrrha has been interpreted in various ways. The transformation of Myrrha in Ovid's version has been interpreted as a punishment for her breaking the social rules through her incestuous relationship with her father. Like Byblis who fell in love with her brother, Myrrha is transformed and rendered voiceless making her unable to break the taboo of incest. Myrrha has also been thematically linked to the story of Lot's daughters. They live with their father in an isolated cave and because their mother is dead they decide to befuddle Lot's mind with wine and seduce him in order to keep the family alive through him. Nancy Miller comments on the two myths: [Lot's daughters'] incest is sanctioned by reproductive necessity; because it lacks consequences, this story is not a socially recognized narrative paradigm for incest. [...] In the cases of both Lot's daughters and Myrrha, the daughter's seduction of the father has to be covert. While other incest configurations - mother-son, sibling - permit consensual agency, father-daughter incest does not; when the daughter displays transgressive sexual desire, the prohibitive father appears. Myrrha has been interpreted as developing from a girl into a woman in the course of the story: in the beginning she is a virgin refusing her suitors, in that way denying the part of herself that is normally dedicated to Aphrodite. The goddess then strikes her with desire to make love with her father and Myrrha is then made into a woman in the grip of an uncontrollable lust. The marriage between her father and mother is then set as an obstacle for her love along with incest being forbidden by the laws, profane as well as divine. The way the daughter seduces her father illustrates the most extreme version a seduction can take: the union between two persons who by social norms and laws are strictly held apart. James Richard Ellis has argued that the incest taboo is fundamental to a civilized society. Building on Sigmund Freud's theories and psychoanalysis this is shown in Ovid's version of the myth of Myrrha. When the girl has been gripped by desire, she laments her humanity, for if she and her father were animals, there would be no bar to their union. That Myrrha is transformed into a myrrh tree has also been interpreted to have influenced the character of Adonis. Being the child of both a woman and a tree he is a split person. In Ancient Greece the word Adonis could mean both \"perfume\" and \"lover\" and likewise Adonis is both the perfume made from the aromatic drops of myrrh as well as the human lover who seduces two goddesses. In her essay \"What Nature Allows the Jealous Laws Forbid\" literary critic Mary Aswell Doll compares the love between the two male protagonists of Annie Proulx' book \"Brokeback Mountain\" (1997) with the love Myrrha has for her father in Ovid's \"Metamorphoses\". Doll suggests that both Ovid's and Proulx' main concerns are civilization and its discontents and that their use of images of nature uncovers similar understandings of what is \"natural\" when it comes to who and how one should love. On the subject of Ovid’s writing about love Doll states: In Ovid’s work no love is \"taboo\" unless it arises out of a need for power and control. A widespread instance for the latter during the Roman Empire was the practice by the elite to take nubile young girls as lovers or mistresses, girls who could be as young as daughters. Such a practice was considered normal, natural. Cinyras' relationship with a girl on his daughter's age was therefore not unnatural, but Myrrha's being in love with her own father was. Doll elaborates further on this stating that Myrrha's lamenting that animals can mate father and daughter without problems is a way for Ovid to express a paradox: in nature a father-daughter relationship is not unnatural, but it is in human society. On this Doll concludes that \"Nature follows no laws. There is no such thing as \"natural law\"\". Still, Ovid distances himself in three steps from the horrifying story: First he does not tell the story himself, but has one of his in-story characters, Orpheus, sing it; second, Ovid tells his audience not even to believe the story (cf. quote in \"Ovid's version\"); third, he has Orpheus congratulate Rome, Ovid's home town, for its being far away from the land where this story took place (Cyprus). By distancing himself, Doll writes, Ovid lures his audience to keep listening. First then does Ovid begin telling the story describing Myrrha, her father and their relationship, which Doll compares to the mating of Cupid and Psyche: here the lovemaking occurs in complete darkness and only the initiator (Cupid) knows the identity of the other as well. Myrrha's metamorphosing into a tree is read by Doll as a metaphor where the tree incarnates the secret. As a side effect, Doll notes, the metamorphosis also alters the idea of incest into something natural for the imagination to think about. Commenting on a Freudian analysis of the myth stating that Ovid \"disconcertingly suggests that [father-lust] might be an unspoken universal of human experience\" Doll notes that Ovid's stories work like metaphors: they are meant to give insight into the human psyche. Doll states that the moments when people experience moments like those of father-lust are repressed and unconscious, which means that they are a natural part of growing and that most grow out of it sometime. She concludes about Ovid and his version of Myrrha that: \"What is perverted, for Ovid, is the use of sex as a power tool and the blind acceptance of sexual male power as a cultural norm.\" In 2008 the newspaper \"The Guardian\" named Myrrha's relationship with her father as depicted in \"Metamorphoses\" by Ovid as one of the top ten stories of incestuous love ever. It complimented the myth for being more disturbing than any of the other incestuous relationships depicted in the \"Metamorphoses\".", "", "One of the earliest recordings of a play inspired by the myth of Myrrha is in the \"Antiquities of the Jews\", written in 93 A.D. by the Roman-Jewish historian Flavius Josephus. A tragedy entitled \"Cinyras\" is mentioned, wherein the main character, Cinyras, is to be slain along with his daughter Myrrha, and \"a great deal of fictitious blood was shed\". No further details are given about the plot of this play. Myrrha appears in the \"Divine Comedy\" poem \"Inferno\" by Dante Alighieri, where Dante sees her soul being punished in the eighth circle of Hell, in the tenth bolgia (ditch). Here she and other falsifiers such as the alchemists and the counterfeiters suffer dreadful diseases, Myrrha's being madness. Myrrha's suffering in the tenth bolgia indicates her most serious sin was not incest but deceit. Diana Glenn interprets the symbolism in Myrrha's contrapasso as being that her sin is so unnatural and unlawful that she is forced to abandon human society and simultaneously she loses her identity. Her madness in Hell prevents even basic communication which attests to her being contemptuous of the social order in life. Dante had already shown his familiarity with the myth of Myrrha in a prior letter to Emperor Henry VII, which he wrote on 17 April 1311. Here he compares Florence with \"Myrrha, wicked and ungodly, yearning for the embrace of her father, Cinyras\"; a metaphor, Claire Honess interprets as referring to the way Florence tries to \"seduce\" Pope Clement V away from Henry VII. It is incestuous because the Pope is the father of all and it is also implied that the city in that way rejects her true husband, the Emperor. In the poem \"Venus and Adonis\", written by William Shakespeare in 1593 Venus refers to Adonis' mother. In the 34th stanza Venus is lamenting because Adonis is ignoring her approaches and in her heart-ache she says \"O, had thy mother borne so hard a mind, She had not brought forth thee, but died unkind.\" Shakespeare makes a subtle reference to Myrrha later when Venus picks a flower: \"She crops the stalk, and in the breach appears, Green dropping sap, which she compares to tears.\" It has been suggested that these plant juices being compared to tears are a parallel to Myrrha's tears being the drops of myrrh exuding from the myrrh tree. In another work of Shakespeare, \"Othello\" (1603), it has been suggested that he has made another reference. In act 5, scene 2 the main character Othello compares himself to a myrrh tree with its constant stream of tears (Myrrha's tears). The reference is justified in the way that it draws inspiration from Book X of Ovid's \"Metamorphoses\", just like his previously written poem, \"Venus and Adonis\", did. The tragedy \"Mirra\" by Vittorio Alfieri (written in 1786) is inspired by the story of Myrrha. In the play, Mirra falls in love with her father, Cinyras. Mirra is to be married to Prince Pyrrhus, but decides against it, and leaves him at the altar. In the ending, Mirra has a mental breakdown in front of her father who is infuriated because the prince has killed himself. Owning that she loves Cinyras, Mirra grabs his sword, while he recoils in horror, and kills herself. The novella \"Mathilda\", written by Mary Shelley in 1820, contains similarities to the myth and mentions Myrrha. Mathilda is left by her father as a baby after her birth causes the death of her mother, and she does not meet her father until he returns sixteen years later. Then he tells her that he is in love with her, and, when she refuses him, he commits suicide. In chapter 4, Mathilda makes a direct allusion: \"I chanced to say that I thought \"Myrrha\" the best of Alfieri's tragedies.\" Audra Dibert Himes, in an essay entitled \"Knew shame, and knew desire\", notes a more subtle reference to Myrrha: Mathilda spends the last night before her father’s arrival in the woods, but as she returns home the next morning the trees seemingly attempt to encompass her. Himes suggests that the trees can be seen as a parallel to Ovid’s metamorphosed Myrrha. The tragedy \"Sardanapalus\" by George Gordon Byron published in 1821 and produced in 1834 is set in Assyria, 640 B.C., under King Sardanapalus. The play deals with the revolt against the extravagant king and his relationship to his favourite slave Myrrha. Myrrha made Sardanapalus appear at the head of his armies, but after winning three successive battles in this way he was eventually defeated. A beaten man, Myrrha persuaded Sardanapalus to place himself on a funeral pyre which she would ignite and subsequently leap onto - burning them both alive. The play has been interpreted as an autobiography, with Sardanapalus as Byron's alter ego, Zarina as Byron's wife Anne Isabella, and Myrrha as his mistress Teresa. At a more abstract level Myrrha is the desire for freedom driving those who feel trapped or bound, as well as being the incarnation of Byron's dream of romantic love. Byron knew the story of the mythical Myrrha, if not directly through Ovid's \"Metamorphoses\", then at least through Alfieri's \"Mirra\", which he was familiar with. In her essay \"A Problem Few Dare Imitate\", Susan J. Wolfson phrases and interprets the relation of the play \"Sardanapalus\" and the myth of Myrrha: Although [Byron's] own play evades the full import of this complicated association, Myrrha's name means that it [the name's referring to incest, red.] cannot be escaped entirely - especially since Ovid's story of Myrrha's incest poses a potential reciprocal to the nightmare Byron invents for Sardanapalus, of sympathy with the son who is the object of his mother's 'incest'. In 1997 the myth of Myrrha and Cinyras was one of 24 tales from Ovid's \"Metamorphoses\" that were retold by English poet Ted Hughes in his poetical work \"Tales from Ovid\". The work was praised for not directly translating, but instead retelling the story in a language which was as fresh and new for the audience today as Ovid's texts were to his contemporary audience. Hughes was also complimented on his achievements in using humour or horror when describing Myrrha or a flood, respectively. The work received critical acclaim winning the Whitbread Book Of The Year Award 1997 and being adapted to the stage in 1999, starring Sirine Saba as Myrrha. In 1997 American poet Frank Bidart wrote \"Desire\", which was another retelling of the myth of Myrrha as it was presented in the \"Metamorphoses\" by Ovid. The case of Myrrha, critic Langdon Hammer notes, is the worst possible made against desire, because the story of Myrrha shows how sex can lead people to destroy others as well as themselves. He comments that \"the \"precious bitter resin\" into which Myrrha's tears are changed tastes bitter \"and\" sweet, like \"Desire\" as a whole\". He further writes: \"The inescapability of desire makes Bidart's long story of submission to it a kind of affirmation. Rather than aberrant, the Ovidian characters come to feel exemplary\".", "In 1700 English poet John Dryden published his translations of myths by Ovid, Homer, and Boccaccio in the volume \"Fables, Ancient and Modern\". Literary critic Anthony W. Lee notes in his essay \"Dryden's \"Cinyras and Myrrha\"\" that this translation, along with several others, can be interpreted as a subtle comment on the political scene of the late seventeenth-century England. The translation of the myth of Myrrha as it appeared in Ovid's \"Metamorphoses\" is suggested as being a critique of the political settlement that followed the Glorious Revolution. The wife of the leader of this revolution, William of Orange, was Mary, daughter of James II. Mary and William were crowned king and queen of England in 1689, and because Dryden was deeply sympathetic to James he lost his public offices and fell into political disfavor under the new reign. Dryden turned to translation and infused these translations with political satire in response - the myth of Myrrha being one of these translations. In the opening lines of the poem Dryden describes King Cinyras just as Ovid did as a man who had been happier if he had not become a father. Lee suggests that this is a direct parallel to James who could have been counted as happier if he had not had his daughter, Mary, who betrayed him and usurped his monarchical position. When describing the act of incest Dryden uses a monster metaphor. Those lines are suggested as aimed at William III who invaded England from the Netherlands and whose presence Dryden describes as a curse or a punishment, according to Lee. A little further on the Convention Parliament is indicted. Lee suggests that Dryden critiques the intrusiveness of the Convention Parliament, because it acted without constituted legal authority. Finally the daughter, Mary as Myrrha, is described as an impious outcast from civilization, whose greatest sin was her disrupting the natural line of succession thereby breaking both natural as well as divine statutes which resulted in fundamental social confusion. When Myrrha craves and achieves her father's (Cinyras') bed, Lee sees a parallel to Mary's ascending James' throne: both daughters incestuously occupied the place which belonged to their fathers. Reading the translation of the myth of Myrrha by Dryden as a comment on the political scene, states Lee, is partly justified by the characterization done by the historian Julian Hoppit on the events of the revolution of 1688: To most a monarch was God's earthly representative, chosen by Him for the benefit of His people. For men to meddle in that choice was to tamper with the divine order, the inevitable price of which was chaos.", "In music, Myrrha was the subject of an 1876 band piece by John Philip Sousa, \"Myrrha Gavotte\" and in 1901, Maurice Ravel and Andre Caplet each wrote cantatas titled \"Myrrha\". Caplet finished first over Ravel who was third in the Prix de Rome competition. The competition required that the candidates jumped through a series of academic hoops before entering the final where they were to compose a cantata on a prescribed text. Though it was not the best musical piece, the jury praised Ravel's work for its \"melodic charm\" and \"sincerity of dramatic sentiment\". Musical critic Andrew Clements writing for \"The Guardian\" commented on Ravel's failures at winning the competition: \"Ravel's repeated failure to win the Prix de Rome, the most coveted prize for young composers in France at the turn of the 20th century, has become part of musical folklore.\" Italian composer Domenico Alaleona's only opera, premiering in 1920, was entitled \"Mirra\". The libretto drew on the legend of Myrrha while the music was inspired by Claude Debussy's \"Pelléas et Mélisande\" (1902) as well as Richard Strauss' \"Elektra\" (1909). Suffering from being monotonic, the final showdown between father and daughter, the critics commented, was the only part really making an impact. \"Mirra\" remains Alaleona's most ambitious composition and though the music tended to be \"eclectic and uneven\", it showed \"technical enterprise\". More recently, Kristen Kuster created a choral orchestration, \"Myrrha\", written in 2004 and first performed at Carnegie Hall in 2006. Kuster stated that the idea for \"Myrrha\" came when she was asked by the American Composers Orchestra to write a love-and-erotica themed concert. The concert was inspired by the myth of Myrrha in Ovid's \"Metamorphoses\" and includes excerpts from the volume that \"move in and out of the music as though in a dream, or perhaps Myrrha’s memory of the events that shaped her fate,\" as described by Kuster.", "The \"Metamorphoses\" of Ovid has been illustrated by several artists through time. In 1563 in Frankfurt, a German bilingual translation by Johann Posthius was published, featuring the woodcuts of renowned German engraver Virgil Solis. The illustration of Myrrha depicts Myrrha's deceiving her father as well as her fleeing from him. In 1717 in London, a Latin-English edition of \"Metamorphoses\" was published, translated by Samuel Garth and with plates of French engraver Bernard Picart. The illustration of Myrrha was entitled \"The Birth of Adonis\" and featured Myrrha as a tree delivering Adonis while surrounded by women. In 1857 French engraver Gustave Doré made a series of illustrations to Dante's \"Divine Comedy\", the depiction of Myrrha showing her in the eighth circle of Hell. In 1690, Italian Baroque painter Marcantonio Franceschini depicted Myrrha as a tree while delivering Adonis in \"The Birth of Adonis\". The painting was included in the art exhibition \"Captured Emotions: Baroque Painting in Bologna, 1575-1725\" at the J. Paul Getty Museum at the Getty Center in Los Angeles, California which lasted from December 16, 2008 through May 3, 2009. Normally the painting is exhibited in the Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden (English: Dresden State Art Collections) in Germany as a part of the \"Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister\" (English: Old Masters Picture Gallery). In 1984, artist Mel Chin created a sculpture based on Doré's illustration of Myrrha for the \"Divine Comedy\". The sculpture was titled \"\"Myrrha of the Post Industrial World\"\" and depicted a nude woman sitting on a rectangular pedestal. It was an outdoor project in Bryant Park, and the skin of the sculpture was made of perforated steel. Inside was a visible skeleton of polystyrene. When finished, the sculpture was 29 feet tall.", "Several metamorphosing insects' scientific names reference the myth. \"Myrrha\" is a genus of ladybug beetles, such as the 18-spot ladybird (\"Myrrha octodecimguttata\") \"Libythea myrrha\", the club beak, is a butterfly native to India. \"Polyommatus myrrha\" is a rare species of butterfly named by Gottlieb August Wilhelm Herrich-Schäffer found on Mount Erciyes in south-eastern Turkey. \"Catocala myrrha\" is a synonym for a species of moth known as married underwing. In total the United Kingdom's Natural History Museum lists seven Lepidoptera (moths and butterflies) with the myrrha name. Myrrh is a bitter-tasting, aromatic, yellow to reddish brown gum. It is obtained from small thorny flowering trees of the genus \"Commiphora\", which is a part of the incense-tree family (Burseraceae). There are two main varieties of myrrh: bisabol and herabol. Bisabol is produced by \"C. erythraea\", an Arabian species similar to the \"C. myrrha\", which produces the herabol myrrh. \"C. myrrha\" grows in Ethiopia, Arabia, and Somalia. A large asteroid, measuring is named 381 Myrrha. It was discovered and named at January 10, 1894 by A. Charlois at Nice. The mythical Myrrha inspired the name and her son, Adonis, is the name given to another asteroid, 2101 Adonis. Using classical names like Myrrha, Juno, and Vesta when naming minor planets was standard custom at the time when Myrrha was discovered. It was the general opinion that using numbers instead might lead to unnecessary confusion." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Inspiration and recording.", "\"Top of the Pops\".", "Release.", "In popular culture.", "Personnel." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Though credited, like most of their compositions, to the singer/guitarist pair of Mick Jagger and Keith Richards, the song was primarily the work of Jagger, who wrote it sometime during the filming of \"Ned Kelly\" in 1969. The song was written by Jagger with Marsha Hunt, Jagger's secret girlfriend and mother of his first child Karis, in mind. It is also claimed it was written with Claudia Lennear in mind. Lennear claimed to be the song's subject on BBC's Radio 4 (25 February 2014, \"Today\"), because she kept Jagger's company at the time when it was written. \"Brown Sugar\" was recorded over a three-day period at Muscle Shoals Sound Studio in Sheffield, Alabama, from 2 to 4 December 1969. The song was not released until over a year later due to legal wranglings with the band's former label. At the request of guitarist Mick Taylor (who had joined the band as Brian Jones' replacement in July 1969), the Stones debuted the number live during the infamous concert at the Altamont Speedway on 6 December 1969. In the liner notes to the compilation album \"\" (1993), Jagger says, \"The lyric was all to do with the dual combination of drugs and girls. This song was a very instant thing, a definite high point\". In the \"Rolling Stone\" interview (14 December 1995, RS 723) Jagger spoke at length about the song, its inspiration and success, and taking credit for writing the lyrics. Keith Richards also credits Jagger with the song in his autobiography. He attributed the success of the song to a \"good groove\". After noting that the lyrics could mean so many lewd subjects, he again noted that the combination of those subjects, the lyrical ambiguity was partially why the song was considered successful. He noted, \"That makes it... the whole mess thrown in. God knows what I'm on about on that song. It's such a mishmash. All the nasty subjects in one go... I never would write that song now.\" When interviewer Jann Wenner asked him why, Jagger replied, \"I would probably censor myself. I'd think, 'Oh God, I can't. I've got to stop. I can't just write raw like that. The lyrical subject matter has often been a point of interest and controversy. Described by rock critic Robert Christgau as \"a rocker so compelling that it discourages exegesis\", \"Brown Sugars popularity indeed often overshadowed its scandalous lyrics, which were essentially a pastiche of a number of taboo subjects, including slavery, rape, interracial sex, cunnilingus, sadomasochism, lost virginity and heroin. An alternative version was recorded on 18 December 1970, at Olympic Studios in London, after (or during) a birthday party for Richards. It features appearances by Al Kooper on piano, and Eric Clapton on slide guitar. Richards considered releasing this version on \"Sticky Fingers\", mostly for its more spontaneous atmosphere, but decided on the original. The alternative version, which had previously been available only on bootleg recordings, was released in June 2015 on the Deluxe and Super Deluxe editions of the reissued \"Sticky Fingers\" album.", "To promote the song, the Rolling Stones performed on \"Top of the Pops\" with the performance taped sometime around late March 1971, and being shown on 15 April and 6 May. They performed \"Brown Sugar\", \"Wild Horses\" and \"Bitch\" for the show's segment dedicated to albums, which was shown on 22 April 1971; due to BBC practices at the time, the performances were erased and all that remains is \"Brown Sugar\".", "\"Brown Sugar\" was eventually released in April 1971 as the first single from the album, becoming a number one hit in both the United States and Canada and a number two hit in both the United Kingdom and Ireland, and has since become a classic rock radio staple. While the US single featured only \"Bitch\" as the B-side, the British single featured that track plus a live rendition of Chuck Berry's \"Let It Rock\", recorded at the University of Leeds during the 1971 tour of the United Kingdom. In the United States, \"Billboard\" ranked it as the number 16 song for 1971. In the United Kingdom, the single was originally issued in mono using a now-rarely heard bespoke mono mix. This mono mix has never been used on any compilation. The song was performed routinely during the Stones' 1970 European Tour, occupying a prominent spot near the end of the set list even though audiences were unfamiliar with it. The band opened the shows of their infamous 1972 American Tour with \"Brown Sugar\", and it has become a Stones concert staple. When the Stones perform \"Brown Sugar\" live, Jagger often changes the lyrics from \"Just like a young girl should\" to \"Just like a young man should\". The line \"Hear him whip the women just around midnight\" is often changed to the less offensive \"You shoulda heard him just around midnight\". This is evident on their live albums \"Love You Live\", \"Flashpoint\", \"Live Licks\", \"Shine a Light\",\"Totally Stripped\", and Voodoo Lounge Uncut. This change also occurs on the version recorded at Richards's birthday party. The Altamont debut of the song in December 1969 uses \"You shoulda heard him just around midnight.\" (Source: YouTube recordings). The song is also the first single released on Rolling Stones Records (catalogue number RS-19100) and is one of the two Stones songs (along with \"Wild Horses\") licensed to both the band and former manager Allen Klein (a result of various business disagreements) resulting in its inclusion on the compilation album \"Hot Rocks 1964–1971\". \"Brown Sugar\" is also included on the most significant latter-day Rolling Stones compilations, \"\", \"Forty Licks\" and \"GRRR!\".", "\"Brown Sugar\" was used prominently in the 1981 film \"Nighthawks\" as background music for the scene in which New York police detectives played by Sylvester Stallone and Billy Dee Williams search a crowded disco for a terrorist (Rutger Hauer). Little Richard covered the song while he was signed to Reprise Records.", "The Rolling Stones Additional personnel" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Color.", "Historical periods.", "Prehistoric.", "Antiquity.", "Middle Ages.", "Renaissance.", "Modern Era." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Ancient statues often show the bare surface of the material of which they are made. For example many people associate Greek classical art with white marble sculpture, but there is evidence that many statues were painted in bright colors. Most of the color has weathered off over time; small remnants were removed during cleaning; in some cases small traces remained that could be identified. A travelling exhibition of 20 coloured replicas of Greek and Roman works, alongside 35 original statues and reliefs, was held in Europe and the United States in 2008: Gods in Color: Painted Sculpture of Classical Antiquity. Details such as whether the paint was applied in one or two coats, how finely the pigments were ground or exactly which binding medium would have been used in each case—all elements that would affect the appearance of a finished piece—are not known. Richter goes so far as to say of classical Greek sculpture, \"All stone sculpture, whether limestone or marble, was painted, either wholly or in part.\" Medieval statues were also usually painted, with some still retaining their original pigments. The coloring of statues ceased during the Renaissance, since excavated classical sculptures, which had lost their coloring, became regarded as the best models.", "", "The Löwenmensch figurine from the Swabian Alps in Germany is the oldest known statuette in the world (it is just over a foot tall), and dates to 30,000-40,000 years ago. The Venus of Hohle Fels, from the same area, is somewhat later. From the ancient Near East, the over-life sized stone Urfa Man from modern Turkey comes from about 9,000 BC, and the 'Ain Ghazal Statues from around 7200 BC and 6500 BC. These are from modern Jordan, made of lime plaster and reeds, and about half life-size; there are 15 statues, some with two heads side by side, and 15 busts.", "Throughout history, statues have been associated with cult images in many religious traditions, from Ancient Egypt, Ancient India, Ancient Greece, and Ancient Rome to the present. Egyptian statues showing kings as sphinxes have existed since the Old Kingdom, the oldest being for Djedefre (c. 2500 BC). The oldest statue of a striding pharaoh dates from the reign of Senwosret I (c. 1950 BC) and is the Egyptian Museum, Cairo. The Middle Kingdom of Egypt (starting around 2000 BC) witnessed the growth of block statues which then became the most popular form until the Ptolemaic period (c. 300 BC). The focal point of the cella or main interior space of a Roman or Greek temple was a statue of the deity it was dedicated to. In major temples these could be several times life-size. Other statues of deities might have subordinate positions along the side walls. The oldest statue of a deity in Rome was the bronze statue of Ceres in 485 BC. The oldest statue in Rome is now the statue of Diana on the Aventine. For a successful Greek or Roman politician or businessman (who donated considerable sums to public projects for the honour), having a public statue, preferably in the local forum or the grounds of a temple was an important confirmation of status, and these sites filled up with statues on plinths (mostly smaller than those of their 19th century equivalents). The wonders of the world include several statues from antiquity, with the Colossus of Rhodes and the Statue of Zeus at Olympia among the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.", "While sculpture generally flourished in European Medieval art, the single statue was not one of the most common types, except for figures of the Virgin Mary, usually with Child, and the \"corpus\" or body of Christ on crucifixes. Both of these appeared in all size up to life-size, and by the late Middle Ages many churches, even in villages, had a crucifixion group around a rood cross. The Gero Cross in Cologne is both one of the earliest and finest large figures of the crucified Christ. As yet, full-size standing statues of saints and rulers were uncommon, but tomb effigies, generally lying down, were very common for the wealthy from about the 14th century, having spread downwards from royal tombs in the centuries before. While Byzantine art flourished in various forms, sculpture and statue making witnessed a general decline; although statues of emperors continued to appear. An example was the statue of Justinian (6th century) which stood in the square across from the Hagia Sophia until the fall of Constantinople in the 15th century. Part of the decline in statue making in the Byzantine period can be attributed to the mistrust the Church placed in the art form, given that it viewed sculpture in general as a method for making and worshiping idols. While making statues was not subject to a general ban, it was hardly encouraged in this period. Justinian was one of the last Emperors to have a full-size statue made, and secular statues of any size became virtually non-existent after iconoclasm; and the artistic skill for making statues was lost in the process.", "Italian Renaissance art identified the standing statue as the key form of Roman art to survive, and there was a great revival of statues of both religious and secular figures, to which most of the leading figures contributed, led by Donatello and Michelangelo. The equestrian statue, a great technical challenge, was mastered again, and gradually statue groups. These trends intensified in Baroque art, when every ruler wanted to have statues made of themself, and Catholic churches filled with crowds of statues of saints, although after the Protestant Reformation religious sculpture largely disappeared from Protestant churches, with some exceptions in large Lutheran German churches. In England, churches instead were filled with increasing elaborate tomb monuments, for which the ultimate models were continental extravagances such as the Papal tombs in Rome, those of the Doges of Venice, or the French royal family. In the late 18th and 19th century there was a growth in public open air statues of public figures on plinths. As well as monarches, politicians, generals, landowners, and eventually artists and writers were commemorated. World War I saw the war memorial, previously uncommon, become very widespread, and these were often statues of generic soldiers.", "Starting with the work of Maillol around 1900, the human figures embodied in statues began to move away from the various schools of realism that been followed for thousands of years. The Futurist and Cubist schools took this metamorphism even further until statues, often still nominally representing humans, had lost all but the most rudimentary relationship to the human form. By the 1920s and 1930s statues began to appear that were completely abstract in design and execution. The notion that the position of the hooves of horses in equestrian statues indicated the rider's cause of death has been disproved." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Inspiration and recording.", "Music video.", "Release and legacy.", "Cover versions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "In the liner notes to the 1993 Rolling Stones compilation album \"\", Jagger states, \"I remember we sat around originally doing this with Gram Parsons, and I think his version came out slightly before ours. Everyone always says this was written about Marianne but I don't think it was; that was all well over by then. But I was definitely very inside this piece emotionally.\" Richards says, \"If there is a classic way of Mick and me working together this is it. I had the riff and chorus line, Mick got stuck into the verses. Just like \"Satisfaction\", \"Wild Horses\" was about the usual thing of not wanting to be on the road, being a million miles from where you want to be.\" Originally recorded over a three-day period at Muscle Shoals Sound Studio in Alabama during 2–4 December 1969 while Albert and David Maysles were shooting for the film that was titled \"Gimme Shelter\", the song was not released until over a year later due to legal wranglings with the band's former label. Along with \"Brown Sugar\", it is one of the two Rolling Stones compositions from \"Sticky Fingers\" (1971) over which ABKCO Records co-owns the rights along with the Stones. It features session player Jim Dickinson on piano, Richards on electric guitar and 12-string acoustic guitar, and Mick Taylor on acoustic guitar. Taylor uses Nashville tuning, in which the EADG strings of the acoustic guitar are strung one octave higher than in standard tuning. Ian Stewart was present at the session, but refused to perform the piano part on the track due to the prevalence of minor chords, which he disliked playing.", "A music video, filmed in black and white, was produced to promote an acoustic version in 1995.", "Released as the second US-only single in June 1971, \"Wild Horses\" reached number 28 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 chart. An early, acoustic take of \"Wild Horses\" was released on the Deluxe and Super Deluxe versions of the reissued \"Sticky Fingers\" album on 8 June 2015. A reworked studio version recorded in 1995 appeared on the album \"Stripped\". This version was released as a single in early 1996. The song appears on a handful of the Rolling Stones' concert DVDs: \"Bridges to Babylon Tour '97–98\" (1998), \"Rolling Stones - Four Flicks\" (2003), and \"The Biggest Bang\" (2007). Jagger's ex-wife, Jerry Hall, has named \"Wild Horses\" as her favourite Rolling Stones song. \"Wild Horses\" figures prominently in the films \"Adaptation\" (2002) and \"Camp\" (2003). On television, the song was played during \"Parks and Recreation\" in the episode \"Li'l Sebastian\" (S3: E16) as background music to Li'l Sebastian's memorial service, and was used during the Season 1 finale of \"Bojack Horseman\" in the episode \"Later\". An instrumental version of the song is featured during the end credits of Martin Scorsese's Rolling Stones documentary film \"Shine a Light\" (2008).", "One year prior to its release on \"Sticky Fingers\", Gram Parsons convinced Jagger and Richards to allow him to record \"Wild Horses\" with his band The Flying Burrito Brothers. He had become good friends with Richards and helped with the arrangement of \"Country Honk\" as it appeared on the album \"Let It Bleed\". The song was included on the album \"Burrito Deluxe\" released in April 1970 on A&M Records. In 1971, R&B vocal girl group Labelle covered it for their self-titled studio album. Leon Russell recorded the song in 1974 for his album \"Stop All That Jazz\", and again in 1998 for the multi-artist tribute album \"Cover You: A Tribute to the Rolling Stones\". Russell also played piano on the Burrito Brothers' \"Burrito Deluxe\" recording. Melanie also recorded the song for her 1974 album \"Madrugada\". The bluegrass band Old & In the Way released a version of the song on their 1975 debut album. The song was prominently covered by British indie guitar group The Sundays, for the B-side of their 1992 single \"Goodbye\". This version was featured in the 1996 thriller film \"Fear\", the \"\" episode \"Crash and Burn\", and the \"Buffy the Vampire Slayer\" episode \"The Prom\". It was further featured on the\"\" compilation. The Sundays' cover was also used in a television advertisement for Budweiser beer in the mid-1990s, featuring slow-motion footage of galloping Clydesdale horses. Otis Clay recorded the song for the 1997 tribute album \"Paint It Blue: Songs of the Rolling Stones\". A cover version by Neil McCarthy and Ivo Matos appeared on the 2011 tribute album \"Paint It Black: An Alt Country Tribute To The Rolling Stones\". In 2009, Susan Boyle recorded a version as the opening track of her album \"I Dreamed a Dream\". Boyle's version reached number 9 in the UK that spring, and number 11 in Ireland during the fall. Country/Americana singers Buddy Miller and Shawn Colvin recorded the song for his 2016 album \"Cayamo: Sessions at Sea\". Dave Matthews performed a live duet of the song with Jagger, which was featured on the concert DVD \"Bridges to Babylon Tour '97–98\". Willie Nelson and the Nelson Family covered the song and issued a video to help the Animal Welfare Institute campaign to protect wild horses in America. Daniel Letterle covered \"Wild Horses\" for the film \"Camp\". Aly Michalka covered the song in a \"Hellcats\" episode. On the first season of the American version of \"The X Factor\" in 2011, contestant Josh Krajcik performed a rendition of the song solo while playing the piano as his fifth live performance." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "Extent.", "Terrain.", "Geology.", "Conservation.", "Tourism.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The Elbe Sandstone Mountains extend on both sides of the Elbe from the Saxon town of Pirna in the northwest toward Bohemian Děčín in the southeast. Their highest peak with is the Děčínský Sněžník in Bohemian Switzerland on the left bank of the river in Bohemian Switzerland north of Děčín. The mountain range links the Ore Mountains in the west with the Lusatian Highlands range of the Sudetes in the east. Saxon Switzerland and the Zittau Mountains of the Lusatian Mountains form the Saxon-Bohemian Chalk Sandstone Region.", "The most striking characteristic of this deeply dissected rocky mountain range is the extraordinary variety of terrain within the smallest area. Unique amongst the Central European Uplands are the constant changes between plains, ravines, table mountains and rocky regions with undeveloped areas of forest. This diversity is ecologically significant. The variety of different locations, each with its own conditions in terms of soil and microclimate, has produced an enormous richness of species. The numbers of ferns and mosses alone is unmatched by any other of the German central uplands. The occurrence of Elbe sandstones and hence the Elbe Sandstone Mountains themselves is related to widespread deposition by a former sea in the Upper Cretaceous epoch. On the Saxon side of the border the term \"Elbe Valley Cretaceous\" (\"Elbtalkreide\") is used, referring to a region stretching from Meißen-Oberau in the northwest through Dresden and Pirna into Saxon Switzerland, and which is formed by sandstones, planers and other rocks as well as basal conglomerates (\"Grundschottern\" or \"Basalkonglomerate\") of older origin. Several erosion relics from Reinhardtsgrimma through Dippoldiswalde and the Tharandt Forest to Siebenlehn form isolated examples south of Dresden. They are mainly characterised by sandstones. On the Bohemian side the sandstone beds continue and form part of the North Bohemian Cretaceous (\"Nordböhmische Kreide\"). The chalk sediments of the Zittau Basin are counted as part of the latter due to their regional-geological relationships. The sedimentary sequences of the Cretaceous sea continue across a wide area of the Czech Republic to Moravia. Together these beds form the Saxon-Bohemian Cretaceous Zone. In Czech geological circles, the Elbe Valley Cretaceous is described as the foothills of the Bohemian Cretaceous Basin (\"Böhmischen Kreidebecken\").", "The eroded sandstone landscape of this region was formed from depositions that accumulated on the bottom of the sea millions of years ago. Large rivers carried sand and other eroded debris into the Cretaceous sea. Rough quartz sand, clay and fine marl sank and became lithified layer by layer. A compact sandstone sequence developed, about 20 x 30 kilometres wide and up to 600 metres thick dating to the lower Cenomanian to Santonian stages. The tremendous variety of shapes in the sandstone landscape is a result of the subsequent chemical and physical erosion and biological processes acting on the rocks formed from those sands laid down during the Cretaceous Period. The inlets of a Cretaceous sea, together with marine currents, carried away sand over a very long period of time into a shallow zone of the sea and then the diagenetic processes at differing pressure regimes resulted in the formation of sandstone beds. Its stratification is characterized by variations in the horizontal structure (deposits of clay minerals, grain sizes of quartz, differences in the grain-cement) as well as a typical but fairly small fossil presence and variably porous strata. After the Cretaceous sea had retreated (marine regression), the surface of the land was shaped by weathering influences and watercourses, of which the Elbe made the deepest incision. Later the Lusatian granodiorite was uplifted over the 600 metre thick sandstone slab along the Lusatian Fault and pushed it downwards until it fractured. This northern boundary of the sandstone deposit lies roughly along the line Pillnitz–Hohnstein–Hinterhermsdorf–Krásná Lípa (\"Schönlinde\"). In the Tertiary period, the adjacent region of the Central Bohemian Uplands and the Lusatian Mountains was shaped and affected by intense volcanism; but individual intrusions of magma also forced their way through the sandstone platform of the Elbe Sandstone Mountains. The most striking evidence of this phase in the earth's history are the conical basaltic hills of Růžovský vrch (\"Rosenberg\"), Cottaer Spitzberg and Raumberg, but also Großer and Kleiner Winterberg. At its southwestern edge the sandstone plate was uplifted by over 200 metres at the Karsdorf Fault, whereby the slab was tilted even more and increased the gradient of the Elbe River. The water masses cut valleys into the rock with their streambeds and contributed in places to the formation of the rock faces. Over time the gradients reduced, the streambed of the Elbe widened out and changed its course time and again, partly as a result of the climatic influences of the ice ages. The mineral composition of the sandstone beds has a direct effect on the morphology of the terrain. The fine-grained form with clayey-silty cement between the quartz grains causes banks and slopes with terracing. The beds of sandstone with siliceous cement are typically the basis of the formation of rock faces and crags. Small variations in the cement composition of the rock can have a visible impact on the landscape. Elbe Sandstone gets its characteristic cuboid appearance from its thick horizontal strata (massive bedding) and its vertical fissures. In 1839 Bernhard Cotta wrote about this in his comments on the \"geognostic map\": \"Vertical fissures and cracks cut through, often virtually at right angles, the horizontal layers and, as a result, parallelepiped bodies are formed, that have given rise to the description Quader Sandstone.\". \"Quader\" is German for an ashlar or block of stone, hence the name \"Square Sandstone\" is also used in English. The term quader sandstone mountains or square sandstone mountains (\"Quadersandsteingebirge\"), introduced by Hanns Bruno Geinitz in 1849, is an historic, geological term for similar sandstone deposits, but was also used in connection with the Elbe Sandstone Mountains. The fissures were formed as a result of long-term tectonic stresses on the entire sandstone platform of the mountain range. This network of clefts runs through the sandstone beds in a relatively regular way, but in different directions in two regions of the range. Subsequent weathering processes of very different forms and simultaneous complex deposition (leaching, frost and salt wedging, wind, solution weathering with sintering as well as biogenic and microbial effects) have further changed the nature of the rock surface. For example, collapse caves, small hole-like cavities (honeycomb weathering) with hourglass-shaped pillars (\"Sanduhr\"), chimneys, crevices and mighty, rugged rock faces. Many morphological formations in the rocky landscape of the Elbe Sandstone Mountains are suspected to have been formed as a consequence of karstification. Important indicators of such processes in the polygenetic and polymorphic erosion landscape of the Elbe Sandstone Mountains are the furrows with parallel ridges between them (grykes and clints) that look like cart ruts and which are particularly common, as well as extensive cave systems. They are occasionally described by the term pseudokarst. The application of the concept to several erosion formations in the sandstone of this mountain range is however contentious. Czech geologists have identified in quartzite-cemented sandstone areas in the northern part of the Bohemian Cretaceous Basin, karst features in the shape of spherical caverns and cave formations. According to them, these emerged as a result of solution processes by water in complex interactions with iron compounds from neighbouring or intrusive magmatic-volcanic rocks. The variation in relief in these sandstone regions is explained on the basis of these processes. The Elbe Sandstone Mountains are the greatest cretaceous sandstone erosion complex in Europe. Human-induced changes caused by nearly 1,000 years of continual sandstone quarrying have also contributed in parts of the sandstone highlands to the appearance of the landscape today. The fissures (called \"Loose\" by the quarrymen) played an important role here, because they provided in effect natural divisions in the rock that were helpful when demolishing a rock face or when dressing the rough blocks of stone. The sandstone of this region is a sought-after building material used for example, for imposing city edifices such as the Church of Our Lady in Dresden.", "Large parts of the Elbe Sandstone Mountains are under statutory protection. In Germany there is the national park region of Saxon Switzerland, which consists two elements: the Saxon Switzerland National Park itself, founded in 1990 and covered an area of 93 km2; and the protected area surrounding it that was founded in 1956 and covers 287 km2. The German part of the range was also designated in May 2006 as one of the 77 most important national geotopes in Germany by the Academy of Geosciences in Hanover. In the Bohemian part of the range there has been a nature reserve in the northeastern region since 1972 called the Elbe Sandstone Protected Area (\"Chráněná krajinná oblast Labské pískovce\") with an area of 324 km2. In 2000, the Bohemian Switzerland National Park (\"Národní park České Švýcarsko\") was established with an area of 79 km2, bringing around 700 km2 of the range under protection as a natural and cultural landscape.", "The Elbe Sandstone mountains have been a popular destination for tourists for more than 200 years, and for climbers for more than 100 years. It is also a popular recreation area for the nearby Saxon capital Dresden. Places of interest include the Bastei cliffs near Rathen, the Königstein Fortress, Pravčická brána, the Schrammsteine, Pfaffenstein, and the valleys of the Kirnitzsch and Kamenice rivers. There are some 14,000 climbing routes via which mountain climbers can conquer 1100 free-standing peaks. Visitors can experience the natural scenes on the asphalt Elbe cycle path, or on board a steam paddleboat that is part of the oldest fleet of its kind in the world. The Elbe Sandstone Mountains have numerous facilities for cure and rehabilitation. The region has a tradition of many years. The discovery of ferrous and sulphurous sources in Bad Schandau in 1730 led to its development as a health resort and the building of swimming baths.", "" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background and recording.", "Structure.", "Live.", "Critical reception.", "Renditions by other artists.", "Linda Ronstadt version.", "Other versions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "An early version of \"Tumbling Dice\", called \"Good Time Women\", was recorded in 1970 during the sessions for \"Sticky Fingers\". The song is a bluesy boogie-woogie, with heavy emphasis on Ian Stewart's piano work. The two songs are similar in structure in that they have the same chord progression and a similar melody. Also, Jagger sings the hook to the accompaniment of Mick Taylor's lone lead guitar. However, \"Good Time Women\" lacked an opening riff, a background choir, and the beat which propels the groove of \"Tumbling Dice\". (An October 1970 recording of \"Good Time Women\" was released in 2010 on the deluxe remastered release of \"Exile on Main St\".) \"Tumbling Dice\" was recorded in the basement of the chateau Villa Nellcôte, near Villefranche-sur-Mer, France. The recording schedule for \"Exile on Main St.\" had the band sleeping during the day and recording with who was around at night. The basic track of the song was recorded on 3 August 1971. Mick Taylor, the Rolling Stones' second guitarist, played bass on the track, due to bassist Bill Wyman's absence that night, and Mick Jagger played guitar. In \"Rolling With the Stones\", Bill Wyman said: \"On 3 August we worked on 'Good Time Woman' and when I arrived the following day I found Mick Taylor playing bass. I hung around until 3am then left.\" In the liner notes to \"\", Richards stated, \"I remember writing the riff upstairs in the very elegant front room, and we took it downstairs the same evening and we cut it.\" Jagger said of the lyrics, \"It's weird where your lyric things come from. On Tumbling Dice, I sat down with the house keeper and talked to her about gambling. She liked to play dice and I really didn't know much about it, but I got it off her and managed to make the song out of that.\" He concluded, \" 'Tumbling Dice' was written to fit Keith's riff. It's about gambling and love, an old blues track.\" When discussing Tumbling Dice, recording engineer Andy Johns stated, that recording of the song was \"like pulling teeth\" due to the extended period of time it took to get a satisfactory take. Johns has claimed that there were between thirty and one hundred reels of tape on the base track of the song. Some have said that it may have taken as many as 150 takes to get the basic track of the song. The mixing of the album was also difficult, Jagger has never liked the final mix of the song, stating in an interview with \"Melody Maker\", \"I think they used the wrong mix for that one. I know they did.\" The single was released on 14 April 1972. \"Tumbling Dice\" peaked at number 7 on the US \"Billboard\" Hot 100 chart and number 5 in the UK Singles chart. It was the Rolling Stones' 23rd single in the United States and their 17th in the United Kingdom. The single's B-side was \"Sweet Black Angel\", a song written by Jagger about Black Panther activist Angela Davis.", "\"Tumbling Dice\" is known for its \"groove\", with Aerosmith's Joe Perry saying the song is, \"so laid-back, it really sucks you in...\". The song's tempo has often been credited with creating that groove. In concert, Jagger and Richards have been known to argue over the speed of the song, with Jagger trying to push the song's tempo a bit faster. The song's lyrical structure is irregular. While many songs have the same number of lines for the verse or chorus, the first verse has eight lines, the second verse has six lines, and the last verse has two lines. The song's first chorus has two lines, the second chorus has three, and the third chorus has twelve lines. At the beginning of every chorus, the piano, bass and drums drop out and the backing vocals sing \"you got to roll me\" as the guitar plays the song's signature guitar figure. The third chorus leads into the song's coda. Slowly, the band's rhythm section works its way back into the song. The coda includes a call and response with the backing vocals singing \"you got to roll me\" as Jagger and Richards respond by singing \"keep on rollin'.\" This happens over a pounding beat laid down by Charlie Watts. After a few measures, Watts resumes playing his regular drum pattern. The coda continues for another minute as Jagger ad-libs lyrics until the fade out. After over forty years, it has now been acknowledged that Jimmy Miller played the last part of the song right as the coda begins due to Watts having difficulty with the conclusion of the song. Tumbling Dice remains the only Rolling Stones song where Charlie Watts overdubbed a second drum part over the original part, creating a much bigger sound.", "The Rolling Stones performed \"Tumbling Dice\" live for the first time on 3 June 1972 at the Pacific Coliseum in Vancouver, British Columbia, at the start of their 1972 North American Tour. Since then, only seven regular tour concerts and a handful of benefit shows have not included \"Tumbling Dice\". From 29 April to 3 May 1976, during the European tour 1976, the Stones did not feature the song in the setlist. The first two nights of the 1999 No Security Tour did not feature \"Tumbling Dice\" making them the first regular tour concerts in 23 years not to feature it. Several live recordings of the song have been released. The 1977 double album \"Love You Live\" features a version recorded on 7 June 1976 at Les Abattoirs, Paris, France. The 2008 release \"Shine a Light\" captures a New York City performance of the song from the 2006 leg of the A Bigger Bang Tour, while a July 2013 performance in London's Hyde Park is included in \"Hyde Park Live\". \"Tumbling Dice\" has also been included in several \"From the Vault\" archive releases, including \"Hampton Coliseum – Live In 1981\" (2014) and \"L.A. Forum - Live In 1975\" (2014). Additionally, a unique live version of the song was recorded for \"Stripped\", the 1995 CD that documented part of the Voodoo Lounge Tour, but did not appear on that album or on the 2016 rerelease CD, \"Totally Stripped\". The recording crossfades from a backstage vocal rehearsal of the song on solo piano to an onstage performance of the song. The backstage rehearsal portion was recorded at the Paradiso, Amsterdam, on 26 or 27 May 1995, and the live performance at the Olympia, Paris, on 3 July 1995. This recording appeared on the 1996 \"Wild Horses\" (live) single and the \"Rarities 1971-2003\" album. Many Stones concert films have included \"Tumbling Dice\": \"\" (1974), \"Let's Spend the Night Together\" (1983), \"Stones at the Max\" (1992), \"\" (1995; extended version, 2018), \"Bridges to Babylon Tour '97–98\" (1998), \"Rolling Stones - Four Flicks\" (2003), \"The Biggest Bang\" (2007), \"Shine a Light\" (2008), \"\" (2011), and \"Sweet Summer Sun: Hyde Park Live\" (2013). On 21 May 1972, \"Top of the Pops\" broadcast a film made of the Stones rehearsing \"Tumbling Dice\" in Montreaux for the 1972 tour. On 27 May 1972 \"The Old Grey Whistle Test\" showed the same footage.", "Due to its length and musical scope, most reviews of \"Exile on Main St.\" glossed over the album's individual songs to focus on the album as a whole. However, Lenny Kaye, in his review for \"Rolling Stone\", took a paragraph to describe the song. \"Disc\" magazine on 15 April 1972 said: The song has earned spots on numerous \"best of\" lists, including \"Spin\" ranking it as the third greatest single of all time. \"Rolling Stone\" ranked \"Tumbling Dice\" as #424 on their list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time in 2004, and \"Q magazine\" ranked it #258 on their 1001 Greatest Songs of All Time.", "", "In 1977, Linda Ronstadt covered the song \"Tumbling Dice\" for her \"Simple Dreams\" studio album. In an interview with \"Hit Parader\" magazine, she stated that her band played \"Tumbling Dice\" for sound checks, but nobody knew the words. Mick Jagger suggested that Ronstadt should sing more hard rock songs and suggested \"Tumbling Dice\", and she made him write down the lyrics. Ronstadt's version however, varied significantly from the Rolling Stones version with the opening lines. The Rolling Stones version began with: Alternatively, Ronstadt opened with: Produced by Peter Asher and released on Asylum Records as a single in the spring of 1978, Ronstadt's version peaked at number 32 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 chart. She also performed the song and starred in the movie \"FM\". Her live version appears on the soundtrack album to this 1978 film \"FM\". Linda Ronstadt joined the Rolling Stones onstage to sing \"Tumbling Dice\" on 21 July 1978 in her hometown of Tucson, Arizona. In 2001, Hilary Rosen, representing the RIAA, testified before the U.S. Senate Committee on Governmental Affairs and listed a number of songs that would be in danger of censorship. Among those were Linda Ronstadt's cover of \"Tumbling Dice\", which Rosen said was \"a song about rape written by Mick Jagger and Keith Richards.\"", "The band Pussy Galore covered all of the \"Exile on Main St.\" album on their album \"Exile on Main Street\". \"The LA Times\" has referred to the song quality of their version as if \"it was recorded in the tank of a Lower East Side toilet.\" Phish has also covered this song, performing it as part of their 2009 Halloween show, in addition to covering the entire \"Exile on Main St.\" album. Keith Urban performed a version on \"The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon\" in May 2010. Urban's version was called a \"surprisingly hard-rocking rendition\" of the song by \"Rolling Stone\". For the performance, he recruited long-time \"Rolling Stones\" keyboardist Chuck Leavell in an effort to add \"some authenticity to his version\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "In concert." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Credited to Jagger/Richards, \"Happy\" was written primarily by Keith Richards during the summer of 1971, at the villa Nellcôte in southern France, over the course of a single afternoon. According to Richards, \"We did that in an afternoon, in only four hours, cut and done. At noon it had never existed. At four o'clock it was on tape.\" The basic tracks were recorded in the Nellcôte basement, using the Rolling Stones Mobile Studio, with Richards on bass, guitar and vocals, producer Jimmy Miller on drums, and saxophonist Bobby Keys on maracas. Piano by Nicky Hopkins was added later, as were Jim Price's trumpet, Keys' saxophone, and the final vocal tracks, including Mick Jagger's backing vocals. \"Happy\" was the only single by the band to chart on the Hot 100 on which Richards sang lead.", "Since 1972, Richards has often sung \"Happy\" in concert and it has become one of his signature tunes. Performances of the song through 1978 also featured Jagger's vocals during the chorus. Concert renditions of the song appear on the albums \"Love You Live\" and \"Live Licks\"; the studio track has been released on the compilation albums \"Made in the Shade\", \"Forty Licks\" and \"GRRR!\" The song also features on concert films and DVD box sets: \"\" (1974), \"Stones at the Max\" (1992), \"Four Flicks\" (2004), \"The Biggest Bang\" (2007), \"\" (2011), \"Sweet Summer Sun: Hyde Park Live\" (2013) and \"L.A. Forum - Live In 1975\" (2014)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Controversy and re-recording.", "Benefit concert and new trial.", "Cover versions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Carter and a man named John Artis had been charged with a triple murder at the Lafayette Grill in Paterson, New Jersey, in 1966. The following year Carter and Artis were found guilty of the murders, which were widely reported as racially motivated. In the years that followed, a substantial amount of controversy emerged over the case, ranging from allegations of faulty evidence and questionable eyewitness testimony to an unfair trial. In his autobiography, Carter maintained his innocence, and after reading it, Dylan visited him in Rahway State Prison in Woodbridge Township, New Jersey. \"Dylan had written topical ballads such as 'The Lonesome Death of Hattie Carroll' and Bob wasn't sure that he could write a song [about Carter]... He was just filled with all these feelings about Hurricane. He couldn't make the first step. I think the first step was putting the song in a total storytelling mode. I don't remember whose idea it was to do that. But really, the beginning of the song is like stage directions, like what you would read in a script: 'Pistol shots ring out in a barroom night... Here comes the story of the Hurricane.' Boom! Titles. You know, Bob loves movies, and he can write these movies that take place in eight to ten minutes, yet seem as full or fuller than regular movies\". After meeting with Carter in prison and later with a group of his supporters, Dylan began to write \"Hurricane\". The song was one of his few \"protest songs\" during the 1970s and proved to be his fourth most successful single of the decade, reaching #33 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100.", "Dylan first recorded the song in late July 1975; it featured Scarlet Rivera on violin and Vinnie Bell on Danelectro Bellzouki 12-string guitar. Dylan was forced to re-record the song, with altered lyrics, in October 1975 after concerns were raised by Columbia's lawyers that references to Alfred Bello and Arthur Dexter Bradley (the two star witnesses of the case) as having \"robbed the bodies\" could result in a lawsuit. Bello and Bradley had never been accused of such acts. Because there was too much leakage on the multitracks to make a vocal \"punch in,\" Dylan decided to re-record the entire song. At this time, he was already rehearsing for his upcoming tour, and the musicians from the Rolling Thunder Revue were still at his disposal. Dylan took violinist Rivera, guitarist Steven Soles, bassist Rob Rothstein, drummer Howie Wyeth, and percussionist Luther Rix back into the studio, and a new, faster version of \"Hurricane\" was recorded with Don DeVito again producing, and Ronee Blakley providing a harmony vocal. (There is a noticeable mistake in the 8-minute recording at 4:02 where the backing singer (Blakley) gets her line wrong. She sings: \"Remember you saw (said) you saw the getaway car.\") The final version of the song, which runs over eight minutes, was spliced together from two separate takes completed on October24, 1975. Even though some offending lyrics were removed, the song still drew legal action from eyewitness Patricia Graham (Patty) Valentine, who believed that it portrayed her as part of a conspiracy to frame Carter. However, her lawsuit was dismissed by a federal district court, and the United States Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit affirmed the dismissal. More generally, even with the revised lyrics, \"Hurricane\" was accused of factual errors. The song included a description of Carter as the \"number one contender\"; according to the May 1966 issue of \"The Ring\", he was ranked ninth around the time of his arrest and had never been ranked higher than third. Reporters for the \"Herald News\", a New Jersey newspaper published not far from the scene of the crime, questioned Dylan's objectivity at the time of the song's release and accused him of excessive poetic license. Dylan biographer Howard Sounes praised the song but noted \"there was no reference to his antagonistic rhetoric, criminal history, or violent temper.\"", "The song was released on the album \"Desire\" in January 1976, making the Carter case known to a broader public. \"Hurricane\" is credited with harnessing popular support to Carter's defense. During the fall tour preceding \"Desire\"s release, Dylan and the Rolling Thunder Revue played a benefit concert for Carter in New York City's Madison Square Garden, raising $100,000. The following year, they played another benefit at the Houston Astrodome. Dylan met with managers Richard Flanzer and Roy Silver, who provided Stevie Wonder, Ringo Starr and Dr. John for the concert. After expenses were paid, however, the Houston event failed to raise any money. Despite winning the right to a new trial, Carter and Artis were once again found guilty when the prosecution argued that the defendants committed triple murder at the Lafayette Grill in revenge for the killing of an African-American tavern owner earlier during the same night. In 1976, Carter was sentenced to two consecutive life terms. Dylan, and the other high-profile supporters, did not attend the trial. Artis was paroled five years later. In 1985 Federal Judge H. Lee Sarokin of the United States District Court for the District of New Jersey, who declined to hear the song when it was offered to him by his family, ruled that Carter had not received a fair trial and overturned the conviction, resulting in Carter's release and the granting of a writ of habeas corpus to Carter, commenting that the prosecution had been \"based on racism rather than reason and concealment rather than disclosure\". In 1988, after the prosecution said they would not seek a third trial and filed a motion to dismiss, following their failed appeal to the Supreme Court which declined to hear the case and upheld Sarokin's ruling, a Superior Court judge dropped all charges against Carter and Artis.", "The song has been covered by Ani DiFranco, Furthur, Middle Class Rut, the Milltown Brothers and Iain Lee when he sang it on his Late Night Alternative phone in show on Talkradio in January 2018. In the season three premiere of the HBO TV Show, Our Cartoon President, the song was parodied as a proclamation of Donald Trump's innocence during the 2020 impeachment trial of Donald Trump. The parody was performed by cartoon variants of Fox & Friends hosts Steve Doocy (On harmonica and acoustic guitar, a reference to Dylan's most commonly played instruments), Ainsley Earhardt (On cello), and Brian Kilmeade (On violin). Part of the song features in the play Girl from the North Country." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Collections.", "Classifications.", "Structure.", "Common themes.", "Adaptations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Most historians of East Slavic and Russian folklore believe that byliny as a genre arose during the Kievan period, during the tenth and eleventh century; byliny continued to be composed till about the arrival of the Tatars in the thirteenth century and the destruction of the Old East Slavic civilization. Byliny incorporate elements of history from several epochs into their stories. For example, byliny singers refer to many of the enemies of the Kievan people as Tartars though the stories originally referred to other steppe peoples in conflict with Kievan Rus'. The character of Prince Vladimir refers to a generalized \"epic Vladimir\" rather than an allusion to a specific historical Vladimir. Anthologists played an important role in the narration and preservation of byliny. After the Sakharov, there are numerous other anthologists who contributed to its development particularly during the eighteenth century. For example, there is the case of Kirsha Danilov, who produced a compilation of seventy byliny. His sources were believed to be miners living in the Perm area. The works of these folklorists provided insights into the transition of the Russian literary tradition from one that is focused on religious subjects to the secular literature. The first transcriptions of byliny were attributed to Richard James, an Englishman who traveled to Russia from 1619 and 1617. The half a dozen texts that he was able to record are now preserved in the Bodleian Library at Oxford. There was also a known German translation of the byliny and this was published anonymously in 1819. Overall, interest in the epic poem continued to the point that comprehensive and wide-ranging materials were sourced from virtually all of Great Russia. Although these were preserved, according to Kahn et al., only those byliny from the \"northern Russia, the areas of Arkhangelsk, Olonetsk, the Onega region, and parts of Siberia\" got actively transmitted into the twentieth century.", "Byliny have been collected in Russia since the seventeenth century; initially they were published for entertainment in prose paraphrases. The Cossack Kirsha Danilov compiled the most notable of the early collections in the Ural region for the mill owner Prokofi Demidov in the middle of the eighteenth century. In the middle of the nineteenth century Pavel Rybnikov traveled through the region of Lake Onega and rediscovered that the bylina tradition, which was thought to be extinct, still flourished among the peasants of northeast Russia. A storm stranded Rybnikov on an island in Lake Onega where he heard the sound of a bylina being sung; he persuaded the singer to repeat the song and wrote down his words. He proceeded to collect several hundred bylina, all of which he recorded from spoken paraphrase, and published them from 1861 to 1867 in several volumes entitled \"Songs Collected by P. N. Rybnikov\". Another influential collector, Alexander Gilferding, published one collection entitled \"Onega Bylinas Recorded by A. F. Gilferding in the Summer of 1871\". He improved upon Rybnikov's work by transcribing the byliny directly from the sung performance rather than the spoken retellings. He noticed that the rhythm differed between the sung and spoken versions, and asked the performers to pause for a longer period of time between lines to allow him time to record the words from the song itself. He also organized his collection by singer rather than subject and included short biographical sketches of the performers with their collected songs, thus focusing on the singer's role in the composition of the song. Following the work of Rybnikov and Gilferding, many more scholars searched for byliny everywhere in northern Russia, and obtained byliny from the shores of the White Sea and the rivers flowing to the north.", "There are several ways to categorize bylina, and scholars disagree on which classification to use. Scholars from the mythological school differentiate between byliny about 'older' and 'younger' heroes. The 'older' heroes resembled mythological figures, while the 'younger' heroes resembled ordinary human beings. The historical school classifies byliny based on the principality in which the story took place, as in Kievan, Novgorodian, and Galician-Volhynian cycles. The mythological byliny of giants and the like probably originated long before the Kievan state was founded, and cannot be classified easily by principality. Scholars of the historical school often consider mythological byliny separately. Other scholars group byliny based on content, including heroic, fairy tale type, novella type and ballad-byliny. Most scholars prefer classification based on principalities.", "Because of their nature as performed pieces, byliny singers employ basically linear and easy to follow structure. Byliny structure typically includes three basic parts, introduction, narrative portion and epilogue. The introduction sometimes includes a verse to entice the audience to listen. Introductions often describe heroes at a feast being given a task or setting out on a mission. The narrative portion relates the adventure with exaggerated details and hyperbole to make the story more exciting. The epilogue refers to the reward for the mission, a moral or a reference to the sea, since byliny were often performed to attempt to calm the sea. To help listeners grasp the story, singers used 'tag lines' to preface speeches or dialogues, setting up for the audience who is talking to whom.", "Scenes common to byliny include a hero taking leave of his mother, saddling a horse, entering a council chamber, bragging, departing over the wall of a city, going on a journey, urging on his horse, in battle, dressing in the morning, exchanging taunts with an enemy, becoming blood brothers with another hero, and asking for mercy. Singers may use their telling of these scenes in many of their songs, incorporating different elements in song after song. Themes in many bylina include the birth and childhood of a hero, father and son fighting, battling a monster, the imprisoned or reluctant hero returning in time to save his city, matchmaking or bride taking, a husband arriving at the wedding of his wife and encounters with a sorceress who turns men into animals. Christian beliefs mixed with pre-Christian ideas of magic and paganism in byliny, for instance, saints would appear to defend mortals against darkness.", "Vasily Kalinnikov, a famous Russian composer from the nineteenth century composed an overture on this theme, \"Bylina\". The music of the State Anthem of the Soviet Union and the Russian national anthem is also said to be inspired by the \"bylina\" tradition." ] }

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{ "title": [ "The name.", "History.", "\"Ainulindalë\".", "\"Quenta Silmarillion\".", "\"Children of Húrin\".", "The Cult of Melkor.", "Appearance and characteristics.", "Followers.", "Character development and history.", "\"Morgoth\".", "Interpretation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Melkor was renamed \"Morgoth\" when he destroyed the Two Trees of Valinor, murdered Finwë, the High King of the Noldor Elves, and stole the Silmarils in the First Age. The darker name was then bestowed by Finwë's son Fëanor, and the Elves called him thereafter by that name alone. The name \"Morgoth\" is Sindarin (one of Tolkien's invented languages) and means \"Dark Enemy\", \"Black Foe\", or \"Black Foe of the World\". \"Bauglir\" is also Sindarin, meaning \"Tyrant\" or \"Oppressor\". Fëanor actually named him in Quenya (another of Tolkien's languages), \"Moriñgotto\" or \"Moriñgotho\", and this was later translated into Sindarin as \"Morgoth\". \"Morgoth Bauglir\" is thus an epithet. His name in \"Ainulindalë\" (the creation myth of Middle-earth and first section of \"The Silmarillion\") is \"Melkor\", which means \"He Who Arises In Might\" in Quenya. This too is an epithet since he, like all the Ainur, had another \"true name\" in Valarin (in the legendarium, the language of the Ainur before the beginning of Time), but this name was not recorded. The Sindarin equivalent of \"Melkor\" was \"Belegûr\", but it was never used; instead a deliberately similar name \"Belegurth\", meaning \"Great Death\", was employed. In earlier versions of Tolkien's legendarium the form of his name was Melko, simply meaning \"Mighty One\". Like Sauron, he had a host of other titles: Lord of the Dark, the Dark Power of the North and Great Enemy. The Edain called him the Dark King and the Dark Power; the Númenóreans corrupted by Sauron called him the Lord of All and the Giver of Freedom. He was called \"Master of Lies\" by Amlach of the House of Hador.", "", "Before the creation of Eä and Arda (The Universe and the World), Melkor was the most powerful of the Ainur, the \"angelic beings\" created by Eru Ilúvatar (who is analogous to God in Tolkien's legendarium). Melkor, dissatisfied that Eru had abandoned the Void, had sought to emulate his creator and fill the Void with sentient beings. This, however, required the Flame Imperishable, the Secret Fire, which belonged to Eru alone; though Melkor searched for this, he could not find it. In what he hoped would be an alternative expression of his own originality and creativity, he contended with Eru in the Music of the Ainur, introducing what he perceived to be themes of his own. During the Great Music of the Ainur, Melkor attempted to alter the Music and introduced what he believed to be elements purely of his own design. As part of these efforts, he drew many weaker-willed Ainur to him, creating a counter to Eru's main theme. Ironically, these attempts did not truly subvert the Music, but only elaborated Eru's original intentions: the Music of Eru took on depth and beauty precisely because of the strife and sadness Melkor's disharmonies (and measures to rectify them) introduced. Unlike his fellow Ainu Aulë, Melkor was too proud to admit that his creations were simply discoveries made possible entirely by Eru. Instead, Melkor aspired to the level of Eru, the true creator of all possibilities. Since the Great Music of the Ainur stood as template for all of history and all of material creation in the Middle-earth cycle (it was first sung before Time, and then the universe was made in its image), the chaos introduced in the Music by Melkor's disharmonies was responsible for all evil in Arda, and subsequently there was an aspect of everything in Middle-earth that came of Melkor's malign influence; everything had been \"corrupted\". Tolkien elaborates on this in \"Morgoth's Ring\", drawing an analogy between the One Ring, into which Sauron committed much of his power, and all of Arda—\"Morgoth's Ring\"—which contains and is corrupted by the residue of Melkor's power until the Remaking of the World (analogous to the Christian idea of the Apocalypse).", "After the Creation, many Ainur entered into Eä. The most powerful of them were called the Valar, or Powers of the World; the lesser, who acted as their followers and assistants, were the Maiar. They immediately set about the ordering of the universe and Arda within it, according to the themes of Eru as best they understood them. Melkor and his followers entered Eä as well, but he was frustrated that his colleagues would not recognize him as leader of the new realm, despite his having a greater share of knowledge and power than all the rest. In anger and shame, Melkor set about ruining and undoing whatever the others did. Each of the Valar was attracted to a particular aspect of the world that became the focus of his or her powers. Melkor was drawn to terrible extremes and violence—bitter cold, scorching heat, earthquakes, rendings, breakings, utter darkness, burning light, etc. His power was so great that at first the Valar were unable to restrain him; he single-handedly contended with the collective might of all of the Valar. Arda never seemed to achieve a stable form until the Vala Tulkas entered Eä and tipped the balance. Driven out by Tulkas, Melkor brooded in the darkness at the outer reaches of Arda until an opportune moment arrived, when Tulkas was distracted. Melkor re-entered Arda and attacked and destroyed the Two Lamps, which at the time were the only sources of light, along with the Valarian land of Almaren, which was wiped from existence. Arda was plunged into darkness and fire, and Melkor withdrew to his newly established dominion in Middle-earth. In the latter versions, Melkor also dispersed agents throughout Arda, digging deep into the earth and constructing great pits and fortresses, as Arda was marred by darkness and rivers of fire. After the fall of the Lamps, the Valar withdrew into the land of Aman in the far West. The country where they settled was called Valinor, which they heavily fortified. Melkor held dominion over Middle-earth from his fortress of Utumno in the North. In earlier versions, Melkor's first reign ended after the Elves, the eldest of the Children of Ilúvatar, awoke at the shores of Cuiviénen, and the Valar resolved to rescue them from his malice. The Valar waged devastating war on Melkor, and destroyed Utumno. Melkor was defeated by the Vala Tulkas, bound with a specially forged chain, Angainor, and brought to Valinor, where he was imprisoned in the Halls of Mandos for three ages. In the account published in \"The Silmarillion\", Melkor had captured a number of Elves before the Valar attacked him, and he tortured and corrupted them, breeding the first Orcs. Earlier and later versions of the story describe Orcs as corruptions of Men, or alternatively as soulless beings animated solely by the will of their evil lord. This last version illustrates the idea of Morgoth dispersing himself into the world he marred. His fortress Utumno dispersed deathly cold throughout Arda and brought on an endless winter in the north; for the sake of the Elves, the Valar waged a seven-year war with Melkor, defeating him after laying a grievous siege to Utumno. The battles fought there shaped and marred Arda even further, though Melkor was defeated by Tulkas and imprisoned by the Valar. Upon his release, Melkor was paroled to Valinor, though a few of the Valar mistrusted him. He made a pretence of humility and virtue, but secretly plotted harm toward the Elves, whose awakening he blamed for his defeat. The Noldor, most skilled of the three kindreds of Elves that had come to Valinor, were most vulnerable to his plots, since he had much knowledge they eagerly sought, and while instructing them he also awoke unrest and discontent among them. When the Valar became aware of this they sent Tulkas to arrest him, but Melkor had already fled. With the aid of Ungoliant, a dark spirit in the form of a monstrous spider, he destroyed the Two Trees of Valinor, slew the King of the Noldor, Finwë, and stole the three Silmarils, jewels made by Finwë's son Fëanor, which were filled with the light of the Trees. Fëanor thereupon named him \"Morgoth\", \"Black Foe of the World\", and the Eldar knew him by this name alone afterwards. Morgoth resumed his rule in the North of Middle-earth, this time in Angband, a lesser fortress than Utumno, but not so completely destroyed. He rebuilt it, and raised above it the volcanic triple peak of Thangorodrim. The Silmarils he set into a crown of iron, which he wore at all times. Fëanor and most of the Noldor pursued him, along the way slaying their kin the Teleri and incurring the Doom of Mandos. On arriving in Beleriand, the region of Middle-earth nearest Angband, the Noldor established kingdoms and made war on Morgoth. Soon afterwards, the Sun and the Moon arose for the first time, and Men awoke if they had not done so already. The major battles of the ensuing war included the Dagor-nuin-Giliath (Battle Under the Stars, fought before the first rising of the Moon), Dagor Aglareb (Glorious Battle), Dagor Bragollach (Battle of Sudden Flame) at which the long-standing Siege of Angband was broken, and the battle of Nírnaeth Arnoediad (Unnumbered Tears) when the armies of the Noldor and the Men allied with them were routed and the men of the East joined Morgoth. Over the next several decades, Morgoth destroyed the remaining Elven kingdoms, reducing their domain to an island in the Bay of Balar to which many refugees fled, and a small settlement at the Mouths of Sirion under the protection of Ulmo. Before the Nírnaeth Arnoediad, the Man Beren and Elf Lúthien, the daughter of Thingol, entered Angband and recovered a Silmaril from Morgoth's crown after Luthien's singing sent him to sleep. It was inherited by their granddaughter Elwing, who joined those dwelling at the Mouths of Sirion. Her husband Eärendil, wearing the Silmaril on his brow, sailed across the sea to Valinor, where he pleaded with the Valar to liberate Middle-earth from Morgoth. During the ensuing War of Wrath, Beleriand and much of the north of Middle-earth was destroyed and reshaped. Morgoth summoned many Men to his side during the fifty-year conflict, which became the largest, longest, and bloodiest conflict ever fought in Arda's history. In the end, Morgoth was utterly defeated, and his armies were almost entirely slaughtered. The dragons were almost all destroyed, and Thangorodrim was shattered when Eärendil slew the greatest of dragons, Ancalagon the Black, who crashed upon it as he fell. The few remaining dragons were scattered, and the handful of surviving Balrogs hid themselves deep within the earth. Morgoth fled into the deepest pit and begged for pardon, but his feet were cut from under him, his crown was made into a collar, and he was chained once again with Angainor. The Valar exiled him permanently from the world, thrusting him through the Door of Night into the void, excluded from Arda until the prophesied Dagor Dagorath, when he would meet his final destruction. His evil remained, however, as \"Arda Marred,\" and his will influenced all living creatures. According to later texts, the Dagor Dagorath would be the apocalyptic final battle against Morgoth, prophesied by Mandos. According to this prophecy Morgoth would regain his power and find a way to break through the Door of Night. After passing through it into Arda he would resurrect all of his greatest servants and minions and rebuild his hosts, and in great wrath would wage war on Arda once more, destroying the Sun and the Moon. It would be either by Túrin Turambar or by Eönwë (as mentioned in the \"Hiding of Valinor\") that Morgoth would be slain. According to Christopher Tolkien, the Dagor Dagorath concept as it was theorized was abandoned by Tolkien in his late essays.", "In this more complete version of a story summarized in \"Quenta Silmarillion\", Húrin and his younger brother Huor were leaders of the House of Hador, one of the three kindred of elf-friends. At \"Nírnaeth Arnoediad\" they covered the escape of Turgon to Gondolin by sacrificing their army and themselves. Huor was slain, but Húrin was brought before Morgoth alive. As revenge for his aid to Turgon and his defiance, Morgoth cursed Húrin and his children, binding Húrin to a seat upon Thangorodrim and forcing him to witness all that happened (using the long sight of Morgoth himself) to his children in the succeeding years. There is little additional information about Morgoth in this book, except in the encounter with Húrin, which is set out in more detail than in \"The Silmarillion\" and in a more connected narrative than in \"Unfinished Tales\". It gives the first allusion to the corruption of Men by Morgoth soon after their awakening, and the assertion by Morgoth of his power over the entire Earth through \"the shadow of my purpose\".", "After Morgoth's defeat, his lieutenant Sauron gradually rallied many of Morgoth's servants to his own cause, and during the Second Age established himself in the land of Mordor. Sauron lacked the raw power and malice of his master, but he seduced many to his allegiance with lies and false promises. In the Second Age, Sauron repeatedly used his fame among Men as Morgoth's erstwhile lieutenant to portray himself as Morgoth's representative and thus gain the allegiance of his former master's worshippers. Similarly, in Númenor following his capture, Sauron became very powerful by seducing Ar-Pharazôn to the worship of Melkor, establishing a Cult in which it was only natural that, as Melkor's foremost former disciple, he became high priest. This cult exploited the Númenórean fear of death by claiming that human sacrifice to Melkor would grant the Men of Númenor immortality. In actuality, by turning away from Eru and the Valar they only dwindled more rapidly. Sauron used this religion among his means of encouraging Ar-Pharazôn's invasion of Valinor, which resulted in the destruction of Númenor by Eru. By the Third Age, Sauron came more often to propound himself, rather than Morgoth, as the object of worship for his servants and subjects, but in his pride, also portrayed himself as Morgoth returned when it was more convenient for him to do so.", "The Ainu Melkor could initially take any shape, but his first recorded form was \"...as a mountain that wades in the sea and has its head above the clouds and is clad in ice and crowned with smoke and fire; and the light of the eyes of Melkor was like a flame that withers with heat and pierces with a deadly cold\". At the time he destroyed the Two Trees and stole the Silmarils, he took to himself the shape of a great \"Dark Lord, tall and terrible\". The diminution of his power in this time and his own desire for lordship destroyed his ability to freely change shape, and he became bound to this one terrible form. His hands were burned by the theft of the Silmarils, from which they never healed, and he carried evermore the burden of burning pain. In his fight with High King Fingolfin, he suffered several wounds; his foot was hewn by Fingolfin's Sword of Ice Crystal, Ringil. At the end of this battle, Thorondor, the great Eagle, swooped down and scarred Morgoth's face with his talons, a wound that also never healed. In battle, he wore black armour and wielded Grond, the Hammer of the Underworld. The great battering ram of Mordor was named for this weapon. He also wielded a black spear, and in early texts, a poison sword. Melkor's powers were originally immense, greater than those of any other single Ainu. He shared a part of the powers of every other Vala, but unlike them used it for domination of the whole of Arda. To accomplish this Morgoth dispersed his being throughout Arda, tainting its very fabric, and only Aman was free of it. His person thus became ever more diminished and restricted. Pity was beyond Morgoth's understanding, as was courage. As he alone of the Valar bound himself to a physical (and therefore vulnerable) body, he alone of the Valar knew fear.", "Because Morgoth was the most powerful being in Arda, many \"flocked to his banner\". Morgoth's chief servants were Maiar he corrupted or monsters he created: Sauron, later the Dark Lord of Mordor and his chief servant; the Balrogs, including Gothmog, the Lord of Balrogs and High-Captain of Angband; Glaurung, the Father of Dragons; Ancalagon \"the Black\", greatest of the Winged Dragons; Carcharoth, the mightiest wolf that ever lived; Draugluin, Sire of Werewolves; and Thuringwethil, Sauron's vampire messenger. Ungoliant, a demon in spider form, helped Melkor destroy the Two Trees. This alliance was temporary, however; when Melkor refused to yield the Silmarils to Ungoliant, she attacked him. He had spread his power and malice too thin, and had weakened himself too much to fight back; he escaped only through the arrival of the Balrogs. When the race of Men awoke, Morgoth (or his servant, depending on the text consulted) temporarily left Angband to live among them. Some men worshipped him, banning Ilúvatar from their hearts. Morgoth was known to betray his own servants. After the Noldor were defeated, he confined all Men in his service to the lands of Hithlum, their only prize the pillage of that land, though they had fought to win richer lands in Beleriand. Since he could never fully dominate Men, he could never really trust them, and therefore feared them.", "In the early versions of Tolkien's stories, Melkor/Morgoth was not seen as the most powerful Ainu. He is described as being equal in power to Manwë, chief of the Valar in Arda. But his power increased in later revisions of the story until he became the most powerful Ainu, and in a late essay more powerful than all of the Valar combined. He developed from a standout among equals into a being so powerful that the other created beings could not utterly defeat him. Over time, Tolkien altered both the conception of this fallen Ainu and his name. The name given by Fëanor (Morgoth) was present from the first stories. He was for a long time also called \"Melko\". Tolkien vacillated over the Sindarin equivalent of this, which appeared as \"Belcha\", \"Melegor\", and \"Moeleg\". The meaning of the name also varied, related in different times to \"milka\" (\"greedy\") or \"velka\" (\"flame\"). Similarly the Old English translations devised by Tolkien differ in sense: Melko is rendered as \"Orgel\" (\"Pride\") and Morgoth as \"Sweart-ós\" (\"Black God\"). Morgoth is once given a particular sphere of interest: in the early \"Tale of Turambar\" Tinwelint (precursor of Thingol) names him \"the Vala of Iron\". Much of the text published in \"The Silmarillion\" was drawn from earlier, more completely written, drafts of the mythology—and thus reflects the older conception of Morgoth's power; there is less discussion of his marring all of Arda by diluting himself throughout it. In other sections, such as the 1950s draft used for \"Ainulindalë\", the implication of his pervasive power remains clear. While not included in the published \"Silmarillion\", other versions of the mythology hold that Melkor will escape the guardianship of Eärendil and return at the end of time. In the final battle, Melkor will be slain by either Túrin Turambar with his famous black sword or by Eönwë as mentioned in \"the Hiding of Valinor\".", "In late writings a distinction is made between the \"Ainu Melkor\", the most powerful of Eru's created beings, and \"Morgoth\", the diminished being that styled itself Dark Lord of Arda. This distinction is not limited to the change in name (\"Arises in Might\" to \"Dark Enemy\"). As described in the \"Ainulindalë\", Melkor's discord marred the Music of the Ainur in Heaven. Melkor's thematic variations in that Music amounted to his own self-elaboration. (Each Ainu arose from a divine theme, existing beforehand only in the mind of Eru.) Eä, or the World that Is, is shaped after the Music. Thus, the evil that Melkor weaves into the Music was mirrored in Eä by the evil he wove into the fabric of reality. As a result, the world Arda was \"Marred\": the conceptions of the Valar never came about, and Melkor's very essence was present in all creation. Melkor's inability to perform true creation is tied to the idea that something of his actual being must pass into the things he \"created\", in order to give them an effective substance and reality. Melkor could not create anything, as he did not possess the Flame Imperishable; thus he could only create a mockery of those things in Arda. From his Trolls to the Sun (which was made from a fruit from a Tree poisoned by Ungoliant, and was thus itself imperfect), Melkor's power and essence was poured into Arda. Melkor's individual self was diminished as a consequence. He was reduced to Morgoth, the \"Dark Enemy\" (poetically elaborated as \"The Black Foe of the World\"). Morgoth, once the most powerful being in Eä, spent his will on his vast armies and followers, so that in the War of Wrath, as his armies were swept away before the host of Aman, he was captured by Eönwë and cast off his throne. Morgoth's spirit was cast out beyond the Walls of Night, yet his presence remains as the pervasive corruption of the world, \"even until the End of Days\".", "Melkor has been interpreted as being analogous to Satan. Like Lucifer, he rebels against his creator. Also, just as in Christian tradition Satan leads humanity to become slaves of sin, Melkor creates an \"iron hell\" for his elven slave labourers. His greed for ever more power and his fondness for technology make him a symbol for the despotism of modern machinery. On the other hand, it has been observed that Melkor's rebellion against Eru is creative in itself, as Melkor is impatient for the void of the world to be filled with things. But his creativity becomes destructive because it had always been tainted with pride. \"His desire to create other beings for his glory\" turns into a desire for servants and slaves to follow his own will. This \"temptation of creativity\" is later echoed in Tolkien's work by Melkor's opponent Fëanor, who loves the Silmarils he created so much that he leads his entire people to a hopeless war when Melkor steals them. John R. Holmes, writing in the \"J. R. R. Tolkien Encyclopedia\", suggests that Melkor's nature resonates with John Milton's fallen angel in \"Paradise Lost\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Updates.", "History.", "Culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In the times of Covid-19 pandemic Gradac municipality is doing well, with its very low density of permanent population (mostly native to Dalmatia, or the rest of Croatia and neighboring Bosnia & Herzegovina), with handful of people outside of the region. This low mobility helped in the control of the COVID-19 pandemic, as there were no positive cases reported and all preventive measures were easier to implement early and effectively, as in most non-urban areas of Croatia (in pandemic).", "The Gradac area was inhabited before prehistoric times. Numerous stone mounds dating back to the Bronze and Early Iron Ages have been found in the area. In Roman times, the Gradac area was most likely the seat of the Roman civitas Biston, which as a coastal center belonged to the colony of Narona, an important Roman stronghold on what is now Croatian territory. At the locality of Gradina a cornice fragment of the monumental building from the 2nd-3rd century was found, as well as Roman coin pieces. Near the Laguna hotel were found many tombs, hence it is thought that on this location there was once a Roman necropolis. The medieval town of Lapčan, or Labinac, which, under the name of Labineca, was mentioned by the Byzantine emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus, mid-10th century, was situated on the territory of today's Gradac. Under its present name, Gradac was mentioned for the first time in 1649. It was named after the stronghold that was situated on the elevation above the present-day church of St. Michael, and which was built probably during the Cretan War (1645–1669) as a defence against the Turks. According to the drawing made by the Venetian military engineer and cartographer Giuseppe Santini, representing the naval and continental battles between the Venetians and Ottomans at Gradac in the year 1666, the tower is shown in flames.", "The remnants of the old tower from the 16th century can be found in the abandoned village of Čista above Gradac, the seat of the ancient Fragostin's district. Surrounding it are still the remnants of rows of abandoned houses with typical architectonic features of the region. One of the oldest existing edifices in the territory of Gradac is the chapel of St. Pasquale on the Mt. Plana, with a barrel shaped vault, and a saddle roof. Next to the old parish church of St. Antonio there is a local cemetery and the new parish church of St. Michael built in 1852, precisely in the zone of Gradina, the ancient Roman locality. In the church, there are three marble altars with statues. The most interesting among them is the old wooden statue of St. Rocco. In the church there is also the old baptismal stone font, originating probably from the old church. Gradac is very well known for it antifascist and partisan history. Gradac has a memorial to citizens killed by the Yugoslav Partisans during World War II Before war in the 1990s, Gradac had a memorial statue of an unknown soldier made by well-known Croatian sculptor Antun Augustinčić dedicated to partisan uprising during Second World War. It was destroyed in 1992." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Development.", "Amateur use of shortwave propagation.", "Propagation characteristics.", "Types of modulation.", "Audio modes.", "Data modes.", "Users.", "Shortwave broadcasting.", "Frequency allocations.", "Advantages.", "Disadvantages.", "Shortwave listening.", "Shortwave broadcasts and music.", "Shortwave's future." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The name \"shortwave\" originated during the beginning of radio in the early 20th century, when the radio spectrum was divided into long wave (LW), medium wave (MW), and short wave (SW) bands based on the wavelength of the radio waves. Shortwave radio received its name because the wavelengths in this band are shorter than 200 m (1,500 kHz) which marked the original upper limit of the medium frequency band first used for radio communications. The broadcast medium wave band now extends above the 200 m / 1,500 kHz limit. Early long-distance radio telegraphy used long waves, below 300 kilohertz (kHz). The drawbacks to this system included a very limited spectrum available for long-distance communication, and the very expensive transmitters, receivers, and gigantic antennas that were required. Long waves are also difficult to beam directionally, resulting in a major loss of power over long distances. Prior to the 1920s, the shortwave frequencies above 1.5 MHz were regarded as useless for long-distance communication and were designated in many countries for amateur use. Guglielmo Marconi, pioneer of radio, commissioned his assistant Charles Samuel Franklin to carry out a large-scale study into the transmission characteristics of short-wavelength waves and to determine their suitability for long-distance transmissions. Franklin rigged up a large antenna at Poldhu Wireless Station, Cornwall, running on 25 kW of power. In June and July 1923, wireless transmissions were completed during nights on 97 meters (about 3 MHz) from Poldhu to Marconi's yacht \"Elettra\" in the Cape Verde Islands. In September 1924, Marconi transmitted day and night on 32 meters (9.4 MHz) from Poldhu to his yacht in Beirut. Franklin went on to refine the directional transmission by inventing the curtain array aerial system. In July 1924, Marconi entered into contracts with the British General Post Office (GPO) to install high-speed shortwave telegraphy circuits from London to Australia, India, South Africa and Canada as the main element of the Imperial Wireless Chain. The UK-to-Canada shortwave \"Beam Wireless Service\" went into commercial operation on 25 October 1926. Beam Wireless Services from the UK to Australia, South Africa and India went into service in 1927. Shortwave communications began to grow rapidly in the 1920s. By 1928, more than half of long-distance communications had moved from transoceanic cables and longwave wireless services to shortwave, and the overall volume of transoceanic shortwave communications had vastly increased. Shortwave stations had cost and efficiency advantages over massive longwave wireless installations; however, some commercial longwave communications stations remained in use until the 1960s. Long-distance radio circuits also reduced the need for new cables, although the cables maintained their advantages of high security and a much more reliable and better-quality signal than shortwave. The cable companies began to lose large sums of money in 1927, and a serious financial crisis threatened the viability of cable companies that were vital to strategic British interests. The British government convened the Imperial Wireless and Cable Conference in 1928 \"to examine the situation that had arisen as a result of the competition of Beam Wireless with the Cable Services\". It recommended and received Government approval for all overseas cable and wireless resources of the Empire to be merged into one system controlled by a newly formed company in 1929, Imperial and International Communications Ltd. The name of the company was changed to Cable and Wireless Ltd. in 1934. Long-distance cables had a resurgence beginning in 1956 with the laying of TAT-1 across the Atlantic Ocean, the first voice frequency cable on this route. This provided 36 high quality telephone channels and was soon followed by even higher capacity cables all around the world. Competition from these cables soon ended the economic viability of shortwave radio for commercial communication.", "Amateur radio operators also discovered that long-distance communication was possible on shortwave bands. Early long-distance services used surface wave propagation at very low frequencies, which are attenuated along the path at wavelengths shorter than 1,000 meters. Longer distances and higher frequencies using this method meant more signal loss. This, and the difficulties of generating and detecting higher frequencies, made discovery of shortwave propagation difficult for commercial services. Radio amateurs may have conducted the first successful transatlantic tests in December 1921, operating in the 200 meter mediumwave band (near 1,500 kHz, inside the modern AM broadcast band), which at that time was the shortest wavelength / highest frequency available to amateur radio. In 1922 hundreds of North American amateurs were heard in Europe on 200 meters and at least 20 North American amateurs heard amateur signals from Europe. The first two-way communications between North American and Hawaiian amateurs began in 1922 at 200 meters. Although operation on wavelengths shorter than 200 meters was technically illegal (but tolerated at the time as the authorities mistakenly believed that such frequencies were useless for commercial or military use), amateurs began to experiment with those wavelengths using newly available vacuum tubes shortly after World War I. Extreme interference at the longer edge of the 150–200 meter band – the official wavelengths allocated to amateurs by the Second National Radio Conference in 1923 – forced amateurs to shift to shorter and shorter wavelengths; however, amateurs were limited by regulation to wavelengths longer than 150 meters (2 MHz). A few fortunate amateurs who obtained special permission for experimental communications at wavelengths shorter than 150 meters completed hundreds of long-distance two-way contacts on 100 meters (3 MHz) in 1923 including the first transatlantic two-way contacts. By 1924 many additional specially licensed amateurs were routinely making transoceanic contacts at distances of 6,000 miles (9,600 km) and more. On 21 September 1924 several amateurs in California completed two-way contacts with an amateur in New Zealand. On 19 October amateurs in New Zealand and England completed a 90 minute two-way contact nearly halfway around the world. On 10 October the Third National Radio Conference made three shortwave bands available to U.S. amateurs at 80 meters (3.75 MHz), 40 meters (7 MHz) and 20 meters (14 MHz). These were allocated worldwide, while the 10 meter band (28 MHz) was created by the Washington International Radiotelegraph Conference on 25 November 1927. The 15 meter band (21 MHz) was opened to amateurs in the United States on 1 May 1952.", "Shortwave radio frequency energy is capable of reaching any location on the Earth as it is influenced by ionospheric reflection back to the earth by the ionosphere, (a phenomenon known as \"skywave propagation\"). A typical phenomenon of shortwave propagation is the occurrence of a skip zone where reception fails. With a fixed working frequency, large changes in ionospheric conditions may create skip zones at night. As a result of the multi-layer structure of the ionosphere, propagation often simultaneously occurs on different paths, scattered by the ‘E’ or ‘F’ layer and with different numbers of hops, a phenomenon that may be disturbed for certain techniques. Particularly for lower frequencies of the shortwave band, absorption of radio frequency energy in the lowest ionospheric layer, the ‘D’ layer, may impose a serious limit. This is due to collisions of electrons with neutral molecules, absorbing some of a radio frequency's energy and converting it to heat. Predictions of skywave propagation depend on:", "Several different types of modulation are used to incorporate information in a short-wave signal. Amplitude modulation is the simplest type and the most commonly used for shortwave broadcasting. The instantaneous amplitude of the carrier is controlled by the amplitude of the signal (speech, or music, for example). At the receiver, a simple detector recovers the desired modulation signal from the carrier. Single sideband transmission is a form of amplitude modulation but in effect filters the result of modulation. An amplitude-modulated signal has frequency components both above and below the carrier frequency. If one set of these components is eliminated as well as the residual carrier, only the remaining set is transmitted. This reduces power in the transmission, as roughly of the energy sent by an AM signal is in the carrier, which is not needed to recover the information contained in the signal. It also reduces signal bandwidth, enabling less than one-half the AM signal bandwidth to be used.", "The drawback is the receiver is more complicated, since it must re-create the carrier to recover the signal. Small errors in the detection process greatly affect the pitch of the received signal. As a result, single sideband is not used for music or general broadcast. Single sideband is used for long-range voice communications by ships and aircraft, citizen's band, and amateur radio operators. Lower sideband (LSB) is customarily used below 9 MHz and USB (upper sideband) above 9 MHz. Vestigial sideband transmits the carrier and one complete sideband, but filters out most of the other sideband. It is a compromise between AM and SSB, enabling simple receivers to be used, but requires almost as much transmitter power as AM. Its main advantage is that only half the bandwidth of an AM signal is used. It is used by the Canadian standard time signal station CHU. Vestigial sideband was used for analog television and by ATSC, the digital TV system used in North America. Narrow-band frequency modulation (NBFM or NFM) is used typically above 20 MHz. Because of the larger bandwidth required, NBFM is commonly used for VHF communication. Regulations limit the bandwidth of a signal transmitted in the HF bands, and the advantages of frequency modulation are greatest if the FM signal has a wide bandwidth. NBFM is limited to short-range transmissions due to the multiphasic distortions created by the ionosphere. Digital Radio Mondiale (DRM) is a digital modulation for use on bands below 30 MHz. It is a digital signal, like the data modes, below, but is for transmitting audio, like the analog modes above. Continuous wave (CW) is on-and-off keying of a sine-wave carrier, used for Morse code communications and Hellschreiber facsimile-based teleprinter transmissions. It is a data mode, although often listed separately. It is typically received via lower or upper SSB modes. Radioteletype, fax, digital, slow-scan television, and other systems use forms of frequency-shift keying or audio subcarriers on a shortwave carrier. These generally require special equipment to decode, such as software on a computer equipped with a sound card.", "Note that on modern computer-driven systems, digital modes are typically sent by coupling a computer's sound output to the SSB input of a radio.", "Some established users of the shortwave radio bands may include: Sporadic or non-traditional users of the shortwave bands may include:", "\"See International broadcasting for details on the history and practice of broadcasting to foreign audiences.\" \"See List of shortwave radio broadcasters for a list of international and domestic shortwave radio broadcasters.\" \"See Shortwave relay station for the actual kinds of integrated technologies used to bring high power signals to listeners.