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{ "title": [ "Political ideals.", "Appearance.", "Events.", "Montagnard influence.", "Reign of Terror.", "Legacy.", "Analysis.", "Modern colloquial usage." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "They were expressing their demands through petitions of the sections presented to the assemblies (the Legislative, and Convention) by the delegates. The sans-culottes had a third way of putting pressure on the policy: the police and the courts received thousands of denunciations of traitors and supposed conspirators. The most fundamental political ideals of the \"sans-culottes\" were social equality, economic equality, and popular democracy. They supported the abolition of all the authority and privileges of the monarchy, nobility, and Roman Catholic clergy, the establishment of fixed wages, the implementation of price controls to ensure affordable food and other essentials, and vigilance against counter-revolutionaries. The height of their influence spanned roughly from the original overthrow of the monarchy in 1792 to the Thermidorian Reaction in 1794. Throughout the revolution, the \"sans-culottes\" provided the principal support behind the more radical and anti-bourgeoisie factions of the Paris Commune, such as the Enragés and the Hébertists, and were led by populist revolutionaries such as Jacques Roux and Jacques Hébert. The \"sans-culottes\" also populated the ranks of paramilitary forces charged with physically enforcing the policies and legislation of the revolutionary government, a task that commonly included violence and the carrying out of executions against perceived enemies of the revolution. During the peak of their influence, the \"sans-culottes\" were seen as the truest and most authentic sons of the French Revolution, held up as living representations of the revolutionary spirit. During the height of revolutionary fervor, such as during the Reign of Terror when it was dangerous to be associated with anything counter-revolutionary, even public functionaries and officials actually from middle or upper-class backgrounds adopted the clothing and label of the \"sans-culottes\" as a demonstration of solidarity with the working class and patriotism for the new French Republic. But by early 1794, as the bourgeois and middle class elements of the revolution began to gain more political influence, the fervent working class radicalism of the \"sans-culottes\" rapidly began falling out of favor within the National Convention. It was not long before Maximilien de Robespierre and the now dominant Jacobin Club turned against the radical factions of the National Convention, including the \"sans-culottes\", despite their having previously been the strongest supporters of the revolution and its government. Several important leaders of the Enragés and Hébertists were imprisoned and executed by the very revolutionary tribunals they had supported. The execution of radical leader Jacques Hébert spelled the decline of the \"sans-culottes\", and with the successive rise of even more conservative governments, the Thermidorian Convention and the French Directory, they were definitively silenced as a political force. After the defeat of the 1795 popular revolt in Paris, the \"sans-culottes\" ceased to play any effective political role in France until the July Revolution of 1830.", "The distinctive costume of typical \"sans-culottes\" featured:", "On 27 April 1791, Robespierre opposed plans to reorganize the National Guard and restrict its membership to active citizens, largely property owners. He demanded the reconstitution of the army on a democratic basis to allow passive citizens. He felt that the army had to become the instrument of defence of the Revolution and no longer be a threat to it. On 28 April, despite Robespierre's intensive campaign, the principle of an armed bourgeois militia was definitively enacted in the Assembly. Along with other Jacobins, he urged in his magazine the creation of an \"armée révolutionnaire\" in Paris, consisting of 20,000 men, with the goal to defend \"liberty\" (the revolution), maintain order in the sections and educate the members in democratic principles; an idea he borrowed from Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Machiavelli. According to Jean Jaures, he considered this even more important than the right to strike. Following the king's veto of the Assembly's efforts to raise a militia of volunteers, the reinstatement of Brissotin ministers and suppression of non-juring priests, the monarchy faced an abortive Demonstration of 20 June 1792. Sergent-Marceau and, the administrators of police, urged the Sans-culottes to lay down their weapons, telling them it was illegal to present a petition in arms, although their march to the Tuileries was not banned. They invited the officials to join the procession and march along with them. Early in the morning (10 August 1792) 30,000 Fédérés, and Sans-culottes militants from the sections led a successful assault upon the Tuileries; according to Robespierre a triumph for the \"passive\" (non-voting) citizens., head of the sans-culottes in the Faubourg Saint-Antoine, was appointed provisional president of the Insurrectionary Commune. In Spring 1793, after the defection of Dumouriez, Robespierre urged the creation of a \"Sans-culotte army\" to sweep away any conspirator. On 1 May the crowds threatened armed insurrection if the emergency measures demanded [price control] were not adopted. On 8 and 12 May Robespierre repeated in the Jacobin club the necessity of founding a revolutionary army consisting of Sans-culottes, paid by a tax on the rich, to beat the aristocrats inside France and the Convention. Every public square should be used to produce arms and pikes. On 18 May Marguerite-Élie Guadet proposed to examine the \"exactions\" and to replace municipal authorities. As rioting persisted a commission of inquiry of twelve members, with a very strong Girondin majority, was set up to investigate the anarchy in the communes and the activities of the Sans-culottes. On 28 May the Paris Commune accepted the creation of a sans-culottes army to enforce revolutionary laws. Petitioners from the sections and the Commune appeared at the bar of the Convention at about five o'clock in the afternoon on 31 May. They demanded that a domestic revolutionary army should be raised and that the price of bread should be fixed at three sous a pound, that nobles holding senior rank in the army should be dismissed, that armories should be created for arming the sans-culottes, the departments of State purged, suspects arrested, the right to vote provisionally reserved to sans-culottes only, and a fund set apart for the relatives of those defending their country and for the relief of aged and infirm. According to Hampson, the subject is quite extraordinarily complicated and obscure. The next day all Paris was in arms. Hanriot was ordered to march his National Guard, by this time mostly consisting of Sans-culottes, from the town hall to the Palais National. On 2 June 1793, a large force of supposedly 80,000 Sans-culottes and National Guards led by Hanriot, surrounded the Convention with 160-172 guns. On 4 September, the Sans-culottes again invaded the Convention. They demanded tougher measures against rising prices and the setting up of a system of terror to root out the counter-revolution. The Sans-culottes took an especially active interest in the revolutionary army. A \"Sans-culotte army\" (in a sense Robespierre's brain-child,) was formed in Paris, to sweep away conspirators. (A force of citizen-soldiers which could go into the countryside to supervise the requisition of grain, to prevent the manoeuvres of rich \"égoistes\" and deliver them up to the vengeance of the laws'.) Barère voiced the Committee of Public Safety's support for the measures desired by the assembly: he presented a decree that was passed immediately, establishing a paid armed force of 6,000 men and 1,000 gunners ‘designed to crush the counter-revolutionaries, to execute wherever the need arises the revolutionary laws and the measures of public safety that are decreed by the National Convention, and to protect provisions. (A force of citizen-soldiers which could go into the countryside to supervise the requisition of grain, to prevent the manoeuvres of rich \"égoistes\" and deliver them up to the vengeance of the laws'.) For that reason, twelve travelling tribunals (with moveable guillotines) were set up. Three months later, on 4 December the departmental \"armées revolutionnaires\" (except in Paris) were banned on proposal of Tallien. The sections lost all rights to control their delegates and officials. On 4 March 1794 there were rumours of uprising in the Cordeliers club. The Hébertists hoped that the National Convention would expel Robespierre and his Montagnard supporters. The Sans-culottes did not respond and Hanriot refused to cooperate. On 13 March Hébert, the voice of the Sans-culottes, had been using the latest issue of \"Le Père Duchesne\" to criticise Robespierre. On 18 March Bourdon attacked the Commune and the Sans-culottes army. (Ronsin, Vincent, Momoro, Clootz, etc.) were arrested on charges of complicity with foreign powers (William Pitt the Younger), etc. and guillotined on 24 March. On 27 March the infantry and cavalry of the \"armée revolutionnaire\", for eight months active in Paris and surroundings, was finally disbanded, except their artillery. (Hanriot was denounced by the Revolutionary Tribunal as an accomplice of Hébert, but seems to have been protected by Robespierre.)", "The working class was especially hurt by a hail storm which damaged grain crops in 1788, which caused bread prices to skyrocket. While the peasants of rural France could sustain themselves with their farms, and the wealthy aristocracy could still afford bread, the urban workers of France, the group that comprised the \"sans-culottes\", suffered. In the city, division grew between the \"sans-culottes\" and these wealthy aristocrats; the former had a particular hostility “towards those with large private incomes.” The faction known as the Montagnards expressed concern for the working classes of France. When the National Convention met to discuss the fate of the former king Louis XVI in 1792, the \"sans-culottes\" vehemently opposed a proper trial, instead opting for an immediate execution. The moderate Girondin faction voted for a trial, but the radical Montagnards sided with the \"sans-culottes\", deeming that a trial was not necessary, and won with a slim majority. Louis XVI was executed on January 21, 1793. The demands of the \"sans-culottes\" did not stop with the execution of the King, and the Montagnards worked hard to fulfill their mounting orders. This increased pressure from the radical masses exacerbated the ideological split between the Montagnards and the Girondins, and tensions began to grow within the Convention. Eventually, by May of 1793, the Montagnards worked with the National Guard -- which was, at this time, mostly \"sans-culottes\" -- to depose many of the Girondin deputies. Jeremy Popkin writes, “[the Montagnards and the \"sans-culottes\"] surrounded the Convention, and two days later the intimidated assembly suspended twenty-nine Girondin deputies. The defeated Girondin leaders fled to the provinces. The Montagnards were left in control of the Convention, which itself was clearly at the mercy of whoever could command the armed \"sans-culottes\" battalions.” Now, whoever was in control of France’s destiny had to answer to the \"sans-culottes\", who “effectively exercised legislative power” in situations of unrest. Otherwise, they would risk a similar uprising and their own exile, or possibly even execution. This political shift towards radicalism would soon turn into the Reign of Terror.", "The mass violence of the \"sans-culottes\" created a lasting impact during the Reign of Terror. These revolutionaries allied themselves most readily with those in power who promised radical change. The \"sans-culottes\" believed in a complete upheaval of the government, pushing for the execution of any that were considered corrupt by the leaders, even going as far as wanting “the enemies of the republic [to] hang-main and the guillotine to stand like the first patriots, the finisher of the law.” The support of the \"sans-culottes\" could be used as a political weapon to get rid of enemies of the Revolution. The key to Robespierre’s Terror lay in their willingness and ability to mobilize. Thus, the Committee leaders used speeches to gain their support. In a speech \"On the Principles of Political Morality.\" Robespierre proclaimed: “It has been said that terror was the mainspring of despotic government. Does your government, then, resemble a despotism? Yes, as the sword which glitters in the hands of liberty's heroes resembles the one with which tyranny's lackeys are armed.” Robespierre expressed a desire for liberty that the \"sans-culottes\" admired. They pushed the Committee for radical changes and often found a voice with Robespierre. Their desperate desire for immediate changes and their aptitude for violence made the \"sans-culottes\" a necessary group in implementing the Terror.", "The popular image of the \"sans-culotte\" has gained currency as an enduring symbol for the passion, idealism and patriotism of the common man of the French Revolution. The term sans-culottism, \"sans-culottisme\" in French, refers to this idealized image and the themes associated with it. Many public figures and revolutionaries who were not strictly working class styled themselves \"citoyens sans-culottes\" in solidarity and recognition. However, in the period immediately following the Thermidorian Reaction the \"sans-culottes\" and other far-left political factions were heavily persecuted and repressed by the likes of the Muscadins. The French Republican Calendar at first termed the complementary days at the end of the year \"Sansculottides\"; however, the National Convention suppressed the name when adopting the Constitution of the Year III (1795) and substituted the name \"jours complémentaires\" (\"additional days\").", "According to Sally Waller, part of the \"sans-culottes\" mantra was \"permanent anticipation of betrayal and treachery\". The members of the \"sans-culottes\" were constantly on edge and fearing betrayal, which can be attributed to their violent and radical rebellion tactics. Marxist historian Eric Hobsbawm observes that the \"sans-culottes\" were a \"shapeless, mostly urban movement of the labouring poor, small craftsmen, shopkeepers, artisans, tiny entrepreneurs and the like\". He further notes they were organised notably in the local political clubs of Paris and \"provided the main striking-force of the revolution\". Hobsbawm writes that these were the actual demonstrators, rioters and constructors of street barricades. However, Hobsbawm maintains, \"sans-culottism\" provided no real alternative to the bourgeois radicalism of the Jacobins; from Hobsbawm's Marxist perspective, the ideal of the \"sans-culottes\", which sought to express the interests of the 'little men' who existed between the poles of the bourgeois and the proletarian, was contradictory and ultimately unrealizable. The Marxist historian Albert Soboul emphasized the importance of the \"sans-culottes\" as a social class, a sort of proto-proletariat that played a central role in the French Revolution. That view has been sharply attacked by scholars who say the \"sans-culottes\" were not a class at all. Indeed, as one historian points out, Soboul's concept has not been used by scholars in any other period of French history.", "Ironically, given its origin as a term to describe men's breeches, the term \"culottes\" in French is now used to describe women's underpants, an article of clothing that has little or no relation to the historic culottes. The term \"\"sans-culottes\"\" has been used colloquially to mean not wearing underpants." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "Style." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "He was born in the Silesian town Bílovec, today on the wall to the right of the main entrance of the parish church is a plaque that hangs in his memory. He was apprenticed to a weaver, and later studied cutlery at school. But his break came in a local painter shop with Francis Andrew Schaffer, where he learned the basics of painting. Painting excited him and it became his entire life. From 1751 he studied at the Academy of Fine Arts Vienna, and in 1754 in a competition he received the second prize for painting \"Anointing Saul the King\" (today, this image is a preparatory sketch in the German National Museum in Nuremberg), which had secured the support of the future of this school.", "His teacher there was, Franz Anton Maulbertsch, with whom he worked throughout his life kept friendly relations, working together as the frescoes and paintings for a church in Mikulov. In many places, Leicher painted altarpieces in churches with frescoes. The influence of his teachers could be seen in his work, as is evident in the rich coloristic main altar painting in Bílovec. In several cases, the works were long attributed to just Maulbertsch and only recently found their true authorship as Leicher's. There is now no doubt that many of his works are still hidden in anonymity in various churches and collections, sometimes surprisingly authorship is revealed even smaller genre paintings and numerous sketches and drawings bear the marks of his hands. In the latter part of the 18th century he devoted himself also to creating smaller cabinet paintings with secular themes.", "His composition, the concept of shapes, light handling and other features paintings show a significant effect of the work Maulbertsch, whose work he admired. His approach is quieter, the expression of the character rather lyrical, restrained, narrative tuned. Unlike Maulbertsch, Leicher was not affected by the expressive manifestation of Paul Troger. He was inspired apparently also by other Venetian painters of 18th century, particularly the compositions of Giambattista Pittoni, and also images of Peter Paul Rubens. It is most evident on two paintings for the church altar of John the Baptist in Kroměříž. Its development lacks obvious drama or a representative sample of altarpieces in Opava parish church of the Assumption, which are often seen as the most perfect, do not lose connection to the Rococo works of his early creative period. Some critics, however, see more inspiration coming from the works of Michelangelo Unterberger, a professor at the Vienna Academy, whose work was a kind of moderate variant of the former academic uniform style, especially for it suggests a simple, clear compositional solutions and more lyrical, moderate tone of works by both artists." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "Beginnings (1987–1993).", "Worldwide exposure (1994–1999).", "Established career (2000–2008).", "Critical recognition (2009–2014).", "Later roles (2015–present).", "Public image.", "Business ventures.", "Philanthropy.", "Personal life.", "Relationships.", "Children.", "Accidents.", "Legal issues." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Bullock was born in Arlington, Virginia, on July 26, 1964, the daughter of Helga Mathilde Meyer (1942–2000), an opera singer and voice teacher from Germany, and John W. Bullock (1925–2018), an Army employee and part-time voice coach from Birmingham, Alabama. Her father, who was in charge of the Army's Military Postal Service in Europe, was stationed in Nuremberg when he met her mother. Her parents married in Germany. Bullock's maternal grandfather was a German rocket scientist from Nuremberg. The family returned to Arlington, where her father worked with the Army Materiel Command before becoming a contractor for The Pentagon. Bullock has a younger sister, Gesine Bullock-Prado, who served as president of Bullock's production company Fortis Films. For 12 years Bullock was raised in Nuremberg, Germany and Vienna and Salzburg, Austria, and grew up speaking German. She had a Waldorf education in Nuremberg. As a child, while her mother went on European opera tours, Bullock usually stayed with her aunt Christl and cousin Susanne, the latter of whom later married politician Peter Ramsauer. Bullock studied ballet and vocal arts as a child and frequently accompanied her mother, taking small parts in her opera productions. In Nuremberg, she sang in the opera's children's choir. Bullock has a scar above her left eye which was caused by a fall into a creek when she was a child. While she maintains her American citizenship, Bullock applied for German citizenship in 2009. Bullock attended Washington-Lee High School, where she was a cheerleader and performed in school theater productions. After graduating in 1982, she attended East Carolina University (ECU) in Greenville, North Carolina, where she received a BFA in Drama in 1987. While at ECU, she performed in multiple theater productions including \"Peter Pan\" and \"Three Sisters\". She then moved to Manhattan, New York, where she supported herself as a bartender, cocktail waitress, and coat checker while auditioning for roles.", "", "While in New York, Bullock took acting classes with Sanford Meisner. She appeared in several student films, and later landed a role in an Off-Broadway play \"No Time Flat\". Director Alan J. Levi was impressed by Bullock's performance and offered her a part in the made-for-television film \"\" (1989). This led to her being cast in a series of small roles in several independent films as well as in the lead role of the short-lived NBC television version of the film \"Working Girl\" (1990). She went on to appear in several films, such as \"Love Potion No. 9\" (1992), \"The Thing Called Love\" (1993) and \"Fire on the Amazon\" (1993), before rising to early prominence with her supporting role in the sci-fi action film \"Demolition Man\" (1993).", "Bullock's big breakthrough came in 1994, when she played Anne Porter, a passenger eventually driving the bus in the smash-hit blockbuster \"Speed\" alongside fellow actor Keanu Reeves. She was required to read for \"Speed\" to ensure that there was the right chemistry between her and Reeves. She recalls that they had to do \"all these really physical scenes together, rolling around on the floor and stuff.\" \"Speed\" garnered acclaim from Rotten Tomatoes which deemed it a \"terrific popcorn thriller [with] outstanding performances from Keanu Reeves, Dennis Hopper, and Sandra Bullock\". It took in US$350 million worldwide. After the success of \"Speed\", Bullock established herself as a Hollywood leading actress. In the romantic comedy \"While You Were Sleeping\" (1995), she portrayed a lonely Chicago Transit Authority token collector who saves the life of a man. While the film made US$182 million globally, it received positive reviews, with Rotten Tomatoes' critical consensus reading: \"\"While You Were Sleeping\" is built wholly from familiar ingredients, but assembled with such skill—and with such a charming performance from Sandra Bullock—that it gives formula a good name.\" She received her first Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy. In 1995, Bullock also starred in the thriller \"The Net\" (1995) as a computer programmer who stumbles upon a conspiracy that puts her life and the lives of those around her in great danger. Owen Gleiberman, writing for \"Entertainment Weekly\", complimented her performance saying \"Bullock pulls you into the movie. Her overripe smile and clear, imploring eyes are sometimes evocative of Julia Roberts\". \"The Net\" made US$110.6 million. In the crime drama \"A Time to Kill\" (1996), Bullock portrayed a member of the defense team, in the trial for murder of two men who raped a young girl, opposite Samuel L. Jackson, Matthew McConaughey and Kevin Spacey. She received a MTV Movie Award nomination for Best Breakthrough Performance. The film grossed US$152 million around the world. Bullock subsequently received US$11 million for the critically panned \"\" (1997), which she agreed to star in for financial backing for her next project, \"Hope Floats\" (1998). She has stated that she regrets making the sequel. In \"Hope Floats\" she starred as an unassuming housewife whose life is disrupted when her husband (played by Michael Paré) reveals his infidelity to her on a talk show. While the film made US$81.4 million, critic James Berardinelli remarked that her \"undisputed strength lies in a blend of light drama and comedy\". Bullock starred in comedy \"Practical Magic\" (1998) with Nicole Kidman as two witch sisters who face a curse which threatens to prevent them ever finding lasting love. While the film opened atop the chart on its North American opening weekend, it flopped at the box office. The same year she provided her voice as Miriam the animated adventure film \"The Prince of Egypt\" and wrote, produced, and directed the short film \"Making Sandwiches\". Alongside Ben Affleck, she played a free-spirited drifter who begins to talk to a writer in the 1999 romantic comedy \"Forces of Nature\". The film was a commercial hit, grossing US$93 million worldwide, and \"Boxoffice Magazine\" remarked: \"The combination of Affleck's deadpan by-the-book persona with the spontaneity of Bullock's character sparks with convincing chemistry, their diverse personalities causing both to grow and bring to the surface what each is running away from or can't admit.\"", "Bullock took on the role of a FBI agent who must go undercover as a beauty pageant contestant in the comedy \"Miss Congeniality\" (2000). It was a financial success, grossing US$212 million worldwide and earned Bullock another Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Actress – Motion Picture Musical or Comedy. Also in 2000 she played a newspaper columnist obliged to enter a rehabilitation program for alcoholism in the dramedy \"28 Days\"; it was a moderate commercial success with a global gross of US$62.1 million. Bullock produced the romantic comedy \"Kate & Leopold\", released in 2001, then starred in the psychological thriller \"Murder by Numbers\" (2002) as a seasoned homicide detective. Roger Ebert awarded the film three stars out of a possible four, stating: \"Bullock does a good job here of working against her natural likability, creating a character you'd like to like, and could like, if she weren't so sad, strange and turned in upon herself.\" Bullock teamed up with Hugh Grant for the romantic comedy \"Two Weeks Notice\" (2002) in which she starred as a lawyer who walks out on her boss. Liz Braun, of \"Jam! Movies\", found Bullock and Grant to be \"perfectly paired\", stating: \"The script allows the two actors to be at their comedic best, even though the film as a whole is amateurish in many ways\". \"Two Weeks Notice\" made US$199 million globally. She was presented with the Raul Julia Award for Excellence in 2002 for helping expand career openings for Hispanic talent in the media and entertainment industry as the executive producer of the sitcom \"George Lopez\" (2002–2007). She also made several appearances on the show as Accident Amy, an accident-prone employee at the factory Lopez's character manages. As part of a large ensemble cast, Bullock played the wife of a district attorney in the drama \"Crash\" (2004), which won the Academy Award for Best Picture. She received positive reviews for her performance; some critics suggested that it was the best performance of her career. In 2005, she received a US$17.5 million salary for \"\" and was a co-recipient of the Women in Film Crystal Award. In the romantic drama \"The Lake House\" (2006), Bullock reunited with Keanu Reeves although their characters were separated throughout the film; they were only on set together for two weeks during filming. The film had a negative critical response but made US$114.8 million. In 2006 Bullock played Harper Lee in \"Infamous\", a drama based on George Plimpton's 1997 book, \"Truman Capote: In Which Various Friends, Enemies, Acquaintances, and Detractors Recall His Turbulent Career\". Bullock headlined the supernatural thriller \"Premonition\" (2007) as a housewife who experiences the days surrounding her husband's death in non-chronological order. Despite negative reviews, several critics, including Rex Reed, commended Bullock for her performance and the film grossed US$84.1 million around the globe. In 2008 Bullock was announced as the face of the cosmetic brand Artistry.", "Bullock had two record highs in 2009. The romantic comedy \"The Proposal\", with Ryan Reynolds, grossed US$317 million at the box office worldwide which made it her fourth-most successful picture to date. She received her third Golden Globe Award nomination for Best Performance by an Actress in a Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy. The drama \"The Blind Side\" opened at number two behind \"\" with US$34.2 million, making it her second-highest opening weekend ever. \"The Blind Side\" grossed over US$309 million, making it her highest-grossing domestic film, her fourth-highest-grossing film worldwide, and the first one in history to pass the US$200 million mark with only one top-billed female star. Bullock had initially turned down the role of Leigh Anne Tuohy three times due to discomfort in portraying a devout Christian. She was awarded the Academy Award, Golden Globe Award, Screen Actors Guild Award and Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Actress. \"The Blind Side\" also received an Academy Award for Best Picture nomination. Winning the Oscar also gave Bullock another unique distinction—since she won two Razzies the day before for her performance in \"All About Steve\" (2009)—she is the only performer ever to have been named both best and worst for the same year. Following a two-year hiatus from the screen, Bullock starred alongside Tom Hanks as a widow of the September 11 attacks in the drama \"Extremely Loud & Incredibly Close\", a film adaptation based on the novel of the same name. Despite mixed reviews, the film was nominated for numerous awards including an Academy Award for Best Picture. Bullock was nominated for Best Actress Drama by Teen Choice Awards. In 2013, Bullock starred alongside Melissa McCarthy in the comedy \"The Heat\" as a FBI Special Agent who, along with a city detective, must take down a mobster in Boston. It received positive reviews from critics, and took in US$230 million at the box office worldwide. Bullock played an astronaut stranded in space in the sci-fi thriller \"Gravity\", opposite George Clooney, which premiered at the 70th Venice Film Festival and was released on October 4, 2013 to coincide with the beginning of World Space Week. \"Gravity\" received universal acclaim among critics and a standing ovation in Venice. The film was called \"the most realistic and beautifully choreographed film ever set in space\" and some critics called Bullock's performance the best work of her career. \"Variety\" wrote: \"Gravity\" took in US$716 million at the box office worldwide and made it Bullock's second-most successful picture. For her role as Dr. Ryan Stone, Bullock was nominated for the Academy Award, Golden Globe Award, BAFTA Award, Screen Actors Guild Award, and Critics' Choice Movie Award for Best Actress.", "In 2015 Bullock provided the voice of the villain in the animated film \"Minions\", which became her highest-grossing film to date with over US$1.1 billion worldwide and she executive produced and starred, as a political consultant hired to help win a Bolivian presidential election, in the drama \"Our Brand Is Crisis\" based on the 2005 documentary film of the same name by Rachel Boynton. Upon the film's release, which was a critical and commercial flop, she took another sabbatical from film. Bullock returned in an all-female spin-off of the \"Ocean's Eleven\" franchise, \"Ocean's 8\" (2018) directed by Gary Ross. Bullock plays Debbie Ocean, the sister of Danny Ocean, who helps plan a sophisticated heist of the annual Met Gala in New York City. The film was a commercial success grossing US$296.9 million globally. Bullock played Malorie, a woman who must find a way to guide herself and her children to safety despite the potential threat from an unseen adversary, in the Netflix post-apocalyptic horror film \"Bird Box\" (2018), based on the novel of the same name. Bullock received universal acclaim for her work. \"Variety\" found her to be \"wonderfully self-reliant\" while \"TheWrap\" described her performance as \"fascinating and terrifying to watch.\" Bullock's films have grossed over US$5.3 billion worldwide and her total domestic gross stands at over US$2.6 billion.", "Since her acting debut, Bullock has been dubbed \"America's sweetheart\" in the media due to her \"friendly and direct and so unpretentious\" nature. She was selected as one of \"People\" magazine's 50 Most Beautiful People in the world in 1996 and 1999 and was also ranked number 58 on \"Empire\" magazine's Top 100 Movie Stars of All Time list. On March 24, 2005, Bullock received a motion picture star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6801 Hollywood Boulevard in Hollywood. In 2010, \"Time\" magazine included Bullock in its annual \"Time\" 100 as one of the most influential people in the world. Bullock was selected by \"People\" magazine as its 2010 Woman of the Year and ranked number 12 on \"People\"s Most Beautiful 2011 list. In September 2013, Bullock joined other Hollywood legends at the TCL Chinese Theatre on Hollywood Boulevard in making imprints of her hands and feet in cement of the theater's forecourt. In November 2013 \"The Hollywood Reporter\" named Bullock among the most powerful women in entertainment and she was also named \"Entertainment Weekly\"s Entertainer of the Year due to her success with \"The Heat\" and \"Gravity\". Bullock ranked number two on the 2014 \"Forbes\" list of most powerful actresses and was honored with the Decade of Hotness Award by Spike Guys' Choice Awards. She was named the Most Beautiful Woman by \"People\" in 2015.", "Bullock owns the production company Fortis Films. She was an executive producer of the \"George Lopez\" sitcom (co-produced with Robert Borden and Bruce Helford), which garnered a syndication deal of US$10 million. Bullock tried to produce a film based on F.X. Toole's short story \"Million Dollar Baby\" but could not interest the studios in a female boxing drama. The story was eventually adapted and directed by Clint Eastwood as the Oscar-winning film \"Million Dollar Baby\" (2004). Fortis Films also produced \"All About Steve\" which was released in September 2009. Her father, John Bullock, was the company's CEO and her sister, Gesine Bullock-Prado, is the former president. In November 2006, Bullock founded an Austin, Texas, restaurant named Bess Bistro which was located on West 6th Street. She later opened another business, Walton's Fancy and Staple, across the street in a building she extensively renovated. Walton's is a bakery, upscale restaurant, and floral shop that also offers services including event planning. After almost nine years in business, Bess Bistro closed on September 20, 2015.", "Bullock has been a public supporter of the American Red Cross and has donated US$1 million to the organization at least five times. Her first public donation of that amount was to the Red Cross's Liberty Disaster Relief Fund. Three years later, she sent money in response to the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunamis. In 2010, she donated US$1 million to relief efforts in Haiti following the Haiti earthquake and again donated the same amount following the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami. She donated US$1 million in 2017 to support Red Cross relief efforts for Hurricane Harvey in Texas. Along with other stars, Bullock did a public service announcement urging people to sign a petition for clean-up efforts of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico. Bullock backs the Texas non-profit organization The Kindred Life Foundation, Inc. (KLF) and in late 2008 joined other top celebrities in supporting the work of KLF's founder and CEO, Amos Ramirez. At a fundraising gala for the organization, Bullock said, \"Amos has led many efforts across our nation that have helped families that are in need. Our country needs more organizations that are committed to the service that Kindred Life is.\" In 2012, Bullock was inducted into the Warren Easton Hall of Fame for her donations to charities. She was honored in 2013 with the Favorite Humanitarian Award at the 39th People's Choice Awards for her contributions to New Orleans' Warren Easton High School, which was severely damaged by Hurricane Katrina.", "", "Bullock was once engaged to actor Tate Donovan, whom she met while filming \"Love Potion No. 9\". Their relationship lasted three years. She previously dated football player Troy Aikman and actors Matthew McConaughey and Ryan Gosling. Bullock married motorcycle builder and \"Monster Garage\" host Jesse James on July 16, 2005. They first met when Bullock arranged for her ten-year-old godson to meet James as a Christmas present. In November 2009, Bullock and James entered into a custody battle with James' second ex-wife, former adult film actress Janine Lindemulder, with whom James had a child. Bullock and James subsequently won full legal custody of James' five-year-old daughter. A scandal arose in March 2010 when several women claimed to have had affairs with James during his marriage to Bullock. Bullock canceled European promotional appearances for \"The Blind Side\" citing \"unforeseen personal reasons\". On March 18, 2010, James responded to the rumors of infidelity by issuing a public apology to Bullock. He stated, \"The vast majority of the allegations reported are untrue and unfounded... beyond that, I will not dignify these private matters with any further public comment.\" James declared, \"There is only one person to blame for this whole situation, and that is me.\" He asked that Bullock and their children one day \"find it in their hearts to forgive me\" for their \"pain and embarrassment\". James' publicist subsequently announced on March 30, 2010, that James had checked into a rehabilitation facility to \"deal with personal issues\" and save his relationship to Bullock. However, on April 28, 2010, it was reported that Bullock had filed for divorce on April 23 in Austin, Texas. Their divorce was finalized on June 28, 2010, with \"conflict of personalities\" cited as the reason.", "Bullock announced on April 28, 2010, that she had proceeded with plans to adopt a son born in January 2010 in New Orleans, Louisiana. Bullock and James had begun an initial adoption process four months earlier. Bullock's son began living with them in January 2010, but they chose to keep the news private until after the Oscars in March 2010. However, given the couple's separation and then divorce, Bullock continued the adoption of her son as a single parent. Bullock announced in December 2015 that she had adopted a second child and appeared on the cover of \"People\" magazine with her then three-year-old new daughter.", "On December 20, 2000, Bullock was in a private jet crash on a runway from which she and the two crew escaped uninjured. The pilots were unable to activate the runway lights during a night landing at Jackson Hole Airport due to the use of out-of-date approach plates but continued the landing anyway. The aircraft landed in the airport's graded safety area between the runway and parallel taxiway and hit a snowbank. The accident caused a separation of the nose cone and landing gear, partial separation of the right wing, and a bend in the left wing. While Bullock was in Massachusetts on April 18, 2008, shooting the film \"The Proposal\", she and her then-husband Jesse James were in a vehicle that was hit head-on by a drunk driver. They were uninjured.", "Beginning in 2002 Bullock was stalked across several states by a man named Thomas James Weldon. Bullock obtained a restraining order against him in 2003, which was renewed in 2006. After the restraining order expired and Weldon was released from a mental institution, he again traveled across several states to find Bullock; she then obtained another restraining order. Bullock won a multimillion-dollar judgment against Benny Daneshjou, the builder of her Lake Austin, Texas, home in October 2004. The jury ruled that the house was uninhabitable. It has since been torn down and rebuilt. Daneshjou and his insurer later settled with Bullock for roughly half the awarded verdict. On April 22, 2007, a woman named Marcia Diana Valentine was found lying outside James and Bullock's home in Orange County, California. When James confronted the woman, she ran to her car, got behind the wheel, and tried to run over him. She was said to be an obsessed fan of Bullock. Valentine was charged with one felony count each of aggravated assault and stalking. Bullock obtained a restraining order to bar Valentine from \"contacting or coming near her home, family or work for three years\". Valentine pleaded not guilty to charges of aggravated assault and stalking. She was subsequently convicted of stalking and sentenced to three years' probation. Joshua James Corbett broke into Bullock's Los Angeles home in June 2014. Bullock locked herself in a room and dialed 911. Corbett pleaded no contest in 2017 and was sentenced to five years' probation for stalking Bullock and breaking into her residence. He was then subject to a ten-year protective order that required him to stay away from Bullock. After Corbett missed a court date the previous month, police officers went to his parents' residence on May 2, 2018, where he lived in a guest house, to arrest him. He refused to leave and threatened to shoot officers. A SWAT team was called and, after a five-hour standoff, they deployed gas canisters and entered the house where they found Corbett had committed suicide. Corbett's death was the result of \"multiple incised wounds\" according to the Los Angeles County coroner." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Premise.", "Production.", "Theme song and title sequence.", "Syndication.", "Home media.", "Reception." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Frank Lambert, a divorced contractor, has three children: John Thomas (J.T.), Alicia (Al), and Brendan. Carol Foster, a widowed salon owner, also has three children: Dana, Karen, and Mark. Both families live in Port Washington, Wisconsin. Frank and Carol marry while vacationing in Jamaica after a whirlwind courtship and Frank plans an identical vacation to “accidentally” run into Carol. They planned to keep their marriage a secret, but Frank accidentally reveals to J.T. they are married during a barbecue he and Carol hold to introduce all the children, leaving them surprised and angry at first. Each episode depicts typical situations for a new blended family. Family members’ differences cause arguments and resentments, but over time they grow to tolerate and become loyal to one another.", "The series was created and executive produced by William Bickley and Michael Warren, and developed and executive produced by Thomas L. Miller and Robert L. Boyett. It was produced by Bickley-Warren Productions, Miller-Boyett Productions and Lorimar Television (the latter doing so from 1991 to 1993, when Warner Bros. Television assumed production responsibilities for it and Lorimar's other television series after shared corporate parent Time Warner consolidated the two production companies). The casting of Patrick Duffy fulfilled a contractual obligation that Lorimar made to give him a new show after his previous series, \"Dallas\" (which was also produced by Lorimar), had ended its run. It was created off of the idea of combining two of the most popular television stars from the 1970s known for their good looks (Duffy and Somers) to star as parents to attract adult viewers, with current teen celebrities (Staci Keanan from \"My Two Dads\" and \"Going Places\", Brandon Call from \"Baywatch\" and Sasha Mitchell from \"Dallas\") to star as their children to attract children and teen viewers. Staci Keanan and Christopher Castile had previously appeared on the Miller-Boyett-produced ABC sitcom \"Going Places\", which debuted the season prior to \"Step By Step\", playing characters with no familial relation (Keanan – who played Lindsay Bowen, the teenage neighbor of the show's adult characters – as a series regular, Castile as a recurring character). Keanan was the first of the two \"Going Places\" stars to be cast on \"Step By Step\" in the spring of 1991. Castile, who had played gawky child Sam Roberts on \"Going Places\", brought the same character traits to the Mark Foster role, which was speculated to be Miller-Boyett's continued attempt to give the \"Family Matters\" character Steve Urkel a white counterpart. In a similar instance of hiring actors over from their other TV series, the producers also cast Josh Byrne as Brendan Lambert on \"Step By Step\", after he had just finished a supporting role as Patrick Kozak on Miller-Boyett's single-season CBS sitcom \"The Family Man\". When the series was casting its characters, child actor Jarrett Lennon originally landed the role of Mark Foster. Lennon had been chosen by the producers after guest starring in the last original episode of the Miller-Boyett series \"The Hogan Family\", which was produced in late 1990. After shooting the original (unaired) pilot for \"Step By Step\", Lennon was dismissed from the role of Mark, and the producers later replaced him with Castile (who had blonde hair like on-screen mother Somers, as opposed to Lennon having brown hair). Most of Lennon's pilot scenes were reshot with Castile, but during the first season, footage of Lennon remained in the show's opening title sequence. Lennon only appeared in wide shots with the Lambert/Foster family or, in the case of Suzanne Somers' credit scene, fleetingly appearing at the bottom of camera view as the kids huddled around Somers. All traces of Lennon were edited out by the second season. In 1996, these two actors had the tables turned on each other; Castile served as the original voice of Eugene Horowitz on the Nickelodeon animated series \"Hey Arnold!\", but after a few episodes was replaced by Lennon, who voiced Eugene for the remainder of the show's first season. \"Going Places\" creators Robert Griffard and Howard Adler would end up employed with \"Step By Step\" as co-executive producers and members of its writing staff until the show's fifth season; Adler and Griffard later wrote an additional episode of the show as freelancers in the seventh season. Patrick Duffy directed several episodes, starting with the second season. The house shown in establishing shots for scenes set at the Lambert-Foster home is located at 2011 Fletcher Avenue in South Pasadena, California, although the series was actually filmed at Warner Bros. Studios in Burbank, California. ABC chose to delay the series' sixth season to the 1996–97 mid-season (premiering in March 1997), in order to make room on that season's fall schedule for freshman sitcoms \"Sabrina the Teenage Witch\" and \"Clueless\", which joined established series \"Family Matters\" and \"Boy Meets World\" on the TGIF lineup; the network canceled it after six seasons in May 1997, due to declining ratings. CBS concurrently reached a deal with Miller-Boyett Productions to acquire the rights to it and \"Family Matters\" from ABC, as that network attempted to build its own Friday night lineup of family-friendly situation comedies for the fall of 1997, called the \"CBS Block Party\". The series' ratings, which had been declining for several seasons, continued to erode, and the show ended its run in June 1998. It ended without an official series finale, although the last episode centered on Frank and Carol considering selling the house. According to Staci Keanan and Christine Lakin, the series was supposed to end with Dana and Rich's wedding at the house, and elaborate preparations were underway for it prior to the series' abrupt end.", "The series' theme song \"Second Time Around\" was written and composed by Jesse Frederick and Bennett Salvay (both wrote the themes for other sitcoms produced by Miller-Boyett Productions such as \"Full House\", \"Perfect Strangers\", and \"Family Matters\"), and was performed by Frederick and Teresa James. The full 87-second version of it was only used during the first season. It was routinely edited over the following three seasons to allow additional time for scenes: the fourth verse was removed and the chorus was truncated in the second season edit, the kid chorus accompanying Jesse Frederick during the chorus' lyrics was removed in the version used during the third season, and the edit heard during most of the fourth season and the entire fifth season (which lasted for only 65 seconds) eliminated the electric guitar/drum/symphonic instrumental at the beginning. The theme song and title sequence were dropped entirely for the sixth season, relegating the credits for the show's main cast and principal producers to appearing over each episode's cold open (which was preceded for the final two seasons by an abbreviated opening bumper featuring the family applauding as Lily blows out the candles on her birthday cake). The theme song was brought back for the seventh season, upon the show's move from ABC to CBS, although it was edited down to include only the chorus and the closing instrumental flourish (restoring the original longer symphonic instrumental heard in the original long version, and the edits used for the second and third seasons). The amusement park seen in the opening credits is depicted as being located along the shores of Lake Michigan in Wisconsin (no amusement park like this actually exists in Port Washington, but it is similar to Bay Beach Amusement Park in Green Bay, Wisconsin). The one used is actually Six Flags Magic Mountain in Valencia, California, located miles inland from the Pacific Ocean. The body of water depicted in the opening and closing credit sequences (the latter being seen on in season one) located next to the roller coaster – which is digitally inserted into that particular excerpt – is placed over what in actuality is the parking lot of Six Flags Magic Mountain.", "In September 1995, Warner Bros. Domestic Television Distribution began distributing the series for broadcast in off-network syndication. ABC Family was the first to acquire cable television rights to the series, and it became one of the cable channel's longest-running off-network syndicated programs in its history. Reruns began airing on there in 2001 (on what was then known as Fox Family), airing in various timeslots during its run ranging from late afternoon to the morning hours. On March 26, 2010, ABC Family's contract expired after less than nine years. The series returned to U.S. syndication on October 7, 2013, when the Hub Network began airing reruns; the network dropped it on October 12, 2014, as part of a change in the focus. In Australia, \"Step by Step\" aired on the Seven Network from 1991 to 1995 and on the Nine Network from 1996 to 2000. In 2011, \"Step by Step\" was acquired by 7TWO. In 2015, 111 Greats started airing the whole series. On September 29, 2017, Hulu acquired the streaming rights to \"Step by Step\" along with fellow Warner Bros. TV properties \"Family Matters\", \"Full House\", \"Hangin' with Mr. Cooper\" and \"Perfect Strangers\", in addition to fellow ABC programs \"Boy Meets World\", \"Dinosaurs\" and \"Home Improvement\".", "Warner Home Video released a six-episode \"Television Favorites\" collection on DVD on June 27, 2006. Warner Archive Collection has released the entire series on DVD in Region 1. These are Manufacture-on-Demand (MOD) releases, available from Warner's online store and Amazon.com.", "Reviewing the pilot episode, Jean Rosenbluth of \"Variety\" wrote that, despite being an unoriginal clone of \"The Brady Bunch\", it is a \"modestly amusing, occasionally heartwarming show\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Signs and symptoms.", "Acute poisoning.", "Chronic poisoning.", "Causes.", "Pathophysiology.", "Hemoglobin.", "Myoglobin.", "Cytochrome oxidase.", "Central nervous system effects.", "Pregnancy.", "Diagnosis.", "Measuring.", "Differential diagnosis.", "Prevention.", "Detectors.", "Legal requirements.", "World Health Organization recommendations.", "Treatment.", "Hyperbaric oxygen.", "Other.", "Epidemiology.", "History.", "Research." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Carbon monoxide is not toxic to all forms of life. Its harmful effects are due to binding with hemoglobin so its danger to organisms that do not use this compound is doubtful. It thus has no effect on photosynthesising plants. It is easily absorbed through the lungs. Inhaling the gas can lead to hypoxic injury, nervous system damage, and even death. Different people and populations may have different carbon monoxide tolerance levels. On average, exposures at 100 ppm or greater is dangerous to human health. In the United States, the OSHA limits long-term workplace exposure levels to less than 50 ppm averaged over an 8-hour period; in addition, employees are to be removed from any confined space if an upper limit (\"ceiling\") of 100 ppm is reached. Carbon monoxide exposure may lead to a significantly shorter life span due to heart damage. The carbon monoxide tolerance level for any person is altered by several factors, including activity level, rate of ventilation, a pre-existing cerebral or cardiovascular disease, cardiac output, anemia, sickle cell disease and other hematological disorders, barometric pressure, and metabolic rate.", "The main manifestations of carbon monoxide poisoning develop in the organ systems most dependent on oxygen use, the central nervous system and the heart. The initial symptoms of acute carbon monoxide poisoning include headache, nausea, malaise, and fatigue. These symptoms are often mistaken for a virus such as influenza or other illnesses such as food poisoning or gastroenteritis. Headache is the most common symptom of acute carbon monoxide poisoning; it is often described as dull, frontal, and continuous. Increasing exposure produces cardiac abnormalities including fast heart rate, low blood pressure, and cardiac arrhythmia; central nervous system symptoms include delirium, hallucinations, dizziness, unsteady gait, confusion, seizures, central nervous system depression, unconsciousness, respiratory arrest, and death. Less common symptoms of acute carbon monoxide poisoning include myocardial ischemia, atrial fibrillation, pneumonia, pulmonary edema, high blood sugar, lactic acidosis, muscle necrosis, acute kidney failure, skin lesions, and visual and auditory problems. One of the major concerns following acute carbon monoxide poisoning is the severe delayed neurological manifestations that may occur. Problems may include difficulty with higher intellectual functions, short-term memory loss, dementia, amnesia, psychosis, irritability, a strange gait, speech disturbances, Parkinson's disease-like syndromes, cortical blindness, and a depressed mood. Depression may occur in those who did not have pre-existing depression. These delayed neurological sequelae may occur in up to 50% of poisoned people after 2 to 40 days. It is difficult to predict who will develop delayed sequelae; however, advanced age, loss of consciousness while poisoned, and initial neurological abnormalities may increase the chance of developing delayed symptoms. One classic sign of carbon monoxide poisoning is more often seen in the dead rather than the living – people have been described as looking red-cheeked and healthy (see below). However, since this \"cherry-red\" appearance is more common in the dead, it is not considered a useful diagnostic sign in clinical medicine. In autopsy examinations, the ruddy appearance of carbon monoxide poisoning is notable because unembalmed dead persons are normally bluish and pale, whereas dead carbon-monoxide poisoned people may appear unusually lifelike in coloration. The colorant effect of carbon monoxide in such postmortem circumstances is thus analogous to its use as a red colorant in the commercial meat-packing industry.", "Chronic exposure to relatively low levels of carbon monoxide may cause persistent headaches, lightheadedness, depression, confusion, memory loss, nausea, hearing disorders and vomiting. It is unknown whether low-level chronic exposure may cause permanent neurological damage. Typically, upon removal from exposure to carbon monoxide, symptoms usually resolve themselves, unless there has been an episode of severe acute poisoning. However, one case noted permanent memory loss and learning problems after a three-year exposure to relatively low levels of carbon monoxide from a faulty furnace. Chronic exposure may worsen cardiovascular symptoms in some people. Chronic carbon monoxide exposure might increase the risk of developing atherosclerosis. Long-term exposures to carbon monoxide present the greatest risk to persons with coronary heart disease and in females who are pregnant. In experimental animals, carbon monoxide appears to worsen noise-induced hearing loss at noise exposure conditions that would have limited effects on hearing otherwise. In humans, hearing loss has been reported following carbon monoxide poisoning. Unlike the findings in animal studies, noise exposure was not a necessary factor for the auditory problems to occur.", "Carbon monoxide is a product of combustion of organic matter under conditions of restricted oxygen supply, which prevents complete oxidation to carbon dioxide (CO). Sources of carbon monoxide include cigarette smoke, house fires, faulty furnaces, heaters, wood-burning stoves, internal combustion vehicle exhaust, electrical generators, propane-fueled equipment such as portable stoves, and gasoline-powered tools such as leaf blowers, lawn mowers, high-pressure washers, concrete cutting saws, power trowels, and welders. Exposure typically occurs when equipment is used in buildings or semi-enclosed spaces. Riding in the back of pickup trucks has led to poisoning in children. Idling automobiles with the exhaust pipe blocked by snow has led to the poisoning of car occupants. Any perforation between the exhaust manifold and shroud can result in exhaust gases reaching the cabin. Generators and propulsion engines on boats, especially houseboats, has resulted in fatal carbon monoxide exposures. Poisoning may also occur following the use of a self-contained underwater breathing apparatus (SCUBA) due to faulty diving air compressors. In caves carbon monoxide can build up in enclosed chambers due to the presence of decomposing organic matter. In coal mines incomplete combustion may occur during explosions resulting in the production of afterdamp. The gas is up to 3% CO and may be fatal after just a single breath. Following an explosion in a colliery, adjacent interconnected mines may become dangerous due to the afterdamp leaking from mine to mine. Such an incident followed the Trimdon Grange explosion which killed men in the Kelloe mine. Another source of poisoning is exposure to the organic solvent dichloromethane, also known as methylene chloride, found in some paint strippers, as the metabolism of dichloromethane produces carbon monoxide. In November 2019, an EPA ban on dichloromethane in paint strippers for consumer use took effect in the United States.", "The precise mechanisms by which the effects of carbon monoxide are induced upon bodily systems, are complex and not yet fully understood. Known mechanisms include carbon monoxide binding to hemoglobin, myoglobin and mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase and restricting oxygen supply, and carbon monoxide causing brain lipid peroxidation.", "Carbon monoxide has a higher diffusion coefficient compared to oxygen, and the only enzyme in the human body that produces carbon monoxide is heme oxygenase, which is located in all cells and breaks down heme. Under normal conditions, carbon monoxide levels in the plasma are approximately 0 mmHg because it has a higher diffusion coefficient and the body easily gets rid of any CO made. When CO is not ventilated it binds to hemoglobin, which is the principal oxygen-carrying compound in blood; this produces a compound known as carboxyhemoglobin. The traditional understanding is that carbon monoxide toxicity arises from the formation of carboxyhemoglobin, which decreases the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood and inhibits the transport, delivery, and utilization of oxygen by the body. The affinity between hemoglobin and carbon monoxide is approximately 230 times stronger than the affinity between hemoglobin and oxygen so hemoglobin binds to carbon monoxide in preference to oxygen. Hemoglobin is a tetramer with four oxygen binding sites. The binding of carbon monoxide at one of these sites increases the oxygen affinity of the remaining three sites, which causes the hemoglobin molecule to retain oxygen that would otherwise be delivered to the tissue. This situation is described as carbon monoxide shifting the oxygen dissociation curve to the left. Because of the increased affinity between hemoglobin and oxygen during carbon monoxide poisoning, little oxygen will actually be released in the tissues. This causes hypoxic tissue injury. Hemoglobin acquires a bright red color when converted into carboxyhemoglobin, so poisoned cadavers and even commercial meats treated with carbon monoxide acquire an unnatural reddish hue.", "Carbon monoxide also binds to the hemeprotein myoglobin. It has a high affinity for myoglobin, about 60 times greater than that of oxygen. Carbon monoxide bound to myoglobin may impair its ability to utilize oxygen. This causes reduced cardiac output and hypotension, which may result in brain ischemia. A delayed return of symptoms have been reported. This results following a recurrence of increased carboxyhemoglobin levels; this effect may be due to a late release of carbon monoxide from myoglobin, which subsequently binds to hemoglobin.", "Another mechanism involves effects on the mitochondrial respiratory enzyme chain that is responsible for effective tissue utilization of oxygen. Carbon monoxide binds to cytochrome oxidase with less affinity than oxygen, so it is possible that it requires significant intracellular hypoxia before binding. This binding interferes with aerobic metabolism and efficient adenosine triphosphate synthesis. Cells respond by switching to anaerobic metabolism, causing anoxia, lactic acidosis, and eventual cell death. The rate of dissociation between carbon monoxide and cytochrome oxidase is slow, causing a relatively prolonged impairment of oxidative metabolism.", "The mechanism that is thought to have a significant influence on delayed effects involves formed blood cells and chemical mediators, which cause brain lipid peroxidation (degradation of unsaturated fatty acids). Carbon monoxide causes endothelial cell and platelet release of nitric oxide, and the formation of oxygen free radicals including peroxynitrite. In the brain this causes further mitochondrial dysfunction, capillary leakage, leukocyte sequestration, and apoptosis. The result of these effects is lipid peroxidation, which causes delayed reversible demyelinization of white matter in the central nervous system known as Grinker myelinopathy, which can lead to edema and necrosis within the brain. This brain damage occurs mainly during the recovery period. This may result in cognitive defects, especially affecting memory and learning, and movement disorders. These disorders are typically related to damage to the cerebral white matter and basal ganglia. Hallmark pathological changes following poisoning are bilateral necrosis of the white matter, globus pallidus, cerebellum, hippocampus and the cerebral cortex.", "Carbon monoxide poisoning in pregnant women may cause severe adverse fetal effects. Poisoning causes fetal tissue hypoxia by decreasing the release of maternal oxygen to the fetus. Carbon monoxide also crosses the placenta and combines with fetal hemoglobin, causing more direct fetal tissue hypoxia. Additionally, fetal hemoglobin has a 10 to 15% higher affinity for carbon monoxide than adult hemoglobin, causing more severe poisoning in the fetus than in the adult. Elimination of carbon monoxide is slower in the fetus, leading to an accumulation of the toxic chemical. The level of fetal morbidity and mortality in acute carbon monoxide poisoning is significant, so despite mild maternal poisoning or following maternal recovery, severe fetal poisoning or death may still occur.", "As many symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning also occur with many other types of poisonings and infections (such as the flu), the diagnosis is often difficult. A history of potential carbon monoxide exposure, such as being exposed to a residential fire, may suggest poisoning, but the diagnosis is confirmed by measuring the levels of carbon monoxide in the blood. This can be determined by measuring the amount of carboxyhemoglobin compared to the amount of hemoglobin in the blood. The ratio of carboxyhemoglobin to hemoglobin molecules in an average person may be up to 5%, although cigarette smokers who smoke two packs per day may have levels up to 9%. In symptomatic poisoned people they are often in the 10–30% range, while persons who die may have postmortem blood levels of 30–90%. As people may continue to experience significant symptoms of CO poisoning long after their blood carboxyhemoglobin concentration has returned to normal, presenting to examination with a normal carboxyhemoglobin level (which may happen in late states of poisoning) does not rule out poisoning.", "Carbon monoxide may be quantitated in blood using spectrophotometric methods or chromatographic techniques in order to confirm a diagnosis of poisoning in a person or to assist in the forensic investigation of a case of fatal exposure. A CO-oximeter can be used to determine carboxyhemoglobin levels. Pulse CO-oximeters estimate carboxyhemoglobin with a non-invasive finger clip similar to a pulse oximeter. These devices function by passing various wavelengths of light through the fingertip and measuring the light absorption of the different types of hemoglobin in the capillaries. The use of a regular pulse oximeter is not effective in the diagnosis of carbon monoxide poisoning as people with carbon monoxide poisoning may have a normal oxygen saturation level on a pulse oximeter. This is due to the carboxyhemoglobin being misrepresented as oxyhemoglobin. Breath CO monitoring offers an alternative to pulse CO-oximetry. Carboxyhemoglobin levels have been shown to have a strong correlation with breath CO concentration. However, many of these devices require the user to inhale deeply and hold their breath to allow the CO in the blood to escape into the lung before the measurement can be made. As this is not possible in people who are unresponsive, these devices may not appropriate for use in on-scene emergency care detection of CO poisoning.", "There are many conditions to be considered in the differential diagnosis of carbon monoxide poisoning. The earliest symptoms, especially from low level exposures, are often non-specific and readily confused with other illnesses, typically flu-like viral syndromes, depression, chronic fatigue syndrome, chest pain, and migraine or other headaches. Carbon monoxide has been called a \"great mimicker\" due to the presentation of poisoning being diverse and nonspecific. Other conditions included in the differential diagnosis include acute respiratory distress syndrome, altitude sickness, lactic acidosis, diabetic ketoacidosis, meningitis, methemoglobinemia, or opioid or toxic alcohol poisoning.", "", "Prevention remains a vital public health issue, requiring public education on the safe operation of appliances, heaters, fireplaces, and internal-combustion engines, as well as increased emphasis on the installation of carbon monoxide detectors. Carbon monoxide is tasteless, odourless, and colourless, and therefore can not be detected by visual cues or smell. The United States Consumer Product Safety Commission has stated, \"carbon monoxide detectors are as important to home safety as smoke detectors are,\" and recommends each home have at least one carbon monoxide detector, and preferably one on each level of the building. These devices, which are relatively inexpensive and widely available, are either battery- or AC-powered, with or without battery backup. In buildings, carbon monoxide detectors are usually installed around heaters and other equipment. If a relatively high level of carbon monoxide is detected, the device sounds an alarm, giving people the chance to evacuate and ventilate the building. Unlike smoke detectors, carbon monoxide detectors do not need to be placed near ceiling level. The use of carbon monoxide detectors has been standardized in many areas. In the US, NFPA 720-2009, the carbon monoxide detector guidelines published by the National Fire Protection Association, mandates the placement of carbon monoxide detectors/alarms on every level of the residence, including the basement, in addition to outside sleeping areas. In new homes, AC-powered detectors must have battery backup and be interconnected to ensure early warning of occupants at all levels. NFPA 720-2009 is the first national carbon monoxide standard to address devices in non-residential buildings. These guidelines, which now pertain to schools, healthcare centers, nursing homes and other non-residential buildings, include three main points: Gas organizations will often recommend to get gas appliances serviced at least once a year.", "The NFPA standard is not necessarily enforced by law. As of April 2006, the US state of Massachusetts requires detectors to be present in all residences with potential CO sources, regardless of building age and whether they are owner-occupied or rented. This is enforced by municipal inspectors, and was inspired by the death of 7-year-old Nicole Garofalo in 2005 due to snow blocking a home heating vent. Other jurisdictions may have no requirement or only mandate detectors for new construction or at time of sale. Despite similar deaths in vehicles with clogged exhaust pipes (for example in the Northeastern United States blizzard of 1978 and February 2013 nor'easter) and the commercial availability of the equipment, there is no legal requirement for automotive CO detectors.", "The following guideline values (ppm values rounded) and periods of time-weighted average exposures have been determined in such a way that the carboxyhaemoglobin (COHb) level of 2.5% is not exceeded, even when a normal subject engages in light or moderate exercise:", "Initial treatment for carbon monoxide poisoning is to immediately remove the person from the exposure without endangering further people. Those who are unconscious may require CPR on site. Administering oxygen via non-rebreather mask shortens the half-life of carbon monoxide from 320 minutes, when breathing normal air, to only 80 minutes. Oxygen hastens the dissociation of carbon monoxide from carboxyhemoglobin, thus turning it back into hemoglobin. Due to the possible severe effects in the baby, pregnant women are treated with oxygen for longer periods of time than non-pregnant people.", "Hyperbaric oxygen is also used in the treatment of carbon monoxide poisoning, as it may hasten dissociation of CO from carboxyhemoglobin and cytochrome oxidase to a greater extent than normal oxygen. Hyperbaric oxygen at three times atmospheric pressure reduces the half life of carbon monoxide to 23 (~80/3 minutes) minutes, compared to 80 minutes for oxygen at regular atmospheric pressure. It may also enhance oxygen transport to the tissues by plasma, partially bypassing the normal transfer through hemoglobin. However, it is controversial whether hyperbaric oxygen actually offers any extra benefits over normal high flow oxygen, in terms of increased survival or improved long-term outcomes. There have been randomized controlled trials in which the two treatment options have been compared; of the six performed, four found hyperbaric oxygen improved outcome and two found no benefit for hyperbaric oxygen. Some of these trials have been criticized for apparent flaws in their implementation. A review of all the literature concluded that the role of hyperbaric oxygen is unclear and the available evidence neither confirms nor denies a medically meaningful benefit. The authors suggested a large, well designed, externally audited, multicentre trial to compare normal oxygen with hyperbaric oxygen.", "Further treatment for other complications such as seizure, hypotension, cardiac abnormalities, pulmonary edema, and acidosis may be required. Increased muscle activity and seizures should be treated with dantrolene or diazepam; diazepam should only be given with appropriate respiratory support. Hypotension requires treatment with intravenous fluids; vasopressors may be required to treat myocardial depression. Cardiac dysrhythmias are treated with standard advanced cardiac life support protocols. If severe, metabolic acidosis is treated with sodium bicarbonate. Treatment with sodium bicarbonate is controversial as acidosis may increase tissue oxygen availability. Treatment of acidosis may only need to consist of oxygen therapy. The delayed development of neuropsychiatric impairment is one of the most serious complications of carbon monoxide poisoning. Brain damage is confirmed following MRI or CAT scans. Extensive follow up and supportive treatment is often required for delayed neurological damage. Outcomes are often difficult to predict following poisoning, especially people who have symptoms of cardiac arrest, coma, metabolic acidosis, or have high carboxyhemoglobin levels. One study reported that approximately 30% of people with severe carbon monoxide poisoning will have a fatal outcome. It has been reported that electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) may increase the likelihood of delayed neuropsychiatric sequelae (DNS) after carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning. A device that also provides some carbon dioxide to stimulate faster breathing (sold under the brand name ClearMate) may also be used.", "The true number of cases of carbon monoxide poisoning is unknown, since many non-lethal exposures go undetected. From the available data, carbon monoxide poisoning is the most common cause of injury and death due to poisoning worldwide. Poisoning is typically more common during the winter months. This is due to increased domestic use of gas furnaces, gas or kerosene space heaters, and kitchen stoves during the winter months, which if faulty and/or used without adequate ventilation, may produce excessive carbon monoxide. Carbon monoxide detection and poisoning also increases during power outages, when electric heating and cooking appliances become inoperative and residents may temporarily resort to fuel-burning space heaters, stoves, and grills (some of which are safe only for outdoor use but nonetheless are errantly burned indoors). It has been estimated that more than 40,000 people per year seek medical attention for carbon monoxide poisoning in the United States. 95% of carbon monoxide poisoning deaths in the United States are due to gas space heaters. In many industrialized countries carbon monoxide is the cause of more than 50% of fatal poisonings. In the United States, approximately 200 people die each year from carbon monoxide poisoning associated with home fuel-burning heating equipment. Carbon monoxide poisoning contributes to the approximately 5613 smoke inhalation deaths each year in the United States. The CDC reports, \"Each year, more than 500 Americans die from unintentional carbon monoxide poisoning, and more than 2,000 commit suicide by intentionally poisoning themselves.\" For the 10-year period from 1979 to 1988, 56,133 deaths from carbon monoxide poisoning occurred in the United States, with 25,889 of those being suicides, leaving 30,244 unintentional deaths. A report from New Zealand showed that 206 people died from carbon monoxide poisoning in the years of 2001 and 2002. In total carbon monoxide poisoning was responsible for 43.9% of deaths by poisoning in that country. In South Korea, 1,950 people had been poisoned by carbon monoxide with 254 deaths from 2001 through 2003. A report from Jerusalem showed 3.53 per 100,000 people were poisoned annually from 2001 through 2006. In Hubei, China, 218 deaths from poisoning were reported over a 10-year period with 16.5% being from carbon monoxide exposure.", "The earliest description of carbon monoxide poisoning dates to at least 200 BC by Aristotle. Documented cases of carbon monoxide being used as a method of suicide date to at least 100 BC in ancient Rome. In the AD 350s, the Roman emperor Julian suffered from carbon monoxide poisoning in Paris, and later described it in his work \"Misopogon\": \"though the winter weather prevailed and continually increased in severity, even so I did not allow my servants to heat the house, because I was afraid of drawing out the dampness in the walls; but I ordered them to carry in fire that had burned down and to place in the room a very moderate number of hot coals. But the coals, though there were not very many of them, brought out from the walls quantities of steam and this made me fall asleep. And since my head was filled with the fumes I was almost choked. Then I was carried outside.\" This misunderstanding of the causes of carbon monoxide poisoning may have caused the death of Julian's successor, Jovian. John Scott Haldane identified carbon monoxide as the lethal constituent of afterdamp, the gas created by combustion, after examining many bodies of miners killed in pit explosions. Their skin was coloured cherry-pink from carboxyhaemoglobin, the stable compound formed in the blood by reaction with the gas. As a result of his research, he was able to design respirators for rescue workers. He tested the effect of carbon monoxide on his own body in a closed chamber, describing the results of his slow poisoning. In the late 1890s, he introduced the use of small animals for miners to detect dangerous levels of carbon monoxide underground, either white mice or canaries. With a faster metabolism, they showed the effects of poisoning before gas levels became critical for the workers, and so gave an early warning of the problem. The canary in British pits was replaced in 1986 by the electronic gas detector. As part of the Holocaust during World War II, German Nazis used gas vans at Chelmno extermination camp and elsewhere to kill an estimated over 700,000 prisoners by carbon monoxide poisoning. This method was also used in the gas chambers of several death camps such as Treblinka, Sobibor and Belzec. Gassing with carbon monoxide started in action T4, the programme developed by the Nazis in Germany to murder the mentally ill and disabled people before the war started in earnest. The gas was supplied by IG Farben in pressurized cylinders and fed by tubes into the gas chambers built at various mental hospitals, such as Hartheim Euthanasia Centre. Many key personnel were recruited from the T4 programme to murder much larger numbers of people in the gas vans and the special gas chambers used in the death camps such as Treblinka. Exhaust fumes from tank engines for example, were used to supply the gas to the chambers. The worst accidental mass poisoning from carbon monoxide occurred on 3 March 1944 in Balvano, Italy, when a freight train with many illegal passengers stalled in a tunnel, leading to the death of over 500 people. The use of oxygen as treatment began in 1868. The use of hyperbaric oxygen in rats following poisoning was studied by Haldane in 1895 while its use in humans began in the 1960s.", "Carbon monoxide is produced naturally by the body as a byproduct of converting protoporphyrin into bilirubin. This carbon monoxide also combines with hemoglobin to make carboxyhemoglobin, but not at toxic levels. Small amounts of CO are beneficial and enzymes exist that produce it at times of oxidative stress. Drugs are being developed to introduce small amounts of CO during certain kinds of surgery, these drugs are called carbon monoxide-releasing molecules." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Route.", "History.", "Construction.", "Operation.", "Names." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The canal runs some from northeast to southwest and reaches 106 feet above sea level. Only one third of the entire length is man-made, the rest being formed by Loch Dochfour, Loch Ness, Loch Oich, and Loch Lochy. These lochs are located in the Great Glen, on a geological fault in the Earth's crust. There are 29 locks (including eight at Neptune's Staircase, Banavie), four aqueducts and 10 bridges in the course of the canal.", "In 1620, a Highland prophet called the Brahan Seer predicted that full-rigged ships would one day be sailing round the back of Tomnahurick, near Inverness, at a time when the only navigable route near the location was the River Ness, on the other side of Tomnahurick. Engineers started to look at the feasibility of a canal to connect Loch Linnhe near Fort William to the Moray Firth near Inverness in the 18th century, with Captain Edward Burt rejecting the idea in 1726, as he thought the mountains would channel the wind and make navigation too precarious. The Commissioners of Forfeited Estates had originally been set up to handle the seizure and sale of land previously owned by those who had been convicted of treason following the Jacobite rising of 1715. By 1773, they had turned their attention to helping the fishing industry, and commissioned the inventor and mechanical engineer James Watt to make a survey of the route. He published a report in 1774, which suggested that a canal from Fort William to Inverness, passing through Loch Lochy, Loch Oich, Loch Ness and Loch Dochfour, would require 32 locks, and could be built for £164,032. He emphasised the benefits to the fishing industry, of a shorter and safer route from the east to the west coast of Scotland, and the potential for supplying the population with cheaper corn, but again, thought that winds on the lochs might be a problem. Although no action was taken at the time, in 1785 John Knox expounded the benefits of it relieving distress in the Highlands, and preventing ships having to navigate the dangerous Pentland Firth between the Orkney Islands and Caithness. William Fraser, when proposing his own scheme for a canal in 1793, announced that \"nature had finished more than half of it already\". At the time, much of the Highlands were depressed as a result of the Highland Clearances, which had deprived many of their homes and jobs. Laws had been introduced which sought to eradicate the local culture, including bans on wearing tartan, playing the bagpipes, and speaking Scottish Gaelic. Many emigrated to Canada or elsewhere, or moved to the Scottish Lowlands. The engineer Thomas Telford was asked to investigate the problem of emigration in 1801, and in 1802 published his report, which suggested that the problem was caused by landowners who had previously kept cattle creating vast sheep-farms. Realising that direct government action to tackle the issue would be seen as interference, he therefore suggested that a programme of public works, involving roads, bridges and canals, would be a way to provide jobs for people who had been displaced by the sheep farming, and to stimulate industry, fishery and agriculture. Telford consulted widely with shipowners, who favoured a canal instead of the hazardous journey around the north of Scotland via Cape Wrath and the Pentland Firth. He obtained advice from Captain Gwynn of the Royal Navy, who stated that Loch Ness and Loch Lochy were sufficiently deep for any size of boat, and had safe anchorages if winds proved to be a problem, but that Loch Oich would need to be made deeper, as it was shallow in places. He established that Loch Garry, to the west of Invergarry, and Loch Quoich, beyond that, would provide an adequate water supply. He estimated that a canal suitable for ships with a draught of could be built in seven years, and would cost around £350,000. An additional benefit would be the protection that the canal offered to shipping from attacks by French privateers. Telford also looked at the possibility of a canal to link Loch Eil to Loch Shiel, both to the west of Fort William, but ruled out the scheme because of the depth of cuttings that would have been required.", "On 27 July 1803, an Act of Parliament was passed to authorise the project, and carried the title: \"An Act for granting to his Majesty the Sum of £20,000, towards defraying the Expense of making an Inland Navigation from the western to the eastern Sea, by Inverness and Fort William; and for taking the necessary steps towards executing the same.