\"", "The World Radiocommunication Conference (WRC), organized under the auspices of the International Telecommunication Union, allocates bands for various services in conferences every few years. The last WRC took place in 2007. At WRC-97 in 1997, the following bands were allocated for international broadcasting. AM shortwave broadcasting channels are allocated with a 5 kHz separation for traditional analog audio broadcasting. Although countries generally follow the table above, there may be small differences between countries or regions. For example, in the official bandplan of the Netherlands, the 49 m band starts at 5.95 MHz, the 41 m band ends at 7.45 MHz, the 11 m band starts at 25.67 MHz, and the 120 m, 90 m, and 60 m bands are absent altogether. Additionally, international broadcasters sometimes operate outside the normal WRC-allocated bands or use off-channel frequencies. This is done for practical reasons, or to attract attention in crowded bands (60 m, 49 m, 40 m, 41 m, 31 m, 25 m). The new digital audio broadcasting format for shortwave DRM operates 10 kHz or 20 kHz channels. There are some ongoing discussions with respect to specific band allocation for DRM, as it mainly transmitted in 10 kHz format. The power used by shortwave transmitters ranges from less than one watt for some experimental and amateur radio transmissions to 500 kilowatts and higher for intercontinental broadcasters and over-the-horizon radar. Shortwave transmitting centers often use specialized antenna designs (like the ALLISS antenna technology) to concentrate radio energy at the target area.", "Shortwave does possess a number of advantages over newer technologies, including the following:", "Shortwave radio's benefits are sometimes regarded as being outweighed by its drawbacks, including:", "The Asia-Pacific Telecommunity estimates that there are approximately 600 million shortwave broadcast-radio receivers in use in 2002. WWCR claims that there are 1.5 billion shortwave receivers worldwide. Many hobbyists listen to shortwave broadcasters. In some cases, the goal is to hear as many stations from as many countries as possible \"(DXing)\"; others listen to specialized shortwave utility, or \"ute\", transmissions such as maritime, naval, aviation, or military signals. Others focus on intelligence signals from numbers stations, stations which transmit strange broadcast usually for intelligence operations, or the two way communications by amateur radio operators. Some short wave listeners behave analogously to \"lurkers\" on the Internet, in that they listen only, and never attempt to send out their own signals. Other listeners participate in clubs, or actively send and receive QSL cards, or become involved with amateur radio and start transmitting on their own. Many listeners tune the shortwave bands for the programmes of stations broadcasting to a general audience (such as Radio Taiwan International, China Radio International, Voice of America, Radio France Internationale, BBC World Service, Voice of Korea, Radio Free Sarawak etc.). Today, through the evolution of the Internet, the hobbyist can listen to shortwave signals via remotely controlled or web controlled shortwave receivers around the world, even without owning a shortwave radio. Many international broadcasters offer live streaming audio on their websites and a number have closed their shortwave service entirely, or severely curtailed it, in favour of internet transmission. Shortwave listeners, or SWLs, can obtain QSL cards from broadcasters, utility stations or amateur radio operators as trophies of the hobby. Some stations even give out special certificates, pennants, stickers and other tokens and promotional materials to shortwave listeners.", "Some musicians have been attracted to the unique aural characteristics of shortwave radio which – due to the nature of amplitude modulation, varying propagation conditions, and the presence of interference – generally has lower fidelity than local broadcasts (particularly via FM stations). Shortwave transmissions often have bursts of distortion, and \"hollow\" sounding loss of clarity at certain aural frequencies, altering the harmonics of natural sound and creating at times a strange \"spacey\" quality due to echoes and phase distortion. Evocations of shortwave reception distortions have been incorporated into rock and classical compositions, by means of delays or feedback loops, equalizers, or even playing shortwave radios as live instruments. Snippets of broadcasts have been mixed into electronic sound collages and live musical instruments, by means of analogue tape loops or digital samples. Sometimes the sounds of instruments and existing musical recordings are altered by remixing or equalizing, with various distortions added, to replicate the garbled effects of shortwave radio reception. The first attempts by serious composers to incorporate radio effects into music may be those of the Russian physicist and musician Léon Theremin, who perfected a form of radio oscillator as a musical instrument in 1928 (regenerative circuits in radios of the time were prone to breaking into oscillation, adding various tonal harmonics to music and speech); and in the same year, the development of a French instrument called the Ondes Martenot by its inventor Maurice Martenot, a French cellist and former wireless telegrapher. Karlheinz Stockhausen used shortwave radio and effects in works including \"Hymnen\" (1966–1967), \"Kurzwellen\" (1968) – adapted for the Beethoven Bicentennial in \"Opus 1970\" with filtered and distorted snippets of Beethoven pieces – \"Spiral\" (1968), \"Pole\", \"Expo\" (both 1969–1970), and \"Michaelion\" (1997). Cypriot composer Yannis Kyriakides incorporated shortwave numbers station transmissions in his 1999 \"ConSPIracy cantata\". Holger Czukay, a student of Stockhausen, was one of the first to use shortwave in a rock music context. In 1975, German electronic music band Kraftwerk recorded a full length concept album around simulated radiowave and shortwave sounds, entitled \"Radio-Activity\". The The's Radio Cineola monthly broadcasts drew heavily on shortwave radio sound.", "The development of direct broadcasts from satellites has reduced the demand for shortwave receiver hardware, but there are still a great number of shortwave broadcasters. A new digital radio technology, Digital Radio Mondiale (DRM), is expected to improve the quality of shortwave audio from very poor to standards comparable to the FM broadcast band. The future of shortwave radio is threatened by the rise of power line communication (PLC), also known as Broadband over Power Lines (BPL), which uses a data stream transmitted over unshielded power lines. As the BPL frequencies used overlap with shortwave bands, severe distortions can make listening to analog shortwave radio signals near power lines difficult or impossible. According to Andy Sennitt, former editor of the World Radio TV Handbook, However Thomas Witherspoon, editor of shortwave news site \"SWLingPost.com\" wrote that According to Nigel Fry, head of Distribution for the BBC World Service Group," ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "The beginnings.", "Cold War era (1948–1990).", "Berlin Airlift.", "Base aérienne 165 Berlin Tegel.", "Commercial operations.", "Tegel's new terminal takes shape.", "Tegel becomes West Berlin's main airport.", "Early post-reunification era (1990–1995).", "1995 onwards.", "Future development.", "Terminals.", "Terminals A and B.", "Terminal C.", "Terminal D.", "Airlines and destinations.", "Statistics.", "Ground transportation.", "Car.", "Bus.", "Incidents and accidents." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The area of today's airport originally was part of the Jungfernheide forest, which served as a hunting ground for the Prussian nobility. During the 19th century, it was used as an artillery firing range. Aviation history dates back to the early 20th century, when the Royal Prussian Airship battalion was based there and the area became known as \"Luftschiffhafen Reinickendorf\". In 1906, a hangar was built for testing of Groß-Basenach and Parseval type airships. Soon after the outbreak of World War", "", "Plans for converting the area into allotment gardens were shelved due to the Berlin Blockade, which began on 24 June 1948. In the ensuing US-led Berlin Airlift, it quickly turned out that Berlin's existing main airport at Tempelhof was not big enough to accommodate all relief aircraft. As a consequence, the French military authorities in charge of Tegel at that time ordered the construction of a long runway, the longest in Europe at the time, as well as provisional airport buildings and basic infrastructure. Groundbreaking took place on 5 August 1948, and only 90 days later, on 5 November, a United States Air Force (USAF) Douglas C-54 Skymaster became the first aircraft to land at the new airport.", "Following the end of the Berlin Airlift in May 1949, Tegel became the Berlin base of the \"Armée de l'Air\", eventually leading to the establishment of Base aérienne 165 at Berlin Tegel on 1 August 1964. (The end of the Cold War and German reunification resulted in the deactivation of the Western Allies' armed", "In the late 1950s, the runways at West Berlin's city centre Tempelhof Airport had become too short to accommodate the new-generation jet aircraft such as the Aérospatiale Caravelle, Boeing 707, de Havilland Comet, and Douglas DC-8, without imposing payload or range restrictions that made commercial operations unviable. West Berlin's special legal status during the Cold War era (1945–1990) meant that all air traffic through the Allied air corridors linking the exclave with West Germany was restricted to airlines headquartered in the", "Construction of a new, hexagonally shaped terminal complex on the airport's south side began during the 1960s. This coincided with the lengthening of the runways to permit fully laden widebodied aircraft to take off and land without restricting their range and construction of a motorway and access road linking the new terminal to", "Following Pan Am's and British Airways's move from Tempelhof to Tegel on 1 September 1975, the latter replaced Tempelhof as the main airport of West Berlin.", "Following Germany's reunification on 3 October 1990, all access restrictions to the former West Berlin airports were lifted. Lufthansa resumed flights to Berlin on 28 October 1990, initially operating twelve daily pairs of flights on a limited number of routes, including Tegel–Cologne, Tegel–Frankfurt and Tegel–London Gatwick. To facilitate the German flag carrier's resumption of services from/to Berlin, it purchased Pan Am's Internal German Services (IGS) division for US$150 million. This included Pan Am's internal German traffic rights as well as its gates and slots at Tegel. This agreement, under which Lufthansa contracted up to seven of Pan Am's Tegel-based Boeing 727-200s operated by that airline's flightdeck and cabin crews to ply its scheduled routes to Munich, Nuremberg and Stuttgart until mid-1991, also facilitated Pan Am's orderly exit from the internal German", "The events of the early post-reunification years (1990–1995) were followed by further, high-profile international route launches and growing consolidation among German airlines with a major presence at Tegel. Amongst the former were the December 2005 launch of Tegel Airport's first-ever scheduled service to the Qatari capital Doha by Qatar Airways, operated non-stop at an initial frequency of four flights a week, and Air Berlin's November 2010 launch of non-stop, thrice-weekly Tegel–Dubai flights (another first). This was followed by the latter's May 2011 launch of a non-stop, four-times-a-week Tegel–JFK service. The latter began with British Airways mid-2003 sale for a symbolic €1 (72p) of its German subsidiary DBA to Intro Verwaltungsgesellschaft, a Nuremberg-based consultancy and investment company headed by German entrepreneur Hans Rudolf", "The airport was scheduled to close in June 2012 after Berlin Brandenburg Airport (BER) opened, but due to ongoing delays with BER, the future of Tegel has long remained uncertain. A campaign was launched to keep Tegel Airport open, which gathered signatures for a referendum for voters to decide on the future of the airport. In September 2017, a public quorum was held parallel to the German federal election to decide whether Tegel Airport should remain open once Berlin Brandenburg Airport starts its operations. The majority of voters voted in favour of", "Tegel consists of five terminals. As the airport is small compared to other major airports, these terminals might be regarded as \"halls\" or \"boarding areas\"; nevertheless, they are officially referred to as \"terminals\", even if they share the same building.", "The main building is the original", "Terminal C was opened in May 2007 as a temporary solution because all other terminals operated on their maximum capacity. It was largely used by Air Berlin until its demise. It features 26 check-in counters and the gates numbered C38-C51, C60–C67 (Section C2) and C80-C89 (in the newest addition Section C3). From 2008 until August 2009, 5 additional aircraft stands were constructed and the building was", "Terminal D was opened in 2001 and is a converted car park. It features 22 check-in counters (D70–D91), with one bus-boarding gate and two walk-boarding gates. Most passengers of airlines operating smaller aircraft (like Embraer 190s for example) are brought to the remote aircraft stands by bus from here. Terminal", "The following airlines operate regular", "In 2016, Tegel handled over", "Tegel Airport doesn't have a direct rail connection but is connected by several bus routes and motorways. An underground station directly serving the airport had been planned since the 1960s but it was never built due to the expected closure of Tegel Airport. Note that the Alt-Tegel U-Bahn station and Tegel S-Bahn station do not serve Tegel Airport, but rather the Tegel-quarter of Berlin. Currently (2017) an extension of the Berlin Straßenbahn from Hauptbahnhof to Tegel Airport / and the U6 branch from Kurt-Schumacher Platz to Tegel Airport is being discussed but it is unclear whether this extension will open before the closure of the airport.", "The airport has a direct connection to motorway A111 (Exit \"Flughafen Tegel\") which further links it to motorways A10,", "The airport is linked by several BVG bus lines, which offer connection to the U-Bahn and S-Bahn, as well as", "There are no recorded fatal accidents involving commercial airline operations at Berlin Tegel itself. However, two commercial flights, one of which was due to arrive at Tegel Airport and the other of which had departed the airport, were involved in fatal accidents. These accidents are listed below: The following notable, non-fatal incidents involving airline operations occurred at Tegel. These include commercial flights that were about to depart or had actually departed/arrived as well as unscheduled stopovers: There were also two Cold war era incidents relating to an American and a British airliner that had departed Tegel on international non-scheduled passenger services. Both of these occurred in Bulgarian airspace. The former was a charter flight carrying German holidaymakers to the Bulgarian Black Sea coast, the latter a migrant charter en route to Turkey:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Location.", "Notation.", "Table of examples.", "Similar concepts." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "On teletypewriters and early keyboards, holding down the Control key while pressing another key zeroed the leftmost two bits of the seven bits in the generated ASCII character. This allowed the operator to produce the first 32 characters in the ASCII table. These are non-printing characters that signal the computer to control where the next character will be placed on the display device, eject a printed page or erase the screen, ring the terminal bell, or some other operation. For example, the character or \"G\", whose ASCII code is 71 in base 10, or codice_1 in binary, would be transformed into the binary code codice_2 (7 in decimal), which is assigned to the bell character. Aptly, these characters are also called \"control characters\". Using the key with either lowercase letters (e.g., ASCII code codice_3) or uppercase letters (, ASCII codice_4) will generate the same ASCII code on a teletypewriter, because holding down the control key grounds (zeros the voltage on) the two wires used to carry the leftmost two bits from the keyboard, ignoring their modification by the key. In modern computers, the interpretation of keypresses is generally left to the software. Modern keyboards distinguish each physical key from every other and report all keypresses and releases to the controlling software. When the original purpose of the ASCII control characters became either obsolete or seldom used, later software appropriated the Control key combinations for other purposes.", "The keyboards of many early computer terminals, including the Teletype Model 33 ASR and Lear-Siegler ADM-3A, and early models of the IBM PC, positioned the Control key on the left of the keyboard, whereas caps lock resides in the same position on most modern keyboards. The traditional layout was preserved for later workstation systems and is often associated with Unix workstations. Keyboards from Sun Microsystems came in two layouts; \"Unix\" and \"PC-style\", with the Unix layout having the traditional placing of the Control key and other keys. The keyboards produced for One Laptop Per Child computers also have the Control key in this location. Other vendors produce keyboards for different computer systems with this placement of the Control key, such as the Happy Hacking Keyboard. Some users of keyboards with caps lock on the left remap the keys to exchange Control and caps lock, finding the traditional location more ergonomic for using programs benefiting from use of the Control key. Keyboard layout preferences specifically to address this need are available in some operating systems. Others leave the control key in the lower-left corner of the keyboard, and press it using the side of their palm. The choice of location for the control key often comes down to the typist's hand shape and posture.", "There are several common notations for pressing the Control key in conjunction with another key. Each notation below means press and hold while pressing the key:", "Different application programs, user interfaces, and operating systems use the various control key combinations for different purposes. In early first-person shooters, the left Ctrl key is often used to fire a weapon. In newer games, the key is often used for crouching instead.", "Generally, the Command key, labeled with the ⌘ symbol on Apple Macintosh computers, performs the equivalent functions in classic Mac OS and macOS applications (for example, ⌘C copies, while ⌘P prints; the same holds for saving, cutting, and pasting). Macintoshes also have a Control key, but it has different functionality. The original Apple mouse design reduced complexity by only offering one button. As the interface developed, Contextual Menus were offered to access extra options. Another button was needed to access these. On Unix and Windows, the user had other mouse buttons to use. On Classic Mac OS and macOS, the Control key is used to invoke a \"right-click\". Apple calls this a \"secondary click\" as left-handers can choose which side this button is on." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Luftwaffe use, 1934–1945.", "UK Royal Air Force and Army Air Corps use.", "1945–1948.", "Berlin Airlift, 1948–1949.", "1949–1994.", "Escapes to Gatow from East Germany.", "East German invasion plans.", "Closure.", "Current use by the German Air Force and the Hans-Carossa-Gymnasium." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The airfield was originally constructed in 1934 and 1935 by the Luftwaffe as a staff and technical college, \"Luftkriegsschule 2 Berlin-Gatow\", in imitation of the Royal Air Force College at RAF Cranwell. The initial personnel came partially from the Naval Academy Mürwik. Opened on 1 April 1936, the air force college was renamed \"Luftkriegsschule 2\" on 15 January 1940. Its satellite airfields were Güterfelde and Reinsdorf. Airborne flying training ended in October 1944, due to fuel shortages. From 5 March 1945, aircrew officer cadets were retrained as paratroops, for ground operations which had very high casualties. Clues to the airfield's original use survive in the barrack block accommodation, each block of which was named after a famous German airman of the First World War, with the airman's bust above the entrance door. The architect was Ernst Sagebiel, an architect who worked full-time for the Luftwaffe and also designed Tempelhof Airport. Other surviving features during the entire period of the airfield's use as RAF Gatow (1945–1994) included light bulbs in the main hangars, many of which dated from the 1930s.", "", "Late April 1945, towards the end of World War II in Europe, the airfield was occupied by the advancing Red Army. Following the division of Berlin into four sectors, Soviet forces relinquished part of the airfield and access roads, the so-called Seeburger Zipfel to the British after the Potsdam Conference in exchange for West-Staaken on 30 August 1945. Earlier on 25 June 1945, 284 Field Squadron, RAF Regiment, arrived at Gatow by land via Magdeburg. Their reception by Soviet troops was extremely hostile, the Soviets attempting to confine 284 Field Squadron behind barbed wire fences, as the Squadron was said to have arrived \"too early\". This set the pattern for relations, with Soviet checkpoints being set up beside the airfield manned by fully armed and unfriendly troops. RAF Regiment officers occasionally surveyed Soviet positions by air from Avro Ansons, and the tour of duty of RAF Regiment detachments at Gatow was limited to six months, because of the constant activity occasioned by the Soviet presence and the Berlin Airlift. The first landing by a Royal Air Force aircraft was by Avro Anson serial number \"PW698\" on 2 July 1945 at 11.55 hours. Initially, Gatow was called \"Intermediate Landing Place No. 19\", but on 19 August 1945 was renamed Royal Air Force Station Gatow, or RAF Gatow for short. The Station was given the Latin motto \"Pons Heri Pons Hodie\", which may be translated as \"A bridge yesterday, a bridge today\". RAF Gatow was also used as a civilian airport for a limited time. In 1946, British European Airways (BEA) inaugurated an RAF Northolt – Hamburg – Gatow scheduled service at a frequency of six flights a week, using Douglas DC-3 (\"\"Pionair\"\" in BEA terminology) and Vickers VC.1 Viking piston-engined aircraft.", "During the Berlin Airlift, the Station was modernised with a long concrete runway, using 794 German workers, in March 1947. Along with the American airfield of Tempelhof and the French airfield of Tegel, RAF Gatow played a key role in the Berlin airlift of 1948. Initially, about 150 Douglas Dakotas and 40 Avro Yorks were used to fly supplies into Gatow. By 18 July 1948, the RAF was flying 995 tons of supplies per day into the airfield. Alongside the Royal Air Force and various British civil aviation companies, the United States Air Force, the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF), the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF), the Royal New Zealand Air Force (RNZAF) and the South African Air Force all flew supplies into RAF Gatow during the Airlift. On 20 June 1980, the Royal Australian Air Force presented a Douglas Dakota to RAF Gatow in commemoration of its role. Its aircrew included Air Marshal David Evans, an Australian airlift veteran. As only British, French and American aircraft were allowed under international law to fly inside the Allied Air Corridors, the Dakota received the RAF serial number ZD215. The Dakota is still at Gatow, inside the German Air Force barracks. In November 1948, the latest RAF transport aircraft, the Handley Page Hastings, was added to the squadrons flying into RAF Gatow and some aircrews and aircraft were redeployed to train replacement aircrews. Many of these were based at RAF Schleswigland, near Jagel, which is currently used by the German Air Force and the Marineflieger. A Hastings aircraft, which served on the airlift and was later RAF Gatow's 'gate guardian' until the station's closure, is now preserved in the \"Alliierten Museum\". By mid-December, the RAF had landed 100,000 tons of supplies. In April 1949, commercial airline companies involved in the airlift were formed into a Civil Airlift Division (co-ordinated by British European Airways) to operate under RAF control. Apart from BEA itself, these included a number of Britain's fledgling independent airlines as well, such as the late Sir Freddie Laker's Air Charter, Harold Bamberg's Eagle Aviation and Skyways. By mid-April, the combined airlift of all nations' operations managed to make 1,398 flights in 24 hours, carrying 12,940 tons (13,160 t) of goods, coal and machinery, beating their record of 8,246 (8,385 t) set only days earlier. RAF Gatow has the unique and unlikely distinction of being the base for the only known operational use of flying boats in central Europe, during the Berlin Blockade, on the nearby \"Großer Wannsee\" in the Havel river. On 6 July 1948, the RAF began using 10 Short Sunderland and 2 Short Hythe flying boats, flying from Finkenwerder on the Elbe near Hamburg to Berlin. These were supplemented by the flying boat operations of Aquila Airways, an early post-war British independent airline that became an operating division of British Aviation Services. The flying boats' specialty was transporting bulk salt, which would have been very corrosive to other aircraft, but was not as corrosive to the flying boats because of their anodised skins. The novel \"Air Bridge\" by Hammond Innes is partially set in RAF Gatow at the time of the Berlin Airlift, and is notable for its accurate descriptions of the Station, including corridors and rooms within it. Some of the descriptions were still accurate some 40 years after the book's publication. To commemorate Australian participation in the Airlift, the Royal Australian Air Force presented RAF Gatow with a retired Douglas Dakota in the 1980s, to use as a gate guardian. The aircraft was flown into Berlin with RAF markings to comply with the four power agreement and took part in the upcoming air day. The aircraft was then handed over to RAF personnel who then inhibited (mothballed) the still serviceable engines. The Luftwaffenmuseum der Bundeswehr preserves this aircraft on the airfield.", "After the Berlin Blockade, RAF Gatow served as an airfield for the British Army's Berlin Infantry Brigade, and was prepared to revert to its role as a supply base, if another Berlin Airlift to West Berlin ever became necessary. BEA moved to Tempelhof Airport in 1951, where most of West Berlin's commercial air transport operations were concentrated from then on. Gatow's non-military use after 1950 included several official visits by Queen Elizabeth and other members of the British Royal Family, which frequently took place over the years. The airport also handled trooping flights operated by British independent airlines such as British United Airways, Britannia Airways and Autair/Court Line under contract to the MoD. The \"RAF Gatow Station Flight\" used two De Havilland Chipmunk T10s, one of which is now owned by the \"Alliiertenmuseum\" (see weblink at base of page), to maintain and exercise the British legal right under the Potsdam Agreement to use the airspace over both West and East Berlin, as well as the air corridors to and from West Germany to the city. In the 1950s the base was also an important centre for intelligence gathering by Royal Airforce Linguists monitoring on a 24/7 basis Soviet air traffic broadcasts from its basis all over Eastern Europe. These aircraft were also used for reconnaissance missions in co-operation with \"The British Commander-in-Chief's Mission to the Soviet Forces of Occupation in Germany\", commonly known as \"BRIXMIS\" (see weblink at base of page to the BRIXMIS Association). Known from 1956 as Operation Schooner and then Operation Nylon, they were authorised, at the highest level, on an irregular basis to carry out covert photographic reconnaissance flights. All flights had to be notified to the Berlin Air Safety Center (BASC), a quadripartite organisation responsible for authorising all flights in the three Air Corridors and the Berlin Control Zone (BCZ). All the Chipmunk Flight Notification Cards in the BASC were stamped by the Soviets “Safety of Flight Not Guaranteed” due to their interpretation of the 1946 Agreement as excluding flights outside West Berlin. Within the BCZ were many Soviet and East German military airfields and other installations. After the fall of the Berlin Wall, Chipmunk reconnaissance flights soon ceased and the two Chipmunks were flown to RAF Laarbruch, in Western Germany to await disposal action. Chipmunk WG466 was flown back to Berlin Tempelhof from RAF Laarbruch on 30 July 1994 and was donated to the \"Alliiertenmuseum\" in Berlin. It is currently on loan to the Luftwaffenmuseum der Bundeswehr at Gatow, WG486 is still in RAF service with the Battle of Britain Memorial Flight (see weblink at base of page). RAF Gatow was from 1970 also used by the UK's Army Air Corps, \"7 Aviation Flight AAC\", later renamed No. 7 Flight AAC being based at the station initially flying four Westland Sioux (UK-built Bell 47) and later three Gazelle AH.1 helicopters. A Signals Unit (26SU) was also based at RAF Gatow and on the Teufelsberg in the Grunewald. 26SU was a specialist Signals Intelligence unit operated by the RAF on behalf of GCHQ Cheltenham tasked with monitoring Warsaw Pact military communications over E. Germany and Poland.", "At least three successful escapes were made from East Germany to RAF Gatow. On 7 April 1978 two East German brothers defected by flying a Zlin Z-42M light aircraft of the \"Gesellschaft für Sport und Technik\" (\"GST\" – an East German paramilitary training organisation) to RAF Gatow. The escape had been planned over the previous three years. The aircraft was dismantled and returned to East Germany with painted slogans such as \"Wish you were here\". On 24 June 1979 an East German glider landed at RAF Gatow, its pilot seeking political asylum. The glider was handed back to East Germany at the Glienicke Bridge four days later with where the flying control surface lock of the rudder bore the message \"remove before the next escape\". On 15 July 1987, a young East German, Thomas Krüger, defected by flying a Zlin Z-42M light aircraft of the \"Gesellschaft für Sport und Technik\". His first words to the RAF Police were a request for political asylum. He was handed over to the civil authorities and received West German citizenship. His aircraft, registration DDR-WOH, was dismantled and returned to the East Germans (by road) by RAF station flight personnel, complete with humorous slogans painted on by RAF Airman such as \"Wish you were here\", \"Come back soon\". DDR-WOH is still flying today, but since 1991 under the different registration D-EWOH.", "The closest military neighbour to RAF Gatow was a tank unit of the \"National People's Army\" (\"NVA\") of East Germany. This was located immediately opposite the airfield, behind the section of the Berlin Wall which ran along the western side of the airfield, and was clearly visible from RAF Gatow's control tower. The Berlin Wall section opposite Gatow was not in fact a wall, but a wire fence. East Germany claimed that this was a \"military courtesy\", but nobody at RAF Gatow believed this, thinking that it was instead intended to make a military invasion easier. This surmise was confirmed after the reunification of Germany, when the East German invasion plans for West Berlin, codenamed \"Operation CENTRE\" were found. \"Grenzregiment 34 \"Hanno Günther\"\" of the \"Grenztruppen der DDR\" was allocated the task of attacking and occupying RAF Gatow. The invasion plans were continually updated, even in 1990 when it was clear that East Germany would soon cease to exist.", "Following the reunification of Germany, the British ceded control of the station on 18 June 1994. The Station Flight and its two Chipmunk T.10s was disbanded on 30 June 1994. The station was handed back to the German Air Force on 7 September 1994. The airfield was kept operational for a very short time, and then closed to air traffic in 1995. The western end of the two runways was later removed to make way for housing, leaving only the eastern portions, cut mid-field on a diagonal line. The remaining portions are used for the outdoor aircraft display. The history of RAF Gatow and of western forces in Berlin from 1945 to 1994 is told in the Allied Museum.", "The airfield is now called General-Steinhoff Kaserne. Units now based there are \"Bw Fachschule Berlin-Gatow\", \"Fernmeldeaufklärungsabschnitt 921\", \"Luftwaffenunterstützungskompanie Gatow\", \"Kommando 3 Luftwaffendivision\", \"Luftwaffenmusikkorps 4\" and \"Truppenambulanz Berlin-Gatow\". Also on the site of the former RAF station, but not part of \"General-Steinhoff Kaserne\", is a school, the Hans-Carossa-Gymnasium, and houses for government employees of the Federal Republic of Germany. Since 2003, this has been part of the district of Berlin-Kladow. The \"General-Steinhoff Kaserne\" is also home to the Luftwaffenmuseum der Bundeswehr, the museum of the Air Force which has many displays (including historic aircraft) and much information on German military aviation and the history of the airfield. Admission to the museum is free. The museum, which is run by the German Air Force, is under the technical and administrative chain of command of the \"Militärgeschichtliches Forschungsamt\" or \"MGFA\" (Military History Research Institute)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Wanderings.", "Samothrace.", "Founder of Thebes.", "Samothracian connection.", "Genealogy.", "Offspring.", "Hittite records controversy.", "Trivia." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The etymology of Cadmus' name remains uncertain. Possible connected words include the Semitic triliteral root \"qdm\" () signifies \"east\", in Arabic, words derived from the root \"qdm\" include the verb “qdm” meaning “to come” as well as words meaning \"primeval\" and \"forth\" as well as \"foot\", (in Hebrew, \"qedem\" means \"east\",\"front\" and \"ancient\"(primeval); the verb \"qadam\" () means \"to be in front\"), and the Greek \"kekasmai\" (<*\"kekadmai\") \"to shine\". Therefore, the complete meaning of the name might be: \"He who excels\" or \"from the east\".", "", "After his sister Europa had been carried off by Zeus from the shores of Phoenicia, Cadmus was sent out by his father to find her, and enjoined not to return without her. Unsuccessful in his search—or unwilling to go against Zeus—he came to Samothrace, the island sacred to the \"Great Gods\" or the Kabeiroi, whose mysteries would be celebrated also at Thebes. Cadmus did not journey alone to Samothrace; he appeared with his mother Telephassa in the company of his nephew (or brother) Thasus, son of Cilix, who gave his name to the island of Thasos nearby. An identically composed trio had other names at Samothrace, according to Diodorus Siculus: Electra and her two sons, Dardanos and Eetion or Iasion. There was a fourth figure, Electra's daughter, Harmonia, whom Cadmus took away as a bride, as Zeus had abducted Europa. The wedding was the first celebrated on Earth to which the gods brought gifts, according to Diodorus and dined with Cadmus and his bride.", "Cadmus came in the course of his wanderings to Delphi, where he consulted the oracle. He was ordered to give up his quest and follow a special cow, with a half moon on her flank, which would meet him, and to build a town on the spot where she should lie down exhausted. The cow was given to Cadmus by Pelagon, King of Phocis, and it guided him to Boeotia, where he founded the city of Thebes. Intending to sacrifice the cow to Athena, Cadmus sent some of his companions, Deioleon and Seriphus to the nearby Ismenian spring for water. They were slain by the spring's guardian water-dragon (compare the Lernaean Hydra), which was in turn destroyed by Cadmus, the duty of a culture hero of the new order. He was then instructed by Athena to sow the dragon's teeth in the ground, from which there sprang a race of fierce armed men, called the \"Spartoi\" (\"sown\"). By throwing a stone among them, Cadmus caused them to fall upon one another until only five survived, who assisted him to build the Cadmeia or citadel of Thebes, and became the founders of the noblest families of that city. The dragon had been sacred to Ares, so the god made Cadmus do penance for eight years by serving him. According to Theban tellings, it was at the expiration of this period that the gods gave him Harmonia (\"harmony\", literally \"putting or assembling together\", \"good assembly\", or \"good composition) as wife. At Thebes, Cadmus and Harmonia began a dynasty with a son Polydorus, and four daughters, Agave, Autonoë, Ino and Semele. At the wedding, whether celebrated at Samothrace or at Thebes, all the gods were present; Harmonia received as bridal gifts a \"peplos\" worked by Athena and a necklace made by Hephaestus. This necklace, commonly referred to as the Necklace of Harmonia, brought misfortune to all who possessed it. Notwithstanding the divinely ordained nature of his marriage and his kingdom, Cadmus lived to regret both: his family was overtaken by grievous misfortunes, and his city by civil unrest. Cadmus finally abdicated in favor of his grandson Pentheus, and went with Harmonia to Illyria, to fight on the side of the Enchelii. Later, as king, he founded the city of Lychnidos and Bouthoe. Nevertheless, Cadmus was deeply troubled by the ill-fortune which clung to him as a result of his having killed the sacred dragon, and one day he remarked that if the gods were so enamoured of the life of a serpent, he might as well wish that life for himself. Immediately he began to grow scales and change in form. Harmonia, seeing the transformation, thereupon begged the gods to share her husband's fate, which they granted (Hyginus). In another telling of the story, the bodies of Cadmus and his wife were changed after their deaths; the serpents watched their tomb while their souls were translated to the fields. In Euripides' \"The Bacchae\", Cadmus is given a prophecy by Dionysus whereby both he and his wife will be turned into snakes for a period before eventually being brought to live among the blest.", "In Phoenician, as well as Hebrew, the Semitic root \"qdm\" signifies \"the east\", the Levantine origin of \"Kdm\" himself, according to the Greek mythographers; the equation of \"Kadmos\" with the Semitic \"qdm\" was traced to a publication of 1646 by R. B. Edwards. The name \"Kadmos\" has been thoroughly Hellenised. The fact that Hermes was worshipped in Samothrace under the name of Cadmus or Cadmilus seems to show that the Theban Cadmus was interpreted as an ancestral Theban hero corresponding to the Samothracian. Another Samothracian connection for Cadmus is offered via his wife Harmonia, who is said by Diodorus Siculus to be daughter of Zeus and Electra and of Samothracian birth. The \"Wedding of Cadmus and Harmonia\" is considered as a conceptual symbolic coupling of Eastern (Phoenician) learning with Western (Greek) love of beauty. He died tragicallly by getting killed by Ares the God of war.", "Cadmus was of ultimately divine ancestry, the grandson of the sea god Poseidon and Libya on his father's side, and of Nilus (the River Nile) on his mother's side; overall he was considered a member of the fifth generation of beings following the (mythological) creation of the world:", "With Harmonia, he was the father of Semele, Polydorus, Autonoe, Agave and Ino. Their youngest son was Illyrius. According to Greek mythology, Cadmus is the ancestor of Illyrians and Theban royalty.", "It has been argued by various scholars, that in a letter from the King of Ahhiyawa to the Hittite King, written in the Hittite language in c. 1250 BC, a specific Cadmus was mentioned as a forefather of the Ahhijawa people. The latter term most probably referred to the Mycenaean world (Achaeans), or at least to a part of it. Nevertheless, this reading about a supposed Cadmus as historical person is rejected by most scholars.", "The Syrian city of Al-Qadmus is named after Cadmus." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "Location and overview.", "Natural resources.", "Climate.", "Flora and fauna.", "Hydrology.", "Ecology.", "History.", "Early history.", "Novgorodians.", "Russian settlement.", "Soviet and modern periods.", "Demography.", "Economy.", "Historical background.", "Modern economy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The peninsula is located in the far northwest of Russia, almost completely inside the Arctic Circle and is washed by the Barents Sea in the north and the White Sea in the east and southeast. Geologically, the peninsula occupies the northeastern edge of the Baltic Shield. The western border of the peninsula stretches along the meridian from the Kola Bay through the valley of the Kola River, Lake Imandra, and the Niva River to the Kandalaksha Gulf, although some sources push it all the way west to Russia's border with Finland. Under a more restrictive definition, the peninsula covers an area of about. The northern coast is steep and high, while the southern coast is flat. The western part of the peninsula is covered by two mountain ranges: the Khibiny Mountains and the Lovozero Massif; the former contains the highest point of the peninsula—Mount Chasnachorr, the height of which is. The Keyvy drainage divide lies in the central part. The mountainous reliefs of the Murman and Kandalaksha Coasts stretch from southeast to northwest, mirroring the peninsula's main orographic features. Administratively, the territory of the peninsula consists of Lovozersky and Tersky Districts, parts of Kandalakshsky and Kolsky Districts, as well as the territories subordinated to the cities and towns of Murmansk, Ostrovnoy, Severomorsk, Kirovsk, and parts of the territories subordinated to Apatity, Olenegorsk, and Polyarnye Zori.", "Because the last ice age removed the top sediment layer of the soil, the Kola Peninsula is on the surface extremely rich in various ores and minerals, including apatites and nephelines; copper, nickel, and iron ores; mica; kyanites; ceramic materials, as well as rare-earth elements and non-ferrous ores. Deposits of construction materials such as granite, quartzite, and limestone are also abundant. Diatomaceous earth deposits are common near lakes and are used to produce insulation.", "Proximity of the peninsula to the Gulf Stream leads to unusually high temperatures in winter, resulting in significant temperature variations between land and the Barents Sea and in fluctuating temperatures during high winds. Cyclones are typical during the cold seasons, while the warm seasons are characterized by anticyclones. Monsoon winds are common in most areas, with south and southwesterly winds prevailing in winter months and with somewhat more pronounced easterly winds in summer. Strong storm winds blow for 80–120 days a year. The waters of the Murman Coast remain warm enough to remain ice-free even in winter. Precipitation levels on the peninsula are rather high: in the mountains, on the Murman Coast, and in other areas. The wettest months are August through October, while March and April are the driest. The average temperature in January is about, with lower temperatures typical in the central parts of the peninsula. The average temperature in July is about. Record lows reach in the central parts and on the coasts. Record highs exceed almost on all the territory of the peninsula. First frosts occur as early as August and may last through May and even June. Most areas of the Kola Peninsula are subarctic climate (Köppen climate classification: \"Dfc\"). The nearby islands usually belong to tundra (Köppen climate classification: \"ET\").", "The peninsula is covered by taiga in the south and tundra in the north. In the tundra, cold and windy conditions and permafrost limit the growth of the trees, resulting in a landscape dominated by grasses, wildflowers, and shrubs such as dwarf birch and cloudberry. In northern coastal areas, stony and shrub lichens are common. The taiga in the southern areas is composed mostly of pine trees and spruces. Reindeer herds visit the grasslands in summer. Other animals include red and Arctic foxes, wolverines, moose, otters, and lynx in the southern areas. American minks, which were released near the Olenitsa River in 1935–1936, are now common throughout the peninsula and are commercially hunted. Beavers, which became endangered by 1880, were re-introduced in 1934–1957. All in all, thirty-two species of mammals and up to two hundred bird species inhabit the peninsula. Beluga whales are the only cetacean being common around the peninsula. Other dolphins, including Atlantic white-sided dolphins, white-beaked dolphins, and harbor porpoises, as well as large whales, such as bowhead, humpback, blue, and finback, also visit the area. The coasts of the Kandalaksha Gulf and the Barents Sea are important breeding grounds for bearded seals and ringed seals. The Barents Sea is one of the only places the rare Gray seals can be found. Greenland seals, or harp seals, also can be seen from time to time. Twenty-nine species of fresh water fish are recognized on the territory of peninsula, including trout, stickleback, northern pike, and European perch. The rivers are an important habitat for the Atlantic salmon, which return from Greenland and the Faroe Islands to spawn in fresh water. As a result of this, a recreational fishery has been developed, with a number of remote lodges and camps available to host sport-fishermen. The Kandalaksha Nature Reserve, established in 1932 to protect the population of common eider, is organized in thirteen clusters located in the Kandalaksha Gulf of the Kola Peninsula and along the coasts of the Barents Sea.", "The Kola Peninsula has many small but fast-moving rivers with rapids. The most important of them are the Ponoy, the Varzuga, the Umba, the Teriberka, the Voronya, and the Yokanga. Most rivers originate from lakes and swamps and collect their waters from melting snow. The rivers become icebound during the winter, although the areas with strong rapids freeze later or not at all. Major lakes include Imandra, Umbozero, and Lovozero. There are no lakes with an area smaller than. Recreational fishery is developed in the region.", "The Kola Peninsula as a whole suffered major ecological damage, mostly as a result of pollution from the military (particularly naval) production, industrial mining of apatite, and military nuclear waste. About 137 active and 140 decommissioned or idle naval nuclear reactors, produced by the Soviet military, remain on the peninsula. For thirty years, nuclear waste had been dumped into the sea by the Northern Fleet and Murmansk Shipping Company. There is also evidence of contamination from the 1986 Chernobyl disaster, with contaminants being found in the flesh of reindeer and other animals, and from the 1972 and 1984 controlled nuclear explosions northwest of Kirovsk. Additionally, several nuclear weapons test ranges and radioactive waste storage facilities exist on the peninsula. The main industrial pollution source is Norilsk Nickel in Monchegorsk—the large smelters responsible for over 80% of the sulfur dioxide emissions and for nearly all nickel and copper emissions. Since 1998, SO emissions in the area have dropped by almost 60%, from 88.3 thousand tonnes to 37.3 thousand tonnes in 2016, according to Norilsk Nickel. Based on its new ‘Sulphur programme 2.0', Norilsk Nickel has set itself staged targets in cutting down sulphur dioxide emissions, which can have negative health and environmental effects. The ultimate aim is a 95% reduction (compared to 2015) in SO2 by 2030 for its Polar Division on the Taimyr peninsula, which includes its Nadezhda smelter and Copper plant, partly through a SO2 capture solution. Other polluters of note include the thermal power stations in Apatity and Murmansk.", "", "The Rybachy Peninsula in the north of the Kola Peninsula was already settled in the 7th–5th millennium BCE. In the 3rd–2nd millennium BCE, the peninsula was settled by the peoples who arrived there from the south (the territory of modern Karelia). Bolshoy Oleny Island in the Kola Bay of the Barents Sea is the location of an important Bronze Age archaeological site where ancient DNA has been recovered. By the end of the 1st millennium CE, the peninsula was settled only by the Sami people, who did not have their own state, lived in clans ruled by elders, and were engaged mostly in reindeer herding and fishing. In the 12th century, Russian Pomors from the shores of the Onega Bay and in the lower reaches of the Northern Dvina discovered the peninsula and its game and fish riches. The Pomors organized regular hunting and fishing visits and started barter trade with the Sami. They also called the White Sea coast of the peninsula Tersky Coast () or Terskaya Land (). By the end of the 12th century, the Pomors explored all northern coast of the peninsula and reached Finnmark (an area in the north of Norway), necessitating the Norwegians to support a naval guard in that area. The name given by the Pomors to the northern coast was \"Murman\"—a distorted form of \"Norman\" meaning \"Norwegian\".", "Pomors were soon followed by tribute collectors from the Novgorod Republic, and the Kola Peninsula gradually became a part of the Novgorodian lands. A 1265 treaty of Yaroslav Yaroslavich with Novgorod mentions Tre Volost (), which is later also mentioned in other documents dated as late as 1471. In addition to Tre, Novgorodian documents of the 13th–15th centuries also mention Kolo Volost, which bordered Tre approximately along the line between Kildin Island and Turiy Headland of the Turiy Peninsula. Kolo Volost lay to the west of that line, while Tre was situated to the east of it. By the 13th century, a need to formalize the border between the Novgorod Republic and the Scandinavian countries became evident. The Novgorodians, along with the Karelians who came from the south, reached the coast of what now is Pechengsky District and the portion of the coast of Varangerfjord near the Jacob's River, which now is a part of Norway. The Sami population was forced to pay tribute. The Norwegians, however, were also attempting to take control of these lands, resulting in armed conflicts. In 1251, a conflict between the Karelians, Novgorodians and the servants of the king of Norway led to the establishment of a Novgorodian mission in Norway. Also in 1251, the first treaty with Norway was signed in Novgorod regarding the Sami lands and the system of tribute collections, making the Sami people pay tribute to both Novgorod and Norway. By the terms of the treaty, Novgorodians could collect tribute from the Sami as far as Lyngen fjord in the west, while Norwegians could collect tribute on the territory of the whole Kola Peninsula except in the eastern part of Tersky Coast. No state borders were established by the 1251 treaty. The treaty led to a short period of peace, but the armed conflicts resumed soon thereafter. Chronicles document attacks by the Novgorodians and the Karelians on Finnmark and northern Norway as early as 1271, and continuing well into the 14th century. The official border between the Novgorod lands and the lands of Sweden and Norway was established by the Treaty of Nöteborg on August 12, 1323. The treaty primarily focused on the Karelian Isthmus border and the border north of Lake Ladoga. Another treaty dealing the matters of the northern borders was the Treaty of Novgorod signed with Norway in 1326, which ended the decades of the Norwegian-Novgorodian border skirmishes in Finnmark. Per the terms of this treaty, Norway relinquished all claims to the Kola Peninsula. However, the treaty did not address the situation with the Sami people paying tribute to both Norway and Novgorod, and the practice continued until 1602. While the 1326 treaty did not define the border in detail, it confirmed the 1323 border demarcation, which remained more or less unchanged for the next six hundred years, until 1920. In the 15th century, Novgorodians started to establish permanent settlements on the peninsula. Umba and Varzuga, the first documented permanent settlements of the Novgorodians, date back to 1466. Over time, all coastal areas to the west of the Pyalitsa River had been settled, creating a territory where the population was mostly Novgorodian. Administratively, this territory was divided into Varzuzhskaya and Umbskaya Volosts, which were governed by a posadnik from the area of the Northern Dvina. The Novgorod Republic lost control of both of these \"volosts\" to the Grand Duchy of Moscow after the Battle of Shelon in 1471, and the republic itself ceased to exist in 1478 when Ivan III took the city of Novgorod. All Novgorod territories, including those on the Kola Peninsula, became a part of the Grand Duchy of Moscow. The Novgorod Republic lost control of the peninsula to the Grand Duchy of Moscow in 1471, but the Russian migration did not stop. Several new settlements were established during the 16th century, and the Sami and Pomor people were forced into serfdom. In the second half of the 16th century, the peninsula became a subject of dispute between the Tsardom of Russia and the Kingdom of Denmark–Norway, which resulted in the strengthening of the Russian position. By the end of the 19th century, the indigenous Sami population had been mostly forced north by the Russians as well as by newly arriving Izhma Komi and Kominized Nenets (so-called Yaran people), who migrated here to escape a reindeer disease epidemic in their home lands in the southeast of the White Sea. The original administrative and economic center of the area was Kola, situated at the estuary of the Kola River into the Kola Bay. However, in 1916, Romanov-na-Murmane (now Murmansk) was founded and quickly became the largest city and port on the peninsula.", "Russian migration to the peninsula continued into the 16th century, when new settlements such as Kandalaksha and Porya-Guba were established. Kola was first mentioned in 1565. In the end of the 15th century, the Pomors and the Sami people were forced into serfdom, mostly by the monasteries. Monastery \"votchinas\" greatly expanded during the 17th century, but were abolished in 1764, when all of the Kola Peninsula peasants became state peasants. In the second half of the 16th century, King Frederick II of Denmark–Norway demanded that the Tsardom of Russia cede the peninsula. Russia declined, and in order to organize adequate defenses established the position of a \"voyevoda\". The \"voyevoda\" sat in Kola, which became the administrative center of the region. Prior to that, the administrative duties were performed by the tax collectors from Kandalaksha. Newly established Kolsky Uyezd covered most of the territory of the peninsula (with the exception of Varzuzhskaya and Umbskaya Volosts, which were a part of Dvinsky Uyezd), as well as the northern part of Karelia all the way to Lendery. Despite the economic activity, permanent settlement of the peninsula did not intensify until the 1860s and even then it remained sporadic until 1917. The population of Kola in 1880, for example, was only around 500 inhabitants living in 80 households, compared to 1,900 inhabitants in 300 households living there in 1582. Transportation facilities were virtually non-existent and the communication with the rest of Russia irregular. 1887 saw an influx of Izhma Komi and Nenets people who were migrating to the peninsula to escape a reindeer disease epidemic in their home lands and brought their large deer herds with them, resulting in increased competition for the grazing lands, a conflict between the Komi and the Sami, and in marginalization of the local Sami population. By the end of the 19th century, the Sami population had mostly been forced north, with ethnic Russians settling in the south of the peninsula. In 1894, the peninsula was visited by the Russian Minister of Finance, who became convinced of the region's economic potential. Consequently, in 1896 a telephone and a telegraph line were extended to Kola, improving the communication with the mainland. A possibility of building a railway was also considered, but no action was taken at the time. Also in 1896, Alexandrovsk (now Polyarny) was founded, and grew in size so rapidly that it was granted town status in 1899; Kolsky Uyezd was renamed Alexandrovsky on that occasion. During World War I, the still poorly developed peninsula suddenly found itself in a strategic position, as the communication between Russia and the Allies was cut and the ice-free harbors of the Murman Coast remained the only means of sending the war supplies to the Eastern Front. In March 1915, the construction of the railroad was rushed, and the railroad was quickly opened in 1916, even though it was only partially completed and poorly built. In 1916, Romanov-na-Murmane (modern Murmansk) was founded as the terminal point of the new railroad; the town quickly grew to become the largest one on the peninsula.", "Soviet power was established on the territory of the peninsula on, 1917, but the territory was occupied by the forces of Russia's pre-war allies in March 1918–March 1920. Alexandrovsky Uyezd was transformed into Murmansk Governorate by the Soviet government in June 1921. On August 1, 1927, the All-Russian Central Executive Committee (VTsIK) issued two Resolutions: \"On the Establishment of Leningrad Oblast\" and \"On the Borders and Composition of the Okrugs of Leningrad Oblast\", according to which Murmansk Governorate was transformed into Murmansk Okrug (which was divided into six districts) and included into Leningrad Oblast. This arrangement existed until May 28, 1938, when the okrug was separated from Leningrad Oblast, merged with Kandalakshsky District of the Karelian ASSR, and transformed into modern Murmansk Oblast. All in all, the Soviet period saw a significant increase in population (799,000 in 1970 vs. 15,000 in 1913), although most of the population remained concentrated in the urban localities along the railroads and the sea coast. Most of the sparsely populated territories outside the urbanized areas were used for deer herding. In 1920–1940, the town of Kirovsk and several work settlements were established on the peninsula. The Sami peoples were subject to forced collectivization, with more than half of their reindeer herds collectivized in 1928–1930. In addition, the traditional Sami herding practices were phased out in favor of the more economically profitable Komi approach, which emphasized permanent settlements over free herding. Since the Sami culture is strongly tied to the herding practices, this resulted in the Sami people gradually losing their language and traditional herding knowledge. Most Sami were forced to settle in the village of Lovozero, which became the cultural center of the Sami people in Russia. Those Sami resisting the collectivization were subject to forced labor or death. Various forms of repression against the Sami continued until Stalin's death in 1953. In the 1990s, 40% of the Sami lived in urbanized areas, although some herd reindeer across much of the region. The Sami were not the only people subject to repressions. Thousands of people were sent to Kola in the 1930s–1950s, and in 2007 over two thousand people—descendants of those forcibly sent here—still live on the peninsula. A significant portion of the people deported to Kola were peasants from southern Russia subjected to dekulakization. Prisoner labor was often used when building new factories and for manning those which were operational: in 1940, for example, the whole Severonikel Metallurgy Mining Complex was turned over to the NKVD system.", "Until the 1800s, the Kola Peninsula was extremely sparsely populated, with only 5,200 inhabitants in 1858. In 1868 the Russian government created incentives for settlement and not only Russians but also Finns, Norwegians and Karelians moved to the peninsula. By the 1897 census 9,291 people were counted in the Kola uyezd; 63% Russian, 19% Sami, 11% Finnish and 3% Karelian. By 1913 about 13,000–15,000 people lived in the peninsula, mostly along the shores. However, the discovery of the vast natural resource deposits and industrialization efforts led to an explosive population growth during the Soviet times. By 1970, the population of the peninsula was around 799,000. The trend reverted in the 1990s, after the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The population of the whole Murmansk Oblast went down from 1,150,000 in 1989 to 890,000 in 2002 to 795,000 in 2010. As of the 2010 Census, the population consisted mostly of Russians (89.0%), Ukrainians (4.8%), and Belarusians (1.7%). Other groups of note include Komi (~1,600 inhabitants), Sami (~1,600), and Karelians (~1,400). The indigenous Sami people are mostly concentrated in Lovozersky District.", "", "During the 15th–16th centuries, the main occupations of the Tersky Coast population were Atlantic salmon fishing, seal hunting, and the extraction of salt from the sea water. The salt extraction in Kandalaksha and Kola was mostly carried out by the monasteries in Pechenga and Solovki, and for a long time remained the only \"industry\" on the peninsula. By the mid-16th century, Atlantic cod fishing developed on the Murman Coast in the north. The 1560s saw a rapid growth of international trade, with the Russian merchants from different regions of the country arriving to the peninsula to trade with the merchants from Western Europe. In 1585, however, the trade was moved to Archangel, although the settlement of Kola was still permitted to trade locally produced goods. During the 17th century, the salt extraction activities gradually went into decline as the locally produced salt was uncompetitive with cheap salt produced in the Kama River regions. Extensive poaching also led to the significantly reduced outputs from pearl hunting. However, commercial deer herding became more popular, although its share in the economy remained negligible until the 19th century. By the end of the 17th century, the practice of seasonal fishing and hunting settlements in the north of the peninsula became very common. Peter the Great, recognizing the political and economical importance of the peninsula, promoted its industries and commerce; however, the region fell into neglect after St. Petersburg was founded in 1703 and most of the shipping trade shifted there. In 1732, large deposits of silver in native form were discovered on Medvezhy Island in the Kandalaksha Gulf and copper, silver, and gold deposits were found in the lower reaches of the Ponoy River. However, despite the efforts ongoing for the next two centuries, there was no commercial success. At the end of the 18th century, the local population learned the practice of peat production from the Norwegians and started using peat for heating. Timber cutting industry developed in the region at the end of the 19th century; mostly in Kovda and Umba. The Soviet era saw drastic industrialization and militarization of the peninsula. In 1925–1926, significant deposits of apatite were discovered in the Khibiny Mountains, and the first apatite batch was shipped only a few years later, in 1929. In 1930, sulfide deposits were discovered in the Moncha area; in 1932–1933 iron ore deposits were found near the upper streams of the Iona River; and in 1935, significant deposits of titanium ores were discovered in the area of modern Afrikanda. The collectivization efforts in the 1930s led to the concentration of the reindeer herds in kolkhozes (collective farms), which, in turn, were further consolidated into a few large-scale state farms in the late 1950s–early 1970s. By the mid-1970s, the state farms were further consolidated into just two, based in Lovozero and Krasnoshchelye. The consolidations were rationalized by the necessity to isolate the herders from the military installations, as well as by the need to flood some territories to construct hydroelectric plants. Fishing, being the traditional industry of the region, was always considered important, even though the volumes of production remained insignificant until the beginning of the 20th century. In the 1920s–1930s, the Murmansk Trawl Fleet was created and the fishing infrastructure started to develop intensively. By 1940, fishing accounted for 40% of the oblast's and for 80% of Murmansk's economy. During the Cold War, the peninsula served as the naval basing area for a large portion of the Soviet naval and air strategic forces, providing protection from and posing a threat to northern Norway. Also the ELF-transmitter ZEVS of the Russian Navy is situated there.", "After the economic slump of the 1990s, the economy of the oblast started to rebound during the first decade of the 2000s, although at a rate below the country's average. Today the Kola Peninsula is the most industrially developed and urbanized region in northern Russia. The major port of the peninsula is Murmansk, which serves as the administrative center of Murmansk Oblast and does not freeze in winter. Although the strategic importance of the Kola Peninsula has diminished since the Cold War, the peninsula nevertheless still has the highest concentration of nuclear weapons, reactors, and facilities in Russia, with the number of nuclear reactors alone exceeding any other region of the world. Mining is the basis of the oblast's economy, and mining enterprises remain the principal employers in such monotowns as Apatity, Kirovsk, Zapolyarny, Nikel, and Monchegorsk. The Kola Mining and Metallurgical Company, a division of Norilsk Nickel, conducts nickel-, copper-, and platinum-group-metals-mining operations on the peninsula. Other large mining companies include OAO Apatit, which is the largest producer of phosphates in Europe; OAO Olcon, one of the leading producers of iron ore concentrates in Russia; and OAO Kovdorsky GOK, an ore-mining and processing enterprise. The fishing industry, although still operating significantly below the Soviet level of production, remains profitable, supplying 20% of Russia's fish in 2006 and with the volume steadily growing in 2007–2010. Murmansk is a key base for three fishing fleets, including Russia's largest, the Murmansk Trawl Fleet. Fish breeding, especially of salmon and trout, is a growing industry. The energy sector is represented by the Kola Nuclear Power Plant near Polyarnye Zori, which produces about half of all energy, and a network of seventeen hydroelectric and two thermal power stations, generating the other half. The energy surplus, accounting for about 20% of the total generated energy, is transferred to the unified energy system of Russia, as well as exported to Norway and Finland via the NORDEL system. With the economy of the oblast being mostly export-oriented, transportation plays an important role and accounts for 11% of the Gross Regional Product. On the Kola Peninsula, the transportation network includes ship transport, air transport, automotive transport, electrified public transport, and access to the railways mostly passing through the rest of Murmansk Oblast. The city of Murmansk is an important port on the Northern Sea Route. The largest airports are the Murmansk Airport, which handles international flights to Scandinavian countries, and the joint military-civilian Kirovsk-Apatity Airport located southeast of Apatity." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Synopsis.", "Chapter 1: Jangar's Ancestors and Birth.", "Jangar's Father.", "The Invasion of Bomba.", "Jangar in the Wild.", "Jangar Kills His First Enemies.", "Chapter 2: Jangar and Mengen Xigxirge.", "Commemoration." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The epic begins by recounting the story of Jangar's grandfather, Tahil Zul Khan, who is described as being kind and honest. Tahil Zul Khan leads his people to a land called Bomba where he hoped to create a place where they would be no suffering or death. His tribe settles in Bomba and after 10 years of struggle, they manage to build a paradise there. However, one day Tahil Zul Khan goes to check on his horse herd and a blizzard strikes, forcing him to take refuge in a valley. When the blizzard finally waned after several days, he tried to leave, only to be buried by an avalanche. Tangsag Bumva, his son, becomes Khan. Also noted for being kind and wise, he tries to do what his father has done, but is thwarted by years of bad weather that kills half the tribe's livestock. Eventually Tangsag Bumva Khan dies of overwork, and his 12-year-old son Ujung Aldar becomes Khan. Ujung Aldar is Jangar's father.", "One day Ujung Aldar was participating in a horse race with some other youths for the prize of an iron-gray horse. However, as he rode past a hill, he came to a lake and stopped to watch a pair of swans courting. Fascinated by their love, he watched them until they flew away. Afterwards, he found himself feeling lonely and sad. His advisor, Master Choirom, suggested that he take a wife, and mentioned a 16-year-old girl named Urmaa in the tribe of Dorj Khan in the south. Ujung Aldar was pleased at the prospect, so Choirom went to Dorj Khan to arrange the match. Dorj Khan was agreeable, so Ujung Aldar Khan went to the south to be married, bring with him betrothal gifts. After drinking 75 cups of liquor and 75 cups of fermented milk with Dorj Khan, Ujung Aldar Khan left the party and went to the tent where his bride Urmaa was. In accordance with custom, the other members of Urmaa's family playfully tried to stop him, and he had to force, argue, and persuade his way through to the bride's yurt. At last he managed to break through and go in and get his wife. He put her on his great red stallion, Aranjagaan, and they galloped to the bridal yurt. Afterwards they returned to Bomba together. Two years later, it became apparent that the couple could not produce a child. They tried various kinds of medicine, but nothing worked. At last, Master Choirom suggested that they talk to a herdsman who had 19 children. They called the herdsman in and he explained his secret: when the horses began to rut, he and his wife would watch them mate, then go mate themselves. Promising to reward the herder if the trick worked, Ujung Aldar Khan agreed to try it. The couple secretly stole out to the steppe and hid behind a large rock so that they could watch a stallion and mare mate. Afterwards, they returned to their palace and tried for a child. The trick worked, and several months later it became apparent that Urmaa was pregnant. Ujung Aldar Khan sent the herdsman 100 cows as a reward. Urmaa was pregnant for 10 months, but could not give birth. When she finally did give birth, it was to a strange red mass. Ujung Aldar ordered a servant to throw it out, but then a voice cried from within, \"I'm suffocating! Let me out of here!\" They tried to cut the red mass open with a sword, but the sword merely chipped. Master Choirom came and recommended that they use Sword given by the Jade Emperor, and with this sword they were able to cut the red mass and free the large baby boy within. The baby's skin had auspicious markings: a red mole and a birthmark on his butt. The child was strong and kicked his leather swaddling cloths to pieces, making Urmaa afraid that her son was ill-fated to cause destruction. She begged Ujung Aldar to let the child die, but he appreciated his son's strength and refused. The tribe celebrated the baby's birth together.", "Ujung Aldar became so preoccupied with his new son that he began to neglect the affairs of the tribe, particularly the defenses. A Manggus, or devil, called Goljing had long been an enemy of Bomba. Seeing Ujung Aldar's weakness, he attacked with 10,000 warriors on black horses and easily captured Bomba. Ujung Aldar Khan and his wife and son were besieged in their palace. Seeking to save his son's life, Ujung Aldar put a piece of white jade in his son's mouth, placed him on the horse Aranjagaan, and sent his servant Menhbayar to take the child to safety. He also gave the servant the Aram spear, a weapon that had been passed down for generations. Then Ujang Aldar fought the invaders until he and his wife were cut down. The servant took the child to Big Black Mountain and hid him in a cave, then walked back to the palace to see what had happened. Discovering everything destroyed and the Khan dead, he decided to take his revenge by attacking some of the invaders as they sat around a fire. He killed one of them, but was soon killed himself. In the mountain cave, the boy sucked the white jade to keep himself from growing hungry or thirsty for a few days. But eventually he began to cry. A man named Mengen Xigxirge was hunting nearby, and he noticed the horse Aranjagaan grazing. Wanting to see what the horse was doing there, he went closer, and heard the baby crying. He followed the noise and discovered the cave. At first Mengen Xigxirge wanted to adopt the boy, so he decided to give him the name \"Jangar.\" The boy immediately agreed that this should be his name and declared that he would become master of the world. This frightened Mengen Xigxirge, who was worried that Jangar might dispossess his own son, Hongor. So he decided to leave Jangar there with some food and water and left.", "Jangar went outside and roared, and all the animals living nearby came to see what the noise was. He befriended them and they fed him and taught him their skills. She-wolves suckled him, and deer brought him fruit. He learned to roar from a tiger, to hunt from an eagle, and to run from an antelope. Jangar lived in the wild for two years, soon attaining the age of three. One day an old man appeared while Jangar was sitting under a tree. The man told him about what had happened to his parents and trained him in martial arts and magic. But no sooner had Jangar learned these things than he woke up—it was morning, and it had all been a dream. Nonetheless, he felt strong, and discovered that he could uproot a tree and smash a camel-sized rock with it. He mounted Aranjagaan and went home to kill Goljing.", "Three-year-old Jangar fought his way to Goljing's palace, destroying three strongholds on the way, and thrust his spear into the Manggus' chest, killing him. Then Jangar climbed up on the roof of the palace and called back all the people who had fled after the invasion. He became Khan and Bomba flourished again. Meanwhile, another ruler named Shar Durdeng began raiding the outskirts of Bomba for livestock, women and children. Jangar was upset, and the three-year-old Khan took up his spear and rode alone to face his new enemy. To reach Shar Durdeng's palace, Jangar had to fight for seven months and 19 days. He overthrew four strongholds, and finally reached the crystal palace by the sea where his enemy dwelt. He snuck inside and found everyone drunk. Taking hold of the intoxicated Shar Durdeng, Jangar threw him off his throne, and proceeded to break ribs and spinal bones until Shar Durdeng agreed to leave Bomba in peace and pay taxes and tribute. The first chapter of the Epic of Jangar ends by noting that by the age of five, Jangar had defeated five Mangguses and quintupled the size of the Bomba's territory.", "Besides being a hunter, Mengen Xigxirge was also a wrestler. He had once successfully wrestled and pinned a bull. Hearing of Jangar's success, Mengen Xigxirge was sorry that he left the boy alone on the mountain unharmed. He invited Jangar to come wrestle with him, and Jangar agreed. The shared a meal of mare's milk and lamb, then began to wrestle. The match lasted for several days, but finally Mengen Xigxirge prevailed. Having Jangar at his mercy, he determined to kill him and summoned men with swords. But Mengen Xigxirge's son Hongor grabbed hold of Jangar and pleaded his father not to harm him. Mengen Xigxirge tried to drive his son off, but was unable to do so; finally he succumbed and agreed to save Jangar on one condition: that he fight Altan Gheej, a man who could see 99 years into the future and 99 years into the past. Altan Gheej had fought Jangar's father long ago and almost destroyed him. Mengen Xigxirge hoped that the contest would prove to be Jangar's undoing. Jangar, riding Aranjagaan and carrying the Aram spear, went to attack Altan Gheej. Riding for three months, he finally arrived at the mountain where Altan Gheej's palace was located. Nearby was a herd of 80,000 iron-grey horses. Jangar reasoned that if Altan Gheej knew the future, then he must know that Jangar had come to attack him on that day. So instead of attacking, he decided to drive away the horses instead. Altan Gheej, however, had known that Jangar would drive off his horses and that the horses would eventually return, so he stayed at his palace instead of pursuing. It wasn't until Jangar was about to leave his territory a month later that he finally pursued. As Jangar was crossing a river, Altan Gheej took aim with his bow and fired a poison arrow at Jangar. The missile struck and Jangar felt dizzy. He put the piece of jade in his mouth. Aranjagaan, realizing what had happened, took Jangar to safety. Altan Gheej collected his horses and drove them back home.", "In 2014, the Jangar Culture and Art Palace (江格尔文化艺术宫) was opened in the Hoboksar Mongol Autonomous County, in Dzungaria, which is traditionally considered the place of origin of the epic." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Main sites.", "Vranjača Cave.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Located a short drive from Dugopolje in the village of Kotlenice (in the Dalmatian hinterland), the Vranjača Cave is increasingly becoming a popular tourist destination for those interested in exploring nature. The 65 meter deep cave was first discovered in 1903 by Stipe Punda and first became open to the public in 1929. The cave is estimated to be 65 to 70 million years old.", "Dugopolje's first mentioning dates back to 1283, when it as under the administration of neighbouring Klis The area near the Kapela hamlet is a site of a former Roman road bifurcation of the Salona - Aequum pathway and Tilurium - Argentaria pathway. Many graveyards from approx. 4th century were found nearby, implying that the Ilyrians descended from the hills and built a settlement there road-side. While Dugopolje wasn't harmed in World War I, World War II brought many devastations. The village was damaged by all the sides, whether it was Italians, Germans, Chetniks or Partisans. It was first sieged by Italians in January 1942 on their way to Split through the Rera railway, killing 7 peasants and burning down several houses in the process. In April 1942 partisans killed Don Šimun Karaman, a local priest. By the end of 1943, over 300 houses were burnt down by numerous sides, and many civilians were murdered. Dugopolje fell into the Partisan arms in late 1944. After World War II, Dugopolje was a part of Yugoslavia, and fell under the administration of Solin municipality, and eventually had electricity and waterlines installed. Many inhabitants of the village took part in the Croatian War of Independence, although the village itself wasn't harmed during the period. After the war, Dugopolje gained its' own municipality and the leading local party was HDZ. At first it was a transit spot for passengers on the D1 road between Split and Sinj, but in early 21st century, the A1 motorway was built, and Dugopolje became the important intersection towards Split, thus providing the opportunity to Zlatko Žervnja who was the Dugopolje mayor at the time, to design and build the biggest industrial zone in Dalmatia, which at one point had more people working in it than the population of the whole village." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Motivation and overview.", "History.", "Definitions.", "As a measure.", "As a distribution.", "Generalizations.", "Properties.", "Scaling and symmetry.", "Fourier kernels.", "Hilbert space theory.", "Spaces of holomorphic functions.", "Resolutions of the identity.", "Infinitesimal delta functions.", "Dirac comb.", "Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem.", "Relationship to the Kronecker delta.", "Applications.", "Probability theory.", "Quantum mechanics.", "Structural mechanics." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The graph of the delta function is usually thought of as following the whole \"x\"-axis and the positive \"y\"-axis. The Dirac delta is used to model a tall narrow spike function (an \"impulse\"), and other similar abstractions such as a point charge, point mass or electron point. For example, to calculate the dynamics of a billiard ball being struck, one can approximate the force of the impact by a delta function. In doing so, one not only simplifies the equations, but one also is able to calculate the motion of the ball by only considering the total impulse of the collision without a detailed model of all of the elastic energy transfer at subatomic levels (for instance). To be specific, suppose that a billiard ball is at rest. At time formula_1 it is struck by another ball, imparting it with a momentum \"P\", in formula_2. The exchange of momentum is not actually instantaneous, being mediated by elastic processes at the molecular and subatomic level, but for practical purposes it is convenient to consider that energy transfer as effectively instantaneous. The force therefore is formula_3. (The units of formula_4 are formula_5.) To model this situation more rigorously, suppose that the force instead is uniformly distributed over a small time interval formula_6. That is, Then the momentum at any time \"t\" is found by integration: Now, the model situation of an instantaneous transfer of momentum requires taking the limit as formula_9, giving Here the functions formula_11 are thought of as useful approximations to the idea of instantaneous transfer of momentum. The delta function allows us to construct an idealized limit of these approximations. Unfortunately, the actual limit of the functions (in the sense of ordinary calculus) formula_12 is zero everywhere but a single point, where it is infinite. To make proper sense of the delta function, we should instead insist that the property which holds for all formula_14, should continue to hold in the limit. So, in the equation formula_15, it is understood that the limit is always taken \"outside the integral\". In applied mathematics, as we have done here, the delta function is often manipulated as a kind of limit (a weak limit) of a sequence of functions, each member of which has a tall spike at the origin: for example, a sequence of Gaussian distributions centered at the origin with variance tending to zero. Despite its name, the delta function is not truly a function, at least not a usual one with range in real numbers. For example, the objects and are equal everywhere except at yet have integrals that are different. According to Lebesgue integration theory, if \"f\" and \"g\" are functions such that almost everywhere, then \"f\" is integrable if and only if \"g\" is integrable and the integrals of \"f\" and \"g\" are identical. A rigorous approach to regarding the Dirac delta function as a mathematical object in its own right requires measure theory or the theory of distributions.", "Joseph Fourier presented what is now called the Fourier integral theorem in his treatise \"Théorie analytique de la chaleur\" in the form: which is tantamount to the introduction of the \"δ\"-function in the form: Later, Augustin Cauchy expressed the theorem using exponentials: Cauchy pointed out that in some circumstances the \"order\" of integration in this result is significant (contrast Fubini's theorem). As justified using the theory of distributions, the Cauchy equation can be rearranged to resemble Fourier's original formulation and expose the \"δ\"-function as where the \"δ\"-function is expressed as A rigorous interpretation of the exponential form and the various limitations upon the function \"f\" necessary for its application extended over several centuries. The problems with a classical interpretation are explained as follows: Further developments included generalization of the Fourier integral, \"beginning with Plancherel's pathbreaking \"L\"-theory (1910), continuing with Wiener's and Bochner's works (around 1930) and culminating with the amalgamation into L. Schwartz's theory of distributions (1945)...\", and leading to the formal development of the Dirac delta function. An infinitesimal formula for an infinitely tall, unit impulse delta function (infinitesimal version of Cauchy distribution) explicitly appears in an 1827 text of Augustin Louis Cauchy. Siméon Denis Poisson considered the issue in connection with the study of wave propagation as did Gustav Kirchhoff somewhat later. Kirchhoff and Hermann von Helmholtz also introduced the unit impulse as a limit of Gaussians, which also corresponded to Lord Kelvin's notion of a point heat source. At the end of the 19th century, Oliver Heaviside used formal Fourier series to manipulate the unit impulse. The Dirac delta function as such was introduced as a \"convenient notation\" by Paul Dirac in his influential 1930 book \"The Principles of Quantum Mechanics\". He called it the \"delta function\" since he used it as a continuous analogue of the discrete Kronecker delta.", "The Dirac delta can be loosely thought of as a function on the real line which is zero everywhere except at the origin, where it is infinite, and which is also constrained to satisfy the identity This is merely a heuristic characterization. The Dirac delta is not a function in the traditional sense as no function defined on the real numbers has these properties. The Dirac delta function can be rigorously defined either as a distribution or as a measure.", "One way to rigorously capture the notion of the Dirac delta function is to define a measure, called Dirac measure, which accepts a subset \"A\" of the real line R as an argument, and returns if, and otherwise. If the delta function is conceptualized as modeling an idealized point mass at 0, then \"δ\"(\"A\") represents the mass contained in the set \"A\". One may then define the integral against \"δ\" as the integral of a function against this mass distribution. Formally, the Lebesgue integral provides the necessary analytic device. The Lebesgue integral with respect to the measure \"δ\" satisfies for all continuous compactly supported functions \"f\". The measure \"δ\" is not absolutely continuous with respect to the Lebesgue measure — in fact, it is a singular measure. Consequently, the delta measure has no Radon–Nikodym derivative — no true function for which the property holds. As a result, the latter notation is a convenient abuse of notation, and not a standard (Riemann or Lebesgue) integral. As a probability measure on R, the delta measure is characterized by its cumulative distribution function, which is the unit step function This means that \"H\"(\"x\") is the integral of the cumulative indicator function with respect to the measure \"δ\"; to wit, the latter being the measure of this interval; more formally, formula_27 Thus in particular the integral of the delta function against a continuous function can be properly understood as a Riemann–Stieltjes integral: All higher moments of \"δ\" are zero. In particular, characteristic function and moment generating function are both equal to one.", "In the theory of distributions, a generalized function is considered not a function in itself but only in relation to how it affects other functions when \"integrated\" against them. In keeping with this philosophy, to define the delta function properly, it is enough to say what the \"integral\" of the delta function is against a sufficiently \"good\" test function \"φ\". Test functions are also known as bump functions. If the delta function is already understood as a measure, then the Lebesgue integral of a test function against that measure supplies the necessary integral. A typical space of test functions consists of all smooth functions on R with compact support that have as many derivatives as required. As a distribution, the Dirac delta is a linear functional on the space of test functions and is defined by for every test function \"formula_29\". For \"δ\" to be properly a distribution, it must be continuous in a suitable topology on the space of test functions. In general, for a linear functional \"S\" on the space of test functions to define a distribution, it is necessary and sufficient that, for every positive integer \"N\" there is an integer \"M\" and a constant \"C\" such that for every test function \"φ\", one has the inequality With the \"δ\" distribution, one has such an inequality (with with for all \"N\". Thus \"δ\" is a distribution of order zero. It is, furthermore, a distribution with compact support (the support being {0}). The delta distribution can also be defined in a number of equivalent ways. For instance, it is the distributional derivative of the Heaviside step function. This means that, for every test function \"φ\", one has Intuitively, if integration by parts were permitted, then the latter integral should simplify to and indeed, a form of integration by parts is permitted for the Stieltjes integral, and in that case one does have In the context of measure theory, the Dirac measure gives rise to a distribution by integration. Conversely, equation () defines a Daniell integral on the space of all compactly supported continuous functions \"φ\" which, by the Riesz representation theorem, can be represented as the Lebesgue integral of \"φ\" with respect to some Radon measure. Generally, when the term \"\"Dirac delta function\"\" is used, it is in the sense of distributions rather than measures, the Dirac measure being among several terms for the corresponding notion in measure theory. Some sources may also use the term \"Dirac delta distribution\".", "The delta function can be defined in \"n\"-dimensional Euclidean space R as the measure such that for every compactly supported continuous function \"f\". As a measure, the \"n\"-dimensional delta function is the product measure of the 1-dimensional delta functions in each variable separately. Thus, formally, with, one has The delta function can also be defined in the sense of distributions exactly as above in the one-dimensional case. However, despite widespread use in engineering contexts, () should be manipulated with care, since the product of distributions can only be defined under quite narrow circumstances. The notion of a Dirac measure makes sense on any set. Thus if \"X\" is a set, is a marked point, and Σ is any sigma algebra of subsets of \"X\", then the measure defined on sets by is the delta measure or unit mass concentrated at \"x\". Another common generalization of the delta function is to a differentiable manifold where most of its properties as a distribution can also be exploited because of the differentiable structure. The delta function on a manifold \"M\" centered at the point is defined as the following distribution: for all compactly supported smooth real-valued functions \"φ\" on \"M\". A common special case of this construction is that in which \"M\" is an open set in the Euclidean space R. On a locally compact Hausdorff space \"X\", the Dirac delta measure concentrated at a point \"x\" is the Radon measure associated with the Daniell integral () on compactly supported continuous functions \"φ\". At this level of generality, calculus as such is no longer possible, however a variety of techniques from abstract analysis are available. For instance, the mapping formula_36 is a continuous embedding of \"X\" into the space of finite Radon measures on \"X\", equipped with its vague topology. Moreover, the convex hull of the image of \"X\" under this embedding is dense in the space of probability measures on \"X\".", "", "The delta function satisfies the following scaling property for a non-zero scalar α: Then \"δ\" is obtained by applying a power of the Laplacian to the integral with respect to the unit sphere measure dω of for \"ξ\" in the unit sphere \"S\": The Laplacian here is interpreted as a weak derivative, so that this equation is taken to mean that, for any test function \"φ\", The result follows from the formula for the Newtonian potential (the fundamental solution of Poisson's equation). This is essentially a form of the inversion formula for the Radon transform, because it recovers the value of \"φ\"(\"x\") from its integrals over hyperplanes. For instance, if \"n\" is odd and, then the integral on the right hand side is where is the Radon transform of \"φ\": An alternative equivalent expression of the plane wave decomposition, from, is for \"n\" even, and for \"n\" odd.", "In the study of Fourier series, a major question consists of determining whether and in what sense the Fourier series associated with a periodic function converges to the function. The \"n\"th partial sum of the Fourier series of a function \"f\" of period 2 is defined by convolution (on the interval [−,]) with the Dirichlet kernel: Thus, where A fundamental result of elementary Fourier series states that the Dirichlet kernel tends to the a multiple of the delta function as. This is interpreted in the distribution sense, that for every compactly supported \"smooth\" function \"f\". Thus, formally one has on the interval [−,]. In spite of this, the result does not hold for all compactly supported \"continuous\" functions: that is \"D\" does not converge weakly in the sense of measures. The lack of convergence of the Fourier series has led to the introduction of a variety of summability methods in order to produce convergence. The method of Cesàro summation leads to the Fejér kernel The Fejér kernels tend to the delta function in a stronger sense that for every compactly supported \"continuous\" function \"f\". The implication is that the Fourier series of any continuous function is Cesàro summable to the value of the function at every point.", "The Dirac delta distribution is a densely defined unbounded linear functional on the Hilbert space L of square-integrable functions. Indeed, smooth compactly support functions are dense in \"L\", and the action of the delta distribution on such functions is well-defined. In many applications, it is possible to identify subspaces of \"L\" and to give a stronger topology on which the delta function defines a bounded linear functional. The Sobolev embedding theorem for Sobolev spaces on the real line R implies that any square-integrable function \"f\" such that is automatically continuous, and satisfies in particular Thus \"δ\" is a bounded linear functional on the Sobolev space \"H\". Equivalently \"δ\" is an element of the continuous dual space \"H\" of \"H\". More generally, in \"n\" dimensions, one has provided.", "In complex analysis, the delta function enters via Cauchy's integral formula, which asserts that if \"D\" is a domain in the complex plane with smooth boundary, then for all holomorphic functions \"f\" in \"D\" that are continuous on the closure of \"D\". As a result, the delta function \"δ\" is represented in this class of holomorphic functions by the Cauchy integral: Moreover, let \"H\"(∂\"D\") be the Hardy space consisting of the closure in \"L\"(∂\"D\") of all holomorphic functions in \"D\" continuous up to the boundary of \"D\". Then functions in \"H\"(∂\"D\") uniquely extend to holomorphic functions in \"D\", and the Cauchy integral formula continues to hold. In particular for, the delta function \"δ\" is a continuous linear functional on \"H\"(∂\"D\"). This is a special case of the situation in several complex variables in which, for smooth domains \"D\", the Szegő kernel plays the role of the Cauchy integral.", "Given a complete orthonormal basis set of functions {\"φ\"} in a separable Hilbert space, for example, the normalized eigenvectors of a compact self-adjoint operator, any vector \"f\" can be expressed as The coefficients {α} are found as which may be represented by the notation: a form of the bra–ket notation of Dirac. Adopting this notation, the expansion of \"f\" takes the dyadic form: Letting \"I\" denote the identity operator on the Hilbert space, the expression is called a resolution of the identity. When the Hilbert space is the space \"L\"(\"D\") of square-integrable functions on a domain \"D\", the quantity: is an integral operator, and the expression for \"f\" can be rewritten The right-hand side converges to \"f\" in the \"L\" sense. It need not hold in a pointwise sense, even when \"f\" is a continuous function. Nevertheless, it is common to abuse notation and write resulting in the representation of the delta function: With a suitable rigged Hilbert space where contains all compactly supported smooth functions, this summation may converge in Φ*, depending on the properties of the basis \"φ\". In most cases of practical interest, the orthonormal basis comes from an integral or differential operator, in which case the series converges in the distribution sense.", "Cauchy used an infinitesimal α to write down a unit impulse, infinitely tall and narrow Dirac-type delta function \"δ\" satisfying formula_64 in a number of articles in 1827. Cauchy defined an infinitesimal in \"Cours d'Analyse\" (1827) in terms of a sequence tending to zero. Namely, such a null sequence becomes an infinitesimal in Cauchy's and Lazare Carnot's terminology. Non-standard analysis allows one to rigorously treat infinitesimals. The article by contains a bibliography on modern Dirac delta functions in the context of an infinitesimal-enriched continuum provided by the hyperreals. Here the Dirac delta can be given by an actual function, having the property that for every real function \"F\" one has formula_64 as anticipated by Fourier and Cauchy.", "A so-called uniform \"pulse train\" of Dirac delta measures, which is known as a Dirac comb, or as the Shah distribution, creates a sampling function, often used in digital signal processing (DSP) and discrete time signal analysis. The Dirac comb is given as the infinite sum, whose limit is understood in the distribution sense, which is a sequence of point masses at each of the integers. Up to an overall normalizing constant, the Dirac comb is equal to its own Fourier transform. This is significant because if formula_67 is any Schwartz function, then the periodization of formula_67 is given by the convolution In particular, is precisely the Poisson summation formula. More generally, this formula remains to be true if formula_67 is a tempered distribution of rapid descent or, equivalently, if formula_72 is a slowly growing, ordinary function within the space of tempered distributions.", "The Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem, important in quantum mechanics, relates the delta function to the distribution p.v. 1/\"x\", the Cauchy principal value of the function 1/\"x\", defined by Sokhotsky's formula states that Here the limit is understood in the distribution sense, that for all compactly supported smooth functions \"f\",", "The Kronecker delta \"δ\" is the quantity defined by for all integers \"i\", \"j\". This function then satisfies the following analog of the sifting property: if formula_77 is any doubly infinite sequence, then Similarly, for any real or complex valued continuous function \"f\" on R, the Dirac delta satisfies the sifting property This exhibits the Kronecker delta function as a discrete analog of the Dirac delta function.", "", "In probability theory and statistics, the Dirac delta function is often used to represent a discrete distribution, or a partially discrete, partially continuous distribution, using a probability density function (which is normally used to represent fully continuous distributions). For example, the probability density function \"f\"(\"x\") of a discrete distribution consisting of points x = {\"x\",..., \"x\"}, with corresponding probabilities \"p\",..., \"p\", can be written as As another example, consider a distribution which 6/10 of the time returns a standard normal distribution, and 4/10 of the time returns exactly the value 3.5 (i.e. a partly continuous, partly discrete mixture distribution). The density function of this distribution can be written as The delta function is also used to represent the resulting probability density function of a random variable that is transformed by continuous differentiable function. If \"Y\" = g(\"X\") is a continuous differentiable function, then the density of \"Y\" can be written as The delta function is also used in a completely different way to represent the local time of a diffusion process (like Brownian motion). The local time of a stochastic process \"B\"(\"t\") is given by and represents the amount of time that the process spends at the point \"x\" in the range of the process. More precisely, in one dimension this integral can be written where is the indicator function of the interval.", "The delta function is expedient in quantum mechanics. The wave function of a particle gives the probability amplitude of finding a particle within a given region of space. Wave functions are assumed to be elements of the Hilbert space \"L\" of square-integrable functions, and the total probability of finding a particle within a given interval is the integral of the magnitude of the wave function squared over the interval. A set {\"φ\"} of wave functions is orthonormal if they are normalized by where \"δ\" here refers to the Kronecker delta. A set of orthonormal wave functions is complete in the space of square-integrable functions if any wave function \"ψ\" can be expressed as a combination of the \"φ\": with formula_87. Complete orthonormal systems of wave functions appear naturally as the eigenfunctions of the Hamiltonian (of a bound system) in quantum mechanics that measures the energy levels, which are called the eigenvalues. The set of eigenvalues, in this case, is known as the spectrum of the Hamiltonian. In bra–ket notation, as above, this equality implies the resolution of the identity: Here the eigenvalues are assumed to be discrete, but the set of eigenvalues of an observable may be continuous rather than discrete. An example is the position observable,. The spectrum of the position (in one dimension) is the entire real line, and is called a continuous spectrum. However, unlike the Hamiltonian, the position operator lacks proper eigenfunctions. The conventional way to overcome this shortcoming is to widen the class of available functions by allowing distributions as well: that is, to replace the Hilbert space of quantum mechanics by an appropriate rigged Hilbert space. In this context, the position operator has a complete set of eigen-distributions, labeled by the points \"y\" of the real line, given by The eigenfunctions of position are denoted by formula_90 in Dirac notation, and are known as position eigenstates. Similar considerations apply to the eigenstates of the momentum operator, or indeed any other self-adjoint unbounded operator \"P\" on the Hilbert space, provided the spectrum of \"P\" is continuous and there are no degenerate eigenvalues. In that case, there is a set Ω of real numbers (the spectrum), and a collection \"φ\" of distributions indexed by the elements of Ω, such that That is, \"φ\" are the eigenvectors of \"P\". If the eigenvectors are normalized so that in the distribution sense, then for any test function ψ, where That is, as in the discrete case, there is a resolution of the identity where the operator-valued integral is again understood in the weak sense. If the spectrum of \"P\" has both continuous and discrete parts, then the resolution of the identity involves a summation over the discrete spectrum \"and\" an integral over the continuous spectrum. The delta function also has many more specialized applications in quantum mechanics, such as the delta potential models for a single and double potential well.", "The delta function can be used in structural mechanics to describe transient loads or point loads acting on structures. The governing equation of a simple mass–spring system excited by a sudden force impulse \"I\" at time \"t\" = 0 can be written where \"m\" is the mass, ξ the deflection and \"k\" the spring constant. As another example, the equation governing the static deflection of a slender beam is, according to Euler–Bernoulli theory, where \"EI\" is the bending stiffness of the beam, \"w\" the deflection, \"x\" the spatial coordinate and \"q\"(\"x\") the load distribution. If a beam is loaded by a point force \"F\" at \"x\" = \"x\", the load distribution is written As integration of the delta function results in the Heaviside step function, it follows that the static deflection of a slender beam subject to multiple point loads is described by a set of piecewise polynomials. Also a point moment acting on a beam can be described by delta functions. Consider two opposing point forces \"F\" at a distance \"d\" apart. They then produce a moment \"M\" = \"Fd\" acting on the beam. Now, let the distance \"d\" approach the limit zero, while \"M\" is kept constant. The load distribution, assuming a clockwise moment acting at \"x\" = 0, is written Point moments can thus be represented by the derivative of the delta function. Integration of the beam equation again results in piecewise polynomial deflection." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "Routes of infection.", "Effects and behaviors.", "Remedies and prevention.", "Anti-spyware programs.", "How anti-spyware software works.", "Security practices.", "Applications.", "\"Stealware\" and affiliate fraud.", "Identity theft and fraud.", "Digital rights management.", "Personal relationships.", "Browser cookies.", "Examples.", "History and development.", "Rogue anti-spyware programs.", "Legal issues.", "Criminal law.", "Administrative sanctions.", "US FTC actions.", "Netherlands OPTA.", "Civil law.", "Libel suits by spyware developers.", "WebcamGate." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Spyware is mostly classified into four types: adware, system monitors, tracking cookies, and trojans; examples of other notorious types include digital rights management capabilities that \"phone home\", keyloggers, rootkits, and web beacons. Spyware is mostly used for the stealing information and storing Internet users' movements on the Web and serving up pop-up ads to Internet users. Whenever spyware is used for malicious purposes, its presence is typically hidden from the user and can be difficult to detect. Some spyware, such as keyloggers, may be installed by the owner of a shared, corporate, or public computer intentionally in order to monitor users. While the term \"spyware\" suggests software that monitors a user's computing, the functions of spyware can extend beyond simple monitoring. Spyware can collect almost any type of data, including personal information like internet surfing habits, user logins, and bank or credit account information. Spyware can also interfere with a user's control of a computer by installing additional software or redirecting web browsers. Some spyware can change computer settings, which can result in slow Internet connection speeds, un-authorized changes in browser settings, or changes to software settings. Sometimes, spyware is included along with genuine software, and may come from a malicious website or may have been added to the intentional functionality of genuine software (see the paragraph about Facebook, below). In response to the emergence of spyware, a small industry has sprung up dealing in anti-spyware software. Running anti-spyware software has become a widely recognized element of computer security practices, especially for computers running Microsoft Windows. A number of jurisdictions have passed anti-spyware laws, which usually target any software that is surreptitiously installed to control a user's computer. In German-speaking countries, spyware used or made by the government is called \"govware\" by computer experts (in common parlance: \"Regierungstrojaner\", literally \"Government Trojan\"). Govware is typically a trojan horse software used to intercept communications from the target computer. Some countries, like Switzerland and Germany, have a legal framework governing the use of such software. In the US, the term \"policeware\" has been used for similar purposes. Use of the term \"spyware\" has eventually declined as the practice of tracking users has been pushed ever further into the mainstream by major websites and data mining companies; these generally break no known laws and compel users to be tracked, not by fraudulent practices \"per se\", but by the default settings created for users and the language of terms-of-service agreements. In one documented example, on CBS/CNet News reported, on March 7, 2011, on a \"Wall Street Journal\" analysis revealing the practice of Facebook and other websites of tracking users' browsing activity, linked to their identity, far beyond users' visits and activity within the Facebook site itself. The report stated: \"Here's how it works. You go to Facebook, you log in, you spend some time there, and then... you move on without logging out. Let's say the next site you go to is \"New York Times\". Those buttons, without you clicking on them, have just reported back to Facebook and Twitter that you went there and also your identity within those accounts. Let's say you moved on to something like a site about depression. This one also has a tweet button, a Google widget, and those, too, can report back who you are and that you went there.\" The\" WSJ\" analysis was researched by Brian Kennish, founder of Disconnect, Inc.", "Spyware does not necessarily spread in the same way as a virus or worm because infected systems generally do not attempt to transmit or copy the software to other computers. Instead, spyware installs itself on a system by deceiving the user or by exploiting software vulnerabilities. Most spyware is installed without knowledge, or by using deceptive tactics. Spyware may try to deceive users by bundling itself with desirable software. Other common tactics are using a Trojan horse, spy gadgets that look like normal devices but turn out to be something else, such as a USB Keylogger. These devices actually are connected to the device as memory units but are capable of recording each stroke made on the keyboard. Some spyware authors infect a system through security holes in the Web browser or in other software. When the user navigates to a Web page controlled by the spyware author, the page contains code which attacks the browser and forces the download and installation of spyware. The installation of spyware frequently involves Internet Explorer. Its popularity and history of security issues have made it a frequent target. Its deep integration with the Windows environment make it susceptible to attack into the Windows operating system. Internet Explorer also serves as a point of attachment for spyware in the form of Browser Helper Objects, which modify the browser's behaviour.", "A spyware rarely operates alone on a computer; an affected machine usually has multiple infections. Users frequently notice unwanted behavior and degradation of system performance. A spyware infestation can create significant unwanted CPU activity, disk usage, and network traffic. Stability issues, such as applications freezing, failure to boot, and system-wide crashes are also common. Spyware, which interferes with networking software commonly causes difficulty connecting to the Internet. In some infections, the spyware is not even evident. Users assume in those situations that the performance issues relate to faulty hardware, Windows installation problems, or another malware infection. Some owners of badly infected systems resort to contacting technical support experts, or even buying a new computer because the existing system \"has become too slow\". Badly infected systems may require a clean reinstallation of all their software in order to return to full functionality. Moreover, some types of spyware disable software firewalls and antivirus software, and/or reduce browser security settings, which opens the system to further opportunistic infections. Some spyware disables or even removes competing spyware programs, on the grounds that more spyware-related annoyances increase the likelihood that users will take action to remove the programs. Keyloggers are sometimes part of malware packages downloaded onto computers without the owners' knowledge. Some keylogger software is freely available on the internet, while others are commercial or private applications. Most keyloggers allow not only keyboard keystrokes to be captured, they also are often capable of collecting screen captures from the computer. A typical Windows user has administrative privileges, mostly for convenience. Because of this, any program the user runs has unrestricted access to the system. As with other operating systems, Windows users are able to follow the principle of least privilege and use non-administrator accounts. Alternatively, they can reduce the privileges of specific vulnerable Internet-facing processes, such as Internet Explorer. Since Windows Vista is, by default, a computer administrator that runs everything under limited user privileges, when a program requires administrative privileges, a User Account Control pop-up will prompt the user to allow or deny the action. This improves on the design used by previous versions of Windows.", "As the spyware threat has evolved, a number of techniques have emerged to counteract it. These include programs designed to remove or block spyware, as well as various user practices which reduce the chance of getting spyware on a system. Nonetheless, spyware remains a costly problem. When a large number of pieces of spyware have infected a Windows computer, the only remedy may involve backing up user data, and fully reinstalling the operating system. For instance, some spyware cannot be completely removed by Symantec, Microsoft, PC Tools.", "Many programmers and some commercial firms have released products dedicated to remove or block spyware. Programs such as PC Tools' Spyware Doctor, Lavasoft's \"Ad-Aware SE\" and Patrick Kolla's \"Spybot - Search & Destroy\" rapidly gained popularity as tools to remove, and in some cases intercept, spyware programs. On December 16, 2004, Microsoft acquired the \"GIANT AntiSpyware\" software, rebranding it as \"Windows AntiSpyware beta\" and releasing it as a free download for Genuine Windows XP and Windows 2003 users. (In 2006 it was renamed Windows Defender). Major anti-virus firms such as Symantec, PC Tools, McAfee and Sophos have also added anti-spyware features to their existing anti-virus products. Early on, anti-virus firms expressed reluctance to add anti-spyware functions, citing lawsuits brought by spyware authors against the authors of web sites and programs which described their products as \"spyware\". However, recent versions of these major firms home and business anti-virus products do include anti-spyware functions, albeit treated differently from viruses. Symantec Anti-Virus, for instance, categorizes spyware programs as \"extended threats\" and now offers real-time protection against these threats.", "Anti-spyware programs can combat spyware in two ways: Such programs inspect the contents of the Windows registry, operating system files, and installed programs, and remove files and entries which match a list of known spyware. Real-time protection from spyware works identically to real-time anti-virus protection: the software scans disk files at download time, and blocks the activity of components known to represent spyware. In some cases, it may also intercept attempts to install start-up items or to modify browser settings. Earlier versions of anti-spyware programs focused chiefly on detection and removal. Javacool Software's SpywareBlaster, one of the first to offer real-time protection, blocked the installation of ActiveX-based spyware. Like most anti-virus software, many anti-spyware/adware tools require a frequently updated database of threats. As new spyware programs are released, anti-spyware developers discover and evaluate them, adding to the list of known spyware, which allows the software to detect and remove new spyware. As a result, anti-spyware software is of limited usefulness without regular updates. Updates may be installed automatically or manually. A popular generic spyware removal tool used by those that requires a certain degree of expertise is HijackThis, which scans certain areas of the Windows OS where spyware often resides and presents a list with items to delete manually. As most of the items are legitimate windows files/registry entries it is advised for those who are less knowledgeable on this subject to post a HijackThis log on the numerous antispyware sites and let the experts decide what to delete. If a spyware program is not blocked and manages to get itself installed, it may resist attempts to terminate or uninstall it. Some programs work in pairs: when an anti-spyware scanner (or the user) terminates one running process, the other one respawns the killed program. Likewise, some spyware will detect attempts to remove registry keys and immediately add them again. Usually, booting the infected computer in safe mode allows an anti-spyware program a better chance of removing persistent spyware. Killing the process tree may also work.", "To detect spyware, computer users have found several practices useful in addition to installing anti-spyware programs. Many users have installed a web browser other than Internet Explorer, such as Mozilla Firefox or Google Chrome. Though no browser is completely safe, Internet Explorer was once at a greater risk for spyware infection due to its large user base as well as vulnerabilities such as ActiveX but these three major browsers are now close to equivalent when it comes to security. Some ISPs—particularly colleges and universities—have taken a different approach to blocking spyware: they use their network firewalls and web proxies to block access to Web sites known to install spyware. On March 31, 2005, Cornell University's Information Technology department released a report detailing the behavior of one particular piece of proxy-based spyware, \"Marketscore\", and the steps the university took to intercept it. Many other educational institutions have taken similar steps. Individual users can also install firewalls from a variety of companies. These monitor the flow of information going to and from a networked computer and provide protection against spyware and malware. Some users install a large hosts file which prevents the user's computer from connecting to known spyware-related web addresses. Spyware may get installed via certain shareware programs offered for download. Downloading programs only from reputable sources can provide some protection from this source of attack. Individual users can use cellphone / computer with physical (electric) switch, or isolated electronic switch that disconnects microphone, camera without bypass and keep it in disconnected position where not in use, that limits information that spyware can collect. (Policy recommended by NIST Guidelines for Managing the Security of Mobile Devices, 2013).", "", "A few spyware vendors, notably 180 Solutions, have written what the \"New York Times\" has dubbed \"stealware\", and what spyware researcher Ben Edelman terms \"affiliate fraud\", a form of click fraud. Stealware diverts the payment of affiliate marketing revenues from the legitimate affiliate to the spyware vendor. Spyware which attacks affiliate networks places the spyware operator's affiliate tag on the user's activity – replacing any other tag, if there is one. The spyware operator is the only party that gains from this. The user has their choices thwarted, a legitimate affiliate loses revenue, networks' reputations are injured, and vendors are harmed by having to pay out affiliate revenues to an \"affiliate\" who is not party to a contract. Affiliate fraud is a violation of the terms of service of most affiliate marketing networks. As a result, spyware operators such as 180 Solutions have been terminated from affiliate networks including LinkShare and ShareSale. Mobile devices can also be vulnerable to chargeware, which manipulates users into illegitimate mobile charges.", "In one case, spyware has been closely associated with identity theft. In August 2005, researchers from security software firm Sunbelt Software suspected the creators of the common CoolWebSearch spyware had used it to transmit \"chat sessions, user names, passwords, bank information, etc.\"; however it turned out that \"it actually (was) its own sophisticated criminal little trojan that's independent of CWS.\" This case is currently under investigation by the FBI. The Federal Trade Commission estimates that 27.3 million Americans have been victims of identity theft, and that financial losses from identity theft totaled nearly $48 billion for businesses and financial institutions and at least $5 billion in out-of-pocket expenses for individuals.", "Some copy-protection technologies have borrowed from spyware. In 2005, Sony BMG Music Entertainment was found to be using rootkits in its XCP digital rights management technology Like spyware, not only was it difficult to detect and uninstall, it was so poorly written that most efforts to remove it could have rendered computers unable to function. Texas Attorney General Greg Abbott filed suit, and three separate class-action suits were filed. Sony BMG later provided a workaround on its website to help users remove it. Beginning on April 25, 2006, Microsoft's Windows Genuine Advantage Notifications application was installed on most Windows PCs as a \"critical security update\". While the main purpose of this deliberately uninstallable application is to ensure the copy of Windows on the machine was lawfully purchased and installed, it also installs software that has been accused of \"phoning home\" on a daily basis, like spyware. It can be removed with the RemoveWGA tool.", "Stalkerware is spyware that has been used to monitor electronic activities of partners in intimate relationships. At least one software package, Loverspy, was specifically marketed for this purpose. Depending on local laws regarding communal/marital property, observing a partner's online activity without their consent may be illegal; the author of Loverspy and several users of the product were indicted in California in 2005 on charges of wiretapping and various computer crimes.", "Anti-spyware programs often report Web advertisers' HTTP cookies, the small text files that track browsing activity, as spyware. While they are not always inherently malicious, many users object to third parties using space on their personal computers for their business purposes, and many anti-spyware programs offer to remove them.", "These common spyware programs illustrate the diversity of behaviors found in these attacks. Note that as with computer viruses, researchers give names to spyware programs which may not be used by their creators. Programs may be grouped into \"families\" based not on shared program code, but on common behaviors, or by \"following the money\" of apparent financial or business connections. For instance, a number of the spyware programs distributed by Claria are collectively known as \"Gator\". Likewise, programs that are frequently installed together may be described as parts of the same spyware package, even if they function separately.", "The first recorded use of the term spyware occurred on October 16, 1995 in a Usenet post that poked fun at Microsoft's business model. \"Spyware\" at first denoted \"software\" meant for espionage purposes. However, in early 2000 the founder of Zone Labs, Gregor Freund, used the term in a press release for the ZoneAlarm Personal Firewall. Later in 2000, a parent using ZoneAlarm was alerted to the fact that \"Reader Rabbit,\" educational software marketed to children by the Mattel toy company, was surreptitiously sending data back to Mattel. Since then, \"spyware\" has taken on its present sense. According to a 2005 study by AOL and the National Cyber-Security Alliance, 61 percent of surveyed users' computers were infected with form of spyware. 92 percent of surveyed users with spyware reported that they did not know of its presence, and 91 percent reported that they had not given permission for the installation of the spyware., spyware has become one of the preeminent security threats to computer systems running Microsoft Windows operating systems. Computers on which Internet Explorer (IE) is the primary browser are particularly vulnerable to such attacks, not only because IE is the most widely used, but because its tight integration with Windows allows spyware access to crucial parts of the operating system. Before Internet Explorer 6 SP2 was released as part of Windows XP Service Pack 2, the browser would automatically display an installation window for any ActiveX component that a website wanted to install. The combination of user ignorance about these changes, and the assumption by Internet Explorer that all ActiveX components are benign, helped to spread spyware significantly. Many spyware components would also make use of exploits in JavaScript, Internet Explorer and Windows to install without user knowledge or permission. The Windows Registry contains multiple sections where modification of key values allows software to be executed automatically when the operating system boots. Spyware can exploit this design to circumvent attempts at removal. The spyware typically will link itself from each location in the registry that allows execution. Once running, the spyware will periodically check if any of these links are removed. If so, they will be automatically restored. This ensures that the spyware will execute when the operating system is booted, even if some (or most) of the registry links are removed.", "Malicious programmers have released a large number of rogue (fake) anti-spyware programs, and widely distributed Web banner ads can warn users that their computers have been infected with spyware, directing them to purchase programs which do not actually remove spyware—or else, may add more spyware of their own. The proliferation of fake or spoofed antivirus products that bill themselves as antispyware can be troublesome. Users may receive popups prompting them to install them to protect their computer, when it will in fact add spyware. This software is called rogue software. It is recommended that users do not install any freeware claiming to be anti-spyware unless it is verified to be legitimate. Some known offenders include: Fake antivirus products constitute 15 percent of all malware. On January 26, 2006, Microsoft and the Washington state attorney general filed suit against Secure Computer for its Spyware Cleaner product.", "", "Unauthorized access to a computer is illegal under computer crime laws, such as the U.S. Computer Fraud and Abuse Act, the U.K.'s Computer Misuse Act, and similar laws in other countries. Since owners of computers infected with spyware generally claim that they never authorized the installation, a \"prima facie\" reading would suggest that the promulgation of spyware would count as a criminal act. Law enforcement has often pursued the authors of other malware, particularly viruses. However, few spyware developers have been prosecuted, and many operate openly as strictly legitimate businesses, though some have faced lawsuits. Spyware producers argue that, contrary to the users' claims, users do in fact give consent to installations. Spyware that comes bundled with shareware applications may be described in the legalese text of an end-user license agreement (EULA). Many users habitually ignore these purported contracts, but spyware companies such as Claria say these demonstrate that users have consented. Despite the ubiquity of EULAs agreements, under which a single click can be taken as consent to the entire text, relatively little caselaw has resulted from their use. It has been established in most common law jurisdictions that this type of agreement can be a binding contract \"in certain circumstances.\" This does not, however, mean that every such agreement is a contract, or that every term in one is enforceable. Some jurisdictions, including the U.S. states of Iowa and Washington, have passed laws criminalizing some forms of spyware. Such laws make it illegal for anyone other than the owner or operator of a computer to install software that alters Web-browser settings, monitors keystrokes, or disables computer-security software. In the United States, lawmakers introduced a bill in 2005 entitled the Internet Spyware Prevention Act, which would imprison creators of spyware.", "", "The US Federal Trade Commission has sued Internet marketing organizations under the \"unfairness doctrine\" to make them stop infecting consumers' PCs with spyware. In one case, that against Seismic Entertainment Productions, the FTC accused the defendants of developing a program that seized control of PCs nationwide, infected them with spyware and other malicious software, bombarded them with a barrage of pop-up advertising for Seismic's clients, exposed the PCs to security risks, and caused them to malfunction. Seismic then offered to sell the victims an \"antispyware\" program to fix the computers, and stop the popups and other problems that Seismic had caused. On November 21, 2006, a settlement was entered in federal court under which a $1.75 million judgment was imposed in one case and $1.86 million in another, but the defendants were insolvent In a second case, brought against CyberSpy Software LLC, the FTC charged that CyberSpy marketed and sold \"RemoteSpy\" keylogger spyware to clients who would then secretly monitor unsuspecting consumers' computers. According to the FTC, Cyberspy touted RemoteSpy as a \"100% undetectable\" way to \"Spy on Anyone. From Anywhere.\" The FTC has obtained a temporary order prohibiting the defendants from selling the software and disconnecting from the Internet any of their servers that collect, store, or provide access to information that this software has gathered. The case is still in its preliminary stages. A complaint filed by the Electronic Privacy Information Center (EPIC) brought the RemoteSpy software to the FTC's attention.", "An administrative fine, the first of its kind in Europe, has been issued by the Independent Authority of Posts and Telecommunications (OPTA) from the Netherlands. It applied fines in total value of Euro 1,000,000 for infecting 22 million computers. The spyware concerned is called DollarRevenue. The law articles that have been violated are art. 4.1 of the Decision on universal service providers and on the interests of end users; the fines have been issued based on art. 15.4 taken together with art. 15.10 of the Dutch telecommunications law.", "Former New York State Attorney General and former Governor of New York Eliot Spitzer has pursued spyware companies for fraudulent installation of software. In a suit brought in 2005 by Spitzer, the California firm Intermix Media, Inc. ended up settling, by agreeing to pay US$7.5 million and to stop distributing spyware. The hijacking of Web advertisements has also led to litigation. In June 2002, a number of large Web publishers sued Claria for replacing advertisements, but settled out of court. Courts have not yet had to decide whether advertisers can be held liable for spyware that displays their ads. In many cases, the companies whose advertisements appear in spyware pop-ups do not directly do business with the spyware firm. Rather, they have contracted with an advertising agency, which in turn contracts with an online subcontractor who gets paid by the number of \"impressions\" or appearances of the advertisement. Some major firms such as Dell Computer and Mercedes-Benz have sacked advertising agencies that have run their ads in spyware.", "Litigation has gone both ways. Since \"spyware\" has become a common pejorative, some makers have filed libel and defamation actions when their products have been so described. In 2003, Gator (now known as Claria) filed suit against the website PC Pitstop for describing its program as \"spyware\". PC Pitstop settled, agreeing not to use the word \"spyware\", but continues to describe harm caused by the Gator/Claria software. As a result, other anti-spyware and anti-virus companies have also used other terms such as \"potentially unwanted programs\" or greyware to denote these products.", "In the 2010 WebcamGate case, plaintiffs charged two suburban Philadelphia high schools secretly spied on students by surreptitiously and remotely activating webcams embedded in school-issued laptops the students were using at home, and therefore infringed on their privacy rights. The school loaded each student's computer with LANrev's remote activation tracking software. This included the now-discontinued \"TheftTrack\". While TheftTrack was not enabled by default on the software, the program allowed the school district to elect to activate it, and to choose which of the TheftTrack surveillance options the school wanted to enable. TheftTrack allowed school district employees to secretly remotely activate the webcam embedded in the student's laptop, above the laptop's screen. That allowed school officials to secretly take photos through the webcam, of whatever was in front of it and in its line of sight, and send the photos to the school's server. The LANrev software disabled the webcams for all other uses (\"e.g.\", students were unable to use Photo Booth or video chat), so most students mistakenly believed their webcams did not work at all. In addition to webcam surveillance, TheftTrack allowed school officials to take screenshots, and send them to the school's server. In addition, LANrev allowed school officials to take snapshots of instant messages, web browsing, music playlists, and written compositions. The schools admitted to secretly snapping over 66,000 webshots and screenshots, including webcam shots of students in their bedrooms." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "Plot summary.", "Connections to King's other works.", "Characters.", "Language.", "Main Series.", "Continuation.", "Illustrations.", "Reception.", "Other media.", "Tie-in books.", "Comics.", "Games.", "Film.", "Television.", "Audiobooks." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "In the story, Roland Deschain is the last living member of a knightly order known as \"gunslingers\" and the last of the line of \"Arthur Eld\", his world's analogue of King Arthur. Politically organized along the lines of a feudal society, it shares technological and social characteristics with the American Old West but is also magical. Many of the magical aspects have vanished from Mid-World, but traces remain as do relics from a technologically advanced society. Roland's quest is to find the Dark Tower, a fabled building said to be the nexus of all universes. Roland's world is said to have \"moved on\", and it appears to be coming apart at the seams. Mighty nations have been torn apart by war, entire cities and regions vanish without a trace and time does not flow in an orderly fashion. Sometimes, even the sun rises in the north and sets in the east. As the series opens, Roland's motives, goals, and age are unclear, though later installments shed light on these mysteries. For a detailed synopsis of the novels, see the relevant article for each book.", "The series has become a linchpin that is interwoven with, and ties together, much of King's body of work. The worlds of \"The Dark Tower\" are in part composed of locations, characters, events and other various elements from many of King's novels and short stories. Some of the principal books that are tied to this series, or that this series references, include \"It\", \"The Stand\", \"Salem's Lot\", \"Insomnia\", \"Hearts in Atlantis\", \"The Eyes of the Dragon\", \"The Shining\", and \"Cell\".", "Along his journey to the Dark Tower, Roland meets a great number of friends and enemies. For most of the way, he is accompanied by a group of people who, together with him, form the Ka-tet of the Nineteen and Ninety-nine, consisting of Jake Chambers, Eddie Dean, Susannah Dean, and Oy. Among his many enemies on the way are The Man in Black, Mordred, and The Crimson King.", "King created a language for his characters, known as the High Speech. Examples of this language include the phrases \"Thankee, Sai\" (\"Thank you, Sir/Ma'am.\") and \"Dan-Tete\" (\"Little Savior\"). In addition, King uses the term \"Ka\", which is the approximate equivalent of destiny, or fate, in the fictional language High Speech (and similarly, \"Ka-tet,\" a group of people bound together by fate/destiny). This term originated in Egyptian mythology and storytelling, and has figured in several other novels and screenplays since 1976. The term also appears in King's short story, \"Low Men in Yellow Coats\", in which Ted describes its meaning to Bobby.", "", "While the series was declared finished with the publication of the seventh volume in 2004, Stephen King described in an interview in March 2009 an idea for a new short story he'd recently had: \"And then I thought, 'Well, why don't I find three more like this and do a book that would be almost like modern fairy tales?' Then this thing started to add on bits and pieces so I guess it will be a novel.\" According to King, the idea was a new \"Dark Tower\" novel. King said, regarding \"The Dark Tower\", \"It's not really done yet. Those seven books are really sections of one long über-novel.\" King confirmed this during his TimesTalk event at The Times Center in New York City on November 10, 2009, and the next day King's official site posted that King would begin working on this novel in about eight months, with a tentative title being \"The Wind Through the Keyhole\". King noted that this novel would likely be set between the fourth and the fifth books of the series. The book, titled \"\", was announced on Stephen King's official site on March 10, 2011, and was published on April 24, 2012.", "Each book in the series was originally published in hardcover format with a number of full-color illustrations spread throughout. Each book contained works by a single illustrator only. Subsequent printings of each book in trade paperback format usually preserve the illustrations in full, except for books I and IV. Pocket-sized paperback reprints contain only black-and-white chapter or section header illustrations. The illustrators who worked on each book are:", "Bill Sheehan of \"The Washington Post\" called the series \"a humane, visionary epic and a true magnum opus\" that stands as an \"imposing example of pure storytelling,\" \"filled with brilliantly rendered set pieces... cataclysmic encounters and moments of desolating tragedy.\" Erica Noonan of the \"Boston Globe\" said, \"There's a fascinating world to be discovered in the series\" but noted that its epic nature keeps it from being user-friendly. Allen Johnston of \"The New York Times\" was disappointed with how the series progressed; while he marveled at the \"sheer absurdity of [the books'] existence\" and complimented King's writing style, he said preparation would have improved the series, stating \"King doesn't have the writerly finesse for these sorts of games, and the voices let him down.\" Michael Berry of the \"San Francisco Chronicle\", however, called the series' early installments \"highfalutin hodgepodge\" but the ending \"a valediction\" that \"more than delivers on what has been promised.\" Joshua Rothman of \"The New Yorker\" praised the series, feeling that \"the novels were better and weirder than [he'd] hoped.\" Because it features several of his classic tropes, Rothman claimed, \"If you really like Stephen King, you owe it to yourself to give the series a shot.\"", "", "The series has prompted related non-fiction books by authors besides King. Robin Furth has published the two-volume \"Stephen King's The Dark Tower: A Concordance\", an encyclopedia-style companion to the series that she originally wrote for King's personal use. Bev Vincent has published \"The Road to The Dark Tower: Exploring Stephen King's Magnum Opus\", a book containing back story, summary and analysis and \"The Dark Tower Companion\", which includes interviews and coverage of the Marvel graphic novels. Stephen King has endorsed these books. \"Charlie the Choo-Choo\" is a \"children's book\" by Stephen King released in 2016, published under the pseudonym Beryl Evans. It is adapted from a section of King's previous novel \"The Dark Tower III: The Waste Lands\". It was illustrated by Ned Dameron.", "Several \"Dark Tower\" series arcs were published by Marvel Comics. A prequel, \"\" is plotted by Robin Furth, scripted by Peter David, and illustrated by Jae Lee and Richard Isanove, and is set around the time of the flashbacks in \"The Gunslinger\" and \"Wizard and Glass\". The first issue of this first arc was released on February 7, 2007. A hardcover volume containing all seven issues was released on November 7, 2007. The second arc in the series, \"\", began publication on March 5, 2008. A hardcover volume containing all five issues was released on October 15, 2008. The third arc, \"\", began publication on September 10, 2008. A hardcover volume containing all 6 issues was released on April 21, 2009. Following the completion of the third arc a one-shot issue titled \"\" was released April 8, 2009. The story focuses on the history of the villainous wizard Marten Broadcloak. The fourth arc, \"\", began publication on May 13, 2009. A hardcover volume containing all 6 issues, as well as the Sorcerer One-Shot was released on February 2, 2010. The fifth arc, \"\", began publication on December 3, 2009. A hardcover volume containing all 5 issues was released on August 17, 2010. Marvel Comics has also published three supplemental books to date that expand upon characters and locations first introduced in the novels. \"The Dark Tower: Gunslingers' Guidebook\" was released in 2007, \"The Dark Tower: End-World Almanac\" was released in 2008, and \"The Dark Tower: Guide to Gilead\" was released in 2009. All three books were written by Anthony Flamini, with Furth serving as creative consultant. \"End-World Almanac\" and \"Guide to Gilead\" feature illustrations by David Yardin. A five-issue adaptation of King's novel \"\", titled \"\", began publication on May 19, 2010. The collected hardback edition was released on January 26, 2011. An adaptation of King's novella \"The Little Sisters of Eluria\", titled \"The Dark Tower: The Gunslinger - The Little Sisters of Eluria\", began publication on December 8, 2010. The collected hardback edition was released on June 8, 2011. A second adaptation of King's novel \"The Dark Tower: The Gunslinger\", titled \"The Dark Tower: The Gunslinger - The Battle of Tull\", began publication on June 1, 2011. The collected hardback edition was released on January 25, 2012. A third adaptation of King's novel \"The Dark Tower: The Gunslinger\", titled \"The Dark Tower: The Gunslinger - The Way Station\", began publication on December 14, 2011. The collected hardback edition was released on June 27, 2012.", "December 7, 2009 saw the release of a spin-off online game titled \"Discordia\",<ref name=\"Stephenking.com/discordia\"></ref> available to play free of charge on the official Stephen King website. The game is a continuation of the original \"Dark Tower\" story, following the war between the Tet Corporation and Sombra/NCP in New York, and it has been supervised by both Stephen King and Robin Furth. From the website: \"Exploring the behind-the-scenes conflict between the two companies, \"Discordia\" introduces long-time \"Dark Tower\" fans to new characters and numerous mechanical/magical items developed by Mid-World's Old Ones. Over the course of our adventure we will visit many locations, both those familiar to \"Dark Tower\" fans and others which we only glimpsed in the \"Dark Tower\" novels. While we may not see Roland and his ka-tet in this adventure, the development team has remembered the faces of its fathers. We have done our best to honor the original \"Dark Tower\" series while simultaneously mapping new and exciting \"Dark Tower\" territory.\"", "Sony Pictures and Media Rights Capital adapted the series for film. The film is directed by Nikolaj Arcel, and stars Idris Elba and Matthew McConaughey, cast respectively as Roland Deschain and Walter O'Dim. The film was released on August 4, 2017. Critics panned the film with it receiving a score of 16% on Rotten Tomatoes. The film combines elements from several novels in \"The Dark Tower\" series, serving as a canonical sequel to the novel series, which concluded with the revelation that Roland's quest was a cyclical time loop; the presence of the Horn of Eld, which Roland carries in the film, indicates that this is the next cycle. Stephen King has indicated that \"The Dark Tower\" film and television series will follow Roland's \"last time round\" to the titular Dark Tower. In July 2016, director Nikolaj Arcel confirmed that \"The Dark Tower\" film would be a sequel to the novels as well as a direct adaptation, with Roland in the next cycle of his journey to the Tower. In an interview with Collider, Stephen King expressed hope for a sequel film in addition to the upcoming television series, suggesting that it should be R-rated, with Roland wearing a hat, and that it would include the \"lobstrosities\" from \"\". In an interview with ComingSoon.net, Nikolaj Arcel confirmed that \"The Drawing of the Three\" would form the basis for the sequel, and that yet-to-be-cast actors who will play Eddie and Susannah Dean would appear alongside Elba, McConaughey, Taylor, and Haley reprising their roles as Roland, Walter, Jake and Sayre respectively.", "In February 2018, Amazon bought the rights to \"The Dark Tower\" books for a series adaptation, though it was not made clear at first if anyone from the film would be involved. It was later confirmed that the series would serve as a reboot, with Sam Strike and Jasper Pääkkönen being cast as Roland Deschain and The Man in Black, respectively. In June 2019, Michael Rooker, Jerome Flynn and Joana Ribeiro were also believed to be cast members. In January 2020, Amazon decided not to move forward with the pilot, but production company MRC is shopping the pilot scripts elsewhere.", "Currently there exist five audio versions of The Dark Tower series – in English, in Polish, in German, in French and in Russian. The audio book in English published by Hodder & Stoughton features voices of George Guidall and Frank Muller and has neither music nor sound effects. The audio book in German published by introduces and as the narrators. In French audiobooks published by Éditions Gallimard and narrated by Jacques Frantz. In Russian, \"\", as narrated by Igor Knyazev, does not have any music or sound effects The first two stories in the series, The Dark Tower: The Gunslinger and The Dark Tower II: The Drawing of the Three, were produced on audio cassette by New Audio Library (NAL) in 1988 and 1989 respectfully. The Waste Lands, The Dark Tower Part III, was produced on audio cassette by Penguin Highbridge Audio in 1991. Each of these early editions was narrated by the author. The Waste Lands includes musical accompaniment throughout. All of these editions were subsequently re-recorded in 1997 with Frank Muller as the narrator for continuity. Muller narrates the fourth book in the series, The Dark Tower IV: Wizard and Glass. Stephen King selected Muller as his voice for all audio narrations at this time. Frank Muller suffered a catastrophic brain injury in a motorcycle accident in 2001. The narration task then fell to George Guidall, who recorded the final three books in the series in quick succession in 2003 and 2004. George Guidall was also called upon to re-record The Dark Tower: The Gunslinger, the first book in the series, in 2003, as the author made significant changes to that story to better match what came later." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Composition.", "Authorship.", "Date.", "Location.", "Editions and inclusions.", "Heroic lays.", "Not in Codex Regius.", "English translations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "The Eddic poems are composed in alliterative verse. Most are in \"fornyrðislag\", while \"málaháttr\" is a common variation. The rest, about a quarter, are composed in \"ljóðaháttr\". The language of the poems is usually clear and relatively unadorned. Kennings are often employed, though they do not arise as frequently, nor are they as complex, as those found in skaldic poetry.", "Like most early poetry, the Eddic poems were minstrel poems, passed orally from singer to singer and from poet to poet for centuries. None of the poems are attributed to a particular author, though many of them show strong individual characteristics and are likely to have been the work of individual poets. While scholars have speculated on hypothetical authors, firm and accepted conclusions have never been reached.", "Accurate dating of the poems has long been a source of scholarly debate. Firm conclusions are difficult to reach; lines from the Eddic poems sometimes appear in poems by known poets. For example, Eyvindr skáldaspillir composed in the latter half of the 10th century, and he uses a couple of lines in his \"Hákonarmál\" that are also found in \"Hávamál\". It is possible that he was quoting a known poem, but it is also possible that \"Hávamál\", or at least the strophe in question, is the younger derivative work. The few demonstrably historical characters mentioned in the poems, such as Attila, provide a \"terminus post quem\" of sorts. The dating of the manuscripts themselves provides a more useful \"terminus ante quem\". Individual poems have individual clues to their age. For example, \"Atlamál hin groenlenzku\" is claimed by its title to have been composed in Greenland, and seems so by some internal evidence. If so, it can be no earlier than about 985, since there were no Scandinavians in Greenland until that time. In some cases, old poems may have been interpolated with younger verses or merged with other poems. For example, stanzas 9–16 of \"Völuspá\", the \"Dvergatal\" or \"Roster of Dwarfs\", is considered by some scholars to be an interpolation.", "The problem of dating the poems is linked with the problem of determining where they were composed. Iceland was not settled until approximately 870, so anything composed before that time would necessarily have been elsewhere, most likely in Scandinavia. More recent poems, on the other hand, are likely Icelandic in origin. Scholars have attempted to localize individual poems by studying the geography, flora, and fauna to which they refer. This approach usually does not yield firm results. For example, there are no wolves in Iceland, but we can be sure that Icelandic poets were familiar with the species. Similarly, the apocalyptic descriptions of \"Völuspá\" have been taken as evidence that the poet who composed it had seen a volcanic eruption in Iceland – but this is hardly certain.", "Some poems similar to those found in Codex Regius are also included in some editions of the \"Poetic Edda\". Important manuscripts include AM 748 I 4to, \"Hauksbók\" and \"Flateyjarbók\". Many of the poems are quoted in Snorri's Edda, but usually only in bits and pieces. What poems are included in an edition of the \"Poetic Edda\" depends on the editor. Those not in Codex Regius are sometimes called \"Eddica minora\", from their appearance in an edition with that title edited by Andreas Heusler and Wilhelm Ranisch in 1903. English translators are not consistent on the translations of the names of the Eddic poems or on how the Old Norse forms should be rendered in English. Up to three translated titles are given below, taken from the translations of Bellows, Hollander, and Larrington with proper names in the normalized English forms found in John Lindow's \"Norse Mythology\" and in Andy Orchard's \"Cassell's Dictionary of Norse Myth and Legend\".", "After the mythological poems, Codex Regius continues with heroic lays about mortal heroes. The heroic lays are to be seen as a whole in the Edda, but they consist of three layers: the story of Helgi Hundingsbani, the story of the Nibelungs, and the story of Jörmunrekkr, king of the Goths. These are, respectively, Scandinavian, German, and Gothic in origin. As far as historicity can be ascertained, Attila, Jörmunrekkr, and Brynhildr actually existed, taking Brynhildr to be partly based on Brunhilda of Austrasia, but the chronology has been reversed in the poems.", "Several of the legendary sagas contain poetry in the Eddic style. Its age and importance is often difficult to evaluate but the \"Hervarar saga\", in particular, contains interesting poetic interpolations.", "The Elder or Poetic Edda has been translated numerous times, the earliest printed edition being that by, though some short sections had been translated as early as the 1670s. Some early translators relied on a Latin translation of the Edda, including Cottle. Opinions differ on the best way to translate the text, on the use or rejection of archaic language, and the rendering of terms lacking a clear English analogue. However Cottle's 1797 translation is considered very inaccurate. A comparison of the second and third verses (lines 5–12) of the \"Voluspa\" is given below :" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Taxonomy.", "Description.", "Scalation.", "Distribution and habitat.", "Behaviour.", "Reproduction and lifespan.", "Feeding.", "Predation.", "Venom.", "Treatment." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The first formal description of the black mamba was made in 1864 by German-born British zoologist Albert Günther. A single specimen was one of many species of snake collected by John Kirk, a naturalist who accompanied David Livingstone on the 1858–1864 Second Zambesi expedition. This specimen is the holotype and is housed in the Natural History Museum, London. The generic name of the species is derived from the Ancient Greek words \"dendron\" (\"δένδρον\"), \"tree\", and \"aspis\" (\"ἀσπίς\") \"asp\", and the specific epithet \"polylepis\" is derived from the Ancient Greek \"poly\" (\"πολύ\") meaning \"many\" and \"lepis\" (\"λεπίς\") meaning \"scale\". The term \"mamba\" is derived from the Zulu word \"\"imamba\"\" (meaning scales). In Tanzania, a local Ngindo name is \"ndemalunyayo\" (\"grass-cutter\") because it supposedly clips grass. In 1873, German naturalist Wilhelm Peters described \"Dendraspis Antinorii\" from a specimen in the museum of Genoa that had been collected by Italian explorer Orazio Antinori in what is now northern Eritrea. This was subsequently regarded as a subspecies and is no longer held to be distinct. In 1896, Belgian-British zoologist George Albert Boulenger combined the species \"Dendroaspis polylepis\" as a whole with the eastern green mamba (\"Dendroaspis angusticeps\"), a lumping diagnosis that remained in force until 1946 when South African herpetologist Vivian FitzSimons again split them into separate species. A 2016 genetic analysis showed the black and eastern green mambas are each other's closest relatives, and are more distantly related to Jameson's mamba (\"Dendroaspis jamesoni\").", "The black mamba is a long, slender, cylindrical snake. It has a coffin-shaped head with a somewhat pronounced brow ridge and a medium-sized eye. The adult snake's length typically ranges from but specimens have grown to lengths of. It is the second-longest venomous snake species, exceeded in length only by the king cobra. The black mamba is a proteroglyphous (front-fanged) snake, with fangs up to in length, located at the front of the maxilla. The tail of the species is long and thin, the caudal vertebrae making up 17–25% of its body length. The body mass of black mambas has been reported to be about, although a study of seven black mambas found an average weight of, ranging from for a specimen of total length to for a specimen of total length. Specimens vary considerably in colour, including olive, yellowish-brown, khaki and gunmetal but are rarely black. The scales of some individuals may have a purplish sheen. Individuals occasionally display dark mottling towards the posterior, which may appear in the form of diagonal crossbands. Black mambas have greyish-white underbellies and the inside of the mouth is dark bluish-grey to nearly black. Mamba eyes range between greyish-brown and shades of black; the pupil is surrounded by a silvery-white or yellow colour. Juvenile snakes are lighter in colour than adults; these are typically grey or olive green and darken as they age.", "The number and pattern of scales on a snake's body are a key element of identification to species level. The black mamba has between 23 and 25 rows of dorsal scales at midbody, 248 to 281 ventral scales, 109 to 132 divided subcaudal scales, and a divided anal scale. Its mouth is lined with 7–8 supralabial scales above, with the fourth and sometimes also the third one located under the eye, and 10-14 sublabial scales below. Its eyes have 3 or occasionally 4 preocular and 2–5 postocular scales.", "The black mamba inhabits a wide range in sub-Saharan Africa; its range includes Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo, South Sudan, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Somalia, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Burundi, Rwanda, Mozambique, Swaziland, Malawi, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Botswana, South Africa, Namibia, and Angola. The black mamba's distribution in parts of West Africa has been disputed. In 1954, the black mamba was recorded in the Dakar region of Senegal. This observation, and a subsequent observation that identified a second specimen in the region in 1956, has not been confirmed and thus the snake's distribution in this area is inconclusive. The species prefers moderately dry environments such as light woodland and scrub, rocky outcrops and semi-arid savanna. It also inhabits moist savanna and lowland forests. It is not commonly found at altitudes above, although its distribution does include locations at in Kenya and in Zambia. It is rated as a species of least concern on the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)'s Red List of endangered species, based on its huge range across sub-Saharan Africa and no documented decline.", "The black mamba is both terrestrial and arboreal. On the ground, it moves with its head and neck raised, and typically uses termite mounds, abandoned burrows, rock crevices and tree cracks as shelter. Black mambas are diurnal; in South Africa, they are recorded to bask between 7 and 10 am and again from 2 to 4 pm. They may return daily to the same basking site. Skittish and often unpredictable, the black mamba is agile and can move quickly. In the wild, black mambas seldom tolerate humans approaching more closely than about. When it perceives a threat, it retreats into brush or a hole. When confronted it is likely to engage in a threat display, gaping to expose its black mouth and flicking its tongue. It also is likely to hiss and spread its neck into a hood similar to that of the cobras in the genus Naja. During the threat display, any sudden movement by the intruder may provoke the snake into performing a series of rapid strikes, leading to severe envenomation. The size of the black mamba and its ability to raise its head a large distance from the ground enables it to launch as much as 40% of its body length upwards, so mamba bites to humans can occur on the upper body. The black mamba's reputation for being ready to attack is exaggerated; it is usually provoked by perceived threats such as the blocking of its movements and ability to retreat. The species' reputed speed has also been exaggerated; it cannot move more quickly than.", "The black mamba's breeding season spans from September to February, following the drop in temperature which occurs from April to June. Rival males compete by wrestling, attempting to subdue each other by intertwining their bodies and wrestling with their necks. Some observers have mistaken this for courtship. During mating, the male will slither over the dorsal side of the female while flicking its tongue. The female will signal its readiness to mate by lifting its tail and staying still. The male will then coil itself around the posterior end of the female and align its tail ventrolaterally with the female's. Intromission may last longer than two hours and the pair remain motionless apart from occasional spasms from the male. The black mamba is oviparous; the female lays a clutch of 6–17 eggs. The eggs are elongated oval in shape, typically long and in diameter. When hatched, the young range from in length. They may grow quickly, reaching after their first year. Juvenile black mambas are very apprehensive and can be deadly like the adults. The black mamba is recorded to live up to 11 years and may live longer.", "The black mamba usually hunts from a permanent lair, to which it will regularly return if there is no disturbance. It mostly preys on small vertebrates such as birds, particularly nestlings and fledglings, and small mammals like rodents, bats, hyraxes and bushbabies. They generally prefer warm-blooded prey but will also consume other snakes. In the Transvaal area of South Africa, almost all recorded prey was rather small, largely consisting of rodents and similarly sized small or juvenile mammals as well as passerine birds, estimated to weigh only 1.9–7.8% of the mamba's body mass. Nonetheless, anecdotes have indicated that large black mambas may at times infrequently attack large prey such as rock hyrax or dassies, and in some tribal languages, its name even means \"dassie catcher\". The black mamba does not typically hold onto its prey after biting; rather it releases its quarry and waits for it to succumb to paralysis and death before it swallows. The snake's potent digestive system has been recorded to fully digest prey in eight to ten hours.", "Adult mambas have few natural predators aside from birds of prey. Brown snake eagles are verified predators of adult black mambas, of up to at least. Other eagles known to hunt or at least consume grown black mambas include tawny eagles and martial eagles. Young snakes have been recorded as prey of the Cape file snake. Mongooses, which have some resistance to mamba venom and are often quick enough to evade a bite, will sometimes take a black mamba for prey. The similarly predatory honey badger also has some resistance to mamba venom. The mechanism in both mammals is thought to be that their muscular nicotinic acetylcholine receptors do not bind snake alpha-neurotoxins. Black mambas have also been found amongst the stomach contents of Nile crocodiles. Young mambas in the Serengeti are known to fall prey to southern ground hornbills, marsh owls and hooded vultures.", "The black mamba is the most feared snake in Africa because of its size, aggression, venom toxicity and speed of onset of symptoms following envenomation, and is classified as a snake of medical importance by the World Health Organization. Its subcutaneous LD50 has been measured on mice to be 0.055 mg/kg. A survey in South Africa from 1957 to 1979 recorded 2553 venomous snakebites, 75 of which were confirmed as being from black mambas. Of these 75 cases, 63 had symptoms of systemic envenomation and 21 died. Those bitten before 1962 received a polyvalent antivenom that had no effect on black mamba venom, and 15 of 35 people who received the antivenom died. A mamba-specific antivenom was introduced in 1962, followed by a fully polyvalent antivenom in 1971. Over this period, 5 of 38 people bitten by black mambas and given antivenom died. A census in rural Zimbabwe in 1991 and 1992 revealed 274 cases of snakebite, of which 5 died. Black mambas were confirmed in 15 cases, of which 2 died. The peak period for deaths is the species' breeding season from September to February, during which black mambas are most irritable. Bites are very rare outside Africa; snake handlers and enthusiasts are the usual victims. Unlike many venomous snake species, black mamba venom does not contain protease enzymes. Its bites do not generally cause local swelling or necrosis, and the only initial symptom may be a tingling sensation in the area of the bite. The snake tends to bite repeatedly and let go, so there can be multiple puncture wounds. Its bite can deliver about 100–120 mg of venom on average; the maximum recorded dose is 400 mg. The murine median lethal dose (LD) when administered intravenously has been calculated at 0.32 and 0.33 mg/kg. Bites were often fatal before antivenom was widely available. The venom is predominantly neurotoxic, and symptoms often become apparent within ten minutes. Early neurological signs that indicate severe envenomation include a metallic taste, drooping eyelids (ptosis) and gradual symptoms of bulbar palsy. Other neurological symptoms include miosis, blurred or diminished vision, paresthesia, dysarthria, dysphagia, dyspnea, difficulty handling saliva, an absent gag reflex, fasciculations, ataxia, vertigo, drowsiness and loss of consciousness, and respiratory paralysis. Other more general symptoms include nausea and vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea, sweating, salivation, goosebumps and red eyes. The bite of a black mamba can cause collapse in humans within 45 minutes or less. Without appropriate antivenom treatment, symptoms typically progress to respiratory failure, which leads to cardiovascular collapse and death. This typically occurs in 7 to 15 hours. In 2015, the proteome (complete protein profile) of black mamba venom was assessed and published, revealing 41 distinct proteins and one nucleoside. The venom is composed of two main families of toxic agents, dendrotoxins (I and K) and (at a slightly lower proportion) three-finger toxins. Dendrotoxins are akin to kunitz-type protease inhibitors that interact with voltage-dependent potassium channels, stimulating acetylcholine and causing an excitatory effect, and are thought to cause symptoms such as sweating. Member of the three-finger family include alpha-neurotoxin, cardiotoxins, fasciculins and mambalgins. The most toxic components are the alpha-neurotoxins, which bind nicotinic acetylcholine receptors and hence block the action of acetylcholine at the postsynaptic membrane and cause neuromuscular blockade and hence paralysis. Fasciculins are anticholinesterase inhibitors that cause muscle fasciculation. The venom has little or no haemolytic, haemorrhagic or procoagulant activity. Mambalgins act as inhibitors for acid-sensing ion channels in the central and peripheral nervous system, causing a pain-inhibiting effect. There is research interest in their analgesic potential. The composition of black mamba venom differs markedly from those of other mambas, all of which contain predominantly three-finger toxin agents. It is thought this may reflect the preferred prey items – small mammals for the mainly land-dwelling black mamba versus birds for the predominantly arboreal other mambas. Unlike many snake species, black mamba venom has little phospholipase A2 content.", "Standard first aid treatment for any suspected bite from a venomous snake is the application of a pressure bandage to the bite site, minimisation of movement of the victim and conveyance to a hospital or clinic as quickly as possible. The neurotoxic nature of black mamba venom means an arterial tourniquet may be of benefit. Tetanus toxoid is sometimes administered, though the main treatment is the administration of the appropriate antivenom. A polyvalent antivenom produced by the South African Institute for Medical Research is used to treat black mamba bites, and a new antivenom was being developed by the Universidad de Costa Rica's Instituto Clodomiro Picado." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early years and formation (1989–93).", "\"Korn\" (1994–96).", "\"Life Is Peachy\" (1996–97).", "\"Follow the Leader\" (1998–99).", "\"Issues\" (1999–2001).", "\"Untouchables\" (2002–03).", "\"Take a Look in the Mirror\" and departure of Brian Welch (2003–05).", "\"See You on the Other Side\" and departure of David Silveria (2005–07).", "Untitled album and addition of Ray Luzier (2007–08).", "\"Korn III: Remember Who You Are\" (2009–11).", "\"The Path of Totality\" (2011–12).", "\"The Paradigm Shift\" and the return of Brian Welch (2012–15).", "\"The Serenity of Suffering\" (2015–18).", "\"The Nothing\" (2018–present).", "Style, influences and legacy.", "Band members." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Before Korn was formed, three of the original members of the band were associated with the band L.A.P.D. – James Shaffer, Reginald Arvizu, and David Silveria. Originally consisting of Richard Morrill, James Shaffer, and Reginald Arvizu, David Silveria joined when he was 16. When the band moved from Bakersfield, California to Los Angeles, Silveria dropped out of high school and Shaffer stayed in Bakersfield. When Shaffer reunited with the band, they found a manager and released an EP entitled \"Love and Peace Dude\" in 1989 through Triple X Records. L.A.P.D. released their first full-length studio album on May 3, 1991 which consisted of eleven tracks. The album was entitled \"Who's Laughing Now\". After releasing two albums, L.A.P.D. broke up. They were also briefly known as Creep, recording a demo with a singer named Corey until Shaffer, Arvizu, and Silveria enlisted Brian Welch and Jonathan Davis to form the band that went on to become Korn. When thinking of a band name, someone suggested \"corn\", but the band rejected that name,", "By May 1994, Korn began recording their debut album with Ross Robinson. It was finished recording by the end of June 1994. On October 11, 1994, Korn released a self–titled album through Immortal Records, an Epic imprint label, which peaked at number one on the Heatseekers Albums chart, and would eventually reach number seventy-two on the \"Billboard\" 200 in February 1996. The album received positive reviews by critics, and it is said to have established the new wave of metal. As well as sparking the nu metal genre, the album also started record producer Ross Robinson's music career. It also influenced other bands, such as Slipknot, Coal Chamber and Limp Bizkit. After Korn finished recording the album, they began touring with Biohazard", "After the success of their debut, Korn decided to enter the studio again for a second album. By then, the band had created a large fan base, and the expectations for their follow-up album were high. They went back into the studio in early April 1996 at Indigo Ranch Studios, Malibu, California. The album was released October 15, 1996, and despite minimal radio airplay and television attention, \"Life Is Peachy\" debuted at number three on the \"Billboard\" 200, and peaked at number one in New Zealand. The album sold 106,000 copies in its first week. Jon Pareles from \"The New York Times\" said that the band was \"Mad at everybody, including themselves.\" The album was certified double platinum in the United States, platinum in Australia, and gold in Canada. The first single, \"No Place to Hide\", spawned a Grammy nomination for Best Metal Performance.", "Prior to the release of the band's third album, Korn produced a weekly online TV show, KornTV, which documented the making of the record and featured special guests such as porn star Ron Jeremy, Limp Bizkit and 311. The project also gave fans (nicknamed \"nibletz\") the chance to call in and ask the band questions, an approach that represented one of the first times a band utilized the Internet in such a way. Korn released their third album, \"Follow the Leader\", on August 18, 1998, which featured a number of guest vocalists such as Ice Cube, Pharcyde member Tre Hardson, Fred Durst of Limp Bizkit, and actor Cheech Marin on the hidden track \"Earache My Eye\" (written by Marin himself). Korn launched a political campaign-style tour to promote the release of \"Follow the Leader\". The tour took the group, on a chartered jet, all over North America to help promote \"Follow the Leader\". They talked to fans and answered questions during special \"fan conferences\", which were organized at every stop along the tour route, and signed autographs. Jim Rose of the Jim Rose Circus hosted", "The band's fourth album, \"Issues\", produced by Brendan O'Brien, was released on November 16, 1999, featuring cover art designed by Alfredo Carlos, who won a contest held for the fans by MTV. \"Issues\" was released during a week of many highly anticipated records. It debuted at number one on the \"Billboard\" 200 with at least 573,000 copies sold, keeping Dr. Dre's second album \"2001\" and \"All the Way... A Decade of Song\" by Céline Dion from hitting number one. To celebrate the album's release, the band performed the record in its entirety in front of a live audience at New York's historic Apollo Theater and broadcast the concert simultaneously across many radio stations. This performance marked the first performance by a rock band since Buddy Holly in the late 1950s. This special event featured the New York Police Department marching drum and bagpipe band conducted by Richard Gibbs as well as a group of back-up singers to enhance the", "On June 11, 2002, Korn re-emerged into the media with their fifth album, \"Untouchables\". It debuted at number two on the \"Billboard\" 200 with 434,000 in sales. The band has blamed music piracy for the drop in sales, as an unmastered version of the album had leaked three months prior to its official release date. On April 2, 2002, the Opie and Anthony Show began airing songs from \"Untouchables\". After playing a few songs, the broadcasters received a cease-and-desist letter from Sony Music Entertainment. Opie and Anthony said \"The reason for the premature premiere was to infuriate a rival New York station, which disallows", "Due to the album \"Untouchables\" leaking onto the Internet, \"Take a Look in the Mirror\" was released on a Friday, November 21, 2003 – four days earlier than its original release date. The album therefore received a weekend's worth of sales, which resulted in a poor showing on the \"Billboard\" 200. During its first full week, \"Take a Look in the Mirror\" soared ten places from number nineteen to number nine, increasing the album's total sales to 179,000. It is the first album self-produced by Korn. The band explained that they wanted fans to hear the music as it should", "Upon completing their record deal with Sony, Korn partnered with EMI and signed to Virgin Records. As part of this innovative arrangement, Virgin paid Korn $25 million upfront in exchange for a share in the profits of their next two studio albums, including tours and merchandising. Virgin also received a 30 percent stake in the band's licensing, ticket sales and other revenue sources. The band's first album for Virgin, \"See You on the Other Side\", was released on December 6, 2005, and debuted at number three on the \"Billboard\"", "Korn's untitled album was released on July 31, 2007, debuting at number two on the \"Billboard\" 200 with 123,000 copies sold in its first week. The album was certified gold by the RIAA. It concluded Korn's deal with Virgin Records, and features touring keyboardist Zac Baird. Drumming duties were left up to Terry Bozzio, and Bad Religion's Brooks Wackerman, as David Silveria went on a hiatus. Joey Jordison from Slipknot played drums during Korn's live shows until the permanent addition of Ray Luzier (Army of", "In a YouTube video, bassist Reginald \"Fieldy\" Arvizu affirmed that a charity song titled \"A Song for Chi\" would be released, featuring Slipknot guitarist Jim Root, Clint Lowery of Sevendust, drummer Dave McClain of Machine Head and former Korn guitarist Brian \"Head\" Welch, among many other musicians. The song was intended to raise money for Deftones bassist Chi Cheng, who fell into a comatose state following a car accident in November 2008. Along with the announcement of the Ballroom Blitz Tour in March 2010, the title for the new album was revealed as \"\". Later that month, Munky announced that Korn has officially signed to Roadrunner Records. Jonathan Davis later confirmed the record deal: \"We're going to go to Roadrunner. [It is] real exciting for us, too, because they're one", "Korn's tenth studio album, \"The Path of Totality\", was released on December 6, 2011. It was the second and final studio album for Roadrunner Records. The album features contributions from Skrillex, 12th Planet, Excision, Downlink, Kill the Noise, Noisia, and various other EDM artists. \"The Path of Totality\" debuted and peaked at number ten on the \"Billboard\" 200 with 55,000 copies scanned. \"Get Up!\" was premiered as the lead single via \"Spin\" in April 2011. The single managed to peak at number eight on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 chart. It eventually became their first single to be certified gold in the United States. The second single, \"Narcissistic Cannibal\", was released in October 2011, with its music video being directed", "On May 5, 2012, guitarist Brian \"Head\" Welch joined Korn on stage at the Carolina Rebellion festival to play \"Blind\" the first time since his departure. As recalled in the documentary DVD \"Reconciliation\", Welch's appearance was a spur-of-the-moment decision: Welch initially visited the festival because of his daughter who was a fan of bands performing; Welch joined Red on stage for a song, and eventually would be persuaded to join his old bandmates in Korn for a meet and greet. Upon Korn preparing for the show, the guitar tech prepared an extra guitar and amplifier for Welch, \"just in case\". On July 18, 2012, Jonathan Davis told Billboard.com", "Korn soon began the process of writing new songs for a twelfth studio album. Guitarist Head described the music on the new album as \"heavier than anyone's heard us in a long time.\" Their twelfth studio album \"The Serenity of Suffering\" was released on October 21, 2016. On July 14, 2016 guitarist James \"Munky\" Shaffer revealed to \"Metal Hammer\" that Corey Taylor of Slipknot/Stone Sour would make a guest appearance on the new album. He also", "In August 2018, Luzier reported via Instagram that Korn has begun the process of tracking drums for the upcoming thirteenth album. In a December 2018 interview to \"Revolver Magazine\", Welch revealed that the upcoming album is scheduled for release in fall 2019, with Nick Raskulinecz resuming production duties. He also stated some of the tracks had been co-written with John", "Korn's influences include Primus, Alice in Chains, Pantera, Cypress Hill, Ice Cube, N.W.A, Rage Against the Machine, Sepultura, Bauhaus, Geto Boys, Van Halen, the Pharcyde, Red Hot Chili Peppers, Faith No More, Metallica, Nine Inch Nails, Deftones, Dr. Dre, and Mr. Bungle. A lot of Korn's work has been inspired by hip hop music, as suggested in the band's song \"All in the Family\" and the cover song of Ice Cube's \"Wicked\". Regarding their influences, bassist Fieldy stated \"The Rolling Stones, Led Zeppelin — those bands haven’t influenced us in any way. Nobody in the band ever listened to that stuff. Our musical history starts with the Red Hot Chili Peppers and early Faith No More. As a band, that’s where we begin.\" Korn is identified as the pioneers of nu metal music, a form of alternative metal music which began in the mid-1990s. While generally considered an alternative metal and nu metal band, the band has also been labeled as heavy metal, grunge, hard rock, rap metal, funk metal, groove metal and industrial metal. Their debut album mixed metal, funk, hip-hop, groove, and dissonance. Their lyrics focus on pain and personal alienation rather than traditional heavy metal themes. In \"Nu-metal: The Next Generation of Rock & Punk\", Korn was marked as the third biggest nu metal band in the world. In the music community, there have been disagreements whether the band should be considered as \"heavy metal\". In 2015, lead singer Jonathan Davis commented,", "Current members Former members" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Creative output.", "Wyspiański Museum and monuments in his honor.", "Streets of Kraków with Wyspiański connections." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Stanisław Wyspiański was born to Franciszek Wyspiański and Maria Rogowska. His father, a sculptor, owned an atelier on Wawel Hill. His mother died of tuberculosis in 1876 when Stanisław was seven years old. Due to problems with alcohol, Stanisław's father could not fulfil his parental responsibilities. Stanisław was adopted by his aunt Joanna Stankiewiczowa and her husband Kazimierz. The Stankiewicz family belonged to the bourgeois intellectual class. In their house, Wyspiański became acquainted with painter Jan Matejko, who was a frequent visitor. Matejko soon recognized that the boy had artistic talent and gave him his first artistic guidance. Wyspiański attended Saint Anne's secondary school. The school was unique for several reasons. First, although the Polish language was forbidden in educational institutions under foreign rule, the lectures at Saint Anne's were delivered in Polish. Second, the teacher's goal was to equip the students with a thorough knowledge of Polish history and literature. Third, graduates of the school, including Lucjan Rydel, Stanisław Estreicher and Henryk Opieński, were considered prominent figures in Kraków's cultural life. As a student, Wyspiański took particular interest in art and literature. According to Joanna Stankiewiczowa, the young Stanisław portrayed small cottages, animals, plants, armors and decorations. Wyspiański also created a dramatic interpretation of Matejko's painting \"Stefan Batory pod Pskowem (Bathory at Pskov)\". In 1887 Wyspiański enrolled in the Faculty of Philosophy at Jagiellonian University and the School of Fine Arts in Kraków. While studying at the university, he attended lectures in art, history and literature. Jan Matejko, the dean of the School of Fine Arts, soon recognized Wyspiański's talent and asked him to join in the creation of a polychrome inside the Mariacki Church. The years 1890–1895 were devoted to travel. Wyspiański visited Italy, Switzerland, Germany, Prague and France. His stay in France is regarded as a major point in his artistic life. He studied at the private Académie Colarossi. Since the school fee was very high, Wyspiański applied for a grant. During his stay in France he got acquainted with Paul Gauguin. Together they visited art museums, where Wyspiański was bewitched by the beauty of Pierre Puvis de Chavannes's paintings. He also attended theatre performances based on Shakespeare and classical era plays. His future dramas \"Daniel i Meleager (Daniel and Meleagra)\" and \"Powrót Odysa (Return of Odysseus)\" were based on the antic tradition. Meanwhile, he worked on several dramas, \"Królowa Polskiej Korony (The Queen of Polish Crown), Warszawianka (Varsovian Anthem)\" and the first version of \"Legenda (Legend)\". The play \"Legenda (Legend)\" was based on the famous Polish legend of Wars and Sawa. In August 1894 he returned to Kraków, where he got involved in the modernist movement. It was then he designed and partially made a polychrome for the Franciscan Church that was composed of flowery, geometrical and heraldic motifs. Moreover, the prior of the church encouraged Wyspiański to design various stained glass windows, such as \"Blessed Salomea, Saint Francis Stigmata\" and \"God the Father\". Wyspiański received an award from the Polish Academy of Learning for the landscape of the \"Kopiec Kościuszki (Kościuszko Mound)\". As a painter, interior designer and poet he cooperated with the Municipal Theatre in Kraków. First he designed furniture and scenography for the theatre performances, then he staged various dramas on the stage of the theatre. He cooperated with the Kraków Society of Friends of Fine Art and in mid-1898 was named art manager of the weekly \"Życie (Life)\". Unfortunately, his first published dramas, \"Legenda (Legend)\", (1897) and \"Daniel i Meleager (Daniel and Meleagra)\" (1898), did not receive the acclaim of the critics. It was the \"Warszawianka (Varsovian Anthem)\" that brought instantaneous acclaim to its author. The premiere of the drama marked his debut as a playwright of national dramas. The theatre premiere of the drama on 2 July 1901 starred Helena Modrzejewska as Maria. The years 1899–1900 marked the publication of \"Protesilas i Laodamia (Protesilas and Laodamia), Lelewel (Lelevel)\" and \"Legion\". This drama is regarded to be the author's polemic displaying a romantic vision of history. In 1900, Wyspiański married the mother of his four children, Teodora Pytko. In November the same year he participated in the wedding of his friend Lucjan Rydel in Bronowice, a village near Kraków. The wedding party was the inspiration for his widely acclaimed play \"Wesele (The Wedding)\". It is a deeply critical yet sarcastic exposé of Polish society of the 19th century. \"\"Wesele\"\" transformed Wyspianski from a moderately successful visual and verbal artist associated with the Young Poland movement into a national dramatist-visionary whose significance in Poland is comparable to Yeats's in Ireland, O'Neill's in America, or Maeterlinck's in Belgium.\" The drama made references to the contemporary situation in Poland and depicted a powerless society. Although censorship barred the sale of copies of \"Wesele (The Wedding)\", the play was staged in the theatre. After the success of \"Wesele (The Wedding)\" four new plays based on Polish history were published: \"Wyzwolenie (Liberation), Achilles, Bolesław Śmiały (Boleslaus The Bold)\" and \"Legenda II (Legend 2)\". The following years were devoted to publishing of \"Skałka\" and \"Powrót Odysa (Return of Odysseus)\"; meanwhile Wyspiański translated Corneillea's \"Cyd (Le Cid)\" and Voltaire's \"Zaïre\". In 1906 Wyspiański became a professor at the Academy of Fine Arts in Kraków. He was also a member of the city council. In his last years, Wyspianski's health deteriorated. As a result, he underwent medical treatments in Rymanów and Bad Hall and then settled in his small cottage in the village of Węgrzce. He died of syphilis, which was incurable at the time. His funeral took place in Kraków and became a national day of mourning. Wyspiański was buried in the Crypt of the Distinguished in the Skałka Church.", "Wyspiański's artistic output is very eclectic. Among dramas and poetry, there are views of Cracow (drawings, sketch-books, oil-paintings, pastel drawings), portraits and self-portraits, designs of stained glass windows and paintings, illustrations, graphic art, and designs for furniture and interiors, and development of Wawel. Drawings, such as his 1890 self-portrait, and drafts from his journeys across Europe and Poland, are among Wyspiański's better-known works. He later created a herbarium by drawing plants. However, he most frequently used soft pastel techniques; his first pastel drawings were produced between 1890 and 1894. They mainly present the artist's family, friends and other artists. Wyspiański eagerly drew his children in everyday situations such as sleeping or feeding, including \"Helenka\" (1900), pastel drawing, owned by the National Museum in Kraków; \"Śpiący Staś (Sleeping Staś)\" (1902), pastel drawing, Silesian Museum in Katowice; \"Śpiący Mietek (Sleeping Mietek)\" (1904), pastel drawing, Museum of Art in Łódź; \"Macierzyństwo (Motherhood)\" (1905), pastel drawing, National Museum in Kraków; and \"Żona artysty z synkiem Stasiem (The Artist's Wife with Their Son Staś)\" (1904), pastel drawing, now at the Upper Silesian Museum in Bytom. Using this technique, he painted many of his acquaintances and artists, among others Kazimierz Lewandowski, Jacek Malczewski, Eliza Pareńska, the Kryształowicz family, Ludwik Solski, Irena Solska, and Jan Stanisławski. He painted landscapes of Kraków – the Kraków Planty Park with desmans (also painted in oil), the Vistula Rudawa River, cottages in Grębowo, and at the end of his life, views from his studio to the Kościuszko Mound. He also created a poster for Maeterlinck's \"Wnętrze (Interior)\". Part of his output constitutes various designs – mainly stained glass windows, polychromes and interiors. Stanisław Wyspiański and Józef Mehoffer designed 36 stained glass windows together for the Mariacki Church in Kraków to help Matejko with the church conservation he had been involved with since 1889. During their stay in Paris they both made two boxes for the competition of the Rudolfinum Hall Decoration Design in Prague and curtain designs for the Juliusz Słowacki Theatre in Kraków. However, Wyspiański himself designed stained glass windows and polychromes for the Franciscan Church in Kraków (with the famous stained glass window \"Stań się\"), stained glass windows depicting Saint Stanislaus, Kazimierz the Great and Henryk Pobożny for Wawel Cathedral (not executed until 2005–2007 in the Wyspiański 2000 Pavilion), the design of a showroom of the Fine Arts Society (1904), and stairs and hall decoration for the Medical Society. In 1905 Wyspiański and Władysław Ekielski designed a scheme for redevelopment of the Wawel Hill (the so-called \"Acropolis\").", "The Stanisław Wyspiański Museum in Kraków is located in the Szołayski tenement house built in the 17th century. It is a division of the National Museum, Kraków, sometimes referred to as the Szołayski Museum. At All Saints' Square, the \"Wyspiański 2000\" Information Exhibition Pavilion is a rare example of contemporary architecture in the Old Town, featuring three of Wyspiański's stained glass windows. In 1996 a plaque for Stanisław Wyspiański was unveiled at \"Hotel Nordbahn\" (since 2008 \"Austria Classic Hotel Wien\") at Praterstraße 72 in Vienna's Leopoldstadt, commemorating the 50th anniversary of the \"Österreichisch-Polnische Gesellschaft\" (\"Austrian-Polish Society\") and Wyspiański's frequents stays at the hotel, where among other things he wrote his German dramatic fragment \"\"Weimar 1829\"\" in summer 1904. In front of the new National Museum building in Kraków on 3-go Maja Street there is a monument to Stanisław Wyspiański. 2007 was named \"the Year of Stanisław Wyspiański\" by the Polish Sejm.", "26 Krupnicza Street Wyspiański was born at 26 Krupnicza Street in Kraków, in a house that belonged to his grandparents. He lived there until 1873. 25 Kanonicza Street In the summer of 1873 Wyspianski's family moved to the house of Jan Długosz. Wyspiański's younger brother and mother died here. In the autumn of 1880 Wyspiański moved into the house of his uncle and aunt. 1 Kopernika Street Between 1880 and 1883 he lived in the house of the Stankiewicz family, site of the later PTTK Tourist House and the present Wyspiański Hotel. 2 Zacisze Street Here was the Stankiewicz family's new apartment. It was on the second floor of the now non-extant Central Hotel at the junction of Zacisze and Basztowa streets, with a view onto the Barbakan and the Planty Park. Because of the hotel's expansion, the Stankiewicz family was forced to move out in 1885. 1 Westerplatte Street (then Kolejowa Street) In July 1895 the Stankiewicz family began living here in an apartment on the ground floor at the corner of Kolejowa and Lubicz streets. Currently at this site there are arcades and stairs to an underground passage. At the time Wyspiański had his studio in the nearby village of Grzegórzki, where he worked on stained glass window designs for the Franciscan Church. 10 Poselska Street After a few months at Westerplatte Street, Wyspiański's uncle died and Wyspiański and his aunt went to live at 10 Poselska Street in a second-floor apartment. 9 Mariacki Square In July 1898 Wyspiański rented a room at the junction of 9 Mariacki Square and 4 Rynek Główny. In 1907 the house was taken down and replaced by an Art Nouveau tenement block. The flat was used as a studio. Wyspiański at the time was registered at 23 Szlak Street in the house of his future wife, Teofilia Pytko. 79 Krowoderska Street In 1901 Stanisław Wyspiański received an award from the Academy of Learning for his stained glass windows for the royal castle at Wawel. Thanks to this, he was able to rent a seven-room apartment in a tenement house on the second floor at the corner of Juliusza Słowackiego Avenue (which still exists). He lived here with his family and had his studio here as well. Allegedly there was a sign on the door reading: \"Here lives Stanisław Wyspiański and he does not wish to be visited\". Węgrzce near Kraków After another prize for landscapes depicting the Kościuszko Mound awarded by the Academy of Learning, Wyspiański moved to his own house in the village of Węgrzce (nb 5). The house, now demolished, has been replaced by another private residence. There is a stone at the site with a commemorative plaque erected on the 100th anniversary of the artist's birth. 1 Siemiradzkiego Street The hospital where Wyspiański died on 28 November 1907 still exists, although it operates now as a maternity hospital. It is situated on the corner of Siemiradzkiego and Łobzowska streets." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology and taxonomy.", "Description.", "Scalation.", "Geographic range.", "In zoos.", "Bronx Zoo escape.", "Habitat.", "Behaviour and ecology.", "Venom.", "Other cultures.", "In Ancient Egyptian culture and history.", "As a pet.", "In magic acts." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The \"Naja haje\" was first described by Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus in 1758. The generic name \"naja\" is a Latinisation of the Sanskrit word'() meaning \"cobra\". The specific epithet \"haje\" is derived from the Arabic word hayya\" (حية\"') which literally means \"snake\". The snouted cobra (\"Naja annulifera\") and Anchieta's cobra (\"Naja anchietae\") were formerly regarded as subspecies of \"Naja haje\", but have since been shown to be distinct species. The Arabian populations were long recognised as a separate subspecies, \"Naja haje arabica\", and the black populations from Morocco sometimes as \"Naja haje legionis\". A recent study found that the Arabian cobra constitutes a separate species, \"Naja arabica\", whereas the subspecies \"legionis\" was synonymised with \"N. haje\". The same study also identified the West African savanna populations as a separate species and described it as \"Naja senegalensis\".", "The Egyptian cobra is a large species. The head is large and depressed and slightly distinct from the neck. The neck of this species has long cervical ribs capable of expanding to form a hood, like all other cobras. The snout of the Egyptian cobra is moderately broad and rounded. The eye is quite big with a round pupil. The body of the Egyptian cobra is cylindrical and stout with a long tail. The length of the Egyptian cobra is largely dependent on subspecies, geographical locale, and population. The most recognizable characteristics of this species are its head and hood. The colour is highly variable, but most specimens are some shade of brown, often with lighter or darker mottling, and often a \"tear-drop\" mark below the eye. Some are more copper-red or grey-brown in colour. Specimens from northwestern Africa (Morocco, western Sahara) are almost entirely black. The ventral side is mostly a creamy white, yellow brown, grayish, blue grey, dark brown or black in colouration, often with dark spots.", "\"Naja haje\" has the following scalation. The dorsal scales at midbody number 19-20. The ventral scales number 191-220. The anal plate is single. The subcaudal scales are paired and number 53-65. There is 1 preocular, 3 (or 2) postoculars, and 2 or 3 suboculars. The upper labials number 7 (rarely 6 or 8), and are separated from the eye by the suboculars. The lower labials number 8. The temporal scales are arranged 1+2 or 1+3, varying.", "The Egyptian cobra ranges across most of North Africa north of the Sahara, across the savannas of West Africa to the south of the Sahara, south to the Congo basin and east to Kenya and Tanzania. Older literature records from southern Africa and the Arabian Peninsula refer to other species (see Taxonomy section below).", "The Egyptian cobra can also be found in captivity at zoos both in and outside of the snake’s natural range. The Giza Zoo and the San Diego Zoo as well as the Virginia Aquarium include the Egyptian Cobra in their reptile collections.", "On March 26, 2011, the Bronx Zoo informed the public that their reptile house was closed after a venomous adolescent female banded Egyptian cobra was discovered missing from its off-exhibit enclosure on March 25. Zoo officials were confident the missing cobra would be found in the building and not outside, since the Egyptian cobra is known to be uncomfortable in open areas. The snake's metabolism would also have been impacted by the cold weather outdoors at that time in the Bronx. The cobra was found in a dark corner of the zoo's reptile house on March 31, 2011, in good health. After a contest, she was named \"Mia\" for \"missing in action.\"", "\"Naja haje\" occurs in a wide variety of habitats like, steppes, dry to moist savannas, arid semi-desert regions with some water and vegetation. This species is frequently found near water. The Egyptian cobra is also found in agricultural fields and scrub vegetation. It also occurs in the presence of humans where it often enter houses. It is attracted to villages by rodent pests (rats) and domestic chickens. There are also notes of the Egyptian cobra swimming in the Mediterranean sea, so it seems to like water where it has been found quite often.", "The Egyptian cobra is a terrestrial and crepuscular or nocturnal species. It can however, be seen basking in the sun at times in the early morning. This species shows a preference for a permanent home base in abandoned animal burrows, termite mounds or rock outcrops. It is an active forager sometimes entering human habitations, especially when hunting domestic fowl. Like other cobra species, it generally attempts to escape when approached, at least for a few metres, but if threatened it assumes the typical upright posture with the hood expanded, and strikes. This species prefers to eat toads, but it will prey on small mammals, birds, eggs, lizards and other snakes.<ref name= \"Filippi, E., Petretto, M, Naja haje (Egyptian Cobra) Diet/Ophiophagy in Herpetological Review 2013; 44: 155-156\"> Filippi, E., Petretto, M, Naja haje (Egyptian Cobra) Diet/Ophiophagy in Herpetological Review 2013; 44: 155-156</ref>", "The venom of the Egyptian cobra consists mainly in neurotoxins and cytotoxins. The average venom yield is 175 to 300 mg in a single bite, and the murine subcutaneous value is 1.15 mg/kg. The venom affects the nervous system, stopping the nerve signals from being transmitted to the muscles and at later stages stopping those transmitted to the heart and lungs as well, causing death due to complete respiratory failure. Envenomation causes local pain, severe swelling, bruising, blistering, necrosis and variable non-specific effects which may include headache, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, diarrhea, dizziness, collapse or convulsions along with possible moderate to severe flaccid paralysis. Unlike some other African cobras (for example the red spitting cobra), this species does not spit venom.", "", "The Egyptian cobra was represented in Egyptian mythology by the cobra-headed goddess Meretseger. A stylised Egyptian cobrain the form of the uraeus representing the goddess Wadjetwas the symbol of sovereignty for the Pharaohs who incorporated it into their diadem. This iconography was continued through the end of the ancient Egyptian civilization (30 BC). Most ancient sources say that Cleopatra and her two attendants committed suicide by being bitten by an aspis, which translates into English as \"asp\". The snake was reportedly smuggled into her room in a basket of figs. Plutarch wrote that she performed experiments on condemned prisoners and found aspis venom to be the most painless of all fatal poisons. This \"aspis\" was likely to be \"Naja haje\" (the Egyptian cobra). However, the accounts of her apparent suicide have been questioned, since death from this snake's venom is relatively slow and it can cause damage to the tissue sometimes, and the snake is large, so it would be hard to conceal.", "The Egyptian cobra garnered increased attention in Canada in the fall of 2006 when a pet cobra became loose and forced the evacuation of a house in Toronto for more than three hours when it was believed to have sought refuge in the home's walls. The owner was fined $17,000 and jailed for a year.", "In July, 2018, Aref Ghafouri was bitten by an Egyptian cobra while preparing for a show in Turkey. He was evacuated to Egypt for treatment with the anti-venom and made a full recovery." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Bikes.", "Riding area." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The first unofficial world championships in artistic cycling was held in 1888 by Swiss-American Nicholas Edward Kaufmann and was largely a publicity stunt to showcase his trick bicycling. The first official world championships were held for men in 1956 and for women in 1970.", "The bicycles used for artistic cycling are a form of fixed gear bicycle. The gearing of the chainring and sprocket are run at or near a one-to-one ratio, but the chainring may not have fewer teeth than the sprocket. The wheels must be of equal size and are closely spaced in order to make tricks, such as wheelies, easier to perform. The handlebars are similar in form to a shallow drop handlebar found on a racing bicycle which has been turned upside down. Handlegrips or bar tape are applied to the top, horizontal portions of the bar. The handlebar, which can spin 360°, is mounted to a stem that has no horizontal extension, which puts the stem clamp in line with the steering axis and allows for the handlebars to remain in the same relative position no matter whether the front wheel is facing forward or backward. The crank arm length may have a center to center distance of 130 to 170 mm.", "The riding area for artistic cycling is a wooden court, which also serves cycle ball competitions, that ranges in dimensions from 9 x 12 meters to 11 x 14 meters, where the maximum size is mandated for international competitions. Three concentric circles are taped or painted at the center of the court with diameters (measured to the outside edge of the line) of 0.5, 4, & 8 meters. Four half-meter hashes extend radially from the four quadrants of the middle circle. A clear area of 0.5 to 2 meters must be free of all immovable objects around the perimeter of the court. Two meters is required for international competitions." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Rise to prominence.", "Status and rank.", "Appearance.", "Decline.", "Competition with geisha.", "Later years (1850-1957).", "Modern oiran.", "Courtesan parade." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The word \"\"oiran\"\" comes from the Japanese phrase which translates loosely to \"the lass at our (my) place.\" When written in kanji, the word consists of two characters, 花 meaning \"flower\", and 魁 meaning \"leader\" or \"first.\" Technically, only the high-class prostitutes of Yoshiwara were called oiran, although the term is widely applied to all.", "", "Courtesan culture arose in the early Edo period (1600–1868); laws restricting brothels to bounded pleasure quarters (, in some cases quite literally walled-in districts, were passed in roughly 1600. These quarters were placed some distance from the city centre, and changed a number of times throughout the following centuries; on occasion, some would be closed and their inhabitants sent to live and work in another, larger district, or re-opened following a period of closure. The three districts with the most lasting prominence were Shimabara in Kyoto (which until the 1970s also housed geisha), Shinmachi in Osaka, and Yoshiwara in Edo (present-day Tokyo). These rapidly grew into large, self-contained neighborhoods, containing many different forms of entertainment, performances and festivals. Geisha also worked within these districts, occasionally being forbidden by law to work outside of them; as the geisha profession developed, rules regarding the separation of the two professions were passed. Geisha were forbidden to dress elaborately, in the manner of oiran, and were not allowed to sleep with their customers. Geisha were registered at a separate registry office, and if an oiran accused a geisha of stealing a customer, she would be fully investigated, with the potential to be forbidden from working if found guilty.", "Compared to \"yūjo\" (prostitutes), whose primary attraction was sexual services, courtesans were first and foremost entertainers. In order to become an oiran, a woman had to be educated in a range of skills from a young age, including the traditional arts of \"chadō\" (Japanese tea ceremony), ikebana (flower arranging), and calligraphy. Oiran also learned to play the koto, shakuhachi, tsuzumi (hand drum), shamisen and kokyū. Clients also expected them to be well-read and able to converse and write with wit and elegance. Within the pleasure quarters, courtesans' prestige was based on their beauty, character, education, and artistic ability, rather than their birth. The highest rank of courtesan was the, followed by the. Unlike a common prostitute, the tayū had sufficient prestige to refuse clients. Her high status also made a tayū extremely pricey—a \"tayū\"'s fee for one evening was between one \"ryo\" and one \"ryo\" three \"bu\", well beyond a laborer's monthly wage and comparable to a shop assistant's annual salary. In 1761, the last tayū of the Yoshiwara retired, marking the end of the tayū and kōshi ranks in that pleasure quarter. The word \"oiran\" therefore appeared in the Yoshiwara as a polite term of address for any remaining woman of courtesan rank.", "Over time, oiran grew more and more elaborate in appearance; by their height at the beginning of the Edo period, oiran wore upwards of eight large hairpins, made of tortoiseshell, silver and gemstones in an elaborate, heavily-waxed hairstyle known as \"date-hyōgo\". An oiran's outfit would consist of a number of layered silk kimono, made of heavily-decorated silk and belted with an obi tied at the front. During the Edo period, this obi became wider in size and stiffer in material than in previous years, adding weight and discomfort to the outfit. This was worn underneath an even heavier \"uchikake\", a formal overkimono, heavily embellished and padded, worn unbelted by the obi. When outside, oiran wore \"koma geta\" - three-pronged, 20cm tall pauwlonia wood clogs. These would be relatively lightweight for their size, but would prevent an oiran from taking normal footsteps, meaning they would have to walk with a sliding, figure-of-8 (\"suri-ashi\") step instead, and then with two manservants (\"wakaimono\") to assist her. Oiran generally did not wear \"tabi\" socks, as the bare foot was considered to be a point of eroticism in the outfit. An oiran's clothing in total could weigh as much as 30kg, and would require great assistance to put on.", "Because oiran were isolated within the pleasure districts and bound by strict rules of etiquette and behaviour, the profession became steadily more traditional, ritualised and removed from popular society. This, alongside the high cost of courting oiran and the inaccessibility they posed, led to the profession's decline between the 18th and 19th centuries, eventually resulting in its complete fall from favour and outlaw in 1957. Oiran represented an outmoded form of entertainment. The way an oiran spoke reflected formal court standards of a previous era, which generally did not change to reflect common language over time. Casual visitors of oiran would be rejected outright, and it would take three visits before an oiran would even consider sleeping with a customer - each time with great cost to the customer, and only then, if the oiran herself agreed. The appearance of oiran had always been exaggerated, but, over time, had become increasingly more ornate; in part, this prevented them from actually running away, as they would be unable to leave conspicuously once dressed, and unable to walk fast in \"koma geta\". However, this also represented a move towards preserving tradition and the high status of both oiran and their upper class customers - a general trend throughout the Edo period that reflected and kicked back against the rise of richer mechant classes. Similarly, the entertainment that oiran offered had mostly remained unchanged since generations of courtesans previous. Though oiran played the shamisen, they did not play the popular and contemporary tunes composed for it, and instead stuck to longer ballads such as \"nagauta\", which had refined, but restrained, lyrical content.", "In contrast, the geisha profession grew stronger over the years that oiran declined, and contributed in part, if not mostly, to this decline. Though both geisha and oiran were likely to be indentured in some way to their \"houses\", geisha were not the same kind of physical property that oiran were considered to be to their employers and brothels. Geisha were allowed to leave the pleasure quarters whenever they wanted, and even though many went into debt or held some debt with their \"okiya\", were seldom in the same financial situation an oiran could find herself in. Geisha were considered, officially-speaking, to be a relatively low-class form of entertainment; however, during the Edo period, they reflected the new desires and financial freedom of the merchant classes, who were also, technically speaking, lower class. As the merchant classes throughout Edo period society grew in wealth and profligacy, they became the main source of income for geisha, who were accessible in a way oiran could not be due to class structures at the time. Geisha were cheap to patronise, informal to converse with, required few introductions before they would entertain a customer, and, over time, took the oiran's place as the pinnacle of fashion. Through various dress edicts aimed at controlling the working classes and preserving the upper class, extravagant or obvious displays of wealth had been outlawed and driven underground, bringing aesthetical senses such as \"iki\" into popularity. This was championed by geisha, who by law had been prevented from wearing such extravagant clothing. Shamisen tunes such as \"kouta\" (lit. \"short songs\") became fashionable during the time period that geisha grew in popularity - a genre of songs that could be composed as fleetingly as \"haiku\" poems, and contained lyrics heavy in risqué humour and heartfelt themes. The upper classes who patronised oiran were not supposed to listen to, or enjoy, these songs, which heightened the appeal of the geisha as at the cutting edge of popular society at the time.", "Towards the end of the Edo period, the oiran continued to dwindle in popularity as the geisha grew in numbers and appeal. By the beginning of the Meiji era, official attitudes towards legalised prostitution within Japan had changed owing to the country's increasing international presence. Towards the end of the 19th century, geisha had replaced oiran as the entertainer and companion of choice for the wealthiest in Japanese society, with the central appeal of oiran having grown increasingly remote from everyday life. Oiran continued to see clients within the old pleasure quarters, but were no longer at the cutting edge of fashion, and during the years of World War II, when any show of luxury was heavily clamped down upon, the culture surrounding oiran suffered even further, being dealt the final blow in 1957 by the Prostitution Prevention Law - after a which a time, the profession of courtesan as it once was, sex services and all, had become illegal.", "Tayū continue to entertain as geisha do, but no longer provide sex. However, there are fewer than five tayū, in comparison to the three hundred geisha in Kyoto today. The last remaining tayū house is located in Shimabara, which lost its official status as a hanamachi in the late 20th century because of the tayūs' decline. However, some still recognize Shimabara as a \"flower town\", since geisha and tayū still work there and the activity of the tayū is slowly growing. The few remaining women still currently practising the arts of the tayū (without the sexual aspect) do so as a preservation of cultural heritage rather than as a profession or lifestyle.", "The \"Bunsui Sakura Matsuri Oiran Dōchū\" is an annual event held every April in Bunsui, Niigata (now part of the city of Tsubame). The parade, which takes place under the Spring cherry blossoms, historically re-enacts the walk made by top courtesans around their district in honour of their guests. The modern parade features three oiran in full traditional attire with approximately 70 accompanying servants. The oiran, who are named \"Shinano\", \"Sakura\", and \"Bunsui\", have a slow distinctive gait because they wear high wooden sandals. Due to the event's popularity in Japan, organizers are inundated with applications to be one of the three oiran or a servant. \"Dōchū\" is a shortened form of \"oiran-dochu\", it is also known as the Dream Parade of Echigo (\"Echigo no yume-dochu\"). The Ōsu Street Performers' Festival is an event held around Ōsu Kannon Temple in Nagoya yearly around the beginning of October. The highlight of this two-day festival is the slow procession of oiran through the Ōsu Kannon shopping arcade. Thousands of spectators crowd the shopping streets on these days to get close enough to photograph the oiran and their retinue of male bodyguards and entourage of apprentices (young women in distinctive red kimono, white face paint and loose, long black hair reminiscent of Shinto priestesses). An Oiran Dōchū parade is held in the Minamishinagawa district near Aomono-Yokochō, Shinagawa every September." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Historical background.", "Construction.", "Maiden voyage.", "Inquest.", "\"Vasa\" as a wreck.", "Archaeology.", "Finds.", "Causes of sinking.", "Conservation.", "Legacy.", "Literature and popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "During the 17th century, Sweden went from being a sparsely populated, poor, and peripheral northern European kingdom of little influence to one of the major powers in continental politics. Between 1611 and 1718 it was the dominant power in the Baltic, eventually gaining territory that encompassed the Baltic on all sides. This rise to prominence in international affairs and increase in military prowess, called \"stormaktstiden\" (\"age of greatness\" or \"great power period\"), was made possible by a succession of able monarchs and the establishment of a powerful centralised government, supporting a highly efficient military organization. Swedish historians have described this as one of the more extreme examples of an early modern state using almost all of its available resources to wage war; the small northern kingdom transformed itself into a fiscal-military state and one of the most militarised states in history. Gustavus Adolphus (1594–1632) has been considered one of the most successful Swedish kings in terms of success in warfare. When \"Vasa\" was built, he had been in power for more than a decade. Sweden was embroiled in a war with Poland-Lithuania, and looked apprehensively at the development of the Thirty Years' War in present-day Germany. The war had been raging since 1618 and from a Protestant perspective it was not successful. The king's plans for a Polish campaign and for securing Sweden's interests required a strong naval presence in the Baltic. The navy suffered several severe setbacks during the 1620s. In 1625, a squadron cruising in the Bay of Riga was caught in a storm and ten ships ran aground and were wrecked. In the Battle of Oliwa in 1627, a Swedish", "Just before \"Vasa\" was ordered, Dutch-born Henrik Hybertsson (\"Master Henrik\") was shipwright at the Stockholm shipyard. On 16 January 1625, Master Henrik and business partner Arendt de Groote signed a contract to build four ships, two with a keel of around and two smaller ones of. Master Henrik and Arendt de Groote began buying the raw materials needed for the first ships in 1625, purchasing timber from individual estates in Sweden as well as buying rough-sawn planking in Riga, Königsberg (modern Kaliningrad), and Amsterdam. As they prepared to begin the first of the new ships in the autumn of 1625, Henrik corresponded with the king through Vice Admiral Klas Fleming about which ship to build first. The loss of ten ships in the Bay of Riga led the king to propose building two ships of a new, medium size as a quick compromise, and he sent a specification for this, a ship which would be 120 feet (35.6 m) long on the keel. Henrik declined, since he had already cut the timber for a large and a small ship. He laid the keel for a larger ship in late February or early March 1626. Master Henrik never saw Vasa completed; he fell ill in late 1625, and by the summer of 1626 he had handed over supervision of the work in the yard to another Dutch shipwright, Henrik \"Hein\" Jacobsson. He died in the spring of 1627, probably about the same time as the ship was launched. After launching, work continued on finishing the upper deck, the sterncastle, the beakhead and the rigging. Sweden had still not developed a sizeable sailcloth industry, and material had to be ordered from abroad. In the contract for the maintenance of rigging, French sailcloth was specified, but the cloth for the sails of \"Vasa\" most likely came from Holland. The sails were made mostly of hemp and partly of flax. The rigging was made entirely of hemp imported from Latvia through Riga. The king visited the shipyard in January 1628 and made what was probably his only visit aboard the ship. In the summer of 1628, the captain responsible for supervising construction of the ship, Söfring Hansson, arranged for the ship's stability to be demonstrated for Vice Admiral Fleming, who had recently arrived in Stockholm from Prussia. Thirty men ran back and forth across the upper deck to start the ship rolling, but the admiral stopped the test after they had made only three trips, as he feared the ship would capsize. According to testimony by the ship's master, Göran Mattson, Fleming remarked that he wished the king were at home. Gustavus Adolphus had been sending a steady stream of letters insisting that the ship put to sea as soon as possible. There has been much speculation about whether \"Vasa\" was lengthened during construction and whether an additional gun deck was added late during the build. Little evidence suggests that \"Vasa\" was substantially modified after the keel was laid. Ships contemporary to \"Vasa\" that were elongated were cut in half and new timbers spliced between the existing sections, making the addition readily identifiable, but no such addition can be identified in the hull, nor is there any evidence for any late additions of a second gundeck. The king ordered 72 24-pound guns for the ship on 5 August 1626, and this was too many to fit on a single gun deck. Since the king's order was issued less than five months after construction started, it would have come early enough for the second deck to be included in the design. The French \"Galion du Guise\", the ship used as a model for \"Vasa\", according to Arendt de Groote, also had two gun decks. Laser measurements of \"Vasa's\" structure conducted in 2007–2011 confirmed that no major changes were implemented during construction, but that the centre of gravity was too high. \"Vasa\" was an early example of a warship with two full gun decks, and was built when the theoretical principles of shipbuilding were still poorly understood. There is no evidence that Henrik Hybertsson had ever built a ship like it before, and two gundecks is a much more complicated compromise between seaworthiness and firepower than a single gundeck. Safety margins at the time were also far below anything that would be acceptable today. Combined with the fact that 17th-century warships were built with intentionally high superstructures (to be used as firing platforms), this made \"Vasa\" a risky undertaking.", "On 10 August 1628, Captain Söfring Hansson ordered \"Vasa\" to depart on her maiden voyage to the naval station at Älvsnabben. The day was calm, and the only wind was a light breeze from the southwest. The ship was warped (hauled by anchor) along the eastern waterfront of the city to the southern side of the harbor, where four sails were set, and the ship made way to the east. The gun ports were open, and the guns were out to fire a salute as the ship left Stockholm. As \"Vasa\" passed under the lee of the bluffs to the south (what is now Södermalm), a gust of wind filled her sails, and she heeled suddenly to port. The sheets were cast off, and the ship slowly righted herself as the gust passed. At Tegelviken, where there is a gap in the bluffs, an even stronger gust again forced the ship onto its port side, this time pushing the open lower gunports under the surface, allowing water to rush in onto the lower gundeck. The water building up on the deck quickly exceeded the ship's minimal ability to right itself, and water continued to pour in until it ran down into the hold; the ship quickly sank to a depth of 32 m (105 ft) only 120 m (390 ft) from shore. Survivors clung to debris or the upper masts, which were still above the surface, to save themselves, and many nearby boats rushed to their aid, but despite these efforts and the short distance to land, 30 people perished with the ship, according to reports. \"Vasa\" sank in full view of a crowd of hundreds, if not thousands, of mostly ordinary Stockholmers who had come to see the great ship set sail. The crowd included foreign ambassadors, in effect spies of Gustavus Adolphus' allies and enemies, who also witnessed the catastrophe.", "The Council sent a letter to the king the day after the loss, telling him of the sinking, but it took over two weeks to reach him in Poland. \"Imprudence and negligence\" must have been the cause, he wrote angrily in his reply, demanding in no uncertain terms that the guilty parties be punished. Captain Söfring Hansson, who survived the disaster, was immediately taken for questioning. Under initial interrogation, he swore that the guns had been properly secured and that the crew was sober. A full inquest before a tribunal of members of the Privy Council and Admiralty took place at the Royal Palace on 5 September 1628. Each of the surviving officers was questioned as was the supervising shipwright and a number of expert witnesses. Also present at the inquest was the Admiral of the Realm, Carl Carlsson Gyllenhielm. The object of the inquest was as much or more to find a scapegoat as to find out why the ship had sunk. Whoever the committee might find guilty for the fiasco", "Less than three days after the disaster, a contract was signed for the ship to be raised. However, those efforts were unsuccessful. The earliest attempts at raising \"Vasa\" by English engineer Ian Bulmer, resulted in righting the ship but also got it more securely stuck in the mud and was most likely one of the biggest impediments to the earliest attempts at recovery. Salvaging technology in the early 17th century was much more primitive than today, but the recovery of ships used roughly the same principles as were used to raise \"Vasa\" more than 300 years later. Two ships or hulks were placed parallel to either side above the wreck, and ropes attached to several anchors were sent down and hooked to the ship. The two hulks were filled with as much water as was safe, the ropes tightened, and the water pumped out. The sunken ship then rose with the ships on the surface and could be towed to shallower waters. The process was then repeated until the entire ship was successfully raised above water level. Even if the underwater weight of \"Vasa\" was not great, the mud in which it had settled made it sit more securely on the bottom and required considerable lifting power to overcome. More than 30 years after the ship's sinking, in 1663–1665, Albreckt von Treileben and Andreas Peckell mounted an effort to recover the valuable guns. With a simple diving bell, the team of Swedish and Finnish divers retrieved more than 50 of them. Such activity waned when it became clear that the ship could not be raised by the technology of the time. However, \"Vasa\" did not fall completely into obscurity after the recovery of the guns. The ship was mentioned in several histories of Sweden and the Swedish Navy, and the location of the wreck appeared on harbor charts of Stockholm in the 19th century. In 1844, the navy officer Anton Ludwig Fahnehjelm turned in a request for salvaging rights to the ship, claiming he had located it. Fahnehjelm was an inventor who designed an early form of light diving suit and had previously been involved in other salvage operations. There were dives made on the wreck in 1895–1896, and a commercial salvage company applied for a permit to raise or salvage the wreck in 1920, but this was turned down. In 1999, a witness also claimed that his father, a petty officer in the Swedish navy, had taken part in diving exercises on \"Vasa\" in the years before World War I.", "\"Vasa\" posed an unprecedented challenge for archaeologists. Never before had a four-story structure, with most of its original contents largely undisturbed, been available for excavation. The conditions under which the team had to work added to the difficulties. The ship had to be kept wet in order that it not dry out and crack before it could be properly conserved. Digging had to be performed under a constant drizzle of water and in a sludge-covered mud that could be more than one metre (approximately three feet) deep. In order to establish find locations, the hull was divided into several sections demarcated by the many structural beams, the decking and by a line drawn along the centre of the ship from stern to bow. For the most part, the decks were excavated individually, though at times work progressed on more than one deck level simultaneously.", "\"Vasa\" had four preserved decks: the upper and lower gun decks, the hold and the orlop. Because of the constraints of preparing the ship for conservation, the archaeologists had to work quickly, in 13-hour shifts during the first week of excavation. The upper gun deck was greatly disturbed by the various salvage projects between 1628 and 1961, and it contained not only material that had fallen down from the rigging and upper deck, but also more than three centuries of harbor refuse. The decks below were progressively less disturbed. The gundecks contained not just gun carriages, the three surviving cannons, and other objects of a military nature, but were also where most of the personal possessions of the sailors had been stored at the time of the sinking. These included a wide range of loose finds, as well as chests and casks with spare clothing and shoes, tools and materials for mending, money (in the form of low-denomination copper coins), privately purchased provisions, and all of the everyday objects needed for life at sea. Most of the finds are of wood, testifying not only to the simple life on board, but to the generally unsophisticated", "\"Vasa\" sank because it had very little initial stability, which can be thought of as resistance to heeling over under the force of wind or waves acting on the hull. The reason for this is that the distribution of mass in the hull structure and the ballast, guns, provisions, and other objects loaded on board puts too much weight too high in the ship. The centre of gravity is too high, and so it takes very little force to make the ship heel over, and there is not enough righting moment, force trying to make the ship return to an upright position. The reason that the ship has such a high centre of gravity is not due to the guns. These weighed little over 60 tonnes, or about 5% of the total displacement of the loaded ship. This is relatively low weight and should be bearable in a ship this size. The problem is in the hull construction itself. The part of the hull above the waterline is too high and too heavily built in relation to the amount of hull in the water. The headroom in the decks is higher than necessary for crewmen who were, on average, only 1.67 metres (5 feet 51⁄2 inches) tall, and thus the weight of the decks and the guns they carry is higher above the waterline than needed. In addition, the deck beams and their supporting timbers are over-dimensioned and too closely spaced for the loads they carry, so they contribute too much weight to the already tall and heavy upper works. The use of different measuring systems on either side of the vessel", "Although \"Vasa\" was in surprisingly good condition after 333 years at the bottom of the sea, it would have quickly deteriorated if the hull had been simply allowed to dry. The large bulk of \"Vasa\", over 600 cubic metres (21,000 cu ft) of oak timber, constituted an unprecedented conservation problem. After some debate on how to best preserve the ship, conservation was carried out by impregnation with polyethylene glycol (PEG), a method that has since become the standard treatment for large, waterlogged wooden objects, such as the 16th-century English ship \"Mary Rose\". \"Vasa\" was sprayed with PEG for 17 years, followed by a long period of slow drying, which is not yet entirely complete. The reason that \"Vasa\" was so well-preserved was not just that the shipworm that normally devours wooden ships was absent but also that the water of Stockholms ström was heavily polluted until the late 20th century. The highly toxic and hostile environment meant that even the toughest microorganisms that break down wood had difficulty surviving. This, along with the fact that \"Vasa\" had been newly built and was undamaged when it sank, contributed to her conservation. Unfortunately, the properties of the water also had a negative effect. Chemicals present in the water around \"Vasa\" had penetrated the wood, and the timber was full of the corrosion products from the bolts and other iron objects which had disappeared. Once the ship was exposed to the air, reactions began inside the timber that produced acidic compounds. In the late 1990s, spots of white and yellow residue were noticed on \"Vasa\" and some of the associated artefacts. These turned out to be sulfate-containing salts that had formed on the surface of the wood when sulfides reacted with atmospheric oxygen. The salts on the surface of \"Vasa\" and objects found in and around it are not a threat themselves (even if the", "\"Vasa\" has become a popular and widely recognised symbol for a historical narrative about the Swedish \"stormaktstiden\" (\"the Great Power-period\") in the 17th century, and about the early development of a European nation state. Within the disciplines of history and maritime archaeology the wrecks of large warships from the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries have received particularly widespread attention as perceived symbols of a past greatness of the state of Sweden. Among these wrecks, \"Vasa\" is the single best known example, and has also become recognised internationally, not least through a deliberate use of the ship as a symbol for marketing Sweden abroad. The name \"Vasa\" has in Sweden become synonymous with sunken vessels that are considered to be of great historical importance, and these are usually described, explained and valued in relation to \"Vasa\" itself. The Swedish maritime archaeologist Carl-Olof Cederlund, who has been active in the various \"Vasa\"-projects, has described the phenomenon as \"regalskepps-syndromet\", \"the royal ship syndrome\" (after the term used in the 17th century for the largest warships in the Swedish navy). He associates the \"syndrome\" to a nationalist aspect of the history of ideas and traditional perceptions about hero-kings and glory through war. The focus of this historical theory lies on the \"great periods\" in \"our [Swedish] history\" and shares many similarities with the nationalist views of the Viking era in the Nordic countries and the praising of Greek and Roman Antiquity in the Western world in general. Cederlund has stressed the ritualised aspects of the widely publicised salvage in 1961 and has compared the modern Vasa Museum with \"a temple in the Classical sense of the word\". The placement of the museum on Djurgården, traditional crown property, and its focus on \"the King's ship\" has led him to suggest a description of it as \"The Temple of the Royal Ship\".", "\"Vasa's\" unique status has drawn considerable attention and captured the imagination of more than two generations of scholars, tourists, model builders, and authors. Though historically unfounded, the popular perception of the building of the ship as a botched and disorganised affair (dubbed \"the \"Vasa\"-syndrome\") has been used by many authors of management literature as an educational example of how not to organise a successful business. In \"The Tender Ship\", Manhattan Project engineer Arthur Squires used the \"Vasa\" story as an opening illustration of his thesis that governments are usually incompetent managers of technology projects. The Vasa Museum has co-sponsored two versions of a documentary about the history and recovery of the ship, both by documentary filmmaker Anders Wahlgren. The second version is currently shown in the museum and has been" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Origins.", "Tom Jennings' account.", "Ben Baker's account.", "Up and running.", "Nets and nodes.", "Echomail.", "Zones and points.", "Other extensions.", "Peak.", "Decline.", "Resurgence.", "FidoNet organizational structure.", "Technical structure.", "Geographical structure.", "FidoNet addresses.", "Routing of FidoNet mail.", "Points.", "Technical specifications.", "Zone mail hour.", "FidoNet deployments.", "FidoNet availability.", "FidoNews." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "There are two major accounts of the development of the FidoNet, differing only in small details.", "Around Christmas 1983, Tom Jennings started work on a new MS-DOS–hosted bulletin board system that would emerge as Fido BBS. Jennings set up the system in San Francisco sometime in early 1984. Another early user was John Madil, who was trying to set up a similar system in Baltimore on his Rainbow 100. Fido started spreading to new systems, and Jennings eventually started keeping an", "In early 1984, Ben Baker was planning on starting a BBS for the newly forming computer club at the McDonnell Douglas automotive division in St. Louis. Baker was part of the CP/M special interest group within the club. He intended to use the seminal, CP/M-hosted, CBBS system, and went looking for a machine to run it on. The club's president told Baker that DEC would be giving them a Rainbow 100 computer on indefinite loan, so he made plans to move the CBBS onto this machine. The Rainbow contained two processors, an Intel 8088 and a Zilog Z80, allowing it to run both MS-DOS and CP/M, with the BBS running on the latter. When the machine arrived, they learned that the Z80 side had no access to the I/O ports, so CBBS could not communicate with a modem. While searching for software that would run on the MS-DOS side of the system, Baker learned of Fido through Madil. The Fido software required changes to the serial drivers to work properly on the Rainbow. A porting effort started, involving Jennings, Madil and Baker. This caused all involved to rack up considerable long distance charges as they all called each other during development, or called into each other's BBSes to leave email. During one such call \"in May or early June\", Baker and Jennings discussed how great it would be if the", "By June 1984 Version 7 of the system was being run in production, and nodes were rapidly being added to the network. By August there were almost 30 systems in the nodelist, 50 by September, and over 160 by January 1985. As the network grew, the maintenance of the nodelist became prohibitive, and errors were common. In these cases, people would start receiving phone calls at 4 AM, from a caller that would say nothing and then hang up. In other cases the system would be listed before it was up and running, resulting in long-distance calls that accomplished nothing. In", "Growth continued to accelerate, and by the spring of 1985, the system was already reaching its limit of 250 nodes. In addition to the limits on the growth of what was clearly a popular system, nodelist maintenance continued to grow more and more time-consuming. It was also realized that Fido systems were generally clustered – of the 15 systems running by the start of June 1984, 5 of them were in St. Louis. A user on Jennings's system in San Francisco that addressed emails to different systems in St. Louis would cause calls to be made to each of those BBSes in turn. Local calls were normally free or charged at a low rate. Additionally, the initial call setup, generally the first minute of the", "Sometime during the evolution of Fido, file attachments were added to the system, allowing a file to be referenced from an email message. During the normal exchange between two instances of FIDONET, any files attached to the messages in the packets were delivered after the packet itself had been up or downloaded. It is not clear when this was added, but it was already a feature of the basic system when the 8 February 1985 version of the FidoNet standards document was released, so this was added very early in Fido's history. At a sysop meeting in Dallas, the idea was raised that it would be nice if there was some way for the sysops to post messages that would be shared among the systems. In February 1986 Jeff Rush, one of the group members, introduced a new mailer that extracted messages from public forums that the sysop selected, like the way the original mailer handled private messages. The new program was known as a \"tosser/scanner\". The tosser produced a file that was similar (or identical) to the output from the normal netmail scan, however, these files were then compressed and", "The evolution towards the net/node addressing scheme was also useful for reducing communications costs between continents, where time zone differences on either end of the connection might also come into play. For instance, the best time to forward mail in the US was at night, but that might not be the best time for European hosts to exchange. Efforts towards introducing a continental level to the addressing system started in 1986. At the same time, it was noted that some power users were interested in using FidoNet protocols as a way of delivering the large quantities of echomail to their local machines where it could be read offline. These users did not want", "Although FidoNet supported file attachments from even the earliest standards, this feature tended to be rarely used and was often turned off. File attachments followed the normal mail routing through multiple systems and could back up transfers all along the line as the files were copied. A solution was offered in the form of \"file requests\", which made file transfers driven by the \"calling\" system and used one-time point-to-point connections instead of the traditional routing. Two such standards became common, \"WaZOO\" and \"Bark\", which", "FidoNet started in 1984 and listed 100 nodes by the end of that year. Steady growth continued through the 1980s, but a combination of factors led to rapid growth after 1988. These included faster and less expensive modems and rapidly declining costs of hard drives and computer systems in general. By April 1993, the FidoNet nodelist contained over 20,000 systems. At that time it was estimated that each node had, on average, about 200 active users.", "As modems reached speeds of 28.8 kbit/s, the overhead of the TCP/IP protocols were no longer so egregious and dial-up Internet became increasingly common. By 1995, the bulletin board market was reeling as users abandoned local BBS systems in favour of larger sites and web pages, which could be accessed worldwide for the same cost as accessing a local BBS system. This", "There is now (~2014) a retro movement which is resulting in a slow increase in internet-connected BBS and nodes. Telnet, Rlogin, and SSH are being used between systems. This means the user", "FidoNet is governed in a hierarchical structure according to FidoNet policy, with designated coordinators at each level to manage the administration of FidoNet nodes and resolve disputes between members. This structure is very similar to the organization structure of the Sicilian Mafia. Network coordinators (referred to as \"Button Men\") are responsible for managing the individual nodes within their area, usually a city or similar sized area. Regional coordinators", "FidoNet was historically designed to use modem-based dial-up (POTS) access between bulletin board systems, and much of its policy and structure reflected this. The FidoNet system officially referred only to the transfer of \"Netmail\"—the individual private messages between people using bulletin boards—including the protocols and standards with which to support it. A netmail message would contain the name of the person sending, the name of the intended recipient, and the respective FidoNet addresses of each. The FidoNet system was responsible for routing the message from one system to the other (details below), with the bulletin board software on each end being responsible for ensuring that only the intended recipient could read it. Due to the hobbyist nature of the network, any privacy between the sender and recipient was only the result of politeness from the owners of the FidoNet systems involved in the mail's transfer. It was common, however, for system operators to reserve the right to review the content of mail that passed through their system. Netmail allowed for the \"attachment\" of a single file to every message. This led to a series of \"piggyback\" protocols that built additional features onto FidoNet by passing information back and forth as file attachments. These included the automated distribution of files and transmission of data for inter-BBS games. By far the most commonly used of these piggyback protocols was \"Echomail\", public discussions similar to Usenet newsgroups in nature. Echomail was supported by a variety of software that collected up new messages from the local BBSes' public forums (the \"scanner\"), compressed it using ARC or ZIP, attached the resulting archive to a Netmail message, and sent that message to a selected system. On receiving such a message, identified because it was addressed to a particular \"user\", the reverse process was used to extract the messages, and a \"tosser\" put them back into the new system's forums. Echomail was so popular that for many users, Echomail \"was\" the FidoNet. Private person-to-person Netmail was relatively rare.", "FidoNet is politically organized into a tree structure, with different parts of the tree electing their respective coordinators. The FidoNet hierarchy consists of \"zones\", \"regions\", \"networks\", \"nodes\" and \"points\" broken down more-or-less geographically. The highest level is the zone, which is largely continent-based: Each zone is broken down", "FidoNet addresses explicitly consist of a \"zone\" number, a \"network\" number (or region number), and a \"node\" number. They are written in the form Zone:Network/Node. The FidoNet structure also allows for semantic designation of region, host, and hub status for particular nodes, but this status is not directly indicated by the main address. For example, consider a node located in Tulsa, Oklahoma, United States with an assigned node number is 918, located in Zone 1 (North America), Region 19, and Network 170. The full FidoNet address for this system would be 1:170/918. The \"region\" was used for administrative purposes, and was only part of the address", "In a theoretical situation, a node would normally forward messages to a \"hub\". The hub, acting as a distribution point for mail, might then send the message to the Net Coordinator. From there it may be sent through a Regional Coordinator, or to some other system specifically set up for the function. Mail to other zones might be sent through a Zone Gate. For example, a FidoNet message might follow the path: Originally there was no specific relationship between network numbers and the regions they reside in. In some areas of FidoNet, most", "As the number of messages in Echomail grew over time, it became very difficult for users to keep up with the volume while logged into their local BBS. \"Points\" were introduced to address this, allowing technically-savvy users to receive the already compressed and batched Echomail (and Netmail) and read it locally on their own machines. To do this, the FidoNet addressing scheme was extended with the addition of a final address segment, the point number. For instance, a user on the example system above might be given point number 10, and thus could be sent mail at the address 1:170/918.10. In real-world use, points are fairly difficult to set up. The FidoNet software typically consisted of a number of small utility programs run by manually edited scripts that required some level of technical ability. Reading and editing the mail required either a \"sysop editor\" program or a BBS program to be run locally.", "FidoNet contained several technical specifications for compatibility between systems. The most basic of all is \"FTS-0001\", with which all FidoNet systems are required to comply as", "Since computer bulletin boards historically used the same telephone lines for transferring mail as were used for dial-in human users of the BBS, FidoNet policy dictates that at least one designated line of each FidoNet node must be available for accepting mail from other FidoNet nodes during a particular hour of each", "Most FidoNet deployments were designed in a modular fashion. A typical deployment would involve several applications that would communicate through shared files and directories, and switch between each other through carefully designed scripts or batch files. However, monolithic software that encompassed all required functions in one package is available, such as D'Bridge. Such software eliminated the need for custom batch files and is tightly integrated in operation. The preference for deployment was that of the operator and there were both pros and cons of running in either fashion. Arguably the most important piece of software on a DOS-based Fido system was the \"FOSSIL driver\", which was a small device driver which provided a standard way for the Fido software to talk to the modem. This driver needed to be loaded before any Fido software would work. An efficient FOSSIL driver meant faster, more reliable connections. \"Mailer software\" was responsible for transferring files and messages between systems, as well as passing control to other applications, such as the BBS software, at appropriate times. The mailer would initially answer the phone and, if necessary, deal with incoming mail via FidoNet transfer protocols. If the mailer answered the phone and a human caller was detected rather than other mailer software, the mailer would exit, and pass control to the BBS software, which would then initialise for interaction with the user. When outgoing mail was waiting on the local system, the mailer software would attempt to send it from time to time by dialing and connecting to other systems who would accept and route the mail further. Due to the costs of toll calls which often varied between peak and off-peak times, mailer software would usually allow its operator to configure the optimal times in which to attempt to send mail to other systems. \"BBS software\" was used to interact with human callers to the system. BBS software would allow dial-in users to use the system's message bases and write mail to others, locally or on other BBSes. Mail directed to other BBSes would later be routed and sent by the mailer, usually after the user had finished using the system. Many BBSes also allowed", "While the use of FidoNet has dropped dramatically compared with its use up to the mid-1990s, it is still used in many countries and especially Russia and former republics of the USSR. Some BBSes, including those that are now available for users with Internet connections via", "\"FidoNews\" is the newsletter of the FidoNet community. Affectionately nicknamed \"The Snooze\", it is published weekly. It was first published in 1984. Throughout its history, it has been published by various people and entities, including the short-lived International FidoNet Association." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origins and history.", "Voice portrayal.", "Appearances.", "Video games.", "Non-\"Sonic\" games.", "Animation.", "Live-action film.", "Print media.", "Characteristics.", "Reception and legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "While Sega was seeking a flagship series to compete with Nintendo's Mario series, several character designs were submitted by its research and development department. Many results came forth from their experiments with character design, including an armadillo (who was later developed into Mighty the Armadillo), a dog, a Theodore Roosevelt look-alike in pajamas (who would later be the basis of Dr. Robotnik/Eggman's design), and a rabbit (who would use its extendable ears to collect objects, an aspect later incorporated in \"Ristar\"). Naoto Ohshima took some of these internal designs with him on a trip to New York City and sought feedback by asking random passersby at Central Park their opinions; of the designs, the spiky teal hedgehog, initially codenamed \"Mr. Needlemouse\", led this informal poll, followed by Eggman and the dog character. Ohshima felt that people selected it because it \"transcends race and gender and things like that\". On return to Japan, Ohshima pitched this to the department, and the hedgehog was ultimately selected as the new mascot. The detailed design of Sonic was aimed to be something that could be easily drawn by children and be familiar, as well as exhibit a \"cool\" attitude, representative of the United States at the time. Sonic's blue pigmentation was chosen to match Sega's cobalt blue logo, and his shoes evolved from a design inspired by Michael Jackson's boots with the addition of the color red, which was inspired by both Santa Claus and the contrast of those colors on Jackson's 1987 album \"Bad\"; his personality was based on then-presidential candidate and later President of the United States Bill Clinton's \"Get it done\" attitude during the 1992 presidential campaign. To help sell the idea to Sega's higher-ups, Ohshima pitched the concept framed by a fictional fighter pilot that had earned the name \"Hedgehog\" due to his spiky hair, and had decorated his plane with images of Sonic. When this pilot retired, he married a children's book author, who wrote stories about the Sonic character, the first which became the plot for the first \"Sonic\" game; Ohshima stated that this influence can be seen in the logo of the game, which features Sonic in a pilot's wing emblem. The origins of \"Sonic\" can be traced farther back to a tech demo created by Yuji Naka, who had developed an algorithm that allowed a sprite to move smoothly on a curve by determining its position with a dot matrix. Naka's original prototype was a platform game that involved a fast-moving character rolling in a ball through a long winding tube, and this concept was subsequently fleshed out with Oshima's character design and levels conceived by designer Hirokazu Yasuhara. Sonic was created without the ability to swim because of a mistaken assumption by Yuji Naka that all hedgehogs could not do so. A group of fifteen people started working on the first \"Sonic the Hedgehog\" game, and renamed themselves Sonic Team. The game's soundtrack was composed by Masato Nakamura of the band Dreams Come True. Sega sponsored the group's \"Wonder 3\" tour, painting Sonic on the tour bus, distributing pamphlets advertising the game, and having footage of the game broadcast above stage prior to its release. The original concepts gave Sonic fangs and put him in a band with a human girlfriend named Madonna. However, a team from Sega of America, led by Madeline Schroeder, who calls herself \"Sonic's mother\", \"softened\" the character up for an American audience by removing those elements. This sparked a heated issue with Sonic Team. Naka later admitted that it was probably for the best. Sonic's appearance varies greatly depending on the medium and the style in which he is drawn. In the video games, Sonic's original design by Oshima was short and round, with short quills, a round body, and no visible irises. Artwork featuring this design and drawn by Akira Watanabe was displayed on the package artwork for \"Sonic the Hedgehog\". Sonic's proportions would change for the release of \"Sonic the Hedgehog 2\" on the Mega Drive; Sonic's head to height ratio was changed from 1:2 to 1:2.5. For the 1998 release of \"Sonic Adventure\", Sonic was redesigned by Yuji Uekawa as a character with longer legs and a less spherical body, longer and more drooping quills, and green-colored irises. For the 2006 game, Sonic was redesigned to make him look adult-like and taller to appeal to the next generation players. This was also done because Sonic would interact with humans more often and his design was supposed to fit. An alternative \"Werehog\" form was introduced in \"Sonic Unleashed\", placing more emphasis on Sonic's melee skills rather than speed. Although Tetsu Katano acknowledged the large negative fan response to the Werehog, he believes it could return in a future game. Bob Raffei, CEO of \"Sonic Boom\" developer Big Red Button, stated that \"Sonic Boom\" Sonic is \"very different... both in tone and art direction\".", "Different actors have provided Sonic's voice in his game appearances. Sonic originally had a few voice samples in \"Sonic CD\", with designer Masato Nishimura providing the voice. Sonic's first true voice actor was Takeshi Kusao for the arcade game \"SegaSonic the Hedgehog\", with Junichi Kanemaru continually voicing the role beginning with the release of \"Sonic Adventure\". Kanemaru also voices Sonic in \"Sonic X\", \"Sonic Boom\", and the Japanese dub of the \"Wreck-It Ralph\" films. In \"Sonic Unleashed\", Sonic was voiced by Tomokazu Seki while in Werehog form. Starting with \"Sonic Adventure\", Sonic was voiced in English by Ryan Drummond. Sonic was cast to Jason Griffith starting from \"Sonic X\", with Griffith voicing Sonic within the games starting with \"Shadow The Hedgehog\" in 2005. Griffith was later replaced by Roger Craig Smith, starting with \"Sonic Free Riders\" and \"Sonic Colors\" in November 2010. Actor Jaleel White voiced the character in all of the DiC-produced animated series: \"Adventures of Sonic the Hedgehog\", \"Sonic SatAM\", and \"Sonic Underground\" as well as the Christmas special, \"Sonic Christmas Blast\". In \"Underground\", White also voiced Sonic's brother and sister, Manic and Sonia. Actor Ben Schwartz voiced the character in the Paramount Pictures feature film, which was released on February 14, 2020.", "", "Sonic's first shown appearance in a video game was in the 1991 arcade racing game \"Rad Mobile\", as a decorative ornament hanging from a rearview mirror. Sonic's first playable appearance was in the platform game \"Sonic the Hedgehog\" for the Sega Mega Drive/Genesis, which also introduced his nemesis Dr. Robotnik. His two-tailed fox friend Tails joined him in the game's 1992 sequel, \"Sonic the Hedgehog 2\". \"Sonic CD\", released in 1993, introduced Sonic's self-appointed girlfriend Amy Rose and recurring robotic doppelgänger Metal Sonic as Sonic traveled through time to ensure a good future for the world. \"Sonic 3\" and its direct sequel \"Sonic & Knuckles\", both released in 1994, saw Sonic and Tails battle Robotnik again, with the additional threat of Knuckles, who is tricked by Robotnik into thinking Sonic is a threat. \"\" (2010–2012) continues where the story of \"Sonic 3\" left off, reducing Sonic to the only playable character and releasing in episodic installments. The second episode sees the return of both Tails as Sonic's sidekick and Metal Sonic as a recurring enemy. Other two-dimensional platformers starring Sonic include \"Sonic Chaos\" (1993), \"Sonic Triple Trouble\" (1994), \"Sonic Blast\" (1996), \"Sonic the Hedgehog Pocket Adventure\" (1999), \"Sonic Advance\" (2001), \"Sonic Advance 2\" (2002), \"Sonic Advance 3\" (2004), \"Sonic Rush\" (2005), \"Sonic Rush Adventure\" (2007), \"Sonic Colors\" (2010), and \"Sonic Generations\" (2011), all in which were released for handheld consoles. \"Sonic Adventure\" (1998) was Sonic Team's return to the character for a major game. It featured Sonic returning from vacation to find the city of Station Square under attack by a new foe named Chaos, under the control of Dr. Robotnik (now known as Dr. Eggman). It was also the first Sonic game to feature a complete voice-over. \"Sonic Adventure 2\" (2001) placed Sonic on-the-run from the military (G.U.N.) after being mistaken for Shadow the Hedgehog. \"Sonic Heroes\" (2003) featured Sonic teaming up with Tails and Knuckles, along with other character teams like Team Rose and Chaotix, against the newly rebuilt Metal Sonic, who had betrayed his master with intentions of world domination. \"Sonic the Hedgehog\" (2006) features Sonic in the city of water, \"Soleanna,\" where he must rescue Princess Elise from Dr. Eggman while trying to avoid a new threat to his own life, Silver the Hedgehog. He is the only playable character in \"Sonic Unleashed\" (2008), in which he unwillingly gains a new personality, \"Sonic the Werehog,\" the result of Sonic being fused with Dark Gaia's power. He gains strength and flexibility in exchange for his speed, and new friends including a strange creature named Chip who helps him along the way. In \"Sonic Colors\" (2010), Eggman tries to harness the energy of alien beings known as \"Wisps\" for a mind-control beam. \"Sonic Generations\" (2011) features two playable incarnations of Sonic: the younger \"classic\" Sonic, whose gameplay is presented in a style reminiscent of the Mega Drive/Genesis games, and present-day \"modern\" Sonic, who uses the gameplay style present in \"Unleashed\" and \"Colors\", going through stages from past games to save their friends. \"Sonic Generations\" features various theme songs including modern and retro versions that are able to be selected from throughout Sonic's twenty-year history. In April 2013, Sega announced that \"Sonic Lost World\" would launch in October 2013 for the Wii U and Nintendo 3DS. \"Sonic and the Secret Rings\" (2007) features Sonic in the storybook world of \"One Thousand and One Nights\". A sequel, \"Sonic and the Black Knight\" (2009), continued the storybook theme, this time taking place within the realm of the Arthurian legend. Sonic has also been featured in other games of many genres other than 2D and 3D platform games. These include \"Sonic Spinball\", \"Sonic Labyrinth\" (1995), the racing games \"Sonic Drift\" (1994), \"Sonic Drift 2\" (1995), \"Sonic R\" (1996), \"Sonic Riders\" (2006), \"Sonic Rivals\" (2006), \"Sonic Rivals 2\" (2007), \"\" (2008), and \"Sonic Free Riders\" (2010), the fighting games \"Sonic the Fighters\" (1996) and \"Sonic Battle\" (2003), the \"mobile game\" \"Sonic Jump\" (2005), and the role-playing video game \"\" (2008). Video games such as \"Dr. Robotnik's Mean Bean Machine\" (1993), \"Knuckles' Chaotix\" (1995), \"Tails' Skypatrol\" (1995), \"Tails Adventure\" (1995), and \"Shadow the Hedgehog\" (2005) starred supporting characters of the \"Sonic\" series, although Sonic himself cameos in most of them.", "Sonic has made many cameo appearances in different games, most notably in other Sega games, such as being a power-up in \"Billy Hatcher and the Giant Egg\", walking around the main hallway in \"Phantasy Star Universe\" on the anniversary of his first game's release (June 23), and appearing in the 2008 remake of \"Samba de Amigo\". He is also a playable character in \"Christmas NiGHTS into Dreams\". Nintendo, Sega's former rival, made reference to Sonic in \"\", by showing Sonic's shoes next to a trash can that reads \"No Hopers\" on the Cranky's Video Game Heroes screen. Sonic has appeared in several crossover games, including playable appearances in \"Super Smash Bros. Brawl\" (2008), \"Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U\" (2014), and \"Super Smash Bros. Ultimate\" (2018). He appears in the crossover party game \"Mario & Sonic at the Olympic Games\" and in its sequels \"Mario & Sonic at the Olympic Winter Games\", \"Mario & Sonic at the London 2012 Olympic Games\", \"Mario & Sonic at the Sochi 2014 Olympic Winter Games\", \"Mario & Sonic at the Rio 2016 Olympic Games\" and \"Mario & Sonic at the Olympic Games Tokyo 2020\". Sonic is also a playable character in all three \"Sega Superstars\" games. In June 2016, it was announced that Sonic would be a playable character in the second wave of characters coming to \"Lego Dimensions\".", "The first animated series, \"Adventures of Sonic the Hedgehog\", aired in 1993. It was a comical take on Sonic and Tails' adventures battling Robotnik, filled with slapstick humor and loosely based upon the plot of the games. Pierre De Celles, an animator who worked on \"Adventures of Sonic the Hedgehog\", described the show as \"fun and humorous.\" Also premiering in 1993 was \"Sonic the Hedgehog\". It was a more dramatic series which portrayed Sonic as a member of a band of Freedom Fighters that fight to free their world from the evil dictator, Dr. Robotnik. In 1996, a two-part OVA, \"Sonic the Hedgehog,\" was released in Japan. For the American release, the two episodes combined and released as \"Sonic the Hedgehog: The Movie\" by ADV Films. A third American animated series, \"Sonic Underground,\" debuted in 1999. It featured the introductions of Sonic's siblings, Sonia the Hedgehog and Manic the Hedgehog, and Sonic's mother, Queen Aleena, who must defeat Robotnik and rule Mobius as the \"Council of Four\". The show ran for one season in syndication on the Bohbot Kids Network block before it was cancelled. A new series, \"Sonic X,\" began airing in 2003. The 78-episode anime series detailed Sonic's struggle to protect the Chaos Emeralds from Eggman and new villains. Featuring a cross-world and interstellar journey, \"Sonic X\" depicted Sonic and his friend Chris Thorndyke in quests to save the world. \"Sonic: Night of the Werehog\" is a short film produced by Sega's VE Animation Studio, released to coincide with the release of \"Sonic Unleashed\". In the film, Sonic and Chip enter a haunted house, and must deal with two ghosts trying to scare them. Sonic also makes multiple cameo appearances in the Disney films, \"Wreck-It Ralph\" and its sequel \"Ralph Breaks the Internet\". In October 2013, Sega announced a new animated series, \"Sonic Boom\". The show ran for 104 11-minute episodes between 2014 and 2017 on Cartoon Network in the US and Canal J and Gulli in France. Sonic makes a guest appearance in the \"OK K.O.! Let's Be Heroes\" episode \"Let's Meet Sonic\" and the \"Hi-sCoool! SeHa Girls\" episode \"Eggman vs. Sonic with the Sega Hard Girls\".", "On June 10, 2014, a film based on the \"Sonic\" series was announced. Known as simply \"Sonic the Hedgehog\", it was produced by Neal Moritz on his Original Film banner alongside Takeshi Ito and Mie Onishi, with Toby Ascher is executive producing. The film was written by Pat Casey and Josh Miller and produced as a joint venture between Paramount Pictures and Marza Animation Planet. The film is a live-action and CGI hybrid. The movie was filmed in 2018, with a release date initially set for November 8, 2019. Upon the release of the film's first trailer in late April 2019, however, Sonic's appearance was heavily criticized, leading to the director, Jeff Fowler, to announce a redesign of him, pushing back the release date to February 14, 2020. The second trailer for the film was released on November 12, 2019, featuring the redesign, which drew in a far more positive response from both fans and critics alike.", "Sonic's first comic appearance was in a promotional comic printed in \"Disney Adventures\" magazine (and also given away as a free pull-out with a copy of \"Mean Machines\" magazine), which established a backstory for the character involving the origin of his color and abilities and the transformation of kindly scientist Dr. Ovi Kintobor into the evil Dr. Ivo Robotnik. Numerous British publications, including \"Sega handbook\" \"Stay Sonic\" (1993), four novels published by Virgin Books (1993–1994) and the comic book \"Sonic the Comic\" (1993–2001), published by Fleetway Publications/Egmont Publishing, used this premise as their basis. The American comics published by Archie Comics, \"Sonic the Hedgehog\" (1993–2017), \"Sonic X\" (2005–2008), and \"Sonic Universe\" (2009–2017) are based on the settings established by earlier animated TV series, the ABC \"SatAM\" cartoon, the \"Sonic X\" anime, and an expansion to the series, respectively. The former series is currently the second longest-running licensed comic series in the history of American comic books, second only to Marvel's Conan series (first issue released in 1970). In France two comic books named \"Sonic Adventures\" were published by Sirène in 1994. \"Guinness World Records\" recognized Sonic comic as the longest-running comic based in a game. Archie Comics also released a twelve part crossover with Mega Man beginning in 2013. Sonic has also been featured in two different manga. One series was simply called \"Sonic the Hedgehog\", and featured a story about a normal hedgehog boy named Nicky Parlouzer who can change into Sonic. The other series was a compilation of short stories and was separated into two volumes, the first being called \"Dash and Spin\", and the other called \"Super Fast Sonic!!\".", "According to various official materials from Sega, Sonic is described as a character who is \"like the wind\": a drifter who lives as he wants, and makes life a series of events and adventures. Sonic hates oppression and staunchly defends freedom. Although he is mostly quick-witted and easygoing, he has a short temper and is often impatient with slower things. Sonic is a habitual daredevil hedgehog who is honest, loyal to friends, keeps his promises, and dislikes tears. He took the young Tails under his wing like a little brother, and is uninterested in marital proposals from Amy Rose. In times of crisis, he focuses intensely on the challenge as if his personality had undergone an astonishing change. Sonic's greatest strength is his running speed, being known in the game's universe as the world's fastest hedgehog. Many of his abilities are variations on the tendency for hedgehogs to roll into tight balls for protection with the addition of spinning his body. Since his introduction in 1991's \"Sonic the Hedgehog\", Sonic's primary offensive maneuver is the basic \"Spin Attack\" (or \"Sonic Spin Attack\"). Later games in the series expanded on this basic attack and two of these enhancements have become mainstays of his: the Spin Dash which was introduced in \"Sonic the Hedgehog 2\" and involves Sonic spinning on the spot before blasting off at full speed, and the Homing Attack, officially introduced in \"Sonic Adventure\", in which Sonic dashes toward a target in midair. Sonic's only weakness is that he cannot swim, sinking like a rock if plunged to a deep body of water. The only exception is that he can swim in the Sonic the Hedgehog Adventure Gamebooks. When the seven Chaos Emeralds are collected and used, Sonic transforms into \"Super Sonic\", a faster and invulnerable version of himself that can fly. In Super Sonic form, Sonic's irises turn red and his body becomes golden.", "As Sega's mascot and one of the key reasons for the company's success during the 16-bit era of video game consoles, Sonic is one of the most famous video game characters in the world. In 1993, Sonic became the first video game character to have a balloon in Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade. In 1996, Sonic was also the first video game character to be seen in a Rose Parade. Sonic was one of the three game characters inducted on the inaugural Walk of Game class in 2005, along with former rivals Mario and Link (both from Nintendo). One of a class of genes involved in fruit fly embryonic development, called hedgehog genes, has been named \"sonic hedgehog\" after him. He is also named in the song \"Abiura di me\" of the Italian rapper Caparezza. On the other hand, Sonic's apparent romantic relationship with Princess Elise in the 2006 video game resulted in major criticism. Sonic's characterization and relationship with Eggman in \"Sonic Boom\" earned a positive response by Patrick Lee of \"The A.V. Club\" and Emily Ashby of Common Sense Media. Sonic has also been used as a symbol for Sega's various sponsorships. Between 1993 and 1997, Sega sponsored the JEF United Ichihara Chiba football team, during which period Sonic appeared in the team's uniform. During the 1993 Formula One championship, Sega sponsored the Williams Grand Prix team, which won the Constructors' Championship that year, as well as the team's lead driver, Alain Prost, winning the Drivers' Championship. Sonic was featured in the cars, helmets, and their rivals McLaren used to paint a squashed hedgehog after winning races over Williams. The 1993 European Grand Prix featured a Sonic balloon and Sonic billboards. In 1992, according to Sega of America marketing director Al Nilsen, Sonic was found to be more recognizable than Mickey Mouse in the six-to eleven-year-old demographic, based on the character's respective Q Scores, although this claim could not be confirmed by Q Score developer Marketing Evaluations, Inc. Nintendo Power listed Sonic as their sixth favorite hero, stating that while he was originally Mario's nemesis, he seems at home on Nintendo platforms. They added that he has remained as one of gaming's greatest icons. In 2004, the character won a Golden Joystick Award for \"The Sun Ultimate Gaming Hero\". The character's popularity declined in the mid-1990s, and Sonic failed to place in \"Electronic Gaming Monthly\"s Coolest Mascot of 1996 in either the editors' or readers' picks, being beaten out by not only competitors Mario and Crash Bandicoot, but Sega's own Nights; however, in a 2008 poll of 500 people, Sonic was voted the most popular video game character in the UK with a 24% vote while his old rival Mario came second with 21% of the vote. Later that year, Sonic was ranked as the most iconic video game character in an MSN rankings list. In 2011, \"Empire\" ranked him as the 14th greatest video game character. And he was voted 10th out of the top 50 video game characters of all time in \"Guinness World Records\" 2011 Gamers' Edition. Sonic ranked ninth on GameDaily's Top 10 Smash Bros characters list. GameDaily also listed his \"next-generation stumble\" in their list of video game characters' worst moments, using his relationship with a human female as one of the worst parts of it. Ken Balough, Sega's former associate brand manager, said that Sonic's appeal endured because the character is \"a gaming legend, first and foremost\" who originated \"from a series of games that defined a generation in gaming history, and his iconic personality was the epitome of speed in the early ‘90s, pushing the limits of what gamers knew and expected from high-speed action and platforming games.\" A Japanese team developing the Radio & Plasma Wave Investigation (RPWI) instrumentation for the upcoming \"Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer\" spacecraft, to be launched by ESA and Airbus in 2022, was able to gain Sega's approval to use Sonic as the mascot for the device. An Internet meme called \"Sanic\" has been used based on a poorly drawn Sonic; typically, the meme uses one of Sonic's catchphrases but with poor grammar. Sega's official Sonic Twitter account has made numerous references to it, and it appeared in official downloadable content for \"Sonic Forces\" on in-game shirts. The meme also appears as a drawing in the theatrical film." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Terminology.", "History.", "1930s.", "1950s.", "1960s.", "1970s.", "1980s–present.", "Fretless basses.", "Strings and tuning.", "Pickups and amplification.", "Non-magnetic pickups.", "Amplification and effects." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "According to the \"New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians\", an \"Electric bass guitar [is] a Guitar, usually with four heavy strings tuned E'–A'–D–G.\" It also defines \"bass\" as \"Bass (iv). A contraction of Double bass or Electric bass guitar.\" According to some authors the proper term is \"electric bass\". Common names for the instrument are \"bass guitar\", \"electric bass guitar\", and \"electric bass\" and some authors claim that they are historically accurate. As the electric alternative to a double bass (which is not a guitar), many manufacturers such as Fender list the instrument in the electric bass category rather than the guitar category. The bass guitar is a transposing instrument, as it is notated in bass clef an octave higher than it sounds, to reduce the need for ledger lines in music written for the instrument, and simplify reading.", "", "In the 1930s, musician and inventor Paul Tutmarc of Seattle, Washington, developed the first electric bass guitar in its modern form, a fretted instrument designed to be played horizontally. The 1935 sales catalog for Tutmarc's company Audiovox featured his \"Model 736 Bass Fiddle\", a solid-bodied electric bass guitar with four strings, a scale length, and a single pickup. Around 100 were made during this period. Audiovox also sold their “Model 236” bass amplifier.", "In the 1950s, Leo Fender and George Fullerton developed the first mass-produced electric bass guitar. The Fender Electric Instrument Manufacturing Company began producing the Precision Bass, or P-Bass, in October 1951. The design featured a simple uncontoured \"slab\" body design and a single coil pickup similar to that of a Telecaster. By 1957 the Precision more closely resembled the Fender Stratocaster with the body edges beveled for comfort, and the pickup was changed to a split coil design. The Fender Bass was a revolutionary instrument for gigging musicians. In comparison with the large, heavy upright bass, which had been the main bass instrument in popular music from the early 20th century to the 1940s, the bass guitar could be easily transported to shows. When amplified, the bass guitar was also less prone than acoustic basses to unwanted audio feedback. The addition of frets enabled bassists to play in tune more easily than on fretless acoustic or electric upright basses, and allowed guitarists to more easily transition to the instrument. In 1953, Monk Montgomery became the first bassist to tour with the Fender bass, in Lionel Hampton's postwar big band. Montgomery was also possibly the first to record with the electric bass, on July 2, 1953, with the Art Farmer Septet. Roy Johnson (with Lionel Hampton), and Shifty Henry (with Louis Jordan and His Tympany Five), were other early Fender bass pioneers. Bill Black, who played with Elvis Presley, switched from upright bass to the Fender Precision Bass around 1957. The bass guitar was intended to appeal to guitarists as well as upright bass players, and many early pioneers of the instrument, such as Carol Kaye, Joe Osborn, and Paul McCartney were originally guitarists. Also in 1953, Gibson released the first short-scale violin-shaped electric bass, with an extendable end pin so a bassist could play it upright or horizontally. Gibson renamed the bass the EB-1 in 1958. In 1958, Gibson released the maple arched-top EB-2 described in the Gibson catalog as a \"hollow-body electric bass that features a Bass/Baritone pushbutton for two different tonal characteristics\". In 1959, these were followed by the more conventional-looking EB-0 Bass. The EB-0 was very similar to a Gibson SG in appearance (although the earliest examples have a slab-sided body shape closer to that of the double-cutaway Les Paul Special). Whereas Fender basses had pickups mounted in positions in between the base of the neck and the top of the bridge, many of Gibson's early basses featured one humbucking pickup mounted directly against the neck pocket. The Fender and Gibson versions used bolt-on and glued-on necks. Several other companies also began manufacturing bass guitars during the 1950s. 1956 saw the appearance at the German trade fair \"Musikmesse Frankfurt\" of the distinctive Höfner 500/1 violin-shaped bass, made using violin construction techniques by Walter Höfner, a second-generation violin luthier. The design became known as the \"Beatle bass\" for its use by Beatles bassist Paul McCartney. In 1957, Rickenbacker introduced the model 4000, the first bass to feature a neck-through-body design in which the neck is part of the body wood. Kay Musical Instrument Company began production of the K-162 in 1952, Danelectro released the Longhorn in 1956, and Burns London/Supersound in 1958.", "With the explosion in popularity of rock music in the 1960s, many more manufacturers began making electric basses, including Yamaha, Teisco and Guyatone. Introduced in 1960, the Fender Jazz Bass, initially known as the \"Deluxe Bass\", used a body design known as an offset waist which was first seen on the Jazzmaster guitar in an effort to improve comfort while playing seated. The \"J-bass\" featured two single-coil pickups, one close to the bridge and one in the Precision bass's split coil pickup position. The earliest production Jazz basses had a pair of concentric (or \"stacked\") knobs to control volume and tone for each pickup; this was soon changed to the present configuration of a volume control for each pickup, and a single passive tone control. The Jazz Bass's neck was narrower at the nut than the Precision bass — versus — allowing for easier access to the lower strings and an overall spacing and feel closer to that of an electric guitar, allowing trained guitarists to transition to the bass guitar more easily. Another visual difference that set the Jazz Bass apart from the Precision is its \"offset-waist\" body. Pickup shapes on electric basses are often referred to as \"P\" or \"J\" pickups in reference to the visual and electrical differences between the Precision Bass and Jazz Bass pickups. In the 1950s and 1960s, all bass guitars were often called the \"Fender bass\", due to Fender's early dominance in the market. Providing a more \"Gibson-scale\" instrument, rather than the Jazz and Precision, Fender produced the Mustang Bass, a scale-length instrument. The Fender VI, a 6 string bass, was tuned one octave lower than standard guitar tuning. It was released in 1961, and was briefly favored by Jack Bruce of Cream. Gibson introduced its short-scale EB-3 in 1961, also used by Bruce. The EB-3 had a \"mini-humbucker\" at the bridge position. Gibson basses tended to be smaller, sleeker instruments with a shorter scale length than the Precision; Gibson did not produce a -scale bass until 1963 with the release of the Thunderbird, which was also the first Gibson bass to use two humbucking pickups in a more traditional position, about halfway between the neck and bridge.", "In 1971, Alembic established what became known as \"boutique\" or \"high-end\" electric bass guitars. These expensive, custom-tailored instruments, as used by Phil Lesh, Jack Casady, and Stanley Clarke, featured unique designs, premium hand-finished wood bodies, and innovative construction techniques such as multi-laminate neck-through-body construction and graphite necks. Alembic also pioneered the use of onboard electronics for pre-amplification and equalization. Active electronics increase the output of the instrument, and allow more options for controlling tonal flexibility, giving the player the ability to amplify as well as to attenuate certain frequency ranges while improving the overall frequency response (including more low-register and high-register sounds). 1973 saw the UK company Wal begin production of a their own range of active basses. In 1974 Music Man Instruments, founded by Tom Walker, Forrest White and Leo Fender, introduced the StingRay, the first widely produced bass with active (powered) electronics built into the instrument. Basses with active electronics can include a preamplifier and knobs for boosting and cutting the low and high frequencies. In the mid-1970s, Alembic and other high-end manufacturers, such as Tobias, began offering five-string basses, with a very low \"B\" string. In 1975, bassist Anthony Jackson commissioned luthier Carl Thompson to build a six-string bass tuned (low to high) B0, E1, A1, D2, G2, C3, adding a low B string and a high C string. These five- and six-string \"extended-range basses\" would become popular with session bassists, reducing the need for re-tuning to alternate detuned configurations like \"drop D\", and also allowing the bassist to play more notes from the same fretting position with fewer shifts up and down the fingerboard, a crucial benefit for a session player sightreading basslines at a recording session.", "In the 1980s, bass designers continued to explore new approaches. Ned Steinberger introduced a headless bass in 1979 and continued his innovations in the 1980s, using graphite and other new materials and (in 1984) introducing the TransTrem tremolo bar. In 1982, Hans-Peter Wilfer founded Warwick, to make a European bass, as the market at the time was dominated by Asian and American basses. Their first bass was the Streamer Bass, which is similar to the Spector NS. In 1987, the Guild Guitar Corporation launched the fretless Ashbory bass, which used silicone rubber strings and a piezoelectric pickup to achieve an \"upright bass\" sound with a short scale length. In the late 1980s, MTV's \"Unplugged\" show, which featured bands performing with acoustic instruments, helped to popularize hollow-bodied acoustic bass guitars amplified with piezoelectric pickups built into the bridge of the instrument. During the 1990s, as five-string basses became more widely available and more affordable, an increasing number of bassists in genres ranging from metal to gospel began using five-string instruments for added lower range—a low \"B\" string. As well, onboard battery-powered electronics such as preamplifiers and equalizer circuits, which were previously only available on expensive \"boutique\" instruments, became increasingly available on mid-priced basses. From 2000 to the 2010s, some bass manufacturers included digital modelling circuits inside the instrument on more costly instruments to recreate tones and sounds from many models of basses (e.g., Line 6's Variax bass). A modelling bass can digitally emulate the tone and sound of many famous basses, ranging from a vintage Fender Precision to a Rickenbacker. However, as with the electric guitar, traditional \"passive\" bass designs, which include only pickups, tone and volume knobs (without a preamp or other electronics) remained popular. Reissued versions of vintage instruments such as the Fender Precision Bass and Fender Jazz Bass remained popular among new instrument buyers up to the 2010s. In 2011, a 60th Anniversary P-bass was introduced by Fender, along with the re-introduction of the short-scale Fender Jaguar Bass.", "While electric bass guitars are traditionally fretted instruments, fretless basses are used by some players to achieve different tones. Rolling Stones bassist Bill Wyman is sometimes identified as the first to make a fretless bass. In 1961, he converted a used UK-built Dallas Tuxedo bass by removing the frets and filling in the slots with wood putty. Wyman used it to record songs such as \"Paint It, Black\" and \"Mother's Little Helper\" in 1966. In 1966, Ampeg introduced the AUB-1, the first production fretless bass. Fender followed with a fretless Precision Bass in 1970. Some fretless basses have \"fret line\" markers inlaid in the fingerboard as a guide, while others only use guide marks on the side of the neck. In the early 1970s, fusion-jazz bassist Jaco Pastorius coated the fingerboard of his de-fretted Fender Jazz Bass in epoxy resin, allowing him to use roundwound strings for a brighter sound without damaging the fretboard.", "Traditional electric bass guitars have four strings, tuned the same as double basses: E–A–D–G. However, now there are many options, with five-, six-, and more string designs, with many approaches to tuning. In addition to traditional flatwound strings, choices now include various windings and materials.", "", "The use of non-magnetic pickups allows bassists to use non-ferrous strings such as nylon, brass, polyurethane and silicone rubber. These materials produce different tones and, in the case of the polyurethane or silicone rubber strings, allow much shorter scale lengths.", "Similar to the electric guitar, the typical electric bass guitar requires an external amplifier in order to be heard in performance settings. Additionally, various electronic effects, such as preamplifiers, \"stomp box\"-style pedals and signal processors are available to allow for further shaping of the sound." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Coinage." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The name comes from the land of Knaan, a geo-ethnological term denoting the Jewish populations living east of the Elbe River (as opposed to the Ashkenazi Jews, living to its west, or the Sephardi Jews of the Iberian Peninsula). As such, the land is often translated as simply \"Slavonia\" or Slavic Europe. The term is derived from ancient Canaan (Hebrew: כנען \"kəna'an\").", "The language became extinct some time in the Late Middle Ages, possibly because of the expansion of the Ashkenazi culture and its own Yiddish language, based on German. That hypothesis is often backed by the large number of Yiddish loanwords of Slavic origin, many of which were no longer in use in Slavic languages at the time of the Ashkenazi expansion. They are believed to come from Knaanic rather than from Czech, Sorbian or Polish. The linguist Paul Wexler has hypothesised that Knaanic is actually the direct predecessor of Yiddish and that the language later became Germanised. In other words, the Knaanim, that is, the people speaking the Judaeo-Slavic languages, were the main cause of changes in Yiddish. That view has been dismissed by nearly all mainstream academics, however, and contrasts with the more widely accepted theories of Max Weinreich, who argued that Slavic loanwords were assimilated only after Yiddish had already been fully formed. The Jewish commentator Rashi was aware of this language.", "A possible early example of Knaanic is a 9th-century letter for a Jewish community of Ruthenia. One of the very few commonly-accepted examples of Knaanic is inscriptions on bracteate coins issued under Mieszko the Old and Leszek the White, two Polish rulers of 12th and 13th century. The last evidence of usage of the language (written with the Hebrew script) comes from the 16th century. The reason that Knaanic inscriptions, which use Hebrew letters, appear on coins minted for a Polish duke is that at the time, he leased some mints to Jews. The mint masters were responsible for collecting bullion and striking coins as well as periodically taking in and restriking existing coins. The inscriptions on the coins range widely. Some are Hebrew names, possibly those of the mintmasters. Some are the names of the towns in which the mint operated, for instance Kalisz, the burial place of Mieszko the Old. Some have the duke's name. One in the National Bank of Poland's numismatic collection bears the word \"bracha\", Hebrew for blessing." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Great Moravia.", "Holy Roman Empire.", "Economy.", "Kingdom of Bohemia." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The lands encompassed by the Bohemian Forest, the Ore Mountains, the Sudetes and the Bohemian-Moravian Highlands were settled by Bohemian tribes about 550. In the 7th century the local Czech people were part of the union led by the Frankish merchant Samo (d. 658). \"Bohemia\" as a geographical term, probably derived from the Celtic (Gallic) Boii tribes, first appeared in 9th-century Frankish sources. In 805 Emperor Charlemagne prepared to conquer the lands, invading Bohemia in 805 and laying siege to the fortress of Canburg. However, the Czech forces shirked from open battle and retired into the deep forests to launch guerilla attacks. After forty days the emperor had to withdraw his forces for the lack of supplies. When the Frankish forces returned the next year burning and plundering the Bohemian lands, the local tribes finally had to submit and became dependent on the Carolingian Empire.", "While the Frankish realm disintegrated in the mid 9th century, Bohemia fell under the influence of the Great Moravian state which was established around 830. In 874 the Mojmir duke Svatopluk I reached an agreement with the East Frankish king Louis the German and confirmed his Bohemian dominion. With the fragmentation of Great Moravia under the pressure of the Magyar incursions around 900, Bohemia began to form as an independent principality. Already in 880, the Přemyslid prince Bořivoj from Levý Hradec, initially a deputy of Duke Svatopluk I who had been baptised by the Great Moravian archbishop Methodius of Salonica in 874, moved his residence to Prague Castle and started to subjugate the Vltava Basin. Great Moravia briefly regained control over the emerging Bohemian principality upon Bořivoj's death in 888/890 until, in 895, his son Spytihněv together with the Slavník prince Witizla swore allegiance to the East Frankish king Arnulf of Carinthia in Regensburg. He and his younger brother Vratislaus then ruled over Central Bohemia around Prague. They were able to protect their realm from the Magyar forces which crushed an East Frankish army in the 907 Battle of Pressburg during the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin. Cut off from Byzantium by the Hungarian presence, the Bohemian principality existed as independent state though still in the shadow of East Francia; the dukes paid tribute to the Bavarian dukes in exchange for the confirmation of the peace treaty. Vratislaus' son Wenceslaus, who ruled from 921, was already accepted as head of the Bohemian tribal union; however, he had to cope with the enmity of his neighbour Duke Arnulf of Bavaria and his mighty ally, the Saxon king Henry I of Germany. Wenceslaus maintained his ducal authority by submitting to King Henry in 929, whereafter he was murdered by his brother Boleslaus. Assuming the Bohemian throne in 935, Duke Boleslaus conquered the adjacent lands of Moravia and Silesia, and expanded farther to Kraków in the east. He offered opposition to Henry's successor King Otto I, stopped paying the tribute, attacked an ally of the Saxons in northwest Bohemia and in 936 moved into Thuringia. After a prolonged armed conflict, King Otto I besieged a castle owned by Boleslaus' son in 950 and Boleslaus finally signed a peace treaty whereby he recognized Otto's suzerainty and promised to resume the payment of the tribute. As the king's ally, his Bohemian troops together with the Kingdom of Germany forces fought in the 955 Battle of Lechfeld and after the defeat of the Magyars received the lands of Moravia in recognition of his services. Overwhelming marauding Hungarians had the same benefits for Germans and Czechs. Less obvious is what Boleslav I the Cruel wanted to gain with his participation in the war against the Obotrite tribes in far north, when he crushed an uprising of two Slavic dukes (Stojgněv and Nakon) in the Saxon Billung March. Probably Boleslav wanted to ensure that German neighbors did not interfere with his expansion of Bohemia to the east. Significantly, the Bishopric of Prague, founded in 973 during the reign of Duke Boleslaus II, was subordinated to the Archbishopric of Mainz. Thus, at the same time that Přemyslid rulers used the German alliance to consolidate their rule against a perpetually rebellious regional nobility, they struggled to retain their autonomy in relation to the empire. The Bohemian principality was definitively consolidated in 995, when the Přemyslids defeated their Slavník rivals, unified the Czech tribes, and established a form of centralized rule, however, shaken by internal dynastic struggles.", "In 1002 Duke Vladivoj was enfeoffed with the Duchy of Bohemia from the hands of King Henry II of Germany. With this act, what had been a fully sovereign duchy became part of the Holy Roman Empire. After Vladivoj died the next year, the Polish duke Bolesław I the Brave invaded Bohemia and Moravia. In 1004, after the Poles were expelled from Bohemia with help from Henry II, Duke Jaromír received the duchy in fief from the king. Duke Bretislaus I of Bohemia re-acquired the Moravian lands in 1019 or 1029, which from that time on then usually was ruled by a younger son of the Bohemian duke/king. About 1031, Bretislaus invaded Hungary to prevent its future expansion, and in 1035 he helped the Emperor against the Lusatians. In 1039 he invaded Poland, captured Poznań and ravaged Gniezno; after that he conquered part of Silesia including Breslau. The destruction of Gniezno pushed the Polish rulers to move their capital to Cracow. In 1040 Bretislaus defeated the German King Henry's invasion into Bohemia in the Battle at Brůdek. But the next year Henry besieged Bretislaus in Prague and forced him to renounce all of his conquests except Moravia. In 1047 Henry negotiated a peace treaty between Bretislaus and the Poles. The son of Bretislaus, Vratislaus II, supported Henry against the Pope, anti-kings, and rebellions in Saxony in his long reign. The Bohemian troops showed conspicuous bravery and in 1083 he entered Rome with Henry and their armed forces. Henry granted him for his support the royal lifetime title, so Vratislaus became the first King of Bohemia in 1085. For his successor Bretislaus II foreign policy was aimed mainly against the Silesian conflict when the Poles did not pay a fee for areas once resigned by Bretislaus I. In 1147 Bohemian Duke Vladislaus II accompanied German King Conrad III on the Second Crusade, but halted his march at Constantinople. Thanks to his military support against northern Italian cities (especially Milan) for the emperor Frederick Barbarossa, Vladislaus was elected king of Bohemia on 11 January 1158, becoming the second Bohemian king.", "Mining of tin and silver began in Ore mountains in early 12th century.", "During the German civil war between the Hohenstaufen king Philip of Swabia and his Welf rival Otto IV, Duke Ottokar I of Bohemia decided to support Philip, for which he was awarded by a royal coronation in 1198, this time the title was hereditary. In 1200, however, Ottokar abandoned his pact with Philip and declared for the Welf faction. Both Otto and Pope Innocent III subsequently accepted Ottokar as hereditary King of Bohemia. The Bohemian principality was then reborn into the Bohemian kingdom. In 1212, Ottokar I, bearing the title \"king\" since 1198, extracted the Golden Bull of Sicily a formal edict by the Hohenstaufen emperor Frederick II confirming the royal title for Ottokar and his descendants, whereby his duchy was formally raised to a Kingdom. The Bohemian king should be exempt from all future obligations to the Holy Roman Empire except for participation in the imperial councils. The imperial prerogative to ratify each Bohemian ruler and to appoint the Bishop of Prague was revoked. The country then reached its greatest territorial extent and is considered as the Golden Age. After the extinction of the Přemyslid dynasty, the Lands of the Bohemian Crown were ruled by the House of Luxembourg from 1310, until the death of Emperor Sigismund in 1437. After the Middle Ages, the Kingdom of Bohemia remained under the rule of the Austrian House of Habsburg from 1526 until the collapse of Austria-Hungary after the First World War." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "The factory.", "Districts." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Next to an old trade route, the settlement of Moravská Chrastová was founded after 1200 by monks from a monastery in Litomyšl. It is first mentioned in a document from 1323. The first written mention of Brněnec is to be found in the 1557 act of partition of the dominion of Swojanow. In 1892, workers carrying out improvements to the Bělá nad Svitavou road stumbled upon the remnants of prehistoric clay jars in the vicinity of the Nová Amerika (\"New America\") inn, one kilometre west of Brněnec. Systematic excavation on this site in 1893 unearthed further archaeological finds. A neighbouring hillside of crevices and caves, known as Jeskyně Čertovy, had already yielded traces of earlier settlements. Until 1918, the village was part of the Austrian empire (Austria side after the compromise of 1867), in the Polička district, one of the 94 \"Bezirkshauptmannschaften\" in Bohemia. A post-office was opened in 1869. With the construction of the railway from Prague to Brno (before 1850?), Brněnec received its own railway station on this main line. This encouraged numerous new industrial enterprises such as textile factories to develop around the dominant business of the Daubek mills. In 1930, the municipality of Brněnec (including the then districts of Zářečí nad Svitavou, now part of the municipality of Březová nad Svitavou, and Podlesí counted 606 inhabitants, of whom 208 held German nationality. In 1939, as a result of German occupation and the ensuing retreat of Czech inhabitants, the total population had dropped to 490. The municipality extended at that time only to the Bohemian right bank of the river Svitava. On the opposite Moravian bank was the independent village of Moravská Chrastová, which, together with its districts of Chrastová Lhota and Půlpecen (now part of the municipality of Chrastavec), had a total population in 1939 of 1,143 inhabitants and was therefore twice the size of Brněnec. The town of Brněnec formed part of the administrative and judiciary region of Politschka. After the annexation of the \"Sudetenland\" by Germany, it was integrated into the county of Zwittau. In 1944, Oskar Schindler relocated his German Enamelware Factory (), and the associated prison camp of 1,200 Jewish forced labourers, from Kraków to a munitions factory acquired by him in Brněnec. The Jewish workforce thus escaped transport to the extermination camps and was liberated along with the rest of the village on 10 May 1945 by the Red Army, after the factory had been fully operational for seven months. The Endowment Fund for the Memorial of the Shoah and Oskar Schindler is currently engaged in turning the ruins of the factory into a museum. There are around 800 employment positions in Brněnec today.", "History of the factory:", "The municipality of Brněnec is composed of the following districts (German names in parentheses):" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Music career.", "Wasted Youth (1988–1989).", "Electric Love Hogs and Infectious Grooves (1991–1993).", "Other bands and contributions (1993–2001).", "Loaded and Velvet Revolver (2002–2008).", "Post-Velvet Revolver (2009–present).", "Soundtracking career (2008–present).", "Musical equipment." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Kushner was born November 16, 1966 in Los Angeles. He attended Junior High and High School with Slash, frequently attending the shows of Slash's then band Tidus Sloan, and began playing in bands at the age of 16. He attended Musicians Institute in Hollywood at the age of 18 before signing his first record deal when he was 20. Prior to joining Wasted Youth, Kushner worked at Tower Video.", "", "Kushner joined Wasted Youth as a guitarist but played bass on the group's second album \"Black Daze\", released in 1988, with the exception of the Van Halen cover of \"On Fire\" where he performed rhythm and lead guitar duties. Kushner left the group over a year later.", "The group was initially formed as a cover band in San Diego by friends John Feldmann, Kelly LeMieux and Bobby Hewitt playing their first shows locally before relocating to Los Angeles adding Kushner to the group along with guitarist Donni Campion. The band named itself Electric Love Hogs in a satirical swipe at the L.A. glam rock scene of the late '80s. They signed a deal with London Records and released their only album \"Electric Love Hogs\" in 1992. The album was produced by Mark Dodson, whose production credits include Anthrax and Suicidal Tendencies, while Mötley Crüe drummer Tommy Lee also co-produced two album tracks. Percussion for the album was handled by Jane's Addiction drummer Stephen Perkins. Robert Trujillo, then of Suicidal Tendencies and Infectious Grooves, contributed to the record while Kushner was asked to make a guest appearance on the song \"Punk It Up\" from the Infectious Grooves debut album \"The Plague That Makes Your Booty Move...It's the Infectious Grooves\", also produced by Dodson, released in 1991 before touring with Infectious Grooves for a few months. Electric Love Hogs went on to tour with Stone Temple Pilots, when they were known as \"Mighty Joe Young\", and L.A. Guns in the US and Ugly Kid Joe in the United Kingdom. The group disbanded in 1993.", "After the breakup of Electric Love Hogs in 1993, Kushner, Kelly LeMieux, also of Electric Love Hogs, and Kushner's former Wasted Youth bandmate Joey Castillo formed a new group called Lit. The group went through several lineup changes, with the final lineup consisting of Kushner, former Electric Love Hogs drummer Bobby Hewitt, Jar Gordon on bass, Amir Derakh on guitar and a singer known only as Eric. After a year and a half, Kushner was invited to join Geffen group Sugartooth with Lit being disbanded and selling their name rights to the well known band of the same name. In 1995, he teamed up with Suicidal Tendencies and Infectious Grooves singer Cyco Miko on his solo album \"Lost My Brain!\" before going on to join Danzig. Kushner's tenure in Danzig lasted 9 months where he performed only one show at the Whisky a Go Go in Hollywood. In 1997, Kushner appeared on the compilation album \"Friends & Family, Vol. 1\" which featured music by Suicidal Tendencies, Infectious Grooves and Cyco Miko among others. In 1998, Kushner joined the hard rock group Zilch, formed by former X Japan guitarist hide. Unfortunately, hide died before the release of their debut album. The group continued and eventually recorded and released \"Skyjin\" in 2001 and it was during this time that Kushner met Duff McKagan who, at the time, was touring with Loaded. In 2001, Kushner became musical director for Jane's Addiction guitarist Dave Navarro's touring band following the released of his solo album \"Trust No One\".", "During a tour of Japan, former Guns N' Roses bassist Duff McKagan, touring with his group Loaded, met Kushner who was at the time playing with Japanese hard rock group Zilch. After the tour, bassist Jeff Rouse left the band to rejoin Alien Crime Syndicate to release their new album \"XL from Coast to Coast\" with Mike Squires also leaving to join ACS becoming the group's second guitarist. Kushner and bassist George Stuart Dahlquist, of Asva and Burning Witch, replaced the departed duo. Loaded announced a tour of Europe with stops in the Netherlands, Germany, France, Italy and Spain as well as shows in the UK however this tour was soon canceled after McKagan began collaborating with his former Guns N' Roses bandmates on a new project. After performing at a benefit gig for Randy Castillo in 2002, former Guns N' Roses members Slash, Duff McKagan and Matt Sorum decided to form a new band after recognizing that their musical relationship was still very much intact. Initially they began rehearsing with Buckcherry duo Josh Todd and Keith Nelson, who performed with the trio at the benefit, but eventually decided against forming a group with them. During a Loaded show at Hollywood's Viper Room, McKagan introduced Kushner to Slash, after Kushner said they had known each other previously, who confirmed they were friends at Junior High and High School. After Kushner jammed with the group he was invited to join with Slash stating that \"Dave brought a cool vibe to what we were doing. There was no deliberation; that was it, it was a perfect fit.\" Former Guns N' Roses rhythm guitarist Izzy Stradlin also joined them for 2 weeks eventually suggesting that \"Duff and I will sing and we will just do a club tour in a van.\" Slash states in his autobiography that it was hard to tell if Stradlin was serious or kidding. After auditioning Kelly Shaefer (of Atheist/Neurotica), Stradlin left the group. While Shaefer's audition was unsuccessful, the quartet continued auditioning for a lead singer, with VH1 filming the recruitment process. The quartet were referred to under the temporary name \"The Project\" during this time. The resulting documentary was aired as VH1 Inside Out: The Rise of Velvet Revolver. A number of lead singers auditioned, including Canadian Todd Kerns (formerly of Age of Electric), Miljenko Matijevic (of Steelheart), Sebastian Bach (formerly of Skid Row), Shawn Albro (of U.P.O.), and Travis Meeks (of Days of the New). Myles Kennedy (of Alter Bridge and formerly of The Mayfield Four) declined an invitation, from Sorum, to audition, because he wanted to focus more on other projects. Scott Weiland had become friends with McKagan (via their respective wives) and had once played on the same bill as Kushner, when Electric Love Hogs supported Mighty Joe Young. Originally Weiland was wanted by the band but due to STP still touring he declined. After the band heard about STP's split in 2003, they were quick to get Weiland involved. Once he heard the material and offered his services as the lead singer, the band was formed. The group released their debut album \"Contraband\" in 2004, debuting at number one on the \"Billboard\" 200, and the follow-up, \"Libertad\", in 2007. The albums were produced by Josh Abraham and Brendan O'Brien respectively. \"Contraband\" album tracks \"Set Me Free\" and \"Dirty Little Thing\" appeared on the soundtracks to the movies \"Hulk\" and \"\" while they recorded a cover of Pink Floyd's \"Money\" and a new song entitled \"Come On, Come In\" for \"The Italian Job\" remake and \"Fantastic Four\" respectively. With their single \"Slither\", they won the 2005 Grammy Award for Best Hard Rock Performance and nominated for Rock Album of the Year and Rock Song \"Fall to Pieces\". Weiland stated on March 20, 2008 at Velvet Revolver's show in Glasgow that this would be the band's final tour. At the time Slash hinted in an interview with \"Classic Rock\" magazine that, contrary to Weiland's assertions, Velvet Revolver will continue beyond its current tour. When asked \"Will Scott be singing?\", Slash replied \"I have no comment on that\", and laughed. It was announced on April 1 that Weiland had officially parted ways with Velvet Revolver. Later that month, Weiland performed with Stone Temple Pilots for the first time since 2002, kicking off their reunion tour. The release of Slash's solo album, \"Slash\", and Duff McKagan's addition to the Jane's Addiction lineup, both in 2010, seemed to put future of the band in doubt. However, they remained optimistic about the future, with new songs written and plans to reconvene in 2011 while in September 2010, McKagan departed Jane's Addiction. Ultimately, Slash and McKagan officially returned to Guns N‘ Roses in 2016 for the Not In This Lifetime... Tour.", "On June 20, 2009, Scars on Broadway guitarist and solo artist Franky Perez announced via his official MySpace that he was in the studio collaborating with Kushner. To date they have released three song for free via the Franky Perez official website under the pseudonym of DKFXP, a combination of the initials of Perez and Kushner. In October 2009, Franky Perez stated on his Twitter account that he and Kushner were jamming with Weezer bassist Scott Shriner and his Scars on Broadway bandmate, drummer John Dolmayan. In 2009, he played rhythm guitar with rock band Weezer when they performed \"The Greatest Man That Ever Lived\" on Spike TV's Video Game Awards. On September 8, 2010, it was announced that Kushner was to collaborate with Indian singer and actress Shruti Haasan on a new musical project. Haasan will be writing the lyrics with Kushner composing the music. On working with Kushner, Haasan stated: \" When the opportunity to work with US supergroup guru David Kushner came to me, I was really excited. I really loved Dave's song and felt a connect between it and my music, thereby making it a meaningful collaboration for me. As a singer, songwriter and musician and a rock-n-roll loyalist, this is a dream come true [...] Dave is an icon and it's an unbelievable opportunity for any musician. I'm also so thrilled to be able to express myself as an artist on a global platform of this caliber. To be the first Indian to get an opportunity like this to not just sing but also write the English lyrics for this track, is truly an honour\". It was later announced, on September 21, that Kushner and Dave Navarro collaborated on a cover of The Kinks' \"You Really Got Me\" to be used in a Hyundai commercial.", "Alongside Bob Thiele Jr., Curtis Stigers and Kurt Sutter, Kushner co-wrote the theme song for the 2008 FX television series Sons of Anarchy titled \"This Life\". In 2009, the song was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Main Title Theme Music but lost out to the theme for PBS television series Great Performances. In 2010, the quartet received an ASCAP Award for the theme. Kushner was also asked to develop a spin-off of \"How I Met Your Mother\" entitled \"The Bro Code\" by Fox creative director Dave Warren and \"The Simpsons\" segment director Ralph Sosa. Kushner also wrote a song with composer John O'Brien, Franky Perez and Dave Navarro for a new merchandise line called \"Bartrock\" after Dave Warren wanted \"a song to tie in with the merch line\". In 2010, Kushner announced that he removed the vocals and \"messed around\" with the song \"Beyond the Wire\", which he released with Perez as DKFXP, giving it the new title of \"Beyond the Snake\". The song appears at the end credits of the film \"Hisss\" featuring vocals and lyrics by Shruti Haasan. Four tracks by both Perez and Kushner will also appear in the film \"Hamill\". Kushner has also collaborated with friend and composer John O'Brien on numerous occasions providing music to films such as \"Four Christmases\", \"Couples Retreat\" and, most recently, the upcoming ABC drama series \"Detroit 1-8-7\" which will begin airing in the fall season of 2010.", "Kushner has been a longtime user of Fernandes Guitars and has two signature models based on the Ravelle available in forest green finish with cream binding and metallic blue finish with black binding. Besides his signature guitars he also owns Montereys and Vertigos from Fernandes as well as a Yamaha SAO 503 TVL, which is the signature guitar for Troy Van Leeuwen from Queens of the Stone Age. Lately Kushner's main instruments have been various Gibson models, such as the ES-335, SG and Les Paul models. Dave uses a 12-space rack with a switching system that allows him to use whatever effects he would like in any sequence. Some of the effect pedals he uses most often include Line 6 DM-4, Boss Flanger BF-2, Boss Super Phaser PH-2, Boss Chorus Ensemble CE-5, Boss Digital Delay DD-3, Line 6 Filter Pro, Dynacord CLS222, Rocktron Hush II CX Noise Reduction System, Electro-Harmonix Micro synth, Boss Hyperfuzz, Line 6 delay pedal and a MXR Zakk Wylde overdive pedal. He also uses Dunlop programmable Wah Wah effects and Rotovibe MIDI controllers which are rackmounted. Kushner mostly uses Bogner amplifiers during live performances, specifically an Ecstasy 101B amplifier that runs Bogner straight cabs fitted with Vintage Celestion 30 watt and Celestion Greenbacks 25 watt speakers. He has also used Mesa Boogie Stilletto Ace and Fender Super Sonic amplifiers." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and marriage.", "Reign as king.", "Disputed succession.", "Consolidation of power.", "First Italian expedition.", "Conflict with Poland.", "Polish relations.", "First Polish War.", "Second Polish War.", "Reign as Emperor.", "Imperial coronation.", "Third Polish War.", "Conflict with Byzantium.", "Imperial Policies.", "Ecclesiastical affairs.", "Empire–Church relations.", "Diocese of Bamberg.", "Policy towards the nobility.", "Death and successor.", "Canonization and veneration.", "Family.", "Sources." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Henry was born in May 973, the son of Duke Duke Henry II of Bavaria, and Gisela of Burgundy. Through his father, he was the grandson of Duke Henry I of Bavaria, and the great-grandson of King Henry I of Germany. By his mother, he was the grandson of King Conrad I of Burgundy, and the great-grandson of King Rudolf II of Burgundy. The elder Henry came into conflict with his cousin Holy Roman Emperor Otto II, in 974. The elder Henry and Otto II disputed each other's claims to authority over the Duchy of Swabia: Henry claimed the duchy as his birthright while Otto II maintained his right to name a duke of his choosing. After an initial failed revolt, Otto II imprisoned the elder Henry in Ingelheim. After escaping, Henry again revolted against Otto II. When this second revolt failed, Otto II deposed Henry as Duke of Bavaria and sent him into exile under the", "", "In 1001, Emperor Otto III experienced a revolt against his reign in Italy. The Emperor sent word for Henry II to join him with reinforcements from Germany, but then died unexpectedly in January 1002. Otto was only 21 at the time of death and had left no children and no instructions for the Imperial succession. In the Ottonian dynasty, succession to the throne had belonged to the Saxon branch, not the Bavarian line of which Henry was a member. Rival candidates for the throne, including Count Ezzo of Lotharingia, Margrave Eckard I of Meissen, and Duke Herman II of Swabia, strongly contested Henry's right to succeed Otto III. As the funeral procession moved through the Duchy of Bavaria in February 1002, Henry met the procession in Polling, just north of the Alps. To legitimize his claims, Henry demanded Archbishop Heribert of Cologne give him the Imperial Regalia, chief among them being the Holy Lance. Heribert, however, had sent these ahead of the procession, possibly out of distrust of Henry and possibly because he favored the", "Henry II spent the next several years consolidating his political power within his borders. Herman II, Duke of Swabia, in particular fiercely contested Henry II's right to the throne. The Swabian Duke believed he was Otto III's true successor, as he had married a daughter of Liudof, eldest son of Emperor Otto I. Armed conflicts between Henry II and Herman II broke out but proved to be inconclusive. This forced the two men to fight each other politically for the support of the Swabian nobles. Unable to decisively defeat Herman in Swabia, Henry II attempted to legitimize his seizing the throne by traveling throughout the various duchies of his kingdom – Saxony, Bavaria, Swabia, Upper Lorraine, Lower Lorraine, Franconia. This was done in order to obtain the general consent of his subjects as opposed to traditional election. Henry II's familial ties to the Ottonian dynasty", "The death of Otto III in 1002 and the resulting political turmoil over his successor allowed Italy to fall from German control. Margrave Arduin of Ivrea proclaimed himself King of Italy at Pavia soon after the Emperor's death. Accompanied by Archbishop Arnulf II of Milan, Arduin won the support of the Italian territorial magnates. Arduin, however, had been excommunicated in 997 for the murder of the Bishop of Vercelli. This allowed Arduin's enemies in the Church, led by Archbishop Frederick of Ravenna, to side with the German King Henry II as the rightful ruler of Italy. Henry II sent Duke Otto I of Carinthia, over the March of Verona to face Arduin, but Arduin successfully defeated Otto's troops at the Battle of Fabrica in 1003. In 1004 Henry II responded", "", "The untimely death of Emperor Otto III at age 21 in 1002 upset the young Emperor's ambitious \"renovatio\" plans, which were never fully implemented. Henry II, opposed to Otto III's eastern policies, reversed Imperial policy towards the east, resulting in the deterioration of the excellent relations Germany and Poland had enjoyed during Otto III's reign, particularly its relationship with Duke Bolesław I of Poland. Bolesław I had been a loyal supporter of Otto III, but Henry II's actions caused Bolesław I to seek new German allies. Of the major candidates seeking to succeed to the German throne, Bolesław I supported Margrave Eckard I of Meissen over Henry. Only after Eckard was assassinated by Saxon nobles in April 1002 did Bolesław I lend his support to Henry II. Bolesław I traveled to Merseburg on July 25, 1002 and paid homage to the new German king. Bolesław I had taken advantage of Germany's internal strife following Otto III's death, occupying important German territories west of the Oder River: the March of Meissen and the March of Lusatia. Bolesław I took control of these territories following the assassination of Margrave", "Returning from his first expedition to Italy, in 1004 Henry II gathered an army to march against Poland. The previous year in 1003, Henry II had formed an alliance with the pagan Slavic Lutici tribe. As a consequence of their military alliance, Henry II halted Christianization efforts among the Slavic peoples. The new alliance with the Western Slavs against Poland was controversial, however. Many German nobles had hoped for continued missionary work and the direct submission of the Elbe Slavs. In addition, many German nobles opposed the war because they had developed family ties with Poland during Otto III's reign. Similarly, members of the clergy, including Bishop Bruno of Querfurt, saw future tithe payments and Polish support for missionary work in Prussia evaporating due to the war. In preparation for Henry II's coming military invasion, Bolesław I developed a similar alliance with other Slavic peoples. With his conquest west of the Oder River in 1002, his", "In 1007, Henry II denounced the Peace of Poznań, resulting in Bolesław I's attack on the Archbishopric of Magdeburg as well as his re-occupation of marches of Lusatia and Meissen including the city of Bautzen. The German counter-offensive began three years later in 1010. It was of no significant consequence, beyond some pillaging in Silesia. In 1012, a second peace treaty", "", "John XVIII reigned as Pope from 1003 until 1009. He was succeeded by Pope Sergius IV from 1009 to 1012. Both John XVIII and Sergius IV, though the nominal Pope, were subservient to the power John Crescentius. As leader of the Crescentii clan and \"Patrician of Rome\", John Crescentius was the effective ruler of the city. John Crescentius' influence prevented Henry II from meeting the Pope on numerous occasions, preventing him from claiming the imperial title. Following Sergius IV's death in 1012, Benedict VIII was elected to succeed him. Upon assuming the chair of St. Peter, however, Benedict VIII was forced to flee Rome by Gregory VI, an antipope, whom John Crescentius installed as the new head of the Catholic Church. Fleeing across the Alps to Germany, Benedict VIII appealed to Henry II for protection. Henry II agreed to restore Benedict VIII to his papal throne in return for his coronation as Emperor. Near the end of 1013, Henry II gathered his army at Augsburg to march into Italy. Earlier in 1013, Henry signed a peace treaty with Duke Bolesław", "The peace agreement of 1013 between Henry II and Duke Bolesław I of Poland quickly deteriorated. In 1014, with Henry II absent from Germany, Bolesław I sent his son Mieszko II Lambert to the Duchy of Bohemia in order to persuade the new Bohemian Duke Oldřich into an alliance against Henry II. The mission failed and Oldřich imprisoned Mieszko II. He was released only after the intervention of the Emperor, who, despite the planned invasion of Poland, loyally acted on behalf of his nominal vassal Bolesław I. As a result, Mieszko II was sent to Henry II's imperial court in Merseburg as a hostage. Henry II probably wanted to force the presence of Bolesław I", "Henry II's involvement in Italian politics and his coronation as Emperor inevitably brought him into conflict with the Byzantine Empire. In 969, Emperor Otto I entered into an alliance with Byzantine Emperor John I Tzimiskes in which both Eastern and Western Empires would jointly-govern southern Italy. Otto I's death in 973 and John I's death in 976 caused this alliance to deteriorate. Otto I's successor in the West, his son Emperor Otto II, and John I's successor in the East, his nephew Emperor Basil II, brought the two Empires once again into conflict over control of southern Italy. Under Otto I and Otto II, the Lombard leader Pandulf Ironhead expanded", "Upon assuming the German throne, Henry II revised many policies of his predecessor, Emperor Otto III. Whereas Otto III had promoted a policy of \"Restoration of the Roman Empire\" (\"Renovatio imperii Romanorum\"), Henry II sought a policy of \"Restoration of the Frankish Kingdom\" (\"Renovatio regni Francorum\"). Compared to the other members of the Ottonian dynasty, Henry II spent relatively little time in Italy, only traveling south of the Alps three times during his twenty-two year reign. He was absent from the Italian peninsula for over a decade between his expulsion of Margrave Arduin of Ivrea in 1004 and his return in 1014 to claim the imperial title, allowing the kingdom to mostly govern itself. Henry II's absence from Italy was primarily due to his continued conflict with Duke Bolesław I of Poland. During the reign of Otto III, Bolesław I had been a loyal ally of the Empire. However, the protracted German-Polish wars brought the two nations into open warfare for over sixteen years.", "Henry II inherited several unresolved ecclesiastical disputes from his predecessor Otto III. Issues of particular importance were the reestablishment of the Diocese of Merseburg and the settlement of the \"Gandersheim Conflict\". In May 1017, Empress Cunigunde became seriously ill, while staying at the imperial estates in Kaufungen. Henry II vowed to found a monastery on the site if she recovered. Upon her recovery in 1018, Henry ordered the construction of the Kaufungen Abbey. After Henry II's death in 1024, Cunigunde retreated to the Abbey, where she remained until her own death in 1040. Sincerely religious, Henry II supported service to the Church (he was celibate) and promoted various monastic reforms. He also strongly enforced clerical", "The Ottonian dynasty's traditional policy of investing celibate clerics in the secular governance of the empire - the Imperial Church System - reached its climax under Henry II. Introduced by Emperor Otto I, the Ottonians appointed and integrated the higher clergy into the imperial administration, seeking to establish a non-hereditary counter-balance to the fiercely independent and powerful German Stem duchies. The dukes have always preferred political particularism, looking to the interests of their respective duchies above the interests of the Empire as a whole. In an effort to unify the Empire under their leadership, the Ottonians increasingly associated themselves with the Church, claiming \"divine right\" to rule the Empire and presenting themselves as the protector of Christendom. A key element of this policy was to grant land and bestow the title of \"Prince of the Empire\" (\"Reichsfürst\") to appointed bishops and abbots at the expense of the secular nobility. Unlike the dukes, these ecclesiastic figureheads would not be able to pass titles and privileges", "In 1003, Henry of Schweinfurt, Margrave of the Nordgau in Bavaria, revolted against Henry II's rule. Henry II had promised to install the margrave as his successor to the Duchy of Bavaria in exchange for supporting his claim to the German crown. Upon assuming the throne, however, Henry II refused to honour his promise. Instead, Henry II deposed the Margrave Henry in 1004 and abolished the March outright. To assume secular authority over the March's former territory, in 1007, Henry II announced his desire to establish a new diocese in Germany: the Diocese of Bamberg. Growing up in the Duchy of Bavaria, Henry II was fond of Bamberg, even giving his estates there to his wife Cunigunde of Luxembourg as her dower upon their marriage. Mission work among the Slavs of the region had previously been conducted by the Imperial Abbey at Fulda", "As under his predecessors Emperor Otto II and Emperor Otto III, the various German dukes of the Empire grew increasingly independent from the Emperor. A \"German\" identity had begun to develop. South of the Alps in Italy also saw the various regional lords grow in independent power. Increasingly, the Empire's duchies were becoming personal possessions of their respective ducal family as opposed to component parts of the Empire. Henry II's policy towards the nobles was focused on overcoming these family structures within the duchies in order to restore imperial dominance and control. Henry II, as well as the other Ottonians, relied upon his connection with the Church to justify his power and higher status over the dukes. However, unlike under Emperor Otto I and Otto II, the various German dukes were no longer bound to the Emperor by close family ties. While the Duchy of Franconia and", "Returning to Magdeburg, Germany from southern Italy to celebrate Easter, Henry II fell ill in Bamberg. After celebrating Easter, Henry retired to his imperial palace in Göttingen. He died there on 13 July 1024 at the age of 51, after suffering from a chronic, painful urinary infection. Henry had been working with the Pope to convene a Church council to confirm his new system of imperial-ecclesiastical relations before he died, leaving this effort unfinished.", "Henry II was canonized in July 1147 by Pope Eugenius III; his spouse, Cunigunde was canonized on 29 March 1200 by Pope Innocent III. His relics were carried on campaigns against heretics in the 1160s. He is the patron saint of the city of Basel, Switzerland, and of St Henry's Marist Brothers' College in Durban, South Africa. Henry's name, which does not appear in the Tridentine Calendar, was inserted in 1631 in the Roman Calendar as", "Henry II was a member of the Ottonian dynasty of kings and emperors who ruled the Holy Roman Empire (previously Germany) from 919", "Between 1012 and 1018 Thietmar of Merseburg wrote a \"Chronicon\", or \"Chronicle\", in eight books, which deals with the period between 908 and 1018. For the earlier part he used Widukind's \"Res gestae Saxonicae\", the \"Annales Quedlinburgenses\" and other sources; the latter part is the result of personal knowledge. The chronicle is nevertheless an excellent authority for the history of Saxony during the reigns of the emperors Otto III and Henry II. No kind of information is excluded, but the fullest details refer to the bishopric of Merseburg, and to the wars against the Wends and the Poles." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Evolution.", "Alt key combinations.", "Alt key for special characters.", "Windows.", "macOS.", "Alt key pressed alone." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The Alt key has come to replace the Meta key of the old MIT keyboards. In their original function, both Alt and Meta would set the high bit of the signal generated by the key to 1 (for example, A generates 01000001 while generates 11000001). However, in modern software, due to the requirement of the high bit for internationalization, Alt no longer works in such a way. Since the 1990s Alt has been printed on the Option key () on most Mac keyboards. Alt is used in non-Mac software, such as non-macOS Unix and Windows programs, but in macOS it is always referred as the Option key. The Option key's behaviour in macOS differs slightly from that of the Windows Alt key (it is used as a modifier rather than to access pull-down menus, for example).", "The key is well known as part of the key combinations:", "", "In Microsoft Windows, holding down the Alt key while typing in numbers (often referred to as Alt codes) on the numeric keypad allows the user to type special characters not normally available on the keyboard. For example, holding down Alt while typing 0225 () on the numeric keypad will result in á, the character at 225 in the codepage. These extended keyboard characters are useful for persons using foreign languages, mathematics, currency symbols, business use, etc. Some computers work the same if the Num Lock key is on.Here you can look at a list of all the alt codes available.", "On a Macintosh, the Alt key is called the Option key. It is not used to enter numeric character codes. Instead, keyboard letters and numbers are used. The diagram below shows the special characters a US Mac keyboard will produce when the Option key is pressed. The highlighted orange keys show the accents available from the combination of the key and the keyboard characters (on the top letters row) and (on the bottom letters row). The accent then can be applied to associated letters both lower and uppercase. The additional characters a Mac will produce are a combination of both the key and the key pressed down together. With this combination pressed the keyboard will now produce a different set or an uppercase version of the previous set in some cases.", "When a user presses the key by itself on Microsoft Windows, that moves keyboard focus to the menu bar of the application having keyboard focus, and the key is not delivered to the application. In that state, another press of the key will be delivered to the application. On other platforms, for example Ubuntu, the key pressed by itself may invoke another application and not be delivered to the application having keyboard focus. In Ubuntu 16.04, pressing the key opens the HUD, which is an input field that lets the user perform menu commands such as opening a file, or creating a new file." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Examples.", "Standards.", "National languages.", "Politics.", "Segregation.", "Other uses.", "Relationships.", "Relationships not recognised outside Australia.", "Non-marital relationship contract.", "Family law – custody.", "Sports.", "Other uses of the term." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "A is a standard (formal or informal) that has achieved a dominant position by tradition, enforcement, or market dominance. It has not necessarily received formal approval by way of a standardisation process, and may not have an official standards document. s are usually voluntary, such as ISO 9000 requirements, but may be obligatory, enforced by government norms, such as drinking water quality requirements. The term \"de facto standard\" is used for both: to contrast obligatory standards (also known as \"de jure standards\"); or to express a dominant standard, when there is more than one proposed standard. In social sciences, a voluntary standard that is also a de facto standard, is a typical solution to a coordination problem.", "Several countries, including Australia, Japan, Mexico, the United Kingdom and the United States, have a de facto national language but no official, de jure national language. Some countries have a de facto national language in addition to an official language. In Lebanon and Morocco the official language is Arabic, but an additional de facto language is also French. In New Zealand, Maori and New Zealand Sign Language are de jure official languages, while English is a de facto official language. In Singapore, English is de facto language, but Chinese, Malay and Tamil are the de jure languages. Russian was the de facto official language of the central government and, to a large extent, republican governments of the former Soviet Union, but was not declared de jure state language until 1990. A short-lived law, effected April 24, 1990, installed Russian as the sole de jure official language of the Union.", "A de facto government is a government wherein all the attributes of sovereignty have, by usurpation, been transferred from those who had been legally invested with them to others, who, sustained by a power above the forms of law, claim to act and do really act in their stead. In politics, a de facto leader of a country or region is one who has assumed authority, regardless of whether by lawful, constitutional, or legitimate means; very frequently, the term is reserved for those whose power is thought by some faction to be held by unlawful, unconstitutional, or otherwise illegitimate means, often because it had deposed a previous leader or undermined the rule of a current one. De facto leaders sometimes do not hold a constitutional office and may exercise power informally. Not all dictators are de facto rulers. For example, Augusto Pinochet of Chile initially came to power as the chairperson of a military junta, which briefly made him de facto leader of Chile, but he later amended the nation's constitution and made himself president until new elections were called, making him the formal and legal ruler of Chile. Similarly, Saddam Hussein's formal rule of Iraq is often recorded as beginning in 1979, the year he assumed the Presidency of Iraq. However, his de facto rule of the nation began earlier: during his time as vice president; he exercised a great deal of power at the expense of the elderly Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr, the de jure president. In Argentina, the successive military coups that overthrew constitutional governments installed de facto governments in 1930–1932, 1943–1946, 1955–1958, 1966–1973 and 1976–1983, the last of which combined the powers of the presidential office with those of the National Congress. The subsequent legal analysis of the validity of such actions led to the formulation of a doctrine of the de facto governments, a case law (precedential) formulation which essentially said that the actions and decrees of past de facto governments, although not rooted in legal legitimacy when taken, remained binding until and unless such time as they were revoked or repealed de jure by a subsequent legitimate government. That doctrine was nullified by the constitutional reform of 1994. Article 36 states: In 1526, after seizing power Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi made his brother, Umar Din, the de jure Sultan of the Adal Sultanate. Ahmad, however, was in all practice the de facto Sultan. Some other notable true de facto leaders have been Deng Xiaoping of the People's Republic of China and General Manuel Noriega of Panama. Both of these men exercised nearly all control over their respective nations for many years despite not having either legal constitutional office or the legal authority to exercise power. These individuals are today commonly recorded as the \"leaders\" of their respective nations; recording their legal, correct title would not give an accurate assessment of their power. Terms like \"strongman\" or \"dictator\" are often used to refer to de facto rulers of this sort. In the Soviet Union, after Vladimir Lenin was incapacitated from a stroke in 1923, Joseph Stalin—who, as General Secretary of the Communist Party had the power to appoint anyone he chose to top party positions—eventually emerged as leader of the Party and the legitimate government. Until the 1936 Soviet Constitution officially declared the Party \"...the vanguard of the working people\", thus legitimising Stalin's leadership, Stalin ruled the USSR as the de facto dictator. Another example of a de facto ruler is someone who is not the actual ruler but exerts great or total influence over the true ruler, which is quite common in monarchies. Some examples of these de facto rulers are Empress Dowager Cixi of China (for son Tongzhi and nephew Guangxu Emperors), Prince Alexander Menshikov (for his former lover Empress Catherine I of Russia), Cardinal Richelieu of France (for Louis XIII) and Queen Marie Caroline of Naples and Sicily (for her husband King Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies). The term \"de facto head of state\" is sometimes used to describe the office of a governor general in the Commonwealth realms, since a holder of that office has the same responsibilities in their country as the de jure head of state (the sovereign) does within the United Kingdom. In the Westminster system of government, executive authority is often split between a de jure executive authority of a head of state and a de facto executive authority of a prime minister and cabinet who implement executive powers in the name of the de jure executive authority. In the United Kingdom, the Sovereign is the de jure executive authority, even though executive decisions are made by the indirectly elected Prime Minister and her Cabinet on the Sovereign's behalf, hence the term Her Majesty's Government. The de facto boundaries of a country are defined by the area that its government is actually able to enforce its laws in, and to defend against encroachments by other countries that may also claim the same territory de jure. The Durand Line is an example of a de facto boundary. As well as cases of border disputes, de facto boundaries may also arise in relatively unpopulated areas in which the border was never formally established or in which the agreed border was never surveyed and its exact position is unclear. The same concepts may also apply to a boundary between provinces or other subdivisions of a federal state.", "In South Africa, although de jure apartheid formally began in 1948, de facto racist policies and practices discriminating against black South Africans, Coloureds, and Indians dated back decades before. De facto racial discrimination and segregation in the United States (outside of the South) until the 1950s and 1960s was simply discrimination that was segregation by law (de jure). \"Jim Crow laws\", which were enacted in the 1870s, brought legal racial segregation against black Americans residing in the American South. These laws were legally ended in 1964 by the Civil Rights Act of 1964.", "A de facto monopoly is a system where many suppliers of a product are allowed, but the market is so completely dominated by one that the others might as well not exist. The related terms oligopoly and monopsony are similar in meaning and this is the type of situation that antitrust laws are intended to eliminate.", "A domestic partner outside marriage is referred to as a de facto husband or wife by some authorities. In Australia and New Zealand, the phrase \"de facto\" by itself has become a colloquial term for one's domestic partner. In Australian law, it is the legally recognized, committed relationship of a couple living together (opposite-sex or same-sex). De facto unions are defined in the federal Family Law Act 1975. De facto relationships provide couples who are living together on a genuine domestic basis with many of the same rights and benefits as married couples. Two people can become a de facto couple by entering into a registered relationship (i.e.: civil union or domestic partnership) or by being assessed as such by the Family Court or Federal Circuit Court. Couples who are living together are generally recognised as a de facto union and thus able to claim many of the rights and benefits of a married couple, even if they have not registered or officially documented their relationship, although this may vary by state. It has been noted that it is harder to prove de facto relationship status, particularly in the case of the death of one of the partners. In April 2014, a federal court judge ruled that a heterosexual couple who had a child and lived together for 13 years were not in a de facto relationship and thus the court had no jurisdiction to divide up their property under family law following a request for separation. In his ruling, the judge stated \"de facto relationship(s) may be described as ‘marriage like’ but it is not a marriage and has significant differences socially, financially and emotionally.