\" The Act appointed Commissioners, to oversee the project, and some funding to enable the work to start. Less than a year later, on 29 June 1804, the Commissioners obtained a second Act of Parliament, which granted them £50,000 per year of government money, payable in two instalments, to fund the ongoing work. Provision was made for private investors to buy shares in the scheme, for any amount over £50, and as well as building the main line of the canal, the engineers could alter Loch Garry, Loch Quoich and Loch Arkaig, to improve their function as reservoirs. Telford was asked to survey, design and build the waterway. He worked with William Jessop on the survey, and the two men oversaw the construction until Jessop died in 1814. The canal was expected to take seven years to complete, and to cost £474,000, to be funded by the Government, but both estimates were inadequate. Because of the remoteness of the location, construction was started at both ends, so that completed sections could be used to bring in the materials for the middle sections. As Thomas Telford could only visit the work about twice a year, he appointed Matthew Davidson, like Telford, a Dumfrieshire stonemason, to manage the work at the east end. John Telford, who is thought not to have been related to Thomas, was to manage the difficult western end. The work was to prove a serious challenge to John Telford's health and he died in 1807, to be replaced by Alexander Easton. John Telford was buried in Kilmallie churchyard, where his ornate grave, now in dilapidated condition, can still be seen. At Corpach, near Fort William, the entrance lock was built on rock, but at the other end, there was of mud below the proposed site of the sea lock. Rock was tipped on top of the mud and was allowed to settle for six months before construction could begin. The ground through which the canal was cut was variable, and further difficulties were experienced with the construction of the locks, the largest ever built at the time. There were also problems with the labour force, with high levels of absence, particularly during and after the potato harvest and the peat cutting season. This led to Telford bringing in Irish navvies to manage the shortfall, which led to further criticism, since one of the main aims of the project was to reduce unemployment in the Highlands. The canal finally opened in 1822, having taken an extra 12 years to complete, and cost £910,000. Over 3,000 local people had been employed in its construction, but the draught had been reduced from in an effort to save costs. In the meantime, shipbuilding had advanced, with the introduction of steam-powered iron-hulled ships, many of which were now too big to use the canal. The Royal Navy did not need to use the canal either, as Napoleon had been defeated at Waterloo in 1815, and the perceived threat to shipping when the canal was started was now gone.", "Before long, defects in some of the materials used became apparent, and part of Corpach double lock collapsed in 1843. This led to a decision to close the canal to allow repairs to be carried out, and the depth was increased to at the same time. The work was designed by Telford's associate James Walker, carried out by Jackson and Bean of Aston, Birmingham and completed between 1843 and 1847 at a cost of £136,089. However, not all of the traffic expected to return to using the canal did so. Commercially, the venture was not a success, but the dramatic scenery through which it passes led to it becoming a tourist attraction. Queen Victoria took a trip along it in 1873, and the publicity surrounding the trip resulted in a large increase in visitors to the region and the canal. The arrival of the railways at Fort William, Fort Augustus and Inverness did little to harm the canal, as trains were scheduled to connect with steamboat services. There was an upsurge in commercial traffic during the First World War, when components for the construction of mines were shipped through the canal on their way from America to \"U.S. Naval Base 18” (Muirtown Basin, Inverness), and fishing boats used it to avoid possible enemy action on the longer route around the north of Scotland. During this period there was 24-hour operation, facilitated by buoyage and lighting throughout its length. Ownership passed to the Ministry of Transport in 1920, and then to British Waterways in 1962. Improvements were made, with the locks being mechanised between 1964 and 1969. By 1990, the canal was in obvious need of restoration, with lock walls bulging, and it was estimated that repairs would cost £60 million. With no prospect of the Government funding this, British Waterways devised a repair plan, and between 1995 and 2005, sections of the canal were drained each winter. Stainless steel rods were used to tie the double-skinned lock walls together, and over 25,000 tonnes of grout were injected into the lock structures. All of the lock gates were replaced, and the result was a canal whose structures were probably in a better condition than they had ever been. The canal is now a Scheduled Ancient Monument, and attracts over 500,000 visitors each year. British Waterways, who work with the Highland Council and Forestry and Land Scotland through the Great Glen Ways Initiative, were hoping to increase this number to over 1 million by 2012. There are many ways for tourists to enjoy the canal, such as taking part in the Great Glen Rally, cycling along the tow-paths, or cruising on Hotel Barges.", "The canal has several names in Scottish Gaelic including \"Amar-Uisge/Seòlaid a' Ghlinne Mhòir\" (\"Waterway of the Great Glen\"), \"Sligh'-Uisge na h-Alba\" (\"Waterway of Scotland\") and a literal translation \"(An) Canàl Cailleannach\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Standard cap.", "Example cap.", "Unlimited data.", "By region.", "Justification." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Generally, each user of a network is expected to use high speed transmission for a short time, for example to download a megabyte web page in less than a second. Continuous usage, such as when sharing files or streaming videos can seriously impair service for others. In DSL, where the core network is shared but the access network is not, this concept is less relevant. However, it becomes more relevant in cable internet, where both the core network and the access network are shared, and on wireless networks, where the total network bandwidth is also relatively narrow.", "In 2016, U.S. provider Comcast offered a service plan with a data cap of 1 terabyte. At contemporary data consumption rates, each member of a family of four would need to separately watch 100 movies in a month to approach the cap. In that case, typical data usage habits would not exceed that cap.", "\"Unlimited data\" is a marketing promotion in which an Internet service provider offers access to Internet without cutting service at the data cap. However, after a user passes some data cap, the provider will begin bandwidth throttling to decrease the user's speed of access to data, slowing down the user's internet use.", "As of October 2015, there were 58 wired broadband providers in the US that used data caps, among them major wireless cell phone providers such as Verizon Wireless and AT&T. Before 2010 there was a trend of providing unlimited data without bandwidth throttling. In the United States the Federal Communications Commission has fined service providers for offering unlimited data in a way that misled consumers. In June 2015, the FCC fined AT&T Mobility for misleading consumers. In October 2016 the FCC reached a settlement with T-Mobile in which they would pay for failing to disclose restrictions on their unlimited data plans.", "U.S. internet service providers have most recently asserted that data caps are needed in order to provide \"fair\", tiered services at different price points based on speed and usage. In 2016, Sonic.net CEO Dane Jasper criticized the historical assertions that data caps are meant to conserve network capacity, arguing that the cost of actually delivering service had \"declined much faster than the increase in data traffic\". When Sonic was first established in 2008, its infrastructure costs were equivalent to 20% of its revenue, but these had fallen to only 1.5% by 2016 because of the declining costs of equipment. Suddenlink CEO Jerry Kent made a similar assertion in an investors' call, stating that the \"days\" of having to make investments to keep up with customer demand were \"over\", and there would be \"significant free cash flow generated from the cable operators as our capital expenditures continue to come down.\" As most major U.S. internet providers own television providers, it has also been suggested that data caps are intended to discourage users from dropping their pay television subscriptions by placing \"de facto\" restrictions on the use of competing streaming video services that are delivered over the internet, such as Netflix. The lobbying group Internet Association additionally argued that data caps are meant to create \"artificial scarcity\", especially in markets where there is limited competition in broadband, also pointing out that some providers offer their own streaming video services that are exempted from data cap policies, such as Comcast's Stream TV. Comcast defended the exemption by stating that the service is not delivered over the public internet; it can only be used while connected to the provider's home Wi-Fi router." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "East African Coast and South Arabia.", "Straits Settlements.", "Denominations.", "Symbol.", "Abbreviation.", "Value." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The immediate precursor of the Rupee is the \"Rūpiya\"—the silver coin weighing 178 grains (11.53 grams) minted in northern India by first Sher Shah Suri during his brief rule between 1540 and 1545 and adopted and standardized later by the Mughal Empire. The weight remained unchanged well beyond the end of the Mughals till the 20th century. The Hindi-Urdu word \"rupyā\" is derived from the Sanskrit word \"rūpya\", which means \"wrought silver, a coin of silver\", in origin an adjective meaning \"shapely\", with a more specific meaning of \"stamped, impressed\", whence \"coin\". It is derived from the noun \"rūpa\" \"shape, likeness, image\". The word \"rūpa\" is further identified as related to the Dravidian root \"uruppu\", which means \"a member of the body\". Also, the word \"rūpam\" is rooted in Tamil as \"uru\" (shape) derived from \"ur\" (form) which itself is rooted in \"ul\" meaning \"appear\".", "The history of the rupee traces back to Ancient India circa 3rd century BC. Ancient India was one of the earliest issuers of coins in the world, along with the Lydian staters, several other Middle Eastern coinages and the Chinese wen. The term is from \"rūpya\", a Sanskrit term for silver coin, from Sanskrit \"rūpa\", beautiful form. \"Arthashastra\", written by Chanakya, prime minister to the first Maurya emperor Chandragupta Maurya (c. 340–290 BCE), mentions silver coins as \"rūpyarūpa\", other types including gold coins (\"suvarṇarūpa\"), copper coins (\"tāmrarūpa\") and lead coins (\"sīsarūpa\") are mentioned. \"Rūpa\" means form or shape, example, \"rūpyarūpa\", \"rūpya\" – wrought silver, \"rūpa\" – form. In the intermediate times there was no fixed monetary system as reported by the \"Da Tang Xi Yu Ji\". Sher Shah Suri (1540–1545), re-introduced the silver coin \"rupiya\", weighing 178 grains. Its use was continued by the Mughal rulers. Suri also introduced copper coins called \"dam\" and gold coins called \"mohur\" that weighed 169 grains (10.95 g). Until the middle of the 20th century, Tibet's official currency was also known as the Tibetan rupee. Early 19th-century East India Company rupees were used in Australia for a limited period. The Indian rupee was the official currency of Dubai and Qatar until 1959, when India created a new Gulf rupee (also known as the \"external rupee\") to hinder the smuggling of gold. The Gulf rupee was legal tender until 1966, when India significantly devalued the Indian rupee and a new Qatar-Dubai riyal was established to provide economic stability.", "In East Africa, Arabia, and Mesopotamia, the rupee and its subsidiary coinage was current at various times. The usage of the rupee in East Africa extended from Somalia in the north to as far south as Natal. In Mozambique, the British India rupees were overstamped, and in Kenya, the British East Africa Company minted the rupee and its fractions, as well as pice. The rise in the price of silver immediately after the First World War caused the rupee to rise in value to two shillings sterling. In 1920 in British East Africa, the opportunity was then taken to introduce a new florin coin, hence bringing the currency into line with sterling. Shortly after that, the florin was split into two East African shillings. This assimilation to sterling did not, however, happen in British India itself. In Somalia, the Italian colonial authority minted 'rupia' to exactly the same standard and called the \"pice\" 'besa'.", "The Straits Settlements were originally an outlier of the British East India Company. The Spanish dollar had already taken hold in the Straits Settlements by the time the British arrived in the 19th century. The East India Company tried to introduce the rupee in its place. These attempts were resisted by the locals, and by 1867 when the British government took over direct control of the Straits Settlements from the East India Company, attempts to introduce the rupee were finally abandoned.", "Formerly, the rupee (11.66 g,.917 fine silver) was divided into 16 annas, 64 paise, or 192 pies. Each circulating coin of British India, until the rupee was decimalised, had a different name in practice. A paisa was equal to two \"dhelas\", three \"pies\", or six \"damaris\". Other coins for half anna (\"adhanni\", or two paisas), two annas (\"duanni\"), four annas (a \"chawanni\", or a quarter of a rupee), and eight annas (an \"athanni\", or half a rupee) were widely in use until decimalization in 1961. (The numbers \"adha\", \"do\", \"chār\", \"ātha\" mean respectively half, two, four, eight in Hindi and Urdu.) Two \"paisa\" was also called a \"taka\", see below. In India presently (from 2010 onwards), the 50 paise coin (half a rupee) is the lowest valued legal tender. Coins of 1, 2, 5, and 10 rupees and banknotes of 5, 10, 20, 50, 100, 200, 500, and 2000 rupees are commonly in use for cash transaction. Decimalisation occurred in Ceylon (Sri Lanka) in 1969, in India in 1957, and in Pakistan in 1961. Since 1957 an Indian rupee is divided into 100 paise. The decimalized paisa was originally officially named \"naya paisa\" meaning the \"new paisa\" to distinguish it from the erstwhile paisa which had a higher value of rupee. The word \"naya\" was dropped in 1964 and since then it is simply known as \"paisa\" (plural \"paise\"). The issuance of the Indian currency is controlled by the Reserve Bank of India, whereas in Pakistan it is controlled by State Bank of Pakistan. The most commonly used symbol for the rupee is \"Rs\". India adopted a new symbol () for the Indian rupee on 15 July 2010. In most parts of India, the rupee is known as rupaya, rupaye, or one of several other terms derived from the Sanskrit \"rūpya\", meaning silver. \"Ṭaṅka\" is an ancient Sanskrit word for money. While the two-paise coin was called a \"taka\" in West Pakistan, the word \"taka\" was commonly used in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh), alternatively for rupee. In the Bengali and Assamese languages, spoken in Assam, Tripura, and West Bengal, the rupee is known as a \"taka\", and is written as such on Indian banknotes. In Odisha it is known as \"tanka\". After its independence, Bangladesh started to officially call its currency \"taka\" (BDT) in 1971. Large denominations of rupees are often counted in lac/lakh (100,000 = 1 lac/lakh, 100 lac/lakh = 1 crore/karor, 100 crore/karor = 1 arab, 100 arab = 1 kharab/khrab, 100 kharab/khrab = 1 nil/neel, 100 nil/neel = 1 padma, 100 padma = 1 shankh, 100 shankh = 1 udpadha, 100 udpadha = 1 ank). Terms beyond a crore are not generally used in the context of money, e.g. an amount would be called Rs 1 lakh crore (equivalent to 1 trillion) instead of Rs 10 kharab.", "The rupee sign “Rs” is a currency sign used to represent the monetary unit of account in Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Mauritius, Seychelles, and formerly in India. It resembles, and is often written as, the Latin character sequence “Rs” or “Rs.”. Currency signs exist for other countries that use the rupee but not this sign: their usage is also described at the main article.", "In latin script, \"rupee\" (singular) is abbreviated as Re. and \"rupees\" (plural) as Rs. The Indonesian \"rupiah\" is abbreviated Rp. In 19th century typography, abbreviations are often superscripted: formula_1 or formula_2. In Brahmic scripts, rupee is often abbreviated with the grapheme for the first syllable, optionally followed by a circular abbreviation mark or a latin abbreviation point: रु૰ (Devanagari \"ru.\"), રૂ૰ (Gujarati \"ru.\"), රු (Sinhala \"ru\"), రూ (Telugu \"rū\").", "The history of the rupees can be traced back to Ancient India around the 6th century BC. Ancient India had some of the earliest coins in the world, along with the Chinese wen and Lydian staters. The rupee coin has been used since then, even during British India, when it contained 11.66 g (1 tola) of 91.7% silver with an ASW of 0.3437 of a troy ounce (that is, silver worth about US$10 at modern prices). At the end of the 19th century, the Indian silver rupee went onto a gold exchange standard at a fixed rate of one rupee to one shilling and fourpence in British currency, i.e. 15 rupees to 1 pound sterling. Valuation of the rupee based on its silver content had severe consequences in the 19th century, when the strongest economies in the world were on the gold standard. The discovery of vast quantities of silver in the United States and various European colonies resulted in a decline in the value of silver relative to gold." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Course.", "Ness Catchment.", "Notable buildings.", "Bridges.", "Nature and Parks.", "Flood Alleviation.", "The Port of Inverness.", "Miscellanea." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Dochgarroch weir at the downstream end of Loch Dochfour delineates the start of the River Ness. At Carnarc Point on the west bank the river discharges into the eastern end of the Beauly Firth, which is a continuation of the Moray Firth, at Kessock. The northern section of the Caledonian Canal passes partly through the River Ness and partly alongside it. The river Ness is of glacial origin. Although of short length, the River Ness has one of the highest average discharge rates in the UK of.", "Although the River Ness starts at Dochgarroch weir at the downstream end of Loch Dochfour, it is supplied by Loch Ness, and so all the rivers flowing into Loch Ness are part of the River Ness catchment area: The linear River Ness-Loch Ness-Loch Oich axis follows the Great Glen Fault, with the watershed being in a low depression at Laggan Locks, beyond which Loch Lochy-River Lochy-River Spean continue on this axis to the west coast at Fort William.", "On a hill above the river in Inverness stands Inverness Castle. Next to the castle is the Inverness Museum and Art Gallery. The river is overlooked by the Eden Court Theatre, one of the largest theatres in Scotland. Inverness Cathedral also lies on the banks of the River Ness as does Old High St Stephen's, which stands on a hill known as St Michael's Mount. Inverness draws many tourists and there are hotels along the river.", "There are several bridges in Inverness which cross the River Ness: the Ness Islands bridges; the Infirmary Bridge, built at Rose Street Foundry, Inverness 1879; Ness Bridge, constructed in 1961 replacing an earlier bridge which itself replaced a bridge of 1685 which collapsed during flooding in 1849. The 1685 bridge was sketched by J. M. W. Turner in 1831 and the sketch belongs to the Tate; Greig Street Bridge; Friar's Bridge; Waterloo Bridge; and the Railway Bridge, which is a steel bridge fabricated in 1989 to replace the earlier stone bridge which was swept away in floods in 1989. The Greig Street Bridge is a picturesque suspension bridge built in Inverness in 1881. The Inverness southern bypass was completed in 2017 with Holm Mills Bridge across the river.", "Upstream of Inverness city centre lie the Ness Islands which are popular for nature walks and have many fine tree specimens. The river flows through the heart of the City of Inverness, and fishermen in waders can often be seen casting for salmon. The Ness District Salmon Fishery Board is the statutory body responsible for the protection and enhancement of salmon and sea trout fisheries in the Ness District. Common seals and grey seals are often seen, as are grey heron, pipistrelle and Daubenton's bats, housemartins, grey wagtail, great black backed gull, European herring gull, oystercatchers, mallards, dippers, goosander and other diving birds. At certain times of the year Arctic terns can be seen lining the railings along the river banks and rarely eagle owl have been seen and the occasional osprey has been spotted fishing in the river from the Ness Islands. European otter are sometimes spotted. The banks of the river are lined with lime trees. Near the Ness Islands on the west bank is Bught Park which has facilities for sports and leisure. Here can be found Inverness Sports Centre and Aquadome, the ice rink and Inverness Botanic Gardens formerly known as the Floral Hall and Gardens containing tropical and desert glasshouses and a water cascade. Further upstream from Bught Park is Whin Park which has a boating pond. In Cavell Gardens near the Infirmary Bridge is Inverness war memorial which commemorates the fallen of the two world wars. The memorial is made of red sandstone and is designed in the form of a Celtic cross.", "A major flood alleviation scheme is currently under construction in the city centre side of the river. The £8.5 million contract for this phase is being undertaken by Morgan Sindall.", "The Port of Inverness is situated at the mouth of the River Ness where there is also a recently constructed marina offering mooring for private yachts and other vessels.", "The first claimed sighting of the Loch Ness Monster was in the River Ness in AD 565, when Saint Columba is said to have banished a \"water monster\" back into the river after it tried to attack one of his disciples who was swimming across the river. According to Adomnán, when Columba visited King Bridei I of Pictland at his house on the River Ness, he met a wizard named Broichan who had an Irish slave-girl that he refused to release even though Columba pleaded with him. Columba went out of Bridei's house and picked up a white pebble from the river. He said that the pebble would be used to heal many sick people in Pictland, and that Broichan was suffering for his sins at that very moment. After he had finished speaking, two messengers came to tell them that Broichan had a seizure and they wanted Columba to help them. Columba gave them the stone and said to dip it in water to give to Broichan, if he agreed to release the slave-girl. He agreed to do so, and the stone was put in water and it floated on it; the wizard drank from the water and was healed. This stone was kept by King Bridei in the royal treasury for the rest of his life, and anyone who came there for healing would be given water with the stone floating in it, and they would be healed." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early history.", "Early Modern period.", "18th and early 19th centuries.", "Late 19th and early 20th century.", "World War II and communism.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Demographics.", "Economy.", "Culture.", "Theatre.", "Education.", "Festivals.", "Sport.", "International relations.", "Twin towns – Sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The earliest traces of human settlements in this area relate to the Paleolithic. Coins minted by the Dacians during the 3rd century BC, copying the design of Thracian \"tetradrachmon\" issued by Lysimachus, have been discovered here. A small Roman \"castrum\" was built sometime in the 3rd century AD in the vicinity of present-day Pitești (part of a protection system for Roman Dacia and Moesia). During the Age of Migrations, the Pitești area was, according to historian Constantin C. Giurescu, the site of trading between Vlachs and Slavs, which, in his opinion, was the origin of \"Târgul din Deal\" (\"The Market on the Hill\"), a separate locality. The first recorded mention of Pitești itself was on May 20, 1386, when Wallachian Prince Mircea I granted a gristmill in the area to Cozia Monastery. Pitești was subsequently one of the temporary residences of Wallachian Princes. Due to its positioning on the junction of major European routes (and its proximity to the Saxon markets in Hermannstadt, Transylvania), the city originally developed as an important commercial center. By the late 14th century, it became home to a sizable Armenian community. At the time, the locality was only extending on the left bank of the Argeș, and gradually expanded over the river, reaching the hill slopes to the west (in the 19th century, it completely absorbed \"Târgul din Deal\"). While Pitești was commonly designated as a high-ranking town, a village of Pitești was still mentioned as late as 1528, which led some historians to conclude that the village and urban area coexisted within the same boundaries.", "Although princely quarters have not been uncovered, among the rulers to issue documents from Pitești were Basarab Țepeluș cel Tânăr (1477–1481), Neagoe Basarab (1512–1521), Vlad Înecatul (1530–1532), Vlad Vintilă de la Slatina (1532–1535), Michael the Brave (1593–1601), Simion Movilă (1601–1602), Matei Basarab (1632–1654) and Constantin Șerban (1654–1658). In addition, Constantin Brâncoveanu (1688–1714), who owned large sections of vineyard in the area, is reported to have spent several seasons in the town. Under Vlad Vintilă, who allied himself with the Holy Roman Empire against his Ottoman overlords, Aloisio Gritti (governor of Ottoman Hungary) and his Wallachian boyar partisans camped in the Pitești neighborhood of Războieni, where they were attacked and defeated by the Prince. In 1600–1601, troops of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, led by Jan Zamoyski, were stationed in Pitești during their expedition against Michael the Brave (\"see Moldavian Magnate Wars\"). Around that time, fighting occurred in and around the town as the new prince Radu Șerban clashed with the Ottomans and their Crimean Khanate allies. Constantin Șerban financed the building of the Orthodox Saint George Church, completed in 1656. His building program also included a (since-lost) palace and adjacent gardens. Around that time, the city hosted travelers of renown, such as Arab chronicler Paul of Aleppo and Swedish politician Claes Rålamb. It was during Brâncoveanu's rule that the city was home to \"Stolnic\" Constantin Cantacuzino, who was exchanging letters with English statesman William, Baron Paget. A tower and other princely houses, built by Brâncoveanu outside the town, gradually deteriorated over the 18th and 19th centuries (the last standing structure was lost in the 20th century). In 1689, Habsburg troops led by Louis William of Baden occupied the city as part of the Great Turkish War (they were repelled later that year).", "In November 1714, as a direct result of Swedish defeats in the Great Northern War against Imperial Russia, Swedish King Charles XII unsuccessfully sought an alliance with Sultan Ahmed III; on his way back from Istanbul, Charles and Axel Sparre passed through Pitești, and, after a three-week stay, made their way to Swedish Pomerania through Habsburg-ruled regions. During the Austro-Turkish War of 1716–1718, Habsburg troops attacked and captured the town; Pitești was again the scene of battles during the Austro-Turkish War of 1737–1739. In 1780, Tuscan numismatist Domenico Sestini passed through the Argeș region, and described the town as having 250 houses and 7 churches. In 1804, the citizens requested to have an upper school opened (to offer lectures in Greek, the educational language of the time); their request was denied by Prince Constantine Ypsilantis. During the 1790s, Pitești was visited by Luigi Mayer, a German pupil of Giovanni Battista Piranesi, who left etchings of the region (including the very first one of Pitești); they were published in London in 1810, with text by a T. Bowyer, whose caption for Pitești read \"nothing more wild or romantic can be conceived\". The town was an important location for events relating to the last stage of the Wallachian uprising of 1821 and the first stages of the Greek War of Independence: it was here that, in late spring 1821, the Wallachian rebel leader Tudor Vladimirescu settled after retreating from Bucharest. His departure raised suspicion from his Eterist allies that he was planning to abandon the common cause. Vladimirescu was captured in the nearby locality of Băilești and executed soon after, on orders from Alexander Ypsilantis.", "The city was developed further after the 1859 unification of the Danubian Principalities and the 1881 creation of the Romanian Kingdom. Around that time, and down to the late interwar, the city became a National Liberal center, largely due to the Brătianu family of politicians residing in nearby Ștefănești. Their manor, \"Florica\", housed most major reunions of the National Liberal leaders. For a short period in 1882, Pitești was home to dramatist Ion Luca Caragiale, leading some to propose that it was the unnamed National Liberal-dominated city depicted in Caragiale's famous play \"O scrisoare pierdută\". By 1872, a national railway connection with the capital Bucharest and Târgoviște was built, at the same time as one linking Bucharest with Ploiești through Chitila. Overseen by the German financier Bethel Henry Strousberg, this was the second project of its kind in Romania (after the Bucharest-Giurgiu rail link of 1869). The Pitești Town Hall was completed in 1886, and currently houses an art gallery. The Argeș County Prefecture, designed by Dimitrie Maimarolu, was erected in 1898–1899 on the site previously occupied by an Orthodox hermitage; it is the present-day site of the County Museum of History and Natural Sciences. Both buildings are eclectic in style, and feature frescoes painted by Iosif Materna. Pitești experienced urbanization and economic development with several changes in landscape and a number of regional firsts. In 1868–1869, Pitești was the first city in Romania to have a recorded Seventh-day Adventist community, formed around Michał Belina-Czechowski, a Polish preacher and former Catholic priest who had returned from the United States (the Seventh-day Adventist Church in Romania was established only after 1918). By 1906, Pitești was home to a thriving cooperative bank, \"Banca Populară Pitești\", which was also the first-ever financial institution in the Argeș County. In 1907, factory manager Edmond Landauer performed the very first Tayloristic experiments in Romania, at Pitești Weaving Mill. From late autumn 1916 to 1918, during the World War I battles, Pitești was occupied by the troops of the Central Powers. The city was originally abandoned by the Romanian Army and taken by the German commander August von Mackensen as the front stabilized on the Olt River, before Mackensen was able to occupy Bucharest and the entire southern Romania. During the post-war existence of Greater Romania, Pitești became a regional cultural center, notably hosting the 1928–1929 series of the magazine \"Kalende\" (published in cooperation by literary critics Vladimir Streinu, Șerban Cioculescu, Pompiliu Constantinescu, and Tudor Șoimaru).", "Pitești was affected in various ways by World War II and its successive regimes. After a fascist National Legionary State was proclaimed by the Iron Guard in late 1940, a bronze bust of former Premier Armand Călinescu (whom the Guard had assassinated in September 1939), was chained and dragged through the city streets. In December 1943, under the dictatorship of \"Conducător\" Ion Antonescu (a Pitești native), it saw the final chapter in a chain of deportations of Romani people to Transnistria (\"see Holocaust in Romania\"). The city was sporadically bombed by the Allies: on July 4, 1944, it was struck by a section of the US Fifteenth Air Force (\"see Bombing of Romania in World War II\"). In the 1950s, while serving as capital of Regiunea Argeș, Pitești gained an ill notoriety, when the communist authorities used the local detention facility to subject political detainees to \"reeducation\", in which violence between inmates was encouraged to the point of being mandatory (\"see Pitești prison\"). The experiment was carried out by the Securitate secret police and overseen by Alexandru Nicolschi; its goal was to psychologically destroy the capacity for outside attachment and outside loyalty, creating the brainwashed \"New Man\" prototype of Leninism. The program was canceled after some five years. At a trial held in 1953–1954, twenty-two inmate-participants were sentenced, with sixteen being condemned to death for their role in the experiment. In 1957, a new trial convicted certain members of the prison staff, who received light sentences; they were later pardoned. In parallel, Pitești underwent numerous changes in landscape, including the completion of the A1 freeway, the first road of its kind, during the 1960s, and the acceleration of industrialization with a focus on the chemical and automotive industries. Around 1950, Pitești area accommodated ELAS refugees from the Greek Civil War (some of the buildings erected for this purpose were later used to house resettled peasants). \"Florica\" was nationalized in 1948, and was later partly devastated by Romanian Communist Party activists (for a while during the 1970s, it was a residence of the communist politician Ion Dincă). The bust of Ion Brătianu, standing in front of Saint Nicholas Church, was removed and melted, and the church itself was demolished in 1962.", "The city is part of the historical region of Wallachia, situated in its north and in the westernmost part of its Muntenian subregion. It lies on the right bank of the Argeș, where the river meets its tributary, Râul Doamnei. Pitești is situated above sea level, on terraces formed by the Argeș, and belongs to the southernmost section of the Getic Plateau (an area of foothills leading up to the Southern Carpathians). The Plateau is at its narrowest in the Pitești area, where it only reaches in width, as opposed to the average. The city has access to a piedmont plain, known as \"Câmpia Piteștilor\" (\"Pitești Plain\") and characterized by water-meadows. To the west, it abuts the Trivale Forest, which has been partly set up as a leisure park. Pitești is adjacent to two reservoirs on the Argeș, in its Prundu area and in nearby Bascov (the Budeasa Dam). It is situated downstream from Lake Vidraru and upstream from the reservoir in Bălilești.", "According to the Köppen climate classification, the city lies within the humid continental climate (\"Dfb\") category. Average annual temperatures range between 9 °C and 10 °C. The average January temperature is -2.4 °C, while the average July temperature is 20.8 °C.", "Romania's 2011 census recorded a population of 155,383 for the city. Of the individuals for whom data were available, 99.1% were ethnic Romanians and 0.6% Roma. In terms of religion, 98.4% were Romanian Orthodox; 0.3% Roman Catholic; and 0.2% each Pentecostal, Christian Evangelical, Baptist and Evangelical. A further 0.2% were atheist or non-religious. A 2016 estimate placed the population at 177,485. The 1930 census found that 88.0% of residents were Romanians, 3.0% Jews, 2.5% Hungarians, 2.2% Roma, 1.4% Germans, 0.6% Greeks and 0.3% each Russians, Bulgarians, Armenians and, grouped together, Serbs, Croats and Slovenes. The population of Pitești grew between the 1830s and the 1990s, with the most sustained period of growth occurring after the 1950s, when industrial development created jobs and attracted residents from nearby settlements. The population peaked at an estimated 187,000 in 1997, then stagnated until 2001, and has gradually decreased since that time. The drop is particularly noticeable among the male population: this segment not only has a higher mortality and lower life expectancy, but also, due to de-industrialization, emigrated in search of work in significant numbers.", "Pitești is one of the most industrialized cities in Romania. It is the center of the automotive industry in the country: the Automobile Dacia automaker is situated in the nearby town of Mioveni, and several other automobile parts manufacturers are located within its urban area (Dräxlmaier Group, Lear Corporation and Valeo). The city also houses the Arpechim oil refinery, part of the Petrom group. The plant, established as a state-owned company during communism, has traditionally been the center of controversy over its air pollution records. In 2007, the Ministry of the Environment withdrew Arpechim's permit, but Petrom contested the decision in court. The plant is scheduled to gradually reduce its activity over a period of several years, pending eventual closure. The city is surrounded by hills rich in wineries and plum orchards. The latter give one of the finest Romanian \"țuicas\": \"țuica de Pitești\". The Ștefănești winery, situated on the opposite bank of the Argeș River, is one of the best known in Romania.", "", "Pitești is home to a County Theater; established in 1948, it was named in honor of playwright Alexandru Davila a decade later. Its branches include a puppet theater (created in 1949), the \"Estrada\" section for open-air performances (1958), and a folklore section (1970). The Theater's Studio 125 was established in May 1975 by director Liviu Ciulei. The first written record of a theatrical performance in the city dates to 1848, when Constantin Halepliu set up a troupe. Following that year's revolution, several actors, Halepliu included, were arrested, and the theatre closed until 1856. A Communal Theatre was built in 1914–1916. Since 1948, the local acting ensemble has performed both in other Romanian cities and abroad, including in Poland, Serbia, Bulgaria, Italy and Spain.", "The city houses two universities: the state-run University of Pitești and the private Constantin Brâncoveanu University (founded 1991, with branches in Brăila and Râmnicu Vâlcea). There are 17 secondary education institutions, including two main high schools—the Ion Brătianu National College (founded 1866) and the Zinca Golescu National College. There are also 20 primary schools, 23 kindergartens and 10 nursery schools. A public library, named after intellectual figure Dinicu Golescu, was planned in 1869 by Paraschiva Stephu, a female member of the upper class, who drew up a will leaving 200 Austrian ducats for the purpose of creating a library. The institution became operational in 1880, and a large part of the volumes were bequeathed by historian George Ionescu-Gion immediately following his death in 1904. His donation included over a thousand books in Romanian, French and Italian. The library moved into its current headquarters in the city center in 2003.", "Each year during springtime, Pitești is host to a festival and fair known as \"Simfonia lalelelor\" (the \"Tulip Symphony\"). Tulips were introduced locally in 1972–1973, when around 3,000 bulbs brought from Arad and Oradea were planted in its central area, along with other flowers. Pitești consequently acquired a reputation as a tulip-growing area, and the flower-themed festival was first organized by the local authorities in 1978. Typically held in the cultural centre building (\"Casa Cărții\"), the festival also includes folk music performances, international scientific conferences, an art exhibit and youth sport competitions.", "The major football club in the city is FC Argeș Pitești, which has generally played in Liga I, and has the Nicolae Dobrin Stadium as its home ground. In addition, the city was home to a Liga II football club, Internațional Pitești (located on Stadionul Ștrand), and has a school which doubles as a junior team, Sporting Pitești. Pitești hosts basketball team BCM U Pitești, as well as a women's volleyball team, Argeș Volei Pitești. Pitești is home to an Olympic size swimming pool, the home ground for CSM Pitești, and a public outdoor swimming pool in the Tudor Vladimirescu area. Nearby Bascov also has a public swimming place, on grounds adjacent to the Budeasa Dam. The national canoe racing also trains at the Budeasa Dam sports base, and the location is also used for recreational fishing. A tennis challenger tournament (\"Turneul challenger feminin Pitești\") takes place each year, on grounds in Bascov.", "", "Pitești is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Geography.", "Statistics and bathymetry.", "Cities.", "Connection to ocean and open water.", "Beaches.", "Ferries.", "Parks.", "Hydrology.", "Drinking water.", "Fishing.", "Commercial fisheries.", "Sports fishing.", "Shipping.", "Port of Chicago.", "Tourism and recreation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Some of the earliest human inhabitants of the Lake Michigan region were the Hopewell Indians. Their culture declined after 800 AD, and for the next few hundred years, the region was the home of peoples known as the Late Woodland Indians. In the early 17th century, when western European explorers made their first forays into the region, they encountered descendants of the Late Woodland Indians: the Chippewa; Menominee; Sauk; Fox; Winnebago; Miami; Ottawa; and Potawatomi. The French explorer Jean Nicolet is believed to have been the first European to reach Lake Michigan, possibly in 1634 or 1638. In the earliest European maps of the region, the name of Lake Illinois has been found in addition to that of \"Michigan\", named for the Illinois Confederation of tribes. Lake Michigan is joined via the narrow, open-water Straits of Mackinac with Lake Huron, and the combined body of water is sometimes called Michigan–Huron (also Huron–Michigan). The Straits of Mackinac were an important Native American and fur trade route. Located on the southern side of the Straits is the town of Mackinaw City, Michigan, the site of Fort Michilimackinac, a reconstructed French fort founded in 1715, and on the northern side is St. Ignace, Michigan, site of a French Catholic mission to the Indians, founded in 1671. In 1673, Jacques Marquette, Louis Joliet and their crew of five Métis voyageurs followed Lake Michigan to Green Bay and up the Fox River, nearly to its headwaters, in their search for the Mississippi River, cf. Fox–Wisconsin Waterway. The eastern end of the Straits was controlled by Fort Mackinac on Mackinac Island, a British colonial and early American military base and fur trade center, founded in 1781. With the advent of European exploration into the area in the late 17th century, Lake Michigan became part of a line of