\" The above sense of de facto is related to the relationship between common law traditions and formal (statutory, regulatory, civil) law, and common-law marriages. Common law norms for settling disputes in practical situations, often worked out over many generations to establishing precedent, are a core element informing decision making in legal systems around the world. Because its early forms originated in England in the Middle Ages, this is particularly true in Anglo-American legal traditions and in former colonies of the British Empire, while also playing a role in some countries that have mixed systems with significant admixtures of civil law.", "Due to Australian federalism, de facto partnerships can only be legally recognised whilst the couple lives within a state in Australia. This is because the power to legislate on de facto matters relies on referrals by States to the Commonwealth in accordance with Section 51(xxxvii) of the Australian Constitution, where it states the new federal law can only be applied back within a state. There must be a state nexus between the de facto relationship itself and the Australian state. If an Australian de facto couple moves out of a state, they do not take the state with them and the new federal law is tied to the territorial limits of a state. The legal status and rights and obligations of the de facto or unmarried couple would then be recognised by the laws of the country where they are ordinarily resident. See the section on Family Court of Australia for further explanation on jurisdiction on de facto relationships. This is unlike marriage and \"matrimonial causes\" which are recognised by sections 51(xxi) and (xxii) of the Constitution of Australia and internationally by marriage law and conventions, Hague Convention on Marriages (1978).", "A de facto relationship is comparable to non-marital relationship contracts (sometimes called \"palimony agreements\") and certain limited forms of domestic partnership, which are found in many jurisdictions throughout the world. A de facto Relationship is not comparable to common-law marriage, which is a fully legal marriage that has merely been contracted in an irregular way (including by habit and repute). Only nine U.S. states and the District of Columbia still permit common-law marriage; but common law marriages are otherwise valid and recognised by and in all jurisdictions whose rules of comity mandate the recognition of any marriage that was legally formed in the jurisdiction where it was contracted.", "De facto joint custody is comparable to the joint legal decision-making authority a married couple has over their child(ren) in many jurisdictions (Canada as an example). Upon separation, each parent maintains de facto joint custody, until such time a court order awards custody, either sole or joint.", "Examples of a de facto General Manager in sports include Syd Thrift who acted as the GM of the Baltimore Orioles between 1999 and 2002. Bill Belichick, the head coach of the New England Patriots in the NFL does not hold the official title of GM, but serves as de facto general manager as he has control over drafting and other personnel decisions.", "In finance, the World Bank has a pertinent definition: A \"de facto government\" comes into, or remains in, power by means not provided for in the country's constitution, such as a coup d'état, revolution, usurpation, abrogation or suspension of the constitution. A de facto state of war is a situation where two nations are actively engaging, or are engaged, in aggressive military actions against the other without a formal declaration of war. In engineering, is a system in which the intellectual property and know-how is privately held. Usually only the owner of the technology manufactures the related equipment. Meanwhile, a consists of systems that have been publicly released to a certain degree so that anybody can manufacture equipment supporting the technology. For instance, in cell phone communications, CDMA1X is a de facto technology, while GSM is a standard technology." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Birth and rule in Aquitaine.", "Emperor.", "\"Ordinatio imperii\".", "Bernard's rebellion and Louis's penance.", "Frontier wars.", "First civil war.", "Second civil war.", "Third civil war.", "Death.", "Marriage and issue." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Louis was born while his father Charlemagne was on campaign in Spain, at the Carolingian villa of Cassinogilum, according to Einhard and the anonymous chronicler called Astronomus; the place is usually identified with Chasseneuil, near Poitiers. He was the third son of Charlemagne by his wife Hildegard. Louis was crowned King of Aquitaine as a three year old child in 781. In the following year he was sent to Aquitaine accompanied by regents and a court. Charlemagne constituted this sub-kingdom in order to secure the border of his realm after the destructive war against the Aquitanians and Basques under Waifer (capitulated \"c\". 768) and later Hunald II, which culminated in the disastrous Battle of Roncesvalles (778). Charlemagne wanted his son Louis to grow up in the area where he was to reign. However, in 785, wary of the customs his son may have been taking in Aquitaine, Charlemagne, who after Hildegard's death in 783, had remarried Fastrada, sent for Louis in 785. Louis presented himself in Saxony at the royal Council of Paderborn dressed in Basque costumes along with other youths in the same garment, which may have made a good impression in Toulouse, since the Basques of Vasconia were a mainstay of the Aquitanian army. In 794, Charlemagne gave four former Gallo-Roman villas to Louis, in the thought that he would take in each in turn as winter residence: Doué-la-Fontaine in today's Anjou, Ebreuil in Allier, Angeac-Charente, and the disputed Cassinogilum. Charlemagne's intention was to see all his sons brought up as natives of their given territories, wearing the national costume of the region and ruling by the local customs. Thus were the children sent to their respective realms at a young age. The marches - peripheral principalities - played a vital role as bullwarks against exterior threats to the empire. Louis reigned over the Spanish March. In 797, Barcelona, the largest city of the \"Marca\", fell to the Franks when Zeid, its governor, rebelled against Córdoba and, failing, handed it to them. The Umayyad authority recaptured it in 799. However, Louis marched the entire army of his kingdom, including Gascons with their duke Sancho I of Gascony, Provençals under Leibulf, and Goths under Bera, over the Pyrenees and besieged it for two years, wintering there from 800 to 801, when it capitulated. King Louis was formally invested with his armour in 791 at the age of fourteen. However, the princes were not given independence from central authority as Charlemagne wished to implant in them the concepts of empire and unity by sending them on remote military expeditions. Louis joined his brother Pippin at the Mezzogiorno campaign in Italy against the Duke Grimoald of Benevento at least once. Louis was one of Charlemagne's three legitimate sons to survive infancy. His twin brother, Lothair died during infancy. According to the Frankish custom of partible inheritance, Louis had expected to share his inheritance with his brothers, Charles the Younger, King of Neustria, and Pepin, King of Italy. In the \"Divisio Regnorum\" of 806, Charlemagne had slated Charles the Younger as his successor as emperor and chief king, ruling over the Frankish heartland of Neustria and Austrasia, while giving Pepin the Iron Crown of Lombardy, which Charlemagne possessed by conquest. To Louis's kingdom of Aquitaine, he added Septimania, Provence, and part of Burgundy. However, Charlemagne's other legitimate sons died – Pepin in 810 and Charles in 811 – and Louis was crowned co-emperor with an already ailing Charlemagne in Aachen in 813. On his father's death in 814, he inherited the entire Carolingian Empire and all its possessions (with the sole exception of the kingdom of Italy; although within Louis's empire, in 813 Charlemagne had ordered that Bernard, Pepin's son be made and called king).", "While at his villa of Doué-la-Fontaine, Anjou, Louis received news of his father's death. He rushed to Aachen and crowned himself emperor to shouts of \"Vivat Imperator Ludovicus\" by the attending nobles. Upon arriving at the imperial court in Aachen in an atmosphere of suspicion and anxiety on both sides, Louis's first act was to purge the palace of what he considered undesirable. He destroyed the old Germanic pagan tokens and texts which had been collected by Charlemagne. He further exiled members of the court he deemed morally \"dissolute\", including some of his own relatives. He quickly sent all of his many unmarried (half-)sisters and nieces to nunneries in order to avoid any possible entanglements from overly powerful brothers-in-law. Sparing his illegitimate half-brothers Drogo, Hugh and Theoderic, he forced his father's cousins, Adalard and Wala to be tonsured, placing them in into monastic exile at St-Philibert on the island of Noirmoutier and Corbie, respectively, despite the latter's initial loyalty. He made Bernard, margrave of Septimania, and Ebbo, Archbishop of Reims his chief counsellors. The latter, born a serf, was raised by Louis to that office, but betrayed him later. He retained some of his father's ministers, such as Elisachar, abbot of St. Maximin near Trier, and Hildebold, Archbishop of Cologne. Later he replaced Elisachar with Hildwin, abbot of many monasteries. He also employed Benedict of Aniane (the Second Benedict), a Septimanian Visigoth, whom he made abbot of the newly established \"Inden Monastery\" at Aix-la-Chapelle and charged him with the reform the Frankish church. One of Benedict's primary reforms was to ensure that all religious houses in Louis' realm adhered to the Rule of Saint Benedict, named for its creator, Benedict of Nursia. From the start of his reign, his coinage imitated his father Charlemagne's portrait, which gave it an image of imperial authority and prestige. In 816, Pope Stephen IV, who had succeeded Leo III, visited Reims and again crowned Louis on Sunday 5 October.", "On 9 April 817, Maundy Thursday, Louis and his court were crossing a wooden gallery from the cathedral to the palace in Aachen when the gallery collapsed, killing many. Louis, having barely survived and feeling the imminent danger of death, began planning for his succession. Three months later among the approval of his Aachen court and the clergy he issued an imperial decree of eighteen chapters, the \"Ordinatio Imperii\", that laid out plans for an orderly dynastic succession. The term \"Ordinatio Imperii\" is a modern (19th century) creation. The decree is called \"divisio imperii\" in the only surviving contemporary manuscript. In 815, Louis had already given his two eldest sons a share in the government, when he had sent his elder sons Lothair and Pepin to govern Bavaria and Aquitaine respectively, though without the royal titles. He proceeded to divide the empire among his three sons: If one of the subordinate kings died, he was to be succeeded by his sons. If he died childless, Lothair would inherit his kingdom. In the event of Lothair dying without sons, one of Louis the Pious' younger sons would be chosen to replace him by \"the people\". Above all, the Empire would not be divided: the Emperor would rule supreme over the subordinate kings, whose obedience to him was mandatory. With this settlement, Louis attempted to combine his sense for the Empire's unity, supported by the clergy, while at the same time providing positions for all of his sons. Instead of treating his sons equally in status and land, he elevated his first-born son Lothair above his younger brothers and gave him the largest part of the Empire as his share. The decree failed to create order as it omitted Bernard, who immediately began to conspire. When Louis began to issue changes in favor of his second wife Judith's son Charles the Bald, his sons Lothar, Pepin and Louis refused to accept. The rule of sons being favoured over brothers in succession remained also untouched.", "The \"ordinatio imperii\" of Aachen left Bernard in Italy in an uncertain and subordinate position as king of Italy, and he began plotting to declare independence. Upon hearing of this, Louis immediately directed his army towards Italy, and headed for Chalon-sur-Saône. Intimidated by the emperor's swift action, Bernard met his uncle at Chalon, under invitation, and surrendered. He was taken to Aachen by Louis, who there had him tried and condemned to death for treason. Louis had the sentence commuted to blinding, which was duly carried out; Bernard did not survive the ordeal, however, dying after two days of agony. Others also suffered: Theodulf of Orléans, in eclipse since the death of Charlemagne, was accused of having supported the rebellion, and was thrown into a monastic prison, dying soon afterwards; it was rumored that he had been poisoned. The fate of his nephew deeply marked Louis's conscience for the rest of his life. In 822, as a deeply religious man, Louis performed penance for causing Bernard's death, at his palace of Attigny near Vouziers in the Ardennes, before Pope Paschal I, and a council of clerics and nobles of the realm that had been convened for the reconciliation of Louis with his three younger half-brothers, Hugo whom he soon made abbot of St-Quentin, Drogo whom he soon made Bishop of Metz, and Theodoric. This act of contrition, partly in emulation of Theodosius I, had the effect of greatly reducing his prestige as a Frankish ruler, for he also recited a list of minor offences about which no secular ruler of the time would have taken any notice. He also made the egregious error of releasing Wala and Adalard from their monastic confinements, placing the former in a position of power in the court of Lothair and the latter in a position in his own house.", "At the start of Louis's reign, the many tribes – Danes, Obotrites, Slovenes, Bretons, Basques – which inhabited his frontierlands were still in awe of the Frankish emperor's power and dared not stir up any trouble. In 816, however, the Sorbs rebelled and were quickly followed by Slavomir, chief of the Obotrites, who was captured and abandoned by his own people, being replaced by Ceadrag in 818. Soon, Ceadrag too had turned against the Franks and allied with the Danes, who were to become the greatest menace of the Franks in a short time. A greater Slavic menace was gathering on the southeast. There, Ljudevit, duke of Pannonia, was harassing the border at the Drava and Sava rivers. The margrave of Friuli, Cadolah, was sent out against him, but he died on campaign and, in 820, his margravate was invaded by Slovenes. In 821, an alliance was made with Borna, duke of the Dalmatia, and Liudewit was brought to heel. In 824 several Slav tribes in the north-western parts of Bulgaria acknowledged Louis's suzerainty and after he was reluctant to settle the matter peacefully with the Bulgarian ruler Omurtag, in 827 the Bulgarians attacked the Franks in Pannonia and regained their lands. On the far southern edge of his great realm, Louis had to control the Lombard princes of Benevento whom Charlemagne had never subjugated. He extracted promises from Princes Grimoald IV and Sico, but to no effect. On the southwestern frontier, problems commenced early when c. 812, Louis the Pious crossed the western Pyrenees 'to settle matters' in Pamplona. The expedition made its way back north, where it narrowly escaped an ambush attempt arranged by the Basques in the pass of Roncevaux thanks to the precautions he took, i.e. hostages. Séguin, duke of Gascony, was then deposed by Louis in 816, possibly for failing to suppress or collaborating with the Basque revolt south of the western Pyrenees, so sparking off a Basque uprising that was duly put down by the Frankish emperor in Dax. Seguin was replaced by Lupus III, who was dispossessed in 818 by the emperor. In 820 an assembly at Quierzy-sur-Oise decided to send an expedition against the Cordoban caliphate (827). The counts in charge of the army, Hugh, count of Tours, and Matfrid, count of Orléans, were slow in acting and the expedition came to naught.", "In 818, as Louis was returning from a campaign to Brittany, he was greeted by news of the death of his wife, Ermengarde. Ermengarde was the daughter of Ingerman, the duke of Hesbaye. Louis had been close to his wife, who had been involved in policymaking. It was rumoured that she had played a part in her nephew's death and Louis himself believed her own death was divine retribution for that event. It took many months for his courtiers and advisors to convince him to remarry, but eventually he did, in 820, to Judith, daughter of Welf, count of Altdorf. In 823 Judith gave birth to a son, who was named Charles. The birth of this son damaged the \"Partition of Aachen\", as Louis's attempts to provide for his fourth son met with stiff resistance from his older sons, and the last two decades of his reign were marked by civil war. At Worms in 829, Louis gave Alemannia to Charles, with the title of king or duke (historians differ on this), thus enraging his son and co-emperor Lothair, whose promised share was thereby diminished. An insurrection was soon at hand. With the urging of the vengeful Wala and the cooperation of his brothers, Lothair accused Judith of having committed adultery with Bernard of Septimania, even suggesting Bernard to be the true father of Charles. Ebbo and Hildwin abandoned the emperor at that point, Bernard having risen to greater heights than either of them. Agobard, Archbishop of Lyon, and Jesse of Amiens, bishop of Amiens, too, opposed the redivision of the empire and lent their episcopal prestige to the rebels. In 830, at Wala's insistence that Bernard of Septimania was plotting against him, Pepin of Aquitaine led an army of Gascons, with the support of the Neustrian magnates, all the way to Paris. At Verberie, Louis the German joined him. At that time, the emperor returned from another campaign in Brittany to find his empire at war with itself. He marched as far as Compiègne, an ancient royal town, before being surrounded by Pepin's forces and captured. Judith was incarcerated at Poitiers and Bernard fled to Barcelona. Then Lothair finally set out with a large Lombard army, but Louis had promised his sons Louis the German and Pepin of Aquitaine greater shares of the inheritance, prompting them to shift loyalties in favour of their father. When Lothair tried to call a general council of the realm in Nijmegen, in the heart of Austrasia, the Austrasians and Rhinelanders came with a following of armed retainers, and the disloyal sons were forced to free their father and bow at his feet (831). Lothair was pardoned, but disgraced and banished to Italy. Pepin returned to Aquitaine and Judith – after being forced to humiliate herself with a solemn oath of innocence – to Louis's court. Only Wala was severely dealt with, making his way to a secluded monastery on the shores of Lake Geneva. Although Hilduin, abbot of Saint Denis, was exiled to Paderborn and Elisachar and Matfrid were deprived of their honours north of the Alps; they did not lose their freedom.", "The next revolt occurred a mere two years later, in 832. The disaffected Pepin was summoned to his father's court, where he was so poorly received he left against his father's orders. Immediately, fearing that Pepin would be stirred up to revolt by his nobles and desiring to reform his morals, Louis the Pious summoned all his forces to meet in Aquitaine in preparation of an uprising, but Louis the German garnered an army of Slav allies and conquered Swabia before the emperor could react. Once again the elder Louis divided his vast realm. At Jonac, he declared Charles king of Aquitaine and deprived Pepin (he was less harsh with the younger Louis), restoring the whole rest of the empire to Lothair, not yet involved in the civil war. Lothair was, however, interested in usurping his father's authority. His ministers had been in contact with Pepin and may have convinced him and Louis the German to rebel, promising him Alemannia, the kingdom of Charles. Soon Lothair, with the support of Pope Gregory IV, whom he had confirmed in office without his father's support, joined the revolt in 833. While Louis was at Worms gathering a new force, Lothair marched north. Louis marched south. The armies met on the plains of the Rothfeld. There, Gregory met the emperor and may have tried to sow dissension amongst his ranks. Soon much of Louis's army had evaporated before his eyes, and he ordered his few remaining followers to go, because \"it would be a pity if any man lost his life or limb on my account.\" The resigned emperor was taken to Saint-Médard de Soissons, his son Charles to Prüm, and the queen to Tortona. The despicable show of disloyalty and disingenuousness earned the site the name Field of Lies, or Lügenfeld, or Campus Mendacii, \"ubi plurimorum fidelitas exstincta est\". On 13 November 833, Ebbo, with Agobard of Lyon, presided over a synod at the Church of Saint Medard in Soissons which saw Louis undertake public penance for the second time in his reign. The penitential ritual that was undertaken began when Louis arrived at the church and confessed multiple times to the crimes levied against him. The crimes had been historic and recent, with accusations of oath breaking, violation of the public peace and inability to control his adulterous wife, Judith of Bavaria. Afterwards, he threw his sword belt at the base of the altar and received judgement through the imposition of the hands of the bishops. Louis was to live the rest of his life as a penitent, never to hold office again. The penance divided the aristocracy. The anonymous biographer of the Vita Hludovici criticized the whole affair on the basis that God does not judge twice for sins committed and confessed. Lothair's allies were generously compensated. Ebbo himself received the monastery of St Vaast whilst Pepin was allowed to keep the lands reclaimed from his father. Men like Rabanus Maurus, Louis' younger half-brothers Drogo and Hugh, and Emma, Judith's sister and Louis the German's new wife, worked on the younger Louis to make peace with his father, for the sake of unity of the empire. The humiliation to which Louis was then subjected at Notre Dame in Compiègne turned the loyal barons of Austrasia and Saxony against Lothair, and the usurper fled to Burgundy, skirmishing with loyalists near Chalon-sur-Saône. Louis was restored the next year, on 1 March 834. On Lothair's return to Italy, Wala, Jesse, and Matfrid, formerly count of Orléans, died of a pestilence. On 2 February 835 at the palace Thionville, Louis presided over a general council to deal with the events of the previous year. Known as the Synod of Thionville, Louis himself was reinvested with his ancestral garb and the crown, symbols of Carolingian rulership. Furthermore, the penance of 833 was officially reversed and Archbishop Ebbo officially resigned after confessing to a capital crime, whilst Agobard of Lyon and Bartholmew, Archbishop of Narbonne were also deposed. Later that year Lothair fell ill; once again the events turned in Louis favour. In 836, however, the family made peace and Louis restored Pepin and Louis, deprived Lothair of all save Italy, and gave it to Charles in a new division, given at the diet of Crémieu. At about that time, the Vikings terrorized and sacked Utrecht and Antwerp. In 837, they went up the Rhine as far as Nijmegen, and their king, Rorik, demanded the weregild of some of his followers killed on previous expeditions before Louis the Pious mustered a massive force and marched against them. They fled, but it would not be the last time they harried the northern coasts. In 838, they even claimed sovereignty over Frisia, but a treaty was confirmed between them and the Franks in 839. Louis the Pious ordered the construction of a North Sea fleet and the sending of \"missi dominici\" into Frisia to establish Frankish sovereignty there.", "In 837, Louis crowned Charles king over all of Alemannia and Burgundy and gave him a portion of his brother Louis' land. Louis the German promptly rose in revolt, and the emperor redivided his realm again at Quierzy-sur-Oise, giving all of the young king of Bavaria's lands, save Bavaria itself, to Charles. Emperor Louis did not stop there, however. His devotion to Charles knew no bounds. When Pepin died in 838, Louis declared Charles the new king of Aquitaine. The nobles, however, elected Pepin's son Pepin II. When Louis threatened invasion, the third great civil war of his reign broke out. In the spring of 839, Louis the German invaded Swabia, Pepin II and his Gascon subjects fought all the way to the Loire, and the Danes returned to ravage the Frisian coast (sacking Dorestad for a second time). Lothair, for the first time in a long time, allied with his father and pledged support at Worms in exchange for a redivision of the inheritance. At a final \"placitum\" held at Worms on 20 May, Louis gave Bavaria to Louis the German and disinherited Pepin II, leaving the entire remainder of the empire to be divided roughly into an eastern part and a western. Lothair was given the choice of which partition he would inherit and he chose the eastern, including Italy, leaving the western for Charles. The emperor quickly subjugated Aquitaine and had Charles recognised by the nobles and clergy at Clermont-en-Auvergne in 840. Louis then, in a final flash of glory, rushed into Bavaria and forced the younger Louis into the Ostmark. The empire now settled as he had declared it at Worms, he returned in July to Frankfurt am Main, where he disbanded the army. The final civil war of his reign was over.", "Louis fell ill soon after his final victorious campaigns and retreated to his summer hunting lodge on an island in the Rhine near his palace at Ingelheim. He died on 20 June 840 in the presence of many bishops and clerics and in the arms of his half-brother Drogo as he pardoned his son Louis, proclaimed Lothair emperor and commended the absent Charles and Judith to his protection. Soon dispute plunged the surviving brothers into yet another civil war. It lasted until 843 with the signing of the Treaty of Verdun, in which the division of the empire into three souvereign entities was settled. West Francia and East Francia became the kernels of modern France and Germany respectively. Middle Francia, that included Burgundy, the Low Countries and northern Italy among other regions was only short-lived until 855 and later reorganized as Lotharingia. The dispute over the kingship of Aquitaine was not fully settled until 860. Louis was buried in the Abbey of Saint-Arnould in Metz.", "By his first wife, Ermengarde of Hesbaye (married c. 794), he had three sons and three daughters: By his second wife, Judith of Bavaria, he had a daughter and a son: By Theodelinde of Sens, he had two illegitimate children:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Cultural and environmental features.", "Notable people.", "Official Honorary Citizens.", "Education.", "Demographics.", "Industry." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Established in the first decade of the eighth century and first attested in a document dated 854; Ribe is the oldest extant town in Denmark (and in Scandinavia). The town celebrated its 1300th anniversary in 2010. When Ansgar the Archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen, set out on the \"Mission to bring Christianity to the North\", he made a request in about 860, to King Horik II of Denmark, that the first Scandinavian church be built in Ribe. This was not coincidental, since Ribe already at that point was one of the most important trade cities in Scandinavia. However the presence of a bishop, and thus a cathedral, in Ribe can only be confirmed from the year 948. Recent archaeological excavations in Ribe have however led to the discovery of between 2,000 and 3,000 Christian graves. They have been dated to the ninth century indicating that a large Christian community was already living peacefully together with the Vikings at the time. Excavations conducted between 2008 and 2012 have also revealed more details of the original church built by Ansgar. The town has many well-preserved old buildings, Ribe Cathedral, and about 110 houses are under Heritage Protection. Denmark's oldest town hall is found on the town's \"Von Støckens Plads\". The building was erected in 1496, and was purchased by the city for use as a town hall in 1709.", "There are numerous cultural and environmental features of Ribe. Among the cultural highlights are notable churches and museums. The flora and fauna, while depleted in large part from the man-made development and surrounding agricultural land conversion, retain notable aspects of the natural environment. The Ribe River flows through town and hosts certain elements of riparian habitat. Certain notable birdlife is found in and near the town; the European white stork, \"Ciconia ciconia\", is one of the historic inhabitants of the town, choosing to build nests atop chimneys. This bird has steadily declined in population throughout Western Europe due to agricultural land conversion as well as droughts in its wintering range in Africa. The following list some of the specific town features:", "", "The following have been declared Honorary Citizens of Ribe: (By year)", "The town of Ribe has a long history as a center of learning. The cathedral school of \"Ribe Katedralskole\" has its roots in the Latin School of Ribe, dating back to at least 1145, when the bishop officially handed over the chapter's school. The school provided religious education of priests and clergymen up until 1805 and is nowadays a gymnasium (Danish high school). Ribe Katedralskole celebrated its 850th anniversary in 1995, and is the oldest continuously existing school in Scandinavia.", "The following table shows the population of Ribe. Data from before the eighteenth century are estimates, the rest are taken from the official census.", "Dancake has a factory in Ribe." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Name.", "Orthography.", "Grammar.", "\"Long\".", "\"Blong\".", "Verbs.", "Nouns.", "Pronouns.", "Tense/aspect/mood markers.", "Internal variation.", "Literature and samples." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "During the period of \"blackbirding\" in the 1870s and 1880s, hundreds of thousands of Pacific islanders (many of them from the New Hebrides – now the Vanuatu archipelago) were taken as indentured labourers, often kidnapped, and forced to work on plantations, mainly in Queensland, Australia, and Fiji. With several languages being spoken in these plantations a localised pidgin was formed, combining English vocabulary with grammatical structures typical of languages in the region. This early plantation pidgin is the origin not only of Bislama, but also of Tok Pisin in Papua New Guinea, and Pijin of the Solomon Islands; though not of Torres Strait Creole in the north of Australia. This creole started spreading throughout the Vanuatu archipelago at the turn of the 20th century, as former blackbirds and their descendants began to return to their native islands. Knowledge of this creole would facilitate communication not only with European traders and settlers, but also between native populations, and because Vanuatu is the most language-dense country in the world (one count puts it at 113 languages for a population of 225,000), Bislama usefully serves as a lingua franca for communication between ni-Vanuatu, as well as with and between foreigners. Although it has been primarily a spoken-only language for most of its history, the first dictionary of Bislama was published in 1995. This, along with its second edition in 2004, has helped to create a standardised and uniform spelling of written Bislama. Besides Bislama, most ni-Vanuatu also know their local language, the local language of their father and/or mother, as well as their spouse, oftentimes. The country's official languages of tuition in schools and educational institutions are English and/or French.", "The name of Bislama (also referred to, especially in French, as \"Bichelamar\") comes via the early 19th century word \"Beach-la-Mar\" from pseudo-French \"biche de mer\" or \"bêche de mer\", sea cucumber, which itself comes from an alteration of the Portuguese \"bicho do mar\". In the early 1840s, sea cucumbers were also harvested and dried at the same time that sandalwood was gathered. The names \"biche-la-mar\" and 'Sandalwood English' came to be associated with the kind of pidgin that came to be used by the local laborers between themselves, as well as their English-speaking overseers. Robert Louis Stevenson wrote in an account of his travels through the Pacific in 1888 and 1889, \"the natives themselves have often scraped up a little English... or an efficient pidgin, what is called to the westward 'Beach-la-Mar'.\" In Jack London's story \"Yah! Yah! Yah!\", one of his \"South Sea Tales\", there is repeated a reference to \"a bastard lingo called \"bech-de-mer\"\", and much of the story's dialogue is conducted in it. Today, the word \"bislama\" itself is seldom used by younger speakers of Bislama to refer to sea slugs, as a new re-borrowing from pseudo-French \"bêche de mer\", which has taken the form \"besdemea\", has become more popular.", "The Bislama Latin alphabet uses the letters \"A, B, D, E, F, G, H, I, J, K, L, M, N, NG, O, P, R, S, T, U, V, W, Y\" and the digraphs \"AE\" and \"AO\". An older Latin orthography, used before 1995, had \"É\" (now written \"E\"), \"AI\" and \"AU\" (now \"AE\" and \"AO\"). For those vowels in hiatus, \"AÏ\" and \"AÜ\" were used (now written \"AI\" and \"AU\"). Labialized consonants, now written \"MW\" and \"PW\", were then spelled with a macron, following the conventions used for some vernacular Vanuatu languages: \"M̄\" was used for and \"P̄\" for. On the island of Pentecost, the avoiuli script is sometimes used for Bislama. The shapes of the letters derive from sand-drawing. It has distinct letters for \"NG\" and \"NGG\", but otherwise corresponds closely to the Latin alphabet above, though capitals are seldom used, punctuation differs, there are digits for higher numbers and logograms for commonly traded commodities such as pig tusks.", "Two frequent words in Bislama are \"long\" and \"blong\", which take the place of many prepositions in English or French.", "\"Long\" holds many other related meanings, and is sometimes used in improvisation.", "Originally from the English word \"belong\", \"blong\" takes the place of 'of' or the genitive case in other languages. Just like \"of\" in English, it is one of the most widely used and versatile words in the language, and can indicate possession, country of origin, defining characteristics, intention, and others.", "Verbs in Bislama usually consist of a stem word (borrowed from English, French or indigenous languages); most transitive verbs add to this a transitive suffix. The form of that suffix is /-em/, /-im/, or /-um/, depending on vowel harmony. If the last vowel of the verb's stem is either -u- or -i-, then that vowel will normally be copied into the transitive suffix – however, there are rare exceptions. For all other stem vowels, the transitive suffix has its default form /-em/: Note that exceptions exist, such as \"lukim\" (\"look\"). Examples of transitive verbs which exceptionally \"don't\" take this suffix include: \"kakae\" 'eat, bite'; \"trink\" 'drink'; \"save\" 'know'; \"se\"'say'. Verbs do not conjugate. The tense, aspect and mood of a sentence are indicated with markers such as \"stap\", \"bin\" and \"bae\" that are placed in the sentence.", "The plural is formed by putting \"ol\" before the word. For example, \"bia\" 'beer'; \"ol bia\" = \"beers\". \"Ol\" comes from the English \"all\". When used with numbers, the singular form is used. 2 bia, 3 bia, etc.", "The personal pronouns of Bislama feature four grammatical numbers (singular, dual, trial and plural). They also encode the clusivity distinction: 1st person non-singular pronouns (equivalent of English \"we\") are described as \"inclusive\" if they include the addressee (i.e. {you + I}, {you + I + others}), but \"exclusive\" otherwise (i.e. {I + other people}). Bislama pronouns do not decline. The third person singular \"hem\", also written \"em\" lacks gender distinction, so it can mean either he, she or it. The predicate marker i – a particle which is placed before the verbal phrase of a sentence – is sometimes merged with the third person pronoun, giving the words hemi and emi, respectively, in singular, and oli in plural.", "Some of these markers also have lexical meanings. For example, \"save\" can mean \"be able to\" but it is also a verb \"know\".", "Dialects exist, based mainly on different pronunciations in different areas which stem from the different sounds of the native languages. The future tense marker can be heard to be said as: Bambae, Mbae, Nambae, or Bae. There are also preferences for using Bislama or native words that vary from place to place, and most people insert English, French, or local language words to fill out Bislama. So in the capital city it is common to hear 'computer'; in other places you might hear 'ordinateur'.", "The longest written work in Bislama is the Bible completed in 1998." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Governance and structure.", "Moderator.", "Governance structure.", "Ministry.", "Beliefs and practices.", "Bible.", "Sacraments.", "Communion.", "Baptism.", "Inclusiveness.", "Marriage.", "Interfaith relations.", "Abortion.", "Membership.", "Benefits of membership.", "Transfer of membership and removal from rolls.", "History.", "Inauguration.", "Crest.", "1930s.", "1940s.", "1950s.", "1960s.", "1970s.", "1980s.", "1990s.", "2000s.", "2010s.", "Music.", "Public positions and policies.", "Indigenous people.", "Criticism from outside the church." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The rules for governance are set out in \"The Manual\", first written in 1925, and updated on a regular basis.", "The voice and face of the church is the Moderator, who is elected to a three-year term at each General Council. The duties of the Moderator include: Currently, the Right Rev. Dr. Richard Bott holds the position following his election at the 43rd General Council in July 2018.", "For the first 92 years of its existence, administration was shared among four courts, or levels: In 2019 the church moved to a three-council model:", "The clergy of the United Church are called \"ministers\". There are two \"streams\", \"ordered ministry\" and \"lay ministry\". Ordered ministry includes \"ordained\" ministers and \"diaconal\" ministers. Lay ministry refers to \"licensed lay worship leaders\", \"designated lay ministers\" (DLM), \"sacraments elders\" and \"congregational designated ministers\" (CDM). There are no restrictions on gender, sexual orientation, age, or marital status for any branches of ministry.", "", "The United Church believes that the Bible is central to the Christian faith and was written by people who were inspired by God. The church also believes that the circumstances under which the books of the Bible were written were of a particular place and time, and some things cannot be reconciled with our lives today, such as slavery. The United Church of Canada uses the historical-critical method of interpreting the bible.", "The two sacraments of the United Church are Communion and Baptism.", "Communion is the ritual sharing of the elements of bread and wine (or, more commonly, grape juice) as a remembrance of the Last Supper that Jesus shared with his followers. It is usually celebrated at a table at the front of the sanctuary, where the minister blesses the elements before they are distributed to the congregation. There is no restriction regarding age or United Church membership—Communion is open to young children as well as Christians from other denominations. The actual distribution can take several forms, including passing a tray of bread cubes and another tray of small juice glasses from person to person, and then eating the bread and drinking the juice in unison; and \"intinction\", where each person takes a piece of bread, dips it into a cup of juice and then eats the juice-soaked bread. There is no guideline for frequency. Some congregations celebrate communion once a month, others on a quarterly basis.", "The belief of the United Church is that baptism is not a requirement for God's love; it is not considered a passport to heaven, nor does the church believe that those who die unbaptised are condemned or damned for eternity. Rather, the church believes that baptism is the first step in church membership, where the parents make a profession of faith on behalf of the infant in the hope that their child will later confirm that profession at or around the age of 13. The United Church practices infant baptism, but in cases where a person was not baptised as an infant, baptism can be performed at any age. In the case of infant baptism, the parents of the infant, before the congregation, agree to a series of statements about the beliefs of the United Church on behalf of their child. They also promise to encourage the child to seek full membership at an appropriate time. The members of the congregation also promise the parents that they will help to raise the child in a Christian community. The minister then places water on the candidate's head three times (expressing the Trinity of Father, Son and Holy Spirit) and traces a cross on the person's forehead with water. Baptism by immersion is also an option for adults who request it. In the 1970s, the United Church reached an ecumenical agreement with the Presbyterian, Lutheran, Catholic, and Anglican churches in Canada that baptisms within these churches are mutually recognized as valid. Further to that, the United Church recognizes the validity of any baptism by another denomination that was performed with water and in the name of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit.", "Remembering that Jesus was reported to have welcomed tax collectors, sex workers and other \"undesirables\" to his table, the church attempts to welcome everyone, regardless of age, race, class, gender, sexual orientation, or physical ability. In the same manner, there is also no restriction on those interested in entering ministry.", "Believing that marriage is a celebration of God's love, the church recognizes and celebrates all legal marriages, including same-sex couples, previously divorced people, and couples of different religions. The actual policy of whom to marry is left up to the church council of each community of faith. For instance, one congregation might not allow same-sex marriages to be performed in their building, while another allows all marriages regardless of sexual orientation.", "The church believes that there are many paths to God. The United Church's path is through Jesus Christ, but the church also recognizes that Christians' understanding of this is limited by an incomplete comprehension of God; their belief is that the Holy Spirit of God is also at work through other non-Christian faiths.", "The church supports the right of women to have access to safe abortions that are covered by provincial health care, but also supports better access to contraception, sexual education, and counselling that might eventually make abortion unnecessary.", "A full member is one who has been baptised, either as infant, child, youth or adult, and has made a public profession of faith before the congregation. Membership is not required in order to worship at a United Church, and many who regularly attend worship are adherents rather than members. In order to become a full member, a person goes through a process called \"confirmation\". This is offered to adults (starting at around age 13) and usually involves a series of classes about the beliefs of the United Church. Following this, the candidate makes a public profession of faith before the congregation, thereby \"confirming\" the statements made by his or her parents during baptism. If the person is unbaptised, the minister baptises the person before the profession of faith. The new member's name is then entered on the official Roll of Members for that congregation.", "Only members can be a part of a congregation's board or council, and only members can vote at congregational meetings, although members can vote to extend voting privileges to adherents.", "Although confirmation takes place at the congregational level, the person is a member of the entire United Church of Canada, not just one congregation; therefore membership can be transferred freely from congregation to congregation. A congregation may remove members from its roll for non-attendance. (\"The Manual\" suggests an absence of three years, but the congregation is free to set its own period of time)", "In the early 20th century, the main Evangelical Protestant denominations in Canada were the Presbyterian, Methodist and Congregational churches. Many small towns and villages across Canada had all three, with the town's population divided among them. Especially on the prairies, it was difficult to find clergy to serve all these charges, and there were several instances where one minister would serve his congregation, but would also perform pastoral care for the other congregations that lacked a minister. On the prairies, a movement to unite all three major Protestant denominations began, resulting in the Association of Local Union Churches. Facing a \"de facto\" union in the western provinces, the three denominations began a slow process of union talks that eventually produced a \"Basis for Union\". However, not all elements of the churches involved were happy with the idea of uniting under one roof; a substantial minority of Presbyterians remained unconvinced of the virtues of church union. Their threat to the entire project was resolved by giving individual Presbyterian congregations the right to vote on whether to enter or remain outside the United Church. In the end, 302 out of 4,509 congregations of the Presbyterian Church (211 from southern Ontario) chose to reconstitute themselves as a \"continuing\" Presbyterian Church in Canada.", "The United Church of Canada is an amalgamation of the Union of Methodists, Presbyterian and Congregational churches. With the three denominations now in agreement about uniting, the church leaders approached the government of Canada to pass legislation concerning transfer of property rights. The legislation passed, June 27, 1924, and was effective June 10, 1925. The United Church of Canada was inaugurated at a large worship service at Toronto's Mutual Street Arena on June 10, 1925. Participants were handed 38-page order of service containing the full text of the liturgy, prayers, hymns, and music. Hymns from all three churches were sung: \"All people that on earth do dwell\" from the Scottish Presbyterian psalm tradition; the Methodist favourite \"O for a thousand tongues to sing\" by Charles Wesley; the Congregationalist \"O God of Bethel\"; and \"When I survey the wondrous cross\" by the British Nonconformist, Isaac Watts. The ecumenical tone of the new church was set at this first General Council. The former Methodist General Superintendent S. D. Chown was considered the leading candidate to become the first Moderator because the Methodist Church made up the largest segment of the new United Church. However, in a surprise move, Dr. Chown graciously stepped aside in favour of George C. Pidgeon, the moderator of the Presbyterian Church and principal spokesperson for the uniting Presbyterians, in the hopes that this would strengthen the resolve of the Presbyterians who had chosen to join the new Church. Dr. S.D. Chown, United Church was featured on an 8 cent stamp issued by Canada Post on May 30, 1975.", "The crest that was designed for the new church is a \"vesica piscis\", an early Christian symbol that evoked an upended fish (the initials of the phrase \"Jesus Christ, Son of God, Saviour\" in Greek spell ιχθύς, \"icthyos\", meaning \"fish\"). The central saltire is also the Greek letter Chi, first letter of \"Χριστός\", Greek for \"Christ\". Within three of the four quadrants are the symbols of the founding churches: Presbyterianism (the burning bush), Methodism (the dove) and Congregationalism (the open Bible). In the bottom quadrant, the alpha and omega represents the ever-living God (Revelation 1:8). The motto \"Ut omnes unum sint\" recalls John 17:21: \"That all may be one\". The crest resembles the emblem of the Church of Scotland. In 2012, the Mohawk phrase \"\"Akwe Nia'tetewá:neren\"\" (\"All my relations\") was added to the perimeter ribbon, and the background colours of the four quadrants of the crest were changed to reflect the traditional colours of the First Nations medicine wheel.", "In 1930, just as mergers of the congregations, colleges and administrative offices of the various denominations were completed and the \"United Church Hymnary\" was published, Canada was hit by the Great Depression. Although membership remained stable, attendance and givings fell. In the face of overwhelming unemployment, some in the church, both clergy and laity, called for a radical Christian socialist alternative such as the Fellowship for a Christian Social Order. Other more conservative members felt drawn to the message of the Oxford Group that focussed on the wealthier members of society. The great majority of members between these two extremes simply sought to help the unemployed. In the United States, Methodists had been ordaining women from 1880, but it was still a contentious issue in Canada, and it was not until 1936 that the Reverend Lydia Emelie Gruchy of Saskatchewan Conference became the first woman in the United Church to be ordained and, in 1953, she became the first Canadian woman to receive an honorary Doctor of Divinity degree.", "The Second World War was also a divisive issue. Some who had declared themselves pacifist before the war now struggled to reconcile their philosophy with the reality around them. Others remained pacifist—some 65 clergy signed \"A Witness Against War\" in 1939. But the church as a whole, although it did not support conscription, supported the overall war effort, both on the home front and by providing chaplains for the armed forces. Although the forced relocation of Japanese Canadians away from the West Coast was supported by most members across Canada, church leaders and missionaries in B.C. spoke out against it, and the churches on the West Coast set up an Emergency Japanese Committee to help fight for the rights of the dislocated people. In 1943, the Anglican Church invited other denominations to union talks, and the United Church responded enthusiastically; by 1946, the two churches had issued a statement on mutual ministry. In a similar ecumenical vein, the United Church was one of the founding bodies of the Canadian Council of Churches in 1944 and the World Council of Churches in 1946. In 1925, The United Church had inherited responsibility for some native residential schools that were designed to assimilate native children into Canadian culture. By the 1940s, thinking had begun to change about the underlying assumptions, and in 1949, the church began to close the schools in its care.", "The United Church continued to espouse causes that were not politically popular, issuing statements supporting universal health care and the People's Republic of China at their 15th General Council at a time when these were considered radical concepts in North America. Membership and givings increased dramatically as post-war parents started to bring their young families—the Baby Boomers—to church. Talks with the Anglican Church had not made significant headway during the decade, but in 1958, the two churches decided to continue the conversation.", "In 1962, two women's auxiliary organizations, Woman's Association and Woman's Missionary Society, join together to form the United Church Women (UCW). That same year, the United and Anglican Churches jointly published \"Growth in Understanding\", a study guide on union, and on June 1, 1965 the \"Principles of Union\" between the United Church and the Anglican Church. The spirit of ecumenism with other denominations stayed strong throughout the decade, culminating in 1968 when the Canada Conference of The Evangelical United Brethren Church joined the United Church. The high tide mark of membership was reached in 1965 when the church recorded 1,064,000 members. However, there were already rumblings of discontent in the church: that same year, Pierre Berton wrote \"The Comfortable Pew\", a bestseller that was highly critical of Canadian churches, and a United Church \"Commission on Ministry in the 20th Century\" was appointed in response to growing frustration from congregations, presbyteries, and ministers about the role of ministry. The church lost 2,027 members in 1966, a decline of only two-tenths of a percent, but significantly it marked the first time since amalgamation that membership had fallen. The Vietnam War brought new controversies to the church when in 1968, the secretary of the national Evangelism and Social Service Committee, the Reverend Ray Hord, offered emergency aid to American Vietnam draft dodgers; the General Council Executive disassociated itself from the decision but within two years it became church policy.", "In 1971, the ecumenical movement reached its height as a joint commission the United and Anglican Churches and the Disciples of Christ approved a \"Plan of Union\", and \"The Hymn Book\", a joint publication of the United and Anglican Churches was published. The tide quickly turned though, and in 1975, the Anglican House of Bishops and National Executive Council declared that the \"Plan of Union\" was unacceptable. However, the Anglican, Lutheran, Presbyterian, Catholic, and United churches did agree to recognize the validity of Christian baptisms performed in any of these denominations. Membership continued to decline slowly throughout the decade, despite a report that lay ministry was on the increase.", "In 1980, at the 29th General Council, the commissioning of diaconal ministers as a part of ordered ministry was approved. On August 16, 1980, the 28th General Council elected the first female Moderator, the Reverend Lois Wilson. On August 17, 1980, a United Church of Canada task force released \"In God's Image\", its report on sexual ethics which recommended the admission of homosexuals into the ministry and tolerance of premarital sex. Although the report accepted abortion under qualified circumstances, it rejected abortion on demand. With union talks with the Anglicans already at end, talks with the Disciples of Christ also ended in 1985. In 1986, the 31st General Council elected a female Moderator, Anne M. Squire. In 1988, the 32nd General Council chose to end investment in South Africa, apologize to First Nations congregations for past denials of native spirituality by the church, and elected the first Moderator of Asian descent, Sang Chul Lee. However, those events were largely overshadowed when the commissioners passed a statement called \"Membership, Ministry and Human Sexuality\" that stated \"all persons, regardless of sexual orientation, who profess their faith in Jesus Christ are welcome to be or become members of The United Church of Canada\" and that \"all members of the United Church are eligible to be considered for ordered ministry.\" Taken together, these two statements opened the door for openly gay men and women to join the ministry. Many members opposed this, and over the next four years, membership fell by 78,184. In some cases, entire congregations split, with a sizeable faction—sometimes led by the minister—leaving to form an independent church. Some of those opposed to the gay ordination issue chose to stay in the church, and formed the \"Community of Concern\", a voice of conservatism within the church.", "In the 1990s, the United Church faced the legacy of cultural assimilation and child abuse in the residential schools that it had once helped to operate. On May 24, 1992, Tim Stevenson was the first openly gay minister ordained by the United Church of Canada. On August 17, 1992, the first Native Canadian Moderator, the Reverend Stan McKay, a Cree man, was elected at the 34th General Council. Two years later, the church established a \"Healing Fund\". This was followed in 1998 by an apology made by the church to former students of United Church Indian Residential Schools. At the 35th General Council in 1994, commissioners voted to have General Councils every three years rather than every two years. This also increased the length of term of Moderators from two to three years. The original General Council office of the church built in 1925 resided on increasingly valuable land on St. Clair Avenue in downtown Toronto, Ontario. In 1995, facing increasing financial pressure from falling donations, the church sold the building and moved out to the suburb of Etobicoke. In 1996, a new hymnary, \"Voices United\", replaced the joint United-Anglican \"The Hymn Book\". Response from congregations was enthusiastic, and by 2010, over 300,000 copies had been printed. In 1996, the Committee on Archives and History compiled the \"Guide to family history research in the archival repositories of the United Church of Canada\". In 1997, the Reverend Bill Phipps was elected Moderator at the 36th General Council. Controversy again descended on the church when later the same year, Phipps stated in an interview that 'I don't believe Jesus was God' and that he did not believe that Jesus physically rose from the dead.", "In the new century, membership and givings both continued to drop, and in 2001 the General Council offices were reorganized as a cost-cutting measure. In 2005, the church urged the Canadian Parliament to vote in favour of same-sex marriage legislation; after the legislation had been passed, the church urged the government not to reopen the issue. The church continued to deal with the consequences of the Native residential school issue. In 2005, the church welcomed the Agreement in Principle announced by the Government of Canada and the Assembly of First Nations, which outlined a comprehensive resolution package for former students of Indian Residential Schools; and the following year, the church agreed to sign the Indian Residential Schools Settlement Agreement. In 2006, the 39th General Council approved the use of a generous bequest to start up \"Emerging Spirit\", a promotional campaign aimed at drawing 30- to 40-year-olds into a conversation about faith. As part of this campaign, \"Emerging Spirit\" used controversial magazine advertisements featuring, among other images, a bobble-head Jesus, a marriage cake with two grooms holding hands, Jesus sitting on Santa's chair in a mall, and a can of whipped cream with the caption \"How much fun can sex be before it's a sin?\".", "In 2012, the 41st General Council elected Gary Paterson as the first openly gay Moderator. The commissioners also voted to invite First Nations peoples to become signatories to the Basis of Union. (In 1925, several aboriginal congregations of the original founding churches were automatically made part of the new United Church although the congregations had not been asked to participate in church Union negotiations, and had not been asked to sign the Basis of Union document.) In addition, the original church crest (adopted in 1944 with French added in 1980) was modified by changing the background colours of the four quadrants of the crest, as well as adding the Mohawk phrase \"\"Akwe Nia'Tetewá:neren\"\" (\"All my relations\") to the crest's perimeter. After much debate, Commissioners also voted to adopt the recommendations of the Report of the Working Group on Israel/Palestine Policy, which included a boycott of products from Israeli settlements and a campaign of \"encouraging members of the United Church to avoid any and all products produced in the settlements.\" This was the church's first boycott since an anti-apartheid boycott against South Africa in the 1980s. According to the report, the authors consulted with Canadian-based Palestinian organizations, as well as \"Jewish rabbis, individuals and organizations\" among others. Still it incited controversy, with several groups campaigning against the decision, including protests of the decision by several Canadian Jewish groups. In 2015, at the 42nd General Council, delegates voted in favour of several \"denomination-changing\" proposals, including a reorganization from a four-court structure to a three-council structure; elimination of \"settlement\", the practice of telling newly ordained ministers where they would first serve; reorganization of the process of finding and training ministers; and a new funding model. These changes were subsequently approved by the wider church, and ratified at the 43rd General Council in July 2018. In 2015, a debate emerged regarding whether or not United Church minister Gretta Vosper, an avowed atheist, was suitable for ministry. The United Church instituted an ecclesiastical hearing that could have led to her dismissal as minister. However, in 2018, Vosper and Toronto Conference reached a settlement in which all outstanding matters were resolved. Vosper continues to serve at West Hill United Church. In response to this internal decision, the offices of the General Council released a statement saying, \"This [decision] doesn't alter in any way the belief of the United Church of Canada in God, a God most fully revealed to us as Christians in and through Jesus Christ. Our church's statements of faith over the years have all been grounded in this understanding.\"", "The United Church has issued four hymn books:", "", "Until 1969, the United Church of Canada was involved with and supported the Canadian Indian residential school system, which resulted in a painful legacy for many Aboriginal people and their communities. While the United Church's level of involvement was perhaps less egregious than its sister churches the Anglican Church of Canada and assorted Catholic orders, its contribution was significant. Of approximately 80,000 students alive today, about 10 percent attended United Church run schools.", "A. C. Forrest, the editor of the \"United Church Observer\" in the 1960s and 1970s (and by extension the United Church itself) came under strong attack from the Canadian Jewish community for frequent editorial espousal of Palestinian rights in Israel, on the West Bank and in Gaza; many within the United Church were also uncomfortable with Forrest's position, though ultimately the church adjudged a plurality of opinion on this (and other matters) as consistent with United Church open-mindedness. The \"National Post\" has published several articles critical of the United Church of Canada. (August 19, 2009: \"United Church is blind to true suffering\"; August 14, 2009: \"United Church's uncertain future\") An article by Charles Lewis, published on May 14, 2011, set out what Lewis sees as the issues that beset the United Church: the church's \"big tent\" approach to believers, accepting even atheists as members; and lack of doctrinal orthodoxy." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Family background.", "Adulthood.", "Reign as king.", "Royal election.", "Early reign.", "Unrest in Italy.", "Reign as Emperor.", "Imperial coronation.", "Uprising in Swabia.", "Conflict with Adalbero.", "Policy towards the Church.", "Relations with Poland.", "War with Mieszko.", "Treaty of Merseburg.", "Relations with Eastern Europe.", "Bohemia.", "Hungary.", "Conquest of Burgundy.", "Politics.", "Late life.", "Securing the imperial succession.", "Second Italian expedition.", "Death.", "Family and children." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The origins of the Salian dynasty can be traced back to Count Werner V of Worms, a Frankish nobleman from the Duchy of Franconia to the east of the Rhine River. His son, Conrad the Red, succeeded him as Count in 941. King Otto I (the future Holy Roman Emperor) elevated him to Duke of Lorraine in 944. He subsequently married Liutgarde, one of Otto's daughters in 947 and rose to become one of the king's closest allies. The relationship, however deteriorated, when Otto refused to honor a", "In 1016 Conrad married the twice widowed duchess Gisela of Swabia, daughter of Duke Herman II of Swabia who, in 1002, had unsuccessfully claimed the German throne upon Emperor Otto III's death, and had lost the election to Emperor Henry II. Gisela had first been married to Count Bruno I of Brunswick the same year. Following Bruno's death around 1010, Gisela had married Ernest I of the House of Babenberg. Through this marriage, Ernest I inherited the Duchy of Swabia upon the death of Gisela's brother Duke Herman III of Swabia in 1012. The marriage produced two sons: Ernest II and Herman. After the death of Ernest I in 1015, Emperor Henry II named Ernest II as Duke of Swabia. As Gisela's new husband, Conrad hoped to serve as regent for his minor stepson in the administration of the duchy, seeing it as an opportunity to increase his own", "", "Emperor Henry II died in 1024. Childless, Henry's death brought the Ottonian dynasty, which had ruled Germany since 919, to an end. Without a clear successor to the German throne, Henry's widow Cunigunde of Luxembourg served as regent while the German dukes gathered to elect a new king. Cunigunde was assisted by her brothers Bishop Dietrich I of Metz and Duke Henry V of Bavaria. Archbishop Aribo of Mainz, the primate of Germany, also assisted Cunigunde. On 4 September 1024, the German princes gathered at Kamba, a historical name for an area on the east banks of the Rhine River opposite the modern German town of Oppenheim. Now the location of \"Kamba\" is marked with a small equestrian statue of Conrad II. The chronicler and Conrad's chaplain, Wipo of Burgundy attended the meeting and documented the event. Archbishop Aribo presided over the assembly. Conrad presented himself as a candidate for election, as did his younger cousin Conrad. Both were descendants of Emperor Otto I by their common grandfather Otto of Worms, son of Liutgarde, one of Otto's daughters. Although further", "Conrad inherited a kingdom troubled by problems. The dukes of Saxony and Lorraine and his cousin Conrad of Carinthia opposed his rule. In order to strengthen his position, Conrad and Gisela embarked on a royal tour. At Augsburg Conrad received the support of Bishop Bruno and at Strasbourg he acquired the support of Bishop Werner. Both men were brothers of former emperor Henry II and Conrad appointed them to highest office at his court. After visiting Cologne Conrad stopped at", "In Bavaria, Conrad came into contact with members of the Italian ruling elite for the first time. In June 1025, bishops from Northern Italy, led by Archbishop Aribert of Milan, crossed the Alps in order to pay homage to Conrad. In exchange for certain administrative privileges, Aribert agreed to crown Conrad King. However,the situation in Italy had become increasingly unstable after the death of the Henry II. Amidst occasional riots many Italian aristocrats demanded the secession of the Kingdom of Italy from the Holy Roman Empire. The local aristocrats and merchants increasingly considered the idea of Frankish ultramontan protection against Saracen and Byzantine threats to be obsolete. The Italian throne was now viewed as vacant", "", "On March 26, 1027, Pope John XIX crowned Conrad and his wife Gisela as Emperor and Empress, respectively, in Old Saint Peter's Basilica in Rome. The event lasted seven days and was attended by Conrad's son and heir Henry, Cnut the Great, King of England, Denmark and Norway, Rudolph III of Burgundy and around 70 senior clerics, including the Archbishops of Cologne, Mainz, Trier, Magdeburg, Salzburg, Milan, and Ravenna. Rudolph of Burgundy's attendance suggested surprisingly good relations between Burgundy and the Holy Roman Empire. During the festivities a power struggle between the archbishops of Milan and Ravenna ensued and was settled in favor of Milan. Subsequently, Conrad left Rome and toured south to receive homage from the Southern Italian principalities of Capua and Salerno and the Duchy of Benevento. After his coronation, Conrad issued decrees, that outlined the reorganisation of the monasteries and dioceses of Italy with the explicit objective to bring the Patriarchate of Venice under imperial control (see the \"Schism of the Three Chapters\"). On April 6, 1027, at a synod held in the Lateran Basilica with Pope", "In 1025, Duke Ernest II of Swabia, Conrad's stepson from his marriage to Gisela of Swabia, rebelled against his stepfather when he was elected king of Germany. By 1026, Conrad had defeated the resistance and Ernest submitted to his reign. Due to the intervention of his mother Gisela, Ernest was allowed to accompany Conrad on his expedition to Italy in 1026. During the expedition, the rebellion led by Conrad of Carinthia and Count Welf II of Swabia continued. Conrad had named Bishop Bruno of Augsburg regent of Germany while he marched south to Italy. When Bruno was defeated by the rebels, Conrad sent Ernest back to Germany in September 1026 to end the revolt. When Ernest returned, he joined the opposition and rebelled against Conrad again. In 1027 Conrad returned to Germany after his imperial coronation and held court at Augsburg, calling upon the rebels to surrender. Ernest, trusting in the number and fidelity of his vassals, rejected the peace offer and appealed to his Swabian counts to join him in the rebellion. According to Wipo of Burgundy, the counts refused, stating that while they had sworn loyalty to Ernest, they", "Conrad had to enforce his royal prerogatives in the Duchy of Carinthia and the Duchy of Swabia. Duke Adalbero of Carinthia had been appointed as duke in 1012 under Emperor Henry II and remained loyal to imperial authority, supporting Conrad's election as German king in 1024. At a synod in Frankfurt in September 1027, Conrad attempted to resolve the decades' long \"Gandersheim Conflict\". Adalbero accompanied the Emperor and acted as his sword-bearer during the proceeding, indicating Conrad's trust in him. From 1028 on, Adalbero governed his Duchy as an independent state. In particular, he attempted to conduct peaceful relations with the King Stephen I of the Kingdom of Hungary. Under Emperor Henry II, who was the brother-in-law to Stephen, relations between the Empire and Hungary had been friendly. Upon Henry's death in 1024, Conrad adopted a more aggressive policy, prompting border raids into the Empire from Hungary. The raids particularly affected Adalbero's domain of Carinthia, which shared a long, eastern border with Hungary. Conrad summoned Adalbero to court at Bamberg on 18 May 1035, to answer an indictment of treason for his actions regarding Hungary. In the presence of the German dukes, Conrad demanded that Adalbero be stripped", "Conrad continued the Ottonian dynasty's Imperial Church System - a policy of using the German Church as a vehicle for imperial control. Beginning in the 950s, the Ottonians had favored Church officials over secular nobles for appointment to the Empire's most important offices. Claiming \"divine right\" to rule the Empire, the Ottonians increasingly viewed themselves as protectors of the Church and thus demanded loyalty from the Church officials. In return, the various bishoprics and abbeys of the Empire were granted extensive landholdings and secular authority, providing immunity from the jurisdiction of the secular nobles. As such, the Church officials reported exclusively to the Emperor, acting as his personal vassals. As the Emperor's vassals, the Church officials were subject to the provision of two services: the \"servitium regis\" (royal service) and \"servitium militum\" (military service). Under royal service, the bishops and abbots were required to provide hospitality and accommodations to", "", "Duke Bolesław I of Poland of the Piast dynasty repeatedly clashed with Emperor Henry II during the German-Polish Wars of 1002 to 1018. In January 1018, Henry II and Bolesław I signed the peace treaty of Bautzen, that settled the permanent coexistence of the Empire and Poland as Bolesław recognized Henry II as his nominal feudal lord. In return, Henry II generously invested Bolesław with territorial properties at the Empire's eastern border. In order to reinforce his dynastic bonds with the German nobility, Bolesław, a widower, married Oda of Meissen, daughter of the Saxon Margrave Eckard I of Meissen. The Empire and Poland endured peace for the remainder of Henry's reign. Bolesław seized the opportunity of Henry's death in 1024 to disregard all peace agreements and consolidate his own power. Bolesław took advantage of the interregnum", "Soon after Mieszko had concluded peace with the Empire, he was deposed by Bezprym. When Mieszko had assumed the Polish throne in 1025 he exiled his brother, who had fled to the Kievan Rus, east of Poland. Bezprym, with approval of Conrad, persuaded the Kevian Grand Price Yaroslav I the Wise to invade Poland and install Bezprym as sovereign. The Kievan invasion was a success. Mieszko fled to Bohemia where he was imprisoned and castrated by Duke Oldrich in retribution for Mieszko's father Bolesław's blinding of Duke Boleslaus III, Oldrich's brother, thirty years earlier. Shortly after taking power, Bezprym sent the Polish regalia to Conrad, officially renouncing the sensible title \"\"king\"\" in favor of the traditional title \"\"duke\"\" and accepting the overlordship of the Empire over Poland. The royal regalia were delivered by Mieszko II's wife, Richeza of Lotharingia. Bezprym's reign, however, was short.", "", "The Duchy of Bohemia was incorporated into the Holy Roman Empire in 1004 during the German-Polish Wars, that lasted from 1002 to 1018. Emperor Henry II installed Jaromir as Duke of Bohemia and guaranteed protection against Polish aggression. Jaromir ruled only a small territory, however, as Poland had occupied the traditional Czech territories of Moravia, Silesia, Lesser Poland and Lusatia. In 1012, Jaromir was deposed by his brother Oldrich, who assumed the Bohemian throne for himself. Following the resumption of hostilities between the Empire and Poland in 1028, Oldrich went on the offensive against Poland, reconquering Moravia by 1029, which helped to stabilize his duchy. The war ended in 1031 when Polish King Mieszko II surrendered to Conrad. During the following civil war, Mieszko was forced to flee Poland for Bohemia, where Oldrich had him imprisoned and castrated in revenge for the torture Mieszko's father, Bolesław I of", "With emperor Otto III's approval, Stephen was crowned as the first Christian king of Hungary on Christmas Day, 1000. Otto III's successor, Emperor Henry II, was Stephen's brother-in-law by Stephen's marriage to Henry's sister Gisela, furthering the friendly relationship between the Empire and Hungary. Under Conrad II, however, relations quickly turned hostile as Conrad pursued a more aggressive policy regarding eastern Europe. Conrad II expelled the Venetian Doge Otto Orseolo, the husband of Stephen's sister Grimelda of Hungary from Venice in 1026. Conrad also persuaded the Bavarians to accept his own infant son, Henry, as their duke in 1027, although Stephen's son, Emeric of Hungary, had a legitimate claim to the Duchy of Bavaria through his mother.", "As in 1016 King Rudolph III of Burgundy, ruler of the Kingdom of Arles was left without a male heir, Henry II seized the opportunity and forced King Rudolph III to name him - Henry his royal successor. Henry II, the son of Rudolph's sister Gisela of Burgundy was his nephew, and his closest living male relative. However, Rudolph was still alive when Henry II died in 1024. Soon emperor Conrad II, as Henry II's imperial successor claimed he is also entitled to Henry II's rights on the Burgundian succession, which Rudolph disputed. Count Odo II of Blois, who had strong family ties with Rudolph, also emphasized his right in the succession. Conrad II met Rudolph III in August 1027 near Basel to settle the dispute. Henry II's widowed wife, Empress Cunigunde of Luxembourg, mediated between the two parties. An agreement was reached that allowed Conrad II to succeed to the Burgundian throne upon Rudolph's death under", "Conrad formally confirmed the popular legal traditions of Saxony and issued new constitutions for Lombardy. In 1028 at Aachen, he had his son Henry elected and anointed king of Germany. Henry married Gunhilda of Denmark, daughter of King Canute the Great of England, Denmark, and Norway by Emma of Normandy. This was an arrangement that Conrad had made many years prior, when he gave Canute parts of northern Germany to administer. Henry, who would later become Emperor Henry III, became his father's chief counselor. When King Rudolph III of Burgundy died on February 2, 1032, Conrad claimed the kingship on the basis of an inheritance that Henry II had extorted from Rudolph in", "", "On 14 January 1040 Conrad II's heir Henry issued a charter, in which he announced his official designation as of \"Rex", "In 1038, Prince Guaimar IV of Salerno requested that Conrad adjudicate in a dispute over Capua with its Prince Pandulf, whom Conrad had released from imprisonment in 1024, immediately after his coronation. Hearing that Michael IV the Paphlagonian of the Byzantine Empire had received the same request, Conrad went to Southern Italy, to Salerno and Aversa. He appointed Richer, from Germany, as abbot of Monte Cassino, as abbot Theobald was imprisoned by", "During the return to Germany a severe epidemic decimated the ranks of the troops. Conrad's daughter-in-law and stepson died. Conrad himself returned home safely and held court on important occasions in Solothurn, Strasbourg, and Goslar. His son Henry was invested with the duchies of Swabia and Carinthia. A year later in 1039 Conrad fell ill and died of gout in Utrecht. His heart and bowels are buried at the Cathedral", "Conrad married Gisela of Swabia in 1016, the daughter of Duke Herman II of Swabia. They had three children:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Applications.", "Drinking water.", "Protein concentration.", "Principles.", "Membrane fouling.", "Concentration polarization.", "Types of fouling.", "Particulate deposition.", "Scaling.", "Biofouling.", "Membrane arrangements.", "Tubular modules.", "Hollow fibre.", "Spiral-wound modules.", "Plate and frame.", "Process characteristics.", "Process design considerations.", "Pre-treatment.", "Membrane specifications.", "Material.", "Pore size.", "Operation strategy.", "Flowtype.", "Flow velocity.", "Flow temperature.", "Pressure.", "Multi-stage, multi-module.", "Post-treatment.", "Cleaning.", "New developments." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Industries such as chemical and pharmaceutical manufacturing, food and beverage processing, and waste water treatment, employ ultrafiltration in order to recycle flow or add value to later products. Blood dialysis also utilizes ultrafiltration.", "Ultrafiltration can be used for the removal of particulates and macromolecules from raw water to produce potable water. It has been used to either replace existing secondary (coagulation, flocculation, sedimentation) and tertiary filtration (sand filtration and chlorination) systems employed in water treatment plants or as standalone systems in isolated regions with growing populations. When treating water with high suspended solids, UF is often integrated into the process, utilising primary (screening, flotation, filtration) and some secondary treatments as pre-treatment stages. UF processes are currently preferred over traditional treatment methods for the following reasons: UF processes are currently limited by the high cost incurred due to membrane fouling and replacement. Additional pretreatment of feed water is required to prevent excessive damage to the membrane units. In many cases UF is used for pre filtration in reverse osmosis (RO) plants to protect the RO membranes.", "UF is used extensively in the dairy industry; particularly in the processing of cheese whey to obtain whey protein concentrate (WPC) and lactose-rich permeate. In a single stage, a UF process is able to concentrate the whey 10–30 times the feed. The original alternative to membrane filtration of whey was using steam heating followed by drum drying or spray drying. The product of these methods had limited applications due to its granulated texture and insolubility. Existing methods also had inconsistent product composition, high capital and operating costs and due to the excessive heat used in drying would often denature some of the proteins. Compared to traditional methods, UF processes used for this application: The potential for fouling is widely discussed, being identified as a significant contributor to decline in productivity. Cheese whey contains high concentrations of calcium phosphate which can potentially lead to scale deposits on the membrane surface. As a result, substantial pretreatment must be implemented to balance pH and temperature of the feed to maintain solubility of calcium salts.", "The basic operating principle of ultrafiltration uses a pressure induced separation of solutes from a solvent through a semi permeable membrane. The relationship between the applied pressure on the solution to be separated and the flux through the membrane is most commonly described by the Darcy equation: where J is the flux (flow rate per membrane area),TMP is the transmembrane pressure (pressure difference between feed and permeate stream), μ is solvent viscosity, R is the total resistance (sum of membrane and fouling resistance).", "", "When filtration occurs the local concentration of rejected material at the membrane surface increases and can become saturated. In UF, increased ion concentration can develop an osmotic pressure on the feed side of the membrane. This reduces the effective TMP of the system, therefore reducing permeation rate. The increase in concentrated layer at the membrane wall decreases the permeate flux, due to increase in resistance which reduces the driving force for solvent to transport through membrane surface. CP affects almost all the available membrane separation processes. In RO, the solutes retained at the membrane layer results in higher osmotic pressure in comparison to the bulk stream concentration. So the higher pressures are required to overcome this osmotic pressure. Concentration polarisation plays a dominant role in ultrafiltration as compared to microfiltration because of the small pore size membrane. Concentration polarization differs from fouling as it has no lasting effects on the membrane itself and can be reversed by relieving the TMP. It does however have a significant effect on many types of fouling.", "", "The following models describe the mechanisms of particulate deposition on the membrane surface and in the pores:", "As a result of concentration polarization at the membrane surface, increased ion concentrations may exceed solubility thresholds and precipitate on the membrane surface. These inorganic salt deposits can block pores causing flux decline, membrane degradation and loss of production. The formation of scale is highly dependent on factors affecting both solubility and concentration polarization including pH, temperature, flow velocity and permeation rate.", "Microorganisms will adhere to the membrane surface forming a gel layer – known as biofilm. The film increases the resistance to flow, acting as an additional barrier to permeation. In spiral-wound modules, blockages formed by biofilm can lead to uneven flow distribution and thus increase the effects of concentration polarization.", "Depending on the shape and material of the membrane, different modules can be used for ultrafiltration process. Commercially available designs in ultrafiltration modules vary according to the required hydrodynamic and economic constraints as well as the mechanical stability of the system under particular operating pressures. The main modules used in industry include:", "The tubular module design uses polymeric membranes cast on the inside of plastic or porous paper components with diameters typically in the range of 5 – 25 mm with lengths from 0.6 - 6.4 m. Multiple tubes are housed in a PVC or steel shell. The feed of the module is passed through the tubes, accommodating radial transfer of permeate to the shell side. This design allows for easy cleaning however the main drawback is its low permeability, high volume hold-up within the membrane and low packing density.", "This design is conceptually similar to the tubular module with a shell and tube arrangement. A single module can consist of 50 to thousands of hollow fibres and therefore are self-supporting unlike the tubular design. The diameter of each fibre ranges from 0.2 – 3 mm with the feed flowing in the tube and the product permeate collected radially on the outside. The advantage of having self-supporting membranes as is the ease at which it can be cleaned due to its ability to be backflushed. Replacement costs however are high, as one faulty fibre will require the whole bundle to be replaced. Considering the tubes are of small diameter, using this design also makes the system prone to blockage.", "Are composed of a combination of flat membrane sheets separated by a thin meshed spacer material which serves as a porous plastic screen support. These sheets are rolled around a central perforated tube and fitted into a tubular steel pressure vessel casing. The feed solution passes over the membrane surface and the permeate spirals into the central collection tube. Spiral-wound modules are a compact and cheap alternative in ultrafiltration design, offer a high volumetric throughput and can also be easily cleaned. However it is limited by the thin channels where feed solutions with suspended solids can result in partial blockage of the membrane pores.", "This uses a membrane placed on a flat plate separated by a mesh like material. The feed is passed through the system from which permeate is separated and collected from the edge of the plate. Channel length can range from 10 – 60 cm and channel heights from 0.5 – 1 mm. This module provides low volume hold-up, relatively easy replacement of the membrane and the ability to feed viscous solutions because of the low channel height, unique to this particular design.", "The process characteristics of a UF system are highly dependent on the type of membrane used and its application. Manufacturers' specifications of the membrane tend to limit the process to the following typical specifications:", "When designing a new membrane separation facility or considering its integration into an existing plant, there are many factors which must be considered. For most applications a heuristic approach can be applied to determine many of these characteristics to simplify the design process. Some design areas include:", "Treatment of feed prior to the membrane is essential to prevent damage to the membrane and minimize the effects of fouling which greatly reduce the efficiency of the separation. Types of pre-treatment are often dependent on the type of feed and its quality. For example, in wastewater treatment, household waste and other particulates are screened. Other types of pre-treatment common to many UF processes include pH balancing and coagulation. Appropriate sequencing of each pre-treatment phase is crucial in preventing damage to subsequent stages. Pre-treatment can even be employed simply using dosing points.", "", "Most UF membranes use polymer materials (polysulfone, polypropylene, cellulose acetate, polylactic acid) however ceramic membranes are used for high temperature applications.", "A general rule for choice of pore size in a UF system is to use a membrane with a pore size one tenth that of the particle size to be separated. This limits the number of smaller particles entering the pores and adsorbing to the pore surface. Instead they block the entrance to the pores allowing simple adjustments of cross-flow velocity to dislodge them.", "", "UF systems can either operate with cross-flow or dead-end flow. In dead-end filtration the flow of the feed solution is perpendicular to the membrane surface. On the other hand, in cross flow systems the flow passes parallel to the membrane surface. Dead-end configurations are more suited to batch processes with low suspended solids as solids accumulate at the membrane surface therefore requiring frequent backflushes and cleaning to maintain high flux. Cross-flow configurations are preferred in continuous operations as solids are continuously flushed from the membrane surface resulting in a thinner cake layer and lower resistance to permeation.", "Flow velocity is especially critical for hard water or liquids containing suspensions in preventing excessive fouling. Higher cross-flow velocities can be used to enhance the sweeping effect across the membrane surface therefore preventing deposition of macromolecules and colloidal material and reducing the effects of concentration polarization. Expensive pumps are however required to achieve these conditions.", "To avoid excessive damage to the membrane, it is recommended to operate a plant at the temperature specified by the membrane manufacturer. In some instances however temperatures beyond the recommended region are required to minimise the effects of fouling. Economic analysis of the process is required to find a compromise between the increased cost of membrane replacement and productivity of the separation.", "Pressure drops over multi-stage separation can result in a drastic decline in flux performance in the latter stages of the process. This can be improved using booster pumps to increase the TMP in the final stages. This will incur a greater capital and energy cost which will be offset by the improved productivity of the process. With a multi-stage operation, retentate streams from each stage are recycled through the previous stage to improve their separation efficiency.", "Multiple stages in series can be applied to achieve higher purity permeate streams. Due to the modular nature of membrane processes, multiple modules can be arranged in parallel to treat greater volumes.", "Post-treatment of the product streams is dependent on the composition of the permeate and retentate and its end-use or government regulation. In cases such as milk separation both streams (milk and whey) can be collected and made into useful products. Additional drying of the retentate will produce whey powder. In the paper mill industry, the retentate (non-biodegradable organic material) is incinerated to recover energy and permeate (purified water) is discharged into waterways. It is essential for the permeate water to be pH balanced and cooled to avoid thermal pollution of waterways and altering its pH.", "Cleaning of the membrane is done regularly to prevent the accumulation of foulants and reverse the degrading effects of fouling on permeability and selectivity. Regular backwashing is often conducted every 10 min for some processes to remove cake layers formed on the membrane surface. By pressurising the permeate stream and forcing it back through the membrane, accumulated particles can be dislodged, improving the flux of the process. Backwashing is limited in its ability to remove more complex forms of fouling such as biofouling, scaling or adsorption to pore walls. These types of foulants require chemical cleaning to be removed. The common types of chemicals used for cleaning are: When designing a cleaning protocol it is essential to consider: Cleaning time – Adequate time must be allowed for chemicals to interact with foulants and permeate into the membrane pores. However, if the process is extended beyond its optimum duration it can lead to denaturation of the membrane and deposition of removed foulants. The complete cleaning cycle including rinses between stages may take as long as 2 hours to complete. Aggressiveness of chemical treatment – With a high degree of fouling it may be necessary to employ aggressive cleaning solutions to remove fouling material. However, in some applications this may not be suitable if the membrane material is sensitive, leading to enhanced membrane ageing. Disposal of cleaning effluent – The release of some chemicals into wastewater systems may be prohibited or regulated therefore this must be considered. For example, the use of phosphoric acid may result in high levels of phosphates entering water ways and must be monitored and controlled to prevent eutrophication. Summary of common types of fouling and their respective chemical treatments", "In order to increase the life-cycle of membrane filtration systems, energy efficient membranes are being developed in membrane bioreactor systems. Technology has been introduced which allows the power required to aerate the membrane for cleaning to be reduced whilst still maintaining a high flux level. Mechanical cleaning processes have also been adopted using granulates as an alternative to conventional forms of cleaning; this reduces energy consumption and also reduces the area required for filtration tanks. Membrane properties have also been enhanced to reduce fouling tendencies by modifying surface properties. This can be noted in the biotechnology industry where membrane surfaces have been altered in order to reduce the amount of protein binding. Ultrafiltration modules have also been improved to allow for more membrane for a given area without increasing its risk of fouling by designing more efficient module internals. The current pre-treatment of seawater desulphonation uses ultrafiltration modules that have been designed to withstand high temperatures and pressures whilst occupying a smaller footprint. Each module vessel is self supported and resistant to corrosion and accommodates easy removal and replacement of the module without the cost of replacing the vessel itself." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Nazi opposition.", "Arrest and imprisonment.", "Buchenwald.", "Death." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Schneider was born in Pferdsfeld, Germany in 1897, the second of three sons born to Gustav-Adolf Schneider and Elisabeth Schnorr. He had a strong love for his mother and a great respect for his father, who was a pastor and an ardent patriot. Following military service in World War I, Schneider began his theological studies and was ordained in Hochelheim in 1925. The following year, he married Margarete Dieterich, the daughter of a pastor. In 1927, the couple had their first son, followed by a daughter and four more sons.", "When President Paul von Hindenburg named Adolf Hitler Chancellor in 1933, Schneider was the pastor of the Hochelheim congregation, having succeeded his father who died in 1926. Initially, Pastor Schneider believed that the new Chancellor, with the help of divine guidance, would lead Germany into a bright future. It did not take long for him to perceive the true character of Adolf Hitler and the Nazi regime. Schneider did not stand by idly as Nazi leaders ridiculed the morality of the Church. In writing and in preaching, he protested against the vitriol directed against the Church by Nazi officials. Pastor Schneider received no backing from his consistory of the old-Prussian Ecclesiastical Province of the Rhineland, then seated in Koblenz. On the contrary, in order to placate Nazi officials who complained about Pastor Schneider, the consistory transferred him to a remote region of Germany. Early in 1934, Schneider and his family moved to Dickenschied, where he became pastor to the Dickenschied and Womrath congregations. That same year, Pastor Schneider became a member of the Confessing Church, a Protestant organization that opposed Adolf Hitler and the Nazi regime. On one occasion at the funeral of a Hitler youth boy a Nazi official said in his speech that the deceased would now be member of the heavenly storm of Horst Wessel. Pastor Schneider responded that he would not know if a heavenly storm of Horst Wessel existed but the Lord would bless the boy and take him into his realm. After this, the Nazi leader came forward and repeated his words. Pastor Schneider then responded sharply that he would not allow God's word to be adulterated during a Christian ceremony. As a result he was arrested for one week in June 1934. In March 1935, Nazi officials took Pastor Schneider into “protective custody” (\"Schutzhaft\"), a Nazi euphemism for “arrest” without any judicial warrant. They held him for a few days because he insisted on reading from the pulpit the synodal criticism of the government’s policy toward the Church. Local Nazi officials summoned Schneider for interrogations twelve times during the winter of 1935/1936. He continued to speak his mind and follow the dictates of his conscience. Some of his friends pleaded with him to avoid confrontation with the Nazis. He responded that he did not seek martyrdom, but that he had to follow his Lord. His primary responsibility was to prepare his family for eternal life – not to ensure their material well-being.", "In spring 1937, with the support of members of his presbytery, Pastor Schneider began the process of excommunicating parishioners who, because of their allegiance to the Nazi Party, engaged in conduct which violated congregational discipline. Complaints to Nazi officials by the censured led to the arrest of Pastor Schneider. Following two months in the Koblenz prison, officials released him with the warning not to return to the Rhineland, where his home and parish were located. Pastor Schneider knew that, if he returned to his flock, it would mean imprisonment in a concentration camp. Yet, the night before his release, he read in his Bible the story concerning the crisis confronted by Deborah. When Deborah summoned the twelve tribes together to confront the common enemy, only Naphtali and Zebulun responded. Pastor Schneider saw in this Old Testament story [Judges 5:18] a parallel to the crisis which the Church confronted in Nazi Germany, and he concluded that even if his was a minority voice, he must act in harmony with his conscience, and protest. Following his release from prison, Pastor Schneider spent two months with his wife and a few family members and friends in Baden-Baden and in Eschbach. He and Margarete returned home for Harvest Thanksgiving () on October 3, 1937. Pastor Schneider was able to celebrate this occasion with his Dickenschied congregation, but local police arrested him as he journeyed to Womrath for an evening worship service.", "Schneider was incarcerated in Buchenwald, near Weimar, on November 27, 1937, just a few months after the camp opened. In the labor commandos, Pastor Schneider watched out for his fellow inmates. After being sentenced to solitary confinement, he preached the good news of the Gospel from the window of his prison cell. He was moved to the cell when he refused to remove his beret in honour of Hitler on the Führer's birthday, April 20, 1938 and to salute the swastika flag. He explained his behaviour by saying \"\"I cannot salute this criminal symbol\"\". He also refused, as he had done earlier, the Hitler salute, saying that \"\"you can only receive salvation (\"Heil\") from the Lord and not from a human being\"\". From his cell, Schneider accused his captors and encouraged his fellow inmates. On one occasion on Easter Sunday, when thousands of prisoners were assembled for mustering, despite being severely handicapped by previous torture he climbed to the cell window and shouted: \"\"Comrades, listen to me. This is Pastor Schneider. People are tortured and murdered here. So the Lord says, 'I am the resurrection and the life!\"'\" His speech was interrupted by his tormentors. As others had pleaded years earlier, the man who mopped the floors in the solitary confinement building begged Schneider, \"Please stop provoking the SS against you... They will beat you to death if you continue preaching from your cell window\". After June 1938 the only reason for Schneider's imprisonment in Buchenwald was his refusal to accept the order to permanently leave his congregations in Dickenschied and Womrath. He could have been released from the KZ at any time, if he had agreed to accept this order. However, even under severe torture, he refused to do so.", "On July 18, 1939, Schneider was murdered with a lethal injection of strophanthin in the camp infirmary. Camp officials notified Margarete Schneider of her husband’s death and she made the long journey from Dickenschied to retrieve his body in a sealed coffin. Despite Gestapo surveillance, hundreds of people and around two hundred fellow pastors attended Schneider’s funeral, including many members of the Confessing Church. One of the pastors preached at the grave side, “May God grant that the witness of your shepherd, our brother, remain with you and continue to impact on future generations and that it remain vital and bear fruit in the entire Christian Church”." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "Range of applications.", "Advantages and disadvantages.", "Design and operation.", "Concentration polarisation.", "Spiral wound module.", "Tubular module.", "Flux enhancing strategies.", "Characterisation.", "Performance parameters.", "Morphology parameters.", "Solute transport and rejection.", "Typical figures for industrial applications.", "Post-treatment.", "Aeration.", "Disinfection and stabilisation.", "New developments." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Nanofiltration is a membrane filtration-based method that uses nanometer sized through-pores that pass through the membrane. Nanofiltration membranes have pore sizes from 1-10 nanometers, smaller than that used in microfiltration and ultrafiltration, but just larger than that in reverse osmosis. Membranes used are predominantly created from polymer thin films. Materials that are commonly used include polyethylene terephthalate or metals such as aluminum. Pore dimensions are controlled by pH, temperature and time during development with pore densities ranging from 1 to 106 pores per cm. Membranes made from polyethylene terephthalate and other similar materials, are referred to as \"track-etch\" membranes, named after the way the pores on the membranes are made. \"Tracking\" involves bombarding the polymer thin film with high energy particles. This results in making tracks that are chemically developed into the membrane, or \"etched\" into the membrane, which are the pores. Membranes created from metal such as alumina membranes, are made by electrochemically growing a thin layer of aluminum oxide from aluminum metal in an acidic medium.", "Historically, nanofiltration and other membrane technology used for molecular separation was applied entirely on aqueous systems. The original uses for nanofiltration were water treatment and in particular water softening. Nanofilters can \"soften\" water by retaining scale-forming, hydrated divalent ions (e.g. Ca, Mg) while passing smaller hydrated monovalent ions. In recent years, the use of nanofiltration has been extended into other industries such as milk and juice production. Research and development in solvent-stable membranes has allowed the application for nanofiltration membranes to extend into new areas such as pharmaceuticals, fine chemicals, and flavour and fragrance industries.", "One of the main advantages of nanofiltration as a method of softening water is that during the process of retaining calcium and magnesium ions while passing smaller hydrated monovalent ions, filtration is performed without adding extra sodium ions, as used in ion exchangers. Many separation processes do not operate at room temperature (e.g. distillation), which greatly increases the cost of the process when continuous heating or cooling is applied. Performing gentle molecular separation is linked with nanofiltration that is often not included with other forms of separation processes (centrifugation). These are two of the main benefits that are associated with nanofiltration. Nanofiltration has a very favorable benefit of being able to process large volumes and continuously produce streams of products. Still, Nanofiltration is the least used method of membrane filtration in industry as the membrane pores sizes are limited to only a few nanometers. Anything smaller, reverse osmosis is used and anything larger is used for ultrafiltration. Ultrafiltration can also be used in cases where nanofiltration can be used, due to it being more conventional. A main disadvantage associated with nanotechnology, as with all membrane filter technology, is the cost and maintenance of the membranes used. Nanofiltration membranes are an expensive part of the process. Repairs and replacement of membranes is dependent on total dissolved solids, flow rate and components of the feed. With nanofiltration being used across various industries, only an estimation of replacement frequency can be used. This causes nanofilters to be replaced a short time before or after their prime usage is complete.", "Industrial applications of membranes require hundreds to thousands of square meters of membranes and therefore an efficient way to reduce the footprint by packing them is required. Membranes first became commercially viable when low cost methods of housing in'modules' were achieved. Membranes are not self-supporting. They need to be stayed by a porous support that can withstand the pressures required to operate the NF membrane without hindering the performance of the membrane. To do this effectively, the module needs to provide a channel to remove the membrane permeation and provide appropriate flow condition that reduces the phenomena of concentration polarisation. A good design minimises pressure losses on both the feed side and permeate side and thus energy requirements. Leakage of the feed into the permeate stream must also be prevented. This can be done through either the use of permanent seals such as glue or replaceable seals such as O-rings.", "Concentration polarisation describes the accumulation of the species being retained close to the surface of the membrane which reduces separation capabilities. It occurs because the particles are [convected]] towards the membrane with the solvent and its magnitude is the balance between this convection caused by solvent flux and the particle transport away from the membrane due to the concentration gradient (predominantly caused by diffusion.) Although concentration polarisation is easily reversible, it can lead to fouling of the membrane.", "Spiral wound modules are the most commonly used style of module and are'standardized' design, available in a range of standard diameters (2.5\", 4\" and 8\") to fit standard pressure vessel that can hold several modules in series connected by O-rings. The module uses flat sheets wrapped around a central tube. The membranes are glued along three edges over a permeate spacer to form 'leaves'. The permeate spacer supports the membrane and conducts the permeate to the central permeate tube. Between each leaf, a mesh like feed spacer is inserted. The reason for the mesh like dimension of the spacer is to provide a hydrodynamic environment near the surface of the membrane that discourages concentration polarisation. Once the leaves have been wound around the central tube, the module is wrapped in a casing layer and caps placed on the end of the cylinder to prevent 'telescoping' that can occur in high flow rate and pressure conditions.", "Tubular modules look similar to shell and tube heat exchangers with bundles of tubes with the active surface of the membrane on the inside. Flow through the tubes is normally turbulent, ensuring low concentration polarisation but also increasing energy costs. The tubes can either be self-supporting or supported by insertion into perforated metal tubes. This module design is limited for nanofiltration by the pressure they can withstand before bursting, limiting the maximum flux possible. Due to both the high energy operating costs of turbulent flow and the limiting burst pressure, tubular modules are more suited to 'dirty' applications where feeds have particulates such as filtering raw water to gain potable water in the Fyne process. The membranes can be easily cleaned through a 'pigging' technique with foam balls are squeezed through the tubes, scouring the caked deposits.", "These strategies work to reduce the magnitude of concentration polarisation and fouling. There is a range of techniques available however the most common is feed channel spacers as described in spiral wound modules. All of the strategies work by increasing eddies and generating a high shear in the flow near the membrane surface. Some of these strategies include vibrating the membrane, rotating the membrane, having a rotor disk above the membrane, pulsing the feed flow rate and introducing gas bubbling close to the surface of the membrane.", "Many different factors must be taken into account in the design of NF membranes, since they vary so much in material, separation mechanisms, morphology and thus application. Two important parameters should be investigated during preliminary calculations, performance and morphology parameters.", "Retention of both charged and uncharged solutes and permeation measurements can be categorised into performance parameters since the performance under natural conditions of a membrane is based on the ratio of solute retained/ permeated through the membrane. For charged solutes, the ionic distribution of salts near the membrane-solution interface plays an important role in determining the retention characteristic of a membrane. If the charge of the membrane and the composition and concentration of the solution to be filtered is known, the distribution of various salts can be found. This in turn can be combined with the known charge of the membrane and the Gibbs–Donnan effect to predict the retention characteristics for that membrane. Uncharged solutes cannot be characterised simply by Molecular Weight Cut Off (MWCO,) although in general an increase in molecular weight or solute size leads to an increase in retention. The valence charge, chemical structure, functional end-groups as well as pH of the solute, all play an important role in determining the retention characteristics and as such detailed information about the solute molecule characteristics must be known before implementing a NF design.", "The morphology of a membrane must also be known in order to implement a successful design of a NF system, and this is usually done by microscopy. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is one method used to characterise the surface roughness of a membrane by passing a small sharp tip (<100 Ă) across the surface of a membrane and measuring the resulting Van der Waals force between the atoms in the end of the tip and the surface. This is useful as a direct correlation between surface roughness and colloidal fouling has been developed. Correlations also exist between fouling and other morphology parameters, such as hydrophobe, showing that the more hydrophobic a membrane is, the less prone to fouling it is. See membrane fouling for more information. Methods to determine the porosity of porous membranes have also been found via permporometry, making use of differing vapour pressures to characterise the pore size and pore size distribution within the membrane. Initially all pores in the membrane are completely filled with a liquid and as such no permeation of a gas occurs, but after reducing the relative vapour pressure some gaps will start to form within the pores as dictated by the Kelvin equation. Polymeric (non-porous) membranes cannot be subjected to this methodology as the condensable vapour should have a negligible interaction within the membrane.", "Unlike membranes with larger and smaller pore sizes, passage of solutes through nanofiltration is significantly more complex. Because of the pore sizes, there are three modes of transport of solutes through the membrane. These include 1) diffusion (molecule travel due to concentration potential gradients, as seen through reverse osmosis membranes), 2) convection (travel with flow, like in larger pore size filtration such as microfiltration), and 3) electromigration (attraction or repulsion from charges within and near the membrane). Additionally, the exclusion mechanisms in nanofiltration are more complex than in other forms of filtration. Most filtration systems operate solely by size (steric) exclusion, but at small length scales seen in nanofiltration, one must also consider the impacts of surface charge on the small charged solutes, and also the impacts of hydration, where molecules in solution have a solvation shell of surrounding water molecules. The exclusion due to hydration is referred to as dielectric exclusion, a reference to the different dielectric constants (energy) associated with a particles precense in solution versus within a membrane substrate. Solution pH strongly impacts surface charge, providing a method to understand and better control rejection. The transport and exclusion mechanisms are heavily influenced by membrane pore size, solvent viscosity, membrane thickness, solute diffusivity, solution temperature, solution pH, and membrane dielectric constant. The pore size distribution is also important. Modeling rejection accurately for NF is very challenging. It can be done with applications of the Nernst–Planck equation, although a heavy reliance on fitting parameters to experimental data is usually requried. In general, charged solutes are much more effectively rejected in NF than uncharged solutes, and multivalent solutes like (valence of 2) experience very high rejection.", "Keeping in mind that NF is usually part of a composite system for purification, a single unit is chosen based off the design specifications for the NF unit. For drinking water purification many commercial membranes exist, coming from different chemical families, having different structures, chemical tolerances and salt rejections and so the characterisation must be chosen based on the chemical composition and concentration of the feed stream. NF units in drinking water purification range from extremely low salt rejection (<5% in 1001A membranes) to almost complete rejection (99% in 8040-TS80-TSA membranes.) Flow rates range from 25–60 m/day for each unit, so commercial filtration requires multiple NF units in parallel to process large quantities of feed water. The pressures required in these units are generally between 4.5-7.5 bar. For seawater desalination using a NF-RO system a typical process is shown below. Because of the fact that NF permeate is rarely clean enough to be used as the final product for drinking water and other water purification, is it commonly used as a pre treatment step for reverse osmosis (RO) as is shown above.", "As with other membrane based separations such as ultrafiltration, microfiltration and reverse osmosis, post-treatment of eitherpermeate or retentate flow streams (depending on the application) – is a necessary stage in industrial NF separation prior to commercial distribution of the product. The choice and order of unit operations employed in post-treatment is dependent on water quality regulations and the design of the NF system. Typical NF water purification post-treatment stages include aeration and disinfection & stabilisation.", "A Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP) degasifier is used to remove dissolved gases such as carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide from the permeate stream. This is achieved by blowing air in a countercurrent direction to the water falling through packing material in the degasifier. The air effectively strips the unwanted gases from the water.", "The permeate water from a NF separation is demineralised and may be disposed to large changes in pH, thus providing a substantial risk of corrosion in piping and other equipment components. To increase the stability of the water, chemical addition of alkaline solutions such as lime and caustic soda is employed. Furthermore, disinfectants such as chlorine or chloroamine are added to the permeate, as well as phosphate or fluoride corrosion inhibitors in some cases.", "Contemporary research in the area of Nanofiltration (NF) technology is primarily concerned with improving the performance of NF membranes, minimising membrane fouling and reducing energy requirements of already existing processes. One way in which researchers are attempting to improve NF performance – more specifically increase permeate flux and lower membrane resistance – is through experimentation with different membrane materials and configurations. thin film composite membranes (TFC), which consist of a number of extremely thin selective layers interfacially polymerized over a microporous substrate, have had the most commercial success in industrial membrane applications due to the capability of optimizing the selectivity and permeability of each individual layer. Recent research has shown that the addition of nanotechnology materials such as electrospunnanofibrous membrane layers (ENMs) to conventional TFC membranes results in an enhanced permeate flux. This has been attributed to inherent properties of ENMs that favour flux, namely their interconnected pore structure, high porosity and low transmembrane pressure. A recently developed membrane configuration which offers a more energy efficient alternative to the commonly used spiral wound arrangement is the hollow fibre membrane. This format has the advantage of requiring significantly less pre-treatment than spiral wound membranes, as solids introduced in the feed are displaced effectively during backwash or flushing. As a result, membrane fouling and pre-treatment energy costs are reduced. Extensive research has also been conducted on the potential use of Titanium Dioxide (TiO2, titania) nanoparticles for membrane fouling reduction. This method involves applying a nonporous coating of titania onto the membrane surface. Internal fouling/pore blockage of the membrane is resisted due to the nonporosity of the coating, whilst the superhydrophilic nature of titania provides resistance to surface fouling by reducing adhesion of emulsified oil on the membrane surface." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Development.", "Operational history.", "US service.", "Postwar service.", "P-47 in Allied, non-U.S. service.", "In Soviet service.", "In German service.", "In Chinese/Taiwanese service.", "Flying the Thunderbolt.", "Aerial warfare.", "Ground attack role.", "Operators.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The P-47 Thunderbolt was designed by Alexander Kartveli, of Georgian descent. It was to replace the Seversky P-35 developed earlier by Russian immigrant Alexander P. de Seversky. Both had fled from their homeland,Tbilisi Georgia,to escape the Bolsheviks. In 1939, Republic Aviation designed the AP-4 demonstrator powered by a Pratt & Whitney R-1830 radial engine with a belly-mounted turbocharger. A small number of Republic P-43 Lancers were built but Republic had been working on an improved P-44 Rocket with a more powerful engine, as well as on the AP-10 fighter design. The latter was a lightweight aircraft powered by the Allison V-1710 liquid-cooled V-12 engine and armed with two.50 in (12.7 mm) M2 Browning machine guns mounted in the nose and four.30 in (7.62 mm) M1919 Browning machine guns mounted in the wings. The United States Army Air Corps (USAAC) backed the project and gave it the designation XP-47. In the spring of 1940, Republic and the USAAC concluded that the XP-44 and the XP-47 were inferior to \"Luftwaffe\" fighters. Republic tried to improve the design, proposing the XP-47A but this failed. Kartveli then designed a much larger fighter, which was offered to the USAAC in June 1940. The Air Corps ordered a prototype in September as the XP-47B. The XP-47A, which had little in common with the new design, was abandoned. The XP-47B was of all-metal construction (except for the fabric-covered tail control surfaces) with elliptical wings, with a straight leading edge that was slightly swept back. The air-conditioned cockpit was roomy and the pilot's seat was comfortable—\"like a lounge chair\", as one pilot later put it. The canopy doors hinged upward. Main and auxiliary self-sealing fuel tanks were placed under the cockpit, giving a total fuel capacity of. Power came from a Pratt & Whitney R-2800 \"Double Wasp\" two-row 18-cylinder radial engine producing 2,000 hp (1,500 kW)—the same engine that would power the prototype Vought XF4U-1 fighter to just over 400 mph (644 km/h) in October 1940—with the Double Wasp on the XP-47B turning a four-bladed Curtiss Electric constant-speed propeller of 146 in (3.7 m) in diameter. The loss of the AP-4 prototype to an engine fire ended Kartveli's experiments with tight-fitting cowlings, so the engine was placed in a broad cowling that opened at the front in a \"horse collar\"-shaped ellipse. The cowling admitted cooling air for the engine, left and right oil coolers, and the turbosupercharger intercooler system. The engine exhaust gases were routed into a pair of wastegate-equipped pipes that ran along each side of the cockpit to drive the turbosupercharger turbine at the bottom of the fuselage, about halfway between cockpit and tail. At full power, the pipes glowed red at their forward ends and the turbine spun at 21,300 rpm. The complicated turbosupercharger system with its ductwork gave the XP-47B a deep fuselage, and the wings had to be mounted in a relatively high position. This was difficult since long-legged main landing gear struts were needed to provide ground clearance for the enormous propeller. To reduce the size and weight of the undercarriage struts and so that wing-mounted machine guns could be fitted, each strut was fitted with a mechanism by which it telescoped out 9 in (23 cm) when extended. The XP-47B was very heavy compared with contemporary single-engined fighters, with an empty weight of 9,900 lb (4,490 kg), or 65 per cent more than the YP-43. Kartveli said, \"It will be a dinosaur, but it will be a dinosaur with good proportions\". The armament was eight.50 caliber (12.7 mm) \"light-barrel\" Browning AN/M2 machine guns, four in each wing. The guns were staggered to allow feeding from side-by-side ammunition boxes, each with 350 rounds. All eight guns gave the fighter a combined rate of fire of approximately 100 rounds per second. The XP-47B first flew on 6 May 1941 with Lowry P. Brabham at the controls. Although there were minor problems, such as some cockpit smoke that turned out to be due to an oil drip, the aircraft proved impressive in its early trials. It was lost in an accident on 8 August 1942 but before that mishap, the prototype had achieved a level speed of 412 mph (663 km/h) at 25,800 ft (7,864 m) altitude and had demonstrated a climb from sea level to in five minutes. Though the XP-47B had its share of teething troubles, the newly reorganized United States Army Air Forces placed an order for 171 production aircraft, the first being delivered in December 1941.", "", "By the end of 1942, P-47Cs were sent to England for combat operations. The initial Thunderbolt flyers, 56th Fighter Group, was sent overseas to join the 8th Air Force. As the P-47 Thunderbolt worked up to operational status, it gained a nickname: the \"Jug\" (because its profile was similar to that of a common milk jug of the time). Two Fighter Groups already stationed in England began introducing the Jugs in January 1943: the Spitfire-flying 4th Fighter Group, a unit built around a core of experienced American pilots who had flown in the RAF Eagle Squadrons prior to the US entry in the war; and the 78th Fighter Group, formerly flying P-38 Lightnings. Beginning in January 1943, Thunderbolt fighters were sent to the joint Army Air Forces – civilian Millville Airport in Millville, New Jersey in order to train civilian and military pilots. The first P-47 combat mission took place 10 March 1943 when the 4th FG took their aircraft on a fighter sweep over France. The mission was a failure due to radio malfunctions. All P-47s were refitted with British radios, and missions resumed 8 April. The first P-47 air combat took place 15 April with Major Don Blakeslee of the 4th FG scoring the Thunderbolt's first air victory (against a Focke-Wulf Fw 190). By mid-1943, the Jug was also in service with the 12th Air Force in Italy and against the Japanese in the Pacific, with the 348th Fighter Group flying missions out of Port Moresby, New Guinea. By 1944, the Thunderbolt was in combat with the USAAF in all its operational theaters except Alaska. Luftwaffe ace Heinz Bär said that the P-47 \"could absorb an astounding amount of lead [from shooting at it] and had to be handled very carefully\". Although the North American P-51 Mustang replaced the P-47 in the long-range escort role in Europe, the Thunderbolt still ended the war with 3,752 air-to-air kills claimed in over 746,000 sorties of all types, at the cost of 3,499 P-47s to all causes in combat. By the end of the war, the 56th FG was the only 8th Air Force unit still flying the P-47, by preference, instead of the P-51. The unit claimed 677.5 air victories and 311 ground kills, at the cost of 128 aircraft. Lieutenant Colonel Francis S. Gabreski scored 28 victories, Captain Robert S. Johnson scored 27 (with one unconfirmed probable kill leading to some giving his tally as 28), and 56th FG Commanding Officer Colonel Hubert Zemke scored 17.75 kills. Despite being the sole remaining P-47 group in the 8th Air Force, the 56th FG remained its top-scoring group in aerial victories throughout the war. With increases in fuel capacity as the type was refined, the range of escort missions over Europe steadily increased until the P-47 was able to accompany bombers in raids all the way into Germany. On the way back from the raids, pilots shot up ground targets of opportunity, and also used belly shackles to carry bombs on short-range missions, which led to the realization that the P-47 could perform a dual-function on escort missions as a fighter-bomber. Even with its complicated turbosupercharger system, its sturdy airframe and tough radial engine could absorb a lot of damage and still return home. The P-47 gradually became the USAAF's primary fighter-bomber, by late 1943, early versions of the P-47D carrying 500 lb (227 kg) bombs underneath their bellies, mid production versions of the P-47D could carry 1000 lb bombs and M8 4.5 in (115 mm) rockets under their wings or from the last version of the P-47D in 1944, 5 in (127 mm) High velocity aircraft rockets (HVARs, also known as \"Holy Moses\"). From D-Day until VE day, Thunderbolt pilots claimed to have destroyed 86,000 railroad cars, 9,000 locomotives, 6,000 armored fighting vehicles, and 68,000 trucks. During Operation Cobra, in the vicinity of Roncey, P-47 Thunderbolts of the 405th Fighter group destroyed a German column of 122 tanks, 259 other vehicles, and 11 artillery pieces.", "With the end of World War II, orders for 5,934 were cancelled. The P-47 continued serving with the U.S. Army Air Forces through 1947, the USAAF Strategic Air Command from 1946 through 1947, the active duty United States Air Force until 1949, and with the Air National Guard until 1953, receiving the designation F-47 in 1948. P-47s served as spotters for rescue aircraft such as the OA-10 Catalina and Boeing B-17H. In 1950, P-47 Thunderbolts were used to suppress the declaration of independence in Puerto Rico by nationalists during the Jayuya Uprising. The P-47 was not deployed to Korea for the Korean War. The North American P-51 Mustang was used by the USAF, mainly in the close air support role. Since the Mustang was more vulnerable to being shot down, (and many were lost to anti-aircraft fire), some former P-47 pilots suggested the more durable Thunderbolt should have been sent to Korea. However, the P-51D was available in greater numbers in the USAF and ANG inventories. Due to continued postwar service with U.S. military and foreign operators, a number of P-47s have survived to the present day, and a few are still flying. The Cuban Air Force took delivery of 29 ex-USAF airframes and spares. By the late 1950s the P-47 was considered obsolete but were well suited for COIN tasks. Some fought Castro's rebellion.", "P-47s were operated by several Allied air arms during World War II. The RAF received 240 razorback P-47Ds which they designated \"Thunderbolt Mark I\", and 590 bubbletop P-47D-25s, designated \"Thunderbolt Mark IIs\". With no need for another high-altitude fighter, the RAF adapted their Thunderbolts for ground attack, a task for which the type was well suited. Once the Thunderbolts were cleared for use in 1944, they were used against the Japanese in Burma by 16 RAF squadrons of the South East Asia Command from India. Operations with army support (operating as \"cab ranks\" to be called in when needed), attacks on enemy airfields and lines of communication, and escort sorties. They proved devastating in tandem with Spitfires during the Japanese breakout attempt at the Sittang Bend in the final months of the war. The Thunderbolts were armed with three 500 lb (227 kg) bombs or, in some cases, British \"60 pound\" (27 kg) RP-3 rocket projectiles. Long range fuel tanks gave five hours of endurance. Thunderbolts flew escort for RAF Liberators in the bombing of Rangoon. Thunderbolts remained in RAF service until October 1946. Post-war RAF Thunderbolts were used in support of the Dutch attempts to reassert control of Batavia. Those squadrons not disbanded outright after the war re-equipped with British-built aircraft such as the Hawker Tempest. During the Italian campaign, the \"1o Grupo de Caça da Força Aérea Brasileira\" (Brazilian Air Force 1st Fighter Squadron) flew a total of 48 P-47Ds in combat (of a total of 67 received, 19 of which were backup aircraft). This unit flew a total of 445 missions from November 1944 to May 1945 over northern Italy and Central Europe, with 15 P-47s lost to German flak and five pilots being killed in action. In the early 1980s, this unit was awarded the \"Presidential Unit Citation\" by the American government in recognition for its achievements in World War II. From March 1945 to the end of the war in the Pacific—as Mexico had declared war on the Axis on May 22, 1942—the Mexican \"Escuadrón Aéreo de Pelea 201\" (201st Fighter Squadron) operated P-47Ds as part of the U.S. 5th Air Force in the Philippines. In 791 sorties against Japanese forces, the 201st lost no pilots or aircraft to enemy action. The French Air Force received 446 P-47Ds from 1943. These aircraft saw extensive action in France and Germany and again in the 1950s during the Algerian War of Independence. After World War II, the Italian Air Force (AMI) received 75 P-47D-25s sent to 5 ̊ \"Stormo\", and 99 to the 51 ̊. These machines were delivered between 1947 and 1950. However, they were not well liked, as the Italian pilots were used to much lighter aircraft and found the controls too heavy. Nevertheless, the stability, payload and high speed were appreciated. Most importantly, the P-47 served as an excellent transition platform to heavier jet fighters, including the F-84 Thunderjet, starting in 1953. The type was provided to many Latin American air forces some of which operated it into the 1960s. Small numbers of P-47s were also provided to China, Iran, Turkey and Yugoslavia.", "The U.S. sent 203 P-47Ds to the Soviet Union. In mid-1943, the Soviet high command showed an interest in the P-47B. Three P-47D-10-REs were ferried to the Soviet Air Forces (VVS) via Alaska in March 1944. Two of them were tested in April–May 1944. Test pilot Aleksey N. Grinchik noted the spacious cockpit with good ventilation and a good all-around view. He found it easy to fly and stable upon take-off and landing, but it showed excessive rolling stability and poor directional stability. Soviet engineers disassembled the third aircraft to examine its construction. They appreciated the high production standards and rational design well-suited to mass production, and the high reliability of the hard-hitting Browning machine guns. With its high service ceiling, the P-47 was superior to fighters operating on the Eastern front, yielding a higher speed above. The Yakovlev Yak-9, Lavochkin La-5FN, Messerschmitt Bf 109G and Focke-Wulf Fw 190A outperformed the early model P-47 at low and medium altitude, where the P-47 had poor acceleration and performed aerobatics rather reluctantly. In mid-1944, 200 P-47D-22-REs and P-47D-27-REs were ferried to the USSR via Iraq and Iran. Many were sent to training units. Less than half reached operational units, and they were rarely used in combat. The fighters were assigned to high-altitude air defense over major cities in rear areas. Unlike their Western counterparts, the VVS made little use of the P-47 as a ground attack aircraft, depending instead on their own widely produced—with 36,183 examples built during the war—special-purpose, armored ground-attack aircraft, the Ilyushin Il-2. At the end of the war, Soviet units held 188 P-47s.", "The \"Luftwaffe\" operated at least one captured P-47. In poor weather on 7 November 1943 while flying a P-47D-2-RA on a bomber escort mission, 2nd Lt. William E. Roach of 358th Fighter Squadron, 355th Fighter Group made an emergency landing on a German airfield. Roach was imprisoned at Stalag Luft I. The Thunderbolt was given German markings.", "After World War II, the Chinese Nationalist Air Force received 102 P-47Ds used during the Chinese Civil War. The Chinese Communists captured five P-47Ds from the Chinese Nationalist forces. In 1948, the Chinese Nationalists employed 70 P-47Ds and 42 P-47Ns brought to Taiwan in 1952. P-47s were used extensively in aerial clashes over the Taiwan Strait between Nationalist and Communist aircraft.", "", "Initial response to the P-47 praised its dive speed and high-altitude performance while criticizing its turning performance and rate of climb (particularly at low-to-medium altitudes). The turbosupercharger in the P-47 gave the powerplant its maximum power at 27,000 ft (8,230 m), and in the thin air above 30,000 ft (9,144 m), the Thunderbolt remained comparatively fast and nimble relative to other aircraft. The P-47 first saw action with the 4th Fighter Group. The Group's pilots were mainly drawn from the three British Eagle Squadrons who had previously flown the British Supermarine Spitfire Mark V, a much smaller and much more slender aircraft. At first, they viewed their new fighter with misgivings. It was huge; the British pilots joked that a Thunderbolt pilot could defend himself from a \"Luftwaffe\" fighter by running around and hiding in the fuselage. Optimized for high altitude work, the Thunderbolt had more wingspan, a quarter more wing area, about four times the fuselage volume, and nearly twice the weight of a Spitfire V. One Thunderbolt pilot compared it to flying a bathtub around the sky. When his unit (4th Fighter Group) was equipped with Thunderbolts, ace Don Blakeslee said, referring to the P-47's vaunted ability to dive on its prey, \"It ought to be able to dive. It certainly can't climb.\" (Blakeslee's early-model P-47C had not been fitted with the new paddle blade propeller). The 4th Fighter Group's commander hated the P-47, and his prejudices filtered down to the group's pilots; the 4th had the fewest kills of any of the first three P-47 squadrons in Europe. The U.S. ace Jim Goodson, who had flown Spitfires with the RAF and flew a P-47 in 1943, at first shared the skepticism of other pilots for their \"seven-ton milk-bottles\". But Goodson learned to appreciate the P-47's potential: \"There were many U.S. pilots who preferred the P-47 to anything else: they do not agree that the (Fw) 190 held an overall edge against it.\" The P-47's initial success in combat was primarily due to tactics, using rolls (the P-47 had an excellent roll rate) and energy-saving dive and zoom climbs from high altitude to outmaneuver German fighters. Both the Bf 109 and Fw 190 could, like the Spitfire, out-turn and out-climb the early model P-47s at low-to-medium altitude. Once paddle blade propellers were added to the P-47 in early 1944, climb performance improved significantly. The Thunderbolt was the fastest-diving American aircraft of the war—it could reach speeds of 550 mph (480 kn, 885 km/h). Some P-47 pilots claimed to have broken the sound barrier, but later research revealed that because of the pressure buildup inside the pitot tube at high speeds, airspeed readings became unpredictably exaggerated. But German pilots gradually learned to avoid diving away from a Thunderbolt. Kurt Bühligen, a high-scoring German fighter ace with 112 victories, recalled: The P-47 was very heavy, too heavy for some maneuvers. We would see it coming from behind, and pull up fast and the P-47 couldn't follow and we came around and got on its tail in this way. The arrival of the new Curtiss paddle blade propeller significantly increased climb rate at lower altitudes and came as a surprise to German pilots who had resorted to steep climbs to evade pursuit by the P-47. Other positive attributes included the P-47's ruggedness; it could sustain a large amount of damage and still be able to get its pilot back to base. With eight.50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns, the P-47 carried more firepower than other single-engined American fighters. P-47 pilots claimed 20 \"Luftwaffe\" Messerschmitt Me 262 jet fighters and four Arado Ar 234 jet bombers in aerial combat. In the Pacific, Colonel Neel E. Kearby of the Fifth Air Force claimed 22 Japanese aircraft and was awarded the Medal of Honor for an action in which he downed six enemy fighters on a single mission. He was shot down and killed over Wewak in March 1944.", "The P-47 proved to be a formidable fighter-bomber due to its good armament, heavy bomb load and ability to survive enemy fire. The P-47's survivability was due in part to its radial piston engine, which unlike comparable liquid-cooled engines, had a high tolerance for damage. The Thunderbolt's eight.50 in (12.7 mm) machine guns were capable against lightly armored targets, although less so than cannon-armed aircraft of the day. In a ground attack role, the armor-piercing (AP), armor-piercing incendiary (API), and armor-piercing incendiary tracer (APIT) ammunition proved useful in penetrating thin-skinned and lightly armored German vehicles and exploding their fuel tanks, as well as occasionally damaging some types of enemy armored fighting vehicles (AFVs). P-47 pilots frequently carried two 500 lb (227 kg) bombs, using skip bombing techniques for difficult targets (skipping bombs into railroad tunnels to destroy hidden enemy trains was a favorite tactic). The adoption of the triple-tube M10 rocket launcher with M8 high-explosive rockets (each with an explosive force similar to a 105 mm artillery shell)—much as the RAF's Hawker Typhoon gained when first fitted with its own two quartets of underwing RP-3 rockets for the same purposes—significantly increased the P-47's ground attack capability. Late in the war, the P-47 was retrofitted with more powerful HVAR rockets.", "", "Broadcast radio interviews of several wartime P-47 pilots appear on the CD audiobook \"USAAF at War 1942–45\", including an account by Lieutenant J.K. Dowling of ground support operations around Cherbourg in June 1944, and a group of four pilots from the 362nd Fighter Wing (Ninth Air Force) in conversation at their mess in Rouvres, France on 24 December 1944 during the Battle of the Bulge. \"Laughter and Tears\", by Captain George Rarey, a posthumous publication of letters and sketches from a pilot in the 379th Air group flying P-47s based in England. Pilots would often claim that one could fly a P-47 through a brick wall and live. In the post-war era one Air National Guard Thunderbolt plowed into the second story of a factory, shearing off its wings, with the crumpled fuselage eventually coming to rest inside the building; the pilot walked away alive. The Czech composer Bohuslav Martinu, while in residence in the US wrote an orchestral scherzo in 1945 entitled \"P-47 Thunderbolt\" (H 309) in homage to the aircraft and its role in World War II. Other media include \"Thunderbolt\", a 1947 color documentary film directed by John Sturges and William Wyler, featuring James Stewart and Lloyd Bridges and narrated by Robert Lowery. The film \"Fighter Squadron\" (1948) depicts a P-47 Thunderbolt unit. \"Thunderbolts: The Conquest of the Reich\", a 2001 television documentary presented by the History Channel. Director Lawrence Bond depicted the last months of World War II over Germany as told by four P-47 pilots of the 362nd Fighter Group using original, all color 1945 footage. The P-47 Thunderbolt was the subject of an episode of the \"World's Deadliest Aircraft\" series broadcast by the Military Channel. Lieutenant Colonel Robert Samuel Johnson collaborated with aviation author Martin Caidin to write his autobiographical story of the 56th Fighter Group, \"Thunderbolt!,\" in 1958. Johnson scored 27 kills in the P-47 while flying with the 56th Fighter Group. In 2015, it was named the state aircraft of Indiana due to its Evansville roots." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Marriage and family.", "Military career.", "Initial commissions.", "War of 1812.", "Command of Fort Howard.", "Black Hawk War.", "Second Seminole War.", "Mexican–American War.", "Election of 1848.", "Presidency (1849–1850).", "Transition and inauguration.", "Sectional crisis.", "Foreign affairs.", "Compromise attempts and final days.", "Death.", "Historical reputation and memorials.", "Assassination theories.", "Bibliography." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Zachary Taylor was born on November 24, 1784, on a plantation in Orange County, Virginia, to a prominent family of planters of English ancestry. His birthplace may have been Hare Forest Farm, the home of his maternal grandfather William Strother, though this has not been determined with certainty. He was the third of five surviving sons in his family (a sixth died in infancy) and had three younger sisters. His mother was Sarah Dabney (Strother) Taylor. His father, Richard Taylor, had served as a lieutenant colonel in the American Revolution. Taylor was a descendant of Elder William Brewster, a Pilgrim leader of the Plymouth Colony, a \"Mayflower\" immigrant, and a signer of the Mayflower Compact; and Isaac Allerton Jr., a colonial merchant, colonel, and son of \"Mayflower\" Pilgrim Isaac", "In June 1810, Taylor married Margaret Mackall Smith, whom he had met the previous autumn in Louisville. \"Peggy\"", "", "On May 3, 1808, Taylor joined the U.S. Army, receiving a commission as a first lieutenant of the Kentuckian Seventh Infantry Regiment. He was among the new officers commissioned by Congress in response to the Chesapeake–Leopard Affair, in which an American frigate had been boarded by the crew of a British warship, sparking calls for war. Taylor spent much of 1809 in the dilapidated camps of New Orleans and nearby Terre aux Boeufs, in the Territory of Orleans. Under the command of James Wilkinson, the soldiers at Terre aux Boeufs suffered greatly from disease and lack of supplies, and Taylor was given an extended leave,", "During the War of 1812, in which U.S. forces battled the British Empire and its Indian allies, Taylor successfully defended Fort Harrison in Indiana Territory from an Indian attack commanded by Tecumseh. The September 1812 battle represented the first land victory of the war for the American forces, for which Taylor received wide praise, as well as a brevet (temporary) promotion to the rank of major. According to Eisenhower, this represented the first brevet ever awarded in United States history. Later that year, Taylor joined General Samuel Hopkins as an aide on two expeditions—the first into the Illinois Territory and the second to the Tippecanoe", "For two years, Taylor commanded Fort Howard at the Green Bay, Michigan Territory settlement, then he returned to Louisville and his family. In April 1819 he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant colonel and dined with President James Monroe and General Andrew Jackson. In late 1821, Taylor took the 7th Infantry to Natchitoches, Louisiana, on the Red River. On the orders of General Edmund P. Gaines, they set out", "In May 1828, Taylor was called back to action, commanding Fort Snelling in Michigan Territory (now Minnesota) on the northern Mississippi River for a year, and then nearby Fort Crawford for a year. After some time on furlough, spent expanding his landholdings, Taylor was promoted to colonel of the 1st Infantry Regiment in April 1832, when the Black Hawk War was beginning in the West. Taylor campaigned under General Henry Atkinson to pursue and later", "By 1837, the Second Seminole War was underway when Taylor was directed to Florida. He built Fort Gardiner and Fort Basinger as supply depots and communication centers in support of Major General Thomas S. Jesup’s campaign to penetrate deep into Seminole territory with large forces and trap the Seminoles and their allies in order to force them to fight or surrender. He engaged in battle with the Seminole Indians in the Christmas Day Battle of Lake Okeechobee, which was among the largest U.S.–Indian battles of the nineteenth century; as a result, he was promoted to brigadier general.", "In anticipation of the annexation of the Republic of Texas, which had established independence in 1836, Taylor was sent in April 1844 to Fort Jesup in Louisiana, and ordered to guard against attempts by Mexico to reclaim the territory. There were more senior generals in the army who might have taken this important command, such as Winfield Scott and Edmund P. Gaines. But both were known members of the Whig Party, and Taylor's apolitical reputation and friendly relations with Andrew Jackson made him the choice of Democratic President James K. Polk. Polk directed him to deploy into disputed territory in Texas, \"on or near the Rio Grande\" near Mexico. Taylor chose a spot at Corpus Christi, and his Army of Occupation encamped there until the following spring in", "In his capacity as a career officer, Taylor had never publicly revealed his political beliefs before 1848 nor voted before that time. He thought of himself as an independent, believing in a strong and sound banking system for the country, and thought that President Andrew Jackson, a Democrat, should not have allowed the Second Bank of the United States to collapse in 1836. He believed it was impractical to expand slavery into the western areas of the U.S., as neither cotton nor sugar (both were produced in great quantities as a result of slavery) could be easily grown there through a plantation economy. He was also a firm nationalist, and due to his experience of seeing many people die as a result of warfare, he believed that secession was not a good way to resolve national problems. Well before the American victory at Buena Vista, political clubs were formed which supported Taylor for president. His support was drawn from an unusually broad assortment of political bands, including Whigs and Democrats, Northerners and Southerners, allies and opponents of national leaders such as Henry Clay and James K. Polk. By late 1846 Taylor's opposition to a presidential run began to weaken, and it became clear that his principles more closely resembled Whig orthodoxy. As support for Taylor's candidacy grew, he continued to keep his distance from both parties, but made it clear that he would have voted for Whig Henry Clay in 1844 had he voted. In a widely publicized September 1847 letter, Taylor stated his positions on several issues. He did not favor chartering another national bank, favored a low tariff, and believed that the president should play no role in making laws. Taylor did believe that the president could veto laws, but only when they were clearly unconstitutional. Many southerners believed that Taylor", "", "As president-elect, Taylor kept his distance from Washington, not resigning his Western Division command until late January 1849. He spent the months following the election formulating his cabinet selections. He was deliberate and quiet about his decisions, to the frustration of his fellow Whigs. While he despised patronage and political games, he endured a flurry of advances from office-seekers looking to play a role in his administration. While he would not appoint any Democrats, Taylor wanted his cabinet to reflect the nation's diverse interests, and so apportioned the seats geographically. He also", "As Taylor took office, Congress faced a battery of questions related to the Mexican Cession, acquired by the U.S. after the Mexican War and divided into military districts. It was unclear which districts would be established into states and which would become federal territories, while the question of their slave status threatened to bitterly divide Congress. Additionally, many in the South had grown increasingly angry about the aid that northerners had given to fugitive slaves. While a southern slaveowner himself, Taylor believed that slavery was economically infeasible in the Mexican", "Taylor and his Secretary of State, John M. Clayton, both lacked diplomatic experience, and came into office at a relatively uneventful time in American–international politics. Their shared nationalism allowed Taylor to devolve foreign policy matters to Clayton with minimal oversight, although no decisive foreign policy was established under their administration. As opponents of the autocratic European order, they vocally supported German and Hungarian liberals in the revolutions of 1848, although they offered little in the way of aid. A perceived insult from the French minister Guillaume Tell Poussin nearly led to a break in diplomatic relations until Poussin was replaced, and a reparation dispute with Portugal resulted in harsh words from the Taylor administration. In a more positive effort, the administration arranged for two ships to assist in the United Kingdom's search for a team of British explorers, led by John Franklin, who had gotten lost in the Arctic. While previous Whig administrations had emphasized Pacific trade as an economic imperative, the Taylor administration took no major initiative", "Clay took a central role as Congress debated the slavery question. While his positions had some overlap with Taylor's, the president always maintained his distance from Clay. Historians disagree on his motivations for doing so. With assistance from Daniel Webster, Clay developed his landmark proposal, the Compromise of 1850. The proposal allowed statehood for California, giving it independence on the slavery question, while the other territories would remain under federal jurisdiction. This would include the disputed parts of New Mexico, although Texas would be reimbursed for the territory. Slavery would be retained in the District of Columbia, but the slave trade would be banned. Meanwhile, a strict Fugitive Slave Law would be enacted, bypassing northern legislation which had restricted Southerners from retrieving runaway slaves. Tensions flared as Congress negotiated and secession talks grew, culminating with a threat from Taylor to send troops into New Mexico to protect its border from Texas, with himself leading the army. Taylor also", "On July 4, 1850, Taylor reportedly consumed copious amounts of raw fruit and iced milk while attending holiday celebrations during a fund-raising event at the Washington Monument, which was then under construction. Over the course of several days, he became severely ill with an unknown digestive ailment. His doctor \"diagnosed the illness as cholera morbus, a flexible mid-nineteenth-century term for intestinal ailments as diverse as diarrhea and dysentery but not related to Asiatic cholera\", the latter being a widespread epidemic at the time of Taylor's death. The identity and source of Taylor's illness are the subject of historical speculation (see below), although it is known that several of his cabinet members had come down with a similar illness. Fever ensued and Taylor's chance of recovery was small. On July 8, Taylor", "Because of his short tenure, Taylor is not considered to have strongly influenced the office of the Presidency or the United States. Some historians believe that Taylor was too inexperienced with politics, at a time when officials needed close ties with political operatives. Despite his shortcomings, the Clayton–Bulwer Treaty affecting relations with Great Britain in Central America is \"recognized as an important step in scaling down the nation's commitment to Manifest Destiny as a policy.\" While historical rankings of Presidents of the United States have generally placed Taylor in the bottom quarter of chief executives, most surveys tend to rank him as the most effective of the four presidents from the Whig Party. Taylor was the last president to own slaves while in office. He was the third of four Whig presidents, the last being Fillmore, his successor. Taylor was also the second president to die in office, preceded by William Henry", "Almost immediately after his death, rumors began to circulate that Taylor was poisoned by pro-slavery Southerners, and similar theories persisted into the 21st century. In 1978, Hamilton Smith based his assassination theory on the timing of drugs, the lack of confirmed cholera outbreaks, and other material. In the late 1980s, Clara Rising, a former professor at the University of Florida, persuaded Taylor's closest living relative to agree to an exhumation so that his remains could be tested. The remains were exhumed and transported to the Office of the Kentucky Chief Medical Examiner on June 17, 1991. Samples of hair, fingernail, and other tissues were removed,", "General biographies Political history Genealogy Further reading" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Early life.", "Reign as King.", "Under guardianship.", "First years of majority.", "Saxon Rebellion and Investiture Controversy.", "Road to Canossa.", "Civil war.", "Imperial coronation.", "Reign as Emperor.", "Consolidation.", "Return to Italy.", "Family feuds.", "Restoration.", "Fall.", "Last year.", "Legacy.", "Family." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Henry was the third monarch of the Salian dynasty—the royal house ruling Germany from 1024 to 1125. The 11th-century kings of Germany also ruled Italy and Burgundy and had a strong claim to the title of Holy Roman Emperor. They were convinced that their claim to the emperorship entitled them each to act as the head of all Christians and to control papal elections in Rome. Rome was actually dominated by local aristocrats, the Tusculani and the Crescentii, who raised their own candidates to the papal throne. Their rivalries caused scandals, culminating in three rival popes—Benedict IX, Sylvester III and Gregory VI—in 1045. To put an end to the schism, Henry's father, Henry III, crossed the Alps to Italy and held a church synod at Sutri on 20 December 1046. The synod deposed the three popes and replaced them with a German prelate, Bishop Suidger of Bamberg, who assumed the name Clement II. Henry III emphasized the priestly nature of kingship, attributing it to the kings' anointment by holy oil. A man of great personal piety, he regarded himself as \"Vicar of Christ\", authorized to administer state and church alike. The Romans awarded him the hereditary title of patrician, acknowledging his and his successors' right to cast the first vote at papal elections. His new title enabled him to secure the appointment of German clerics to the papal throne. The third German pope, Leo IX, came from Lotharingia—a province that had been an important centre of reformist clerics. They wanted to purify the Church through the re-implementation of ancient (or supposedly ancient) collections of canon law and Leo IX enthusiastically introduced their ideas to Rome. He prohibited simony—the sale of church offices—and promoted clerical celibacy. Imperial control of church affairs was", "Born on 11 November 1050, Henry was the son of the Holy Roman Emperor, Henry III, by his second wife, Agnes of Poitou. Henry was most likely born in his father's palace at Goslar. His birth had been long awaited; Henry III had fathered four daughters, but his subjects were convinced only a male heir could secure the \"peace of kingdom\" (as Hermann II, Archbishop of Cologne, called it in a sermon). Henry was first named for his grandfather, Conrad II, Holy Roman Emperor, but Abbot Hugh of Cluny, whom Henry III had appointed as his son's godfather, convinced the Emperor to give his name to his heir. While celebrating Christmas 1050 at Pöhlde in Saxony, the ailing Henry III designated his infant son as his successor. Archbishop Hermann baptised Henry in Cologne on Easter Sunday 1051. In November, the Emperor held an assembly at Tribur to", "", "At the age of six, Henry became sole monarch of the empire. Pope Victor II convinced the German aristocrats to swear fealty to their young king and enthroned him in Aachen. Although Empress Agnes had been planning to enter a nunnery, she was appointed her son's guardian. She was responsible for her son's education along with a royal \"ministerialis\" (unfree liegeman), Cuno. She secured the most powerful aristocrats' support through lavish grants. Agnes was reconciled with Godfrey the Bearded and made her late husband's other opponent, Conrad of the Ezzonid family, duke of Carinthia. Agnes took full control of state administration as regent after Pope Victor II left Germany early in 1057, but she paid little attention to Burgundy and Italy. Henry had inherited his father's Roman title of patrician, but the concept of \"liberty of the Church\" became dominant in Rome during his minority. Pope Victor's successor, Stephen IX—Godfrey the Bearded's brother—was elected without royal intervention early in August. A group of Saxon aristocrats plotted against Henry, fearing he would continue his father's oppressive policies after reaching the age of majority. They convinced Otto of Nordmark, who had recently returned from exile, to mount a coup. Henry's two relatives, Bruno II and Egbert I of Brunswick, attacked the conspirators. Bruno killed Otto but was mortally", "Henry was girded with a sword as a token of his coming of age in Worms on 29 March 1065. According to the contemporaneous account of Lampert of Hersfeld, Henry attacked Archbishop Anno of Cologne soon after the ceremony and only his mother could calm him down. Lampert's report is not fully reliable, but it is known that Anno was ousted from Henry's court. At Worms, Henry accepted Pope Alexander II's invitation to Rome. Agnes of Poitou recovered her influence, but she left Germany for Italy two months later and Archbishop Adalbert of Bremen took full control of state administration. Henry's journey to Rome was postponed first until autumn, and then indefinitely, although the Pope needed Henry's presence to overcome the Italian supporters of Antipope Honorius II. Instead of travelling to Rome, Henry visited Burgundy in June 1065. Burgundian diplomas show the local aristocrats regarded his visit as the starting date of his reign. From Burgundy, Henry went to Lorraine where he granted Lower Lorraine to Godfrey the Bearded in October. Adalbert of Bremen, in concert with the King's young friend, Werner, abused royal prerogative to seize church", "Large parcels of the royal demesne were distributed during Henry's minority, and he decided to recover them around 1069. The bulk of the royal estates had been in Saxony. Henry sent Swabian \"ministeriales\" to the duchy to investigate property rights. The appointment of non-native unfree officials offended the Saxons, especially because the new officials ignored their traditional civil procedures. New castles were built in Saxony and Henry manned them with Swabian soldiers. Like his father, Henry spent more time in Saxony than in other parts of Germany and the accommodation of his retinue was the Saxons' irksome duty. The Thuringians were also outraged that Henry supported Archbishop Siegfried of Mainz's claim to collect tithes from them, although most Thuringians had been exempted from the church tax for centuries. The Margrave of Lower Lusatia, Dedi I, was the first Saxon lord to rebel. He claimed benefices that his wife's former husband, Otto I, Margrave of Meissen, had held, but Henry refused him in 1069. Dedi approached the Thuringians for help, but after Henry's promise to confirm their exemption from tithes the Thuringians joined the royal army. Henry invaded Dedi's domains and forced him to surrender. Otto of Nordheim held vast estates in Saxony. After a nobleman, Egeno, accused him of plotting against Henry's life, Otto was summoned to \"purge himself of that charge in single combat\" early in August 1070. The contemporary historian Bruno the Saxon stated that Henry had paid Egeno to accuse Otto, but his account is biased. Fearing his case would not be judged fairly, Otto disobeyed the summons and fled from Bavaria to Saxony. He was soon outlawed and his benefices were confiscated. Henry invaded Otto's Saxon domains, but Otto raided the royal estates in Thuringia. Ordulf, Duke of Saxony, and most Saxon", "Henry knew that his dependence on Pope Gregory VII was loosened after his victory in the Saxon War. He sent Count Eberhard the Bearded as his deputy to Italy. Eberhard demanded an oath of fealty from the Pope's vassal, Robert Guiscard, Duke of Apulia and Calabria. Henry made one of his chaplains, Tedald, archbishop of Milan contradicting the Pope's former decisions. Alarmed by these acts, the Pope announced he would excommunicate Henry unless he changed his policies. Henry regarded the Pope's words as a clear denial of the sacred nature of kingship. He held a synod in Worms on 24 January 1076. Two archbishops, twenty-four German bishops (two-thirds of the German", "Henry remained in Italy after his absolution, which surprised his German opponents. They held an assembly at Forchheim, arguing that it had not restored their oaths of fealty. The bishops, archbishops, dukes and the Saxons' representatives who attended the assembly elected Rudolf of Rheinfelden king on 14 March 1078. Although the papal legates who were present acknowledged Rudolf's election, Pope Gregory VII remained neutral. He maintained he was entitled to settle the dispute and informed both Henry and Rudolf he would hear their case at an assembly in Germany. On hearing of the election of an anti-king, Henry replaced Rudolf's principal ally, Berthold of Zähringen, with Liutold of Eppenstein as duke of Carinthia and awarded Friuli to Sigehard, Patriarch of Aquilea. He confiscated Swabia from Rudolf and Bavaria from Welf, placing both duchies under his direct control. Before returning to Germany in April, Henry made his three-year-old son, Conrad, his lieutenant in Italy. He charged two excommunicated Italian prelates, Tedald of Milan and Denis of Piacenza,", "Henry led a small army to Italy in March 1081. His Italian supporters had defeated Matilda of Tuscany's troops in the previous year, enabling him to reach Rome without resistance. The Romans, however, remained loyal to Pope Gregory VII and Henry had to withdraw to northern Italy in late June. He began negotiations with the envoys of the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos about an alliance against Robert Guiscard. He granted privileges to Lucca and Pisa, releasing them from Matilda's lordship. While Henry was in Italy, the Saxons invaded Franconia. Henry's southern German opponents elected Welf's kinsman, Hermann of Salm, king at a poorly attended assembly early in August. The Saxons only paid homage to Hermann four months later. Henry left Italy for Germany in the autumn of 1081 but returned in February 1082. He laid siege to Rome but could not break the Romans' resistance. He charged Antipope Clement with the siege of Rome and began devastating Matilda's domains. Rumours of Hermann of Salm's plans to invade", "", "Pope Gregory VII repeated Henry's excommunication in late 1084, but many of the Pope's former supporters came to pay homage to Henry as emperor at Cologne at Christmas. His supporters and opponents held a joint conference on the river Werra on 20 January 1085 but could not reach a compromise. The Saxon Count Theoderic II of Katlenburg and Bishop Udo of Hildesheim entered into secret negotiations with Henry during the conference, but the Saxons who remained hostile to Henry soon murdered Theoderic and forced the bishop to flee from Saxony. After the bishop persuaded Henry to pledge he would respect the Saxons' liberties, many rebels laid down their arms. The papal legate, Cardinal Odo of Ostia, summoned the German prelates who were loyal to Pope Gregory VII to a synod at Quedlinburg. The synod", "Henry began negotiations with his Bavarian and Swabian opponents. They were willing to surrender, but they demanded the deposition of Antipope Clement III. Henry was inclined to accept their offer, but his bishops dissuaded him, fearing they would also be dismissed after the Antipope's fall. To prevent further negotiations between the Emperor and his opponents, Pope Urban II mediated a marriage alliance between Welf I of Bavaria's 18-year-old son, Welf the Fat, and the 43-year-old Matilda of Tuscany in the autumn of 1089. Henry decided to launch a new invasion of Matilda's domains. The Jews of Speyer approached him around this time for the confirmation of their rights. He summarised their liberties in a diploma, protecting them against physical assaults and prohibiting their forced baptism. He issued a similar document for the Jews of Worms. Henry was often in need of cash and according to Robinson, both communities had probably paid a significant", "Matilda of Tuscany and her husband managed to turn Henry's heir, Conrad, against him in the spring or summer of 1093. Henry had Conrad captured, but he escaped to Milan. According to Bernold of Constance, Henry tried to commit suicide after his son's rebellion, though Bernold probably invented this story to make a comparison between Henry and King Saul. Conrad's disloyalty aroused Henry's suspicion of his relatives, and he put his wife under strict supervision, allegedly for her infidelity. Four Lombard towns (Milan, Cremona, Lodi and Piacenza) made an alliance with Matilda of Tuscany. Henry fled to Verona whose margrave, Henry of Eppenstein, and Eppenstein's brother, Patriarch Udalric of Aquileia, were his last supporters in Italy. Henry's authority remained limited to north-eastern Italy, and Matilda and Welf I's troops prevented his return to Germany. Empress Eupraxia decided to desert Henry and sought Matilda's assistance to rescue her from her house arrest early in 1094. Matilda sent a small force of soldiers to Verona who liberated the Empress and accompanied her to Tuscany. On", "Welf of Bavaria's father, Adalbert Azzo II of Este, mediated a reconciliation between his son and the Emperor in early 1096. Henry restored Bavaria to Welf who lifted the blockade of the Alpine passes, enabling Henry to return to Germany in May. Aristocrats who had rebelled against Henry came to pay homage to him at assemblies held in Regensburg, Nuremberg and Mainz. He allowed the Jews, who had been forcibly converted to Christianity, to return to Judaism. In early 1098, Berthold II of Zähringen was also reconciled with Henry who exempted his domains from the jurisdiction of the dukes of Swabia and rewarded him with the hereditary title of duke. The", "A Bavarian count, Sigehard of Burghausen, criticised Henry for his favouritism towards the Saxon and Franconian aristocrats in Regensburg in January 1104. He had come to Regensburg accompanied by a large retinue arousing Henry's suspicion he was staging a plot. After Sigehard dismissed his retainers, a band of \"ministeriales\" and burghers murdered him on 4 February. The \"ministeriales\" likely took revenge on Sigehard for his arbitration in a case relating to their peers. Sigehard's kinsmen and other aristocrats, however, blamed Henry for his death saying he", "Henry was staying in Ingelheim after his abdication, but his supporters warned him his son had decided to imprison or execute him. In early February 1106, he fled to Cologne where he was received by the townspeople with great respect. He declined all ceremonies, demonstrating that he was doing penance for his sins. His loyal supporter, Othbert, Bishop of Liège, made peace with Henry of Limburg to secure the Duke's support. Henry joined them at Liège and mediated a reconciliation between Henry of Limburg and Albert III, Count of Namur. Robert II of Flanders also promised him assistance. Henry addressed a letter to Hugh of Cluny, offering to accept all his terms in return for an absolution. He also wrote letters to his son, the German princes and King Philip I of France. All of them show he was determined to regain his throne. Henry V invaded Lorraine, but his", "Henry's conflicts with his subjects, both sons, his wives and with the popes gave rise to a rich polemical literature during his lifetime. Both his supporters and his opponents based their portraits of Henry on two early medieval works: \"The Twelve Abuses\" contained a discussion about legitimate kingship, while Isidore of Seville's \"Etymologies\" contrasted kingship with tyranny. Consequently, polemical literature tended to provide a list of the characteristics of either good or wicked rulers when portraying Henry. For instance, in the 1080s, the \"Song of the Saxon War\" praised him as a \"king second to none in his piety\" who defended the widows and the poor and gave laws to the lawless Saxons. The \"Vita Heinrici IV imperatoris\", an anonymous biography completed in the early 1110s, described him as a vigorous and warlike monarch who employed learned officials and enjoyed conversations about spiritual themes and the liberal arts. In contrast Lambert of Hersfeld stated Henry had inherited a peaceful realm, but he \"rendered it filthy, despicable, bloodstained, a prey to internal conflicts\". Lambert also emphasised that Henry destroyed and robbed churches and put freemen into servitude. Rumours of Henry's immorality established his bad reputation for centuries. The Saxons were the first to accuse him of debauchery and demanded he dismiss the \"swarm of concubines with whom he slept\". Polemical writings spreading in Germany after 1085 accused Henry of incest and pederasty, also claiming that he had fathered illegitimate children. Isidore of Seville listed immoral sexual practices among the tyrants' characteristics. Consequently, as Robinson emphasises, allegations of Henry's alleged sexual misconduct \"provided his opponents with a useful polemical weapon\". Henry was", "Henry's first wife, Bertha of Savoy, was a year younger than him. Until 5 August 1068, Henry regularly mentioned her as \"consort of our kingdom and our marriage-bed\" in his diplomas. Her disappearance from the diplomas was the sign of a growing disaffection. Henry sought a divorce at a general assembly in June 1069 stating their marriage had not been consummated. The assembled German aristocrats referred his request to a synod, which passed the matter to the Holy See in early October. Pope Alexander II made it clear Henry would only be crowned emperor if he abandoned his plan. Henry obeyed and Bertha was again mentioned regularly in his diplomas from 26 October 1069. She died on 27 December 1087. Bertha gave birth to five children, but two of them—Adelaide and Henry—died in infancy. Her surviving children were: The \"Morkinskinna\"—the earliest Icelandic chronicle of the Norwegian kings—refers to a daughter of an emperor (who must have been identical with Henry for chronological reasons), called Mathilde. According to this source, Magnus III of Norway exchanged messages with her and also composed a stanza for her. Other primary sources do not list Mathilde among Henry's children. Henry's second wife, Eupraxia (known as Adelaide in Germany), was born around 1068. She was the daughter of Vsevolod I, Grand Prince of Kiev, but it was not her connection to Kievan Rus', but her first marriage to Henry of Stade, Margrave of the Nordmark, that made her an ideal spouse for Henry after her husband died in 1087. Henry of Stade had been a wealthy Saxon aristocrat and his widow's marriage to Henry contributed to his reconciliation with the Saxons. Henry and Eupraxia were engaged in 1088. In contrast with Bertha, Eupraxia was mentioned in only one of her husband's diplomas, showing that she never gained Henry's confidence. After the scandalous end of their marriage, she returned to Kiev where she died on 10 July 1109. \"*Gunhilda's daughter by Emperor Henry III, Beatrix, is not displayed. She was Abbess of Quedlinburg and Gandersheim until her death in 1061.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Types of resins.", "Anion resins.", "Cation-exchange resin.", "Anion-exchange resin.", "Uses.", "Water softening.", "Water purification.", "Ion exchange in metal separation.", "Catalysis.", "Juice purification.", "Sugar manufacturing.", "Pharmaceuticals." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Most typical ion-exchange resins are based on crosslinked polystyrene. The actual ion-exchanging sites are introduced after polymerisation. Additionally, in the case of polystyrene, crosslinking is introduced by copolymerisation of styrene and a few percent of divinylbenzene. Crosslinking decreases ion-exchange capacity of the resin and prolongs the time needed to accomplish the ion-exchange processes but improves the robustness of the resin. Particle size also influences the resin parameters; smaller particles have larger outer surface, but cause larger head loss in the column processes. Besides being made as bead-shaped materials, ion-exchange resins are also produced as membranes. These ion-exchange membranes, which are made of highly cross-linked ion-exchange resins that allow passage of ions, but not of water, are used for electrodialysis. Four main types of ion-exchange resins differ in their functional groups: Specialised ion-exchange resins are also known such as chelating resins (iminodiacetic acid, thiourea-based resins, and many others). Anion resins and cation resins are the two most common resins used in the ion-exchange process. While anion resins attract negatively charged ions, cation resins attract positively charged ions.", "Anion resins may be either strongly or weakly basic. Strongly basic anion resins maintain their negative charge across a wide pH range, whereas weakly basic anion resins are neutralized at higher pH levels. Weakly basic resins do not maintain their charge at a high pH because they undergo deprotonation. They do, however, offer excellent mechanical and chemical stability. This, combined with a high rate of ion exchange, make weakly base anion resins well suited for the organic salts. For anion resins, regeneration typically involves treatment of the resin with a strongly basic solution, e.g. aqueous sodium hydroxide. During regeneration, the regenerant chemical is passed through the resin, and trapped negative ions are flushed out, renewing the resin exchange capacity.", "The cation exchange method removes the hardness of water but induces acidity in it, which is further removed in the next stage of treatment of water by passing this acidic water through an anion exchange process. Formula: R−H acidic Reaction:", "Formula: NROH Often these are styrene–divinylbenzene copolymer resins that have quaternary ammonium cations as an integral part of the resin matrix. Reaction: Anion-exchange chromatography makes use of this principle to extract and purify materials from mixtures or solutions.", "", "In this application, ion-exchange resins are used to replace the magnesium and calcium ions found in hard water with sodium ions. When the resin is fresh, it contains sodium ions at its active sites. When in contact with a solution containing magnesium and calcium ions (but a low concentration of sodium ions), the magnesium and calcium ions preferentially migrate out of solution to the active sites on the resin, being replaced in solution by sodium ions. This process reaches equilibrium with a much lower concentration of magnesium and calcium ions in solution than was started with. The resin can be recharged by washing it with a solution containing a high concentration of sodium ions (e.g. it has large amounts of common salt (NaCl) dissolved in it). The calcium and magnesium ions migrate from the resin, being replaced by sodium ions from the solution until a new equilibrium is reached. The salt is used to recharge an ion-exchange resin, which itself is used to soften the water.", "In this application, ion-exchange resins are used to remove poisonous (e.g. copper) and hazardous metal (e.g. lead or cadmium) ions from solution, replacing them with more innocuous ions, such as sodium and potassium. Few ion-exchange resins remove chlorine or organic contaminants from water – this is usually done by using an activated charcoal filter mixed in with the resin. There are some ion-exchange resins that do remove organic ions, such as MIEX (magnetic ion-exchange) resins. Domestic water purification resin is not usually recharged – the resin is discarded when it can no longer be used. Water of highest purity is required for electronics, scientific experiments, production of superconductors, and nuclear industry, among others. Such water is produced using ion-exchange processes or combinations of membrane and ion-exchange methods.", "Ion-exchange processes are used to separate and purify metals, including separating uranium from plutonium and other actinides, including thorium; and lanthanum, neodymium, ytterbium, samarium, lutetium, from each other and the other lanthanides. There are two series of rare-earth metals, the lanthanides and the actinides. Members of each family have very similar chemical and physical properties. Ion exchange was for many years the only practical way to separate the rare earths in large quantities. This application was developed in the 1940s by Frank Spedding. Subsequently, solvent extraction has mostly supplanted use of ion-exchange resins except for the highest-purity products. A very important case is the PUREX process (plutonium-uranium extraction process), which is used to separate the plutonium and the uranium from the spent fuel products from a nuclear reactor, and to be able to dispose of the waste products. Then, the plutonium and uranium are available for making nuclear-energy materials, such as new reactor fuel and nuclear weapons. Ion-exchange beads are also an essential component in in-situ leach uranium mining. In-situ recovery involves the extraction of uranium-bearing water (grading as low as 0.05% UO) through boreholes. The extracted uranium solution is then filtered through the resin beads. Through an ion-exchange process, the resin beads attract uranium from the solution. Uranium-loaded resins are then transported to a processing plant, where UO is separated from the resin beads, and yellowcake is produced. The resin beads can then be returned to the ion-exchange facility, where they are reused. The ion-exchange process is also used to separate other sets of very similar chemical elements, such as zirconium and hafnium, which incidentally is also very important for the nuclear industry. Zirconium is practically transparent to free neutrons, used in building reactors, but hafnium is a very strong absorber of neutrons, used in reactor control rods.", "Ion exchange resins are used in organic synthesis, e.g. for esterification and hydrolysis. Being high surface area and insoluble, they are suitable for vapor-phase and liquid-phase reactions. Examples can be found where basic (OH-form) of ion exchange resins are used to neutralize of ammonium salts and convert quaternary ammonium halides to hydroxides. Acidic (H-form) ion exchange resins have been used as solid acid catalysts for scission of ether protecting groups. and for rearrangement reactions.", "Ion-exchange resins are used in the manufacture of fruit juices such as orange and cranberry juice, where they are used to remove bitter-tasting components and so improve the flavor. This allows tart or poorer-tasting fruit sources to be used for juice production.", "Ion-exchange resins are used in the manufacturing of sugar from various sources. They are used to help convert one type of sugar into another type of sugar, and to decolorize and purify sugar syrups.", "Ion-exchange resins are used in the manufacturing of pharmaceuticals, not only for catalyzing certain reactions, but also for isolating and purifying pharmaceutical active ingredients. Three ion-exchange resins, sodium polystyrene sulfonate, colestipol, and cholestyramine, are used as active ingredients. Sodium polystyrene sulfonate is a strongly acidic ion-exchange resin and is used to treat hyperkalemia. Colestipol is a weakly basic ion-exchange resin and is used to treat hypercholesterolemia. Cholestyramine is a strongly basic ion-exchange resin and is also used to treat hypercholesterolemia. Colestipol and cholestyramine are known as bile acid sequestrants. Ion-exchange resins are also used as excipients in pharmaceutical formulations such as tablets, capsules, gums, and suspensions. In these uses the ion-exchange resin can have several different functions, including taste-masking, extended release, tablet disintegration, increased bioavailability, and improving the chemical stability of the active ingredients." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Discovery and development.", "Physics.", "Magnetic field.", "Magnetic moment.", "Magnetization.", "Modelling magnets.", "Polarity.", "Magnetic materials.", "Medical issues and safety.", "Magnetizing ferromagnets.", "Demagnetizing ferromagnets.", "Types of permanent magnets.", "Magnetic metallic elements.", "Composites.", "Rare-earth magnets.", "Single-molecule magnets (SMMs) and single-chain magnets (SCMs).", "Nano-structured magnets.", "Rare-earth-free permanent magnets.", "Costs.", "Temperature.", "Electromagnets.", "Units and calculations.", "Fields of a magnet.", "Calculating the magnetic force.", "Pull force of a single magnet.", "Force between two magnetic poles.", "Force between two nearby magnetized surfaces of area \"A\".", "Force between two bar magnets.", "Force between two cylindrical magnets." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3" ], "content": [ "Ancient people learned about magnetism from lodestones (or magnetite) which are naturally magnetized pieces of iron ore. The word \"magnet\" was adopted in Middle English from Latin \"magnetum\" \"lodestone\", ultimately from Greek (\"magnētis [lithos]\") meaning \"[stone] from Magnesia\", a part of ancient Greece where lodestones were found. Lodestones, suspended so they could turn, were the first magnetic compasses. The earliest known surviving descriptions of magnets and their properties are from Greece, India, and China around 2500 years ago. The properties of lodestones and their affinity for iron were written of by Pliny the Elder in his encyclopedia \"Naturalis Historia\". By the 12th to 13th centuries AD, magnetic compasses were used in navigation in China, Europe, the Arabian Peninsula and elsewhere.", "", "The magnetic flux density (also called magnetic B field or just magnetic field, usually denoted B) is a vector field. The magnetic B field vector at a given point in space is specified by two properties: In SI units, the strength of the magnetic B field is given in teslas.", "A magnet's magnetic moment (also called magnetic dipole moment and usually denoted μ) is a vector that characterizes the magnet's overall magnetic properties. For a bar magnet, the direction of the magnetic moment points from the magnet's south pole to its north pole, and the magnitude relates to how strong and how far apart these poles are. In SI units, the magnetic moment is specified in terms of A·m (amperes times meters squared). A magnet both produces its own magnetic field and responds to magnetic fields. The strength of the magnetic field it produces is at any given point proportional to the magnitude of its magnetic moment. In addition, when the magnet is put into an external magnetic field, produced by a different source, it is subject to a torque tending to orient the magnetic moment parallel to the field. The amount of this torque is proportional both to the magnetic moment and the external field. A magnet may also be subject to a force driving it in one direction or another, according to the positions and orientations of the magnet and source. If the field is uniform in space, the magnet is subject to no net force, although it is subject to a torque. A wire in the shape of a circle with area \"A\" and carrying current \"I\" has a magnetic moment of magnitude equal to \"IA\".", "The magnetization of a magnetized material is the local value of its magnetic moment per unit volume, usually denoted M, with units A/m. It is a vector field, rather than just a vector (like the magnetic moment), because different areas in a magnet can be magnetized with different directions and strengths (for example, because of domains, see below). A good bar magnet may have a magnetic moment of magnitude 0.1 A•m and a volume of 1 cm, or 1×10 m, and therefore an average magnetization magnitude is 100,000 A/m. Iron can have a magnetization of around a million amperes per meter. Such a large value explains why iron magnets are so effective at producing magnetic fields.", "Two different models exist for magnets: magnetic poles and atomic currents. Although for many purposes it is convenient to think of a magnet as having distinct north and south magnetic poles, the concept of poles should not be taken literally: it is merely a way of referring to the two different ends of a magnet. The magnet does not have distinct north or south particles on opposing sides. If a bar magnet is broken into two pieces, in an attempt to separate the north and south poles, the result will be two bar magnets, \"each\" of which has both a north and south pole. However, a version of the magnetic-pole approach is used by professional magneticians to design permanent magnets. In this approach, the divergence of the magnetization ∇·M inside a magnet and the surface normal component M·n are treated as a distribution of magnetic monopoles. This is a mathematical convenience and does not imply that there are actually monopoles in the magnet. If the magnetic-pole distribution is known, then the pole model gives the magnetic field H. Outside the magnet, the field B is proportional to H, while inside the magnetization must be added to H. An extension of this method that allows for internal magnetic charges is used in theories of ferromagnetism. Another model is the Ampère model, where all magnetization is due to the effect of microscopic, or atomic, circular bound currents, also called Ampèrian currents, throughout the material. For a uniformly magnetized cylindrical bar magnet, the net effect of the microscopic bound currents is to make the magnet behave as if there is a macroscopic sheet of electric current flowing around the surface, with local flow direction normal to the cylinder axis. Microscopic currents in atoms inside the material are generally canceled by currents in neighboring atoms, so only the surface makes a net contribution; shaving off the outer layer of a magnet will \"not\" destroy its magnetic field, but will leave a new surface of uncancelled currents from the circular currents throughout the material. The right-hand rule tells which direction positively-charged current flows. However, current due to negatively-charged electricity is far more prevalent in practice.", "The north pole of a magnet is defined as the pole that, when the magnet is freely suspended, points towards the Earth's North Magnetic Pole in the Arctic (the magnetic and geographic poles do not coincide, see magnetic declination). Since opposite poles (north and south) attract, the North Magnetic Pole is actually the \"south\" pole of the Earth's magnetic field. As a practical matter, to tell which pole of a magnet is north and which is south, it is not necessary to use the Earth's magnetic field at all. For example, one method would be to compare it to an electromagnet, whose poles can be identified by the right-hand rule. The magnetic field lines of a magnet are considered by convention to emerge from the magnet's north pole and reenter at the south pole.", "The term \"magnet\" is typically reserved for objects that produce their own persistent magnetic field even in the absence of an applied magnetic field. Only certain classes of materials can do this. Most materials, however, produce a magnetic field in response to an applied magnetic field – a phenomenon known as magnetism. There are several types of magnetism, and all materials exhibit at least one of them. The overall magnetic behavior of a material can vary widely, depending on the structure of the material, particularly on its electron configuration. Several forms of magnetic behavior have been observed in different materials, including: There are various other types of magnetism, such as spin glass, superparamagnetism, superdiamagnetism, and metamagnetism.", "Because human tissues have a very low level of susceptibility to static magnetic fields, there is little mainstream scientific evidence showing a health effect associated with exposure to static fields. Dynamic magnetic fields may be a different issue, however; correlations between electromagnetic radiation and cancer rates have been postulated due to demographic correlations (see Electromagnetic radiation and health). If a ferromagnetic foreign body is present in human tissue, an external magnetic field interacting with it can pose a serious safety risk. A different type of indirect magnetic health risk exists involving pacemakers. If a pacemaker has been embedded in a patient's chest (usually for the purpose of monitoring and regulating the heart for steady electrically induced beats), care should be taken to keep it away from magnetic fields. It is for this reason that a patient with the device installed cannot be tested with the use of a magnetic resonance imaging device. Children sometimes swallow small magnets from toys, and this can be hazardous if two or more magnets are swallowed, as the magnets can pinch or puncture internal tissues. Magnetic imaging devices (e.g. MRIs) generate enormous magnetic fields, and therefore rooms intended to hold them exclude ferrous metals. Bringing objects made of ferrous metals (such as oxygen canisters) into such a room creates a severe safety risk, as those objects may be powerfully thrown about by the intense magnetic fields.", "Ferromagnetic materials can be magnetized in the following ways:", "Magnetized ferromagnetic materials can be demagnetized (or degaussed) in the following ways:", "", "Many materials have unpaired electron spins, and the majority of these materials are paramagnetic. When the spins interact with each other in such a way that the spins align spontaneously, the materials are called ferromagnetic (what is often loosely termed as magnetic). Because of the way their regular crystalline atomic structure causes their spins to interact, some metals are ferromagnetic when found in their natural states, as ores. These include iron ore (magnetite or lodestone), cobalt and nickel, as well as the rare earth metals gadolinium and dysprosium (when at a very low temperature). Such naturally occurring ferromagnets were used in the first experiments with magnetism. Technology has since expanded the availability of magnetic materials to include various man-made products, all based, however, on naturally magnetic elements.", "Ceramic, or ferrite, magnets are made of a sintered composite of powdered iron oxide and barium/strontium carbonate ceramic. Given the low cost of the materials and manufacturing methods, inexpensive magnets (or non-magnetized ferromagnetic cores, for use in electronic components such as portable AM radio antennas) of various shapes can be easily mass-produced. The resulting magnets are non-corroding but brittle and must be treated like other ceramics. Alnico magnets are made by casting or sintering a combination of aluminium, nickel and cobalt with iron and small amounts of other elements added to enhance the properties of the magnet. Sintering offers superior mechanical characteristics, whereas casting delivers higher magnetic fields and allows for the design of intricate shapes. Alnico magnets resist corrosion and have physical properties more forgiving than ferrite, but not quite as desirable as a metal. Trade names for alloys in this family include: \"Alni, Alcomax, Hycomax, Columax\", and \"Ticonal\". Injection-molded magnets are a composite of various types of resin and magnetic powders, allowing parts of complex shapes to be manufactured by injection molding. The physical and magnetic properties of the product depend on the raw materials, but are generally lower in magnetic strength and resemble plastics in their physical properties. Flexible magnets are composed of a high-coercivity ferromagnetic compound (usually ferric oxide) mixed with a plastic binder. This is extruded as a sheet and passed over a line of powerful cylindrical permanent magnets. These magnets are arranged in a stack with alternating magnetic poles facing up (N, S, N, S...) on a rotating shaft. This impresses the plastic sheet with the magnetic poles in an alternating line format. No electromagnetism is used to generate the magnets. The pole-to-pole distance is on the order of 5 mm, but varies with manufacturer. These magnets are lower in magnetic strength but can be very flexible, depending on the binder used.", "Rare earth (lanthanoid) elements have a partially occupied \"f\" electron shell (which can accommodate up to 14 electrons). The spin of these electrons can be aligned, resulting in very strong magnetic fields, and therefore, these elements are used in compact high-strength magnets where their higher price is not a concern. The most common types of rare-earth magnets are samarium-cobalt and neodymium-iron-boron (NIB) magnets.", "In the 1990s, it was discovered that certain molecules containing paramagnetic metal ions are capable of storing a magnetic moment at very low temperatures. These are very different from conventional magnets that store information at a magnetic domain level and theoretically could provide a far denser storage medium than conventional magnets. In this direction, research on monolayers of SMMs is currently under way. Very briefly, the two main attributes of an SMM are: Most SMMs contain manganese but can also be found with vanadium, iron, nickel and cobalt clusters. More recently, it has been found that some chain systems can also display a magnetization that persists for long times at higher temperatures. These systems have been called single-chain magnets.", "Some nano-structured materials exhibit energy waves, called magnons, that coalesce into a common ground state in the manner of a Bose–Einstein condensate.", "The United States Department of Energy has identified a need to find substitutes for rare-earth metals in permanent-magnet technology, and has begun funding such research. The Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy (ARPA-E) has sponsored a Rare Earth Alternatives in Critical Technologies (REACT) program to develop alternative materials. In 2011, ARPA-E awarded 31.6 million dollars to fund Rare-Earth Substitute projects.", "The cheapest permanent magnets, allowing for field strengths, are flexible and ceramic magnets, but these are also among the weakest types. The ferrite magnets are mainly low-cost magnets since they are made from cheap raw materials: iron oxide and Ba- or Sr-carbonate. However, a new low cost magnet, Mn-Al alloy, has been developed and is now dominating the low-cost magnets field. It has a higher saturation magnetization than the ferrite magnets. It also has more favorable temperature coefficients, although it can be thermally unstable. Neodymium-iron-boron (NIB) magnets are among the strongest. These cost more per kilogram than most other magnetic materials but, owing to their intense field, are smaller and cheaper in many applications.", "Temperature sensitivity varies, but when a magnet is heated to a temperature known as the Curie point, it loses all of its magnetism, even after cooling below that temperature. The magnets can often be remagnetized, however. Additionally, some magnets are brittle and can fracture at high temperatures. The maximum usable temperature is highest for alnico magnets at over, around for ferrite and SmCo, about for NIB and lower for flexible ceramics, but the exact numbers depend on the grade of material.", "An electromagnet, in its simplest form, is a wire that has been coiled into one or more loops, known as a solenoid. When electric current flows through the wire, a magnetic field is generated. It is concentrated near (and especially inside) the coil, and its field lines are very similar to those of a magnet. The orientation of this effective magnet is determined by the right hand rule. The magnetic moment and the magnetic field of the electromagnet are proportional to the number of loops of wire, to the cross-section of each loop, and to the current passing through the wire. If the coil of wire is wrapped around a material with no special magnetic properties (e.g., cardboard), it will tend to generate a very weak field. However, if it is wrapped around a soft ferromagnetic material, such as an iron nail, then the net field produced can result in a several hundred- to thousandfold increase of field strength. Uses for electromagnets include particle accelerators, electric motors, junkyard cranes, and magnetic resonance imaging machines. Some applications involve configurations more than a simple magnetic dipole; for example, quadrupole and sextupole magnets are used to focus particle beams.", "For most engineering applications, MKS (rationalized) or SI (Système International) units are commonly used. Two other sets of units, Gaussian and CGS-EMU, are the same for magnetic properties and are commonly used in physics. In all units, it is convenient to employ two types of magnetic field, B and H, as well as the magnetization M, defined as the magnetic moment per unit volume. Materials that are not permanent magnets usually satisfy the relation M = \"χH in SI, where \"χ\" is the (dimensionless) magnetic susceptibility. Most non-magnetic materials have a relatively small \"χ\" (on the order of a millionth), but soft magnets can have \"χ\" on the order of hundreds or thousands. For materials satisfying M = \"χH, we can also write B = \"μ\"(1 + \"χ\")H = \"μ\"\"μ\"H = \"μH, where \"μ\" = 1 + \"χ\" is the (dimensionless) relative permeability and μ =μμ is the magnetic permeability. Both hard and soft magnets have a more complex, history-dependent, behavior described by what are called hysteresis loops, which give either B vs. H or M vs. H. In CGS, M = \"χH, but \"χ\" = 4\"πχ\", and μ = μ. Caution: in part because there are not enough Roman and Greek symbols, there is no commonly agreed-upon symbol for magnetic pole strength and magnetic moment. The symbol \"m\" has been used for both pole strength (unit A•m, where here the upright m is for meter) and for magnetic moment (unit A•m). The symbol \"μ\" has been used in some texts for magnetic permeability and in other texts for magnetic moment. We will use \"μ\" for magnetic permeability and \"m\" for magnetic moment. For pole strength, we will employ \"q\". For a bar magnet of cross-section \"A\" with uniform magnetization \"M\" along its axis, the pole strength is given by \"q\" = \"MA\", so that \"M\" can be thought of as a pole strength per unit area.", "Far away from a magnet, the magnetic field created by that magnet is almost always described (to a good approximation) by a dipole field characterized by its total magnetic moment. This is true regardless of the shape of the magnet, so long as the magnetic moment is non-zero. One characteristic of a dipole field is that the strength of the field falls off inversely with the cube of the distance from the magnet's center. Closer to the magnet, the magnetic field becomes more complicated and more dependent on the detailed shape and magnetization of the magnet. Formally, the field can be expressed as a multipole expansion: A dipole field, plus a quadrupole field, plus an octupole field, etc. At close range, many different fields are possible. For example, for a long, skinny bar magnet with its north pole at one end and south pole at the other, the magnetic field near either end falls off inversely with the square of the distance from that pole.", "", "The strength of a given magnet is sometimes given in terms of its \"pull force\" — its ability to pull ferromagnetic objects. The pull force exerted by either an electromagnet or a permanent magnet with no air gap (i.e., the ferromagnetic object is in direct contact with the pole of the magnet) is given by the Maxwell equation: where This result can be easily derived using Gilbert model, which assumes that the pole of magnet is charged with magnetic monopoles that induces the same in the ferromagnetic object. If a magnet is acting vertically, it can lift a mass \"m\" in kilograms given by the simple equation: where g is the gravitational acceleration.", "Classically, the force between two magnetic poles is given by: where The pole description is useful to the engineers designing real-world magnets, but real magnets have a pole distribution more complex than a single north and south. Therefore, implementation of the pole idea is not simple. In some cases, one of the more complex formulae given below will be more useful.", "The mechanical force between two nearby magnetized surfaces can be calculated with the following equation. The equation is valid only for cases in which the effect of fringing is negligible and the volume of the air gap is much smaller than that of the magnetized material: where:", "The force between two identical cylindrical bar magnets placed end to end at large distance formula_5 is approximately:, where: Note that all these formulations are based on Gilbert's model, which is usable in relatively great distances. In other models (e.g., Ampère's model), a more complicated formulation is used that sometimes cannot be solved analytically. In these cases, numerical methods must be used.", "For two cylindrical magnets with radius formula_8 and length formula_9, with their magnetic dipole aligned, the force can be asymptotically approximated at large distance formula_5 by, where formula_12 is the magnetization of the magnets and formula_13 is the gap between the magnets. A measurement of the magnetic flux density very close to the magnet formula_14 is related to formula_12 approximately by the formula The effective magnetic dipole can be written as Where formula_18 is the volume of the magnet. For a cylinder, this is formula_19. When formula_20, the point dipole approximation is obtained, which matches the expression of the force between two magnetic dipoles." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Surveys.", "Varieties.", "Northern Zhuang.", "Southern Zhuang.", "Recently described varieties.", "Writing systems." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Zhāng Jūnrú's (张均如) \"Zhuàngyǔ Fāngyán Yánjiù\" (壮语方言研究 [A Study of Zhuang dialects]) is the most detailed study of Zhuang dialectology published to date. It reports survey work carried out in the 1950s, and includes a 1465-word list covering 36 varieties of Zhuang. For the list of the 36 Zhuang variants below from Zhang (1999), the name of the region (usually county) is given first, followed by the specific village. The phylogenetic position of each variant follows that of Pittayaporn (2009) (see \"Tai languages#Pittayaporn (2009)\").", "The Zhuang language (or language group) has been divided by Chinese linguists into northern and southern \"dialects\" (fangyan 方言 in Chinese), each of which has been divided into a number of vernacular varieties (known as \"tǔyǔ\" 土语 in Chinese) by Chinese linguists (Zhang & Wei 1997; Zhang 1999:29-30). The Wuming dialect of Yongbei Zhuang, classified within the \"Northern Zhuang dialect,\" is considered to be the \"standard\" or prestige dialect of Zhuang, developed by the government for certain official usages. Although Southern Zhuang varieties have aspirated stops, Northern Zhuang varieties lack them. There are over 60 distinct tonal systems with 5–11 tones depending on the variety. Zhang (1999) identified 13 Zhuang varieties. Later research by the Summer Institute of Linguistics has indicated that some of these are themselves multiple languages that are not mutually intelligible without previous exposure on the part of speakers, resulting in 16 separate ISO 639-3 codes.", "Northern Zhuang comprises dialects north of the Yong River, with 8,572,200 speakers ( prior to 2007):", "Southern Zhuang dialects are spoken south of the Yong River, with 4,232,000 speakers ( prior to 2007): Tày-Nùng language is also considered one of the varieties of Central Tai and shares a high mutual intelligibility with Wenshan Dai and other Southern Zhuang dialects in Guangxi.", "Johnson (2011) distinguishes four distinct Zhuang languages in Wenshan Prefecture, Yunnan: Nong Zhuang, Yei Zhuang, Dai Zhuang, and Min Zhuang. Min Zhuang is a recently discovered variety that has never been described previous to Johnson (2011). (\"See also Wenshan Zhuang and Miao Autonomous Prefecture#Ethnic groups\") Pyang Zhuang and Myang Zhuang are recently described Central Tai languages spoken in Debao County, Guangxi, China.", "The Zhuang languages have been written in the ancient Zhuang script, \"Sawndip\", for over a thousand years, and possibly \"Sawgoek\" previous to that. \"Sawndip\" is a Chinese character-based system of writing, similar to Vietnamese \"chữ nôm\"; some \"sawndip\" logograms were borrowed directly from Han characters, whereas others were original characters created from the components of Chinese characters. It is used for writing songs about every aspect of life, including in more recent times encouraging people to follow official family planning policy. There has also been the occasional use of a number of other scripts including pictographics proto-writing, such as in the example at right. In 1957 Standard Zhuang using a mixed Latin-Cyrillic script was introduced, and in 1982 this was changed to Latin script; these are referred to as the old Zhuang and new Zhuang, respectively. Bouyei is written in Latin script." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "The village was first mentioned in the register of Peter's Pence payment from 1447 among the 50 parishes of Teschen deanery as \"Albrothsdorff\". Politically the village belonged to the Duchy of Teschen, which was since 1327 a fee of the Kingdom of Bohemia, which after 1526 became part of the Habsburg Monarchy. After the 1540s Protestant Reformation prevailed in the Duchy of Teschen and a local Catholic church was taken over by Lutherans. It was taken from them (as one from around fifty buildings in the region) by a special commission and given back to the Roman Catholic Church on 26 March 1654. After the Revolutions of 1848 in the Austrian Empire, a modern municipal division was introduced in the re-established Austrian Silesia. The village as a municipality was subscribed at least since 1880 to political district and legal district of Freistadt. According to the censuses conducted in 1880, 1890, 1900 and 1910 the population of the municipality grew from 1,070 in 1880 to 1,335 in 1910. In 1880 96.9% of inhabitants declared being Czech-speaking, followed by 33 or 3.1% German-speakers. In the next censuses majority were Polish-speaking (growing from 97.9% in 1890 to 99.5% in 1910), followed by diminishing number of German-speakers (from 23 or 2.1% in 1890 to 6 or 0.5% in 1910). In terms of religion, in 1910 the majority were Roman Catholics (899 or 67.3%), followed by Protestants (424 or 31.8%) and Jews (11 or 0.8%). The village was also traditionally inhabited by Silesian Lachs, speaking Cieszyn Silesian dialect. After World War I, the fall of Austria-Hungary, the Polish–Czechoslovak War and the division of Cieszyn Silesia in 1920, the village became a part of Czechoslovakia. Following the Munich Agreement, in October 1938 together with the Zaolzie region it was annexed by Poland, administratively organised in Frysztat County of Silesian Voivodeship. The village was then annexed by Nazi Germany at the beginning of World War II. After the war it was restored to Czechoslovakia." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Indigenous literature.", "French-Canadian literature.", "Before Confederation.", "After 1867.", "Contemporary Canadian literature: After 1967.", "Canadian authors who have won international awards.", "Awards." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Indigenous peoples of Canada are culturally diverse. Each group has its own literature, language and culture. The term \"Indigenous literature\" therefore can be misleading. As writer Jeannette Armstrong states in one interview, \"I would stay away from the idea of \"Native\" literature, there is no such thing. There is Mohawk literature, there is Okanagan literature, but there is no generic Native in Canada\".", "In 1802, the Lower Canada legislative library was founded, being one of the first in Occident, the first in the Canadas. For comparison, the library of the British House of Commons was founded sixteen years later. The library had some rare titles about geography, natural science and letters. All books it contained were moved to the Canadian parliament in Montreal when the two Canadas, lower and upper, were united. On April 25, 1849, a dramatic event occurred: the Canadian parliament was burned by furious people along with thousands of French Canadian books and a few hundred of English books. This is why some people still affirm today, falsely, that from the early settlements until the 1820s, Quebec had virtually no literature. Though historians, journalists, and learned priests published, overall the total output that remain from this period and that had been kept out of the burned parliament is small. It was the rise of Quebec patriotism and the 1837 Lower Canada Rebellion, in addition to a modern system of primary school education, which led to the rise of French-Canadian fiction. \"L'influence d'un livre\" by Philippe-Ignace-Francois Aubert de Gaspé is widely regarded as the first French-Canadian novel. The genres which first became popular were the rural novel and the historical novel. French authors were influential, especially authors like Balzac. In 1866, Father Henri-Raymond Casgrain became one of Quebec's first literary theorists. He argued that literature's goal should be to project an image of proper Catholic morality. However, a few authors like Louis-Honoré Fréchette and Arthur Buies broke the conventions to write more interesting works. This pattern continued until the 1930s with a new group of authors educated at the Université Laval and the Université de Montréal. Novels with psychological and sociological foundations became the norm. Gabrielle Roy and Anne Hébert even began to earn international acclaim, which had not happened to French-Canadian literature before. During this period, Quebec theatre, which had previously been melodramas and comedies, became far more involved. French-Canadian literature began to greatly expand with the turmoil of the Second World War, the beginnings of industrialization in the 1950s, and most especially the Quiet Revolution in the 1960s. French-Canadian literature also began to attract a great deal of attention globally, with Acadian novelist Antonine Maillet winning the Prix Goncourt. An experimental branch of Québécois literature also developed; for instance the poet Nicole Brossard wrote in a formalist style. In 1979, Roch Carrier wrote the story \"The Hockey Sweater\", which highlighted the cultural and social tensions between English and French speaking Canada.", "Because Canada only officially became a country on July 1, 1867, it has been argued that literature written before this time was colonial. For example, Susanna Moodie and Catharine Parr Traill, English sisters who adopted the country as their own, moved to Upper Canada in 1832. They recorded their experiences as pioneers in Parr Traill's \"The Backwoods of Canada\" (1836) and \"Canadian Crusoes\" (1852), and Moodie's \"Roughing It in the Bush\" (1852) and \"Life in the Clearings\" (1853). However, both women wrote until their deaths, placing them in the country for more than 50 years and certainly well past Confederation. Moreover, their books often dealt with survival and the rugged Canadian environment; these themes re-appear in other Canadian works, including Margaret Atwood's \"Survival\". Moodie and Parr Traill's sister, Agnes Strickland, remained in England and wrote elegant royal biographies, creating a stark contrast between Canadian and English literatures. However, one of the earliest \"Canadian\" writers virtually always included in Canadian literary anthologies is Thomas Chandler Haliburton (1796–1865), who died just two years before Canada's official birth. He is remembered for his comic character, Sam Slick, who appeared in \"The Clockmaker\" and other humorous works throughout Haliburton's life.", "A group of poets now known as the \"Confederation Poets\", including Charles G. D. Roberts, Archibald Lampman, Bliss Carman, Duncan Campbell Scott, and William Wilfred Campbell, came to prominence in the 1880s and 1890s. Choosing the world of nature as their inspiration, their work was drawn from their own experiences and, at its best, written in their own tones. Isabella Valancy Crawford, Frederick George Scott, and Francis Sherman are also sometimes associated with this group. During this period, E. Pauline Johnson and William Henry Drummond were writing popular poetry - Johnson's based on her part-Mohawk heritage, and Drummond, the Poet of the Habitant, writing dialect verse. The L. M. Montgomery novel \"Anne of Green Gables\" was first published in 1908. It has sold an estimated 50 million copies and is one of the best selling books worldwide. Reacting against a tradition that emphasised the wilderness, poet Leonard Cohen's novel \"Beautiful Losers\" (1966), was labelled by one reviewer \"the most revolting book ever written in Canada\". However, Cohen is perhaps best known as a folk singer and songwriter, with an international following. Canadian author Farley Mowat is best known for his work \"Never Cry Wolf\" (1963) and his Governor General's Award-winning children's book, \"Lost in the Barrens\" (1956). Following World War II, writers such as Mavis Gallant, Mordecai Richler, Norman Levine, Margaret Laurence and Irving Layton added to the Modernist influence to Canadian literature previously introduced by F. R. Scott, A. J. M. Smith and others associated with the \"McGill Fortnightly\". This influence, at first, was not broadly appreciated. Norman Levine's \"Canada Made Me\", a travelogue that presented a sour interpretation of the country in 1958, for example, was widely rejected. After 1967, the country's centennial year, the national government increased funding to publishers and numerous small presses began operating throughout the country. The best-known Canadian children's writers include L. M. Montgomery and Monica Hughes.", "Arguably, the best-known living Canadian writer internationally (especially since the deaths of Robertson Davies and Mordecai Richler) is Margaret Atwood, a prolific novelist, poet, and literary critic. Some great 20th-century Canadian authors include Margaret Laurence, and Gabrielle Roy. This group, along with Nobel Laureate Alice Munro, who has been called the best living writer of short stories in English, were the first to elevate Canadian Literature to the world stage. During the post-war decades only a handful of books of any literary merit were published each year in Canada, and Canadian literature was viewed as an appendage to British and American writing. When academic Clara Thomas decided in the 1940s to concentrate on Canadian literature for her master's thesis, the idea was so novel and so radical that word of her decision reached \"The Globe and Mail\" books editor William Arthur Deacon, who then personally reached out to Thomas to pledge his and the newspaper's resources in support of her work. Other major Canadian novelists include Carol Shields, Lawrence Hill, and Alice Munro. Carol Shields novel \"The Stone Diaries\" won the 1995 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction, and another novel, \"Larry's Party\", won the Orange Prize in 1998. Lawrence Hill's \"Book of Negroes\" won the 2008 Commonwealth Writers' Prize Overall Best Book Award, while Alice Munro became the first Canadian to win the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2013. Munro also received the Man Booker International Prize in 2009. In the 1960s, a renewed sense of nation helped foster new voices in Canadian poetry, including: Margaret Atwood, Michael Ondaatje, Leonard Cohen, Eli Mandel and Margaret Avison. Others such as Al Purdy, Milton Acorn, and Earle Birney, already published, produced some of their best work during this period. The TISH Poetry movement in Vancouver brought about poetic innovation from Jamie Reid, George Bowering, Fred Wah, Frank Davey, Daphne Marlatt, David Cull, and Lionel Kearns. A notable anthology of Canadian poetry is \"The New Oxford book of Canadian Verse\", edited by Margaret Atwood (). Anne Carson is probably the best known Canadian poet living today. Carson in 1996 won the Lannan Literary Award for poetry. The foundation's awards in 2006 for poetry, fiction and nonfiction each came with $US 150,000.", "Nobel Prize in Literature Man Booker International Prize Man Booker Prize Pulitzer Prize for Fiction National Book Critics Circle Award International Dublin Literary Award Orange Prize Commonwealth Writers' Prize Peace Prize of the German Book Trade", "There are a number of notable Canadian awards for literature: Awards For Children's and Young Adult Literature:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "German linguistics.", "German literature studies.", "German teacher education.", "German media studies.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "German linguistics is traditionally called philology in Germany, as there is something of a difference between philologists and linguists. It is roughly divided as follows: In addition, the discipline examines German under various aspects: the way it is spoken and written, i.e., spelling; declination; vocabulary; sentence structure; texts; etc. It compares the various manifestations such as social groupings (slang, written texts, etc.) and geographical groupings (dialects, etc.).", "The study of German literature is divided into two parts: \"Ältere Deutsche Literaturwissenschaft\" deals with the period from the beginnings of German in the early Middle Ages up to post-Medieval times around AD 1750, while the modern era is covered by \"Neuere Deutsche Literaturwissenschaft\". The field systematically examines German literature in terms of genre, form, content, and motifs as well as looking at it historically by author and epoch. Important areas include edition philology, history of literature, and textual interpretation. The relationships of German literature to the literatures of other languages (e.g. reception and mutual influences) and historical contexts are also important areas of concentration. \"The Penguin Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory: Fourth Edition\" () is printed in English but contains many German-language literary terms that apply cross-culturally in the field of literary criticism; quite a few of the in terms in the book originated in German but have since been adopted by English-language critics and scholars.", "At least in Germany and Austria, German studies in academia play a central role in the education of German school teachers. Their courses usually cover four fields: Several universities offer specialized curricula for school teachers, usually called \"'\". In Germany, they are leading to a two step exam and certificate by the federal states of Germany cultural authorities, called the'(\"state exam\").", "In recent years, German has looked for links with the fields of communications, cultural studies and media studies. In addition, the sub-branch of film studies has established itself.", "As an unsystematic field of interest for individual scholars, German studies can be traced back to Tacitus' \"Germania\". The publication and study of legal and historical source material, such as Medieval Bible translations, were all undertaken during the German Renaissance of the sixteenth century, truly initiating the field of German studies. As an independent university subject, German studies was introduced at the beginning of the nineteenth century by Georg Friedrich Benecke, the Brothers Grimm, and Karl Lachmann. \"German studies\" is taught at many German universities. Some examples are:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life and work.", "Controversy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Kertész was born in Budapest, Hungary, on 9 November 1929, the son of Aranka Jakab and László Kertész, a bourgeois Jewish couple. After his parents separated when he was around the age of five, Kertész attended a boarding school and, in 1940, he started secondary school where he was put into a special class for Jewish students. During World War II, Kertész was deported in 1944 at the age of 14 with other Hungarian Jews to the Auschwitz concentration camp, and was later sent to Buchenwald. Upon his arrival at the camps, Kertész claimed to be a 16-year old worker, thus saving him from the instant extermination that awaited a 14-year old. After his camp was liberated in 1945, Kertész returned to Budapest, graduated from high school in 1948, and then went on to find work as a journalist and translator. In 1951, he lost his job at the journal \"Világosság\" (Clarity) after the publication started leaning towards Communism. For a short term he worked as a factory worker and then in the press department of the Ministry of Heavy Industry. From 1953 he started freelance journalism and translated various works into Hungarian, including Friedrich Nietzsche, Sigmund Freud, Ludwig Wittgenstein, and Elias Canetti. His best-known work, \"Fatelessness\" (\"Sorstalanság\"), describes the experience of 15-year-old György (George) Köves in the concentration camps of Auschwitz, Buchenwald and Zeitz. Written between 1969 and 1973, the novel was initially rejected for publication by the Communist regime in Hungary, but was published in 1975. Some have interpreted the book as quasi-autobiographical, but the author disavows a strong biographical connection. The book would go on to become part of many high school curriculums in Hungary. In 2005, a film based on the novel, for which he wrote the script, was made in Hungary. Although sharing the same title, some reviews noted that the film was more autobiographical than the novel on which it was based. It was released internationally at various dates in 2005 and 2006. Following on from \"Fatelessness\", Kertész's \"Fiasco\" (1988) and \"Kaddish for an Unborn Child\" (1990) are, respectively, the second and third parts of his Holocaust trilogy. His writings translated into English include \"Kaddish for an Unborn Child\" (\"Kaddis a meg nem született gyermekért\") and \"Liquidation\" (\"Felszámolás\"), the latter set during the period of Hungary's evolution into a democracy from communist rule. From the beginning, Kertész found little appreciation for his writing in Hungary, and he moved to Germany where he received more active support from publishers and reviewers, along with more appreciative readers. After his move, he continued translating German works into Hungarian, notably \"The Birth of Tragedy\", the plays of Dürrenmatt, Schnitzler, and Tankred Dorst, and various thoughts and aphorisms of Wittgenstein. Kertész also continued working at his craft, writing his fiction in Hungarian, but did not publish another novel until the late 1980s. But from that point on, he submitted his work to publishers in Hungary until his death in March 2016. Grateful that he had found his most significant success as a writer and artist in Germany, Kertész left his abatement to the Academy of Arts in Berlin. In November 2013, Kertész underwent successful surgery on his right hip after falling down in his home. However, he continued to deal with various health concerns during the last few years of his life. He was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease, and was again suffering from depression, reported to have been a recurring battle in his own life. In fact, Kertész had struggled with this same issue through his art, as the main character of his 2003 book \"Felszámolás\" (\"Liquidation\") commits suicide after struggling with depression. Kertész died in Budapest on 31 March 2016 at the age of 86.", "Kertész was a controversial figure within Hungary, especially since being Hungary's first and only Nobel Laureate in Literature, he still lived in Germany. This tension was exacerbated by a 2009 interview with \"Die Welt\", in which Kertész vowed himself a \"Berliner\" and called Budapest \"completely balkanized.\" Many Hungarian newspapers reacted negatively to this statement, claiming it to be hypocritical. Other critics viewed the Budapest comment ironically, saying it represented \"a grudge policy that is painfully and unmistakably, characteristically Hungarian.\" Kertész later clarified in a Duna TV interview that he had intended his comment to be \"constructive\" and called Hungary \"his homeland\". Also controversial was Kertész's criticism of Steven Spielberg's depiction of the Holocaust in the 1993 film \"Schindler's List\" as kitsch, saying: \"I regard as kitsch any representation of the Holocaust that is incapable of understanding or unwilling to understand the organic connection between our own deformed mode of life and the very possibility of the Holocaust.\" In November 2014 Kertész was the subject of an interview with \"The New York Times\". Kertész claimed the reporter was expecting him to question Hungary's democratic values and was shocked to hear Kertész say that \"the situation in Hungary is nice, I'm having a great time.\" According to Kertész, \"he didn't like my answer. His purpose must have been to make me call Hungary a dictatorship which it isn't. In the end the interview was never published.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early life.", "Education.", "Career.", "Mental breakdown.", "Later life and death.", "Works.", "Dissemination and influence.", "Music." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Johann Christian Friedrich Hölderlin was born on 20 March 1770 in Lauffen am Neckar, then a part of the Duchy of Württemberg. He was the first child of Johanna Christiana Heyn and Heinrich Friedrich Hölderlin. His father, the manager of a church estate, died when he was two years old, and Friedrich and his sister, Heinrike, were brought up by their mother. In 1774, his mother moved the family to Nürtingen when she married Johann Christoph Gok. Two years later, Johann Gok became the burgomaster of Nürtingen, and Hölderlin's half-brother, Karl Christoph Friedrich Gok, was born. In 1779, Johann Gok died at the age of 30. Hölderlin later expressed how his childhood was scarred by grief and sorrow, writing in a 1799 correspondence with his mother:", "Hölderlin began his education in 1776, and his mother planned for him to join the Lutheran church. In preparation for entrance exams into a monastery, he received additional instruction in Greek, Hebrew, Latin and rhetoric, starting in 1782. During this time, he struck a friendship with Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, who was five years Hölderlin's junior. On account of the age difference, Schelling was \"subjected to universal teasing\" and Hölderlin protected him from abuse by older students. Also during this time, Hölderlin began playing the piano and developed an interest in travel literature through exposure to Georg Forster's \"A Voyage Round the World\". In 1784, Hölderlin entered the Lower Monastery in Denkendorf and started his formal training for entry into the Lutheran ministry. At Denkendorf, he discovered the poetry of Friedrich Schiller and Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock, and took tentative steps in composing his own verses. The earliest known letter of Hölderlin's is dated 1784 and addressed to his former tutor Nathanael Köstlin. In the letter, Hölderlin hinted at his wavering faith in Christianity and anxiety about his mental state. Hölderlin progressed to the Higher Monastery at Maulbronn in 1786. There he fell in love with Luise Nast, the daughter of the monastery's administrator, and began to doubt his desire to join the ministry; he composed \"Mein Vorsatz\" in 1787, in which he states his intention to attain \"Pindar's light\" and reach \"Klopstock-heights\". In 1788, he read Schiller's \"Don Carlos\" on Luise Nast's recommendation. Hölderlin later wrote a letter to Schiller regarding \"Don Carlos\", stating: \"It won't be easy to study \"Carlos\" in a rational way, since he was for so many years the magic cloud in which the good god of my youth enveloped me so that I would not see too soon the pettiness and barbarity of the world.