waterways leading from the Saint Lawrence River to the Mississippi River and thence to the Gulf of Mexico. French coureurs des bois and voyageurs established small ports and trading communities, such as Green Bay, on the lake during the late 17th and early 18th centuries. In the 19th century, Lake Michigan played a major role in the development of Chicago and the Midwestern United States west of the lake. For example, 90% of the grain shipped from Chicago travelled east over Lake Michigan during the years, and only rarely falling below 50% after the Civil War and the major expansion of railroad shipping. The first person to reach the deep bottom of Lake Michigan was J. Val Klump, a scientist at the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee. Klump reached the bottom via submersible as part of a 1985 research expedition. In 2007, a row of stones paralleling an ancient shoreline was discovered by Mark Holley, professor of underwater archeology at Northwestern Michigan College. This formation lies below the surface of the lake. One of the stones is said to have a carving resembling a mastodon. So far the formation has not been authenticated. The warming of Lake Michigan was the subject of a report by Purdue University in 2018. In each decade since 1980, steady increases in obscure surface temperature have occurred. This is likely to lead to decreasing native habitat and to adversely affect native species survival.", "It is the sole Great Lake wholly within the borders of the United States; the others are shared with Canada. It lies in the region known as the American Midwest.", "Lake Michigan has a surface area of 22,404 sq.mi (58,026 km); (13,237 square miles, 34,284 km lying in Michigan state, 7,358 square miles, 19,056 km in Wisconsin, 234 square miles, 606 km in Indiana, & 1,576 square miles, 4,079 km in Illinois) making it the largest lake entirely within one country by surface area (Lake Baikal, in Russia, is larger by water volume), and the fifth-largest lake in the world. It is the larger half of Lake Michigan–Huron, which is the largest body of fresh water in the world by surface area. It is long by wide with a shoreline long. The lake's average depth is 46 fathoms 3 feet (279 ft; 85 m), while its greatest depth is 153 fathoms 5 feet (923 ft; 281 m). It contains a volume of 1,180 cubic miles (4,918 km3) of water. Green Bay in the northwest is its largest bay. Grand Traverse Bay in its northeast is another large bay. Lake Michigan's deepest region, which lies in its northern-half, is called Chippewa Basin (named after prehistoric Lake Chippewa) and is separated from South Chippewa Basin, by a relatively deeper area called the Mid Lake Plateau.", "Twelve million people live along Lake Michigan's shores, mainly in the Chicago and Milwaukee metropolitan areas. The economy of many communities in northern Michigan and Door County, Wisconsin is supported by tourism, with large seasonal populations attracted by Lake Michigan. Seasonal residents often have summer homes along the waterfront and return home for the winter. The southern tip of the lake near Gary, Indiana is heavily industrialized. Cities on the shores of Lake Michigan include: Illinois Indiana Michigan Wisconsin", "The Saint Lawrence Seaway and Great Lakes Waterway opened the Great Lakes to ocean-going vessels. Wider ocean-going container ships do not fit through the locks on these routes, and thus shipping is limited on the lakes. Despite their vast size, large sections of the Great Lakes freeze in winter, interrupting most shipping. Some icebreakers ply the lakes. The Great Lakes are also connected by the Illinois Waterway to the Gulf of Mexico via the Illinois River (from Chicago) and the Mississippi River. An alternate track is via the Illinois River (from Chicago), to the Mississippi, up the Ohio, and then through the Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway (combination of a series of rivers and lakes and canals), to Mobile Bay and the Gulf. Commercial tug-and-barge traffic on these waterways is heavy. Pleasure boats can also enter or exit the Great Lakes by way of the Erie Canal and Hudson River in New York. The Erie Canal connects to the Great Lakes at the east end of Lake Erie (at Buffalo, NY) and at the south side of Lake Ontario (at Oswego, NY).", "Lake Michigan has many beaches. The region is often referred to as the \"Third Coast\" of the United States, after those of the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean. The sand is often soft and off-white, known as \"singing sands\" because of the squeaking noise (caused by high quartz content) it emits when walked upon. Some beaches have sand dunes covered in green beach grass and sand cherries, and the water is usually clear and cool, between, even in the late summer months. However, because prevailing westerly winds tend to move the surface water toward the east, there is a flow of warmer water to the Michigan shore in the summer. The sand dunes located on the east shore of Lake Michigan are the largest freshwater dune system in the world. In fact, in multiple locations along the shoreline, the dunes rise several hundred feet above the lake surface. Large dune formations can be seen in many state parks, national forests and national parks along the Indiana and Michigan shoreline. Some of the most expansive and unique dune formations can be found at Indiana Dunes National Park, Saugatuck Dunes State Park, Warren Dunes State Park, Hoffmaster State Park, Silver Lake State Park, Ludington State Park, and Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore. Small dune formations can be found on the western shore of Lake Michigan at Illinois Beach State Park and moderate sized dune formations can be found in Kohler-Andrae State Park and Point Beach State Forest in Wisconsin. A large dune formation can be found in Whitefish Dunes State Park in Wisconsin in the Door Peninsula. Lake Michigan beaches in Northern Michigan are the only place in the world, aside from a few inland lakes in that region, where one can find Petoskey stones, the state stone. The beaches of the western coast and the northernmost part of the east coast are often rocky, with some sandy beaches due to local conditions; while the southern and eastern beaches are typically sandy and dune-covered. This is partly because of the prevailing winds from the west (which also cause thick layers of ice to build on the eastern shore in winter). The Chicago city waterfront is composed of parks, beaches, harbors and marinas, and residential developments connected by the Chicago Lakefront Trail. Where there are no beaches or marinas, stone or concrete revetments protect the shoreline from erosion. The Chicago lakefront is accessible for about between the city's southern and northern limits along the lake.", "Two passenger and vehicle ferries operate ferry services on Lake Michigan, both connecting Wisconsin on the western shore with Michigan on the east. From May to October, the historic steam ship,, operates daily between Manitowoc, Wisconsin, and Ludington, Michigan, connecting U.S. Highway 10 between the two cities. The \"Lake Express\", established in 2004, carries passengers and vehicles across the lake between Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and Muskegon, Michigan.", "The National Park Service maintains the Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore and Indiana Dunes National Park. Parts of the shoreline are within the Hiawatha National Forest and the Manistee National Forest. The Manistee National Forest section of the shoreline includes the Nordhouse Dunes Wilderness. The Lake Michigan division of the Michigan Islands National Wildlife Refuge is also within the lake. There are numerous state and local parks located on the shores of the lake or on islands within the lake. A partial list follows.", "The Milwaukee Reef, running under Lake Michigan from a point between Milwaukee and Racine to a point between Grand Haven and Muskegon, divides the lake into northern and southern basins. Each basin has a clockwise flow of water, deriving from rivers, winds, and the Coriolis effect. Prevailing westerly winds tend to move the surface water toward the east, producing a moderating effect on the climate of western Michigan. There is a mean difference in summer temperatures of 5 to 10 degrees Fahrenheit (2 to 5 degrees Celsius) between the Wisconsin and Michigan shores. Hydrologically Michigan and Huron are the same body of water (sometimes called Lake Michigan-Huron), but are normally considered distinct. Counted together, it is the largest body of fresh water in the world by surface area. The Mackinac Bridge is generally considered the dividing line between them. Both lakes are part of the Great Lakes Waterway. The main inflow to Lake Michigan from Lake Superior, through Lake Huron, is controlled by the locks operated by the bi-national Lake Superior Board of Control Historic High Water Historic Low Water In January 2013, Lake Michigan's monthly mean water levels dipped to an all-time low of, reaching their lowest ebb since record keeping began in 1918. The lakes were below their long-term average and had declined 17 inches since January 2012. Keith Kompoltowicz, chief of watershed hydrology for the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers' district office in Detroit, explained that biggest factors leading to the lower water levels in 2013 were a combination of the \"lack of a large snowpack\" in the winter of 2011/2012 coupled with very hot and dry conditions in the summer of 2012. Since then water levels have rebounded, rising about 6 feet (2 meters) in 6.5 years, and are close to breaking the record high level.", "Lake Michigan, like the other Great Lakes, supplies drinking water to millions of people in bordering areas. The lakes are collectively administered by the state and provincial governments adjacent to them pursuant to the Great Lakes Compact. Environmental problems can still plague the lake. Steel mills and refineries operate near the Indiana shoreline. The \"Chicago Tribune\" reported that BP is a major polluter, dumping thousands of pounds of raw sludge in to the lake every day from its Whiting, Indiana, oil refinery. In March 2014 BP's Whiting refinery was responsible for spilling more than of oil into the lake.", "Lake Michigan is home to a small variety of fish species and other organisms. It was originally home to lake whitefish, lake trout, yellow perch, panfish, largemouth bass, smallmouth bass and bowfin, as well as some species of catfish. As a result of improvements to the Welland Canal in 1918, an invasion of sea lampreys and overharvesting, there has been a decline in native lake trout populations, ultimately causing an increase in the population of another invasive species, the alewife. As a result, salmonids, including various strains of brown trout, steelhead (rainbow trout), coho and chinook salmon, were introduced as predators in order to decrease the wildlife population. This program was so successful that the introduced population of trout and salmon exploded, resulting in the creation of a large sport fishery for these introduced species. Lake Michigan is now stocked annually with steelhead, brown trout, and coho and chinook salmon, which have also begun natural reproduction in some Lake Michigan tributaries. However, several introduced invasive species, such as lampreys, round goby, zebra mussels and quagga mussels, continue to cause major changes in water clarity and fertility, resulting in knock-on changes to Lake Michigan's ecosystem, threatening the vitality of native fish populations.", "Fisheries in inland waters of the United States are small compared to marine fisheries. The largest fisheries are the landings from the Great Lakes, worth about $14 million in 2001. Michigan's commercial fishery today consists mainly of 150 tribe-licensed commercial fishing operations through the Chippewa-Ottawa Resource Authority (CORA) and tribes belonging to the Great Lakes Indian Fish and Wildlife Commission (GLIFWC), which harvest 50 percent of the Great Lakes commercial catch in Michigan waters, and 45 state-licensed commercial fishing enterprises. The prime commercial species is the lake whitefish (Coregonus clupeaformis). The annual harvest declined from an average of from 1981 through to 1999 to more recent annual harvests of. The price for lake whitefish dropped from $1.04/lb. to as low as $.40/lb during periods of high production.", "Sports fishing includes salmon, whitefish, smelt, lake trout and walleye being major catches. In the late 1960s, successful stocking programs for Pacific salmon led to the development of Lake Michigan's charter fishing industry.", "Like all of the Great Lakes, Lake Michigan is today used as a major mode of transport for bulk goods. In 2002, 162 million net tons of dry bulk cargo were moved via the Lakes. This was, in order of volume: iron ore, grain and potash. The iron ore and much of the stone and coal are used in the steel industry. There is also some shipping of liquid and containerized cargo, but most container vessels cannot pass the locks on the Saint Lawrence Seaway because the ships are too wide. The total amount of shipping on the lakes has been on a downward trend for several years.", "The Port of Chicago, operated by the Illinois International Port District, has grain (14 million bushels) and bulk liquid (800,000 barrels) storage facilities along Lake Calumet. The central element of the Port District, Calumet Harbor, is maintained by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.", "Tourism and recreation are major industries on all of the Great Lakes:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Common names.", "Geographic range.", "Behavior.", "Feeding.", "Reproduction.", "Venom." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "With an average total length (body + tail) of, this is the largest member of the genus \"Causus\". The longest individual ever recorded was a male, in total length, collected in eastern Zimbabwe. The head has a snout that is relatively blunt (i.e., more rounded than in other members of this genus), on the sides of which the nostrils are positioned. The circumorbital ring consists of 2-3 preoculars, 1-2 postoculars, and 1-2 suboculars that separate the eye from the supralabials. The temporal scales usually number 2+3, sometimes 2+4, but very rarely 2+2 or 3+3. There are 6 supralabial scales, very rarely 7. The sublabial scales usually number 7 or 10, rarely 8, and very rarely 11, 12 or 13. The first 3-4 sublabials are in contact with the anterior chin shields. The posterior chin shields are small and often indistinguishable from the gulars. At midbody there are 15-21 rows of dorsal scales that are moderately keeled and have a satiny texture. The ventral scales number 120-166, the subcaudals, most of which are divided, 15-36. The color pattern consists of a ground color that is usually some shade of brown (possibly pinkish or grayish-brown), but occasionally olive green. This is overlaid with a pattern of 20-30 rhombic blotches that have pale edges, as well as a sprinkling of black scales and oblique black bars on the sides. Each oblique black bar is topped by one or two black spots, each with a pale centre, and strongly resembling an eye. Northern populations may be patternless, making them difficult to identify, while in others the pale edges may be missing, the rhombic blotches may be a darker color, or there may even be a dark brown vertebral stripe. The head has a characteristic V-shaped mark that may be solid black, or brown with a black outline.", "Rhombic night adder, demon night adder, Cape night adder, African night adder, Cape viper.", "Savannas of subsaharan Africa from Nigeria east to Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia and Kenya, south through Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi, DR Congo, Angola, Zambia, Malawi, Zimbabwe, northern Botswana, Mozambique, Swaziland, and eastern South Africa to Riverdale in the Western Cape Province. No type locality is listed.", "This is an active species that can often move relatively quickly—up to an estimated speed of 92 cm per second (3 feet per second). They are usually found on the ground, but have no trouble climbing or swimming. They are largely nocturnal, but are often seen basking in the early morning or late afternoon. However, Harper (1963) reported collecting a dozen specimens that were all active during the heat of the day. Most specimens are docile, seldom attempting to bite unless severely provoked. is quoted in Pitman (1938) as saying that, in captivity, they \"become so tame that you may allow them to creep, climb and slither round your neck and inside your garments.\" Others, however, are more temperamental. When seriously disturbed, they will put on a \"ferocious\" threat display that includes coiling up, inflating the body (making the dark markings stand out), hissing and puffing loudly, flattening the anterior portion of the body, and striking frantically. They may also flatten the neck and move forward with the tongue extended, much like a small cobra. Striking is done with such vigor that small specimens may lift themselves off the ground entirely.", "The diet consists mainly of toads, but it also includes frogs and small mammals.", "Females produce an average clutch of two dozen eggs that require a lengthy incubation period of approximately four months. The hatchlings are 10-12.5 cm (4-5 inches) in total length and feed on tiny frogs and toads.", "Rhombic Night Adder bites can be very serious and in at least one bite a child had to have a fasciotomy. The few documented bites involved pain and minor swelling with minimal necrosis. These symptoms usually disappear within 2–3 days. There have been no modern well-documented cases to back up earlier claims of fatalities due to bites from this species. Venom yield has varied from 20–30 mg to 300 mg, but the venom toxicity is low with values of 10.8, 14.6, >16.0 mg/kg IV and 15 mg/kg SC being reported." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Creation.", "Organization.", "Members.", "Economy.", "Operations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The idea for an economic union of the Maghreb began with the independence of Tunisia and Morocco in 1956. It was not until thirty years later, though, that five Maghreb states—Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, and Tunisia—met for the first Maghreb summit in 1988. The Union was established on 17 February 1989 when the treaty was signed by the member states in Marrakech. According to the Constitutive Act, its aim is to guarantee cooperation \"with similar regional institutions... [to] take part in the enrichment of the international dialogue... [to] reinforce the independence of the member states and... [to] safeguard... their assets.\" Strategic relevance of the region is based on the fact that, collectively, it boasts large phosphate, oil, and gas reserves, and it is a transit centre to southern Europe. The success of the Union would, therefore be economically important.", "There is a rotating chairmanship within the AMU which is held in turn by each nation. The current Secretary-General is the Tunisian Taïeb Baccouche.", "During the 16th session of the AMU Foreign Ministers, held on 12 November 1994 in Algiers, Egypt applied to join the AMU grouping.", "The economy of the AMU combines the economies of four out of five member states. All countries are predominantly Arab & Muslims states. The four out of five AMU countries have a combined GDP (at purchasing power parity; PPP) of US$1.5276 trillions. The richest country on the basis of GDP per capita at PPP is Algeria. On the basis of per capita GDP (nominal), Libya is the richest country, with incomes exceeding US$65.803 per capita.", "There have been problems of traditional rivalries within the AMU. For example, in 1994, Algeria decided to transfer the presidency of the AMU to Libya. This followed the diplomatic tensions between Algeria and other members, especially Morocco and Libya, whose leaders continuously refused to attend AMU meetings held in Algiers. Algerian officials justified the decision, arguing that they were simply complying with the AMU Constitutive Act, which stipulates that the presidency should in fact rotate on an annual basis. Algeria agreed to take over the presidency from Tunisia in 1994, but could not transfer it due to the absence of all required conditions to relinquish the presidency as stipulated by the Constitutive Act. Following the announcement of the decision to transfer the presidency of the Union, the Libyan leader, Muammar Gaddafi, stated that it was time to put the Union \"in the freezer\". This raised questions about Libya's position towards the Union. The concern was that Libya would have a negative influence on the manner in which it would preside over the organization. Moreover, traditional rivalries between Morocco and Algeria, and the unsolved question of Western Sahara's sovereignty, have blocked union meetings since the early 1990s despite several attempts to re-launch the political process. Western Sahara, a former Spanish colony south of Morocco that was \"reintegrated\" by the kingdom of Morocco, has declared independence as the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic. The latest top-level conference, in mid-2005, was derailed by Morocco's refusal to meet, due to Algeria's vocal support for Sahrawi independence. Algeria has continuously supported the Polisario Front liberation movement. Several attempts have been made, notably by the United Nations, to resolve the Western Sahara issue. In mid-2003, the UN Secretary General's Personal Envoy, James Baker, proposed a settlement plan, also referred to as the Baker Plan II. The UN's proposal was rejected by Morocco and accepted by the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic. As far as bilateral attempts are concerned, very little has been achieved, as Morocco continues to refuse any concessions that would allow the independence of Western Sahara, while Algeria maintains its support for the self-determination of the Sahrawis. In addition, the quarrel between Gaddafi's Libya and Mauritania has not made the task of reinvigorating the organisation any easier. Mauritania has accused the Libyan Secret Services of being involved in a 2003 attempted coup against President Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya. Libya has denied the accusation." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Childhood.", "Early career.", "Travelling virtuoso.", "Late career and health decline.", "Final years, death, and burial.", "Personal and professional relationships.", "Instruments.", "Compositions.", "Violin technique.", "Inspired works.", "Memorials.", "Fiorini daguerreotype.", "Dramatic portrayals.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Niccolò Paganini was born in Genoa, then capital of the Republic of Genoa, the third of the six children of Antonio and Teresa (née Bocciardo) Paganini. Paganini's father was an unsuccessful trader, but he managed to supplement his income through playing music on the mandolin. At the age of five, Paganini started learning the mandolin from his father, and moved to the violin by the age of seven. His musical talents were quickly recognized, earning him numerous scholarships for violin lessons. The young Paganini studied under various local violinists, including Giovanni Servetto and Giacomo Costa, but his progress quickly outpaced their abilities. Paganini and his father then traveled to Parma to seek further guidance from Alessandro Rolla. But upon listening to Paganini's playing, Rolla immediately referred him to his own teacher, Ferdinando Paer and, later, Paer's own teacher, Gasparo Ghiretti. Though Paganini did not stay long with Paer or Ghiretti, the two had considerable influence on his composition style.", "The French invaded northern Italy in March 1796, and Genoa was not spared. The Paganinis sought refuge in their country property in Romairone, near Bolzaneto. It was in this period that Paganini is thought to have developed his relationship with the guitar. He mastered the guitar, but preferred to play it in exclusively intimate, rather than public concerts. He later described the guitar as his \"constant companion\" on his concert tours. By 1800, Paganini and his father traveled to Livorno, where Paganini played in concerts and his father resumed his maritime work. In 1801, the 18-year-old Paganini was appointed first violin of the Republic of Lucca, but a substantial portion of his income came from freelancing. His fame as a violinist was matched only by his reputation as a gambler and womanizer. In 1805, Lucca was annexed by Napoleonic France, and the region was ceded to Napoleon's sister, Elisa Baciocchi. Paganini became a violinist for the Baciocchi court, while giving private lessons to Elisa's husband, Felice. In 1807, Baciocchi became the Grand Duchess of Tuscany and her court was transferred to Florence. Paganini was part of the entourage, but, towards the end of 1809, he left Baciocchi to resume his freelance career.", "For the next few years, Paganini returned to touring in the areas surrounding Parma and Genoa. Though he was very popular with the local audience, he was still not very well known in the rest of Europe. His first break came from an 1813 concert at La Scala in Milan. The concert was a great success. As a result, Paganini began to attract the attention of other prominent, though more conservative, musicians across Europe. His early encounters with Charles Philippe Lafont and Louis Spohr created intense rivalry. His concert activities, however, were still limited to Italy for the next few years. In 1827, Pope Leo XII honoured Paganini with the Order of the Golden Spur. His fame spread across Europe with a concert tour that started in Vienna in August 1828, stopping in every major European city in Germany, Poland, and Bohemia until February 1831 in Strasbourg. This was followed by tours in Paris and Britain. His technical ability and his willingness to display it received much critical acclaim. In addition to his own compositions, theme and variations being the most popular, Paganini also performed modified versions of works (primarily concertos) written by his early contemporaries, such as Rodolphe Kreutzer and Giovanni Battista Viotti. Paganini's travels also brought him into contact with eminent guitar virtuosi of the day, including Ferdinando Carulli in Paris and Mauro Giuliani in Vienna. But this experience did not inspire him to play public concerts with guitar, and even performances of his own guitar trios and quartets were private to the point of being behind closed doors.", "Throughout his life, Paganini was no stranger to chronic illnesses. Although no definite medical proof exists, he was reputed to have been affected by Marfan syndrome or Ehlers–Danlos syndrome. In addition, his frequent concert schedule, as well as his extravagant lifestyle, took their toll on his health. He was diagnosed with syphilis as early as 1822, and his remedy, which included mercury and opium, came with serious physical and psychological side effects. In 1834, while still in Paris, he was treated for tuberculosis. Though his recovery was reasonably quick, after the illness his career was marred by frequent cancellations due to various health problems, from the common cold to depression, which lasted from days to months. In September 1834, Paganini put an end to his concert career and returned to Genoa. Contrary to popular beliefs involving his wishing to keep his music and techniques secret, Paganini devoted his time to the publication of his compositions and violin methods. He accepted students, of whom two enjoyed moderate success: violinist Camillo Sivori and cellist Gaetano Ciandelli. Neither, however, considered Paganini helpful or inspirational. In 1835, Paganini returned to Parma, this time under the employ of Archduchess Marie Louise of Austria, Napoleon's second wife. He was in charge of reorganizing her court orchestra. However, he eventually conflicted with the players and court, so his visions never saw completion. In Paris, he befriended the 11-year-old Polish virtuoso Apollinaire de Kontski, giving him some lessons and a signed testimonial. It was widely put about, falsely, that Paganini was so impressed with de Kontski's skills that he bequeathed him his violins and manuscripts.", "In 1836, Paganini returned to Paris to set up a casino. Its immediate failure left him in financial ruin, and he auctioned off his personal effects, including his musical instruments, to recoup his losses. At Christmas of 1838, he left Paris for Marseilles and, after a brief stay, travelled to Nice where his condition worsened. In May 1840, the Bishop of Nice sent Paganini a local parish priest to perform the last rites. Paganini assumed the sacrament was premature, and refused. A week later, on 27 May 1840, Paganini died from internal hemorrhaging before a priest could be summoned. Because of this, and his widely rumored association with the devil, the Church denied his body a Catholic burial in Genoa. It took four years and an appeal to the Pope before the Church let his body be transported to Genoa, but it was still not buried. His body was finally buried in 1876, in a cemetery in Parma. In 1893, the Czech violinist František Ondříček persuaded Paganini's grandson, Attila, to allow a viewing of the violinist's body. After this episode, Paganini's body was finally reinterred in a new cemetery in Parma in 1896.", "Though having no shortage of romantic conquests, Paganini was seriously involved with a singer named Antonia Bianchi from Como, whom he met in Milan in 1813. The two gave concerts together throughout Italy. They had a son, Achille Ciro Alessandro, born on 23 July 1825 in Palermo and baptized at San Bartolomeo's. They never legalized their union and it ended around April 1828 in Vienna. Paganini brought Achille on his European tours, and Achille later accompanied his father until the latter's death. He was instrumental in dealing with his father's burial, years after his death. Throughout his career, Paganini also became close friends with composers Gioachino Rossini and Hector Berlioz. Rossini and Paganini met in Bologna in the summer of 1818. In January 1821, on his return from Naples, Paganini met Rossini again in Rome, just in time to become the substitute conductor for Rossini's opera \"Matilde di Shabran\", upon the sudden death of the original conductor. Paganini's efforts earned gratitude from Rossini. Paganini met Berlioz in Paris, and was a frequent correspondent as a penfriend. He commissioned a piece from the composer, but was not satisfied with the resultant four-movement piece for orchestra and viola obbligato \"Harold en Italie\". He never performed it, and instead it was premiered a year later by violist Christian Urhan. He did however write his own \"Sonata per Gran Viola\" Op. 35 (with orchestra or guitar accompaniment). Despite his alleged lack of interest in \"Harold\", Paganini often referred to Berlioz as the resurrection of Beethoven and, towards the end of his life, he gave large sums to the composer. They shared an active interest in the guitar, which they both played and used in compositions. Paganini gave Berlioz a guitar, which they both signed on its sound box.", "Paganini was in possession of a number of fine stringed instruments. More legendary than these were the circumstances under which he obtained (and lost) some of them. While Paganini was still a teenager in Livorno, a wealthy businessman named Livron lent him a violin, made by the master luthier Giuseppe Guarneri, for a concert. Livron was so impressed with Paganini's playing that he refused to take it back. This particular violin came to be known as \"Il Cannone Guarnerius\". On a later occasion in Parma, he won another valuable violin (also by Guarneri) after a difficult sight-reading challenge from a man named Pasini. Other instruments associated with Paganini include the \"Antonio Amati\" 1600, the \"Nicolò Amati\" 1657, the \"Paganini-Desaint\" 1680 Stradivari, the Guarneri-filius \"Andrea\" 1706, the \"Le Brun\" 1712 Stradivari, the \"Vuillaume\" c. 1720 Bergonzi, the \"Hubay\" 1726 Stradivari, and the \"Comte Cozio di Salabue\" 1727 violins; the \"Countess of Flanders\" 1582 da Salò-di Bertolotti, and the \"Mendelssohn\" 1731 Stradivari violas; the \"Piatti\" 1700 Goffriller, the \"Stanlein\" 1707 Stradivari, and the \"Ladenburg\" 1736 Stradivari cellos; and the \"Grobert of Mirecourt\" 1820 (guitar). Four of these instruments were played by the Tokyo String Quartet. Of his guitars, there is little evidence remaining of his various choices of instrument. The aforementioned guitar that he gave to Berlioz is a French instrument made by one Grobert of Mirecourt. The luthier made his instrument in the style of René Lacôte, a more well-known Paris-based guitar-maker. It is preserved and on display in the Musée de la Musique in Paris. Of the guitars he owned through his life, there was an instrument by Gennaro Fabricatore that he had refused to sell even in his periods of financial stress, and was among the instruments in his possession at the time of his death. There is an unsubstantiated rumour that he also played Stauffer guitars; he may certainly have come across these in his meetings with Giuliani in Vienna.", "Paganini composed his own works to play exclusively in his concerts, all of which profoundly influenced the evolution of violin technique. His 24 Caprices were likely composed in the period between 1805 and 1809, while he was in the service of the Baciocchi court. Also during this period, he composed the majority of the solo pieces, duo-sonatas, trios and quartets for the guitar, either as a solo instrument or with strings. These chamber works may have been inspired by the publication, in Lucca, of the guitar quintets of Boccherini. Many of his variations, including \"Le Streghe\", \"The Carnival of Venice\", and \"Nel cor più non mi sento\", were composed, or at least first performed, before his European concert tour. Generally speaking, Paganini's compositions were technically imaginative, and the timbre of the instrument was greatly expanded as a result of these works. Sounds of different musical instruments and animals were often imitated. One such composition was titled \"Il Fandango Spanolo\" (The Spanish Dance), which featured a series of humorous imitations of farm animals. Even more outrageous was a solo piece \"Duetto Amoroso\", in which the sighs and groans of lovers were intimately depicted on the violin. There survives a manuscript of the \"Duetto\", which has been recorded. The existence of the \"Fandango\" is known only through concert posters. However, his works were criticized for lacking characteristics of true polyphonism, as pointed out by Eugène Ysaÿe. Yehudi Menuhin, on the other hand, suggested that this might have been the result of his reliance on the guitar (in lieu of the piano) as an aid in composition. The orchestral parts for his concertos were often polite, unadventurous, and clearly supportive of the soloist. In this, his style is consistent with that of other Italian composers such as Giovanni Paisiello, Gioachino Rossini and Gaetano Donizetti, who were influenced by the guitar-song milieu of Naples during this period. Paganini was also the inspiration of many prominent composers. Both \"La Campanella\" and the A minor Caprice (No. 24) have been an object of interest for a number of composers. Franz Liszt, Robert Schumann, Johannes Brahms, Sergei Rachmaninoff, Boris Blacher, Andrew Lloyd Webber, George Rochberg and Witold Lutosławski, among others, wrote well-known variations on these themes.", "The Israeli violinist Ivry Gitlis once referred to Paganini as a phenomenon rather than a development. Though some of the techniques frequently employed by Paganini were already present, most accomplished violinists of the time focused on intonation and bowing techniques. Arcangelo Corelli (1653–1713) was considered a pioneer in transforming the violin from an ensemble instrument to a solo instrument. In the meantime, the polyphonic capability of the violin was firmly established through the Sonatas and Partitas BWV 1001–1006 of Johann Sebastian Bach (1685–1750). Other notable violinists included Antonio Vivaldi (1678–1741) and Giuseppe Tartini (1692–1770), who, in their compositions, reflected the increasing technical and musical demands on the violinist. Although the role of the violin in music drastically changed through this period, progress in violin technique was steady but slow. Techniques requiring agility of the fingers and the bow were still considered unorthodox and discouraged by the established community of violinists. Much of Paganini's playing (and his violin composition) was influenced by two violinists, Pietro Locatelli (1693–1746) and August Duranowski (Auguste Frédéric Durand) (1770–1834). During Paganini's study in Parma, he came across the 24 Caprices of Locatelli (entitled \"L'arte di nuova modulazione – Capricci enigmatici\" or \"The art of the new style – the enigmatic caprices\"). Published in the 1730s, they were shunned by the musical authorities for their technical innovations, and were forgotten by the musical community at large. Around the same time, Durand, a former student of Giovanni Battista Viotti (1755–1824), became a celebrated violinist. He was renowned for his use of harmonics, both natural and artificial (which had previously not been attempted in performance), and the left hand pizzicato in his performance. Paganini was impressed by Durand's innovations and showmanship, which later also became the hallmarks of the young violin virtuoso. Paganini was instrumental in the revival and popularization of these violinistic techniques, which are now incorporated into regular compositions. Another aspect of Paganini's violin techniques concerned his flexibility. He had exceptionally long fingers and was capable of playing three octaves across four strings in a hand span, an extraordinary feat even by today's standards. His seemingly unnatural ability may have been a result of Marfan syndrome.", "Notable works inspired by compositions of Paganini include: The \"Caprice No. 24 in A minor\", Op. 1, (\"Tema con variazioni\") has been the basis of works by many other composers. Notable examples include Brahms's \"Variations on a Theme of Paganini\" and Rachmaninoff's \"Rhapsody on a Theme of Paganini\".", "The Paganini Competition (\"Premio Paganini\") is an international violin competition created in 1954 in his home city of Genoa and named in his honour. In 1972 the State of Italy purchased a large collection of Niccolò Paganini manuscripts from the W. Heyer Library of Cologne. They are housed at the Biblioteca Casanatense in Rome. In 1982 the city of Genoa commissioned a thematic catalogue of music by Paganini, edited by Maria Rosa Moretti and Anna Sorrento, hence the abbreviation \"MS\" assigned to his catalogued works. A minor planet 2859 Paganini discovered in 1978 by Soviet astronomer Nikolai Chernykh is named after him.", "Although no photographs of Paganini are known to exist, in 1900 Italian violin maker Giuseppe Fiorini forged the now famous fake daguerreotype of the celebrated violinist. So well in fact, that even the great classical author and conversationalist Arthur M. Abell was led to believe it to be true, reprinting the image in the 22 January 1901 issue of the \"Musical Courier\".", "Paganini has been portrayed by a number of actors in film and television productions, including Stewart Granger in the 1946 biographical portrait \"The Magic Bow\", Roxy Roth in \"A Song to Remember\" (1945), Klaus Kinski in \"Kinski Paganini\" (1989) and David Garrett in \"The Devil's Violinist\" (2013). In the Soviet 1982 miniseries \"Niccolo Paganini\", the musician was portrayed by the Armenian actor Vladimir Msryan. The series focuses on Paganini's relationship with the Roman Catholic Church. Another Soviet actor, Armen Dzhigarkhanyan, played Paganini's fictionalized arch-rival, an insidious Jesuit official. The information in the series is generally spurious, and it also plays to some of the myths and legends rampant during the musician's lifetime. One memorable scene shows Paganini's adversaries sabotaging his violin before a high-profile performance, causing all strings but one to break during the concert. An undeterred Paganini continues to perform on three, two, and finally on a single string. In actuality, Paganini himself occasionally broke strings during his performances on purpose so he could further display his virtuosity. He did this by carefully filing notches into them to weaken them, so that they would break when in use. In Don Nigro's satirical comedy play \"Paganini\" (1995), the great violinist seeks vainly for his salvation, claiming that he unknowingly sold his soul to the Devil. \"Variation upon variation,\" he cries at one point, \"but which variation leads to salvation and which to damnation? Music is a question for which there is no answer.\" Paganini is portrayed as having killed three of his lovers and sinking repeatedly into poverty, prison, and drink. Each time he is \"rescued\" by the Devil, who appears in different guises, returning Paganini's violin so he can continue playing. In the end, Paganini's salvation—administered by a god-like Clockmaker—turns out to be imprisonment in a large bottle where he plays his music for the amusement of the public through all eternity. \"Do not pity him, my dear,\" the Clockmaker tells Antonia, one of Paganini's murdered wives. \"He is alone with the answer for which there is no question. The saved and the damned are the same.\"", "Images" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Awards.", "Special Awards.", "Pardo d'onore Swisscom.", "Excellence Award.", "The Best Independent Producer Award – Raimondo Rezzonico Prize.", "Vision Award.", "Premio Cinema Ticino.", "Leopard Club Award.", "Pardo alla carriera.", "Lifetime Achievement Award.", "Piazza Grande Awards.", "\"Prix du Public UBS\".", "Variety Piazza Grande Award.", "Swatch First Feature Award.", "Direction and management." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "The Festival del film Locarno kicked off on 23 August 1946, at the Grand Hotel of Locarno with the screening of the movie \"O sole mio\" by Giacomo Gentilomo. The first edition was organized in less than three months with a line-up of fifteen movies, mainly American and Italian, among which was \"Rome, Open City\" directed by Roberto Rossellini, \"And Then There Were None\" directed by René Clair (1945), \"Double Indemnity\" by Billy Wilder (1944) and \"The Song of Bernadette\" by Henry King (1943). Later, the Festival del film Locarno presented features and short films by many international directors such as Claude Chabrol, Stanley Kubrick, Paul Verhoeven, Miloš Forman, Marco Bellocchio, Glauber Rocha, Raúl Ruiz, Alain Tanner, Mike Leigh, Béla Tarr, Chen Kaige, Edward Yang, Alexandr Sokurov, Atom Egoyan, Jim Jarmusch, Ang Lee, Gregg Araki, Christoph Schaub, Catherine Breillat, Abbas Kiarostami, Gus Van Sant, Pedro Costa, Fatih Akin, Claire Denis and Kim Ki-Duk.", "", "", "For some 20 years now, the \"Pardo d'onore\" (Leopard of Honour, since 2009 Pardo d'onore Swisscom) has provided an opportunity to commend illustrious film directors, who embody the very idea of cinema which the festival has supported so passionately since its inception: the best of auteur films, creative and audacious, with a strong vision and a personal style, endlessly reinventing itself. Locarno is proud to number amongst recipients of the \"Pardo d‘onore\" such master filmmakers as Jacques Rivette, Manoel de Oliveira, Samuel Fuller, Bernardo Bertolucci, Jean-Luc Godard, Daniel Schmid, Ken Loach, Ermanno Olmi, Terry Gilliam, Abbas Kiarostami, Wim Wenders, Aleksandr Sokurov, Hou Hsiao-Hsien, Amos Gitai, William Friedkin, Alain Tanner, Jia Zhangke, Werner Herzog, Agnès Varda, Michael Cimino and Marco Bellocchio, winners of the Vela d'argento in 1965, and Alejandro Jodorowsky in 2016.", "Every year the \"Excellence Award\", sponsored by Moët et Chandon, celebrates one or more internationally acclaimed actors or actresses, who, through their work and talent, have enriched the cinema with their unique contribution. Since 2004, the Locarno Festival has been honoured to thus pay tribute to Oleg Menshikov, Susan Sarandon, John Malkovich, Willem Dafoe, Carmen Maura, Michel Piccoli, Toni Servillo, Chiara Mastroianni, Isabelle Huppert, Charlotte Rampling, Gael García Bernal, Victoria Abril and Sir Christopher Lee, Juliette Binoche, Giancarlo Giannini and Edward Norton. In 2016 the prize was awarded to Bill Pullman.", "Wishing to highlight key figures in film and salute their courage and their ability to take a risk supporting auteurs, the Locarno Festival has already paid tribute with this award to the work of such renowned producers as Paulo Branco, Ruth Waldburger, Karl Baumgartner, Jeremy Thomas, the French collective Agat Films & Cie, Lita Stantic, Christine Vachon, Martine Marignac, Menahem Golan Mike Medavoy, Margaret Ménégoz, and, in 2014, Nansun Shi. The Best Independent Producer Award - Premio Raimondo Rezzonico was established in 2002 in memory of Raimondo Rezzonico, president of the event for almost twenty years. The Prize is offered by the city of Minusio.", "The \"Vision Award\" highlights and pays tribute to creative figures from the movie industry, whose work behind the scenes has helped cinema open up to new perspectives. In 2013, the prize was given to Douglas Trumbull, master of the special effects. In 2014, the Festival awarded the Oscar prize-winner Garrett Brown, creator of the Steadicam, in 2015 Walter Murch, the triple-Oscar-winning editor and sound designer, and in 2016 the Canadian composer and conductor Howard Shore.", "Prize awarded since 2009 every two years to a film personality who comes from Ticino or has been living there the past five years with an outstanding movie performance.", "Named after the supporting association of the festival, the \"Leopard Club Award\" pays tribute to someone in film whose work has left a mark on the collective imagination. In 2013, the first Leopard Club Award was given to Faye Dunaway. In 2014, it was awarded to the American actress Mia Farrow. The winners of the following awards were Andy Garcia (2015), the Italian actress Stefania Sandrelli (2016), Adrien Brody (2017) and Meg Ryan (2018).", "An acknowledgement reserved for personalities with a special career in the world of movies.", "Since 2011 the prize is awarded to film personalities with an extraordinary career. Throughout the years it was presented to film legends such as Harrison Ford (2011), Alain Delon (2012), Jacqueline Bisset (2013), Armin Mueller-Stahl (2014) and Harvey Keitel (2016).", "", "The official jury is not the only one to hand out prizes at the festival. Every night, the audience in Piazza Grande is on jury service, voting to decide the winner of the \"Prix du public UBS\". Previous winners of the \"Prix du Public UBS\" have included films such as \"Bend it like Beckham, The Syrian Bride, The Lives of Others, Monsieur Lazhar, Lore, Gabrielle, Schweizer Helden\" and \"I, Daniel Blake\" in 2016.", "The \"Variety Piazza Grande Award\" is awarded by a jury of several of the American trade paper's critics who attend Locarno. It goes to a film screened in the Piazza Grande programme as a world or international première. The prize recognises a film that stands out for both its artistic qualities and its potential for theatrical release. The award is intended to assist the international career of the selected film, thanks to \"Variety\"'s connections with the film industry and its authority within the sector.", "The Prize is awarded by a jury of international critics to the first works presented in the sections \"concorso internazionale\", \"concorso Cineasti del presente\", \"Fuori concorso\", \"Signs of Life\" and \"Piazza Grande\".", "Artistic Directors: Presidents: Chief Operating Officers:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Technical overview.", "Commodore 128D.", "Market performance." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The C128's keyboard includes four cursor keys, an Alt key, Help key, Esc key, Tab key and a numeric keypad. None of these were present on the C64 which had only two cursor keys, requiring the use of the Shift key to move the cursor up or left. This alternate arrangement was retained on the 128, for use under C64 mode. The lack of a numeric keypad, Alt key, and Esc key on the C64 was an issue with some CP/M productivity software when used with the C64's Z80 cartridge. A keypad was requested by many C64 owners who spent long hours entering machine language type-in programs. Many of the added keys matched counterparts present on the IBM PC's keyboard and made the new computer more attractive to business software developers. While the 128's 40-column mode closely duplicates that of the C64, an extra 1K of color RAM is made available to the programmer, as it is multiplexed through memory address 1. The C128's power supply is improved over the C64's unreliable design, being much larger and equipped with cooling vents and a replaceable fuse. The C128 does not perform a system RAM test on power-up like previous Commodore machines. Instead of the single 6510 microprocessor of the C64, the C128 incorporates a two-CPU design. The primary CPU, the 8502, is a slightly improved version of the 6510, capable of being clocked at 2 MHz. The second CPU is a Zilog Z80 which is used to run CP/M software, as well as to initiate operating-mode selection at boot time. The two processors cannot run concurrently, thus the C128 is not a multiprocessing system. The C128's complex architecture includes four differently accessed kinds of RAM (128 KB main RAM, 16–64 KB VDC video RAM, 2 kNibbles VIC-II Color RAM, 2-kilobyte floppy-drive RAM on C128Ds, 0, 128 or 512 KB REU RAM), two or three CPUs (main: 8502, Z80 for CP/M; the 128D also incorporates a 6502 in the disk drive), and two different video chips (VIC-IIe and VDC) for its various operational modes. Early versions of the C128 occasionally experience temperature-related reliability issues due to the use of an electromagnetic shield over the main circuit board. The shield was equipped with fingers that contacted the tops of the major chips, ostensibly causing the shield to act as a large heat sink. A combination of poor contact between the shield and the chips, the inherently limited heat conductivity of plastic chip packages, as well as the relatively poor thermal conductivity of the shield itself, resulted in overheating and failure in some cases. The SID sound chip is particularly vulnerable in this respect. The most common remedy is to remove the shield, which Commodore had added late in development in order to comply with FCC radio-frequency regulations. The C128 has three operating modes. \"C128 Mode\" (native mode) runs at 1 or 2 MHz with the 8502 CPU and has both 40- and 80-column text modes available. \"CP/M Mode\" uses both the Z80 and the 8502 and is able to function in both 40- or 80-column text mode. \"C64 Mode\" is nearly 100 percent compatible with the earlier computer. Selection of these modes is implemented via the Z80 chip. The Z80 controls the bus on initial boot-up and checks to see if there is a CP/M disk in the drive, if there are any C64/C128 cartridges present, or if the Commodore key (which serves as the C64-mode selector) is being depressed on boot-up. Based on these conditions, it will switch to the appropriate mode of operation.", "Late in 1985, Commodore released to the European market a new version of the C128 with a redesigned chassis resembling the Amiga 1000. Called the Commodore 128D, this new European model featured a plastic chassis with a carrying handle on the side, incorporated a 1571 disk drive into the main chassis, replaced the built-in keyboard with a detachable one, and added a cooling fan. The keyboard also featured two folding legs for changing the typing angle. According to Bil Herd, head of the Hardware Team (a.k.a. the \"C128 Animals\"), the C128D was ready for production at the same time as the regular version. Working to release two models at the same time had increased the risk for on-time delivery and was apparent in that the main PCB has large holes in critical sections to support the C128D case and the normal case concurrently. In the latter part of 1986, Commodore released a version of the C128D in North America and parts of Europe referred to as the C128DCR, CR meaning \"cost-reduced\". The DCR model features a stamped-steel chassis in place of the plastic version of the C128D (with no carrying handle), a modular switched-mode power supply similar to that of the C128D, retaining that model's detachable keyboard and internal", "By January 1987 \"Info\" reported that \"All of those rumors about the imminent death of the C128 may have some basis in fact.\" Stating that Commodore wanted to divert resources to increasing 64C production and its PC clones, the magazine stated that, \"The latest word online is that the last C128 will roll off the lines in December of 1987.\" \"Compute!\" stated in 1989, \"If you bought your 128 under the impression that 128-specific software would be plentiful and quick to arrive, you've probably been quite disappointed. One of the 128's major selling points is its total compatibility with the 64, a point that's worked more against the 128 than for it.\" Because the 128 would run virtually all 64 software, and because the next-generation 32/16-bit home computers—primarily the Commodore Amiga and Atari ST—represented the latest technology, relatively little software for the C128's native mode appeared (probably on the order of 100–200 commercial titles, plus the usual share of public domain and magazine type-in programs), leading some users to regret their purchase. While the C128 sold a total number of 4 million units between 1985 and 1989, its popularity paled in comparison to that of its predecessor. One explanation for these lower sales numbers may be because the C64 was sold to people primarily interested in video games, which the more expensive C128 didn't add much value towards improving. Some C64 software such as \"Bard's Tale III\" and \"Kid Niki\" ran in 128 mode without stating this in the documentation, using the autoboot and the 1571's faster disk access. Some Infocom text adventures took advantage of the 80-column screen and increased memory capacity. Some C64 games were ported to native mode like \"Kikstart 2\" and \"The Last V8\" from Mastertronic, which had separate C128 versions, and \"\" from Origin Systems, which used extra RAM for music if running on the C128. \"\" from Interstel had separate versions, and took advantage of 80-column display on the C128. The vast majority of games simply ran in C64 mode. By contrast, many C64 productivity software titles were ported to the C128, including the popular PaperClip and Paperback Writer series. This software used the extra memory, 80-column screen, enhanced keyboard and large-capacity disk drives to provide features that were considered essential for business use. With its advanced BASIC programming language, CP/M compatibility and \"user-friendly\" native software packages such as Jane, Commodore attempted to create a low-end business market for the C128 similar to its strategy with the Plus/4, even distancing itself from the home computer label by branding the C128 a \"Personal Computer\" on the case. Significantly, the C128 was the first Commodore computer to advertise its use of Microsoft BASIC, where the Microsoft name would have been a competitive asset. The C128 was certainly a better business machine than the C64, but not really a better gaming machine. People who wanted business machines bought IBM PC clones almost exclusively by the time the C128 was released. The availability of low-cost IBM compatibles like the Leading Edge Model D and Tandy 1000 that, in some cases, sold for less than a complete C128 system derailed Commodore's small business computer strategy. There was a professional-level CAD program, Home Designer by BRiWALL, but again, most of this work was done on PCs by the C128's era. The main reason that the C128 still sold fairly well was probably that it was a much better machine for hobbyist programming than the C64, as well as being a natural follow-on model to owners with significant investments in C64 peripherals. But ultimately the C128 could not compete with the new 16/32-bit systems, which outmatched it and the rest of its 8-bit generation in nearly every aspect. When the C128(D/DCR) was discontinued in 1989, it was reported to cost nearly as much to manufacture as the Amiga 500, even though the C128D had to sell for several hundred dollars less to keep the Amiga's high-end marketing image intact. Bil Herd has stated that the design goals of the C128 did not initially include 100% compatibility with the C64. Some form of compatibility was always intended after Herd was approached at the Plus/4's introduction by a woman who was disappointed that the educational software package she had written for the C64 would not run on Commodore's new computer, but when Commodore's marketing department learned of this, they independently announced total compatibility. Herd gave the reason for the 128's inclusion of a Z80 processor as ensuring this \"100% compatibility\" claim, since supporting the C64's Z80 cartridge would have meant the C128 supplying additional power to the cartridge port. He also stated that the VDC video chip and Z80 were sources of trouble during the machine's design. Herd added that \"I only expected the C128 to be sold for about a year, we figured a couple of million would be nice and of course it wouldn’t undercut Amiga or even the C64\". After Commodore raised the price of the 64 for the first time by introducing the redesigned 64C in 1986, its profit from each 64C sold was reportedly much greater than that from the C128." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "Marriage and family.", "\"The Crocodile Hunter\" and related work.", "Other television and film work.", "Media campaigns.", "Search and rescue in Mexico.", "Honours.", "Environmentalism.", "Sporting activities.", "Controversies.", "Death.", "Reactions.", "Funeral and memorial services.", "Legacy.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Irwin was born on his mother's birthday to Lyn and Bob Irwin in Upper Ferntree Gully, a suburb of Melbourne. He was of Irish descent on his father's side. He moved with his parents as a child to Queensland in 1970, where he attended Landsborough State School and Caloundra State High School. Irwin described his father as a wildlife expert interested in herpetology, while his mother Lyn was a wildlife rehabilitator. After moving to Queensland, Bob and Lyn Irwin started the small Queensland Reptile and Fauna Park, where Steve grew up around crocodiles and other reptiles. Irwin became involved with the park in a number of ways, including taking part in daily animal feeding, as well as care and maintenance activities. On his sixth birthday, he was given a scrub python. He began handling crocodiles at the age of nine after his father had educated him on reptiles from an early age. Also at age nine, he wrestled his first crocodile, again under his father's supervision. He worked as a volunteer for Queensland's East Coast Crocodile Management program and captured over 100 crocodiles, some of which were relocated, while others were housed at the family park. Irwin took over the management of the park in 1991 and renamed it \"Australia Zoo\" in 1998.", "", "In 1991, Irwin met Terri Raines, an American naturalist from Eugene, Oregon, who was visiting wildlife rehabilitation facilities in Australia and had decided to visit the zoo. According to the couple, it was love at first sight. Terri said at the time, \"I thought there was no one like this anywhere in the world. He sounded like an environmental Tarzan, a larger-than-life superhero guy.\" They were engaged four months later and were married in Eugene on 4 June 1992. Together they had two children: a daughter, Bindi Sue Irwin (born 24 July 1998), and a son, Robert Clarence (named after Irwin's father) Irwin (born 1 December 2003). Bindi Sue is jointly named after two of Steve Irwin's favourite animals: Bindi, a saltwater crocodile, and Sui, a Staffordshire Bull Terrier. Irwin was as enthusiastic about his family as he was about his work. He once described his daughter Bindi as \"the reason [he] was put on the Earth.\" His wife once said, \"The only thing that could ever keep him away from the animals he loves are the people he loves even more.\" Although the Irwins were happily married, they did not wear wedding rings; they believed that in their line of work, wearing jewellery could pose a hazard to them and/or the animals.", "Steve and Terri spent their honeymoon trapping crocodiles together. Film footage of their honeymoon, taken by John Stainton, became the first episode of \"The Crocodile Hunter\". The series debuted on Australian TV screens in 1996 and made its way onto North American television the following year. \"The Crocodile Hunter\" became successful in the United States, the UK, and over 130 other countries, reaching 500 million people. Irwin's exuberant and enthusiastic presenting style, broad Australian accent, signature khaki shorts, and catchphrase \"Crikey!\" became known worldwide. Sir David Attenborough praised Irwin for introducing many to the natural world, saying \"He taught them how wonderful and exciting it was. He was a born communicator.\" American satellite and cable television channel Animal Planet ended \"The Crocodile Hunter\" with a series finale titled \"Steve's Last Adventure.\" The last Crocodile Hunter documentary spanned three hours with footage of Irwin's across-the-world adventure in locations including the Himalayas, the Yangtze River, Borneo, and the Kruger National Park. Irwin went on to star in other Animal Planet documentaries, including \"Croc Files\", \"The Crocodile Hunter Diaries\", and \"New Breed Vets\". During a January 2006 interview on \"The Tonight Show with Jay Leno\", Irwin announced that Discovery Kids would be developing a show for his daughter, Bindi Sue Irwin – a plan realised after his death as the series \"Bindi the Jungle Girl\".", "In 1998, Irwin continued, working with director Mark Strickson, to present \"The Ten Deadliest Snakes in the World\". He appeared on several episodes of \"The Tonight Show with Jay Leno\". A 2000 FedEx commercial with Irwin lightheartedly dealt with the possibility of occupational death from snakebite and the fanciful notion that FedEx would have saved him, if only FedEx were used. Under Irwin's leadership, the operations grew to include the zoo, the television series, the Steve Irwin Conservation Foundation (later renamed Wildlife Warriors), and the International Crocodile Rescue. Improvements to the Australia Zoo include the Animal Planet Crocoseum, the rainforest aviary and Tiger Temple. Irwin mentioned that he was considering opening an Australia Zoo in Las Vegas, Nevada, and possibly at other sites around the world. In 2001, Irwin appeared in a cameo role in the Eddie Murphy film \"Dr. Dolittle 2\", in which an alligator warns Dolittle that he knows Irwin is going to grab him and is prepared to attack when he does, but Dolittle fails to warn Irwin in time. Irwin's only starring feature film role was in 2002's \"\", which was released to mixed reviews. In the film Irwin (who portrayed himself and performed numerous stunts) mistakes some CIA agents for poachers. He sets out to stop them from capturing a crocodile, which, unknown to him, has actually swallowed a tracking transmitter. The film won the Best Family Feature Film award for a comedy film at the Young Artist Awards. The film was produced on a budget of about US$12 million, and has grossed $33 million. To promote the film, Irwin was featured in an animated short produced by Animax Entertainment for Intermix. In 2002, Irwin and his family appeared in the Wiggles video/DVD release \"Wiggly Safari\", which was set in Australia Zoo and featured singing and dancing inspired by Australian wildlife. Irwin fronted an advertising campaign for The Ghan in 2003, a passenger train operating between Adelaide, Alice Springs, and Darwin. A Pacific National NR class locomotive was named \"Steve Irwin\" as part of the campaign. Irwin provided his voice for the 2006 animated film \"Happy Feet\", as an elephant seal named Trev. The film was dedicated to Irwin, as he died during post-production. Another, previously incomplete scene, featuring Irwin providing the voice of an albatross and essentially playing himself, was restored to the DVD release.", "Irwin was also involved in several media campaigns. He enthusiastically joined with the Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service to promote Australia's strict quarantine/customs requirements, with advertisements and posters featuring slogans such as, \"Quarantine Matters! Don't muck with it\". His payments for these advertising campaigns were directed into his wildlife fund. In 2004, Irwin was appointed ambassador for The Ghan, the passenger train running from Adelaide to Alice Springs in the central Australian outback, when the line was extended all the way to Darwin on the northern coast that year. For some time he was sponsored by Toyota. Irwin was a keen promoter for Australian tourism in general and Queensland tourism in particular. In 2002, the Australia Zoo was voted Queensland's top tourist attraction. His immense popularity in the United States meant he often promoted Australia as a tourist destination there. As a part of the United States' \"Australia Week\" celebrations in January 2006, Irwin appeared at UCLA's Pauley Pavilion in Los Angeles, California.", "In November 2003, Irwin was filming a documentary on sea lions off the coast of Baja California Peninsula in Mexico when he heard via his boat's radio that two scuba divers were reported missing in the area. Irwin and his entire crew suspended operations to aid in the search. His team's divers searched with the rescue divers, and Irwin used his vessel to patrol the waters around the island where the incident occurred, as well as using his satellite communications system to call in a rescue plane. On the second day of the search, kayakers found one of the divers, Scott Jones, perched on a narrow rock ledge jutting out from the side of a cliff. Irwin and a crew member escorted him to Irwin's boat. Jones did not recognise Irwin. The other lost diver, Katie Vrooman, was found dead by a search plane later the same day not far from Jones' location.", "In 1997, while on a fishing trip on the coast of Queensland with his father, Irwin discovered a new species of turtle. Later given the honour of naming the newly discovered species, he named it Irwin's turtle (\"Elseya irwini\") after his family. Another newly discovered Australian animal – a species of air-breathing land snail, \"Crikey steveirwini\", was named after Irwin in 2009. Irwin was awarded the Centenary Medal by the Australian government in 2001 for his \"service to global conservation and to Australian tourism\". In 2004, he was recognised as Tourism Export of the Year. He was also nominated in 2004 for Australian of the Year but it was awarded to Australian cricket captain Steve Waugh, while Irwin was named 2004 Queensland Australian of the Year. Shortly before his death, Irwin was to be named an adjunct professor at the University of Queensland's School of Integrative Biology. On 14 November 2007, Irwin was awarded the adjunct professorship posthumously. In 2007, Irwin was posthumously inducted into the Logie Hall of Fame. In May 2007, the government of Rwanda announced that it would name a baby gorilla after Irwin as a tribute to his work in wildlife conservation. Also in 2007, the state government of Kerala, India named the Crocodile Rehabilitation and Research Centre at Neyyar Wildlife Sanctuary in his honour; however, Terri objected that this action had been taken without her permission and asked the Kerala government in 2009 to stop using Irwin's name and images – a request with which the state government complied in mid-2009. Irwin was inducted in 2009 into the Queensland Business Leaders Hall of Fame, recognised for international entrepreneurship both in business and wildlife conservation, significantly contributing to Queensland and its international reputation and in 2015, Irwin was a posthumous recipient of the Queensland Greats Awards. In 2017 it was announced that Irwin would be posthumously honoured with a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame. The star was unveiled 26 April 2018. On 22 February 2019, the 57th anniversary of Irwin's birth, the search engine Google released a Google Doodle commemorating him, in the form of a slideshow.", "Irwin was a passionate conservationist and believed in promoting environmentalism by sharing his excitement about the natural world rather than preaching to people. He was concerned with conservation of endangered animals and land clearing leading to loss of habitat. He considered conservation to be the most important part of his work: \"I consider myself a wildlife warrior. My mission is to save the world's endangered species.\" Irwin bought \"large tracts of land\" in Australia, Vanuatu, Fiji and the United States, which he described as \"like national parks\" and stressed the importance of people realising that they could each make a difference. Irwin founded the Steve Irwin Conservation Foundation, which became an independent charity and was later renamed \"Wildlife Warriors Worldwide\". He also helped found International Crocodile Rescue, the Lyn Irwin Memorial Fund (named in memory of his mother, who died in an automobile crash in 2000), and the Iron Bark Station Wildlife Rehabilitation Facility. Irwin urged people to take part in considerate tourism and not support illegal poaching through the purchase of items such as turtle shells or shark-fin soup. Sir David Attenborough was an inspiration to Irwin, according to his widow. When presenting a Lifetime Achievement Award to Attenborough after Irwin's death at the British National Television Awards on 31 October 2006, Terri Irwin said, \"If there's one person who directly inspired my husband it's the person being honoured tonight... [Steve's] real, true love was conservation – and the influence of tonight's recipient in preserving the natural world has been immense.\" Attenborough reciprocated by praising Irwin for introducing many to the natural world, saying, \"He taught them how wonderful and exciting it was, he was a born communicator.\" Irwin, after his death, was described by Mark Townend, CEO of RSPCA Queensland, as a \"modern-day Noah.\" British naturalist David Bellamy lauded his skills as a natural historian and media performer. Canadian environmentalist David Suzuki paid tribute to Irwin, noting that \"[h]umanity will not protect that which we fear or do not understand. Steve Irwin helped us understand those things that many people thought were a nuisance at best, a horror at worst. That made him a great educator and conservationist.\" After his death, the vessel owned by the environmental action group Sea Shepherd Conservation Society was renamed. Shortly before his death, Irwin had been investigating joining Sea Shepherd's 2007–2008 voyage to Antarctica to disrupt Japanese whaling activity. Following his death, the organisation suggested renaming their vessel, and this idea was endorsed by Terri Irwin. Regarding the ship and its new name, Terri said, \"If Steve were alive, he'd be aboard with them!\"", "Irwin loved mixed martial arts competitions and trained with Greg Jackson in the fighting/grappling system of Gaidojutsu. Like many Australians, he was an avid cricket fan. This was seen during his visit to Sri Lanka where he played cricket with some local children and said \"I love cricket\" and \"It's a shame we have to go catch some snakes now\". This was seen during the \"Crocodile Hunter\" episode \"Island of the Snakes\". Having grown up in Essendon, Irwin was a fan of the Essendon Bombers, an Australian rules football club in the Australian Football League. Irwin took part in an Australian Rules football promotion in Los Angeles as part of \"Australia Week\" in early 2006. After his death, a picture of Irwin wearing a Bombers guernsey was shown by ESPN.com in their Bottom 10 ranking of the worst Division I FBS college football teams after Week 1 of the season in tribute to him. Having lived in Queensland most of his life, Irwin was also a fan of rugby league. As a teenager, he played for the Caloundra Sharks as a second-rower, and as an adult he was known to be a passionate Brisbane Broncos fan and was involved with the club on several occasions. On one occasion after turning up to training he asked if he could tackle the largest player, Shane Webcke. Despite being thrown to the ground and looking like he'd been crushed he was jovial about the experience. Irwin laughingly shared the experience with the Queensland State of Origin squad before the 2006 series. Irwin also supported rugby union, being a fan of the national team, the Wallabies. He once wore a Wallaby jersey during a demonstration at the zoo. A behind-the-scenes episode of \"The Crocodile Hunter\" showed Irwin and the crew finding a petrol station in a remote part of Namibia to watch the Wallabies defeat France in the 1999 Rugby World Cup Final. Irwin was also a talented surfer.", "A controversial incident occurred during a public show on 2 January 2004, when Irwin carried his one-month-old son, Robert, in his arm while hand-feeding a chicken carcass to Murray, a saltwater crocodile. The infant was close to the crocodile, and comparisons were made in the press to Michael Jackson's dangling his son outside a German hotel window. In addition, some child welfare groups, animal rights groups, and some of Irwin's television viewers criticised his actions as irresponsible and tantamount to child abuse. Irwin apologised on the US NBC show \"Today\". Both he and his wife publicly stated that Irwin was in complete control of the situation, as he had dealt with crocodiles since he was a small child, and based on his lifetime of experience neither he nor his son was in any danger. He also showed footage of the event shot from a different angle, demonstrating that they were much farther from the crocodile than they had appeared in the publicised clip. Terri Irwin said their child was in no more danger than one being taught to swim. No charges were filed; according to one journalist, Irwin told officials he would not repeat the action. The incident prompted the Queensland government to change its crocodile-handling laws, banning children and untrained adults from entering crocodile enclosures. In June 2004, allegations were made that he disturbed wildlife (namely whales, seals and penguins) while filming a documentary, \"Ice Breaker\", in Antarctica. The matter was subsequently closed without charges being laid. After questions arose in 2003 about Irwin being paid $175,000 worth of taxpayers' money to appear in a television advertisement and his possible political ties, Irwin told the Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) that he was a conservationist and did not choose sides in politics. His comments describing Australian Prime Minister John Howard as the \"greatest leader in the world\" earned him scorn in the media. Irwin was criticised for having an unsophisticated view of conservation in Australia that seemed more linked to tourism than to the problems Australia faces as a continent. In response to questions of Australia's problems with overgrazing, salinity, and erosion, Irwin responded, \"Cows have been on our land for so long that Australia has evolved to handle those big animals.\" \"The Sydney Morning Herald\" concluded with the opinion that his message was confusing and amounted to \"eating roos and crocs is bad for tourism, and therefore more cruel than eating other animals\".", "Irwin died on 4 September 2006 after being pierced in the chest by a stingray barb while filming in Australia's Great Barrier Reef. The stinger penetrated his thoracic wall, causing massive trauma. He was at Batt Reef, near Port Douglas, Queensland, taking part in the production of the documentary series \"Ocean's Deadliest\". During a lull in filming caused by inclement weather, Irwin decided to snorkel in shallow waters while being filmed in an effort to provide footage for his daughter's television program. While swimming in chest-deep water, Irwin approached a short-tail stingray with an approximate span of two metres (6.5 ft) from the rear, in order to film it swimming away. According to the incident's only witness, \"All of a sudden [the stingray] propped on its front and started stabbing wildly with its tail. Hundreds of strikes in a few seconds\". Irwin initially believed he only had a punctured lung. However, the stingray's barb pierced his heart, causing him to bleed to death. The stingray's behaviour appeared to have been a defensive response to being boxed in. Crew members aboard Irwin's boat administered CPR and rushed him to the nearby Low Isles where medical staff pronounced him dead. Irwin's death is believed to be the only fatality from a stingray captured on video. Footage of the incident was viewed by Queensland state police as part of their mandatory investigations. All copies of the footage were then destroyed at the behest of Irwin's family. Production was completed on \"Ocean's Deadliest\", which was broadcast in the US on the Discovery Channel on 21 January 2007. The documentary was completed with footage shot in the weeks following the accident, but without including any mention of Irwin's accidental death.", "News of Irwin's death prompted reactions around the world. Then–Prime Minister John Howard expressed \"shock and distress\" at the death, saying that \"Australia has lost a wonderful and colourful son.\" Queensland's then-Premier Peter Beattie remarked that Irwin would \"be remembered as not just a great Queenslander, but a great Australian\". The Australian federal parliament opened on 5 September 2006 with condolence speeches by both Howard and the Leader of the Opposition, Kim Beazley. Flags at the Sydney Harbour Bridge were lowered to half mast in honour of Irwin. In the days following Irwin's death, reactions dominated Australian online news sources, talk-back radio programs, and television networks. In the United States, where Irwin had appeared in over 200 Discovery Network television programs, special tributes appeared on the Animal Planet channel, as well as on CNN and major TV talk shows. Thousands of Irwin's fans visited Australia Zoo after his death, paying their respects and bringing flowers, candles, stuffed animals and messages of support. Jacques Cousteau's grandson and Jean-Michel's nephew, Philippe Cousteau Jr., called Irwin \"a remarkable individual\". Describing the \"Ocean's Deadliest\" project (on which he worked along with Irwin), Philippe said, \"I think why Steve was so excited about it that we were looking at these animals that people think of as, you know, dangerous and deadly monsters, and they're not. They all have an important place in the environment and in the world. And that was what his whole message was about.\" In the weeks following Irwin's death, at least ten stingrays were found dead and mutilated on the beaches of Queensland, with their tails cut off, prompting speculation as to whether they might have been killed by fans of Irwin as an act of revenge, although, according to the chairman of the Queensland fishing information service, anglers regularly cut the tails off of accidentally caught stingrays to avoid being stung. Michael Hornby, a friend of Irwin and executive director of his Wildlife Warrior fund, condemned any revenge killings, saying that \"We just want to make it very clear that we will not accept and not stand for anyone who's taken a form of retribution. That's the last thing Steve would want.\"", "Family and friends of Irwin held a private funeral service in Caloundra on 9 September 2006. Irwin was buried in a private ceremony at Australia Zoo later that same day; the grave site is inaccessible to the zoo's visitors. Prime Minister Howard and Queensland Premier Beattie had offered to hold a state funeral, but Irwin's family decided this would not be appropriate and—in the words of his father—he would have preferred to be remembered as an \"ordinary bloke\". On 20 September, a public memorial service, introduced by Russell Crowe, was held in Australia Zoo's 5,500-seat Crocoseum; this service was broadcast live throughout Australia, the United States, the UK, Germany, and Asia, and it is estimated to have been seen by over 300 million viewers worldwide. The memorial included remarks by Prime Minister Howard; Irwin's father Bob and daughter Bindi; his associates Wes Mannion and John Stainton; and celebrities from Australia and around the world. Anthony Field of The Wiggles partly hosted the service, often sharing the screen with various animals, from koalas to elephants. Australian music star John Williamson sang \"True Blue\", which was Irwin's favourite song. In a symbolic finish to the service, Irwin's truck was loaded up with gear and driven out of the arena for the last time as Williamson sang. As a final tribute, Australia Zoo staff spelled out Irwin's catchphrase \"Crikey\" in yellow flowers as Irwin's truck was driven from the Crocoseum for the last time to end the service.", "On 1 January 2007, Glass House Mountains Road, the road that runs by the Australia Zoo, was officially renamed Steve Irwin Way. Later that year the Australian government announced that a 135,000-hectare (334,000-acre) national park was being created in northern Queensland and would be named the Steve Irwin Wildlife Reserve. An asteroid discovered in 2001 has been named 57567 Crikey, in honour of Irwin and his \"signature phrase\".", "" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Cult centre.", "Great Osiris Temple.", "Main sites.", "Temple of Seti I.", "Osireion.", "Ramesses II temple.", "Umm El Qa'ab.", "\"Forts\".", "Kom El Sultan.", "Hieroglyphs in the Temple of Seti I." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Abydos was occupied by the rulers of the Predynastic period, whose town, temple and tombs have been found there. The temple and town continued to be rebuilt at intervals down to the times of the Thirtieth Dynasty, and the cemetery was in continuous use. The pharaohs of the First Dynasty were buried in Abydos, including Narmer, who is regarded as the founder of the First Dynasty, and his successor, Aha. It was in this time period that the Abydos boats were constructed. Some pharaohs of the Second Dynasty were also buried in Abydos. The temple was renewed and enlarged by these pharaohs as well. Funerary enclosures, misinterpreted in modern times as great 'forts', were built on the desert behind the town by three kings of the Second Dynasty; the most complete is that of Khasekhemwy. From the Fifth Dynasty, the deity Khentiamentiu, \"foremost of the Westerners\", came to be seen as a manifestation of the dead pharaoh in the underworld. Pepi I (Sixth Dynasty) constructed a funerary chapel which evolved over the years into the Great Temple of Osiris, the ruins of which still exist within the town enclosure. Abydos became the centre of the worship of the Isis and Osiris cult. During the First Intermediate Period, the principal deity of the area, Khentiamentiu, began to be seen as an aspect of Osiris, and the deities gradually merged and came to be regarded as one. Khentiamentiu's name became an epithet of Osiris. King Mentuhotep II was the first to build a royal chapel. In the Twelfth Dynasty a gigantic tomb was cut into the rock by Senusret III. Associated with this tomb was a \"cenotaph\", a cult temple and a small town known as \"Wah-Sut\", that was used by the workers for these structures. Next to the cenotaph at least two kings of the Thirteenth Dynasty were buried (in tombs S9 and S10) as well as some rulers of the Second Intermediate Period, such as Senebkay. An indigenous line of kings, the Abydos Dynasty, may have ruled the region from Abydos at the time. New construction during the Eighteenth Dynasty began with a large chapel of Ahmose I. The Pyramid of Ahmose I was also constructed at Abydos—the only pyramid in the area; very little of it remains today. Thutmose III built a far larger temple, about. He also made a processional way leading past the side of the temple to the cemetery beyond, featuring a great gateway of granite. Seti I, during the Nineteenth Dynasty, founded a temple to the south of the town in honor of the ancestral pharaohs of the early dynasties; this was finished by Ramesses II, who also built a lesser temple of his own. Merneptah added the Osireion, just to the north of the temple of Seti. Ahmose II in the Twenty-sixth Dynasty rebuilt the temple again, and placed in it a large monolith shrine of red granite, finely wrought. The foundations of the successive temples were comprised within approximately. depth of the ruins discovered in modern times; these needed the closest examination to discriminate the various buildings, and were recorded by more than 4,000 measurements and 1,000 levellings. The last building added was a new temple of Nectanebo I, built in the Thirtieth Dynasty. From the Ptolemaic times of the Greek occupancy of Egypt, that began three hundred years before the Roman occupancy that followed, the structures began to decay and no later works are known.", "From earliest times, Abydos was a cult centre, first of the local deity, Khentiamentiu, and from the end of the Old Kingdom, the rising cult of Osiris. A tradition developed that the Early Dynastic cemetery was the burial place of Osiris and the tomb of Djer was reinterpreted as that of Osiris. Decorations in tombs throughout Egypt, such as the one displayed to the right, record pilgrimages to Abydos by wealthy families.", "From the First Dynasty to the Twenty-sixth Dynasty, nine or ten temples were successively built on one site at Abydos. The first was an enclosure, about, enclosed by a thin wall of unbaked bricks. Incorporating one wall of this first structure, the second temple of about square was built with walls about thick. An outer \"temenos\" (enclosure) wall surrounded the grounds. This outer wall was made wider some time around the Second or Third Dynasty. The old temple entirely vanished in the Fourth Dynasty, and a smaller building was erected behind it, enclosing a wide hearth of black ashes. Pottery models of offerings are found in these ashes and were probably the substitutes for live sacrifices decreed by Khufu (or Cheops) in his temple reforms. At an undetermined date, a great clearance of temple offerings had been made and the modern discovery of a chamber into which they were gathered yielded the fine ivory carvings and the glazed figures and tiles that demonstrate the splendid work of the First Dynasty. A vase of Menes with purple hieroglyphs inlaid into a green glaze and tiles with relief figures are the most important pieces found. The noble statuette of Cheops in ivory, found in the stone chamber of the temple, gives the only portrait of this great pharaoh. The temple was entirely rebuilt on a larger scale by Pepi I in the Sixth Dynasty. He placed a great stone gateway to the temenos, an outer temenos wall and gateway, with a colonnade between the gates. His temple was about inside, with stone gateways front and back, showing that it was of the processional type. In the Eleventh Dynasty Mentuhotep I added a colonnade and altars. Soon after, Mentuhotep II entirely rebuilt the temple, laying a stone pavement over the area, about square. He also added subsidiary chambers. Soon thereafter, in the Twelfth Dynasty, Senusret I laid massive foundations of stone over the pavement of his predecessor. A great temenos was laid out enclosing a much larger area and the new temple itself was about three times the earlier size.", "", "The temple of Seti I was built on entirely new ground half a mile to the south of the long series of temples just described. This surviving building is best known as the Great Temple of Abydos, being nearly complete and an impressive sight. A principal purpose of the temple was to serve as a memorial to king Seti I, as well as to show reverence for the early pharaohs, which is incorporated within as part of the \"Rite of the Ancestors\". The long list of the pharaohs of the principal dynasties—recognized by Seti—are carved on a wall and known as the \"Abydos King List\" (showing the cartouche name of many dynastic pharaohs of Egypt from the first, Narmer or Menes, until Seti's time)- with the exception of those noted above. There were significant names deliberately left off of the list. So rare, as an almost complete list of pharaoh names, the Table of Abydos, rediscovered by William John Bankes, has been called the \"Rosetta Stone\" of Egyptian archaeology, analogous to the Rosetta Stone for Egyptian writing, beyond the Narmer Palette. There were also seven chapels built for the worship of the pharaoh and principal deities. These included three chapels for the \"state\" deities Ptah, Re-Horakhty, and (centrally positioned) Amun-Re and the challenge for the Abydos triad of Osiris, Isis and Horus. The rites recorded in the deity chapels represent the first complete form known of the Daily Ritual, which was performed daily in temples across Egypt throughout the pharaonic period. At the back of the temple is an enigmatic structure known as the Osireion, which served as a cenotaph for Seti-Osiris, and is thought to be connected with the worship of Osiris as an \"Osiris tomb\". It is possible that from those chambers was led out the great Hypogeum for the celebration of the Osiris mysteries, built by Merenptah. The temple was originally long, but the forecourts are scarcely recognizable, and the part still in good condition is about Except for the list of pharaohs and a panegyric on Ramesses II, the subjects are not historical, but religious in nature, dedicated to the transformation of the king after his death. The temple reliefs are celebrated for their delicacy and artistic refinement, utilizing both the archaism of earlier dynasties with the vibrancy of late 18th Dynasty reliefs. The sculptures had been published mostly in hand copy, not facsimile, by Auguste Mariette in his \"Abydos\", I. The temple has been partially recorded epigraphically by Amice Calverley and Myrtle Broome in their 4 volume publication of \"The Temple of King Sethos I at Abydos\" (1933–1958).", "The Osirion or Osireon is an ancient Egyptian temple. It is located to the rear of the temple of Seti I. It is an integral part of Seti I's funeral complex and is built to resemble an 18th Dynasty Valley of the Kings tomb.", "The adjacent temple of Ramesses II was much smaller and simpler in plan; but it had a fine historical series of scenes around the outside that lauded his achievements, of which the lower parts remain. The outside of the temple was decorated with scenes of the Battle of Kadesh. His list of pharaohs, similar to that of Seti I, formerly stood here; but the fragments were removed by the French consul and sold to the British Museum.", "The royal necropolises of the earliest dynasties were placed about a mile into the great desert plain, in a place now known as Umm El Qa'ab \"The Mother of Pots\" because of the shards remaining from all of the devotional objects left by religious pilgrims. The earliest burial is about inside, a pit lined with brick walls, and originally roofed with timber and matting. Others tombs also built before Menes are. The probable tomb of Menes is of the latter size. Afterward, the tombs increased in size and complexity. The tomb-pit was surrounded by chambers to hold offerings, the sepulchre being a great wooden chamber in the midst of the brick-lined pit. Rows of small pits, tombs for the servants of the pharaoh, surrounded the royal chamber, many dozens of such burials being usual. Some of the offerings included sacrificed animals, such as the asses found in the tomb of Merneith. Evidence of human sacrifice exists in the early tombs, such as the 118 servants in the tomb of Merneith, but this practice was changed into symbolic offerings later. By the end of the Second Dynasty the type of tomb constructed changed to a long passage with chambers on either side, the royal burial being in the middle of the length. The greatest of these tombs with its dependencies, covered a space of over, however it is possible for this to have been several tombs which abutted one another during construction; the Egyptians had no means of mapping the positioning of the tombs. The contents of the tombs have been nearly destroyed by successive plunderers; but enough remained to show that rich jewellery was placed on the mummies, a profusion of vases of hard and valuable stones from the royal table service stood about the body, the store-rooms were filled with great jars of wine, perfumed ointments, and other supplies, and tablets of ivory and of ebony were engraved with a record of the yearly annals of the reigns. The seals of various officials, of which over 200 varieties have been found, give an insight into the public arrangements. A cemetery for private persons was put into use during the First Dynasty, with some pit-tombs in the town. It was extensive in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Dynasties and contained many rich tombs. A large number of fine tombs were made in the Eighteenth to Twentieth Dynasties, and members of later dynasties continued to bury their dead here until the Roman period. Many hundreds of funeral steles were removed by Auguste Mariette's workmen, without any details of the burials being noted. Later excavations have been recorded by Edward R. Ayrton, Abydos, iii.; Maclver, \"El Amrah and Abydos\"; and Garstang, \"El Arabah\".", "Some of the tomb structures, referred to as \"forts\" by modern researchers, lay behind the town. Known as Shunet ez Zebib, it is about over all, and one still stands high. It was built by Khasekhemwy, the last pharaoh of the Second Dynasty. Another structure nearly as large adjoined it, and probably is older than that of Khasekhemwy. A third \"fort\" of a squarer form is now occupied by a convent of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria; its age cannot be ascertained.", "The area now known as Kom El Sultan is a big mudbrick structure, the purpose of which is not clear and thought to have been at the original settlement area, dated to the Early Dynastic Period. The structure includes the early temple of Osiris.", "Some of the hieroglyphs carved over an arch on the site have been interpreted in esoteric and \"ufological\" circles as depicting modern technology. The \"helicopter\" image is the result of carved stone being re-used over time. The initial carving was made during the reign of Seti I and translates to \"He who repulses the nine [enemies of Egypt]\". This carving was later filled in with plaster and re-carved during the reign of Ramesses II with the title \"He who protects Egypt and overthrows the foreign countries\". Over time, the plaster has eroded away, leaving both inscriptions partially visible and creating a palimpsest-like effect of overlapping hieroglyphs." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Calculating pI values.", "Examples.", "Isoelectric point of peptides and proteins.", "Ceramic materials.", "Isoelectric point versus point of zero charge." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "For an amino acid with only one amine and one carboxyl group, the pI can be calculated from the mean of the pKas of this molecule. The pH of an electrophoretic gel is determined by the buffer used for that gel. If the pH of the buffer is above the pI of the protein being run, the protein will migrate to the positive pole (negative charge is attracted to a positive pole). If the pH of the buffer is below the pI of the protein being run, the protein will migrate to the negative pole of the gel (positive charge is attracted to the negative pole). If the protein is run with a buffer pH that is equal to the pI, it will not migrate at all. This is also true for individual amino acids.", "In the two examples (on the right) the isoelectric point is shown by the green vertical line. In glycine the pK values are separated by nearly 7 units so the concentration of the neutral species, glycine (GlyH), is effectively 100% of the analytical glycine concentration. Glycine may exist as a zwitterion at the isoelectric point, but the equilibrium constant for the isomerization reaction in solution is not known. The other example, adenosine monophosphate is shown to illustrate the fact that a third species may, in principle, be involved. In fact the concentration of (AMP)H is negligible at the isoelectric point in this case. If the pI is greater than the pH, the molecule will have a positive charge.", "A number of algorithms for estimating isoelectric points of peptides and proteins have been developed. Most of them use Henderson–Hasselbalch equation with different pK values. For instance, within the model proposed by Bjellqvist and co-workers the pK's were determined between closely related immobilines, by focusing the same sample in overlapping pH gradients. Some improvements in the methodology (especially in the determination of the pK values for modified amino acids) have been also proposed. More advanced methods take into account the effect of adjacent amino acids ±3 residues away from a charged aspartic or glutamic acid, the effects on free C terminus, as well as they apply a correction term to the corresponding pK values using genetic algorithm. Other recent approaches are based on a support vector machine algorithm and pKa optimization against experimentally known protein/peptide isoelectric points. Moreover, experimentally measured isoelectric point of proteins were aggregated into the databases. Recently, a database of isoelectric points for all proteins predicted using most of the available methods had been also developed.", "The isoelectric points (IEP) of metal oxide ceramics are used extensively in material science in various aqueous processing steps (synthesis, modification, etc.). In the absence of chemisorbed or physisorbed species particle surfaces in aqueous suspension are generally assumed to be covered with surface hydroxyl species, M-OH (where M is a metal such as Al, Si, etc.). At pH values above the IEP, the predominate surface species is M-O, while at pH values below the IEP, M-OH species predominate. Some approximate values of common ceramics are listed below: \"Note: The following list gives the isoelectric point at 25 °C for selected materials in water. The exact value can vary widely, depending on material factors such as purity and phase as well as physical parameters such as temperature. Moreover, the precise measurement of isoelectric points can be difficult, thus many sources often cite differing values for isoelectric points of these materials.\" Mixed oxides may exhibit isoelectric point values that are intermediate to those of the corresponding pure oxides. For example, a synthetically prepared amorphous aluminosilicate (AlO-SiO) was initially measured as having IEP of 4.5 (the electrokinetic behavior of the surface was dominated by surface Si-OH species, thus explaining the relatively low IEP value). Significantly higher IEP values (pH 6 to 8) have been reported for 3AlO-2SiO by others. Similarly, also IEP of barium titanate, BaTiO was reported in the range 5-6 while others got a value of 3. Mixtures of titania (TiO) and zirconia (ZrO) were studied and found to have an isoelectric point between 5.3-6.9, varying non-linearly with %(ZrO). The surface charge of the mixed oxides was correlated with acidity. Greater titania content led to increased Lewis acidity, whereas zirconia-rich oxides displayed Br::onsted acidity. The different types of acidities produced differences in ion adsorption rates and capacities.", "The terms isoelectric point (IEP) and point of zero charge (PZC) are often used interchangeably, although under certain circumstances, it may be productive to make the distinction. In systems in which H/OH are the interface potential-determining ions, the point of zero charge is given in terms of pH. The pH at which the surface exhibits a neutral net electrical charge is the point of zero charge at the surface. Electrokinetic phenomena generally measure zeta potential, and a zero zeta potential is interpreted as the point of zero net charge at the shear plane. This is termed the isoelectric point. Thus, the isoelectric point is the value of pH at which the colloidal particle remains stationary in an electrical field. The isoelectric point is expected to be somewhat different than the point of zero charge at the particle surface, but this difference is often ignored in practice for so-called pristine surfaces, i.e., surfaces with no specifically adsorbed positive or negative charges. In this context, specific adsorption is understood as adsorption occurring in a Stern layer or chemisorption. Thus, point of zero charge at the surface is taken as equal to isoelectric point in the absence of specific adsorption on that surface. According to Jolivet, in the absence of positive or negative charges, the surface is best described by the point of zero charge. If positive and negative charges are both present in equal amounts, then this is the isoelectric point. Thus, the PZC refers to the absence of any type of surface charge, while the IEP refers to a state of neutral net surface charge. The difference between the two, therefore, is the quantity of charged sites at the point of net zero charge. Jolivet uses the intrinsic surface equilibrium constants, p\"K\" and p\"K\" to define the two conditions in terms of the relative number of charged sites: For large Δp\"K\" (>4 according to Jolivet), the predominant species is MOH while there are relatively few charged species - so the PZC is relevant. For small values of Δp\"K\", there are many charged species in approximately equal numbers, so one speaks of the IEP." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Use.", "Variants.", "MOS 8500.", "MOS 7501/8501.", "MOS 8502.", "MOS 6510T." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "In the C64, the extra I/O pins of the processor were used to control the computer's memory map by bank switching, and for controlling three of the four signal lines of the Datasette tape recorder (the electric motor control, key-press sensing and write data lines; the read data line went to another I/O chip). It was possible, by writing the correct bit pattern to the processor at address $01, to completely expose almost the full 64 KB of RAM in the C64, leaving no ROM or I/O hardware exposed except for the processor I/O port itself and its data directional register.", "", "In 1985, MOS produced the 8500, an HMOS version of the 6510. Other than the process modification, it is virtually identical to the NMOS version of the 6510. The 8500 was originally designed for use in the modernised C64, the C64C. However, in 1985, limited quantities of 8500s were found on older NMOS-based C64s. It finally made its official debut in 1987, appearing in a motherboard using the new 85xx HMOS chipset.", "The 7501/8501 variant of the 6510 was introduced in 1984. Compared to the 6510, this variant extends the number of I/O port pins from 6 to 8, but omits the pins for non-maskable interrupt and clock output.. It was used in Commodore's C16, C116 and Plus/4 home computers, where its I/O port controlled not only the Datasette but also the CBM Bus interface. The main difference between 7501 and 8501 CPUs is that they were manufactured with slightly different processes: 7501 was manufactured with HMOS-1 and 8501 with HMOS-2.", "The 2 MHz-capable 8502 variant was used in the Commodore 128. All these CPUs are opcode compatible (including undocumented opcodes).", "The Commodore 1551 disk drive used the 6510T, a version of the 6510 with eight I/O lines. The NMI and RDY signals are not available." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Concept.", "Film directors.", "Actors and writers.", "Real-life people." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Originally, in the 1920s, \"cameo role\" meant \"a small character part that stands out from the other minor parts\". The Oxford English Dictionary connects this with the meaning \"a short literary sketch or portrait\", which is based on the literal meaning of \"cameo\", a miniature carving on a gemstone. More recently (late 20th century), \"cameo\" has come to refer to any short appearances, as a character, such as the examples below. Cameos are generally not credited because of their brevity, or a perceived mismatch between the celebrity's stature and the film or television series in which they are appearing. Many are publicity stunts. Others are acknowledgements of an actor's contribution to an earlier work, as in the case of many film adaptations of television series, or of remakes of earlier films. Others honour artists or celebrities known for work in a particular field. Possibly the best-known series of cameos was by Stan Lee, who made very brief appearances in most of Marvel movies. Cameos also occur in novels and other literary works. \"Literary cameos\" usually involve an established character from another work who makes a brief appearance to establish a shared universe setting, to make a point, or to offer homage. Balzac often employed this practice, as in his \"Comédie humaine\". Sometimes a cameo features a historical person who \"drops in\" on fictional characters in a historical novel, as when Benjamin Franklin shares a beer with Phillipe Charboneau in \"The Bastard\" by John Jakes. A cameo appearance can be made by the author of a work to put a sort of personal \"signature\" on a story. Vladimir Nabokov often put himself in his novels, for instance as the very minor character Vivian Darkbloom (an anagram of his name) in \"Lolita\".", "Alfred Hitchcock is known for his frequently performed cameos in his movies, as early as in his third film (1927). Quentin Tarantino provides cameos or small roles in at least 10 of his movies. Likewise, Peter Jackson has made brief cameos in all of his movies, except for his first feature-length film \"Bad Taste\" in which he plays a main character, as well as \"\", though a portrait of him appears in the film. For example, he plays a peasant eating a carrot in \"\" and \"\"; a Rohan warrior in \"\" and a Corsair of Umbar boatswain in \"\". All four were non-speaking \"blink and you miss him\" appearances, although in the Extended Release of \"The Return of the King\", his character was given more screen time and his reprise of the carrot eating peasant in \"The Desolation of Smaug\" was featured in the foreground in reference to \"The Fellowship of the Ring\" - last seen twelve years earlier. Director Martin Scorsese appears in the background of his films as a bystander or an unseen character. In \"Who's That Knocking at My Door\" (1967), he appears as one of the gangsters; he is a lighting crewman in \"After Hours\" (1985) and a passenger in \"Taxi Driver\" (1976). He opens up his film \"The Color of Money\" (1986) with a monologue on the art of playing pool. In addition, he appears with his wife and daughter as wealthy New Yorkers in \"Gangs of New York\", and he appears as a theatre-goer and is heard as a movie projectionist in \"The Aviator\" (2004). In a same way, Roman Polanski appears as a hired hoodlum in his film \"Chinatown\" (1974), slitting Jack Nicholson's nose with the blade of his clasp knife.", "Directors sometimes cast well-known lead actors with whom they have worked in the past in other films. Mike Todd's film \"Around the World in 80 Days\" (1956) was filled with cameo roles: John Gielgud as an English butler, Frank Sinatra playing piano in a saloon, and others. The stars in cameo roles were pictured in oval insets in posters for the film, and gave the term wide circulation outside the theatrical profession. \"It's a Mad, Mad, Mad, Mad World\" (1963), an \"epic comedy\", also features cameos from nearly every popular American comedian alive at the time, including The Three Stooges, Jerry Lewis, a silent appearance by Buster Keaton and a voice-only cameo by Selma Diamond. Aaron Sorkin also had cameos in some works he wrote: as a bar customer speaking about the law in his debut film screenplay \"A Few Good Men\" (1992), as an advertising executive in \"The Social Network\" and as a guest at the inauguration of President Matt Santos in the final episode of \"The West Wing\". Franco Nero, the actor who portrayed the Django character in the original 1966 film, appears in a bar scene of the Tarantino film \"Django Unchained\". There, he asks Django (Jamie Foxx) to spell his name, which led to the famous promotional tagline for the film - \"The 'D' is silent\". Franco's character responds simply, \"I know.\" Many cameos featured in \"Maverick\" (1994), directed by Richard Donner. Among them, Danny Glover – Mel Gibson's co-star in the \"Lethal Weapon\" franchise also directed by Donner – appears as the lead bank robber. He and Maverick (Gibson) share a scene where they look as if they knew each other, but then shake it off. As Glover makes his escape with the money, he mutters \"I'm too old for this shit\", his character's catchphrase in the \"Lethal Weapon\" films. In addition, a strain of the main theme from \"Lethal Weapon\" plays in the score when Glover is revealed. Actress Margot Kidder made a cameo appearance in the same film as a robbed villager: she had previously starred as Lois Lane in Donner's \"Superman\" (1978). Ben Stiller, Vince Vaughn, Owen Wilson, Luke Wilson and Will Ferrell have made appearances in so many of the same films (whether as lead characters or cameos) that \"USA Today\" coined the term \"Frat Pack\" to name the group. Actor Adam Sandler is also known for frequently casting fellow \"Saturday Night Live\" performers (including Rob Schneider and David Spade) in various roles in his films (as well as making cameo appearances of his own in theirs, most of which he co-produces). Sam Raimi frequently uses his brother Ted and Bruce Campbell in his films. The American singer/actress Cher has had a couple of cameos over the years. She had two cameos in \"Will & Grace\" and she even had a few in the 1990s. Actor Edward Norton appears as himself in the satirical film \"The Dictator\" (2012) starring Sacha Baron Cohen. Al Pacino has an extended cameo in the film \"Jack and Jill\" (2011) starring Adam Sandler, where Pacino plays a fictional version of himself. The mangaka Shotaro Ishinomori made many cameos in his Kamen Rider series. The animated series \"Adventures of Tintin\" featured its author Hergé in all the episodes. \"An Adventure in Space and Time\", a drama about how \"Doctor Who\" began, features many actors from the show's past, including two past companions in a party scene, another as a mother calling her children in for dinner and a fourth in a car park at the BBC.", "Films based on actual events occasionally include cameo guest appearances by the people portrayed in them. In \"The Pursuit of Happyness\", Chris Gardner makes a cameo at the end. \"24 Hour Party People\", a film about Tony Wilson, has a cameo by the real Tony Wilson and many other notable people. In the film \"Apollo 13\", James Lovell (the real commander of that flight) and his wife Marilyn appear next to the actors playing them (Tom Hanks and Kathleen Quinlan respectively). Domino Harvey makes a short appearance in the credits of \"Domino\", while the real Erin Brockovich has a cameo appearance as a waitress named Julia in the eponymous movie (where her role is played by the actress Julia Roberts). Sophie Wilson has a cameo as a barmaid in \"Micro Men\", which shows her work for Acorn Computers. In a flashback sequence in \"Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas\", Raoul Duke (played by Johnny Depp) runs into the real-life Hunter S. Thompson, upon whom the character of Duke is based, leading him to remark \"There I was...mother of God, there I am! Holy fuck.\" Tom Morello, American guitarist and musician, makes an appearance in the Marvel film \"Iron Man\" (2008), in which he also participated in the soundtrack. Elon Musk and Larry Ellison, both founders of large technology companies, are featured in cameos in the blockbuster \"Iron Man 2\" (2010). The king of Sweden, Carl XVI Gustaf, was in the children's program \"Mika\" () when Mika was in Stockholm with his reindeer. In \"The Wolf of Wall Street\" (2013), the real Jordan Belfort appears as an emcee to introduce Leonardo DiCaprio (who plays Belfort in the film) at the final scene. Alan Bennett makes a cameo appearance at the end of his film \"The Lady in the Van\". Boxer Roberto Duran and his wife Felicidad made a cameo appearance towards the end of the Hands of Stone film, about Duran's life. The pair were played by Edgar Ramirez and Ana de Armas, respectively." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definition.", "Characteristics.", "Number of faces.", "Topological characteristics.", "Euler characteristic.", "Orientability.", "Duality.", "Vertex figures.", "Volume.", "Dehn invariant.", "Convex polyhedra.", "Symmetries.", "Regular polyhedra.", "Uniform polyhedra and their duals.", "Isohedra.", "Symmetry groups.", "Other important families of polyhedra.", "Polyhedra with regular faces.", "Equal regular faces.", "Johnson solids.", "Pyramids.", "Stellations and facettings.", "Zonohedra.", "Toroidal polyhedra.", "Space-filling polyhedra.", "Lattice polyhedra.", "Flexible polyhedra.", "Compounds.", "Orthogonal polyhedra.", "Generalisations of polyhedra.", "Apeirohedra.", "Complex polyhedra.", "Curved polyhedra.", "Spherical polyhedra.", "Curved spacefilling polyhedra.", "Skeletons and polyhedra as graphs.", "Alternative usages.", "Higher-dimensional polyhedra.", "Topological polyhedra.", "Abstract polyhedra.", "History.", "Ancient.", "Renaissance.", "Star polyhedra.", "Euler's formula and topology.", "Twentieth-century revival.", "In nature.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Convex polyhedra are well-defined, with several equivalent standard definitions. However, the formal mathematical definition of polyhedra that are not required to be convex has been problematic. Many definitions of \"polyhedron\" have been given within particular contexts, some more rigorous than others, and there is not universal agreement over which of these to choose. Some of these definitions exclude shapes that have often been counted as polyhedra (such as the self-crossing polyhedra) or include shapes that are often not considered as valid polyhedra (such as solids whose boundaries are not manifolds). As Branko Grünbaum observed, Nevertheless, there is general agreement that a polyhedron is a solid or surface that can be described by its vertices (corner points), edges (line segments connecting certain pairs of vertices), faces (two-dimensional polygons), and sometimes by its three-dimensional interior volume. One can distinguish among these different definitions according to whether they describe the polyhedron as a solid, whether they describe it as a surface, or whether they describe it more abstractly based on its incidence geometry. In all of these definitions, a polyhedron is typically understood as a three-dimensional example of the more general polytope in any number of dimensions. For example, a polygon has a two-dimensional body and no faces, while a 4-polytope has a four-dimensional body and an additional set of three-dimensional \"cells\". However, some of the literature on higher-dimensional geometry uses the term \"polyhedron\" to mean something else: not a three-dimensional polytope, but a shape that is different from a polytope in some way. For instance, some sources define a convex polyhedron to be the intersection of finitely many half-spaces, and a polytope to be a bounded polyhedron. The remainder of this article considers only three-dimensional polyhedra.", "", "Polyhedra may be classified and are often named according to the number of faces. The naming system is based on Classical Greek, for example tetrahedron (4), pentahedron (5), hexahedron (6), triacontahedron (30), and so on. For a complete list of the Greek numeral prefixes see Numeral prefixes>Table of number prefixes in English>Greek>Quantitative", "The topological class of a polyhedron is defined by its Euler characteristic and orientability. From this perspective, any polyhedral surface may be classed as certain kind of topological manifold. For example, the surface of a convex or indeed any simply connected polyhedron is a topological sphere.", "The Euler characteristic χ relates the number of vertices \"V\", edges \"E\", and faces \"F\" of a polyhedron: This is equal to the topological Euler characteristic of its surface. For a convex polyhedron, or more generally any simply connected polyhedron with surface a topological sphere, χ = 2. For more complicated shapes, the Euler characteristic relates to the number of toroidal holes, handles or cross-caps in the surface and will be less than 2.", "Some polyhedra have two distinct sides to their surface. For example, the inside and outside of a convex polyhedron paper model can each be given a different colour (although the inside colour will be hidden from view). These polyhedra are orientable. The same is true for non-convex polyhedra without self-crossings. Some non-convex self-crossing polyhedra can be coloured in the same way but have regions turned \"inside out\" so that both colours appear on the outside in different places; these are still considered to be orientable. But for some other self-crossing polyhedra with simple-polygon faces, such as the tetrahemihexahedron, it is not possible to colour the two sides of each face with two different colours so that adjacent faces have consistent colours. In this case the polyhedron is said to be one-sided or non-orientable. For polyhedra with self-crossing faces, it may not be clear what it means for adjacent faces to be consistently coloured, but for these polyhedra it is still possible to determine whether it is orientable or non-orientable by considering a topological cell complex with the same incidences between its vertices, edges, and faces. All polyhedra with odd-numbered Euler characteristic χ are non-orientable. A given figure with even χ < 2 may or may not be orientable. For example, the one-holed toroid and the Klein bottle both have χ = 0, with the first being orientable and the other not.", "For every convex polyhedron, there exists a dual polyhedron having The dual of a convex polyhedron can be obtained by the process of polar reciprocation. Dual polyhedra exist in pairs, and the dual of a dual is just the original polyhedron again. Some polyhedra are self-dual, meaning that the dual of the polyhedron is congruent to the original polyhedron. Abstract polyhedra also have duals, which satisfy in addition that they have the same Euler characteristic and orientability as the initial polyhedron. However, this form of duality does not describe the shape of a dual polyhedron, but only its combinatorial structure. For some definitions of non-convex geometric polyhedra, there exist polyhedra whose abstract duals cannot be realized as geometric polyhedra under the same definition.", "For every vertex one can define a vertex figure, which describes the local structure of the polyhedron around the vertex. Precise definitions vary, but a vertex figure can be thought of as the polygon exposed where a slice through the polyhedron cuts off a corner. If the vertex figure is a regular polygon, then the vertex itself is said to be regular.", "Polyhedral solids have an associated quantity called volume that measures how much space they occupy. Simple families of solids may have simple formulas for their volumes; for example, the volumes of pyramids, prisms, and parallelepipeds can easily be expressed in terms of their edge lengths or other coordinates. (See Volume § Volume formulas for a list that includes many of these formulas.) Volumes of more complicated polyhedra may not have simple formulas. Volumes of such polyhedra may be computed by subdividing the polyhedron into smaller pieces (for example, by triangulation). For example, the volume of a regular polyhedron can be computed by dividing it into congruent pyramids, with each pyramid having a face of the polyhedron as its base and the centre of the polyhedron as its apex. In general, it can be derived from the divergence theorem that the volume of a polyhedral solid is given by formula_2 where the sum is over faces of the polyhedron, is an arbitrary point on face, is the unit vector perpendicular to pointing outside the solid, and the multiplication dot is the dot product. Since it may be difficult to enumerate the faces, volume computation may be challenging, and hence there exist specialized algorithms to determine the volume (many of these generalize to convex polytopes in higher dimensions).", "In two dimensions, the Bolyai–Gerwien theorem asserts that any polygon may be transformed into any other polygon of the same area by cutting it up into finitely many polygonal pieces and rearranging them. The analogous question for polyhedra was the subject of Hilbert's third problem. Max Dehn solved this problem by showing that, unlike in the 2-D case, there exist polyhedra of the same volume that cannot be cut into smaller polyhedra and reassembled into each other. To prove this Dehn discovered another value associated with a polyhedron, the Dehn invariant, such that two polyhedra can only be dissected into each other when they have the same volume and the same Dehn invariant. It was later proven by Sydler that this is the only obstacle to dissection: every two Euclidean polyhedra with the same volumes and Dehn invariants can be cut up and reassembled into each other. The Dehn invariant is not a number, but a vector in an infinite-dimensional vector space. Another of Hilbert's problems, Hilbert's 18th problem, concerns (among other things) polyhedra that tile space. Every such polyhedron must have Dehn invariant zero. The Dehn invariant has also conjecturally been connected to flexible polyhedra by the strong bellows conjecture, which asserts that the Dehn invariant of any flexible polyhedron must remain invariant as it flexes.", "A three-dimensional solid is a convex set if it contains every line segment connecting two of its points. A convex polyhedron is a polyhedron that, as a solid, forms a convex set. A convex polyhedron can also be defined as a bounded intersection of finitely many half-spaces, or as the convex hull of finitely many points. Important classes of convex polyhedra include the highly symmetrical Platonic solids, the Archimedean solids and their duals the Catalan solids, and the regular-faced Johnson solids.", "Many of the most studied polyhedra are highly symmetrical, that is, their appearance is unchanged by some reflection or rotation of space. Each such symmetry may change the location of a given vertex, face, or edge, but the set of all vertices (likewise faces, edges) is unchanged. The collection of symmetries of a polyhedron is called its symmetry group. All the elements that can be superimposed on each other by symmetries are said to form a symmetry orbit. For example, all the faces of a cube lie in one orbit, while all the edges lie in another. If all the elements of a given dimension, say all the faces, lie in the same orbit, the figure is said to be transitive on that orbit. For example, a cube is face-transitive, while a truncated cube has two symmetry orbits of faces. The same abstract structure may support more or less symmetric geometric polyhedra. But where a polyhedral name is given, such as icosidodecahedron, the most symmetrical geometry is almost always implied, unless otherwise stated. There are several types of highly symmetric polyhedron, classified by which kind of element – faces, edges, or vertices – belong to a single symmetry orbit: Some classes of polyhedra have only a single main axis of symmetry. These include the pyramids, bipyramids, trapezohedra, cupolae, as well as the semiregular prisms and antiprisms.", "Regular polyhedra are the most highly symmetrical. Altogether there are nine regular polyhedra: five convex and four star polyhedra. The five convex examples have been known since antiquity and are called the Platonic solids. These are the triangular pyramid or tetrahedron, cube, octahedron, dodecahedron and icosahedron: There are also four regular star polyhedra, known as the Kepler–Poinsot polyhedra after their discoverers. The dual of a regular polyhedron is also regular.", "Uniform polyhedra are vertex-transitive and every face is a regular polygon. They may be subdivided into the regular, quasi-regular, or semi-regular, and may be convex or starry. The duals of the uniform polyhedra have irregular faces but are face-transitive, and every vertex figure is a regular polygon. A uniform polyhedron has the same symmetry orbits as its dual, with the faces and vertices simply swapped over. The duals of the convex Archimedean polyhedra are sometimes called the Catalan solids. The uniform polyhedra and their duals are traditionally classified according to their degree of symmetry, and whether they are convex or not.", "An isohedron is a polyhedron with symmetries acting transitively on its faces. Their topology can be represented by a face configuration. All 5 Platonic solids and 13 Catalan solids are isohedra, as well as the infinite families of trapezohedra and bipyramids. Some isohedra allow geometric variations including concave and self-intersecting forms.", "Many of the symmetries or point groups in three dimensions are named after polyhedra having the associated symmetry. These include: Those with chiral symmetry do not have reflection symmetry and hence have two enantiomorphous forms which are reflections of each other. Examples include the snub cuboctahedron and snub icosidodecahedron.", "", "Besides the regular and uniform polyhedra, there are some other classes which have regular faces but lower overall symmetry.", "Convex polyhedra where every face is the same kind of regular polygon may be found among three families: Polyhedra with congruent regular faces of six or more sides are all non-convex. The total number of convex polyhedra with equal regular faces is thus ten: the five Platonic solids and the five non-uniform deltahedra. There are infinitely many non-convex examples. Infinite sponge-like examples called infinite skew polyhedra exist in some of these families.", "Norman Johnson sought which convex non-uniform polyhedra had regular faces, although not necessarily all alike. In 1966, he published a list of 92 such solids, gave them names and numbers, and conjectured that there were no others. Victor Zalgaller proved in 1969 that the list of these Johnson solids was complete.", "Pyramids include some of the most time-honoured and famous of all polyhedra, such as the four-sided Egyptian pyramids.", "Stellation of a polyhedron is the process of extending the faces (within their planes) so that they meet to form a new polyhedron. It is the exact reciprocal to the process of facetting, which is the process of removing parts of a polyhedron without creating any new vertices. The figures below show some stellations of the regular octahedron, dodecahedron, and icosahedron.", "A zonohedron is a convex polyhedron in which every face is a polygon that is symmetric under rotations through 180°. Zonohedra can also be characterized as the Minkowski sums of line segments, and include several important space-filling polyhedra.", "A toroidal polyhedron is a polyhedron whose Euler characteristic is less than or equal to 0, or equivalently whose genus is 1 or greater. Topologically, the surfaces of such polyhedra are torus surfaces having one or more holes through the middle.", "A space-filling polyhedron packs with copies of itself to fill space. Such a close-packing or space-filling is often called a tessellation of space or a honeycomb. Space-filling polyhedra must have a Dehn invariant equal to zero. Some honeycombs involve more than one kind of polyhedron.", "A convex polyhedron in which all vertices have integer coordinates is called a lattice polyhedron or integral polyhedron. The Ehrhart polynomial of a lattice polyhedron counts how many points with integer coordinates lie within a scaled copy of the polyhedron, as a function of the scale factor. The study of these polynomials lies at the intersection of combinatorics and commutative algebra.", "It is possible for some polyhedra to change their overall shape, while keeping the shapes of their faces the same, by varying the angles of their edges. A polyhedron that can do this is called a flexible polyhedron. By Cauchy's rigidity theorem, flexible polyhedra must be non-convex. The volume of a flexible polyhedron must remain constant as it flexes; this result is known as the bellows theorem.", "A polyhedral compound is made of two or more polyhedra sharing a common centre. Symmetrical compounds often share the same vertices as other well-known polyhedra and may often also be formed by stellation. Some are listed in the list of Wenninger polyhedron models.", "An orthogonal polyhedron is one all of whose faces meet at right angles, and all of whose edges are parallel to axes of a Cartesian coordinate system. (Jessen's icosahedron provides an example of a polyhedron meeting one but not both of these two conditions.) Aside from the rectangular boxes, orthogonal polyhedra are nonconvex. They are the 3D analogs of 2D orthogonal polygons, also known as rectilinear polygons. Orthogonal polyhedra are used in computational geometry, where their constrained structure has enabled advances on problems unsolved for arbitrary polyhedra, for example, unfolding the surface of a polyhedron to a polygonal net.", "The name 'polyhedron' has come to be used for a variety of objects having similar structural properties to traditional polyhedra.", "A classical polyhedral surface has a finite number of faces, joined in pairs along edges. The apeirohedra form a related class of objects with infinitely many faces. Examples of apeirohedra include:", "There are objects called complex polyhedra, for which the underlying space is a complex Hilbert space rather than real Euclidean space. Precise definitions exist only for the regular complex polyhedra, whose symmetry groups are complex reflection groups. The complex polyhedra are mathematically more closely related to configurations than to real polyhedra.", "Some fields of study allow polyhedra to have curved faces and edges. Curved faces can allow digonal faces to exist with a positive area.", "When the surface of a sphere is divided by finitely many great arcs (equivalently, by planes passing through the center of the sphere), the result is called a spherical polyhedron. Many convex polytopes having some degree of symmetry (for example, all the Platonic solids) can be projected onto the surface of a concentric sphere to produce a spherical polyhedron. However, the reverse process is not always possible; some spherical polyhedra (such as the hosohedra) have no flat-faced analogue.", "If faces are allowed to be concave as well as convex, adjacent faces may be made to meet together with no gap. Some of these curved polyhedra can pack together to fill space. Two important types are:", "By forgetting the face structure, any polyhedron gives rise to a graph, called its skeleton, with corresponding vertices and edges. Such figures have a long history: Leonardo da Vinci devised frame models of the regular solids, which he drew for Pacioli's book \"Divina Proportione\", and similar wire-frame polyhedra appear in M.C. Escher's print \"Stars\". One highlight of this approach is Steinitz's theorem, which gives a purely graph-theoretic characterization of the skeletons of convex polyhedra: it states that the skeleton of every convex polyhedron is a 3-connected planar graph, and every 3-connected planar graph is the skeleton of some convex polyhedron. An early idea of abstract polyhedra was developed in Branko Grünbaum's study of \"hollow-faced polyhedra.