\" In October 1788, Hölderlin began his theological studies at the Tübinger Stift, where his fellow students included Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, Isaac von Sinclair and Schelling. It has been speculated that it was Hölderlin who, during their time in Tübingen, brought to Hegel's attention the ideas of Heraclitus regarding the unity of opposites, which Hegel would later develop into his concept of dialectics. In 1789, Hölderlin broke off his engagement with Luise Nast, writing to her: \"I wish you happiness if you choose one more worthy than me, and then surely you will understand that you could never have been happy with your morose, ill-humoured, and sickly friend,\" and expressed his desire to transfer out and study law but succumbed to pressure from his mother to remain in the Stift. Along with Hegel and Schelling and his other peers during his time in the Stift, Hölderlin was an enthusiastic supporter of the French Revolution. Although he rejected the violence of the Reign of Terror, his commitment to the principles of 1789 remained intense. Hölderlin's republican sympathies influenced many of his most famous works such as \"Hyperion\" and \"The Death of Empedocles\".", "After he obtained his magister degree in 1793, his mother expected him to enter the ministry. However, Hölderlin found no satisfaction in the prevailing Protestant theology, and worked instead as a private tutor. In 1794, he met Friedrich Schiller and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and began writing his epistolary novel \"Hyperion\". In 1795 he enrolled for a while at the University of Jena where he attended Johann Gottlieb Fichte's classes and met Novalis. There is a seminal manuscript, dated 1797, now known as the \"Das älteste Systemprogramm des deutschen Idealismus\" (\"The Oldest Systematic Program of German Idealism\"). Although the document is in Hegel's handwriting, it is thought to have been written by either Hegel, Schelling, Hölderlin, or an unknown fourth person. As a tutor in Frankfurt am Main from 1796 to 1798 he fell in love with Susette Gontard, the wife of his employer, the banker Jakob Gontard. The feeling was mutual, and this relationship became the most important in Hölderlin's life. After a while, their affair was discovered, and Hölderlin was harshly dismissed. He then lived in Homburg from 1798 to 1800, meeting Susette in secret once a month and attempting to establish himself as a poet, but his life was plagued by financial worries and he had to accept a small allowance from his mother. His mandated separation from Susette Gontard also worsened Hölderlin's doubts about himself and his value as a poet; he wished to transform German culture but did not have the influence he needed. From 1797 to 1800, he produced three versions—all unfinished—of a tragedy in the Greek manner, \"The Death of Empedocles\", and composed odes in the vein of the Ancient Greeks Alcaeus and Asclepiades of Samos.", "In the late 1790s, Hölderlin was diagnosed as suffering from schizophrenia, then referred to as \"hypochondrias\", a condition that would worsen after his last meeting with Susette Gontard in 1800. After a sojourn in Stuttgart at the end of 1800, likely to work on his translations of Pindar, he found further employment as a tutor in Hauptwyl, Switzerland and then at the household of the Hamburg consul in Bordeaux, in 1802. His stay in the French city is celebrated in \"Andenken\" (\"Remembrance\"), one of his greatest poems. In a few months, however, he returned home on foot via Paris (where he saw authentic Greek sculptures, as opposed to Roman or modern copies, for the only time in his life). He arrived at his home in Nürtingen both physically and mentally exhausted in late 1802, and learned that Susette Gontard had died from influenza in Frankfurt at around the same time. At his home in Nürtingen with his mother, a devout Christian, Hölderlin melded his Hellenism with Christianity and sought to unite ancient values with modern life; in Hölderlin's elegy \"Brod und Wein\" (\"Bread and Wine\"), Christ is seen as sequential to the Greek gods, bringing bread from the earth and wine from Dionysus. After two years in Nürtingen, Hölderlin was taken to the court of Homburg by Isaac von Sinclair, who found a sinecure for him as court librarian, but in 1805 von Sinclair was denounced as a conspirator and tried for treason. Hölderlin was in danger of being tried too but was declared mentally unfit to stand trial. On 11 September 1806, Hölderlin was delivered into the clinic at Tübingen run by Dr. Johann Heinrich Ferdinand von Autenrieth, the inventor of a mask for the prevention of screaming in the mentally ill. The clinic was attached to the University of Tübingen and the poet Justinus Kerner, then a student of medicine, was assigned to look after Hölderlin. The following year Hölderlin was discharged as incurable and given three years to live, but was taken in by the carpenter Ernst Zimmer (a cultured man, who had read \"Hyperion\") and given a room in his house in Tübingen, which had been a tower in the old city wall with a view across the Neckar river. The tower would later be named the Hölderlinturm, after the poet's 36-year-long stay in the room. His residence in the building made up the second half of his life and is also referred to as the \"Turmzeit\" (or \"Tower period\").", "In the tower, Hölderlin continued to write poetry of a simplicity and formality quite unlike what he had been writing up to 1805. As time went on he became a minor tourist attraction and was visited by curious travelers and autograph-hunters. Often he would play the piano or spontaneously write short verses for such visitors, pure in versification but almost empty of affect—although a few of these (such as the famous \"Die Linien des Lebens\" (\"The Lines of Life\"), which he wrote out for his carer Zimmer on a piece of wood) have a piercing beauty and have been set to music by many composers. Hölderlin's own family did not financially support him but petitioned successfully for his upkeep to be paid by the state. His mother and sister never visited him, and his stepbrother only once did so. His mother died in 1828: his sister and stepbrother quarreled over the inheritance, arguing that too large a share had been allotted to Hölderlin, and unsuccessfully tried to have the will overturned in court. Neither of them attended his funeral in 1843, nor had the friends of his childhood, Hegel and Schelling, had anything to do with him for years; the Zimmer family were his only mourners. His inheritance, including the patrimony left to him by his father when he was two, had been kept from him by his mother and was untouched and continually accruing interest. He died a rich man, but did not know it.", "The poetry of Hölderlin, widely recognized today as one of the high points of German literature, was little known or understood during his lifetime, and slipped into obscurity shortly after his death; his illness and reclusion made him fade from his contemporaries' consciousness—and, even though selections of his work were published by his friends during his lifetime, it was largely ignored for the rest of the 19th century. Like Goethe and Schiller, his older contemporaries, Hölderlin was a fervent admirer of ancient Greek culture, but for him the Greek gods were not the plaster figures of conventional classicism, but wonderfully life-giving actual presences, yet at the same time terrifying. Much later, Friedrich Nietzsche would recognize Hölderlin as the poet who first acknowledged the Orphic and Dionysian Greece of the mysteries, which he would fuse with the Pietism of his native Swabia in a highly original religious experience. Hölderlin developed an early idea of cyclical history and therefore believed political radicalism and an aesthetic interest in antiquity, and, in parallel, Christianity and Paganism should be fused. He understood and sympathised with the Greek idea of the tragic fall, which he expressed movingly in the last stanza of his \"Hyperions Schicksalslied\" (\"Hyperion's Song of Destiny\"). In the great poems of his maturity, Hölderlin would generally adopt a large-scale, expansive and unrhymed style. Together with these long hymns, odes and elegies—which included \"Der Archipelagus\" (\"The Archipelago\"), \"Brod und Wein\" (\"Bread and Wine\") and \"Patmos\"—he also cultivated a crisper, more concise manner in epigrams and couplets, and in short poems like the famous \"Hälfte des Lebens\" (\"The Middle of Life\"). In the years after his return from Bordeaux, he completed some of his greatest poems but also, once they were finished, returned to them repeatedly, creating new and stranger versions sometimes in several layers on the same manuscript, which makes the editing of his works troublesome. Some of these later versions (and some later poems) are fragmentary, but they have astonishing intensity. He seems sometimes also to have considered the fragments, even with unfinished lines and incomplete sentence-structure, to be poems in themselves. This obsessive revising and his stand-alone fragments were once considered evidence of his mental disorder, but they were to prove very influential on later poets such as Paul Celan. In his years of madness, Hölderlin would occasionally pencil ingenuous rhymed quatrains, sometimes of a childlike beauty, which he would sign with fantastic names (most often \"Scardanelli\") and give fictitious dates from previous or future centuries.", "Hölderlin's major publication in his lifetime was his novel \"Hyperion\", which was issued in two volumes (1797 and 1799). Various individual poems were published but attracted little attention. In 1799 he produced a periodical, \"Iduna\". In 1804, his translations of the dramas of Sophocles were published but were generally met with derision over their apparent artificiality and difficulty, which according to his critics were caused by transposing Greek idioms into German. However, 20th-century theorists of translation such as Walter Benjamin have vindicated them, showing their importance as a new—and greatly influential—model of poetic translation. \"Der Rhein\" and \"Patmos\", two of the longest and most densely charged of his hymns, appeared in a poetic calendar in 1808. Wilhelm Waiblinger, who visited Hölderlin in his tower repeatedly in 1822–23 and depicted him in the protagonist of his novel \"Phaëthon\", stated the necessity of issuing an edition of his poems, and the first collection of his poetry was released by Ludwig Uhland and Christoph Theodor Schwab in 1826. However, Uhland and Schwab omitted anything they suspected might be \"touched by insanity\", which included much of Hölderlin's fragmented works. A copy of this collection was given to Hölderlin, but later was stolen by an autograph-hunter. A second, enlarged edition with a biographical essay appeared in 1842, the year before Hölderlin's death. Only in 1913 did Norbert von Hellingrath, a member of the literary Circle led by the German Symbolist poet Stefan George, publish the first two volumes of what eventually became a six-volume edition of Hölderlin's poems, prose and letters (the \"Berlin Edition\", \"Berliner Ausgabe\"). For the first time, Hölderlin's hymnic drafts and fragments were published and it became possible to gain some overview of his work in the years between 1800 and 1807, which had been only sparsely covered in earlier editions. The Berlin edition and von Hellingrath's advocacy led to Hölderlin posthumously receiving the recognition that had always eluded him in life. As a result, Hölderlin has been recognized since 1913 as one of the greatest poets ever to write in the German language. Norbert von Hellingrath enlisted in the Imperial German Army at the outbreak of World War I and was killed in action at the Battle of Verdun in 1916. The fourth volume of the Berlin edition was published posthumously. The Berlin Edition was completed after the German Revolution of 1918 by Friedrich Seebass and Ludwig von Pigenot; the remaining volumes appeared in Berlin between 1922 and 1923. Already in 1912, before the Berlin Edition began to appear, Rainer Maria Rilke composed his first two \"Duino Elegies\" whose form and spirit draw strongly on the hymns and elegies of Hölderlin. Rilke had met von Hellingrath a few years earlier and had seen some of the hymn drafts, and the \"Duino Elegies\" heralded the beginning of a new appreciation of Hölderlin's late work. Although his hymns can hardly be imitated, they have become a powerful influence on modern poetry in German and other languages, and are sometimes cited as the very crown of German lyric poetry. The Berlin Edition was to some extent superseded by the Stuttgart Edition (\"Grosse Stuttgarter Ausgabe\"), which began to be published in 1943 and eventually saw completion in 1986. This undertaking was much more rigorous in textual criticism than the Berlin Edition and solved many issues of interpretation raised by Hölderlin's unfinished and undated texts (sometimes several versions of the same poem with major differences). Meanwhile, a third complete edition, the Frankfurt Critical Edition (\"Frankfurter Historisch-kritische Ausgabe\"), began publication in 1975 under the editorship of Dietrich Sattler. Though Hölderlin's hymnic style—dependent as it is on a genuine belief in the divine—creates a deeply personal fusion of Greek mythic figures and romantic mysticism about nature, which can appear both strange and enticing, his shorter and sometimes more fragmentary poems have exerted wide influence too on later German poets, from Georg Trakl onwards. He also had an influence on the poetry of Hermann Hesse and Paul Celan. (Celan wrote a poem about Hölderlin, called \"Tübingen, January\" which ends with the word \"Pallaksch\"—according to Schwab, Hölderlin's favourite neologism \"which sometimes meant Yes, sometimes No\".) Hölderlin was also a thinker who wrote, fragmentarily, on poetic theory and philosophical matters. His theoretical works, such as the essays \"Das Werden im Vergehen\" (\"Becoming in Dissolution\") and \"Urteil und Sein\" (\"Judgement and Being\") are insightful and important if somewhat tortuous and difficult to parse. They raise many of the key problems also addressed by his Tübingen roommates Hegel and Schelling, and, though his poetry was never \"theory-driven\", the interpretation and exegesis of some of his more difficult poems has given rise to profound philosophical speculation by thinkers such as Martin Heidegger, Theodor Adorno, Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault and Alain Badiou.", "Hölderlin's poetry has inspired many composers, generating vocal music and instrumental music. One of the earliest settings of Hölderlin's poetry is \"Schicksalslied\" by Johannes Brahms, based on \"Hyperions Schicksalslied\". Other composers of Hölderlin settings include Peter Cornelius, Hans Pfitzner, Richard Strauss (\"Drei Hymnen\"), Max Reger (\"An die Hoffnung\"), Alphons Diepenbrock (\"Die Nacht\"), Walter Braunfels (\"Der Tod fürs Vaterland\"), Richard Wetz (\"Hyperion\"), Josef Matthias Hauer, Hermann Reutter, Stefan Wolpe, Paul Hindemith, Benjamin Britten (\"Sechs Hölderlin-Fragmente\"), Hans Werner Henze, Bruno Maderna (\"Hyperion\", \"Stele an Diotima\"), Luigi Nono (\"Prometeo\"), Heinz Holliger (the \"Scardanelli-Zyklus\"), Hans Zender (\"Hölderlin lesen I-IV\"), György Kurtág (who planned an opera on Hölderlin), György Ligeti (\"Three Fantasies after Friedrich Hölderlin\"), Hanns Eisler (\"Hollywood Liederbuch\"), Viktor Ullmann, Wolfgang von Schweinitz, Walter Zimmermann (\"Hyperion\", an epistolary opera) and Wolfgang Rihm. Carl Orff used Hölderlin's German translations of Sophocles in his operas \"Antigone\" and \"Oedipus der Tyrann\". Wilhelm Killmayer based three song cycles, \"Hölderlin-Lieder\", for tenor and orchestra on Hölderlin's late poems; Kaija Saariaho's \"Tag des Jahrs\" for mixed choir and electronics is based on four of these poems. In 2003, Graham Waterhouse composed a song cycle, \"Sechs späteste Lieder\", for voice and cello based on six of Hölderlin's late poems. Several works by Georg Friedrich Haas take their titles or text from Hölderlin's writing, including \"Hyperion\", \"Nacht\", and the solo ensemble \"... \"Einklang freier Wesen\"...\" as well as its constituent solo pieces each named “... aus freier Lust... verbunden...”. Finnish melodic death metal band Insomnium set Hölderlin's verses to music in several of their songs, and many songs of Swedish alternative rock band ALPHA 60 also contain lyrical references to Hölderlin's poetry. Robert Schumann's late piano suite \"Gesänge der Frühe\" was inspired by Hölderlin, as was Luigi Nono's string quartet \"Fragmente-Stille, an Diotima\" and parts of his opera \"Prometeo\". Josef Matthias Hauer wrote many piano pieces inspired by individual lines of Hölderlin's poems. Paul Hindemith's \"First Piano Sonata\" is influenced by Hölderlin's poem \"Der Main\". Hans Werner Henze's Seventh Symphony is partly inspired by Hölderlin." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Family.", "Mythology.", "Abduction of Chrysippus.", "Later misfortunes." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Laius was the son of Labdacus. He was the father, by Jocasta, of Oedipus, who killed him.", "", "After the death of his father Labdacus, Laius was raised by the regent Lycus but Amphion and Zethus usurped the throne of Thebes. Some Thebans, wishing to see the line of Cadmus continue, smuggled the young Laius out of the city before their attack, in which they killed Lycus and took the throne. Laius was welcomed by Pelops, king of Pisa in the Peloponnesus. According to some sources, Laius abducted and raped the king's son, Chrysippus, and carried him off to Thebes while teaching him how to drive a chariot, or as Hyginus records it, during the Nemean games. Because of this, Laius is considered by many to be the originator of pederastic love, and the first pederastic rapist. This abduction is thought to be the subject of one of the lost tragedies of Euripides. With both Amphion and Zethus having died in his absence, Laius became king of Thebes upon his return.", "After the rape of Chrysippus, Laius married Jocasta, the daughter of Menoeceus, a descendant of the Spartoi. Laius received an oracle from Delphi which told him that he must not have a child, or the child would kill him and marry his wife; in another version, recorded by Aeschylus, Laius is warned that he can save the city only if he dies childless. One night, however, Laius was drunk and fathered Oedipus with Jocasta. On Laius' orders, the baby, Oedipus, was exposed on Mount Cithaeron with his feet bound (or perhaps staked to the ground), but he was taken by a shepherd, who did not have the resources to look after him, so he was given to King Polybus and Queen Merope (or Periboea) of Corinth, who raised him to adulthood. When Oedipus desired to know more about his parentage, he consulted the Delphic Oracle, only to be told that he must not go to his home or he would kill his father and marry his mother. Thinking that he was from Corinth, he set out toward Thebes to avoid this fate. At the road called 'Cleft Way,' he met Laius, who was going to Delphi to consult the oracle because he had received omens indicating that his son might return to kill him. Oedipus refused to defer to the king, although Laius' attendants ordered him to. Being angered, Laius either rolled a chariot wheel over his foot or hit him with his whip, and Oedipus killed Laius and all but one of his attendants, who claims it was a gang of men. Laius was buried where he died by Damasistratus, the king of Plataea. Later, Thebes is cursed with a disease because his murderer has not been punished. Many of Laius' descendants met with ill fortune, but whether this was because he violated the laws of hospitality and marriage by carrying off his host's son and raping him, or because he ignored the Oracle's warning not to have children, or some combination of these, is not clear. Another theory is that the entire line of Cadmus was cursed, either by Ares when Cadmus killed his serpent, or else by Hephaestus who resented the fact that Cadmus married Harmonia, the daughter of Ares and Aphrodite, Hephaestus' straying wife. Certainly, many of Cadmus's descendants had tragic ends." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Club career.", "Early career.", "Chelsea.", "Arsenal.", "Tottenham Hotspur.", "Perth Glory.", "International career.", "Honours." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Gallas was born in Asnières-sur-Seine. He is the cousin of the deceased former footballer Ludovic Quistin and of Mathieu Bastareaud, a French rugby union centre playing for RC Toulon.", "", "A graduate of the French football academy at Clairefontaine, Gallas started his professional career at second division Caen, helping them to promotion as champions in 1996. He subsequently transferred to Marseille in 1997, where he played for four seasons. He made his debut in the UEFA Champions League for Marseille, scoring his first goal in European competition in a 1–0 defeat of then European champions Manchester United at the Stade Vélodrome in October 1999.", "Chelsea manager Claudio Ranieri bought Gallas from Marseille in 2001 for £6.2 million. He chose the number 13 shirt because it was his postcode back where he lived in Marseille. Under Ranieri, Gallas developed centre-back partnerships with Marcel Desailly and later with John Terry. His partnership with Terry included a run of 16 games without conceding a goal. He also played as a left-back at times. It was with Chelsea and under Ranieri where Gallas obtained his first international cap for France. Gallas was part of the Chelsea squad which won back-to-back Premier League titles and a League Cup under Ranieri's successor José Mourinho. The Blues also made the semi-finals of the UEFA Champions League that year, but were knocked out by Liverpool 1–0 in controversial circumstances—Gallas cleared the ball, after it was adjudged to have crossed the line. Due to a serious injury to left-back Wayne Bridge in 2004–05, Gallas was forced to play out of position, and despite the purchase of Asier del Horno from Athletic Bilbao for £8 million in the 2005 close season, Gallas found himself often playing on the left, a situation he grew increasingly frustrated with, although it did showcase his versatility, being able to play anywhere in the backline. Gallas scored some vital goals at Tottenham Hotspur, Liverpool and Manchester United as Chelsea retained their title in the 2005–06 Premier League season Gallas' contract with Chelsea was due to expire in May 2007. He refused to sign a new contract with Chelsea on improved terms after saying the club did not offer him enough money and expressed a wish to play in the Italian Serie A, with Juventus and Milan both interested. Chelsea, however, did not agree to a transfer request by the player in May 2006, as they considered Gallas an important first-team member. After the 2006 FIFA World Cup, Gallas refused to turn up at Chelsea's crowded ranks of defenders at Stamford Bridge, so Chelsea signed Dutch international centre back Khalid Boulahrouz, though in his single season at Chelsea, Boulahrouz would play almost exclusively as a fullback. On 1 September 2006, Gallas transferred to Arsenal as part of a deal that brought Ashley Cole to Chelsea, in addition to Arsenal receiving £5 million. After the transfer, Chelsea issued a statement that Gallas threatened to deliberately score own goals if he was not allowed to leave Chelsea. Gallas rejected Chelsea's claim and accused the West Londoners of \"lack[ing] class\" and \"hiding behind false accusations.\" Claudio Ranieri, the former Chelsea manager who signed Gallas from Marseille, said of the allegations, \"I cannot believe these stories. It is absolutely incredible. I signed William and he was always a good professional on the pitch. Of course, I don't know what has happened in the last two years.\" PFA Chief Executive Gordon Taylor declared that the whole episode has left a \"bad taste in the mouth\" and that Chelsea's statement should be taken \"with a large pinch of salt.\"", "Gallas signed a four-year contract with Arsenal, where he took the number 10 shirt vacated by the recently retired Dennis Bergkamp. In an October 2006 interview with the official team magazine, Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger explained his decision to hand him the squad number 10 (traditionally a forward's or a midfielder's number): \"Number three was uncomfortable for him and I had given the rest of the numbers out. In the end I thought it might be a good idea to give the number ten to a defender, because a striker would suffer a lot with the comparison with Dennis. At first I was reluctant to give Dennis's number out, and especially to a defender, but overall I think it's better that way.\" Gallas made his full debut for the Gunners at left-back in the team's 1–1 home draw against Middlesbrough on 9 September 2006 and scored his first goal against Sheffield United on 23 September 2006. Gallas was confirmed as Arsenal captain on 9 August 2007, with Kolo Touré serving as vice-captain. This caused some controversy, however, as Gilberto Silva was expected to receive the captain's armband. His first competitive game as Arsenal captain was on 12 August 2007 against Fulham, which ended in a 2–1 victory for Arsenal. Gallas suffered a groin injury in the game against Blackburn Rovers on 19 August, but returned to play for Arsenal in their 2–0 victory over Bolton Wanderers on 20 October. In the traditional Arsenal–Manchester United clash at the Emirates Stadium on 3 November, he scored a last-minute goal to give the Gunners a draw. On 24 November 2007, Gallas scored against Wigan Athletic when Bacary Sagna crossed in and Gallas headed past goalkeeper Mike Pollitt. On 16 December 2007, Gallas scored against his old club Chelsea, which was to be the only goal in the match to secure three points for Arsenal. He later reflected on his goal against former club Chelsea, claiming that, \"When Cesc [Fàbregas] sent the corner in for my goal, I saw Petr Čech come off his line and to be honest I was sure he would catch it. So I was surprised when he didn't take it, and it was just a reflex reaction to head it into the goal. I just happened to be there at the right time.\" Gallas attracted some criticism as a result of his actions in a 2–2 draw against Birmingham City on 23 February 2008, a game in which his teammate Eduardo had his leg broken following a challenge by Martin Taylor. When Gaël Clichy of Arsenal conceded a penalty in injury time at the end of the second half, Gallas walked into the Birmingham half, apparently in protest. He stood there as Birmingham striker James McFadden converted the penalty. He then had to be restrained as he appeared to confront the crowd in fury. After the final whistle, Gallas sat down on the pitch as the rest of the players left the field before being consoled by manager Arsène Wenger. Gallas scored for Arsenal against Bolton at Reebok Stadium in a 2–3 win on 29 March 2008, starting the comeback which ten-man Arsenal ultimately completed. Amid speculation that Gallas would be replaced as club captain following his behaviour during the Birmingham game, Wenger said that he would consider the matter at the end of the season. In August 2008, it was announced that Gallas would remain the club's captain for the 2008–09 season. In the 2008–09 season, Gallas proved prolific in the Champions League. He scored six goals in Arsenal's campaign, including two against Dutch side Twente and an equaliser against Dynamo Kyiv, as well as a header against Spurs. On 29 October 2008, he scored his first league goal of the season against Tottenham at the Emirates, scoring Arsenal's second goal in a 4–4 draw. On 8 November 2008, in a 2–1 victory over Manchester United, he received praise for his display whilst playing alongside former United defender Mikaël Silvestre. It was claimed he outshone United defenders Rio Ferdinand and Nemanja Vidić. In November, Gallas gave an interview to the Associated Press in which he revealed tensions within the squad which were disruptive to team morale, and suggested that Arsenal's younger players needed to show more courage if the team were to be successful. He was dropped from the squad for the next match, against Manchester City, and was reported to have been fined two weeks' wages. Reports that he had been stripped of the captaincy permanently were confirmed by Arsenal on 24 November, and he succeeded by Cesc Fàbregas. Wenger confirmed that Gallas still had a future with the club, contrary to media speculation, and Gallas played in the following day's Champions League match. On 17 March 2009, Gallas scored the winner in a 2–1 win against Hull City in the quarter-finals of the FA Cup. On 10 April 2009, it was confirmed that Gallas would miss the remainder of the season after damaging the medial ligament in his right knee during the 2008–09 UEFA Champions League quarter-final first leg tie against Villarreal. The match finished 1–1 with Gallas only lasting 43 minutes of the first half. Gallas started the 2009–10 campaign in fine form, scoring three goals in his first three games. He formed a partnership with Belgian centre back Thomas Vermaelen, Arsenal's only major summer signing, and the pair scored seven goals between them in their first eight league games. On 22 August, in the first home game of the season, he scored a bizarre goal against Portsmouth; Vermaelen had attempted to score a slide-in from a corner kick, but Gallas accidentally flicked the ball onto his face and it bounced into the net. On 17 February, Gallas started his 100th league game for Arsenal in the 2–0 defeat against Chelsea at Stamford Bridge. He suffered an injury-hit second half of the season and did not play for over two months; he was surprisingly included in the starting line up against Barcelona only to get stretchered off before half-time with a recurrence of the injury. It proved to be his last game for Arsenal—after talks over a new contract failed, Gallas left the club over the summer as a free agent having made a total of 142 appearances and scoring 17 goals for the club. On 28 April, Arsène Wenger announced that talks about Gallas' future will only go until end of May and that if an agreement was not reached by then, he would most likely leave the club. Public statements made by Arsenal Chairman Peter Hill-Wood suggested that the club felt that the contractual demands made by Gallas were unreasonable and not made in good faith. It was reported that such demands included an £80,000-a-week paycheque over a two-year period.", "On 20 August 2010, Tottenham Hotspur manager Harry Redknapp confirmed that Gallas was set to join the club and described the move as a \"no-brainer.\" The transfer was confirmed on 22 August, with Gallas signing a one-year contract at White Hart Lane. According to Tottenham's club historian, the move meant that Gallas would become the first player to have appeared for Chelsea, Arsenal and Tottenham; Clive Allen played for Tottenham and Chelsea and had a spell with Arsenal early in his career, but did not make an appearance for them. After training with his new team for the first time, Gallas stated that he believed that Spurs have the potential to win the Premier League. Gallas made his first-team debut on 11 September in a 1–1 draw away at West Bromwich Albion. On 20 November, as a result of injuries to regular captains Ledley King and Michael Dawson, Gallas captained Tottenham for the first time against his former club Arsenal at the Emirates Stadium in a famous 2–3 Tottenham victory, Spurs' first league victory at Arsenal since 1993. On 2 February 2011, Gallas partnered Sébastien Bassong at the back against Blackburn at Ewood Park in their 1–0 midweek victory. Gallas continued to impress for Tottenham into 2011. In the Champions League knockout stages, he put in two commanding performances against Milan to set up a quarter-final tie against Real Madrid in the club's first attempt in the competition. Despite a season of frequent changes in defence for Tottenham due to a host of injuries to his fellow defenders, Gallas performed strongly throughout his first season with the club and was rewarded with a two-year contract extension in March 2011, which kept him at the club until the end of the 2012–13 season. In his debut season at Spurs, he made 36 appearances in all competitions. During the 2011–12 Premier League, Gallas suffered several injuries that hindered his playing time for the season, making just 19 appearances for Tottenham during the campaign, particularly in light of the competition for the center-back spot with Michael Dawson and Ledley King. In the following season, Gallas played 17 games in the Premier League, scoring his first goal for the club—and also his first goal in over two years—against former club Chelsea in a 4–2 defeat. On 7 June 2013, the Premier League confirmed that he had been released from Tottenham.", "On 23 October 2013, Gallas signed a one-year deal with Perth Glory, becoming the first Frenchman to play in the Australian A-League. Gallas joined the league following the arrival of other international players, Alessandro Del Piero, Emile Heskey and Shinji Ono. Gallas made his debut for Perth in round 6 against Adelaide United, coming on as substitute. He scored his first goal on 3 September 2014 in a 1–1 draw against Wellington Phoenix He retired after the end of the 2013–14 A-League, making 14 appearances and scoring one goal.", "Gallas was a part of the France U-18 European Championship winning side. He also played for the France U-20 team in the 1997 FIFA World Youth Championship along with Thierry Henry, David Trezeguet, Nicolas Anelka, Mikaël Silvestre and Willy Sagnol. In October 2002, Gallas debuted for the France senior team in a UEFA Euro 2004 qualifier against Slovenia. He was included in France's squad for the 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup and played the full 90 minutes as \"Les Bleus\" defeated Cameroon 1–0 in the final. He went on to represent France at UEFA Euro 2004, starting in three of France's four matches, as they were knocked out by eventual champions Greece. In August 2005, Gallas scored his first goal for the national team in a friendly match against the Ivory Coast. Gallas was ever present as France finished runner-up in the 2006 FIFA World Cup, losing on penalties to Italy at the Berlin Olympiastadion. In September 2006, he won his 50th cap for France in a 3–1 win against Italy at the Stade de France in a UEFA Euro 2008 qualifier. At UEFA Euro 2008, Gallas was a regular starter as France were knocked out at the group stage. In November 2009, Gallas scored a goal which qualified France for the 2010 FIFA World Cup. The goal came against the Republic of Ireland in extra time of a World Cup playoff, making the score 1–1, and 2–1 to France on aggregate. The goal was controversial as it was scored after his teammate, Thierry Henry handled the ball twice. Gallas was included in France's squad for the 2010 World Cup. The tournament was a disaster for France as Nicolas Anelka was expelled by coach Raymond Domenech and the team went on strike from training. As a senior member of the team, Gallas was cited as being one of the disruptive influences in an inharmonious camp. After the tournament, Gallas criticised Domenech, blaming the former coach for France's first round elimination. On 6 June 2011, aged 33 and with 84 caps to his name and 5 goals he announced his retirement from international football with immediate effect after he had not been selected in the year since the World Cup. Gallas was eligible to represent Guadeloupe internationally as well, as they are not FIFA-affiliated. His cousin Ludovic Quistin has represented Guadeloupe.", "Caen Chelsea France Individual" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "March.", "Battle.", "Outcome.", "Aftermath." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Between 1158 and 1161 a series of Byzantine campaigns against the Seljuk Turks of the Sultanate of Rûm resulted in a treaty favourable to the Empire, with the sultan recognising a form of subordination to the Byzantine emperor. Immediately after peace was negotiated the Seljuk sultan Kilij Arslan II visited Constantinople where he was treated by Emperor Manuel I Komnenos as both an honoured guest and an imperial vassal. Following this event there was no overt hostility between the two powers for many years. It was a fragile peace, however, as the Seljuks wanted to push from the arid central plateau of Asia Minor into the more fertile coastal lands, while the Byzantines wanted to recover the Anatolian territory they had lost since the Battle of Manzikert a century earlier. During the long peace with the Seljuks Manuel was able to concentrate his military power in other theatres. In the west he defeated Hungary and imposed Byzantine control over all the Balkans. In the east he recovered Cilicia from local Armenian dynasts and managed to reduce the Crusader Principality of Antioch to vassal status. However, the peace with Byzantium also allowed Killij Arslan to eliminate internal rivals and strengthen his military resources. When the strongest Muslim ruler in Syria Nur ad-Din Zangi died in 1174, his successor Saladin was more concerned with Egypt and Palestine than the territory bordering the Empire. This shift in power gave Kilij Arslan the freedom to destroy the Danishmend emirates of eastern Anatolia and also eject his brother Shahinshah from his lands near Ankara. Shahinshah, who was Manuel's vassal, and the Danishmend emirs fled to the protection of Byzantium. In 1175 the peace between Byzantium and the Sultanate of Rûm fell apart when Kilij Arslan refused to hand over to the Byzantines, as he was obliged to do by treaty, a considerable proportion of the territory he had recently conquered from the Danishmends.", "The army gathered at Lopadion by Manuel was supposedly so large that it spread across ten miles, and marched towards the border with the Seljuks via Laodicea, Chonae, Lampe, Celaenae, Choma and Antioch. Arslan tried to negotiate but Manuel was convinced of his superiority and rejected a new peace. He sent part of the army under Andronikos Vatatzes towards Amasia while his larger force marched towards the Seljuk capital at Iconium (Konya). Both routes were through heavily wooded regions, where the Turks could easily hide and set up ambushes; the army moving towards Amasia was destroyed in one such ambush. The Turks later displayed Andronikos's head, impaled on a lance, during the fighting at Myriokephalon. The Turks also destroyed crops and poisoned water supplies to make Manuel's march more difficult. Arslan harassed the Byzantine army in order to force it into the Meander valley, and specifically the mountain pass of Tzivritze near the fortress of Myriokephalon. Once at the pass Manuel decided to attack, despite the danger from further ambushes, and also despite the fact that he could have attempted to bring the Turks out of their positions to fight them on the nearby plain of Philomelion, the site of an earlier victory won by his grandfather Alexios. The lack of forage, and water for his troops, and the fact that dysentery had broken out in his army may have induced Manuel to decide to force the pass regardless of the danger of ambush.", "All sources agree that the Byzantine force was of exceptional size. The historian John Haldon estimates the army at 25,000–30,000 men, while John Birkenmeier puts it at around 35,000 men. The latter number is derived from the fact that sources indicated a supply train of 3,000 wagons accompanied the army, which was enough to support 30,000–40,000 men. Birkenmeier believes that the army contained 25,000 Byzantine troops with the remainder composed of an allied contingent of Hungarians sent by Manuel's kinsman Béla III of Hungary and tributary forces supplied by the Principality of Antioch and Serbia. The Byzantine army was divided into a number of divisions, which entered the pass in the following order: a vanguard, largely of infantry (the other divisions being composed of a mix of infantry and cavalry); the main division (of eastern and western \"Tagmata\"); then the right wing (largely composed of Antiochenes and other Westerners), led by Baldwin of Antioch (Manuel's brother-in-law); the baggage and siege trains; the Byzantine left wing, led by Theodore Mavrozomes and John Kantakouzenos; the emperor and his picked troops; and finally the rear division under the experienced general Andronikos Kontostephanos. No estimates of Seljuk numbers for the battle have been possible. Primary sources have provided figures for other Seljuk campaigns. In 1160, John Kontostephanos defeated a force of 22,000 Seljuk Turks and about 20,000–24,000 Turks invaded the Maeander river valley in 1177. However, modern historians have estimated that the various Seljuk successor states (such as the Sultanate of Rum) could field at most 10,000–15,000 men. This is likely a closer estimate for the possible Seljuk strength at Myriokephalon considering the much larger and united Seljuk Empire fielded around 20,000–30,000 men at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071. The Sultanate of Rum was much smaller territorially than the Seljuk Empire and probably had smaller armies, for example its army at the Battle of Dorylaeum in 1097 has been estimated at between 6,000–8,000 men. The Byzantine vanguard was the first to encounter Arslan's troops, and went through the pass with few casualties, as did the main division. Possibly the Turks had not yet fully deployed in their positions. These divisions sent their infantry up onto the slopes to dislodge the Seljuk soldiers, who were forced to withdraw to higher ground. The following divisions did not take this precaution, also they were negligent in not maintaining a defensive formation of closed ranks and they did not deploy their archers effectively. By the time the first two Byzantine divisions exited the far end of the pass, the rear was just about to enter; this allowed the Turks to close their trap on those divisions still within the pass. The Turkish attack, descending from the heights, fell especially heavily on the Byzantine right wing. This division seems to have quickly lost cohesion and been broken, soldiers fleeing one ambush often running into another. Heavy casualties were sustained by the right wing and its commander, Baldwin, was killed. The Turks then concentrated their attacks on the baggage and siege trains, shooting down the draught animals and choking the roadway. The left wing division also suffered significant casualties and one of its leaders, John Kantakouzenos, was slain when fighting alone against a band of Seljuk soldiers. The remaining Byzantine troops were panicked by the carnage in front of them and the realisation that the Turks had also begun to attack their rear. The sudden descent of a blinding dust-storm did nothing to improve the morale or organisation of the Byzantine forces, though it must have confused the Seljuk troops also. At this point, Manuel seems to have suffered a crisis of confidence and reputedly sat down, passively awaiting his fate and that of his army. The emperor was eventually roused by his officers, re-established discipline and organised his forces into a defensive formation; when formed up, they pushed their way past the wreck of the baggage and out of the pass. Debouching from the pass they rejoined the unscathed van and main divisions, commanded by John and Andronikos Angelos, Constantine Makrodoukas and Andronikos Lampardas. Whilst the rest of the army had been under attack in the pass the troops of the van and main divisions had constructed a fortified encampment. The rear division, under Andronikos Kontostephanos, arrived at the camp somewhat later than the emperor, having suffered few casualties. The night was spent in successfully repulsing further attacks by Seljuk mounted archers. Niketas Choniates states that Manuel considered abandoning his troops but was shamed into staying by the scathing words of an anonymous soldier and the disapproval of a shocked Kontostephanos. However, this would appear to be hyperbole on the historian's part as Manuel would have placed himself in much greater danger by flight than if he remained in the midst of his army. The following day, the Turks circled the camp firing arrows; Manuel ordered two counterattacks, led by John Angelos and Constantine Makrodoukas respectively, but there was no renewal of a general action.", "Both sides, it appears, had suffered casualties, though their extent is difficult to quantify. Modern historians have postulated that about half of the Byzantine army was engaged and around half of those became casualties. As the Byzantine army moved back through the pass after the battle it was seen that the dead had been scalped and their genitals mutilated, \"It was said that the Turks took these measures so that the circumcised could not be distinguished from the uncircumcised and the victory therefore disputed and contested since many had fallen on both sides.\" Most importantly Manuel's siege equipment had been captured and destroyed. The Byzantines, without any means of attacking Iconium, were now no longer in a position to continue the campaign. Also the Seljuk Sultan was keen for peace to be restored as soon as possible; he sent an envoy named Gabras, together with gifts of a Nisaean warhorse and a sword, to Manuel in order to negotiate a truce. As a result of these negotiations, the Byzantine army was to be allowed to retreat unmolested on condition that Manuel destroy his forts and evacuate the garrisons at Dorylaeum and Sublaeum in the Byzantine-Seljuk border lands. However, despite Kilij Arslan's protestations of good faith, the retreat of the Byzantine army was harassed by the attacks of Turcoman tribesmen (over whom Kilij Arslan probably had very little control). This, taken with an earlier failure by the sultan to keep his side of a treaty signed in 1162, gave Manuel an excuse to avoid observing the terms of this new arrangement in their entirety. He therefore demolished the fortifications of the less important fortress of Sublaeum but left Dorylaeum intact. Manuel himself compared his defeat to that of Manzikert, sending a message to Constantinople ahead of his army likening his fate to that of Romanos Diogenes. However, in the same message he: \"Then extolled the treaties made with the sultan, boasting that these had been concluded beneath his own banner which had waved in the wind in view of the enemy's front line so that trembling and fear fell upon them.\" It is notable that it was the sultan who initiated peace proposals by sending an envoy to Manuel and not the reverse. The conclusion that Kilij Arslan, though negotiating from a position of strength, did not consider that his forces were capable of destroying the Byzantine army is inescapable. A possible reason for Kilij Arslan's reluctance to renew the battle is that a large proportion of his irregular troops may have been far more interested in securing the plunder they had taken than in continuing the fight, thus leaving his army seriously weakened.", "Myriokephalon, although a significant defeat for the Byzantines, did not materially affect the capabilities of the Byzantine army. This is underlined by the notable victory the Byzantines won over the Seljuks at Hyelion and Leimocheir on the Meander River the following year. Ironically, this battle was a reverse of Myriokephalon, with a Seljuk army blundering into a classic ambush laid by the Byzantine general John Komnenos Vatatzes. Manuel continued to meet the Seljuks in smaller battles with some success, and concluded a probably advantageous peace with Kilij Arslan in 1179. However, like Manzikert, Myriokephalon was a pivotal event and following it the balance between the two powers in Anatolia gradually began to shift, and subsequently Byzantium was unable to compete for dominance of the Anatolian interior. Myriokephalon had more of a psychological impact than a military impact, as it proved that the Empire could not destroy Seljuk power in central Anatolia, despite the advances made during Manuel's reign. Essentially, the problem was that Manuel had allowed himself to be distracted by a series of military adventures in Italy and Egypt, instead of dealing with the more pressing issue of the Turks. This had given the Sultan many years in which to eliminate his rivals, enabling him to build up a force capable of facing the Byzantine army in the field. Without the years required to build up Seljuk military power, the battle could not have taken place. Furthermore, during the campaign, Manuel made several serious tactical errors, such as failing to scout out the route ahead effectively and ignoring the advice of his senior officers. These failings caused him to lead his forces straight into a classic ambush. However, in defence of Manuel's generalship it is clear that he organised his army in a very effective manner. The army was composed of a number of 'divisions,' each of which was self-reliant and could act as a small independent army; it has been argued that it was this organisation which allowed the greater part of his army to survive the ambush inflicted on it. An important facet of Manuel's dispositions was that the vanguard was composed of infantry. Infantry are far better troops than cavalry when operating in mountainous terrain and it appears that the infantry van was meant to dislodge any Seljuk soldiery from the high ground dominating the pass. They signally failed to sweep the Seljuks from the pass and this failure was a major cause of the Byzantine defeat. Added to this there seems to have been a failure in generalship by the commanders of the right and left wings, who did not deploy their troops as effectively as had the commanders of the two leading divisions. After Manuel's death, the empire drifted into anarchy, and it was never again in a position to mount a major offensive in the east. The defeat of Myriokephalon marked the end of Byzantine attempts to recover the Anatolian plateau, which was now lost to the empire forever." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Fictional geography.", "Physical geography.", "Culture.", "Fictional history.", "Land of Gift.", "Sea-kings.", "The Shadow looms.", "Sauron.", "Cataclysm.", "Aftermath.", "Influences.", "Atlantis.", "Lyonesse.", "Philology.", "Fall.", "Development.", "Other authors." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "\"A Description of the Island of Númenor\", published in \"Unfinished Tales\", was supposedly derived from the archives of Gondor. The island of Númenor was in the Great Sea, closer to Aman in the West than to the continent of Middle-earth in the east. In shape it resembled a five-pointed star, with five peninsulas extending from the central region. The latter is stated to have been around across, and the promontories were nearly of the same length each. The island itself was \"tilted southward and a little eastward\". Karen Wynn Fonstad estimated the island to be 167,691 square miles [435,017 km2] in area. Númenor was divided into six main regions: the five promontories and the central area. Mittalmar or \"the Inlands\" was the central region, high and land-locked except for a small coast around Rómenna, with the mountain of Meneltarma at its centre. Much of the region consisted of grasslands, pastures and low downs with few trees. Númenor's main rivers, Siril and Nunduinë, arose in Mittalmar, on or near Meneltarma. Mittalmar's eastern district, Arandor, was the most populated part of Númenor, with Armenelos, the capital, and Rómenna. In the south-west of Mittalmar lay the district of Emerië, Númenor's prime sheep-grazing area. Andustar or \"the Westlands\" was a fertile wooded region, rocky to the north, with high coastal cliffs to the west. Its bays held several harbours. The northern highlands were covered by fir-woods, while in the south the forests consisted mainly of birches and beeches upon the upper ground and of oaks and elms in vales. Hyarnustar or \"the Southwestlands\" had vineyards and fertile farmlands in the east, with wide beaches on that coast, and highlands and coastal cliffs to the west. Hyarrostar or \"the Southeastlands\" was the lowest-lying region, with long gentle shores, especially in the west, and plantations to supply timber for shipbuilding. Orrostar or \"the Eastlands\" was a cool but fertile region, with highlands in the north. In the south-west were vast plantations of grain. Forostar or \"the Northlands\" was rocky and the least fertile region, with heather moors rising in the north to rocky hills, and few trees. Its quarries provided the best building stone. The fifth king Tar-Meneldur built his tall tower here to watch the stars. The most populous towns were coastal, mostly connected by dirt roads. A paved highway ran across the island of Númenor from east to west, connecting Rómenna, Armenelos, the Valley of Tombs, Ondosto and Andúnië. Armenelos, \"Royal citadel\", was the capital and in later years the largest city of Númenor. It lay inland, near the centre of Arandor, about 20 miles from mount Meneltarma. The closest coast was some 50 miles to the east at Rómenna. It contained the royal palace, the King's House. A tall tower was constructed there by the first King Elros, son of the seafaring hero Earendil, and the White Tree Nimloth was planted in the days of the sixth King, the explorer Tar-Aldarion. During the reign of the 25th and last King, the proud Ar-Pharazôn, a giant circular temple to Morgoth was built in the city, over five hundred feet in diameter and as much in height to its cornice line, above which a silver dome rose. The dome had an oculus, from which the smoke of numerous burned sacrifices rose, tarnishing the silver soon after its completion. Andúnië, \"Sunset\", was a port on the west side of Númenor, which looked towards the Undying Lands; the Eldar used to land there. Valandil was the first Lord of Andúnië, and his successors were important in shaping Númenórean policies. As the Shadow fell over Númenor, Armenelos overtook Andúnië. Rómenna, \"Eastwards\" (for ships sailing to Middle-earth), was a harbour at the head of the long firth on the east of Númenor. It became important as shipbuilding and seafaring grew, especially from the reign of Tar-Aldarion. Eldalondë or \"Elf-haven\" was a seaport on the western coast where the Elves would arrive from Tol Eressëa, and the river Nunduinë emptied into the Bay of Eldanna. It was \"the most beautiful of all the havens of Númenor\", compared by the Elves to a town in Eressëa.", "The Númenóreans were descended from the Edain of Beleriand, with three clans: the people of Hador, the people of Bëor, and the Folk of Haleth. Most Númenóreans descended from the fair-haired and blue-eyed people of Hador. The settlers of the western regions, especially Andustar, came mostly from the people of Bëor, with darker hair and grey eyes. A few remnants of the Folk of Haleth and a few families of the Drúedain were also present. The average Númenórean was taller than two \"rangar\" or 6'4\". Elendil was the tallest of Men who escaped the Downfall (almost 2.5 \"rangar\" tall, 7'11\"). Tolkien originally suggested that Númenóreans not of the Line of Elros lived for 200 years, with royal kindred living 400 years. Later, royal Númenóreans were said to have \"five times\" the lifespan of normal men, or 300–350 years. Men of the House of Elros lived for some 400 years; this diminished due to their rebellion. Coming-of-age was at 25 years. The common language of the Númenóreans, Adûnaic, was derived from the speech of the Hadorians. The descendants of the people of Bëor were sometimes said to have spoken an accented form of Adûnaic, while elsewhere it is stated that they had dropped their own tongue before coming to the island and used the Grey-elven Sindarin as daily speech in Númenor. All texts, however, agree that Sindarin was known to most Númenóreans, and was widely used in noble families; the latter also knew the High-elven Quenya, employing it in works of lore and nomenclature. This changed when the friendship with the Elves was broken; usage of both Sindarin and Quenya lessened, until at last King Ar-Adûnakhôr forbade their teaching, and knowledge of the Elven-tongues was only preserved by the Faithful. Before the coming of the Shadow, the Númenóreans maintained several traditions connected with the worship of Ilúvatar and respect to the Valar. Among them are recorded the setting a bough of the fragrant \"oiolairë\" upon the prow of a departing ship, the ceremonies concerned with the passing of the Sceptre, and laying down one's life. The most famous traditions were the Three Prayers, during which a great concourse of people ascended to the holy summit of Meneltarma and the King praised Eru Ilúvatar. These were: the spring prayer for a good year, \"Erukyermë\"; the midsummer prayer for a good harvest, \"Erulaitalë\"; and the autumn harvest thanksgiving, \"Eruhantalë\". The Númenórean calendar, the \"King's Reckoning\", is similar to the Gregorian with a week of seven days, a year of 365 days except in leap years, and twelve months (\"astar\"): ten with 30 days and two with 31. However, King's Reckoning has some days outside the months, a feature borrowed from Elvish Calendars, which were generally holidays. Two of these were the pair which book-ends the year; thus the last month of the year was followed by \"mettarë\", the last day of the year; this was followed by \"yestarë\", New Year's Day, before the start of the first month. The other monthless day was \"loëndë\", mid-year day. In a leap year there were two mid-year days. In the Second and Third Ages, years were reckoned from the beginning of the age. Various irregularities occur in this calendar, especially following the Downfall. Mardil Voronwë revised the calendar, and the new version became the \"Steward's Reckoning\": all the months had 30 days, with two additional \"extra\" days at the equinoxes, \"tuilérë\" and \"yáviérë\". The five extra days (the equinoxes, midsummer and two at midwinter) were holidays. The Reunited Kingdom adopted a \"New Reckoning\", which began the year on March 25 (cf. Lady Day, the English new year between A.D. 1155 and 1752), the date of the downfall of Sauron. This made it correspond more closely to the spring beginning of the Elven calendar. The months of the Reckonings were in Quenya (or Sindarin among the Dúnedain): This is similar to the French Republican Calendar. For example, the names of the third month of Winter, \"Súlímë\", \"Gwaeron\", and \"Ventôse\", all mean 'Windy', and so on for the other months.", "", "The island of Númenor was raised from the sea as a gift from the Valar to the Edain, the Fathers of Men who had stood with the Elves of Beleriand against Morgoth in the wars of the First Age. Númenor was offered as a reward, a \"rest after the war\" for the Edain. Early in the Second Age the greater part of those Edain who had survived the wars left Middle-earth and journeyed to the isle, sailing in ships provided and steered by the Elves. The migration took 50 years and brought 5,000 to 10,000 people to the island. The realm was established early in the Second Age, and Elros Half-elven, son of Eärendil, and brother of Elrond and descendant of all the royal houses of Elves and Edain, became the first King of Númenor, an absolute monarch. Under his rule, and those of his descendants, the Númenóreans rose to become a powerful people, friendly with Elves, both of Eressëa and of Middle-earth. The Elves of Eressëa brought gifts including skills and plants. Among these gifts were seven \"palantíri\", magical orbs that could foresee the future, for the Lords of Andúnië.", "Númenor was surrounded by the Great Sea of Arda, and the sea had a profound influence on Númenor's culture and history. From the earliest times in its history, fish from the sea were a significant part of Númenórean diet; those providing this food were Númenor's first sea-farers. The Númenóreans swiftly became skilled shipbuilders and mariners, with a desire to explore and master the ocean. There was one limitation on this activity: the Ban of the Valar. When the island of Númenor had been gifted to the Edain, they were strictly prohibited from sailing west out of sight of the island. This was because the Undying Lands, forbidden to mortals, lay tantalizingly close to the west of Númenor. So the Númenóreans began exploring the seas to the north, east and south. They reached Middle-earth to the east, and explored its coasts including the Eastern Sea on the far side of Middle-earth. The Númenóreans brought the gifts of their superior civilization to the Men of Middle-earth, who called the Númenóreans the Sea-kings. News of Númenórean seafarers spread far inland in Middle-earth; even the reclusive Ents heard of the coming of \"the Great Ships\". Númenóreans had established good relations with Gil-galad, the king of the High Elves of the northwest of Middle-earth, whose ships sailed from the Grey Havens. Aldarion founded the Uinendili, a guild of sea-farers, in honour of Uinen, goddess of the Sea. He succeeded to the throne and became known as the Mariner-king. He established Vinyalondë (later called Lond Daer), the first Númenórean settlement in Middle-earth. This port provided access to the great forests of Eriador, which the Númenóreans needed for ship-building. The Númenóreans assisted Gil-galad in Middle-earth's War of the Elves and Sauron, which broke out after the forging of the Rings of Power, in particular the One Ring. Tar-Minastir, later the eleventh King of Númenor, assembled an armada, and sent it to Gil-galad's aid. The forces of Númenor were without peer in war, and together with the Elves, they were able to temporarily defeat Sauron.", "The increasing power of the Númenóreans had a dark side; the exploitation of Middle-earth's forests had devastated large regions of Eriador. The Númenóreans established further settlements in Middle-earth, coming to rule a coastal empire with no rival. At first they had engaged with the Men of Middle-earth in a friendly manner, but Minastir's successors, Tar-Ciryatan and Tar-Atanamir 'the Great', became increasingly tyrannical, oppressing the Men of Middle-earth and exacting heavy tribute. The Númenóreans made Umbar, the harbour-city in the south of Middle-earth, into a great fortress, and greatly expanded Pelargir, a landing in Gondor near the Mouths of the Anduin. Increasing numbers of Númenóreans became jealous of Elves for their immortality, resenting the Ban of the Valar, and sought everlasting life. Those of this persuasion were the faction of \"King's Men\". Those who remained loyal to the Valar and friendly to the Elves (and using Elvish languages) were the \"Faithful\", also called the \"Elf-friends\" or \"Elendili\"; they were led by the Lords of Andúnië. In the reign of Tar-Ancalimon (S.A. 2221-2386) the King's Men became dominant, and the Faithful became a persecuted minority accused of being \"spies of the Valar\".", "Late in the Second Age, Ar-Pharazôn, the 25th monarch of Númenor, sailed to Middle-earth to challenge Sauron, known to the Númenóreans as \"Zigûr\", who had claimed to be the King of Men and overlord of Middle-earth. Ar-Pharazôn landed at Umbar to do battle, but seeing the might of Númenor, Sauron's armies fled, and Sauron surrendered without a fight. He was brought back to Númenor as a prisoner, but he soon seduced the king and many other Númenóreans, promising them eternal life if they worshipped his master Melkor. With Sauron as his advisor, Ar-Pharazôn had a tall temple erected in Armenelos, the capital. In this temple human sacrifices were offered to Melkor. During this time, the White Tree Nimloth, which stood before the King's House in Armenelos and whose fate was tied to the line of kings, was cut down and burned as a sacrifice to Melkor, at Sauron's direction. Isildur rescued a fruit of the tree which became an ancestor of the White Tree of Gondor.", "Prompted by Sauron and fearing old age and death, Ar-Pharazôn built a great armada and sailed into the West to make war upon the Valar, intending to seize the Undying Lands and achieve immortality. Sauron remained behind. Ar-Pharazôn landed on the shores of Aman. As the Valar were forbidden to take direct action against Men, Manwë, chief of the Valar, called upon Eru Ilúvatar, the One God. In response, Eru caused the Changing of the World: the hitherto flat Earth was transformed into a globe, Númenor sank beneath the ocean, and the Undying Lands were removed from the Earth forever. The whole population on the island was drowned. Most of Ar-Pharazôn's armada, too, met their doom in the cataclysm. This was the second fall of Men, the first being when Men first awoke and fell swiftly under the dominion of Melkor.", "Sauron was caught in the cataclysm he had helped bring about. His body perished, and he could never again assume a fair form. He fled back to Middle-earth as a monstrous spirit of hatred that \"passed as a shadow and a black wind over the sea\", returning to Mordor. Some of his servants, the Black Númenóreans, had left the island before its destruction, and continued to serve Sauron in Middle-earth; one of these was the nameless \"Mouth of Sauron\", Sauron's lieutenant, who spoke to the Captains of the West before the Battle of the Morannon. Elendil and the Faithful, too, came to Middle-earth before the cataclysm. Elendil's sons Isildur and Anárion founded the two Kingdoms in Exile: Arnor in the north, and Gondor in the south. The two kingdoms endeavoured to maintain Númenórean culture. Gondor flourished, and \"for a while its splendour grew, recalling somewhat of the might of Númenor\". Sauron gathered strength in nearby Mordor, setting the scene for a struggle lasting thousands of years. The Kings of Arnor and the Kings of Gondor were directly descended from Isildur and Anárion, and therefore from the Lords of Andúnië; like their ancestors, they had prolonged lifespans. The kings of Arnor inherited the silver rod of the Lord of Andúnië; this rod was renamed the Sceptre of Annúminas, and was the chief symbol of Arnor's kingship. The \"high men\" of Gondor \"married late, and their children were few\", and eventually the line of kings died out, and Gondor was ruled instead by Stewards. Aragorn is the head of the Dúnedain (\"Men of the West\", Númenóreans) surviving in the North at the end of the Third Age, and as a descendant of Isildur can claim the kingship. The Princes of Dol Amroth were descended from a family of The Faithful from Númenor who had ruled over the land of Belfalas since the Second Age. This family of Númenóreans were akin to the Lords of Andúnië, and thus related to Elendil. Sam Gamgee notices Faramir's wizard-like air, to which Faramir replies \"Maybe you discern from afar the air of Númenor\".", "", "Atlantis (, \"island of Atlas\") is a fictional island mentioned within an allegory on the hubris (excessive pride leading to a downfall) of nations in the ancient Greek philosopher Plato's works \"Timaeus\" and \"Critias\". The destruction of Númenor earned it the Quenya name \"Atalantë\" \"the Downfallen\"; Tolkien described his invention of this additional allusion to Atlantis as a happy accident when he realized that the Quenya root \"talat-\" \"to fall\" could be incorporated into a name for Númenor. Tolkien wrote of Númenor as Atlantis in several of his letters. The commentator Charles Delattre has noted that that the tale of Númenor is a retelling of the myth of Atlantis, the only drowned island in surviving ancient literature, matching several details: it began as a perfect world, geometrically laid out to reflect its balance and harmony; it abounds in valuable minerals; and it has unmatched power, with a strong fleet able to project control far beyond its shores, like ancient Athens. Númenor's pride, too, writes Delattre, matches the hubris of Plato's Atlantis; and its downfall recalls the destruction of Atlantis, the divine Old Testament retribution on Sodom and Gomorrah, and Milton's \"Paradise Lost\".", "Númenor first appears in \"The Lord of the Rings\", as the vague land of \"Westernesse\", an advanced civilisation which had existed long ago, far to the west over the Sea, and the ancestral home of the Dúnedain. Tolkien chose the name for its resonance with \"Lyonesse\", a faraway land that sank into the sea in the Middle English romance \"King Horn\".", "Tolkien was a professional philologist. For him, the existence of ideas embodied in ancient words and names indicated that there must have been \"some original conception\", a once-living tradition, behind those ideas. The Tolkien scholar Tom Shippey notes that in Tolkien's \"The Lost Road\", the key names are from Germanic legend, and they speak of elves:", "The names connected by his philological studies formed for Tolkien the possibility of a kind of downward progression, from his long-lost mythical world of Númenor in the Second Age, to his fantasy world of Middle-earth in the Third Age, also now lost, to the real ancient Germanic and Anglo-Saxon thousands of years later, and finally down to the modern world, where names like Edwin still survive, all (in the fiction) that is left of Middle-earth, carrying for the knowledgeable philologist a hint of a rich living English mythology. Shippey notes that in Númenor, the myth would have been still stronger, as being an Elf-friend, one of the hated \"Elendili\", marked a person out to the King's Men faction as a target for human sacrifice to Morgoth. Tolkien's \"continuous playing with names\" led to characters and situations, and sometimes to stories. Delattre notes that the position of Númenor in Tolkien's Middle-earth is curious, being \"at once marginal and central\", not least because in \"The Lord of the Rings\", the glory of Númenor is already ancient history, evoking a sense of loss and nostalgia. This, he writes, is just one of many losses and downfalls in Tolkien's legendarium, leading finally to the last remnants of Númenor in the North, the Dúnedain, and the last Númenorean kingdom, Gondor, which \"keeps alive the illusion that Númenor still exists in the South\". Tolkien, a devout Roman Catholic, stated that \"The Downfall of Númenor\" (\"Akallabêth\") was effectively a second fall of man, with \"its central theme.. (inevitably, I think, in a story of Men) a Ban, or Prohibition\". Bradley J. Birzer, writing in the \"J.R.R. Tolkien Encyclopedia\", notes that Tolkien thought that every story was essentially about a fall, and accordingly his legendarium contains many \"falls\": that of Morgoth, of Feanor and his relatives, and that of Númenor among them. Eric Schweicher, writing in \"Mythlore\", notes that the ban was \"soon defied\", as in the Biblical fall. The temptation for the Númenoreans was the desire for immortality, and the ban that they broke was not to sail towards the Undying Lands of Aman.", "Originally intended to be a part of a time-travel story in \"The Notion Club Papers\", Tolkien once saw the tale of the fall of Númenor as a conclusion to his \"The Silmarillion\" and the \"last tale\" about the Elder Days. Later, with the emergence of \"The Lord of the Rings\", it became the link back to his mythology of earlier ages.", "C. S. Lewis's 1945 novel \"That Hideous Strength\" makes reference to \"Numinor and the True West\", which Lewis credits as a then-unpublished creation of J. R. R. Tolkien; they were friends and colleagues at Oxford University, and members of The Inklings literary discussion group. The misspelling came from Lewis's only hearing Tolkien say the name in one of his readings." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Miscellaneous.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The nucleus of the estate was a small farm of, called Cartleyhole, nicknamed Clarty (i.e., muddy) Hole, and was bought by Scott on the lapse of his lease (1811) of the neighbouring house of Ashestiel. Scott renamed it \"Abbotsford\" after a neighbouring ford used by the monks of Melrose Abbey. Following a modest enlargement of the original farmhouse in 1811–12, massive expansions took place in 1816–19 and 1822–24. In this mansion Scott he gathered a large library, a collection of ancient furniture, arms and armour, and other relics and curiosities especially connected with Scottish history, notably the Celtic Torrs Pony-cap and Horns and the Woodwrae Stone, all now in the Museum of Scotland.Scott described the resulting building as \"a sort of romance in Architecture\" and \"a kind of Conundrum Castle to be sure\". The last and principal acquisition was that of Toftfield (afterwards named Huntlyburn), purchased in 1817. The new house was then begun and completed in 1824. The general ground-plan is a parallelogram, with irregular outlines, one side overlooking the Tweed; and the style is mainly the Scottish Baronial. With his architects William Atkinson and Edward Blore Scott was a pioneer of the Scottish Baronial style of architecture: the house is recognized as a highly influential creation with themes from Abbotsford being reflected across many buildings in the Scottish Borders and beyond. The manor as a whole appears as a \"castle-in-miniature,\" with small towers and imitation battlements decorating the house and garden walls. Into various parts of the fabric were built relics and curiosities from historical structures, such as the doorway of the old Tolbooth in Edinburgh. Scott collected many of these curiosities to be built into the walls of the South Garden, which previously hosted a colonnade of gothic arches along the garden walls. Along the path of the former colonnade sits the remains of Edinburgh's 15th century Mercat Cross and several examples of classical sculpture. The estate and its neo-Medieval features nod towards Scott's desire for a historical feel, but the writer ensured that the house would provide all the comforts of modern living. As a result, Scott used the space as a proving-ground for new technologies. The house was outfitted with early gas lighting and pneumatic bells connecting residents with servants elsewhere in the house. Scott had only enjoyed his residence one year when (1825) he met with that reverse of fortune which involved the estate in debt. In 1830, the library and museum were presented to him as a free gift by the creditors. The property was wholly disencumbered in 1847 by Robert Cadell, the publisher, who cancelled the bond upon it in exchange for the family's share in the copyright of Sir Walter's works. Scott's only son Walter did not live to enjoy the property, having died on his way from India in 1847. Among subsequent possessors were Scott's grandson Walter Scott Lockhart (later Walter Lockhart Scott, 1826-1853), his younger sister Charlotte Harriet Jane Hope-Scott (née Lockhart) 1828–1858, J. R. Hope Scott, QC, and his daughter (Scott's great-granddaughter), the Hon. Mrs Maxwell Scott. The house was opened to the public in 1833, but continued to be occupied by Scott's descendants until 2004. The last of his direct descendants to hold the Lairdship of Abbotsford was his great-great-great-granddaughter Dame Jean Maxwell-Scott (8 June 1923 – 5 May 2004). She inherited it from her elder sister Patricia Maxwell-Scott in 1998. The sisters turned the house into one of Scotland's premier tourist attractions, after they had to rely on paying visitors to afford the upkeep of the house. It had electricity installed only in 1962. Dame Jean was at one time a lady-in-waiting to Princess Alice, Duchess of Gloucester, patron of the Dandie Dinmont Club, a breed of dog named after one of Sir Walter Scott's characters; and a horse trainer, one of whose horses, Sir Wattie, ridden by Ian Stark, won two silver medals at the 1988 Summer Olympics. On Dame Jean's death the Abbotsford Trust was established to safeguard the estate. In 2005, Scottish Borders Council considered an application by a property developer to build a housing estate on the opposite bank of the River Tweed from Abbotsford, to which Historic Scotland and the National Trust for Scotland objected. There have been modifications to the proposed development, but it is still being opposed in 2020. Sir Walter Scott rescued the \"jougs\" from Threave Castle in Dumfries and Galloway and attached them to the castellated gateway he built at Abbotsford. Tweedbank railway station is located near to Abbotsford House.", "Abbotsford gave its name to the Abbotsford Club, founded by William Barclay Turnbull in 1833 or 1834 in Scott's honour, and a successor to the Bannatyne and Maitland Clubs. It was a text publication society, which existed to print and publish historical works connected with Scott's writings. Its publications extended from 1835 to 1864. In 2012, a new Visitor Centre opened at Abbotsford which houses a small exhibition, gift shop and Ochiltree's Dining, a café/restaurant with views over the house and grounds. The house re-opened to the public after extensive renovations in 2013. In 2014 it won the European Union Prize for Cultural Heritage / Europa Nostra Award for its recent conservation project.", "Attribution" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Mozhaysky was born in Rochensalm, in the Grand Duchy of Finland (present-day Kotka), southern Finland, then part of the Russian Empire. His father was an admiral in the Imperial Russian Navy, and Mozhaysky graduated from the Sea Cadet Corps in 1841. He spent the next seven years on voyages in the Baltic Sea and in the White Sea on various vessels, and was commissioned as a lieutenant in 1849. He served with the Baltic Fleet from 1850 to 1852. In 1853 he was selected as a member of Vice Admiral Yevfimy Putyatin’s expedition to the Far East. In August 1853, he demonstrated a working model of a steam engine to various Japanese dignitaries at Nagasaki, from which Japanese inventor Tanaka Hisashige was later able to reverse-engineer a Japanese version. In December 1854 he was shipwrecked at Heda, Shizuoka when the frigate \"Diana\" sank in the 1854 Ansei-Tōkai earthquake. Mozhaysky assisted in the construction of the schooner \"Heda\" in 1855, which enabled the Russian delegation negotiating the Treaty of Shimoda to return home. Later in 1855, during the Crimean War, he served in the Gulf of Finland on the brig \"Antenor\". In 1858 Mozhaysky was selected to participate in an expedition to Khiva in Central Asia, and published an account of the Aral Sea and the Amu Darya River. He was awarded the Order of St Vladimir, 4th class, for his participation in this expedition. After his return he was made a lieutenant-commander; however, he resigned his commission in 1863 with the downsizing of the Russian navy following the end (1856) of the Crimean War. From 1869 to 1876 he lived outside the city of Vinnytsia in what is now Ukraine. Mozhaysky began work on a project to develop a heavier-than-air aircraft from 1876. Mozhaysky re-enlisted in the navy in 1879 and was granted the rank of captain, 1st class. He became an instructor at the Sea Cadet Corps. He was promoted to rear admiral in July 1882, but resigned shortly thereafter due to domestic reasons. In 1884 Mozhaysky's monoplane made a failed attempt to fly. His design relied upon a ramp rather than on engine power to generate sufficient speed for lift. The wing design of his craft lacked the curvature necessary to generate lift. While it is possible that Mozhaysky's wings slowed his monoplane's descent after launch from the ramp, the wings were unlikely ever to have provided sufficient lift for sustained flight unless used at angles of attack that would have been impractical, given the engines available to Mozhaysky. He also experimented with different angles of attack. Mozhaysky died on April 1 1890; his tomb is at the Smolensk Cemetery in Saint Petersburg.", "In 1909 a Russian newspaper claimed Mozhaysky's hop was the first powered flight. This claim was later repeated in many Soviet publications. In 1971-1981 Central Aerohydrodynamic Institute researched the topic and disproved the claim. Mozhaysky's original aircraft was found incapable of generating lift because of low engine capacity. It was also shown that with a more powerful engine, which Mozhaysky had planned shortly before his death, the aircraft might have been able to fly. Nevertheless, Mozhaysky's aviation achievements, particularly with regard to flight controls and propulsion, were considerable given the limits of the technology available to him, and have only recently received serious attention. Asteroid 2850 Mozhaiskij is named in his honour." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Turning points.", "Classification.", "Curve sketching.", "Example." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "A turning point is a point at which the derivative changes sign. A turning point may be either a relative maximum or a relative minimum (also known as local minimum and maximum). If the function is differentiable, then a turning point is a stationary point; however not all stationary points are turning points. If the function is twice differentiable, the stationary points that are not turning points are horizontal inflection points. For example, the function formula_1 has a stationary point at x=0, which is also an inflection point, but is not a turning point.", "Isolated stationary points of a formula_2 real valued function formula_3 are classified into four kinds, by the first derivative test: The first two options are collectively known as \"local extrema\". Similarly a point that is either a global (or absolute) maximum or a global (or absolute) minimum is called a global (or absolute) extremum. The last two options—stationary points that are \"not\" local extremum—are known as saddle points. By Fermat's theorem, global extrema must occur (for a formula_2 function) on the boundary or at stationary points.", "Determining the position and nature of stationary points aids in curve sketching of differentiable functions. Solving the equation \"f'\"(\"x\") = 0 returns the \"x\"-coordinates of all stationary points; the \"y\"-coordinates are trivially the function values at those \"x\"-coordinates. The specific nature of a stationary point at \"x\" can in some cases be determined by examining the second derivative \"f''\"(\"x\"): A more straightforward way of determining the nature of a stationary point is by examining the function values between the stationary points (if the function is defined and continuous between them). A simple example of a point of inflection is the function \"f\"(\"x\") = \"x\". There is a clear change of concavity about the point \"x\" = 0, and we can prove this by means of calculus. The second derivative of \"f\" is the everywhere-continuous 6\"x\", and at \"x\" = 0, \"f\"′′ = 0, and the sign changes about this point. So \"x\" = 0 is a point of inflection. More generally, the stationary points of a real valued function formula_5 are those points x where the derivative in every direction equals zero, or equivalently, the gradient is zero.", "For the function \"f\"(\"x\") = \"x\" we have \"f<nowiki>'</nowiki>\"(0) = 0 and \"f<nowiki>\"</nowiki>\"(0) = 0. Even though \"f<nowiki>\"</nowiki>\"(0) = 0, this point is not a point of inflection. The reason is that the sign of \"f\"'(\"x\") changes from negative to positive. For the function \"f\"(\"x\") = sin(\"x\") we have \"f<nowiki>'</nowiki>\"(0) ≠ 0 and \"f<nowiki>\"</nowiki>\"(0) = 0. But this is not a stationary point, rather it is a point of inflection. This is because the concavity changes from concave downwards to concave upwards and the sign of \"f\"'(\"x\") does not change; it stays positive. For the function \"f\"(\"x\") = x we have \"f<nowiki>'</nowiki>\"(0) = 0 and \"f<nowiki>\"</nowiki>\"(0) = 0. This is both a stationary point and a point of inflection. This is because the concavity changes from concave downwards to concave upwards and the sign of \"f<nowiki>'</nowiki>\"(\"x\") does not change; it stays positive." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Location.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The building is located in the central square of Kaliningrad, at the intersection of Shevchenko and Lenin Avenue. Although is widely claimed that the House of Soviets was built directly on top of the Königsberg castle, the actual building stands to the east, on the castle's former moat.", "Königsberg Castle was severely damaged during the bombing of Königsberg in World War II. The city came under the control of the USSR after the war and the Soviet authorities opted not to preserve the castle remains, claiming it was a centre of fascism. Whatever remained of the castle was blown up and cleared away between 1967 and 1969. The vision for the redevelopment was heavily influenced by works of Lúcio Costa and Oscar Niemeyer, specifically the development of the Brazilian city Brasília. There were two architectural competitions for the redevelopment of the area, in 1964 and 1974, which included design firms from Moscow, Leningrad, Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia. The design chosen was by architect Lev Misoshnikov, who was a laureate of the USSR state prize and well respected within Soviet Russia, and his studio TsNIIEP. Construction started in 1970 on what was intended to be the central administration building of the Kaliningrad Oblast. The building is situated to the east of the former castle, near the former castle moat. Placing the heavy concrete structure on top of the ruins resulted in structural problems, not to mention that the castle itself was built on marshy soil. The foundations proved to be inadequate to support the original 28-story plan and only 21 stories were completed. Continuation of development was stopped in 1985 after the regional Party Committee lost interest in the project and ran out of funding. In 1992 there was an attempt to finish the construction with Danish funding but it was abandoned. The building was left unfinished for many years. In 2005, for Kaliningrad's 60th and Königsberg's 750th anniversary, also marked by visit by Russian President Vladimir Putin, the exterior was painted light blue and windows were installed. The new color diminished the sense of brooding mass, but some criticized this update as a modern Potemkin façade. The interior remained unfinished and unusable. A German consultant recommended tearing down the entire structure and building anew as cheaper and safer than attempting to repair and finish the existing shell. While some consider the building to be one on the worst examples of post-war Soviet architecture, the House of Soviets was seen by others as a good example of Brutalist architecture, particularly before its pastel paint job." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Nomenclature.", "History.", "First dissemination (7th-9th centuries).", "Era of fragmentation (9th-10th centuries).", "Second dissemination (10th-12th centuries).", "Mongol dominance (13th-14th centuries).", "From family rule to Ganden Phodrang government (14th-18th centuries).", "Qing rule (18th-20th centuries).", "20th century.", "21st century.", "Teachings.", "Buddhahood and Bodhisattvas.", "The Bodhisattva path.", "Lamrim.", "Vajrayāna.", "Madhyamaka and tenet systems.", "Texts and study.", "Sutras.", "Shastras.", "Other important texts.", "Tantric literature.", "Transmission and realization.", "Practices.", "Pāramitā.", "Samatha and Vipaśyanā.", "Preliminary practices.", "Guru yoga.", "Esotericism and vows.", "Rites and rituals.", "Mantra.", "Tantric Yoga.", "Institutions and clergy.", "Schools and lineages.", "Major Lineages.", "Tibetan Buddhist Schools.", "Nyingma.", "Sakya.", "Bodong.", "Kagyu.", "Jonang.", "Gelug.", "Yungdrung Bon.", "Further reading." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "The native Tibetan term for Buddhism is \"The Dharma of the insiders\" (\"nang chos\") or \"The Buddha Dharma of the insiders\" (\"nang pa sangs rgyas pa'i chos\"). \"Insider\" means someone who seeks the truth not outside, but within the nature of mind. This is contrasted with other forms of organized religion, which are termed \"chos lugs\" (dharma system)\",\" for example, Christianity is termed \"Yi shu'i chos lugs\" (Jesus dharma system)\".\" Westerners unfamiliar with Tibetan Buddhism initially turned to China for understanding. In Han buddhism, the term", "", "While some stories depict Buddhism in Tibet before this period, the religion was formally introduced to Tibet during the Tibetan Empire (7th-9th century CE). Sanskrit Buddhist scriptures from India were first translated into Tibetan under the reign of the Tibetan king Songtsän Gampo (618-649 CE). This period also saw the development of the Tibetan writing system and classical Tibetan. In the 8th century King Trisong Detsen (755-797 CE) established it as the official religion", "A reversal in Buddhist influence began under King Langdarma (r. 836-842), and his death was followed by the so-called \"Era of Fragmentation\", a period of disunity during the 9th and 10th centuries. During this era, the political centralization of the earlier Tibetan Empire collapsed and civil wars ensued. In spite of this loss of state power and patronage however, Buddhism survived and", "The late 10th and 11th centuries saw a revival of Buddhism in Tibet with the founding of \"New Translation\" (\"Sarma\") lineages as well as the appearance of \"hidden treasures\" (\"terma\") literature which reshaped the Nyingma tradition. In 1042 the Bengali master Atiśa (982-1054) arrived in Tibet at the invitation of a west Tibetan king. His chief disciple, Dromton founded the Kadampa school of Tibetan Buddhism, one of the first \"Sarma\" schools. The Sakya, the \"Grey Earth\"", "Tibetan Buddhism exerted a strong influence from the 11th century CE among the peoples of Inner Asia, especially the Mongols. The Mongols invaded Tibet in 1240 and 1244. They eventually annexed Amdo and Kham and appointed the great scholar and abbot Sakya Pandita (1182–1251) as Viceroy of Central Tibet in 1249. In this way, Tibet was incorporated into the Mongol Empire, with the Sakya hierarchy", "With the decline of the Yuan dynasty and the loose administration of the following (Han-Chinese) Ming dynasty (1368–1644), Central Tibet was ruled by successive local families from the 14th to the 17th century. Jangchub Gyaltsän (1302–1364) became the strongest political family in the mid 14th century. During this period the reformist scholar Je Tsongkhapa (1357–1419) founded the Gelug sect which would have a decisive influence on Tibet's history. Internal strife within the Phagmodrupa dynasty, and the strong localism of the various fiefs and political-religious factions, led to a long series of internal conflicts. The minister family Rinpungpa, based in Tsang (West Central Tibet), dominated politics after 1435. In 1565 the Rinpungpa family was overthrown by the Tsangpa Dynasty of Shigatse which expanded its power in different directions of Tibet in the following decades and favoured the Karma Kagyu sect. They would play a pivotal role in", "The Qing dynasty (1644-1912) established a Chinese rule over Tibet after a Qing expeditionary force defeated the Dzungars (who controlled Tibet) in 1720, and lasted until the fall of the Qing dynasty in 1912. The Manchu rulers of the Qing dynasty supported Tibetan Buddhism, especially the Gelug sect, during most of their rule. The reign of the Qianlong Emperor was the high mark for this promotion of Tibetan Buddhism in China, with the visit of the 6th Panchen Lama to Beijing, and the building of temples in the Tibetan style, such as Xumi Fushou Temple, the Puning Temple and Putuo Zongcheng Temple (modeled after", "In 1912, following the fall of the Qing Dynasty, Tibet became de facto independent under the 13th Dalai Lama government based in Lhasa, maintaining the current territory of what is now called the Tibetan Autonomous Region. During the Republic of China (1912–1949), the \"Chinese Tantric Buddhist Revival Movement\" () took place, and important figures such as Nenghai (能海喇嘛, 1886–1967) and Master Fazun (法尊, 1902–1980) promoted Tibetan Buddhism and translated Tibetan works into Chinese. This movement was severely damaged during the cultural revolution, however. After the Battle of Chamdo, Tibet was annexed by the Chinese People's Republic in 1950. In 1959 the 14th Dalai Lama and a great number of clergy fled the country, to settle in India and other neighbouring countries. The events of the Cultural Revolution (1966–76) saw religion as one of the main political targets of the Chinese Communist Party, and most", "Today, Tibetan Buddhism is adhered to widely in the Tibetan Plateau, Mongolia, northern Nepal, Kalmykia (on the north-west shore of the Caspian), Siberia (Tuva and Buryatia), the Russian Far East and northeast China. It is the state religion of Bhutan. The Indian regions of Sikkim and Ladakh, both formerly independent kingdoms, are also home to significant Tibetan Buddhist populations, as are the Indian states of Himachal Pradesh (which includes Dharamshala and the district of Lahaul-Spiti), West Bengal (the hill stations of Darjeeling and Kalimpong) and Arunachal Pradesh. Religious communities, refugee centers and monasteries have also been established in South India. The 14th Dalai Lama is the leader of the Tibetan government in exile which was initially dominated by the Gelug school, however, according to Geoffrey Samuel:The Dharamsala administration under the Dalai Lama has nevertheless managed,", "Tibetan Buddhism upholds classic Buddhist teachings such as the four noble truths (Tib. \"pakpé denpa shyi\"), anatman (not-self, \"bdag med\"), the five aggregates (\"phung po\") karma and rebirth, and dependent arising (\"rten cing ’brel bar ’byung ba\"). They also uphold various other Buddhist doctrines associated with Mahāyāna Buddhism (\"theg pa chen po\") as well as the tantric Vajrayāna tradition.", "The Mahāyāna goal of spiritual development is to achieve the enlightenment of Buddhahood in order to most efficiently help all other sentient beings attain this state. This motivation is called \"bodhicitta\" (mind of awakening) — an altruistic intention to become enlightened for the sake of all sentient beings. \"Bodhisattvas\" (Tib. \"jangchup semba,\" literally \"awakening hero\") are revered beings who have conceived the will and vow to dedicate their lives with \"bodhicitta\" for the sake of all beings. Widely revered Bodhisattvas in Tibetan Buddhism include Avalokiteshvara, Manjushri, Vajrapani, and Tara. The most important Buddhas are the five Buddhas of the Vajradhatu mandala as well as the Adi Buddha (first Buddha), called either Vajradhara or Samantabhadra. Buddhahood", "A central schema for spiritual advancement used in Tibetan Buddhism is that of the five paths (Skt. \"pañcamārga\";", "\"Lamrim\" (\"stages of the path\") is a Tibetan Buddhist schema for presenting the stages of spiritual practice leading to liberation. In Tibetan Buddhist history there have been many different versions of \"lamrim\", presented by different teachers of the Nyingma, Kagyu and Gelug schools. However, all versions of the \"lamrim\" are elaborations of Atiśa's 11th-century root text \"A Lamp for the Path", "Tibetan Buddhism is a form of Vajrayāna (\"Vajra vehicle\"), \"Secret Mantra\" (Skt. \"guhyamantra\") or Buddhist Tantra, affirming the views espoused in the texts known as the Buddhist Tantras (dating from around the 7th century CE onwards). Tantra (Tib. \"rgyud\") generally refers to forms of religious practice which emphasize the use of unique visualizations, ideas, symbols and rituals for inner transformation. The Vajrayana is seen by its adherents as the fastest and most powerful vehicle for enlightenment because it contains many skillful means (\"upaya\") and because it takes the effect (Buddhahood itself, or Buddha nature) as the path (and hence is sometimes known as the \"effect vehicle\", \"phalayana\"). An important element of Tantric", "Madhyamaka, also called \"Shunyavada\" (the emptiness doctrine) is the dominant Buddhist philosophy of Tibetan Buddhism and is generally seen as the highest view, but is interpreted in various ways. Shunyata, the true nature of reality, or the emptiness of inherent existence (\"svabhava\") of all things, is traditionally propounded according to a hierarchical classification of four classical Indian philosophical schools. While the classical tenets-system, as propagated by the Gelug school, is limited to four tenets (Vaibhāṣika, Sautrāntika, Yogācāra, and Madhyamaka), more complicated systems include also the \"shentong\"-view of the Jonang and the Kagyu, and also differentiates between the", "Study of major Buddhist Indian texts is central to the monastic curriculum in all four major schools of Tibetan Buddhism. Memorization of classic texts as well as other ritual texts is expected as part of traditional monastic education. Another important part of higher religious education is the practice of formalized debate. The canon was mostly finalized in the 13th century, and divided into two parts, the Kangyur (containing sutras and tantras) and the Tengyur (containing \"shastras\" and commentaries). The Nyingma school also maintains a separate collection of texts called the Nyingma Gyubum, assembled by Ratna Lingpa in the 15th century and revised by Jigme Lingpa. Among Tibetans, the main language of study is classical Tibetan, however, the Tibetan Buddhist canon was also translated into other languages, such as Mongolian and Manchu. During the Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties, many texts from the Tibetan canon were also translated into Chinese. Numerous texts have also recently been translated into Western languages by Western academics and Buddhist practitioners.", "Among the most widely studied sutras in Tibetan Buddhism are Mahayana sutras", "The study of Indian Buddhist texts called \"shastras\" is central to Tibetan Buddhist scholasticism.", "Also of great importance are the \"Five Treatises of Maitreya\" including the influential \"Ratnagotravibhāga\", a compendium of the \"tathāgatagarbha\" literature, and the \"Mahayanasutralankara\", a text on the Mahayana path from the Yogacara perspective, which are often attributed to Asanga. Practiced focused texts such as the \"Yogācārabhūmi-Śāstra\" and Kamalaśīla's \"Bhāvanākrama\" are the major sources for meditation. While the Indian texts are often central, original material by key Tibetan scholars is also widely studied and collected into editions called \"sungbum\". The commentaries and interpretations that are", "In Tibetan Buddhism, the Buddhist Tantras are divided into four or six categories, with several sub-categories for the highest Tantras. In the Nyingma, the division is into \"Outer Tantras\" (Kriyayoga, Charyayoga, Yogatantra); and \"Inner Tantras\" (Mahayoga, Anuyoga, Atiyoga (Tib. Dzogchen)), which correspond to", "There is a long history of oral transmission of teachings in Tibetan Buddhism. Oral transmissions by lineage holders traditionally can take place in small groups or mass gatherings of listeners and may last for seconds (in the case of a mantra, for example) or months (as in the case of a section of the Tibetan Buddhist canon). It is held that a transmission can even occur without actually hearing, as in Asanga's visions of Maitreya.", "In Tibetan Buddhism, practices are generally classified as either Sutra (or \"Pāramitāyāna\") or Tantra (\"Vajrayāna or Mantrayāna\"), though exactly what constitutes each category and what is included and excluded in each is a matter of debate and differs among the various lineages. According to Tsongkhapa for example, what separates Tantra from Sutra is the practice of Deity yoga. While it is generally held that the practices of Vajrayāna are not included in Sutrayāna, all Sutrayāna practices are common to Vajrayāna practice. Traditionally, Vajrayāna is held to be a more powerful and effective path, but potentially more difficult and dangerous and thus they should only be undertaken by the advanced who have established a solid basis in other practices.", "The \"Pāramitās\" (perfections, transcendent virtues) is a key set of virtues which constitute the major practices of a bodhisattva in non-tantric Mahayana. They are: The practice of \"Dāna\" (giving) while traditionally referring to offerings of food to the monastics can also refer to the ritual offering of bowls of water, incense, butter lamps and flowers to the Buddhas and Bodhisattvas on a shrine or household altar. Similar offerings are also given to other beings such as hungry ghosts, dakinis,", "The 14th Dalai Lama defines meditation (\"bsgom pa\") as \"familiarization of the mind with an object of meditation.\" Traditionally, Tibetan Buddhism follows the two main approaches to meditation or mental cultivation (\"bhavana\") as taught in all forms of Buddhism, śamatha (Tib. \"Shine\") and vipaśyanā (\"lhaktong\"). The practice of śamatha (calm abiding) is one of focusing one's mind on a single object such as a Buddha figure or the breath. Through repeated practice one's mind gradually becomes more stable, calm and happy. It is defined by Takpo Tashi Namgyal as \"fixing the mind upon any object so as to maintain it without distraction...focusing the mind on an object and maintaining it in that state until finally it is channeled into one stream of attention and evenness.\" The nine mental abidings", "Vajrayāna is believed by Tibetan Buddhists to be the fastest method for attaining Buddhahood but for unqualified practitioners it can be dangerous. To engage in it one must receive an appropriate initiation (also known as an \"empowerment\") from a lama who is fully qualified to give it. The aim of preliminary practices (\"ngöndro\") is to start the student on the correct path for such higher teachings. Just as Sutrayāna preceded Vajrayāna historically in India, so sutra practices constitute those that are preliminary to tantric ones. Preliminary practices include all \"Sutrayāna\" activities that yield", "As in other Buddhist traditions, an attitude of reverence for the teacher, or guru, is also highly prized. At the beginning of a public teaching, a \"lama\" will do prostrations to the throne on which he will teach due to its symbolism, or to an image of the Buddha behind that throne, then students will do prostrations to the lama after he is seated. Merit accrues when one's interactions with the teacher are imbued with such reverence in the form of guru devotion, a code of practices governing them that derives from", "In Vajrayāna particularly, Tibetan Buddhists subscribe to a voluntary code of self-censorship, whereby the uninitiated do not seek and are not provided with information about it. This self-censorship may be applied more or less strictly depending on circumstances such as the material involved. A depiction of a mandala may be less public than that of a deity. That of a higher tantric deity may be less public than that of a lower. The degree to which information on Vajrayāna is", "There has been a \"close association\" between the religious and the secular, the spiritual and the temporal in Tibet. The term for this relationship is \"chos srid zung 'brel.\" Traditionally Tibetan lamas have tended to the lay populace by helping them with issues such as protection and prosperity. Common traditions have been the various rites and rituals for mundane ends, such as purifying one's karma, avoiding harm from demonic forces and enemies, and promoting a successful harvest. Divination and exorcism are examples of practices a lama might use for this. Ritual is generally more elaborate than in other forms of Buddhism, with complex altar arrangements and works of art", "The use of (mainly Sanskrit) prayer formulas, incantations or phrases called mantras (Tibetan: \"sngags\") is another widespread feature of Tibetan Buddhist practice. So common is the use of mantras that Vajrayana is also sometimes called \"\"Mantrayāna\"\" (the mantra vehicle). Mantras are widely recited, chanted, written or inscribed, and visualized as part of different forms of meditation. Each mantra has symbolic meaning and will often have a connection to a particular Buddha or Bodhisattva. Each deity's mantra is seen as symbolizing the function, speech and power of the deity. Tibetan Buddhist practitioners repeat mantras in order to train the mind, and transform their thoughts in line with the divine qualities of the mantra's deity and special power. Tibetan Buddhists see the etymology of the term mantra as meaning \"mind protector\", and mantras is seen as a way to guard the mind against negativity. According to Lama Zopa Rinpoche: Mantras are effective because they help keep your mind quiet and peaceful, automatically integrating it into one-pointedness. They make your mind receptive to very subtle vibrations and thereby heighten your perception. Their recitation eradicates gross", "In what is called \"higher yoga tantra\" the emphasis is on various yoga practices which allow the practitioner to realize the true nature of reality. \"Deity Yoga\" (Tibetan: \"lha'i rnal 'byor\"; Sanskrit: \"Devata-yoga\") is a fundamental practice of Vajrayana Buddhism involving visualization of mental images consisting mainly of Buddhist deities such as Buddhas, Bodhisattvas and fierce deities, along mantra repetition. According to Geoffrey Samuel: If Buddhahood is a source of infinite potentiality accessible at any time, then the Tantric deities are in a sense partial aspects, refractions of that total potentiality. Visualizing one of these deities, or oneself identifying with one of them, is not,", "Buddhist monasticism is an important part of the Tibetan Buddhist tradition, all the major and minor schools maintain large monastic institutions based on the Mulasarvastivada Vinaya (monastic rule) and many religious leaders come from the monastic community. That being said, there are also many religious leaders or teachers (called \"Lamas\" and \"Gurus\") which are not celibate monastics. According to Geoffrey Samuel this is where \"religious leadership in Tibetan Buddhism contrasts most strongly with much of the rest of the Buddhist world.\" Lamas are generally skilled and experienced tantric practitioners and ritual specialists in a specific initiation lineage and may be laypersons or monastics. They act not just as teachers, but as spiritual guides and guardians of the lineage teachings that they have received through a long and intimate process of apprenticeship with their Lamas. Tibetan Buddhism also includes a number of lay clergy and lay tantric specialists, such as \"Ngagpas\" (Skt. \"mantrī\"), \"Gomchens\", \"Serkyims\", and \"Chödpas\" (practitioners of Chöd). According to Samuel, in the more remote parts of the Himalayas, communities were often led by lay religious specialists. Thus, while the large monastic institutions were present in the regions of the Tibetan plateau which were more centralized politically, in other regions they were absent and instead smaller \"gompas\" and more lay oriented communities prevailed. Samuel outlines four main types of religious communities in Tibet: In some cases a lama is the leader of a spiritual community. Some lamas gain their title through being part of particular family which maintains a lineage of hereditary lamas (and are thus often laypersons). One example is the Sakya family of Kon, who founded the Sakya school and another is the hereditary lamas of Mindrolling monastery. In other cases, lamas may be seen as \"Tülkus\" (\"incarnations\"). Tülkus are figures which are recognized as reincarnations of a particular bodhisattva or a previous religious figure. They are often recognized from a young age through the use of divination and the use of the possessions of the deceased lama, and therefore are able to receive extensive training. They are sometimes groomed to become leaders of monastic institutions. Examples include the Dalai Lamas and the Karmapas, each of which are seen as key leaders in their respective traditions. The system of incarnate lamas is popularly held to be a Tibetan alteration to Indian Buddhism. Another title unique to Tibetan Buddhism is that of Tertön (treasure discoverer), who are considered capable of revealing or discovering special revelations or texts called Termas (lit. \"hidden treasure\"). They are also associated with the idea of \"beyul\" (\"hidden valleys\"), which are power places associated with deities and hidden religious treasures.", "", "The Tibetan Rime (non-sectarian) scholar Jamgon Kongtrul, in his \"Treasury of Knowledge,\" outlines the \"Eight Great Practice Lineages\"", "There are various schools or traditions of Tibetan Buddhism. The four main traditions ones overlap markedly, such that \"about eighty percent or more of the features of the Tibetan schools are the same\". Differences include the use of apparently, but not actually, contradictory terminology, opening dedications of texts to different deities and whether phenomena are described from the viewpoint of an unenlightened practitioner or of a Buddha. On questions of philosophy, there has historically been disagreement regarding the nature of Yogacara and Buddha-nature teachings (and whether these are of expedient meaning or ultimate meaning), which still colours the current presentations of \"sunyata\" (emptiness) and ultimate reality.", "\"The Ancient Ones\" is the oldest school of Tibetan Buddhism and the original order founded by Padmasambhava (8th century) and Śāntarakṣita (725–788). Whereas other schools categorize their teachings into the three yānas or \"vehicles\",", "The \"Grey Earth\" school represents one of the first \"Sarma\" (new translation) scholarly traditions. Headed by the Sakya Trizin, this tradition was founded by Khön Könchok Gyelpo (, 1034–1102), a disciple of", "The Bodong school is one of the minor schools, being much smaller and less influential than the four main schools. This tradition was founded in 1049 by the Kadam teacher Mudra", "Kagyu means \"oral transmission\" and consists of a series of lineages which all trace themselves back to Indian mahasiddhas like Saraha and Tilopa. Its most famous Tibetan exponent was Milarepa, an 11th-century mystic. It is often divided into the larger Dagpo Kagyu and the smaller Shangpa Kagyu lineage The Dagpo Kagyu, encompasses those Kagyu schools that trace back to the Indian master Naropa", "The Jonang is a minor school which can be traced to early 12th century master Yumo Mikyo Dorje, but was popularized by the influential master Dölpopa Shérap Gyeltsen (1292–1361). The Jonang re-established their religio-political center in Golok, Nakhi and Mongol areas in Kham and Amdo centered at Dzamthang Monastery and have continued practicing uninterrupted to this day. The tradition was suppressed", "The \"Way of Virtue\" school was originally a reformist movement and is known for its emphasis on logic and debate. The order was founded in the 14th to 15th century by Je Tsongkhapa, renowned for both his scholarship and virtue. He was a prominent supporter of the Madhyamika philosophy and formalized the Svatantrika-Prasaṅgika distinction. Its spiritual head is the Ganden Tripa and its temporal one the Dalai Lama. The Dalai Lama is regarded as the", "While Yungdrung Bon considers itself a separate religion with pre-Buddhist origins, and it is considered as non-Buddhist by the main Tibetan traditions, it shares so many similarities and practices with mainstream Tibetan Buddhism that some scholars such as Geoffrey Samuel see it as \"essentially a variant of Tibetan Buddhism\". It is much more related to Nyingma Buddhism, and includes Dzogchen teachings, similar deities, rituals and forms of monasticism.", "Introductory books \"Insider\" texts Other books" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Extant species.", "\"Aldrovanda\".", "\"Brocchinia\".", "\"Byblis\".", "\"Catopsis\".", "\"Cephalotus\".", "\"Darlingtonia\".", "\"Dionaea\".", "\"Drosera\".", "\"Drosophyllum\".", "\"Genlisea\".", "\"Heliamphora\".", "\"Nepenthes\".", "\"Philcoxia\".", "\"Roridula\".", "\"Sarracenia\".", "\"Stylidium\".", "\"Triphyophyllum\".", "Extinct species.", "\"Aldrovanda\".", "†\"Archaeamphora\".", "†\"Droserapites\".", "†\"Droserapollis\".", "†\"Droseridites\".", "†\"Fischeripollis\".", "\"Nepenthes\".", "†\"Nepenthidites\".", "†\"Palaeoaldrovanda\".", "†\"Saxonipollis\"." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "This genus contains a single extant species.", "This genus contains around 20 extant species, of which at least two are thought to be carnivorous.", "The following list of 8 species is based on \"Carnivorous Plants of Australia Magnum Opus\" (2013).", "This genus contains around 20 extant species, of which at least one is thought to be carnivorous.", "This genus contains a single extant species.", "This genus contains a single extant species.", "This genus contains a single extant species.", "There are around 208 species here:", "This genus contains a single extant species.", "The following list of 29 species is based on \"Monograph of the Genus Genlisea\" (2012).", "The following list of 23 species (plus 2 undescribed species) is based on \"Sarraceniaceae of South America\" (2011).", "The following list of 170 species (plus 2 undescribed species) is based on \"Pitcher Plants of the Old World\" (2009) and \"New Nepenthes\" (2011), with the addition of newly described species.", "This genus contains seven extant species, all of which are thought to be carnivorous.", "This genus contains two extant species.", "The following list of 8 species is based on \"Sarraceniaceae of North America\" (2011). Some authorities additionally recognise up to three more species:", "Around 300 species of \"Stylidium\" are currently recognised.", "This genus contains a single extant species.", "", "Numerous extinct species of \"Aldrovanda\" have been described, all of which are known only from fossil pollen and seeds (with the exception of \"A. inopinata\", which is also known from fossilised laminae).", "This genus contains a single extinct species, described from fossilised leaf material. The identification of \"Archaeamphora\" as a pitcher plant (and therefore carnivorous plant) has been questioned by a number of authors.", "This is a form taxon known only from fossil pollen.", "This is a form taxon known only from fossil pollen.", "This is a form taxon known only from fossil pollen. Three species of the \"\"Droseridites echinosporus\" group\" have been transferred to the genus \"Nepenthes\" (see below).", "This is a form taxon known only from fossil pollen.", "Three species known only from fossil pollen and originally assigned to \"Droseridites\" have been transferred to the genus \"Nepenthes\".", "This is a form taxon known only from fossil pollen. \"Droseridites major\" (\"Nepenthes major\") and \"Droseridites parvus\" are considered synonyms of \"Nepenthidites laitryngewensis\" by some authorities.", "This is a form taxon known only from what were originally described as fossil seeds. These supposed seeds have subsequently been identified as insect eggs.", "This is a form taxon known only from fossil pollen." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Urban development.", "Old Town.", "Later developments.", "Suomenkylä.", "Kerkkoo.", "Sports.", "Transport.", "Politics.", "In media.", "International relations.", "Twin towns – sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The town received its name from a Swedish medieval fortress near the river Porvoonjoki, which flows through the town. The name \"Porvoo\" is the Fennicised version of the Swedish name (\"\") and its parts of \"borg\", meaning \"castle\", and \"å\", \"river\".", "The area of Porvoo has been inhabited since the Stone Age. In pre-historic times, the river Porvoonjoki was a route of commerce for Finnish tribal Tavastians who primarily inhabited the inland regions. The Tavastians also had some permanent settlements in the area, such as the village of Hattula (later Strömsberg), which was named after an inland Tavastian village. The original name of the river Porvoonjoki was possibly \"Kukinjoki.\" The name derives from the name of the trade vessel cog which was a common merchant ship in the Baltic Sea in medieval times. The early center of the area was \"Saksala\", meaning \"the place of the Germans\", and deriving from the merchants who were trading in Saksala. Porvoo was colonised by Swedes in the 13th and 14th centuries after the so-called Second Crusade against Tavastians in 1249–1250. The colonisation was led by the Catholic Church and the kingdom of Sweden. The colonists originated from Svealand, and were provided with seeds, cattle and, tax exemption for four years. Porvoo was first mentioned in documents in the early 14th century, and it was given city rights around 1380, although according to some sources the city was founded in 1346. The old city of Porvoo was formally disestablished and the new city of Porvoo founded in 1997, when the city of Porvoo and the rural municipality of Porvoo were consolidated. When Sweden lost the city of Viborg to Russia in 1721, the episcopal see was moved to Porvoo. At this time, Porvoo was the second largest city in Finland. In 1760, roughly two-thirds of all buildings in Porvoo burned to the ground in a conflagration. During rebuilding, the city planning wasn't altered, instead new buildings were built upon the existing medieval foundations. After the conquest of Finland by Russian armies in 1808, Sweden had to cede Finland to Russia in 1809 (the Treaty of Fredrikshamn). The Diet of Porvoo in 1809 was a landmark in the History of Finland. The Tsar Alexander I confirmed the new Finnish constitution (which was essentially the Swedish constitution from 1772), and made Finland an autonomous Grand Duchy. The \"Porvoo Common Statement\" is a report issued at the conclusion of theological conversations by official representatives of four Anglican churches and eight Nordic and Baltic Lutheran churches in 1989–1992. It established the Porvoo Communion, so named after the Porvoo Cathedral where the Eucharist was celebrated on the final Sunday of the conversations leading to the Statement.", "", "The town is famed for its \"Old Town\" (\"\" in Swedish), a dense medieval street pattern with predominantly wooden houses from the 17th and 18th centuries. The Old Town came close to being demolished in the 19th century by a new urban plan for the city, but the plan was cancelled due to a popular resistance headed by Count Louis Sparre. With the need for growth, a plan was envisioned for a new town built adjacent to the Old Town, following a grid plan, but with houses also built of wood. The central point of the old town is the medieval, stone and brick Porvoo Cathedral. The cathedral gave its name to the Porvoo Communion, an inter-church agreement between a number of Anglican and Lutheran denominations. The cathedral is reminiscent of similarly aged churches across Finland, such as the Church of St. Lawrence, Vantaa, as they were designed by the same person, the anonymous German architect \"Pernajan mestari\". The cathedral was damaged by fire on 29 May 2006; the roof was totally destroyed but the interior is largely intact. A drunken youth had started a fire at the church, unaware of recent tarwork and nearby tar containers, accidentally causing a large conflagration. He was later sentenced to a short prison term and restitutions of 4.3 million euro. The red-coloured wooden storage buildings on the riverside are a proposed UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Old Town is a significant source of tourism in the area. Visitors to the capital Helsinki can embark on day trips to visit the older city. The Old Town also hosts various events, such as an annual Christmas market.", "By the end of the 20th century, there was pressure to develop the essentially untouched western side of the river. There was concern that growth would necessitate the construction of a second bridge across the river into the town, thus putting further strain on the aging wooden town. An architectural competition was held in 1990, the winning entry of which proposed building the second bridge. Plans for the western side of the river have progressed under the direction of architect Tuomas Siitonen, and both a vehicle bridge and a pedestrian bridge have been built. The design for new housing is based on a typology derived from the old storehouses on the opposite side of the river. Yet another new development entails the construction of a large business park called King's Gate (, ), which is under construction. The Porvoo railway station does not have a regular train service, but special museum trains from Kerava (either with steam locomotives or former VR diesel railcars from the 1950s) operate on summer weekends.", "Suomenkylä () is a village north of the centre of Porvoo and beside the Porvoo river. Suomenkylä has an old school founded by Johannes Linnankoski in 1898. The village of Suomenkylä also has two burial places from the Bronze Age.", "Kerkkoo () is a village north of the centre of Porvoo and beside the Porvoo river. It has an active school that is over 100 years old. In the village of Kerkkoo, archeologists and townspeople found a stone axe from the Bronze Age.", "The local team Borgå Akilles plays the sport of bandy, in the highest division, Bandyliiga, and has become Finnish champions twice. Sami Hyypiä, a former football player for Liverpool and the Finnish national team, originated from Porvoo. Lauri Happonen, better known as Cyanide, a retired League of Legends professional player, is from Porvoo.", "Porvoo is on the route of the E18 road from Helsinki to St Petersburg. It is currently the largest Finnish municipality without scheduled railway services, since passenger rail services to Porvoo ended in 1981 and freight services in 1990, however proposals exist to link Porvoo to the rail network as part of a new rail line from Helsinki to Kouvola via a tunnel between Pasila and Helsinki Airport.", "Results of the 2015 Finnish parliamentary election in Porvoo: Distribution of the city council seats following the 2012 Finnish municipal elections:", "In the 1967 British-American espionage film \"Billion Dollar Brain\", a small part of the plot takes place in Riga, the capital of Latvia, which is actually filmed in Porvoo. Also the 1997 American film \"The Jackal\" features scenes depicting Russia, which are partly shot in Porvoo.", "", "Porvoo is twinned with the following cities:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "1867–1873.", "1873–1918.", "1918–1939.", "1939–1945.", "1945–1992.", "From 1993.", "Bodies.", "Management board of ŽSR.", "General director.", "Deputies of General Director.", "Organizational structure.", "Headquarters.", "Management and maintenance of railway infrastructure.", "Management of railway infrastructure.", "Maintenance of railway infrastructure.", "Representation abroad.", "Passenger transport." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Railway has become an important prerequisite for economic and social development of the country. In 1837 the construction of the first European Railway Highway started. Its construction became a potential threat to market of agricultural goods and timber from western Slovakia. Therefore, a company was founded to build a horse railway that would link the five royal cities between Bratislava and Trnava. The service was providing until the first half of the 19th century. At beginning, the construction of the railway was in the hands of the state. Later, in year 1854, the state entrusted railway building to private entrepreneurs.", "The intensity of construction changed after settlement in 1867. Ministry of Transport and Public Works was established. Its main objective was construction of transport communications independent of Austria. In Slovakia this meant extensive construction of railways. In the period between 1867 and 1873 a number of major railways were built: Hungary tried to use private capital for railway construction. The lack of funds threatened the construction of railways and Hungary started in 1868 to build railways on its own. The railway construction was accompanied by a series of scandals and corruption affairs among aristocracy, politicians and businessmen. In spite of this fact, the basis of the railway network was set up in relatively short time.", "Bankruptcy of the Vienna stock exchange was the beginning of an economic crisis affecting the economy of the monarchy throughout the first half of the 70th of the 19th century. Changing economic circumstances was reflected on the further construction of railways. During this period, the country was aware of the strategic importance of railway transportation for economy and policy. The state responded to the situation with a number of actions: stopped the construction of expensive railways and created legal conditions for the construction of local railways.", "After the formation of Czechoslovakia, the most important task was to maintain and run the rail network defined by the new boundaries. Two divisions, which were set up in the cities Košice and Bratislava, were responsible for the network managing. Slovakia inherited rail network that was insufficient for the new state requirements. The only one efficient line was Košice-Bohumín. The state therefore decided to take over the operation of all private railways and extend the rail lines. The pressure of competition from the road freight transport stimulated further developments. The speed of freight trains was increased up to 70 km/h by applying continuous braking. Significant progress in passenger traffic was achieved by motorization of local railways.", "On 3 March 1939 the Slovak State was established. However, it was dependent on Germany. The war caused high intensity of freight transport. The key role was played by export of raw materials, agricultural and food products. Passenger transport was characterized by extensive seasonal movements of agricultural and industrial workers from Poland, Slovakia, Ukraine and Russia travelling to the Germany.", "After the World War II, Czechoslovakia was renewed. The first task needed to be solved was the reconstruction of the rail network. In the 1948, the regime of communism began. All private railways were nationalized. The overloaded line Čierna nad Tisou – Košice Žilina – Bohumín was the drive to extend the rail network on the South of Slovakia. At the same time, the electrification of railways was carried out. The new constitution in 1960 defined Czechoslovakia as a socialist state. Rail transport was marked on Joseph Stalin's conception of \"iron and steel\". There was strong emphasis on transport of raw materials, building materials, fuels and food. Industrialization had a significant impact on the growth of passenger transport—people traveled to work and school over large distances. The growth in intensity caused imbalance between demand and technical capabilities. The situation became relaxed during the 1970s due to the development of individual car transport and the intensity of rail transport started declining.", "On 1 January 1993 Slovak Republic became independent. At the same time, the Railways of Slovak Republic were established. The bad initial situation requested measures to execute consolidation as quick as possible. The most important was to create conditions for privatization and to optimize rail activity for business requirements. The strategic objective was to provide access to European Union trade market and capitalize on convenient territory of Slovak Republic and its touristic attractiveness.", "The governing bodies of ŽSR are the Management Board and General Director.", "The Management Board is the top body of the railways. It has nine members—six members of them are experts from the transport sector, finance, banking, economics and law, three are elected for representatives of the railway employees. Board members are appointed and dismissed by the Minister of Transport, Posts and Telecommunications of the Slovak Republic, three of them are appointed and dismissed by the proposal based on the election of the employees. Office of the Management Board of ŽSR provides administrative and technical operations. General inspection SR ŽSR performs inspection and control of organizational units of ŽSR and provides tasks associated with improving of the management system and compliance with legislative regulation, monitors implementation of decisions of ŽSR and gives suggestions for their implementation.", "The general director manages the activities of ŽSR and is responsible for its performance and the results to the Management Board. The general director is a statutory body of ŽSR. He represents the company externally and is acting on its behalf in all matters with except of the matters that are in the exclusive competence of the Management Board or the Ministry of Transport, Posts and Telecommunications. The general director is represented by four agents responsible for specific departments of ŽSR. The general director is appointed and dismissed by the Minister of Transport, Posts and Telecommunications.", "The general director manages the Department of Director General and has four deputies who are in charge of handling the activity in other departments. Sections and branches associated to the departments are subject to deputy.", "Railways of Slovak Republic is further divided into Headquarters and Management and maintenance of railway infrastructure.", "Departments of Director General: All departments are located in the capital city, Bratislava.", "", "This section has two local departments. The first one is situated on the West of Slovak Republic in Trnava and the second location is on the East of Slovak Republic in Košice.", "Maintenance of railway infrastructure is divided into two regional headquarters and two divisions.", "Railways of Slovak Republic are represented in international organizations in Brussels, Belgium and Warszawa, Poland.", "Detailed information about pricing are published on the websites of individual companies providing passenger transport:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "1990s.", "2000s.", "2010s.", "Corporate affairs.", "Board of directors.", "Logo.", "Profit and transactions.", "Environmental record.", "Acquisitions.", "PayPal.", "Craigslist.", "Skype.", "StubHub.", "Corrigon.", "Qoo10.jp.", "Use for data analysis.", "Third party.", "Visual search.", "GCHQ.", "Items.", "Unusual items.", "Prohibited or restricted items.", "Bidding.", "Auction-style listings.", "Seller ratings.", "Charity auctions.", "Shipping.", "Controversy and criticism.", "2014 security breach." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The AuctionWeb was founded in California on September 3, 1995, by French-born Iranian-American computer programmer Pierre Omidyar as part of a larger personal site. One of the first items sold on AuctionWeb was a broken laser pointer for $14.83. Astonished, Omidyar contacted the winning bidder to ask if he understood that the laser pointer was broken. In his responding email, the buyer explained: \"I'm a collector of broken laser pointers.\" It soon became the first online auction site allowing person-to-person transactions, which led to a mass volume of online transactions. Reportedly, eBay was simply a hobby for Omidyar until his Internet service provider informed him he would need to upgrade to a business account due to the high volume of traffic to his website. The resulting price increase (from $30/month to $250) prompted him to start charging those who used eBay, which was not met with any animosity. It did result in the hiring of Chris Agarpao as eBay's first additional employee to process mailed checks coming in for fees. Jeffrey Skoll was hired as the first new president of the company in early 1996. In November 1996, the E-Commerce platform entered into its first third-party licensing deal, with a company called Electronic Travel Auction, to use SmartMarket Technology to sell plane tickets and other travel products. Growth was phenomenal; in January 1997 the site hosted auctions, compared with during the whole of 1996. The company officially changed the name of its service from AuctionWeb to eBay in September 1997. Originally, the site belonged to Echo Bay Technology Group, Omidyar's consulting firm. Omidyar had tried to register the domain name echobay.com, but found it already taken by the Echo Bay Mines, a gold mining company, so he shortened it to his second choice, eBay.com. In 1997 the company received $6.7 million in funding from the venture capital firm Benchmark Capital. Meg Whitman was hired by the board as eBay president and CEO in March 1998. At the time, the company had 30 employees, half a million users and revenues of $4.7 million in the United States. In 2001, eBay had the largest userbase of any e-commerce site. The frequently repeated story that eBay was founded to help Omidyar's fiancée trade Pez candy dispensers were fabricated by a public relations manager, Mary Lou Song, in 1997 to interest the media, which were not interested in the company's previous explanation about wanting to create a \"perfect market\". This was revealed in Adam Cohen's book, \"The Perfect Store\" (2002), and confirmed by eBay. After eBay went public, both Omidyar and Skoll became instant billionaires. eBay's target share price of $18 was all but ignored as the price went to $53.50 on the first day of trading. The Pez dispenser myth generated enormous amounts of publicity and led to some of eBay's most explosive early growth among toy collectors. However, at the time, Beanie Babies (manufactured by Ty, Inc.) were the leader in the toy category and the most difficult brand to find in retail stores. Beanie Babies quickly became the dominant product on eBay, accounting for 10% of all eBay listings in 1997. While eBay was still a privately held company, two major factors contributed to its growing market share: As a result, eBay provided a user-friendly interface to search for specific Beanie Babies that collectors were searching for. On September 21, 1998, eBay went public. In the risk factors section of the annual report filed with the US Securities and Exchange Commission in 1998, Omidyar notes eBay's dependence on the continued strength of the Beanie Babies market.", "As the company expanded product categories beyond collectibles into almost any saleable item, business grew quickly. In 2000, eBay had 12 million registered users and a cyberinventory of more than 4.5 million items on sale on any given day. In February 2002 the company purchased iBazar, a similar European auction web site founded in 1998, and then bought PayPal on October 3, 2002. By early 2008 the company had expanded worldwide, counting hundreds of millions of registered users as well as employees and revenues of almost $7.7 billion. After nearly ten years at eBay, Whitman decided to enter politics. On January 23, 2008, the company announced that Whitman would step down on March 31, 2008, and John Donahoe was selected to become president and CEO. Whitman remained on the board of directors and continued to advise Donahoe through 2008. In late 2009 eBay completed the sale of Skype for $2.75 billion, but still owned 30% equity in the company.", "In 2012 eBay was charged by the United States Department of Justice with entering into non-solicitation agreements with other technology companies involving their highly skilled employees. On September 30, 2014, eBay announced it would spin off PayPal into a separate publicly traded company, a demand made nine months prior by activist hedge fund magnate Carl Icahn. The spinoff completed on July 18, 2015. eBay's then chief executive, John Donahoe, stepped down from that role. Flipkart and eBay entered into a strategic partnership in 2017 under which eBay Inc acquired a 5.44% stake in Flipkart in exchange for its eBay India business for $211 Mn and a $514 Mn cash investment. As part of the partnership, Flipkart decided to use the eBay's platform for global outsourcing. On January 31, 2018, eBay announced that they would replace PayPal as its primary payments provider with Netherlands-based start-up Adyen. The transition was set to be completed by 2021, but PayPal would remain an acceptable payment option on the site until further notice. On July 31, 2019, the company acquired a 5.59 percent stake in Paytm Mall. On September 25, 2019, it was announced that Devin Wenig would be stepping down as eBay's CEO, and that Scott Schenkel, senior vice president and chief financial officer since 2015, had been appointed as the interim CEO. On April 13, 2020, it was announced that Jamie Iannone would become the CEO on April 27. On June 15, 2020, eBay clarified that Wenig and five other employees were terminated in September after a law enforcement notification in August because of a possibly criminal case of harassment of journalists perpetrated by some of the terminated employees. The six are charged with Aggressive Cyberstalking.", "", "As of October 2019 the board of directors was as follows:", "In September 2012, eBay introduced a new logo set in the Univers typeface, but using a thinner variation of it, installed on the website on October 10, 2012. It replaced the logo with a thicker variation of Univers which had been used since its establishment in 1995. An all red, eBay logo with the same type set was also introduced to be used temporarily for various holidays.", "eBay generates revenue by a complex system of fees for services, listing product features, and a \"final value fee\" for sales proceeds by sellers. As of 2019 the US-based eBay.com charges $0.35 as an insertion fee for a basic listing without any adornments. The final value fee is 10-12% of the total amount of the sale, which is the price of the item plus shipping charges. Reduced final value fees are available to business registered customers. Other eBay websites follow a similar fee structure, but with different cost charges. Under US law before 2018, a state cannot require sellers located outside the state to collect a sales tax, which made making purchases on eBay more attractive to American buyers. Sellers that operate as a business do follow state tax regulations on eBay transactions. Since 2018, changes to tax law in the United States force eBay (and other large marketplaces) to collect sales tax on any eBay purchase shipped to certain states. The company's business strategy includes increasing international trade. eBay has already expanded to over two dozen countries, including China and India. Strategic international expansion has failed in Taiwan and Japan, where Yahoo! had a head start, and New Zealand, where Trade Me is the dominant online auction website. eBay also notably failed in China due to competition from local rival Taobao. eBay entered the Chinese market in 2002 and shut down its Chinese site in 2007. In India, eBay's operations came to a halt after it sold off its India operations to country's largest ecommerce company Flipkart, in the latter's $1.4Bn fundraise, where eBay was a participant. In its Q1 2008 results, total payment volume via PayPal increased 17%, but of the eBay auction site it was up 61%. For most listing categories, eBay sellers are permitted to offer a variety of payment systems such as Escrow.com, PayPal, Paymate, Propay, and Skrill. Propay and Skrill were banned effective September 27, 2015, citing low usage. Escrow.com is eBay's approved escrow site. The transactions processed through Escrow.com largely are in relation to eBay Motors; however, they are not restricted to this type of listing. eBay runs an affiliate program under the name eBay Partner Network. eBay affiliate marketers were originally paid a percentage of the eBay seller's transaction fees, with commissions ranging from 50% to 75% of the fees paid for an item purchased. In October 2009, eBay changed to an affiliate payout system that it calls Quality Click Pricing, in which affiliates are paid an amount determined by an undisclosed algorithm. The total earnings amount is then divided by the number of clicks the affiliate sent to eBay and is reported as Earnings Per Click, or EPC. In October 2013, ePN launched a new pricing model. The new model is more transparent and is based on category-level base commission rates with bonuses available for referring new and reactivated buyers. On April 18, 2012, eBay reported a 29% Q1 revenue increase to $3.3 billion compared to their Q1 in 2011. Net income was reported to be at $570 million for the quarter. For the fiscal year 2017, eBay reported losses of US$1.016 billion, with annual revenue of US$9.567 billion, an increase of 6.6% over the previous fiscal cycle. eBay's shares traded at over $35 per share, and its market capitalization was valued at over US$27.2 billion in October 2018.", "On May 8, 2008, eBay announced the opening of its newest building on the company's North Campus in San Jose, which is the first structure in the city to be built from the ground up to LEED Gold standards. The building, the first the company had built in its 13-year existence, uses an array of 3,248 solar panels, spanning, and providing 650 kilowatts of power to eBay's campus. The array can supply 15–18% of the company's total energy requirements, reducing the amount of greenhouse gases that would be produced to create that energy by other means. SolarCity, the company responsible for designing the array, estimates that the solar panels installed on eBay's campus will prevent 37 million pounds of carbon dioxide from being released into the environment as a result of replaced power production over the next three decades. Creating an equivalent impact to remove the same amount of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere would require planting of trees. The design of the building also incorporates other elements to reduce its impact on the environment. The building is equipped with a lighting system that detects natural ambient light sources and automatically dims artificial lighting to save 39% of the power usually required to light an office building. eBay's newest building also reduces demand on local water supplies by incorporating an eco-friendly irrigation system, and low-flow showerheads and faucets. Even during construction, more than 75% of the waste from construction was recycled. eBay also runs buses between San Francisco and the San Jose campus to reduce the number of commuting vehicles. In 2014, eBay and several other Oregon businesses signed the Oregon Business Climate Declaration to promote local job growth and slow carbon pollution.", "", "On October 3, 2002, PayPal became a wholly owned subsidiary of eBay. Its corporate headquarters were sited in San Jose, California, United States at eBay's North First Street satellite office campus. On September 30, 2014, eBay Inc. announced the divestiture of PayPal as an independent company, which was completed on July 20, 2015.", "In the summer of 2004, eBay acknowledged that it had acquired 25% of classified listings website Craigslist. Former Craigslist executive Phillip Knowlton was the seller, and he insisted that his former employer was aware of his plans to divest his holdings. Initially, eBay assured Craigslist that eBay would not ask Craigslist to change the way it did business. In March 2005, eBay launched the classifieds service Kijiji. In April 2008, eBay sued Craigslist to \"safeguard its four-year financial investment\", claiming that in January 2008, Craigslist took actions that \"unfairly diluted eBay's economic interest by more than 10%\". Craigslist countersued in May 2008 \"to remedy the substantial and ongoing harm to fair competition\" that Craigslist claimed was constituted by eBay's actions as a Craigslist shareholder. In September 2010, Delaware Judge William Chandler ruled that the actions of Craigslist were unlawful and that the actions were taken by Craigslist founders Jim Buckmaster and Craig Newmark had \"breached their fiduciary duty of loyalty\", and restored eBay's stake in the company to 28.4% from a diluted level of 24.85%. However, the judge dismissed eBay's objection to a staggered board provision, citing that Craigslist has the right to protect its own trade secrets. eBay spokesman Michael Jacobson stated \"We are very pleased that the court gave eBay what it sought from the lawsuit.\"", "In October 2005, eBay Inc. acquired Skype Technologies, developer of the Skype VoIP and Instant messaging service, significantly expanding its customer base to more than 480 million registered users worldwide. eBay later sold a majority stake in Skype in November 2009, while retaining a minority investment. This eventually led to the sale of the entire Skype business to Microsoft for $8.5 billion in May 2011.", "StubHub's acquisition by eBay was announced in January 2007 for a reported $310 million. According to CNN Money, 2007 was a very successful year for the company, handling five million individual transactions, more than in the previous six years combined of its history. Staffing at StubHub had increased to 350 workers by the time of the sale. Eight months after the acquisition, StubHub reached an exclusive agreement with Major League Baseball (MLB). They get a piece of the 25% in commissions StubHub earns on either end of a sale. Ticketmaster filed a lawsuit against StubHub and eBay in 2007, alleging \"intentional interference\" with Ticketmaster's contractual rights.", "In October 2016, eBay acquired Corrigon, a visual search engine, for less than $30 million.", "In April 2018, eBay acquired the Japanese division of Qoo10, a market place driven by Giosis and having the 4th GMV in Japan, for a reported $573 million. With the close of the transaction, eBay also has relinquished its investment in Giosis’ non-Japanese businesses. This acquisition expands eBay's footprint in Japan, one of the largest e-commerce markets in the world. eBay made an initial investment in Giosis Pte. Ltd. in 2010. Since then, Giosis has established dynamic marketplace businesses across Asia. eBay's Japan business, including Giosis’ Japan business, will report into Jooman Park, senior vice president of eBay's Asia Pacific region.", "eBay is a publicly visible market which has attracted interest from economists, who have used it to analyze aspects of buying and selling behavior, auction formats, etc., comparing them with previous theoretical and empirical findings. Computer information systems researchers have also shown interest in eBay. Michael Goul, Chairman of the Computer Information Systems department of the W. P. Carey School of Business at Arizona State University, published an academic case based on eBay's big data management and use in which he discusses how eBay is a data-driven company that processes 50 petabytes of data a day. eBay uses a system that allows different departments in the company to check out data from their data mart into sandboxes for analysis. According to Goul, eBay has already experienced significant business successes through its data analytics. eBay employs 5,000 data analysts to enable data-driven decision making.", "In 2006 the accounting software company Intuit launched a web-based donation tracking service called ItsDeductible. The service uses data from eBay to help users assign a market value to the items they donate.", "In July 2017 eBay released an image search capability allowing users to find listings on the site that match an item depicted in a photo, using artificial intelligence and machine learning technologies.", "UK's GCHQ has a suite of tools for monitoring target use of eBay, named ELATE.", "Millions of collectibles, decor, appliances, computers, furnishings, equipment, domain names, vehicles, and other miscellaneous items are listed, bought, or sold daily on eBay. In 2006, eBay launched its Business & Industrial category, breaking into the industrial surplus business. Generally, anything can be auctioned on the site as long as it is not illegal and does not violate the eBay Prohibited and Restricted Items policy. Services and intangibles can be sold, too. Large international companies, such as IBM, sell their newest products and offer services on eBay using competitive auctions and fixed-priced storefronts. Separate eBay sites such as eBay US and eBay UK allow the users to trade using the local currency. Software developers can create applications that integrate with eBay through the eBay API by joining the eBay Developers Program. In June 2005, there were more than 15,000 members in the eBay Developers Program, comprising a broad range of companies creating software applications to support eBay buyers and sellers as well as eBay Affiliates. Numerous government and police agencies around the world now use eBay as well as traditional auctions to dispose of seized and confiscated goods. Controversy has arisen over certain items put up for bid. For instance, in late 1999 a man offered one of his kidneys for auction on eBay, attempting to profit from the potentially lucrative (and, in the United States, illegal) market for transplantable human organs. Beginning in August 2007, eBay required listings in \"Video Games\" and \"Health & Beauty\" to accept its payment system PayPal and sellers could only accept PayPal for payments in the category \"Video Games: Consoles\". Starting January 10, 2008, eBay said sellers can only accept PayPal as payment for the categories \"Computing > Software\", \"Consumer Electronics > MP3 Players\", \"Wholesale & Job Lots > Mobile & Home Phones\", and \"Business, Office & Industrial > Industrial Supply / MRO\". eBay announced that starting in March 2008, eBay had added to this requirement that all sellers with fewer than 100 feedbacks must offer PayPal and no merchant account may be used as an alternative. This is in addition to the requirement that all sellers from the United Kingdom have to offer PayPal. Further, and as noted below, it was a requirement to offer PayPal on all listings in Australia and the UK. In response to concerns expressed by the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission, however, eBay has since removed the policy on the eBay.com.au website requiring sellers to offer PayPal as a payment option. On April 24, 2006, eBay opened its new eBay Express site, which was designed to work like a standard Internet shopping site for consumers with United States addresses. Before it closed in 2008, selected eBay items were mirrored on eBay Express, where buyers used a traditional digital shopping cart to purchase from multiple sellers. The UK version was launched to eBay members in mid-October 2006, but on January 29, 2008, eBay announced its intention to close the site. The German version, eBay Express Germany, was also opened in 2006 and closed in 2008. At the 2008 eBay Developer's Conference, eBay announced the Selling Manager Applications program (SM Apps). The program allows approved developers to integrate their applications directly into the eBay.com interface. The applications created by developers are available for subscription by eBay members who also subscribe to Selling Manager. eBay maintains a number of specialty sites including the discussion boards, groups, answer center, chat rooms, and reviews and guides. eBay's mobile offerings include SMS alerts, a WAP site, Java ME clients, and mobile applications for Windows Phone, Android OS, and Apple iPhone. The initiative Choice in eCommerce was founded on May 8, 2013, by several online retailers in Berlin, Germany. The cause was, in the view of the initiative, sales bans and online restrictions by individual manufacturers. The dealers felt cut off from their main sales channel and thus deprived them the opportunity to use online platforms like Amazon, eBay, or Rakuten in a competitive market for the benefit of their customers.", "Many unusual items have been placed for sale on eBay, including at least two previously undiscovered species, including the \"Coelopleurus exquisitus\" sea urchin.", "In its earliest days, eBay was nearly unregulated. However, as the site grew, it became necessary to restrict or prohibit auctions for various items. Note that some of the restrictions relate to eBay.com (the US site), while other restrictions apply to specific European sites (such as Nazi paraphernalia). Regional laws and regulations may apply to the seller or the buyer. Generally, if the sale or ownership of an item is regulated or prohibited by one or more states, eBay will not permit its listing. Among the hundred or so banned or restricted categories:", "", "Bidding on eBay (old or new)'s auction-style listing is called proxy bidding and is essentially equivalent to a Vickrey auction (sealed-bid), with the following exceptions.", "In 2008, eBay implemented a system of seller ratings with four categories. Buyers are asked to rate the seller in each of these categories with a score of one to five, with five being the highest rating. Unlike the overall feedback rating, these ratings are anonymous; neither sellers nor other users learn how individual buyers rated the seller. The listings of sellers with a rating of 4.3 or below in any of the four rating categories appear lower in search results. Power Sellers are required to have scores in each category above 4.5. In a reversal of roles, on January 24, 2010, Auctionbytes.com held an open survey in which sellers could rate eBay, as well as competing auction and marketplace sites. In the survey, users were asked to rank 15 sites based on five criteria: profitability, customer service, communication, ease of use, and recommendation. eBay was ranked 13th, after other large sites such as Amazon and Craigslist, as well as lesser-known selling sites such as Atomic Mall, eCRATER, and Ruby Lane. In individual category rankings, eBay was rated the worst of all the 15 sites on customer service and communication, and average on ease of use. Some respondents stated they would have given eBay a rating of 10, three to five years ago. eBay was rated twelfth out of fifteen in the Recommended Selling Venue category.", "Using MissionFish as an arbiter, eBay allows sellers to donate a portion of their auction proceeds to a charity of the seller's choice. The program is called eBay Giving Works in the US, and eBay for Charity in the UK. eBay provides a partial refund of seller fees for items sold through charity auctions. As of March 4, 2010, $154 million has been raised for US nonprofits by the eBay Community since eBay Giving Works began in 2003. Some high-profile charity auctions have been advertised on the eBay home page. As of June 2010, the highest successful bid on a single item for charity was for the annual \"Power Lunch\" with investor Warren Buffett at the famous Smith & Wollensky Steakhouse in New York. The winning bid was $2.63 million with all of the proceeds going to the Glide Foundation. The winning bidder was not made public, but was able to bring up to seven friends to the lunch. In 2012, a higher bid, of $3.46 million, also going to the Glide Foundation, won a lunch with Buffet. In 2016 an anonymous bidder won a $3.45 million lunch with Warren Buffett and the money raised from the auction was given to Glide Foundation. The previous highest successful bid on a single item for charity was for a letter sent to Mark P. Mays, CEO of Clear Channel (parent company of Premiere Radio Networks the production company that produces \"The Rush Limbaugh Show\" and \"Glenn Beck Program\") by Senator Harry Reid and forty other Democratic senators, complaining about comments made by conservative talk show host Rush Limbaugh. The winning bid was $2,100,100, with all of the proceeds going to the Marine Corps-Law Enforcement Foundation, benefiting the education of children of men and women who have died serving in the armed forces. The winning bid was matched by Limbaugh in his largest charity donation to date. In 2007; eBay Canada partnered with Montreal-based digital branding agency CloudRaker to develop a campaign to raise money for Sainte-Justine children's hospital in Montreal. They aligned themselves with Internet phenomenon Têtes à claques to create an eBay auction based on popular T-A-C character Uncle Tom, an infomercial host who pitches absurd products. eBay and CloudRaker reproduced Uncle Tom's imaginary products, The Body Toner Fly Swatter, The Willi Waller Potato Peeler, and the LCD Shovel and sold them online. In six weeks, they raised $15,000 for Hôpital St-Justine with one fly swatter, one potato peeler, and one shovel, a world record. The Body Toner Fly Swatter sold for $8,600, the Willi Waller Potato Peeler sold for $3,550, and the LCD Shovel sold for $2,146.21.", "During auction setup, eBay provides shipping-method choices to sellers: ordinary mail, express mail, and/or courier service. The seller may choose to offer only one shipping method to buyers, or the seller may offer buyers a choice of options. Very-low-value items shipped directly from China are sometimes shipped by surface mail (seamail), which is inexpensive but takes one to two months. If the buyer is in a hurry, he or she might be able to pay an extra fee to upgrade to second-class Surface Air Lifted shipping or to first-class airmail shipping. Since 2012, eBay has been enlisting sellers into its \"Global Shipping Program\". If a seller uses the program, non-domestic buyers pay a fee to Pitney Bowes. The seller sends the item to a Pitney Bowes facility in the US (or the UK), which then forwards it to the buyer, taking care of all international shipping requirements. The program is claimed to enhance the product selection available to international buyers.", "Common eBay criticisms involve the policy of requiring the use of PayPal for payments and concerns over fraud, forgeries and intellectual property violations in auction items. There are also issues of how negative feedback after an auction can offset the benefits of using eBay as a trading platform. eBay has been criticized for not paying UK taxes: the \"Sunday Times\" reported in October 2012 that eBay paid only £1.2m in tax on sales of over £800m.", "On May 21, 2014, the company revealed that the consumer database of usernames, passwords, phone numbers, and physical addresses had been breached between late February and early March. Users were advised to change their passwords; to expedite this, a \"change password\" feature was added to profiles of users who had not yet done so. The Syrian Electronic Army took responsibility for the attack. The SEA said that even though the hack revealed millions of users' banking details to them, they would not misuse the data. They had replaced the front pages of the websites with their own logo, called \"Defacing\" in technical terms. The hack caused eBay's share price to crash in intra-day trade as a result of the breach of security." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Usage.", "Materials and technique.", "History.", "Italy.", "Germany.", "France and the Netherlands.", "Later history.", "Collections." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The purpose and use of decorative plaquettes was evidently varied and remains somewhat unclear; their creation and use is relatively poorly documented. Some were mounted in furniture, boxes or other objects such as lamps, and many examples have holes for hanging on walls, added later. Other copies have three or four holes, for holding in a setting. Religious subjects in a pair or set might be set into the doors of tabernacles, and many were used for paxes, sometimes after being given a frame. Some shapes were designed for particular roles such as decorating sword hilts, though perhaps not all copies made were used in this way. Others were framed for hanging, but many were probably just kept and displayed loose, perhaps propped up on a shelf or desk, or in drawers or boxes. Many images show signs of wear. Devotional images were probably often carried around in a pocket, a habit that became common with crucifixes in Florence after a plague in 1373. A large part of the market was probably other artists and craftsmen looking for models for other forms. Plaquette bindings are leather bookbindings that incorporate plaquette casts in gesso, often of designs that are also found in metal. Plaquettes were also collected, and in particular 16th-century examples are often crowded with figures, making the scenes hard to read. They are best appreciated when held in the hand near a good light source, and were probably passed round when a collection was shown to fellow connoisseurs. The difficulty of reading the scenes, and an often obscure choice of subjects, suggest that a self-conscious display of classical learning was part of their appeal, for collectors and artists alike. They were one of the types of objects often found in the – normally male – environment of the studiolo and cabinet of curiosities, along with other small forms such as classical coins and engraved gems. The artists who made them tended to be either sculptors in bronze, also making small figures and objects such as inkwells, or goldsmiths, who often practised in the related field of engraving. They were relatively cheap and transportable, and were soon disseminated widely across Europe, offering an opportunity for artists to display their virtuosity and sophistication, and promote themselves beyond their own city. The same factors, combined with their modern display behind glass, make them relatively little appreciated today. The moulds were also sometimes re-used at considerable distances from their time and place of creation, or new moulds were made from a plaquette. German 17th-century plaquettes were still being used as models for silverware in Regency London. Plaquettes, like prints, played an important part in the diffusion of styles and trends in iconography, especially for classical subjects. Some drawings for plaquette designs survive; others copied prints, book illustrations and designs in other media, including classical engraved gems and sculpture. In Germany models in wood or limestone might be made. They were often made in sets, illustrating a story, or set of figures.", "As with medals, Renaissance plaquettes were normally made using the lost wax technique of casting, and numbers of copies were presumably normally made, although many now only survive in a unique copy, and perhaps never had others. The quality of individual castings can vary considerably, and the time and locations of individual castings from the same mould my vary considerably. Some designs can be shown to have had different generations of casts made from casts. Most are in bronze, but silver and gold, in solid or plated and gilded forms, are also found, as well as other metals. Often plaquettes with copies in precious metal also exist in bronze copies. In early 16th-century Nuremberg, which was the main German centre, plaquettes, like other metalwork types of objects, were often made in the relatively plebeian material of brass, even by top artists like the Vischer family and Peter Flötner. Lead was also used, especially in German castings intended as artisan's models rather than for collectors. From the 19th century on cast iron was also used, especially in Germany. In Italy lead was also used for an initial trial cast. The castings were normally not worked much further with tools, beyond polishing and often giving an artificial patina.", "The word plaquette is a 19th-century invention by the French art historian Eugene Piot. \"Les Bronzes de la Renaissance. Les Plaquettes\" by Émile Molinier of 1886 was the first large study, and these two between them defined the form as it is understood today. To Renaissance Italians plaquettes were known, along with other similar types of objects, by a variety of somewhat vague terms such as \"piastra\" and \"medaglietti\", \"rilievi\", or \"modelli\".", "Plaquettes grew from two rather different Italian origins. In Rome in the 1440s and 1450s they began as a way of reproducing the designs of classical engraved gems, by taking a wax impression of them. The Venetian Pietro Barbo (1417–1471) became a cardinal when his uncle was elected Pope Eugenius IV in 1431. He became an enthusiastic pioneer of this form, maintaining a foundry in his new Palazzo Venezia, and perhaps participating in the casting himself. These plaquettes had the same small size and classical subject matter as the gems they replicated. Around the same time north Italian artists began making plaquettes, often much larger and with religious subject matter. Padua, already an important centre of metalworking, is seen by many historians as the crucial location. Two significant works, neither typical of later examples, were the self-portrait head by Leon Battista Alberti, oval and 20 cm high, and a slightly larger circular \"Madonna and Child with putti\" by Donatello (Victoria and Albert Museum, London). This remained highly unusual in that the reverse is concave and repeats the design. Other larger religious reliefs by Donatello were copied or adapted in a smaller plaquette format by other artists, probably including his own workshop. These grew out of a wider context of small religious images that represented mass-produced versions for the middle classes of the larger and unique religious art made for the rich and for churches. Also in the 1440s Pisanello was establishing the genre of the double-sided portrait medal, followed by Matteo de' Pasti and others. By the later decades of the century medals and plaquettes were being produced in most of the north Italian artistic centres. Significant later artists included Moderno (as he signed many of his works), who was very likely Galleazzo Mondella, a goldsmith from Verona recorded in Rome around 1500. Some 45 plaquettes are signed by or attributed to him (and hardly any medals), and a number of members of his workshop have been identified by their styles. Andrea Riccio, Giovanni Bernardi, Francesco di Giorgio Martini, Valerio Belli, and Leone Leoni, are among the artists to whom a clear name can be attached. Many significant unidentified masters are given notnames by art historians, such as Moderno and Master IO.F.F., who often signed their works. Belli and Bernardi were the leaders in the luxury form of small intaglios engraved in rock crystal, and several of these were reproduced in plaquette form around 1520–40, some cast from wax impressions taken off the crystals. Riccio was also a sculptor of small bronzes, and his plaquettes tended to have a relatively high relief. He had a large workshop and many followers.", "German production began in Nuremberg, around 1500, but by 1600 Augsburg was the main centre. German examples tended to draw their designs from prints, and were in turn frequently reused in other media, and perhaps more often produced primarily as models for other trades. The repeated reuse of moulds, and their distribution far from their place of making, are especially typical of south German plaquettes. Even fewer of the artists involved are known than in Italy. Production lasted well into the 17th century, when it became involved in the \"Dürer revival\", with several of his prints being turned into plaquettes.", "Further north plaquettes were produced from around 1550, initially under influence more from Germany than Italy. Artists (often Huguenot in France) included Étienne Delaune, who mostly lived in Strasbourg, and François Briot from Lorraine. François Duquesnoy from Brussels worked as a sculptor in Rome from 1618, and influenced Flemish plaquettes.", "The form saw a small revival in the 19th century; examples from this period are typically rather larger than in the Renaissance. Artists such as, in America, Augustus Saint-Gaudens and Emil Fuchs made commemorative portrait plaquettes of figures such as Leo Tolstoy and Mark Twain (both by Saint-Gaudens). Especially in France and Germany, commemorative plaquettes for industry and institutions involved a wide range of contemporary subject matter. A number of artists produced examples purely because they were attracted by the form, or the possibility of reaching a wider market. A number of regular awards by institutions chose the plaquette form, though often retaining \"medal\" in the name of the award. The circular so-called \"death penny\" (the Memorial Plaque) minted in the UK after World War I is a large twentieth-century commemorative example.", "Many major museums have collections, which are not always given room in the gallery displays. The National Gallery of Art in Washington D.C., despite being essentially a collection of paintings, has what is recognised as the finest single collection, especially of Italian Renaissance work, which includes over 450 plaquettes, and is very well displayed on the ground floor. The Washington collection of medals, plaquettes and small bronzes includes the leading French collection assembled by Gustave Dreyfus (1837–1914), which was bought by Samuel H. Kress (1863–1955). In 1945 the Kress Foundation added over 1,300 bronzes collected by the British art dealer Lord Duveen, and donated all its collection to the museum in 1957. Joseph E. Widener had already given the museum a significant collection in 1942. The Wallace Collection in London has a good smaller display, as do the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Cabinet des médailles, Paris, the Hermitage Museum, the Ashmolean in Oxford, and a number of German museums, although the outstanding Berlin collection was lost in World War II. Not much of the British Museum's important collection is on display, nor that of the Vatican Museums. The Bargello in Florence has some 400 plaquettes, about half from the collection of the Medici family, who played an important role in the development of the form. Most of the rest are from the collection of Louis Carrand, who bequeathed it to Florence. After that of Drefus, this is the next most important collection assembled in Paris in the 19th century and still intact. Paris was then the centre of plaquette collecting." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Family and early life.", "First marriage.", "Second marriage.", "Death.", "Will.", "Career.", "Early career.", "\"Golden\" period and later years.", "Stradivari and the Cremonese violin making school.", "Influence in the 18th century.", "Influence in the 19th and 20th century.", "Stradivari and his sons.", "Stradivarius instruments.", "References.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Antonio Stradivari's birthdate, presumably between 1644 and 1649, has been debated amongst historians due to the numerous inconsistencies in the evidence of the latter. The 1668 and 1678 censuses report him actually growing younger, a fact explained by the probable loss of statistics from 1647–49, when renewed belligerency between France's Modenese and Spain's Milanese proxies led to a flow of refugees that included Stradivari's mother. Stradivari's ancestry consisted of notable citizens of Cremona, dating back to at least the 12th or 13th century. The earliest mention of the family name, or a variation upon it, is in a land grant dating from 1188. The origin of the name itself has several possible explanations; some sources say it is the plural of \"stradivare\", essentially meaning \"toll-man\" in Lombard, while others say that the form \"de Strataverta\" derives from, which in Cremonese dialect means \"open road\". Antonio's parents were Alessandro Stradivari, son of Giulio Cesare Stradivari, and Anna Moroni, daughter of Leonardo Moroni. They married on 30 August 1622, and had at least three children between 1623 and 1628: Giuseppe Giulia Cesare, Carlo Felice, and Giovanni Battista. The baptismal records of the parish of S. Prospero then stop, and it is unknown whether they had any children from 1628 to 1644. This gap in the records may be due to the family leaving Cremona in response to war, famine, and plague in the city from 1628 to 1630, or the records may have been lost due to clerical reforms imposed by Joseph II of Austria in 1788. The latter explanation is supported by the word \"Cremonensis\" (of Cremona) on many of Stradivari's labels, which suggests that he was born in the city instead of merely moving back there to work. Antonio was born in 1644, a fact deducible from later violins. However, there are no records or information available on his early childhood, and the first evidence of his presence in Cremona is the label of his oldest surviving violin from 1666. Stradivari likely began an apprenticeship with Nicola Amati between the ages of 12 and 14, although a minor debate surrounds this fact. One of the few pieces of evidence supporting this is the label of his 1666 violin, which reads, \"Alumnus Nicolai Amati, faciebat anno 1666\". However, Stradivari did not repeatedly put Amati's name on his labels, unlike many of Amati's other students. Stradivari's early violins actually bear less resemblance to Amati's than his later instruments do. M. Chanot-Chardon, a well-known French luthier, asserted that his father had a label of Stradivari's stating, \"Made at the age of thirteen, in the workshop of Nicolò Amati\". This label has never been found or confirmed. Amati would also have been a logical choice for Antonio's parents, as he represented an old family of violin makers in Cremona, and was far superior to most other luthiers in Italy. Some researchers believe there is a closer educational association between Antonio Stradivari and Francesco Rugeri than has previously been recognized. Despite the long-held belief that Antonio Stradivari was the pupil of Nicolò Amati, there are important discrepancies between their work. Some researchers believe early instruments by Stradivari bear a stronger resemblance to Francesco Rugeri's work than Amati's. Additionally, the utilization of a small dorsal pin or small hole, invariably used not just by Nicolò Amati but all of his recognized pupils—with the exception of Antonio Stradivari, adds further evidence that Stradivari may have learnt his craft apart from Amati. This pin or hole was fundamental in the graduation of the thickness of the plates and was obviously a technique passed on through generations of pupils of the Amati. This dorsal pin is also not found in any of the instruments of the Rugeri family, suggesting Antonio Stradivari may have actually learnt his craft from Francesco Rugeri, although both being influenced by Amati. W.E. Hill & Sons concede that they fail to find the hand of Stradivari in any of Nicolo Amati's work, although the unmistakable hands of Andrea Guarneri and Francesco Rugeri are evident. An alternative theory is that Stradivari started out as a woodworker: the house he lived in from 1667 to 1680 was owned by Francesco Pescaroli, a woodcarver and inlayer. Stradivari may even have been employed to decorate some of Amati's instruments, without being a true apprentice. This theory is supported by some of Stradivari's later violins, which have elaborate decorations and purfling. Assuming that Stradivari was a student of Amati, he would have begun his apprenticeship in 1656–58 and produced his first decent instruments in 1660, at the age of 16. His first labels were printed from 1660 to 1665, which indicates that his work had sufficient quality to be offered directly to his patrons. However, he probably stayed in Amati's workshop until about 1684, using his master's reputation as a launching point for his career.", "Stradivari married his first wife, Francesca Ferraboschi, on 4 July 1667. Francesca was the young widow of the burgher Giacomo Capra, with whom she had two children. Francesca's brother had shot Giacomo with a crossbow on the Piazza Garibaldi (formerly the Piazza Santa Agata) in 1664. He was later exiled, though allowed to return to Cremona many years later. After their marriage, Stradivari moved into a house known as the Casa del Pescatore, or the Casa Nuziale, in his wife's parish. A clue to how they would have met lies in the 1659 Easter census, which lists the Ferraboschi family four houses away from the Amati residence. The couple had a daughter, Giulia Maria, three to four months later. They remained in the house until 1680, during which time they had four more children: Catterina, Francesco, Alessandro, and Omobono Stradivari, as well as an infant son who lived for only a week. An age difference of four to nine years was uncommon between wedded couples at the time. Stradivari purchased a house now known as No. 1 Piazza Roma (formerly No. 2 Piazza San Domenico) around 1680 for the sum of 7000 lire, 2000 of which he paid at the time of the purchase. The totality of the house was paid for by 1684. The residence was just doors away from those of several other violin-making families of Cremona, including the Amatis and Guarneris. Stradivari probably worked in the loft and attic, and he stayed in this house for the rest of his life. Stradivari's wife Francesca died on 20 May 1698, and received an elaborate funeral five days later.", "Stradivari married his second wife, Antonia Maria Zambelli, on 24 August 1699. The only information known about her is that she was 35 at the time of the marriage. They had five children from 1700 to 1708—Francesca Maria, Giovanni Battista Giuseppe, Giovanni Battista Martino, Giuseppe Antonio, and Paolo.", "Stradivari died in Cremona on 18 December 1737, aged 93. He is buried in the Church of San Domenico. The tomb was acquired eight years prior to his death, having been bought from a Cremonese family, substituting his name for theirs in the tombstone.", "Stradivari generated substantial wealth in his lifetime. His will, dated 1729, counted eight living heirs, including his wife. Zambelli was left with her clothing, bed linens, household items, and half of her jewelry. Antonia would become the responsibility of his two eldest sons. Annunciata Caterina was left her jewelry, clothing, linens, and income on loans. Paolo, the youngest child, would get six finished violins—valued at 1,000 lire—as well as some household effects and cash. Three other children who had joined religious orders were left with their share of inheritance: Maria, a nun, would get an annuity; Alessandro, a priest, would get fixed income on a home mortgage loan; and Giuseppe, another priest, would get some income on half a share from a pastry shop. There were also annual payments to his two sons of 150 and 300 lire each and 170 lire for Annunciata and 100 for Francesca. His remaining two sons from his first marriage had both worked in the family shop. Omobono, who had left the dwelling aged eighteen in search of new employment possibilities in Naples, would inherit six violins, and Francesco, who was named his father's successor, would inherit the rest of the estate, including all of the tools, stencils, finished violins, patterns, and—ostensibly—his father's reputation. In 1733, he had bought his youngest son a partnership in a local textile firm for the large amount of 25,000 lire.", "", "Stradivari probably developed his own style slowly. Some of his early violins were smaller, with notable exception to this is the 1679 \"Hellier\" violin, which had much larger proportions. Stradivari's early (pre-1684) violins are in strong contrast to Amati's instruments from the same time period; Stradivari's have a stronger, more masculine build, and less rounded curves, with the purfling set farther in. By 1680, Stradivari had acquired at least a small, yet growing, reputation. In 1682, a Venetian banker ordered a complete set of instruments, which he planned to present to King James II of England. The fate of these instruments is unknown. Cosimo III de' Medici bought another five years later. Amati died in 1684, an event followed by a noticeable increase in Stradivari's production. The years 1684 and 1685 also marked an important development in his style—the dimensions he used generally increased, and his instruments were more in the style of Amati's work of the 1640s and 1650s. Stradivari's instruments underwent no major change in the next five years, although in 1688 he began cutting a more distinct bevel and began outlining the heads of instruments in black, a quite original improvement. Stradivari's early career is marked by wide experimentation, and his instruments during this period are generally considered of a lesser quality than his later work. However, the precision with which he carved the heads and inserted the purfling quickly marked him as one of the most dextrous craftsmen in the world, a prime example of this being the 1690 \"Tuscan\" violin. Pre-1690 instruments are sometimes termed \"Amatisé\" but this is not completely accurate; it is largely because Stradivari created many more instruments later on that people try to connect his early work with Amati's style. By 1680 Stradivari moved to No. 1 Piazza Roma (formerly No. 2 Piazza San Domenico). The house was just doors away from those of several other violin making families of Cremona, including the Amatis and Guarneris. Stradivari probably worked in the loft and attic, and he lived in this house for the rest of his life.", "In the early 1690s, Stradivari made a pronounced departure from this earlier style of instrument-making, changing two key elements of his instruments. First, he began to make violins with a larger pattern than previous instruments; these larger violins usually are known as \"Long Strads\". He also switched to using a darker, richer varnish, as opposed to a yellower varnish similar to that used by Amati. He continued to use this pattern until 1698, with few exceptions. After 1698, he abandoned the Long Strad model and returned to a slightly shorter model, which he used until his death. The period from 1700 until the 1720s is often termed the \"golden period\" of his production. Instruments made during this time are usually considered of a higher quality than his earlier instruments. Late-period instruments made from the late 1720s until his death in 1737 show signs of Stradivari's advancing age. These late instruments may be a bit less beautiful than the Golden Period instruments, but many nonetheless possess a fine tone. Heavier and looser craftmanship of the late Stradivari output can be seen in the 1734 'Habeneck'.", "", "The Stradivari parish, San Matteo, and the Amati parish, San Faustino, comprised the center of Cremonese violin making. They exerted influence on one another's shape, varnish and sound of instruments, but also on many of their contemporaries'; they defined violin making standards for the next 300 years. Even at the beginning of the 18th century, Stradivari's influence could be seen not only in the work of Cremonese makers, but also international ones, such as Barak Norman's, one of the first important British makers. In the 1720s Daniel Parker, a very important British luthier, produced fine violins after Stradivari's work selling anywhere from £30,000 to £60,000 in recent auctions. Parker based his best instruments on Stradivari's \"long pattern\", having the opportunity to study one or more of the instruments. Well into the 19th century, Jean-Baptiste Vuillaume, the leading French luthier of his time, also made many important copies of Strads and Guarneris. In the 18th century, Cremonese luthiers were the suppliers and local players on the demand side. After Stradivari's death, this drastically changed. Although the Cremonese luthiers remained the suppliers, the demand side now consisted mainly of collectors, researchers, imitators, profiteers, and speculators. Many local players could no longer afford the sought out instruments and most of the purchased instruments would be hidden in private collections, put in museums, or simply put back in their cases, hoping that they would gain value over time. This is when the Stradivari \"fever\" really took off. The violin collector Count Ignazio Alessandro Cozio di Salabue, Vuillaume, and later Tarisio Auctions have all contributed to this frenzy that would extend well into the 21st century. Also, most of the other major Cremonese luthiers died soon after Stradivari, putting an end to the golden period of Cremona's violin making, which lasted more than 150 years, starting with the Amatis and ending with the Cerutis. The Cremonese maker Vincenzo Rugeri (1663–1719), while staying true to the Grand Amati Pattern by Nicolo Amati, was influenced by Stradivari in that he adopted a somewhat lower arch consistent with Stradivarian ideals. Members of the Gagliano family such as Gennaro and Nicolo made excellent copies of the instruments in the 1740s, though the only similarity to Stradivari's instruments were the execution of the form and arching as well as consistently fine and detailed varnish. Nicolo would usually use the \"forma\" B model for his cellos and as the quality of the output steadily declined within the family, the Stradivari models were almost abandoned in Naples. Having acquired many Strads from Paolo Stradivari, Count Cozio commissioned Giovanni Battista Guadagnini to make some replicas of the instruments. Although many features of Strads are present in the copies, they still remain heavily influenced by Guadagnini's workshop principles and represent well the maker's Turin period. Vincenzo Panormo was also one of the many luthiers who based many of his violins on Strads. He learned about them in Paris between 1779 and 1789 when he worked closely with Léopold Renaudin, another one of Strad's followers. Stradivari's influence could also be seen in Spain with the outstanding work of José Contreras of Granada and Madrid. Having the privilege to be exposed to Stradivari's instruments through the Spanish court, he was experienced enough to replace the scroll of a 1717 Stradivari cello and possibly even make its back and ribs. He had a great ability to imitate the original varnish and intricacy of the instrument.", "The 19th century was not as eventful in comparison to the previous centuries. Some of the most important luthiers from this part of history include Giovanni Rota, as well as the two non-Italian makers François Chanot in France and the artist, inventor and musician William Sidney Mount in the US, who both created experimental violins. The 20th century was the so-called rebirth of Cremonese making, when luthiers such as Giuseppe Antonio Rocca, Giovanni Battista Morassi, Beltrami, and the Antoniazzi family emerged from a seemingly uneventful and experimental period. These makers, sometimes basing their early violins on Strads, would later on make their own models and would inspire each other's work.", "Even though Antonio had a very long working life, it is impossible for him to have crafted more than 1,000 instruments entirely by himself, meaning that his sons, Francesco and Omobono, as well as possibly a third son, must have been working on and off in his shop. It is known that having left the workshop at eighteen, Omobono made a few instruments on his own, such as the 'Blagrove' and another violin dating from 1732. On his side, Francesco made very few violins independently, such as the 1742 'Salabue' and 'Oliveira', spending his lifetime in his father's shop. This was one of the main reasons that Francesco had a large part in Antonio's will, and Omobono a lesser one. One of the major differences between Antonio and his sons' craftsmanship was the quality of the purfling on their instruments, which in the case of Francesco and Omobono has been referred to as \"startlingly poor\". \"Only a handful of instruments are reliably attributed to Francesco alone.... [There are only] two authentic labels known: 'Franciscus Stradivarius Cremonensis / Filius Antonii faciebat Anno 1742'... Notably it omits the A+S stamp that occurs on Antonio's labels. Another label states 'Sotto la Disciplina d'Antonio / Stradivari F. in Cremona 1737'. This is of course the year of his father's death, and the phrase'sotto la disciplina', although it appears in a few other instruments, may here be a particular sign of his respect.\"", "The Hills Violin Shop estimate that Stradivari produced 1,116 instruments, of which 960 were violins. It is also estimated that around 650 of these instruments survive, including 450 to 512 violins. Stradivari's instruments are regarded as amongst the finest bowed stringed instruments ever created, are highly prized, and are still played by professionals today. Only one other maker, Giuseppe Guarneri del Gesù, commands a similar respect among violinists. However, neither blind listening tests nor acoustic analysis have ever demonstrated that Stradivarius instruments are better than other high-quality instruments or even reliably distinguishable from them. While the usual label for a Stradivarius instrument, whether genuine or false, uses the traditional Latin inscription, after the McKinley Tariff Act of 1890, copies were also inscribed with the country of origin. Since thousands of instruments are based on Stradivari's models and bear the same name as his models, many unwary people are deceived into purchasing forged Stradivarius instruments, which can be avoided by authenticating the instrument. Some violinists and cellists use Stradivari instruments in their work. Yo-Yo Ma uses the \"Davidov Stradivarius\", Julian Lloyd Webber employs the \"Barjansky Stradivarius\", and, until his death in 2007, Mstislav Rostropovich played on the \"Duport Stradivarius\". The \"Soil\" of 1714 is owned by virtuoso Itzhak Perlman. The \"Countess Polignac\" is currently played by Gil Shaham. The Vienna Philharmonic uses several Stradivari instruments that were purchased by Austria's central bank Oesterreichische Nationalbank and other sponsors: \"Chaconne\", 1725; \"ex-Hämmerle\", 1709; \"ex-Smith-Quersin\", 1714; \"ex-Arnold Rosé\", \"ex-Viotti\", 1718; and \"ex-Halphen\", 1727. Viktoria Mullova owns and plays the \"Jules Falk\". The London sales of \"The Mendelssohn\" at £902,000 ($1,776,940) in 1990 and \"The Kreutzer\" for £947,500 in 1998 constitute two top-selling Stradivari. A record price paid at a public auction for a Stradivari was $2,032,000 for the \"Lady Tennant\" at Christie's in New York, April 2005. On 16 May 2006, Christie's auctioned Stradivari's 1707 \"Hammer\" for a new record of US$3,544,000. On 2 April 2007, Christie's sold a Stradivari violin, the 1729 \"Solomon, Ex-Lambert\", for more than $2.7 million to an anonymous bidder in the auction house's fine musical instruments sale. Its price, US$2,728,000 including Christie's commission, far outdid its estimated value: $1 million to $1.5 million. On 14 October 2010, a 1697 Stradivari violin known as \"The Molitor\" was sold online by Tarisio Auctions for a world-record price of $3,600,000 to violinist Anne Akiko Meyers: at the time its price was the highest for any musical instrument sold at auction. On 21 June 2011, the Lady Blunt Stradivarius, a 1721 violin, was auctioned by Tarisio to an anonymous bidder for almost £10 million, with all proceeds going to help the victims of the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. This was over four times the previous auction record for a Stradivari violin. The Baron von der Leyen Strad was auctioned by Tarisio on 26 April 2012, for $2.6 million. Publicly displayed collections of Stradivari instruments are those of the Library of Congress with three violins, a viola, and a cello, the Agency of National Estates of Spain, with a quartet of two violins, the \"Spanish I and II\", the \"Spanish Court\" cello, and the \"Spanish Court\" viola, exhibited in the Music Museum at the Royal Palace of Madrid (Palacio Real de Madrid) and the Royal Academy of Music's Collections with several instruments by Antonio Stradivari, including the \"Joachim\" (1698), \"Rutson\" (1694), the \"Crespi\" (1699), \"Viotti ex-Bruce\" (1709), \"Kustendyke\" (1699), \"Maurin\" (1718) and the \"Ex Back\" (1666) violins, \"Ex Kux\" (1714), and the \"Archinto\" (1696) violas, the \"Marquis de Corberon\" (1726) and the \"Markevitch\" (1709) celli. The Musée de la musique in Paris displays several beautiful Stradivari instruments that formerly belonged to the Paris Conservatory. The collection of the New Jersey Symphony Orchestra had the largest number of Stradivari in its string section, purchased in 2003 from the collection of Herbert R. Axelrod, until it decided to sell them in 2007. A collection assembled by Rodman Wanamaker in the 1920s contained as many as 65 stringed instruments by such masters as Stradivari, Gofriller, Baptiste and Giuseppe Guarneri. Included was \"The Swan\", the last violin made by Stradivari, and soloist instrument of the great Cuban 19th-century virtuoso Joseph White. The collection, known as The Cappella, was used in concerts with the Philadelphia Orchestra and Leopold Stokowski before being dispersed after Wanamaker's death. The Vienna Philharmonic uses four violins and one cello. The Metropolitan Museum of Art has three Stradivari violins dated 1693, 1694 and 1717. The National Music Museum, in Vermillion, South Dakota, has in its collection one of two known Stradivari guitars, one of eleven known violas da gamba, later modified into a cello form, one of two known choral mandolins, and one of six Stradivari violins that still retain their original neck. In the interests of conservation, the \"Messiah Stradivarius\" violin—on display in the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford, England—has not been played at all in recent years.", "Notes Sources", "Articles Historical books" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origin and etymology.", "History.", "Prehistoric to Pre-Hispanic period.", "Spanish Colonial period.", "Independence.", "Mexican Revolution to present.", "Geography and climate.", "Government and politics.", "Government.", "Demographics.", "Education.", "Infrastructure.", "Transport.", "Media.", "Economy.", "Tourism.", "Archeological sites.", "Spanish colonial and other historical sites.", "Natural landmarks.", "Others.", "Culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "\"Mēxihco\" was originally the Nahuatl name for the Valley of Mexico where the cities of the Mexica (the proper name for the Aztec Triple Alliance) were located. As such, the district that became Mexico City was properly known as Mexico-Tenochtitlan in the years shortly before and after Spanish conquest. After the Spanish Conquest, the term \"México\" came to be used for Tenochtitlan/Mexico City and all the pre-conquest lands it controlled, including several other aforementioned Mexican states originally incorporated in the boundaries of the Mexico state. There are two possible origins for the", "", "The earliest evidence of human habitation in current territory of the state is a quartz scraper and obsidian blade found in the Tlapacoya area, which was an island in the former Lake Chalco. They are dated to the Pleistocene era which dates human habitation back to 20,000 years. The first people were hunter-gatherers. Stone age implements have been found all over the territory from mammoth bones, to stone tools to human remains. Most have been found in the areas of Los Reyes", "The origin of the modern state is the reorganization of Aztec lands starting after the Spanish Conquest of the Aztec Empire. These lands were initially called the “audencia” of Mexico and included Mexico City, much of modern states of Guerrero, Morelos and Hidalgo. As the Spanish expanded their control west and south, the entirety was called “New Spain” with former Aztec lands being called “Mexico.” The organization of New Spain would change over the course of the colonial period, but the territory of the Aztecs would keep the name “Mexico”. After the Conquest in 1521, Hernán Cortés’ cousin Juan Altamirano was given dominion of the Toluca Valley. Other conquistadors such as Antonio Caicedo, Juan de Jaramillo,", "During the Mexican War of Independence, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla marched into what is now Mexico State from Michoacán in 1810, passing from the northwest to Toluca on his way to Mexico City. East of Toluca, he fought royalist forces at the Battle of Monte de las Cruces on 30 October 1810. While Hidalgo won the battle, he chose not to proceed to Mexico City and then turned towards Celaya. During the rest of the War, most battles were fought between local insurgent leaders such as Manuel de la Concha and Castillo Bustamante and", "Battles were fought in the state during the Mexican Revolution, especially by Zapatistas in the southwest part of the state, with Genovevo de la O and Francisco de Pacheco entering with their armies in 1912. Fighting intensified after Victoriano Huerta took power in 1913. In 1915, Toluca was the site of the Convencion de Generales y Gobernadores Revolucionaries (Convention of Generals and Revolutionary Governors) on two occasions. In 1917, the state had another new constitution, which divided the state into sixteen districts and 118 municipalities. The extension of the Mexico City Metropolitan Area began in 1940 with the creation of the industrial zone of Naucalpan. The increase of the metro area's population, commerce", "The state is located in the center of the country, consisting mostly of the eastern side of the Anahuác Mesa. Most of the state consists of the Toluca Valley, the Tierra Caliente, Mezquital Valley with the eastern panhandle mostly defined by the Chalco Valley. The state has a territory of 22,499.95km2 and borders the states of Querétaro, Hidalgo, Guerrero, Morelos, Puebla, Tlaxcala and Michoacán. The state surrounds Mexico City on three sides (west, north and east). The state is divided into five natural regions: the Volcanos of the Valley of Mexico, the hills and plains north of the state, the western mountains, the Balsas Depression and the mountains and valleys of the southeast. The physical geography of the state varies. The eastern portion is dominated by the Sierra Nevada, which divides the state from Puebla. In this mountain chain are the Popocatépetl and Iztaccíhuatl volcanos. The Sierra de Monte Alto and Sierra de Monte Bajo divide the west side of the Federal District from the state and contain peaks such as Cerro de la Bufa and Monte de las Cruces. The Sierra de Xinantécatl is to the south of the Toluca Valley. At northern edge of this mountain range is the Nevado de Toluca volcano. In the northwest of the state is the Sierra de San Andrés Timilpan. Most of the rock and soil formation in the state is of volcanic origin. There are three river basins in the state: the Lerma, the Balsas and the Pánuco. The most important is the Lerma River, which begins in the municipality of Almoloya del Río and passes through a large number of municipalities in the state. The southwestern part of the state is dominated by the Balsas River basin. The eastern panhandle of the state is dominated by the Pánuco", "", "The state is governed according to the Constitution of the State of Mexico and the law of the State of Mexico. The previous constitutions of 1827, 1861, and 1870 were replaced in 1917. The government is composed of legislative, executive, and judicial branches. The legislative branch is composed of the Congress of the State of México; the executive branch is composed of the Governor, Cabinet, and", "The fast-growing state contains about fourteen percent of the country's population and is one of the most densely populated with 740 people per square km. Since the Federal District has not absorbed many citizens since 1990, Greater Mexico City's explosive expansion is largely absorbed by the state, along with similar trends in Greater Toluca. Outside than these two metropolitan zones, the state is largely villages. Historically however, a handful of other", "The state has over three million students who attend about 15,000 schools from kindergarten to high school. It is the largest school system in the country after that of Mexico City. However, as late as 1990, there were over half a million people who were illiterate over the age of 15. The state university is the Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México (UAEM) which offers 48 majors. This and other institutes of higher education have an enrollment of over 100,000 students. The beginnings of this institution go back to 1828, when the first Instituto Literario for the state was established in what is now the borough of Tlalpan in Mexico City. It was reestablished in Toluca in 1833. In 1886, the name was changed to the Instituto Científico", "", "The state contains 9,723 km of highways with about 90% being state and 10% federal. There are 1227.4 km of rail line and two airports, “Lic. Adolfo López Mateos” in Toluca and “Dr. Jorge Jiménez Cantú” in Atizapán de Zaragoza. Helicopter facilities exist in Chimalhuacán and Jocotitlán. Toluca Airport had served as a major 2nd airport for Mexico city, with coaches especially Volaris", "The state contains 23 radio stations, 29 television station (2 local and public and 27 affiliates), the information out there is that the two public stations (radio and television) are “Radio Mexiquense” and “Televisión Mexiquense”. Newspapers", "The state provides 9.7% of the country's gross national product, with over 12% of all of Mexico's active workforce employed in the state. The most important sector of the economy is industry and manufacturing, with over 10% of the state's land urbanized. The State of Mexico ranks second in the country for industrial output. The most important industries include chemicals, food products, textiles, paper products, metalworks and the construction and maintenance of transport vehicles. This sector employs the highest percentage of the population at 27.7%. The next largest employer is commerce at 21.5%. One important segment of this sector is this hotel and restaurant industry. Outside of the metropolitan areas, tourism is an important element in the state economy, with attractions such as Valle de Bravo, Teotihuacan, Ixtapan de la Sal and others. Most of the state's land is devoted to agriculture (38.1%) or to forest (34.9%). Much of these crop forest lands are ejido or communal lands. The main crop is corn, with peas, barley, beans, potatoes, alfalfa, wheat, avocados and guava also grown. Livestock is raised on about 17% of the state's farmland with cattle being the most important animal. Almost all of the forest lands in the state are used for producing forestry products such as wood and paper. However, this sector only employs 1.3% of the state's population. Other sectors of the economy include financial services, employing 21.4% of the population and transportation which employs 14.4%. While mining has been historically important, today it is only a minor activity despite residual deposits of gold, silver, lead and other minerals.", "", "Main archeological sites include Teotihuacan, Malinalco, Teotenango and Calixtlahuaca. The best known and most important of these is the massive Mesoamerican Teotihuacan, with thousands visiting it each year. This city predates the Aztecs and the Toltecs, and is distinguished by two large pyramids, the Pyramid of the Sun and the Pyramid of the Moon. In Malinalco, the archeological site is officially called the Cuauhtinchan Archeological Zone but it is more commonly called the Cerro de los Idolos. The site is located on a cliff overlooking the town. The visible complex dates from the Aztec Empire but the site's use as a ceremonial center appears to be much older. The main building served as a sanctuary for Aztec warriors. This complex has", "Most of the state's colonial attractions are promoted through the “Pueblos con Encanto” program. These include the monasteries and churches located in towns such as de Acolman, Aculco, Amanalco, Amecameca, Ayapango, El Oro, Ixtapan de la Sal, Malinalco, Metepec, Otumba,", "The natural feature most closely associated with the state is the Nevado de Toluca or Xinantécatl volcano which is just south of the capital of Toluca. This is an extinct volcano which rises 4,690 masl, making it the fourth highest peak in Mexico. At the top is a very large crater that contains two lakes called the Laguna del Sol and the Laguna de la Luna. The volcano and its immediate surroundings are part of the Nevado de Toluca National Park and the Los Venado National Park. Valle de Bravo along with neighboring Lake Avandaro is a major weekend getaway for many in Mexico City and Mexico State. The town is filled with red tile roofs and stone paved streets and has been named a “Pueblo Magico” by the federal tourism agency. The lake is a result of the damming of a regional river and is home to more than forty nautical clubs. The Grutas de la Estrella is located in the far south of the state on the border with Guerrero. It is a series of live caves in which running water", "To honor the native peoples of the area, there are the Centro Ceremonial Otomi in Temoaya and the Centro Ceremonial Mazahua in San Felipe del Progreso. Both of these have museums, auditoriums, handcrafts centers as well as large forested areas for camping and hiking. Both were built to honor and preserve these indigenous cultures. Zacango is the state's major zoo with over 2,000 species from all over the world. It is located fourteen km from the city of Toluca in the municipality of Calimaya. It is one of the few zoos in Mexico where", "Ceramics have been made in the Toluca Valley region since far into the pre-Hispanic period, mostly by Matlatzincas and Nahuas. The tradition continued into the colonial period although it much changed in both technique and design. Today both manufactured and handcrafted ceramics are produced in the state. The most traditional handcrafted wares are produced in places such as Metepec, Valle de Bravo, Texcoco and Almoloya de Juárez among others. The best known pottery and ceramics locale is Metepec, which specializes in large decorative pieces and sculptures called Trees of Life. Cooking utensils are made as well. Objects made from precious metals such as silver are a specialty of the Mazahua people of the Toluca Valley. One specialty is jewelry and other decorative objects made with fine silver or gold wire. One community associated with this work is San Felipe del Progreso, where both wire and hammered items are made. Other communities of metalworkers exist in Naucalpan and Ciudad Nezahualcóyotl. In addition to jewelry, items such as bells, sculpture religious paraphernalia and more can be found. Waxworks is dedicated mostly to the making of decorative and aromatic candles. These range from the simple to elaborately carved samples. These are mostluy made in Amecameca, Tenango del Valle and Toluca. The making of piñatas, decorative cut outs and other objects from paper and/or cardboard is known in Acolman, Metepec, Toluca, Huixquilucan, Nezahualcoyotl and Otumba. This tradition dates back to pre-Hispanic times with bark paper, but newer materials have been incorporated since then. For example, paper cut out banner or papel picado was originally done with crepe paper (called “papel chino” in Spanish) but today it can be seen done on thin plastic sheets. The making of fireworks is best known in Tultepec in the municipality of Lerma. Not only are firecrackers and rockets made, but elaborate contraptions with firecrackers place to moves the parts when lit are made as well. These can be called “castillos” (castles) or “toritos” (little bulls) depending on their shape. These are use during religious and secular festivals such as saints’ day and Independence Day. Tultepec holds a fireworks festival each year. Other crafts practiced in the state include the making of candies, basketry, artistic ironwork, and items from bone, horn, stone and wood. Traditional dances performed in the state include the Danza de los Concheros, Danza de Moros y Cristianos, Doce Pares de Francia, Morisma and Santiagos. One particular to Mexico State is the El Tzimare-cu, which is performed by the Otomi communities in Xonacatlán, Villa Cuauhtemoc and Temoaya. The state is known for its red and black moles, the barbacoa of Capulhuac and Tenango del Valle, the chorizo sausage of Toluca and the cheese products of Ayapango and Aculco. Beverages include pulque and “tecui.” Major festivals and fairs in the state include the Feria de San Isidro Labrador, an agricultural fair in Metepec, the Festival de la Quimera, a cultural fair in Metepec, the Feria Internacional del Caballo horse fair in Texcoco, the Feria de la Nuez (Nut Fair) in Amecameca, the Festival de las Almas and Fiests de San Francisco de Asis in Valle de Bravo and the Feria de Alfeñique, which sells candies and other traditional goods for Day of the Dead. The Orquesta Sinfónica del Estado de México or Mexico State Symphonic Orchestra was established in 1971 by Enrique Bátez Cambell. It is based in Toluca in the Felipe Villanueva Hall. It has given performances in various parts of both the state and nation of Mexico. It has made more recordings than any other state orchestra in the country, and in the 2000s it made its first appearances outside of Mexico in the United States and Europe." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Character arc.", "Characterization.", "Relationships.", "Appearance.", "Conceptual history.", "Reception." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Mulder was born on October 13, 1961 in Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts. The mysterious disappearance of Mulder's sister and his ensuing search for her became the consuming drive of his life. In 1983, Mulder graduated with first class honours from University of Oxford with a Bachelor of Arts degree in psychology. He then graduated with honors from the Quantico FBI Training Academy in 1986. Mulder joined the FBI on October 24, 1984. On graduating from the Academy, Mulder began his work in the Behavioral Science Unit (psychological profiling) under Agent Bill Patterson, with whom he had a testy relationship. In 1988, the FBI assigned Mulder to the Violent Crimes Unit. Around this time, Mulder first came across the X-Files, an obscure FBI section dealing with cases relating to the paranormal; he pored over these cases in his spare time, becoming obsessed with them. In 1991, Mulder re-opened the X-Files with Special agent Diana Fowley, but Fowley left shortly thereafter. Mulder investigated the X-Files by himself until March 1992, when Dana Scully, an instructor at the FBI Academy's Forensic Science Research and Training Center, was partnered with him for the purpose of applying scientific reasoning to Mulder's work and theories. Mulder's ultimate goal was to uncover what he believed to be a government conspiracy to hide the truth about alien life, and to find out what had happened to his sister. His quest and belief in the existence of aliens was, for most of the series, the driving force of the plot, or mytharc. However, during a period of time after Scully's cancer went into remission (season 5), Mulder was convinced by Michael Kritschgau that aliens did not in fact exist, and that the government conspirators had merely concocted that threat as a smokescreen, to justify military activities and toy with him. During the seventh season, Mulder eventually discovers the truth about his sister. Samantha was abducted (either by the alien colonists or the government conspirators), and various tests were performed on her. She was then returned to The Smoking Man to live out her life under his supervision, all the while undergoing additional tests. She was unable to bear the testing any longer so she ran away from her home and was eventually admitted to a nearby hospital, where she disappeared from her locked room. It is revealed that Samantha was taken by \"spiritual intervention\", with the help of beings called \"Walk-ins\". Mulder is briefly reunited with Samantha's spirit. Mulder was also abducted by the aliens himself in 2000, and returned to Earth, almost dead, a few months later. He had been infected by an alien virus (for the second time), but Scully found a way to rescue him. After Mulder returned home to his apartment, an application was submitted to the FBI for his reinstatement to the X-Files but this was declined by Deputy Director Alvin Kersh, who had been promoted in charge of the X-Files shortly after Mulder had been abducted. He returned to work for a brief period of time, but was eventually fired for failure to follow orders not to investigate any X-Files. After Scully gave birth to William, Mulder went into hiding in New Mexico after Kersh said his life was in danger. After about a year in hiding, Mulder obtains crucial information from a secret facility about the date of the planned alien colonization effort, but is caught and put on trial for the murder of Knowle Rohrer. Despite a defense organized by Walter Skinner with numerous witnesses, the judges sentence Mulder to death. With help from several people, including a reformed Kersh and the ghost of Alex Krycek, Mulder breaks out of prison and escapes with Scully. As of the series finale, Mulder and Scully were on the run. Six years after the events of the ninth season, Fox Mulder's fugitive status is clear. Scully mentions that he is wanted by the FBI and dialogue also shows that the FBI does not really want to find him and is simply happy to have him \"out of their hair\". He is called to assist with the investigation of a missing FBI agent. In exchange for his help, all charges against him are dropped. Seven years later, Mulder returns to the FBI when the X-Files is re-opened, in order to look into a government conspiracy, when it transpires they have been using alien technology. Along with Scully, they investigate several cases together like they had done originally. Six weeks after their return to the X-Files, Mulder confronts an alive Smoking Man to try and prevent him carrying out a plan to depopulate the United States using a virus applied to smallpox vaccines. In a vision of Scully's, Mulder falls sick to the disease, but refuses the Smoking Man's help and his proposal to join his elite. Mulder is saved by Agent Miller and they regroup with Scully, however, she says Mulder needs a blood transfusion and only their son can give it to them. At that moment, an unidentified flying object hovers over the trio, which is where season ten ends. The beginning of season eleven reveals this vision came from Scully's son, William. Over the course of season eleven, Scully and Mulder search for William. Skinner learns from the Smoking Man, that the Smoking Man, who is Mulder's father, also artificially impregnated Scully, and thus is William's father as well. In the third episode of the eleventh season, \"Plus One\", Scully and Mulder are intimate again. In the season 11 finale, \"My Struggle IV\", she reveals to Mulder that she is pregnant with his child.", "Despite his aloofness and cynical sense of humor, Mulder displays unbridled enthusiasm and interest when it comes to the paranormal, especially because of his personal involvement after his sister's abduction. Walter Skinner and other FBI officials have become concerned by his unprofessional behavior. This only proves true as Mulder makes a habit of letting his personal feelings cloud his judgment; his emotional attachment to UFO cases becomes more severe throughout the series, because of Dana Scully's eventual abduction and resultant cancer as well as his sister's abduction. Mulder can lose his temper when Scully is involved; on multiple occasions, he has become violent in his grief and unreserved in threatening physical force. Mulder's overprotectiveness of Scully stems not only from his obvious devotion and love for her, but also a long-harbored guilt; Mulder has admitted feeling indirectly responsible for the ordeals and tragedies Scully had gone through because of their investigations. In the episode \"Drive\", Mulder facetiously apologizes on behalf of the \"international Jewish conspiracy\" in response to the abusive and anti-Semitic tirades of a suspect, to which Mulder appears to take offense; the suspect also guesses Mulder's ethnicity is Jewish based on his last name. Despite this, in the episode \"Kaddish\", Mulder is unable to identify a Talmudic book, states that he does not know Hebrew, and quips that Jesus returned from the dead. Also, Mulder, as his father before him, had a Christian burial presided over by a Protestant minister following his apparent \"death\" in the episode \"Deadalive\". This suggests he hails from a Protestant background, as Scully hails from a Catholic background. Mulder also seeks comfort in a Christian church following the events of the episode \"Conduit\". Of course Mulder could conceivably be of a Jewish ethnic descent but a Christian background, perhaps through ancestral marriage or conversion. David Duchovny suggested Mulder is Jewish when interviewed during production of the second season. In the episode \"The Field Where I Died\", Mulder went into a hypnotic trance and recalls a past life, where he is in a concentration camp during the Holocaust, and another where he was a Confederate soldier killed in the Battle of Chattanooga. Mulder is almost never seen sleeping in a bed. The bedroom in his apartment (which appeared as late as the sixth season of the show's run) is apparently used for storage and is filled floor to ceiling with junk, including a couple of boxes of pornographic magazines. Instead, Mulder sleeps on his couch, often falling asleep to a blaring television. Mulder can seem to go through manic periods when worried or working on a case, contributing to or exacerbating his insomniac tendencies. Since \"Dreamland II\" where a \"man in black\" body-swaps with Mulder and takes over his life, Mulder gets his bedroom renovated and equipped with a waterbed. In \"Monday\" he finds himself soaked through when his waterbed (which he can't remember getting because Morris Fletcher got it in Dreamland) is leaking.", "Mulder had a rather strained relationship with his parents Bill and Teena Mulder, not least thanks to the X-Files. Initially, he had no idea his father was involved in the conspiracy and Samantha's disappearance. Bill, who became disenchanted with the shadow government and his own role in the conspiracy, eventually approached Fox about his past deeds, but was shot and killed by Alex Krycek – working as an assassin for the Syndicate – before he could reveal any great amount of information. Over the next few years, Mulder got into several conflicts with his mother while trying to discover the extent of her own knowledge of his father's precise involvement. Teena dies of an apparent suicide, when the stress of Samantha's abduction finally becomes too painful. During the last years of his work on the X-Files, Mulder was even forced to doubt that Bill was his true father. He is led to consider the possibility that his mother had had an affair with the Smoking Man, a connection which may have resulted in the birth of either Samantha or Mulder himself. The possibility was hinted at later in the series, and Jeffrey Spender, who certainly was the Smoking Man's son, said that Mulder was his half-brother. In the ninth season, \"William\" explains that Spender and Mulder have very similar DNA, providing strong evidence that they do have the same father. During his studies at Oxford, around the year of 1983, he was dating Phoebe Green; future investigator of Metropolitan Police Service (season 1, episode 11, \"Fire\"). When he started his work on \"The X-Files\", around 1991, he was close with his current partner; Diana Fowley (season 5, episode 20, \"The End\"). None of those remained longterm and stable. Mulder's closest friend was FBI partner Dana Scully, who was assigned to \"debunk [his] work\" by the conspirators and the FBI brass. But against their intentions, her loyalties quickly became affixed to Mulder's quest and Mulder himself, a connection which seemed to pull Mulder's work out of obscurity, as Scully's scientific bent afforded them a certain amount of credibility. Their intense professional and personal relationship continued to strengthen through the years. While the relationship was platonic for the greater part of the series, there are clues that it developed into a romantic one by the last few seasons. Mulder and Scully almost always called each other by their surnames – Mulder purportedly hated his first name, but Scully had no such aversion. At the fourth episode of season seven the romantic undertones were confirmed when the two shared a kiss. In the series finale, the very last scene depicted Mulder and Scully after running away together, in bed together, contemplating what the future held. In the season 11 finale Scully revealed to be pregnant with his unborn child. Mulder's greatest nemesis was The Smoking Man, who, despite his obvious ill-intent, seemed to hold Mulder in special regard. Though he mocked Mulder to his face for his foolishness and the futility of his quest, in \"Two Fathers\", he told his son Jeffrey Spender, \"You pale to Fox Mulder.\" Mulder also developed an intense enmity for Alex Krycek, a double agent who briefly worked with Mulder in the FBI as an infiltrator, and who continued to serve as a recurring adversary, acting as an assassin for the Syndicate in the murders of Bill Mulder and Melissa Scully.", "Duchovny portrays Mulder as a series regular for the first seven seasons of the show. Duchovny left the show following the seventh-season finale \"Requiem\", wherein he was abducted by aliens. Although he makes a handful of cameos in the first part of season eight—most notably in the episodes \"Within\", \"Without\", \"The Gift\", and \"Per Manum\"—Mulder is returned by the aliens and the latter part of the season deals with his death, subsequent resurrection, and his departure from the FBI. After the conclusion of the eighth season, Duchovny left the show, and only appeared in four ninth-season episodes: \"Trust No 1\", \"Jump the Shark\", \"William\", and \"The Truth\". Duchovny's appearances in \"Trust No 1\" and \"Jump the Shark\" were via archival footage, and he only made a small cameo in the third. However, his appearance in \"The Truth\", the program's series finale, was substantial, and Duchovny was once again listed in the credits as starring.", "David Duchovny had worked in Los Angeles three years prior to \"The X-Files\". At first he wanted to base his acting career around films, but in 1993 his manager Melanie Green gave him a script of the pilot episode of \"The X-Files\". Green and Duchovny were both convinced it was a good script, so Duchovny auditioned for the lead. When Duchovny was auditioning for the part of Fox Mulder, he made a terrific audition, but talked rather slowly. Chris Carter thought that he was a good judge of character, and thought that Duchovny wasn't too bright. So he talked to Duchovny and asked him if he could please imagine himself as an FBI agent for the future weeks. The casting director of the show was very positive about him, while according to Carter, Duchovny turned out to be one of the best-read people he knew. After getting the role, Duchovny thought the show wouldn't last for long or that it wouldn't make as much impact as it did. Carter has said that he named Mulder after his mother's maiden name. His first name, Fox, was actually not a tribute to the Fox network which aired \"The X-Files\", as often assumed - Carter said he had a childhood friend named Fox. When Duchovny got the script many of his characteristics were fully formed. Executive producer Frank Spotnitz called portraying actor Duchovny amazingly smart. He further stated that Duchovny was behind some of the main characteristic ideas behind Mulder. At the end of the seventh season Duchovny was in negotiations with the Fox network, saying he wanted more money (while not saying how much) and an improved work schedule, among other issues. After settling his contract dispute, portraying actor Duchovny quit full-time participation in the show after the seventh season. This contributed to uncertainties over the likelihood of an eighth season. Carter and most fans felt the show was at its natural endpoint with Duchovny's departure, but it was decided Mulder would be abducted at the end of the seventh season, leaving things open for the actor's return in 12 episodes the following year. Duchovny's character Mulder was replaced by John Jay Doggett (portrayed by Robert Patrick). In season nine, Duchovny wasn't available for shooting, so he only appeared in three episodes with small cameos, the first being an archive footage only in Trust No 1, a brief cameo in William, which he also directed and appeared full-time in the series finale, The Truth. After the show ended, Carter and Frank Spotnitz started to talk about a movie sequel. Duchovny stated in an interview that very same year that it always had been a desire to come back to the franchise, saying it was a natural stage of development for the franchise to go to the cinema. When talking about Mulder in \"\", Duchovny said that he wanted to play him a \"little different\". He continued saying that Mulder had \"lost every battle\" and was \"beaten down by life [...]. He's the same guy, but he is older Mulder\". Mulder had a brief cameo on \"The Lone Gunmen\", an \"X-Files\" spin-off featuring the characters of the same name. He appeared on the episode \"All About Yves\". In the \"Millennium\" episode \"Lamentation\", the main character, Frank Black, visits the FBI Academy in Quantico, Virginia, and Mulder and Dana Scully are briefly seen descending a stairway. In fact, they are Duchovny and Anderson's stand-ins.", "Duchovny was nominated for two Emmy Awards in 1997 and 1998 in the category \"Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series\", but lost. He was nominated for a Golden Globe Award in 1995 in the category \"Best Actor – Drama Series\". Two years later he was again nominated for a Golden Globe in the same category and won, in 1997 and 1998 he was nominated in the same category but didn't win. Duchovny has been nominated five times in the category \"Outstanding Actor – Drama Series\" by the Screen Actors Guild awards but didn't win once. Duchovny won a Satellite Award in the category \"Best Actor – Drama Series\" in 1997, and was nominated once again 1998. Animated versions of Mulder appeared on \"The Simpsons\" and \"Eek! the Cat\" (both series which have been featured in episodes of The X-Files), in the episodes \"The Springfield Files\" and \"Eek Space-9\", respectively. Both featured the voice acting of Duchovny. Duchovny appeared as Mulder on the sketch show \"Saturday Night Live\" with Molly Shannon as Scully, when he hosted an episode. Joining him was co-star Nicholas Lea, who would appear as Alex Krycek in a sketch that spoofed \"The X-Files\". \"The New York Times\" writer Joyce Millman said that \"Twin Peaks\" character Special agent Dale Cooper could have been Mulder's \"quirky [...] spiritual twin\" if David Duchovny hadn't appeared in the show earlier. When reviewing \"\", reviewer Moira Macdonald said it was a \"kick\" watching Duchovny and Gillian Anderson (portrayed Dana Scully). Jesse Hassenger from \"PopMatters\" when reviewing season eight, was throughout negative to the new season, claiming that Patrick was miscast and calling David Duchovny's appearances as Mulder shallow. Critics and fans alike have praised Duchovny and Anderson's \"on-screen chemistry\" for years. Richard Corliss from \"Time\" magazine praised Duchovny for settling in his role so \"quickly\" and calling the character \"an obsessive plodder\". Robert Patrick, the actor who replaced Duchovny as the male lead after the seventh season, commented that the chemistry Duchovny and Gillian Anderson had could only happen \"once in a lifetime\". \"TV Guide\" ranked Fox Mulder #7 in its \"50 Greatest Sci-Fi Legends\" list." ] }