\" Grünbaum defined faces to be cyclically ordered sets of vertices, and allowed them to be skew as well as planar. The graph perspective allows one to apply graph terminology and properties to polyhedra. For example, the tetrahedron and Császár polyhedron are the only known polyhedra whose skeletons are complete graphs (K), and various symmetry restrictions on polyhedra give rise to skeletons that are symmetric graphs.", "From the latter half of the twentieth century, various mathematical constructs have been found to have properties also present in traditional polyhedra. Rather than confining the term \"polyhedron\" to describe a three-dimensional polytope, it has been adopted to describe various related but distinct kinds of structure.", "A polyhedron has been defined as a set of points in real affine (or Euclidean) space of any dimension \"n\" that has flat sides. It may alternatively be defined as the intersection of finitely many half-spaces. Unlike a conventional polyhedron, it may be bounded or unbounded. In this meaning, a polytope is a bounded polyhedron. Analytically, such a convex polyhedron is expressed as the solution set for a system of linear inequalities. Defining polyhedra in this way provides a geometric perspective for problems in linear programming. Many traditional polyhedral forms are polyhedra in this sense. Other examples include:", "A topological polytope is a topological space given along with a specific decomposition into shapes that are topologically equivalent to convex polytopes and that are attached to each other in a regular way. Such a figure is called \"simplicial\" if each of its regions is a simplex, i.e. in an \"n\"-dimensional space each region has \"n\"+1 vertices. The dual of a simplicial polytope is called \"simple\". Similarly, a widely studied class of polytopes (polyhedra) is that of cubical polyhedra, when the basic building block is an \"n\"-dimensional cube.", "An abstract polytope is a partially ordered set (poset) of elements whose partial ordering obeys certain rules of incidence (connectivity) and ranking. The elements of the set correspond to the vertices, edges, faces and so on of the polytope: vertices have rank 0, edges rank 1, etc. with the partially ordered ranking corresponding to the dimensionality of the geometric elements. The empty set, required by set theory, has a rank of −1 and is sometimes said to correspond to the null polytope. An abstract polyhedron is an abstract polytope having the following ranking: Any geometric polyhedron is then said to be a \"realization\" in real space of the abstract poset as described above. Polyhedra appeared in early architectural forms such as cubes and cuboids, with the earliest four-sided pyramids of ancient Egypt also dating from the Stone Age.", "", "The Etruscans preceded the Greeks in their awareness of at least some of the regular polyhedra, as evidenced by the discovery of an Etruscan dodecahedron made of soapstone on Monte Loffa. Its faces were marked with different designs, suggesting to some scholars that it may have been used as a gaming die. The earliest known \"written\" records of these shapes come from Classical Greek authors, who also gave the first known mathematical description of them. The earlier Greeks were interested primarily in the convex regular polyhedra, which came to be known as the Platonic solids. Pythagoras knew at least three of them, and Theaetetus (circa 417 B. C.) described all five. Eventually, Euclid described their construction in his \"Elements\". Later, Archimedes expanded his study to the convex uniform polyhedra which now bear his name. His original work is lost and his solids come down to us through Pappus. Cubical gaming dice in China have been dated back as early as 600 B.C. By 236 AD, Liu Hui was describing the dissection of the cube into its characteristic tetrahedron (orthoscheme) and related solids, using assemblages of these solids as the basis for calculating volumes of earth to be moved during engineering excavations. After the end of the Classical era, scholars in the Islamic civilisation continued to take the Greek knowledge forward (see Mathematics in medieval Islam). The 9th century scholar Thabit ibn Qurra gave formulae for calculating the volumes of polyhedra such as truncated pyramids. Then in the 10th century Abu'l Wafa described the convex regular and quasiregular spherical polyhedra.", "As with other areas of Greek thought maintained and enhanced by Islamic scholars, Western interest in polyhedra revived during the Italian Renaissance. Artists constructed skeletal polyhedra, depicting them from life as a part of their investigations into perspective. Several appear in marquetry panels of the period. Piero della Francesca gave the first written description of direct geometrical construction of such perspective views of polyhedra. Leonardo da Vinci made skeletal models of several polyhedra and drew illustrations of them for a book by Pacioli. A painting by an anonymous artist of Pacioli and a pupil depicts a glass rhombicuboctahedron half-filled with water. As the Renaissance spread beyond Italy, later artists such as Wenzel Jamnitzer, Dürer and others also depicted polyhedra of various kinds, many of them novel, in imaginative etchings.", "For almost 2,000 years, the concept of a polyhedron as a convex solid had remained as developed by the ancient Greek mathematicians. During the Renaissance star forms were discovered. A marble tarsia in the floor of St. Mark's Basilica, Venice, depicts a stellated dodecahedron. Artists such as Wenzel Jamnitzer delighted in depicting novel star-like forms of increasing complexity. Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) used star polygons, typically pentagrams, to build star polyhedra. Some of these figures may have been discovered before Kepler's time, but he was the first to recognize that they could be considered \"regular\" if one removed the restriction that regular polytopes must be convex. Later, Louis Poinsot realised that star vertex figures (circuits around each corner) can also be used, and discovered the remaining two regular star polyhedra. Cauchy proved Poinsot's list complete, and Cayley gave them their accepted English names: (Kepler's) the small stellated dodecahedron and great stellated dodecahedron, and (Poinsot's) the great icosahedron and great dodecahedron. Collectively they are called the Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra. The Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra may be constructed from the Platonic solids by a process called stellation. Most stellations are not regular. The study of stellations of the Platonic solids was given a big push by H.S.M. Coxeter and others in 1938, with the now famous paper \"The 59 icosahedra\". The reciprocal process to stellation is called facetting (or faceting). Every stellation of one polytope is dual, or reciprocal, to some facetting of the dual polytope. The regular star polyhedra can also be obtained by facetting the Platonic solids. listed the simpler facettings of the dodecahedron, and reciprocated them to discover a stellation of the icosahedron that was missing from the set of \"59\". More have been discovered since, and the story is not yet ended.", "Two other modern mathematical developments had a profound effect on polyhedron theory. In 1750 Leonhard Euler for the first time considered the edges of a polyhedron, allowing him to discover his polyhedron formula relating the number of vertices, edges and faces. This signalled the birth of topology, sometimes referred to as \"rubber sheet geometry\", and Henri Poincaré developed its core ideas around the end of the nineteenth century. This allowed many longstanding issues over what was or was not a polyhedron to be resolved. Max Brückner summarised work on polyhedra to date, including many findings of his own, in his book \"Vielecke und Vielflache: Theorie und Geschichte\" (Polygons and polyhedra: Theory and History). Published in German in 1900, it remained little known. Meanwhile, the discovery of higher dimensions led to the idea of a polyhedron as a three-dimensional example of the more general polytope.", "By the early years of the twentieth century, mathematicians had moved on and geometry was little studied. Coxeter's analysis in \"The Fifty-Nine Icosahedra\" introduced modern ideas from graph theory and combinatorics into the study of polyhedra, signalling a rebirth of interest in geometry. Coxeter himself went on to enumerate the star uniform polyhedra for the first time, to treat tilings of the plane as polyhedra, to discover the regular skew polyhedra and to develop the theory of complex polyhedra first discovered by Shephard in 1952, as well as making fundamental contributions to many other areas of geometry. In the second part of the twentieth century, Grünbaum published important works in two areas. One was in convex polytopes, where he noted a tendency among mathematicians to define a \"polyhedron\" in different and sometimes incompatible ways to suit the needs of the moment. The other was a series of papers broadening the accepted definition of a polyhedron, for example discovering many new regular polyhedra. At the close of the 20th century these latter ideas merged with other work on incidence complexes to create the modern idea of an abstract polyhedron (as an abstract 3-polytope), notably presented by McMullen and Schulte.", "For natural occurrences of regular polyhedra, \"see Regular polyhedron: Regular polyhedra in nature.\" Irregular polyhedra appear in nature as crystals.", "Notes Sources" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "History.", "Pre-Crusades period.", "During the Crusades.", "Split with the Syriac Orthodox Church.", "After the split up until modern times.", "Organization.", "Leadership.", "Current jurisdictions.", "Current hierarchy.", "Liturgy.", "Distinction between the Anaphora and the Liturgy.", "Liturgical Paraphernalia.", "Fans.", "Thurible.", "Liturgical Symbols.", "Liturgy of the Hours.", "Liturgical ranking.", "Languages.", "Martyrs.", "Syriac Catholics in Iraq." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The Syriac Catholic Church () is sometimes also called the Syrian Catholic Church. Furthermore, it is sometimes referred by its patriarchate, the Syriac Catholic Patriarchate of Antioch. See also: Syriac Catholic Patriarchs of Antioch.", "", "The Syriac Catholic Church claims its origin through Saint Peter prior to his departure to Rome, and extends its roots back to the origins of Christianity in the Orient; in the Acts of the Apostles we are told that it is in Antioch where the followers of Jesus for the first time were called \"Christians\" (Acts 11:26). In the time of the first Ecumenical Councils, the Patriarch of Antioch held the ecclesiastical authority over the Diocese of the Orient, which was to be extended from the Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Gulf. Its scholarly mission in both languages: the Greek and Syriac was to provide the world and the Universal Church with eminent saints, scholars, hermits, martyrs and pastors. Among these great people are Saint Ephrem (373), Doctor of the Church, and Saint Jacob of Sarug (521).", "During the Crusades there were many examples of warm relations between Catholic and Syriac Orthodox bishops. Some of these bishops favored union with Rome, but there was no push to unify until a decree of union between the Syriac Orthodox and Rome was signed at the Council of Florence September 30, 1444 - but the effects of this decree were rapidly annulled by opponents of it in the Syriac Church's hierarchy.", "Jesuit and Capuchin missionaries evangelizing in Aleppo caused some local Syriac Orthodox faithful to form a pro-catholic movement within the Syriac Orthodox Church. In 1667, Andrew Akijan, a supporter of union with the Catholic Church, was elected as Patriarch of the Syriac Orthodox Church. This provoked a split in the community, and after Akijan’s death in 1677, two opposing patriarchs were elected, with the Pro-Catholic one being the uncle of Andrew Akijan. However, when the Catholic Patriarch died in 1702, the Ottoman government supported the Syriac Orthodoxy's agitation against the Syriac Catholics, and throughout the 18th century the Syriac Catholics underwent suffering and much persecution. Due to this, there were long periods when no Syriac Catholic bishops were functioning, so a Patriarch could not be elected, and the community was forced to go entirely underground. However, in 1782, the Syriac Orthodox Holy Synod elected Metropolitan Michael Jarweh of Aleppo as Patriarch. Shortly after he was enthroned, he declared himself Catholic and in unity with the Pope of Rome. After this declaration, Jarweh took refuge in Lebanon and built the still-extant monastery of Our Lady at Sharfeh, and by that act became the Patriarch of the Syriac Catholic Church. Since Jarweh, there has been an unbroken succession of Syriac Catholic Patriarchs, which is known as the \"Ignatius\" Line.", "In 1829 the Ottoman government granted legal recognition to the Armenian Catholic Church, and in 1845 the Syriac Catholic Church was also granted its own civil emancipation. Meanwhile, the residence of the Patriarch was shifted to Aleppo in 1831. However, after the Massacre of Aleppo in 1850, the Patriarchal See was shifted to Mardin in 1854. After becoming officially recognized by the Ottoman Government in 1845 the Syriac Catholic Church expanded rapidly. However, The expansion was ended by the persecutions and massacres that took place during the Assyrian genocide of World War I. After that, the Syriac Catholic Patriarchal See was moved to Beirut away from Mardin, to which many Ottoman Christians had fled the Genocide. In addition to its see in Beirut, The patriarchal seminary and printing house are located at Sharfeh Monastery in Sharfeh, Lebanon.", "", ", the Patriarch of Antioch (an Ancient major see, where several Catholic and Orthodox Patriarchates nominally reside) was Moran Mor Ignatius Joseph III Younan, resident in Beirut, Lebanon. The Syriac Catholic Patriarch always takes the name \"Ignatius\" in addition to another name. In modern history the leaders of the Syriac Catholic Church have been: Patriarch Michael III Jarweh, Archbishop Clemens Daoud, Patriarch Ephrem Rahmani, Vicomte de Tarrazi, Monsignor Ishac Armaleh, Ignatius Gabriel I Tappouni, Chorbishop Gabriel Khoury-Sarkis, Ignatius Antony II Hayyek, Ignatius Moses I Daoud, Ignatius Peter VIII Abdalahad, and Ignatius Joseph III Yonan. Eminent Syriac saints, scholars, hermits, martyrs and pastors since 1100 also include Dionysius Bar Salibi (1171), Gregorius X Bar Hebraeus (1286) and more recently Bishop Mor Flavianus Michael Malke. The Syriac Church leadership has produced a variety of scholarly writings in a variety of topics. For example, Patriarch Ephrem Rahmani was widely praised for his work in Syriac and is responsible for Pope Benedict XV recognising Saint Ephrem as a Doctor of the Catholic Church. Likewise Patriarch Ignatius Behnam II Beni is known for imploring eastern theology to defend the Primacy of Rome. The Patriarch of Antioch and all the East of the Syriacs presides upon the Patriarchal Eparchy of Beirut and leads spiritually all the Syriac Catholic Community around the world. The community includes two archdioceses in Iraq, four in Syria, one in Egypt and Sudan, a Patriarchal Vicariate in Israel, a Patriarchal Vicariate in Turkey and the Eparchy of Our Lady of Deliverance in the United States and Canada.", "The Syriac Catholic Church was formally united with the Holy See of Rome in 1781.", "the Church was estimated to have 159,000 faithful, 10 bishoprics, 85 parishes, 106 secular priests, 12 religious-order priests, 102 men and women in religious orders, 11 permanent deacons and 31 seminarians.", "The West Syriac Rite is rooted in the old tradition of both the churches of Jerusalem and Antioch and has ties with the ancient Jewish Berakah and is usually called the Western Syriac Rite. The Syriac Catholic Church follows a similar tradition to other Eastern Catholic Churches who use the West Syriac Rite, such as the Maronites and Syro-Malankara Christians. This rite is clearly distinct from the Greek Byzantine rite of Antioch of the Melkite Catholics and their Orthodox counterparts. Syriac Catholic priests were traditionally bound to celibacy by the Syriac Catholic local Synod of Sharfeh in 1888, but there are now a number of married priests. The Liturgy of the Syriac Catholic church is very similar to their Orthodox Counterparts", "Often when compared with the Latin Church the meaning of Anaphora and Liturgy can be mixed up. However, there is a clear distinction in the Syriac Church. The Liturgy of St James the Just is the skeleton of the whole Qurbono Qadisho with all the prayers before the Anaphora being exactly the same no-matter which anaphora used. The Liturgy of St James the Just comprises: In the books of the Patriarchal Sharfet seminary, this order is clearly strict, with the Deacon and Congregation prayer being the same no matter which Anaphora is used. The only prayer that changes when a different Anaphora is used is that of the priest.", "", "The Syriac Catholic Church uses fans with bells on them and engraved with seraphim during the Qurbono. Usually someone in the minor orders would shake these fans behind a Bishop to symbolise the Seraphim. They are also used during the consecration where two men would shake them over the altar during moments in the epliclesis and words of institution when the priest says \"he took and broke\" and \"this is my body/blood\".", "The thurible of the Syriac Catholic Church consists of 9 bells, representing the 9 levels of angels.", "Liturgical symbols are used when a bishop is not present and used at similar times to when the fans are used.", "The Liturgy of the Hours is exactly the same as in the Syriac Orthodox. There are two versions of this the Phenqitho and the Shhimo. The former is the more complicated 7 volume version. While the latter is the simple version.", "Likewise the ranking of clerics in the Syriac Church is extremely similar to that of the Syriac Orthodox Church. The most notable differences are:", "The liturgical language of the Syriac Catholic Church, Syriac, is a dialect of Aramaic. The Qurbono Qadisho (literally: Holy Mass or Holy Offering/Sacrifice) of the Syriac Church uses a variety of Anaphoras, with the Anaphora of the 12 Apostles being the one mostly in use with the Liturgy of St James the Just. Their ancient semitic language is known as Aramaic (or \"Syriac\" after the time of Christ since the majority of people who spoke this language belonged to the province of \"Syria\"). It is the language spoken by Jesus, Mary and the Apostles. Many of the ancient hymns of the Church are still maintained in this native tongue although several have been translated into Arabic, English, French and other languages. Syriac is still spoken in some few communities in eastern Syria and northern Iraq, but for most Arabic is the vernacular language.", "Throughout the History of the Syriac Church there have been many martyrs. A recent example is Flavianus Michael Malke during the 1915 Assyrian Genocide.", "On 31 October 2010, 58 Iraqi Syriac Catholics were killed by Muslim extremists while attending Sunday Divine Liturgy, 78 others were wounded. The attack by Islamic State of Iraq on the congregation of Our Lady of Deliverance Syriac Catholic Church was the bloodiest single attack on an Iraqi Christian church in recent history. Two priests, Fathers Saad Abdallah Tha'ir and Waseem Tabeeh, were killed. Another, Father Qatin, was seriously wounded but recovered." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early history.", "20th century.", "Hierarchy, distribution and doctrine.", "Liturgy.", "Malankara Metropolitan.", "Catholicate.", "Catholicos of the East.", "List of Catholicos of the East in Malankara Church.", "Administration.", "1934 church constitution.", "Malankara Association.", "Saints.", "Metropolitan Bishops.", "Seminaries.", "Ecumenical relations.", "Order of St. Thomas.", "Spiritual organizations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The Saint Thomas Christians of the Malabar Coast were reportedly in communion with the Orthodox Churches of East from 496 to 1599. They received clerical support from Persian bishops, who traveled to Kerala in merchant ships on the spice route. During the 16th century, efforts by the Portuguese Padroado to bring the Saint Thomas Christians into Latin-rite Catholicism led to the first of several rifts in the community and the establishment of Syro-Malabar Catholic Church and Malankara Church factions. The Saint Thomas Christians are currently divided into several groups. They were under the leadership of an archdeacon (a native ecclesiastical head with spiritual and temporal powers, deriving from the Greek arkhidiākonos). The Saint Thomas Christians were in communion with the Church of the East, centered in Persia, since at least 496. The indigenous Church of Malabar (Malankara) followed the faith and traditions of Thomas the Apostle. Portuguese Jesuits attempted to annex the native Christians to the Catholic Church at the 1599 Synod of Diamper. The Saint Thomas Christians who were opposed to Roman Catholicism took the Coonan Cross Oath on 3 January 1653. The Dutch East India Company defeated the Portuguese for control of the Malabar spice trade in 1663. Bishop Gregorios Abdal Jaleel of the Syriac Orthodox Church witnessed the 1665 ordination of Thomas as Bishop Thoma I, who forged a relationship with the Syriac church which laid the foundation for adopting West Syrian liturgy and practices over the next two centuries.", "Geevarghese Dionysius of Vattasseril, who became the Malankara metropolitan bishop in 1908, played a significant role with the other clerical and lay leaders of Malankara in re-establishing the Catholicos of the East in India in 1912. The Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church wanted to retain its autocephaly, and appealed to Syriac Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch Ignatius Abdul Masih II. He ordained Murimattathil Paulose Ivanios as Baselios Paulose I, Catholicos of the East, on the apostolic throne of St. Thomas at St. Mary's Church in Niranam on 15 September 1912.", "The spiritual head of the church is the Catholicos of the East, and its temporal head is the Malankara Metropolitan. Since 1934, both titles have been vested in one person; the official title of the head of the church is \"Catholicos of the East and Malankara Metropolitan.\" Paulose II was enthroned as Catholicos of the East on 1 November 2010 at St. Peter and St. Paul's Church, Parumala. He is the 91st Catholicos of the East in the lineage of Thomas the Apostle, the eighth after and the 21st Malankara Metropolitan. Oriental Orthodox Churches, including the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church, accept only the first three ecumenical councils: the First Council of Nicaea, the First Council of Constantinople, and the Council of Ephesus. The church, like all other Oriental Orthodox Churches, uses the original Nicene Creed without the filioque clause. Like the Syriac Orthodox Church, it primarily uses the liturgy of Saint James in Malayalam,Konkani,Kannada, Hindi,English and other Indian Languages.", "The church has used the Malankara Rite, part of the Antiochene Rite, since the 17th century. The East Syriac Rite and the Maronite Church also belong to the same liturgical family. In the first half of the fifth century, the Antiochene church adopted the Liturgy of Saint James. In the 4th and 5th centuries, The liturgical language of fourth- and fifth-century Jerusalem and Antioch was Greek, and the original liturgy was composed in Greek. After the Council of Chalcedon in 451, the Eastern Church was divided in two; one group accepted the council, and the other opposed it. Both groups continued to use the Greek version of the Saint James liturgy. The Byzantine emperor Justin (518–527) expelled the opponents from Antioch, and they took refugees in the Syriac-speaking Mesopotamia on the Roman–Persian border (modern eastern Syria, Iraq, and southeastern Turkey). The Antiochene liturgical rites were gradually translated into Syriac, and Syriac hymns were introduced. Gregorios Abdal Jaleel came to Malankara from Jerusalem in 1665 and introduced Syriac Orthodox liturgical rites. The most striking characteristic of the Antiochene liturgy is its large number of anaphoras (celebrations of the Eucharist). About eighty are known, and about a dozen are used in India. All have been composed following the Liturgy of Saint James.", "The temporal, ecclesiastical and spiritual administration of the church is vested in the Malankara Metropolitan, subject to the church constitution which was adopted in 1934. The Malankara Metropolitan is president of the Malankara Syrian Christian Association (Malankara Association) and its managing committee, and trustee of community properties. He is elected by the association.", "\"Catholicos\" means \"the general head\", and can be considered equivalent to \"universal bishop.\" The early church had three priestly ranks: \"episcopos\" (bishop), priest and deacon. By the end of the third century, bishops of important cities in the Roman Empire became known as metropolitans. The fourth-century ecumenical councils recognized the authority of the metropolitan. By the fifth century, the bishops of Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria and Antioch gained control of the churches in surrounding cities. They gradually became the heads of the regional churches, and were known as patriarchs (common father). Outside the Roman Empire, patriarchs were known as catholicos. There were four catholicates before the fifth century: the Catholicate of the East, the Catholicate of Armenia, the Catholicate of Georgia and the Catholicate of Albania. In Orthodox tradition, any apostolic and autonomous national church (often referred to as a local church) may call its head a catholicos, pope or patriarch. The archdeacons reigned from the fourth to the 16th centuries; in 1653, the archdeacon was elevated to bishop by the community as Thoma I. The Catholicate of the East was relocated to India in 1912, and Baselios Paulose I was seated on the apostolic throne of St. Thomas as the Catholicos of the East. The headquarters of the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church and the Catholicos of the East is the Catholicate Palace at Devalokam, Kottayam, Kerala, which was consecrated on 31 December 1951. The new palace, built in 1961, was dedicated by visiting Armenian Catholicos Vazgen I. Relics of St. Thomas are kept in the catholicate chapel, and Geevarghese II, Augen I and Mathews I are interred there.", "According to the church, it was founded by St. Thomas when he came to India in 52 AD. Since the fourth century, the Indian church had a close relationship with the Persian (East Syriac) church. The Indians inherited its East Syriac dialect for liturgical use, and gradually became known as Syriac Christians. During the sixteenth century, Roman Catholic missionaries came to Kerala. They tried to join the Syrian Christians with the Roman Catholic Church, dividing the community; those who accepted Catholicism became the present-day Syro-Malabar Catholic Church. The church adopted West Syrian liturgies and practices, and the catholicate was established in 1912.", "The list of Catholicos of the East of Malankara Church:", "Until the 17th century, the church was administered by the archdeacon) and the Persian bishops from the Church of the East. The elected archdeacon was in charge of day-to-day affairs, including the ordination of deacons to the priesthood. Ordinations were performed by Persian bishops visiting India. The Malankara Palliyogam (a forerunner of the Malankara Association) consisted of elected representatives from individual parishes. The isolation of the Malankara church from the rest of Christendom preserved the apostolic age's democratic nature through interactions with Portuguese (Roman Catholic) and British (Anglican) colonialists. From the 17th to the 20th centuries, the church had five pillars of administration:", "Envisioned by Dionysius VI, the church's general and day-to-day administration was codified in its 1934 constitution. The constitution was presented at the 26 December 1934 Malankara Christian Association meeting at M. D. Seminary, adopted and enacted. It has been amended three times. Although the constitution was challenged in court by dissident supporters of the Patriarch of Antioch, Supreme Court rulings in 1958, 1995, 2017 and 2018 upheld its validity. The constitution's first article emphasises the bond between the Syriac Orthodox Church and the Malankara church, defining them as sister churches. The second article outlines the church's foundation and designates its primate as the Catholicos. The third article refers to the name of the church, and the fourth to their faith traditions. The fifth article examines the canon law governing church administration.", "The elected Malankara Association, consisting of parish members, manages the church's religious and social concerns. Formerly the Malankara Palli-yogam (മലങ്കര പള്ളി യോഗം; Malankara Parish Assembly, its modern form is believed to have been founded in 1873 as the Mulanthuruthy Synod, a gathering of parish representatives in Parumala. In 1876, the Malankara Association began. The church constitution outlines the association's powers and responsibilities. The Catholicos of the East and Malankara Metropolitan is the president, and the diocesan metropolitan bishops are vice-presidents. All positions are elected. Each parish is represented in the association by an elected priest and laypeople, proportional to parish-membership size.", "In conformity with other Eastern and Oriental Orthodox Churches, the Malankara church adheres to the tradition of seeking the intercession of saints. Several have been canonized:", "The church's Episcopal Synod has the following diocesan bishops:", "The two seminaries which offer bachelor's and master's degrees in theology are the Orthodox Theological Seminary, Kottayam and St. Thomas Orthodox Theological Seminary, Nagpur.", "The church was a founding member of the World Council of Churches. Catholicos Geevarghese II and other metropolitan participated in the 1937 Conference on Faith and Order in Edinburgh; a church delegation participated in the 1948 WCC meeting in Amsterdam in 1948, and the church played a role in the 1961 WCC conference in New Delhi. Metropolitan Paulos Gregorios was president of the WCC from 1983 to 1991. The church participated in the 1965 Conference of Oriental Orthodox Churches in Addis Ababa. It is a member of the Faith and Order Commission, the Christian Conference of Asia and the Global Christian Forum. A number of primates of sister churches have visited, including Patriarch Justinian of Romania in February 1957 and in January 1969; Catholicos of All Armenians Vazgen I in December 1963; Armenian Patriarch Derderian of Jerusalem in December 1972; Patriarch Pimen I of Moscow in January 1977; Catholicos-Patriarch of All Georgia Ilia II in September 1982; Archbishop of Canterbury Robert Runcie in 1986, Patriarch Teoctist Arăpașu of Romania in 1989; Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople Bartholomew I in November 2000; Metropolitan (later Patriarch) Kirill of the Russian Orthodox Church in December 2006; Catholicos of All Armenians Karekin II in November 2008, Patriarch of Ethiopia Abune Paulos in December 2008; the Armenian Catholicos of Cilicia Aram I Keshishian in February 2010, and Patriarch of Ethiopia Abune Mathias in November 2016.", "The Order of St. Thomas, the church's highest award, is presented to heads of state and churches by the Catholicos of the East and Malankara Metropolitan. Recipients include Bartholomew I of Constantinople, Patriarch and Catholicos of All Armenians Karekin II, Patriarch of Ethiopia Abune Paulos, Armenian Catholicos of Cilicia Aram I, and Patriarch of Ethiopia Abune Mathias.", "The church has a number of spiritual organizations:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Guillaume Apollinaire.", "The Delaunays.", "Eugène Chevreul.", "After 1913.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Orphists were rooted in Cubism but moved toward a pure lyrical abstraction, seeing painting as the bringing together of a sensation of pure colors. More concerned with the expression and significance of sensation, this movement began with recognizable subjects but was rapidly absorbed by increasingly abstract structures. Orphism aimed to dispense with recognizable subject matter and to rely on \"form\" and \"color\" to communicate meaning. The movement also aimed to express the ideals of Simultanism: the existence of an infinitude of interrelated states of being. The decomposition of spectral light expressed in Neo-Impressionist color theory of Paul Signac and Charles Henry played an important role in the formulation of Orphism. Robert Delaunay, Albert Gleizes, and Gino Severini, all knew Henry personally. Charles Henry, a mathematician, inventor, esthetician, and intimate friend of the Symbolist writers Félix Fénéon and Gustave Kahn, met Seurat, Signac and Pissarro during the last Impressionist exhibition in 1886. Henry would take the final step in bringing \"emotional associational theory\" into the world of artistic sensation: something that would influence greatly the Neo-Impressionists. Henry and Seurat were in agreement that the basic elements of art—the line, particle of color, like words—could be treated autonomously, each possessing an abstract value independent of one another, if the artist so chose. \"Seurat knows well\" wrote Fénéton in 1889, \"that the line, independent of its topographical role, possesses an assessable abstract value\" in addition, of course, to the particles of color, and the relation of both to the observer's emotion. The underlying theory behind Neo-Impressionsim would have a lasting effect on the works produced in the coming years by the likes of Robert Delaunay. Indeed, the Neo-Impressionists had succeeded in establishing an objective scientific basis for their painting in the domain of color. The Cubists were to do so in both the domain of form and dynamics, and the Orphists would do so with color too. The Symbolists had used the word \"orphique\" in relation to the Greek myth of Orpheus, who they perceived as the ideal artist. Apollinaire had written a collection of quatrains in 1907 entitled \"Bestiaire ou cortège d'Orphée\" (Paris, 1911), within which Orpheus was symbolized as a poet and artist. For both Apollinaire and the Symbolists who preceded him, Orpheus was associated with mysticism, something that would inspire artistic endeavors. \"The voice of light\" that Apollinaire mentioned in his poems was a metaphor for \"inner experiences\". Though not fully articulated in his poems, \"the voice of light\" is identified as a line that could be colored and become a painting. The Orphic metaphor thus represented the artist’s power to create new structures and color harmonies, in an innovative creative process that combined to form a sensuous experience.", "The term Orphism was coined by poet and art critic Guillaume Apollinaire at the Salon de la Section d'Or in 1912, referring to the works of František Kupka. During his lecture at the Section d'Or exhibit Apollinaire presented three of Kupka's abstract works as perfect examples of \"pure painting\", as anti-figurative as music. In \"Les Peintres Cubistes, Méditations Esthétiques\" (1913) Apollinaire described Orphism as \"the art of painting new totalities with elements that the artist does not take from visual reality, but creates entirely by himself. [...] An Orphic painter's works should convey an \"untroubled aesthetic pleasure\", but at the same time a \"meaningful structure and sublime significance\".\" According to Apollinaire Orphism represented a move towards a completely new art-form, much as music was to literature. Orphic painters cited analogies with music in their titles; for example, Kupka's \"Amorpha: Fugue in Two Colors\" (1912) and Francis Picabia's abstract composition \"Dance at the Source\" (1912) and Wassily Kandinsky's \"Über das Geistige in der Kunst\" (1912). Kandinsky's detailed theoretical essays described the correlations between color and sound. Robert Delaunay, also preoccupied with relations between color and music, highlighted the purity and independence of color, and successfully exhibited with the Blaue Reiter at the invitation of Kandinsky. Fernand Léger and Marcel Duchamp, as they tended towards abstraction, were also included as Orphists in the writings of Apollinaire. Apollinaire stayed with the Delaunays during the winter of 1912, becoming close friends and elaborating on many ideas. Apollinaire wrote several texts discussing their work to promote the concept of Orphism. In March 1913 Orphism was exhibited to the public at the Salon des Indépendants. In his review of the Salon published in \"L’Intransigeant\" (25 March 1913), Apollinaire wrote that 'it combines painters of totally different characters, all of whom have nonetheless achieved a more internalized, more popular and more poetic vision of the universe and of life'. And in \"Montjoie\" (29 March 1913) Apollinaire argued for the abolition of Cubism in favour of Orphism: 'If Cubism is dead, long live Cubism. The kingdom of Orpheus is at hand!' The Herbst salon (Erster Deutscher Herbstsalon, Berlin) of 1913, organized by Herwarth Walden of Der Sturm, exhibited many works by Robert and Sonia Delaunay, Jean Metzinger's \"L'Oiseau bleu\" (1913, Musée d'Art Moderne de la Ville de Paris), Albert Gleizes' \"Les Joueurs de football\" (1912-13, National Gallery of Art), paintings by Picabia, and Léger, along with several Futurist paintings. This exhibition marked a turning-point in Apollinaire's relation with R. Delaunay (which would cool markedly), following some remarks in an argument with Umberto Boccioni about the ambiguity of the term'simultaneity'. This would be the last time Apollinaire used the term Orphism in his critical analyses of art; as he turned his attention increasingly towards Picabia and Alexander Archipenko, but most of all towards the Futurists.", "Sonia Terk Delaunay and Robert Delaunay, a husband and wife duo, were to become the main protagonists of the Orphic movement, Robert Delaunay also studied different styles of painting, such as Abstract Art. In their earlier works, their styles focused on Fauvist colors with various degrees of abstraction; particularly evident in Sonia's \"Finnish Girl\" (1907) and Robert's \"Paysage au disque\" (1906). The former painting relies heavily on bright colors and smooth transitions between forms, while the latter relies on color and mosaic-like brushstrokes painted under the influence of Jean Metzinger, also a Neo-Impressionist (with highly Divisionist and Fauve components) at the time. Their works became increasingly identifiable by the'simultaneous' contrasting of colors and the tendency towards non-representation. In Robert's \"Eiffel Tower Series\", the subject is portrayed as if seen from several viewpoints at once; employing the concept of'mobile perspective' developed by his close friend Metzinger. Soon, instead of using muted tones as the Cubists, he would paint with bold, bright colors juxtaposed one next to the other (a concept derived from Neo-Impressionist color theory). He often portrayed the tower with reds and pinks with cooler colors throughout. The more Robert painted the tower, the more abstract, fragmented and colorful it became. In 1913 the Delaunays showed their works in the Salon des Indépendants and the Herbst Salon, the latter being the first Orphist Salon, which also hosted works by Picabia, Metzinger, Gleizes, Léger, and Futurist painters. Unlike others associated with Orphism, the Delaunays would return to this style throughout their lives.", "One of Robert's biggest influences, besides his wife, was the chemist Eugène Chevreul. Most famous for discovering margarine, Chevreul delved in dye chemistry as well as the aesthetics of simultaneous contrast of colors. He had three main ideas to his color theories: \"when complementary colors are juxtaposed, each appears to be more intense than when seen in isolation\" and \"if there is a perceptible difference in dark-light value between the two colors, then the darker will appear to be even darker\" as well as that \"all colors present in the field of vision at the same time mutually modify one another in specific ways\". Chevreul influenced many artists because he understood scientifically what many artists expressed instinctively.", "Even after Apollinaire had separated from the Delaunays and Orphism had lost its novelty as a new art form, the Delaunays continued painting in their personal shared style. They may not have always called their work Orphic, but the aesthetics and theories were the same. Robert continued painting while Sonia delved into other media, including fashion, interior and textile design, all within the realm of Orphism.", "Orphism as a movement was short-lived, essentially coming to an end before World War I. In spite of the use of the term the works categorized as Orphism were so different that they defy attempts to place them in a single category. Artists intermittently referred to as Orphists by Apollinaire, such as Léger, Picabia, Duchamp and Picasso, independently created new categories that could hardly be classified as Orphic. The term Orphism most obviously embraced paintings by František Kupka, Robert Delaunay and Sonia Delaunay, if limited to implications imposed by color, light, and the expression of non-representational compositions. Even Robert Delaunay thought this description misrepresented his intentions, though his temporary classification as Orphic had proved successful. The American painters Patrick Henry Bruce and Arthur Burdett Frost, two of Delaunay's pupils, strove to create a similar art-form circa 1912. The Synchromists Morgan Russell and Stanton Macdonald-Wright wrote their own manifestos in an attempt to distance themselves from the Orphism of Robert Delaunay, but their art at times inevitably appeared Orphic. Essentially a stylistic sub-category of Abstract art created by Apollinaire, Orphism was an elusive term from which artists included within its scope persistently attempted to detach themselves." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Acid fuchsine.", "Basic fuchsine.", "Properties.", "Chemical structure." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Fuchsine was first prepared by August Wilhelm von Hofmann from aniline and carbon tetrachloride in 1858. François-Emmanuel Verguin discovered the substance independently of Hofmann the same year and patented it. Fuchsine was named by its original manufacturer Renard frères et Franc, is usually cited with one of two etymologies: from the color of the flowers of the plant genus \"Fuchsia\", named in honor of botanist Leonhart Fuchs, or as the German translation \"Fuchs\" of the French name Renard, which means fox. An 1861 article in \"Répertoire de Pharmacie\" said that the name was chosen for both reasons.", "Acid fuchsine is a mixture of homologues of basic fuchsine, modified by addition of sulfonic groups. While this yields twelve possible isomers, all of them are satisfactory despite slight differences in their properties.", "Basic fuchsine is a mixture of rosaniline, pararosaniline, new fuchsine and Magenta II. Formulations usable for making of Schiff reagent must have high content of pararosanilin. The actual composition of basic fuchsine tends to somewhat vary by vendor and batch, making the batches differently suitable for different purposes. In solution with phenol (also called carbolic acid) as an accentuator it is called carbol fuchsin and is used for the Ziehl–Neelsen and other similar acid-fast staining of the mycobacteria which cause tuberculosis, leprosy etc. Basic fuchsine is widely used in biology to stain the nucleus, and is also a component of Lactofuchsin, used for Lactofuchsin mounting.", "The crystals pictured at the right are of basic fuchsine, also known as basic violet 14, basic red 9, pararosanaline or CI 42500. Their structure differs from the structure shown above by the absence of the methyl group on the upper ring, otherwise they are quite similar. They are soft, with a hardness of less than 1, about the same as or less than talc. They possess a strong metallic lustre and a green yellow color. They leave dark greenish streaks on paper and when these are moistened with a solvent, the strong magenta colour appears.", "Fuchsine is an amine salt and has three amine groups, two primary amines and a secondary amine. If one of these is protonated to form ABCNH, the positive charge is delocalized across the whole symmetrical molecule due to pi cloud electron movement. The positive charge can be thought of as residing on the central carbon atom and all three \"wings\" becoming identical aromatic rings terminated by a primary amine group. Other resonance structures can be conceived, where the positive charge \"moves\" from one amine group to the next, or one third of the positive charge resides on each amine group. The ability of fuchsine to be protonated by a stronger acid gives it its basic property. The positive charge is neutralized by the negative charge on the chloride ion. The positive \"basic fuchsinium ions\" and negative chloride ions stack to form the salt \"crystals\" depicted above." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origin and design.", "History of use.", "1930–1931.", "1932.", "1933–1934.", "After 1934.", "Legacy of dives.", "In popular culture.", "\"Titans of the Deep\".", "Other appearances." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "In 1928, the American naturalist William Beebe was given permission by the British government to establish a research station on Nonsuch Island, Bermuda. Using this station, Beebe planned to conduct an in-depth study of the animals inhabiting an area of ocean, from a depth of to the surface. Although his initial plan called for him to conduct this study by means of helmet diving and dredging, Beebe soon realized that these methods were inadequate for gaining a detailed understanding of deep-sea animals, and began making plans to invent a way to observe them in their native habitat. As of the late 1920s, the deepest humans could safely descend in diving helmets was several hundred feet. Submarines of the time had descended to a maximum of, but had no windows, making them useless for Beebe's goal of observing deep-sea animals. The deepest in the ocean that any human had descended at this point was wearing an armored suit, but these suits also made movement and observation extremely difficult. What Beebe hoped to create was a deep-sea vessel which both could descend to a much greater depth than any human had descended thus far, and also would enable him to clearly observe and document the deep ocean's wildlife. Beebe's initial design called for a cylindrical vessel, and articles describing his plans were published in \"The New York Times\". These articles caught the attention of the engineer Otis Barton, who had his own ambition to become a deep-sea explorer. Barton was certain that a cylinder would not be strong enough to withstand the pressure of the depths to which Beebe was planning to descend, and sent Beebe several letters proposing an alternative design to him. So many unqualified opportunists were attempting to join Beebe in his efforts that Beebe tended to ignore most of his mail, and Barton's first efforts to contact him were fruitless. A mutual friend of Barton's and Beebe's eventually arranged a meeting between the two, enabling Barton to present his design to Beebe in person. Beebe approved of Barton's design, and the two of them made a deal: Barton would pay for the vessel and all of the other equipment to go with it, while Beebe would pay for other expenses such as chartering a ship to raise and lower it, and as the owner of the vessel Barton would accompany Beebe on his dives in it. Barton's design called for a spherical vessel, as a sphere is the best possible shape for resisting high pressure. The sphere had openings for three windows made of fused quartz, the strongest transparent material then available, as well as a entrance hatch which was to be bolted down before a descent. Initially only two of the windows were mounted on the sphere, and a steel plug was mounted in place of the third window. Oxygen was supplied from high-pressure cylinders carried inside the sphere, while pans of soda lime and calcium chloride were mounted inside the sphere's walls to absorb exhaled CO and moisture. Air was to be circulated past these trays by the Bathysphere's occupants using palm-leaf fans. The casting of the steel sphere was handled by Watson Stillman Hydraulic Machinery Company in Roselle, New Jersey, and the cord to raise and lower the sphere was provided by John A. Roebling's Sons Company. General Electric provided a lamp which would be mounted just inside one of the windows to illuminate animals outside the sphere, and Bell Laboratories provided a telephone system by which divers inside the sphere could communicate with the surface. The cables for the telephone and to provide electricity for the lamp were sealed inside a rubber hose, which entered the body of the Bathysphere through a stuffing box. After the initial version of the sphere had been cast in June 1929, it was discovered that it was too heavy to be lifted by the winch which would be used to lower it into the ocean, requiring Barton to have the sphere melted and re-cast. The final, lighter design consisted of a hollow sphere of cast steel which was in diameter. Its weight was 2.25 tons above the water, although its buoyancy reduced this by 1.4 tons when it was submerged, and the of steel cable weighed an additional 1.35 tons.", "The Bathysphere's first dives were conducted from the deck of a former British Naval ship called the \"Ready\", which was towed by a tugboat called the \"Gladisfen\". The winch used to raise and lower the sphere had been salvaged from a third ship, the \"Arcturus\", on which Beebe had led two previous expeditions. One of Beebe's assistants, John Tee-van, was in charge of operations aboard the two ships, while another, Gloria Hollister, had the duty of communicating with the two divers via the telephone line and taking notes of whatever observations they communicated to her.", "Beebe and Barton conducted their first test of the sphere on May 27, 1930, descending to the relatively shallow depth of in order to ensure that everything worked properly. For a second test, they sent the Bathysphere down unmanned to a far greater depth, and found after pulling it up that the rubber hose carrying the electrical and phone cables had become twisted forty-five times around the cable suspending the Bathysphere. After a second unmanned test dive on June 6 in which the cord did not become tangled, Beebe and Barton performed their first deep dive in the Bathysphere, reaching a depth of 803 ft (245 m). Beebe and Barton conducted several successful dives during the summer months of 1930, documenting deep-sea animals which had never before been seen in their native habitats. During these dives, Beebe became the first person to observe how as one descends into the depths of the ocean, some frequencies of sunlight disappear before others, so that below a certain depth the only colors of light that remain are violet and blue. Beebe and Barton also used the Bathysphere to perform shallower \"contour dives\", mapping Bermuda's underwater geography. These were particularly dangerous due to the possibility of the Bathysphere smashing against the underwater cliffs which Beebe was mapping, and Barton installed a rudder on the Bathysphere in order to better control its motion during these dives. On June 16, in honor of Hollister's 30th birthday, Beebe allowed her and Tee-Van to perform a dive in the Bathysphere to a depth of, setting a world record for a dive by a woman. Hollister and Tee-Van pleaded to be allowed to descend deeper than this, but Beebe did not allow it out of fear for their safety. In the fall of 1930 Barton donated the Bathysphere to the New York Zoological Society, the primary organization behind Beebe's work. Beebe attempted to continue his dives in summer of 1931, but was foiled by technical problems and by the weather. The \"Arcturus\"' winch developed a crack in it, a replacement for it did not arrive until the end of July, and by that time Bermuda was being plagued by storms which made the water too rough for dives to be conducted safely. The onset of the Great Depression also made it more difficult to obtain funding, and in an effort to raise money for continued dives Beebe promised to eventually descend. He also obtained more funds for his dives by writing an article describing them for the June 1931 issue of \"National Geographic\" titled \"Round Trip to Davy Jones' Locker\". Illustrations for the article were painted by Else Bostelmann, a wildlife artist who frequently illustrated the animals that Beebe observed during his dives.", "Beebe and Barton resumed their dives in 1932, this time launching the Bathysphere from a single ship called the \"Freedom\" instead of the \"Ready\" and the \"Gladisfen\". They had arranged a plan with NBC whereby their observations relayed up the phone line would be broadcast nationally over the radio. Barton also hoped to film deep-sea creatures from inside the Bathysphere. Beebe normally observed the depths through one of the Bathysphere's three windows since the searchlight was shone through the second, and a steel plug had been in place of the third, but this was changed when Barton had the steel plug replaced with a third window in order to film through it. When conducting an unmanned test of the Bathysphere with the third window installed, they found it almost entirely full of water. Realizing the immense pressure that the water must be under, Beebe ordered his crew to stand clear and began loosening the hatch's bolts to remove the hatch himself. Beebe described the experience that followed this in his book \"Half Mile Down\": Suddenly, without the slightest warning, the bolt was torn from our hands, and the mass of heavy metal shot across the deck like the shell from a gun. The trajectory was almost straight, and the brass bolt hurtled into the steel winch away across the deck and sheared a half-inch [13 mm] notch gouged out by the harder metal. This was followed by a solid cylinder of water, which slackened after a while into a cataract, pouring out the hole in the door, some air mingled with the water, looking like hot steam, instead of compressed air shooting through ice-cold water. After replacing the third window with the steel plug and conducting another unmanned test, the same problem happened again. Beebe later described what would have happened to him and Barton had they been inside the sphere on a dive during which it leaked. They would not have had time to drown: due to the immense pressure, \"the first few drops of water would have shot through flesh and bone like steel bullets.\" After packing the plug in more securely, and sending the Bathysphere down for another test dive in which the plug held, Beebe and Barton set off for their radio dive on September 22. The first part of the radio broadcast was conducted from on board the \"Freedom\", describing Beebe and Barton preparing for their dive, while the second part would be relayed up the phone line from the sphere as Beebe and Barton descended in it. The ocean during this dive was rougher than it had been during any of their previous dives, and as the \"Freedom\" rocked on the surface, its motion was transmitted down the steel cable, causing the Bathysphere to swing from side to side like a pendulum. As the Bathysphere descended, Barton succumbed to seasickness and vomited inside it. However, the first half of the radio transmission had already been broadcast, and neither Beebe nor Barton wished to cancel its second half, so they continued their descent. Beebe and Barton began the second half of their radio broadcast at a depth of. Beebe's observations were transmitted broadcast over the radio as he gradually descended to a depth of. With the broadcast finished, although they were only short of their promised goal of, the Bathysphere was still rocking wildly and Beebe and Barton were both bruised and bleeding from being knocked about inside it. Shortly after the end of the radio broadcast, Beebe gave the order for them to be pulled back up. Beebe and Barton conducted several more dives in 1932, including both dives to document deep-sea animals and the shallower contour dives. Although the Bathysphere's third window still was not installed, Beebe periodically shared his window with Barton so that Barton could film through it.", "In 1933, the Bathysphere was displayed in a special exhibit for the American Museum of Natural History, and at the Century of Progress World's Fair in Chicago. Beebe shared the fair's Hall of Science with Auguste Piccard, who held the world record for altitude for his ascent into the stratosphere in a hot-air balloon, and the publicity Beebe received for this exposition was even greater than what he had received in his radio dive. Meanwhile, Barton was busy filming more footage for an underwater movie which he hoped to make. Due to the combination of these factors and the Depression, Beebe and Barton did not conduct any dives in 1933. Beebe's meeting with Piccard gave him an idea about how to obtain funding for additional dives. Piccard's flights had been funded by the National Geographic Society, in return for Piccard having written an article describing them for \"National Geographic\". Thinking that the society might feel similarly about descents into the ocean to how they did about ascents into the sky, Beebe wrote a letter to Gilbert Hovey Grosvenor proposing a similar sponsorship for his Bathysphere dives. Grosvenor wrote back offering to provide $10,000 (equivalent to $ today) for additional dives in return for Beebe keeping his promise to descend a half mile, and writing two articles for National Geographic describing the experience. Despite his reluctance over Grosvenor's terms, Beebe accepted this offer. Examining the Bathysphere in preparation for resumed dives, Beebe found that it was in need of considerable repair. The steel body of the Bathysphere was as strong as ever, but the quartz windows had developed minute fractures which would prevent them from withstanding the pressure of the deep sea, and one of the copper bolts for the hatch was found to be damaged due to the explosive decompression after the failed test dive in 1932. In addition to replacing these parts of the Bathysphere, Beebe also had it installed with a new system of valves which could regulate the release of oxygen much more precisely than before, and a barometer to show the increase in pressure if oxygen was flowing too quickly. The palm-leaf fans to circulate air past the chemical trays were replaced with a small electric fan, powered by the same cable that powered the searchlight, and the searchlight itself was replaced with a far more powerful one. With the renovated Bathysphere, Beebe and Barton began preparing for their planned descent of half a mile. Their ship once again was the \"Ready\", this time towed by a tug called the \"Powerful\". During their first test dive, they demanded to be pulled up after descending only because the sphere had begun to leak; they soon discovered this was because Tee-Van had neglected to fasten all of the bolts that hold the hatch shut. Another problem occurred on their second test dive, during which they discovered that the lower end of the rubber hose holding the power cable and phone line had begun to deteriorate, and they spent the rest of the day reversing the hose's direction so that the end which was deteriorating would be the end above the water. For a third test dive, they sent down the Bathysphere unoccupied but with Barton's camera, which had not yet captured any footage of deep-sea animals, pointed at the center window. Most of the footage from Barton's camera was unintelligible, but it captured one image of a deep-sea fish, and more importantly it came up dry. On August 11, 1934, Beebe and Barton made a descent of, setting a new world record. Beebe used this dive as an opportunity to test the predictions made by quantum mechanics that different colors of light would behave differently due to their varying wavelengths. Beebe carried a painted spectroscope to measure the rate at which the various colors of light vanished as he descended. This dive was also Beebe's most successful yet in terms of the variety of fish he encountered, some of which were new to science. Although he halted this descent only short of their goal of half a mile, Beebe later explained that he considered the observations he made from the Bathysphere to be more important than the depth records that he set. On August 15, 1934, Barton and Beebe descended to, fulfilling their promise to descend half a mile. At this depth the entire cable was unwound from the winch used to raise and lower the sphere, preventing it from being lowered any deeper. Although Beebe wished to remain at that depth to observe for half an hour, the \"Ready\"'s captain would not allow this and pulled them up after five minutes. The record set during this dive remained unbroken until 1949, when Barton broke it with a descent in a new deep-sea vessel he created called the Benthoscope. Beebe and Barton conducted several more shallower dives during the rest of the 1934 season. Later on the same day as the half-mile dive, Barton and Hollister descended to, setting a new world record for a woman diver that would stand for three decades. The Bathysphere's final dive was performed by Beebe and Barton on August 27, to a depth of. Although Beebe had initially agreed to write two articles for \"National Geographic\" in exchange for the National Geographic Society's sponsorship, after he had written the first of the two he and the magazine's editor agreed that it was not interesting enough to be a stand-alone story, and that it would be better to combine the two into a single article. Beebe's account of his record-setting dive was published in the December 1934 issue of \"National Geographic\", along with sixteen of Bostelmann's paintings, under the title \"A Half Mile Down: Strange Creatures Beautiful and Grotesque as Figments of Fancy, Reveal Themselves at Windows of Bathysphere\". The text of this article also became the climactic chapter of Beebe's book \"Half Mile Down\", which appeared in bookstores in time for Christmas of that year and was an immediate best-seller.", "Beebe continued to conduct marine research for the rest of the 1930s, but after 1934 he felt that he had seen what he wanted to see using the Bathysphere, and that further dives were too expensive for whatever knowledge he gained from them to be worth the cost. With the onset of World War II, Bermuda was transformed into a military base, destroying much of the natural environment and making further research there impractical. After Beebe stopped using the Bathysphere, it remained the property of the New York Zoological Society. It remained in storage until the 1939 New York World's Fair, where it was the centerpiece of the society's exhibit. During World War II, the sphere was loaned to the United States Navy, which used it to test the effects of underwater explosions. The Bathysphere was next put on display at the New York Aquarium in Coney Island in 1957. In 1994, the Bathysphere was removed from the Aquarium for a renovation, and languished in a storage yard under the Coney Island Cyclone until 2005, when the Zoological Society (now known as the Wildlife Conservation Society) returned it to its display at the aquarium. The Bermuda Aquarium, Museum and Zoo (to which Beebe had gifted some of Bostlemann's original drawings) has long displayed a copy of the bathysphere, and another reproduction is on display at the National Geographic Museum.", "Although the technology of the Bathysphere was eventually rendered obsolete by more advanced diving vessels, Beebe and Barton's Bathysphere represented the first time that researchers attempted to observe deep-sea animals in their native environment, setting a precedent which many others would follow. Beebe's Bathysphere's dives also served as an inspiration for Jacques Piccard, the son of the balloonist Auguste Piccard, to perform his own record-setting descent in 1960 to a depth of using a self-powered submersible called a bathyscaphe. The Bathysphere itself served as a model for later submersibles such as the DSV Alvin. Beebe named several new species of deep-sea animals on the basis of observations he made during his Bathysphere dives, initiating a controversy which has never been completely resolved. The naming of a new species ordinarily requires obtaining and analyzing a type specimen, something which was obviously impossible from inside the Bathysphere. Some of Beebe's critics claimed that these fish were illusions resulting from condensation on the Bathysphere's window, or even that Beebe willfully made them up, although the latter would have been strongly at odds with Beebe's reputation as an honest and rigorous scientist. Barton, who was resentful that newspaper articles about his and Beebe's Bathysphere dives often failed to mention him, added to ichthyologists' skepticism by writing letters to newspapers that contained wildly inaccurate accounts of their observations. While many of Beebe's observations from the Bathysphere have since been confirmed by advances in undersea photography, it is unclear whether others fit the description of any known sea animal. One possibility is that although the animals described by Beebe indeed exist, so much remains to be discovered about life in the deep ocean that these animals have yet to be seen by anyone other than him.", "", "Barton's undersea movie was released in 1938 under the title \"Titans of the Deep\", and prominently featured the Bathysphere. The movie was not well received. Although William Beebe's name appeared in the movie's credits, he emphatically denied any part in its production, stating that it was entirely Barton's work.", "Although the term \"Bathysphere\" originally referred specifically to the vessel used by Beebe and Barton, more recently movies and video games have begun to use the term \"bathysphere\" for any spherical deep-sea vessel lowered on a cord." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Divisions among Saint Thomas Christians.", "Turbulence in Malankara Church.", "Geevarghese Ivanios.", "Establishment of Bethany Ashram.", "Ecclesial communion.", "After Union movement.", "Metropolitan Archbishop Benedict Gregorios.", "Moran Mor Cyril Baselios, Major Archbishop - Catholicos.", "Moran Mor Baselios Cleemis, Major Archbishop - Catholicos and Cardinal.", "Statistics.", "Hierarchs.", "Liturgy and worship.", "In the Indian diaspora.", "Around the world.", "United States.", "Canada and Europe.", "Middle East.", "Colleges.", "Malankara Catholic Youth Movement.", "MCYM Branches.", "Malankara Catholic Association.", "Official name." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "A protest took place in 1653 with the Coonan Cross Oath. Under the leadership of Archdeacon Thomas, the Thomas Christians publicly took an oath that they would not obey the Jesuit bishops. Rome sent Carmelites in two groups from the Propagation of the Faith to Malabar headed by Fr. Sebastiani and Fr. Hyacinth. Fr. Sebastiani arrived first in 1655. He began to deal directly with the Archdeacon, Mar Thoma I. Fr. Sebastiani gained the support of many, especially with the support of Parambil Chandy, Alexandar Kadavil and the Vicar of Muttam. According to Jesuit reports, these were the three councilors of Thoma I who, before the arrival of Sebastiani, were reconciled with Francisco Garcia Mendes, the Jesuit Archbishop of Cranganore, one of the Latin rite sees in Kerala. A faction of people split off from the Malankara Church in 1663 under the leadership of Palliveettil Mar Chandy Kathanar who joined with the Catholic Church; this split caused to the emergence of the first Uniate Church (modern-day Syro-Malabar Catholic Church) in Malankara. The faction of people who stood with the Malankara Moopan (Mar Thoma I) remained independent as Malankara Nasranis. Mar Thoma I with 44 churches(out of 69 total churches)and their congregations represented the nucleus from which the Malankara Orthodox, Jacobites, Thozhiyur, MarThoma Syrian, Syro Malankara Catholics originated. In 1665 Gregorios, a bishop, sent by the Syriac Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch, arrived in India. The Malankara group under the leadership of the Archdeacon welcomed him. Though most of the St. Thomas Christians gradually relented in their strong opposition to the Western control, the arrival of Gregory of the Syriac Orthodox Church in 1665 marked the beginning of a formal schism among the St. Thomas Christians. Those who accepted the West Syriac theological and liturgical tradition of the Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch of Gregory became known as the Malankara Syrians. The Syriac Catholics of Malabar remained in communion with Rome and later came to be known as the Syro Malabar Catholic Church with East Syriac Liturgy.", "It was in this contentious context that the 118th Syriac Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch, Ignatius Abded Aloho II, went to Malankara in 1911 and excommunicated Vattasseril Geevarghese Dionysius (This excommunication was declared invalid by the High Court of Travancore). To ward off the undue interference of the Patriarch in the administration of the temporalities of the Church, Fr. P.T. Geevarghese with the blessing of Vattasseril Thirumeni contacted Ignatius Abdul Masih II, the 117th Syriac Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch, who had been excommunicated by the Ottoman government in 1906, and invited him to visit Malankara and to establish a Catholicate here. Accordingly, Ignatius Abdul Masih II went to Malankara in 1912 and established the Catholicate in Malankara. This created a split in the church: Baselios Paulose I (1912–1913), the first Catholicos, died after a short period of five months on 13 May 1913; the See remained vacant until 1925. That was a period of litigation in the Malankara Church. The litigation for Vattippanam (a fixed deposit of money in the name of the Church) and its after-effects in the community was at its zenith.", "Geevarghese was born on 21st Sept 1882 at Mavelikara to the 'Mallitty' Panickervettil family, belonging to the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church. He was given the baptismal name Geevarghese. At the age of 15 he joined M. D. Seminary School for high school studies. On 20 April 20, 1898 he received minor orders and was sent to Madras Christian College and obtained his master's degree. On 15 September 1908 Geevarghese was ordained priest by Vattasseril Dinoysius. Just after the ordination Geevarghese was appointed Principal of M. D. Seminary, Kottayam. Later he moved to Calcutta, accepting an invitation to teach at Searmpore College. During his stay at Calcutta Geevarghese founded a monastic community.", "On Geevarghese's return from Calcutta a friend, E. John Vakeel, donated of land at Mundanmala, Ranni-Perunadu, Kerala, at the meeting place of the rivers Pampa and Kakkatt for an ashram. Geevarghese and his followers built a small thatched hut at what became the first Ashram in Malankara on 15 August 1919, named \"Bethany\". Along with the Ashram, Geevarghese started a house for orphans. While at Serampore, Geevarghese founded the Bethany Madhom (convent) for women religious in 1925, with the help of the Epiphany Sisters of England working at Serampore. He was ordained a bishop of the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church by Catholicos Beselios Geevarghese I on 1 May 1925. He received the name Geevarghese Ivanios.", "On 20 September 1930 Ivanios, Bishop Jacob Theophilos, Fr. John Kuzhinapurath OIC, Dn. Alexander OIC, and Chacko Kilileth embraced and united with the Catholic Church. The Union Movement under the leadership of Ivanios gave rise to Malankara Catholic Church. This took place in the Quilon bishop’s chapel. The members of the Jacobite Church were received by his Lordship Bishop Aloysius Maria Benziger (Bishop of Quilon) to whom Ivanios approached for help and whom the Holy See deputed to perform the reception.", "Pope Pius XI, through the Apostolic Constitution \"Christo Pastorum Principi\" of 11 June 1932, established the Syro-Malankara Catholic hierarchy for the reunited community and erected the Archiparchy of Thiruvananthapuram with the Eparchy of Tiruvalla as its suffragan. The Metropolitan Eparchy of Thiruvananthapuram was established in 1933. Ivanios was enthroned as its first Metropolitan Archbishop. The Eparchy of Tiruvalla was established in 1933. Jacob Theophilos was enthroned as its first Bishop. In 1937 Joseph Severios of the Malankara Orthodox Church joined the Catholic Church. In 1939, Thomas Dioscoros, the Metropolitan of the Knanaya Jacobite Church,joined the Catholic Church. In 1938, the missionary congregation of the Daughters of Mary was founded at Marthandom in Kanyakumari District. Bishop Dioscoros died in 1943. Ivanios consecrated Benedict Gregorios as his Auxiliary Bishop in 1953. Ivanios died on 15 July 1953. The Eparchy of Tiruvalla was led by Jacob Theophilos and Joseph Severios. Severios was the administrator of the Eparchy until 1950 due to the ill health of Theophilos. In 1950 he was appointed as the Bishop of Tiruvalla. He was also invested with the title \"Archbishop\". He died on 18 January 1955.", "In 1955 Metropolitan Archbishop Benedict Gregorios was enthroned as the Metropolitan Archbishop of Thiruvananthapuram and the Head of the Syro-Malankara Catholic Church. The Holy See appointed Zacharias Athanasios as successor to Severios, whose consecration took place in 1954. Jacob Theophilos died in 1956. Francis Acharya, a Cistercian monk, came to the Eparchy of Tiruvalla. In the year 1957 he founded the Kristiya Sanyasa Samaj, Kurisumala Ashram in the high ranges of Vagamon. In 1958 the territorial boundary of the Eparchy of Tiruvalla was extended north to include the Malabar region of Kerala, the civil districts of Coimbatore and Nilgiris and Karoor Taluk in Tiruchirappally District of Tamil Nadu and districts of Mysore, Mandya, Coorg, Hasan, Chickamangalore, Shimoga and South Kanara of Karnataka State. Athanasios died in 1977. Paulos Philoxenos, the Metropolitan of the Malabar Independent Syrian Church, was received into the Syro-Malankara Catholic Church on 28 August 1977. The appointment of Isaac Yoohanon as Bishop of Tiruvalla and erection of the Eparchy of Bathery with the appointment of Cyril Baselios as its first Bishop through the decree of the Holy See took place in 1978. Both prelates were consecrated that year. The Eparchy of Bathery was officially inaugurated in 1978. In 1979 the Eparchial contemplative monastery, Dhyana Ashram, was founded in the Eparchy of Bathery by Fr. Silvester Kozhimannil. Lawrence Ephrem was consecrated Bishop in 1980. Malankara Catholics within India but outside the canonical territorial boundaries of the Church were first organized as Malankara Catholic Associations, and later came to be erected as personal parish communities. A coordinator was appointed to oversee them, in the Council of Hierarchs of the Malankara Catholic Church. St. Mary’s Malankara Major Seminary, the first local seminary, was inaugurated at Pattom in 1983 and the new building was blessed at Nalanchira, Thiruvananthapuram was blessed in 1989. On 8 February 1986, Pope John Paul II visited St. Mary's Cathedral, Pattom, Thiruvananthapuram. On 28 April 1987, Yoohanon, the Bishop of Tiruvalla died. Cardinal Lourdusamy, the then Prefect of the Congregation for the Oriental Churches, visited the Malankara Catholic Church in August 1987. Geevarghese Timotheos succeeded Yoohanon as the Bishop of Tiruvalla. He was consecrated Bishop in 1988. Benedict Gregorios died in 1994 after serving 41 years.", "Cyril Baselios, the Bishop of Bathery having been appointed by Pope John Paul II, was enthroned as Metropolitan Archbishop of Thiruvananthapuram and as the head of the Malankara Catholic Church on 14 December 1995. Geevarghese Divannasios was consecrated Bishop of Bathery in the place of Cyril Baselios on 5 February 1997. Achille Silvestrini, Cardinal Prefect of the Congregation for the Oriental Churches, visited the Malankara Catholic Church on 11–13 February 1996. On the request of Cyril Baselios, by an Apostolic Bull dated 16 December 1996, Pope John Paul II erected the Eparchy of Marthandom bifurcating the Metropolitan Eparchy of Thiruvananthapuram. Lawrence Ephrem was appointed as its first Bishop. He died after a few months of his enthronement as Bishop of Marthandom, on 8 April 1997. In the meantime the Eparchy of Tiruvalla was blessed with an Auxiliary Bishop in the person of Thomas Koorilos, who was consecrated Bishop on 17 July 1997. On 29 June 1998 Yoohanon Chrysostom was consecrated as the Bishop of Marthandom and Joshua Ignathios as the Auxiliary Bishop for the Metropolitan Eparchy of Thiruvananthapuram. Paulos Philoxenos died on 3 November 1998. Christu Jayanthi Maha Jubilee and the Sapthathy of the Re-union Movement of the Syro-Malankara Catholic Church were celebrated jointly at Tiruvalla on 26–28 December 2000. In this period parishes for the faithful of the Syro-Malankara Catholic Church in the United States of America were established. Pope John Paul II nominated the Proto-Syncellus of Bathery Isaac Thottunkal, as Apostolic Visitor and Auxiliary Bishop of Thiruvananthapuram on 18 June 2001 for the Syro-Malankarites residing in North America and Europe. He was consecrated on 15 August 2001 at Tirumoolapuram, (Tiruvalla), and assumed the name Isaac Cleemis. Bifurcating the Eparchy of Tiruvalla, the Eparchy of Muvattupuzha was erected on 15 January 2003 and Thomas Koorilos was appointed as its first Bishop. On 29 March 2003 Bishop Timotheos resigned due to his age, and the Holy See appointed Isaac Cleemis, the Apostolic Visitor to Europe and America, as the Bishop of Tiruvalla. Cleemis took charge of the Diocese on 2 October 2003. On 5 January 2005 Joseph Thomas was appointed as the Auxiliary Bishop of Thiruvananthapuram and Apostolic Visitor to North America and Europe. On 10 February 2005, the Syro-Malankara Catholic Church was raised to the status of a Major Archiepiscopal Church by the papal document \"Ab ipso Sancto Thoma\", and as such possesses a high level of autonomy under the \"Code of Canons of the Eastern Churches\". Pedro López Quintana, the Apostolic Nuncio in India, read the official declaration at St. Mary's Cathedral, Pattom, Thiruvananthapuram. The Hierarchical Head of the Church became a Major Archbishop who exercises patriarchal powers and governs the Church assisted by the Holy Synod of Bishops of the Church. On 19 February 2005, Joseph Thomas was consecrated as Auxiliary Bishop of Thiruvananthapuram and Apostolic Visitor to North America and Europe. On 11 April 2005 the Faculty of Theology of St. Mary’s Malankara Major Seminary became affiliated to the Pontifical Urban University, Rome. The enthronement of the Major Archbishop as the head of the Syro-Malankara Catholic Church took place on 14 May 2005. The Malankara Major Archiepiscopal Curia (Catholicate Centre) started functioning at the St. Mary's Campus, Pattom, Thiruvananthapuram. On 20 May 2005, Cyril Baselios blessed the Curia building. Baselios soon constituted the first Synod of the Syro-Malankara Catholic Church, convened from 16–18 August 2005 at the Major Archiepiscopal Curia, Thiruvananthapuram. It constituted the Permanent Synod and the various Synodal Commissions headed by Bishops to take care of various apostolates of the Church. The official bulletin, \"Malankara\" is published from the Major Archiepiscopal Curia, to communicate the Synodal acts and voice of the Syro-Malankara Major Archiepiscopal Church. The Platinum Jubilee of the Reunion Movement and the Year of the Eucharist were celebrated jointly at Mar Ivanios Nagar, Punnamoodu, Mavelikara, on 19–21 September 2005. By decrees of Baselios, the Metropolitan Province of Tiruvalla, with the Eparchies of Bathery and Muvattupuzha as suffragans, was established on 15 May 2006 and Isaac Cleemis was appointed as the Metropolitan Archbishop of Tiruvalla. On 10 June 2006 Isaac Cleemis was enthroned as the first Metropolitan-Archbishop of Tiruvalla. By the decree of Baselios, on 1 January 2007, the new Eparchy of Mavelikara was erected and Joshua Ignathios, the Auxiliary Bishop and protosyncellus of the Major Archdiocese of Thiruvananthapuram, was appointed as its first Bishop. The Second Ordinary Holy Episcopal Synod was convoked on 6–7 December 2006 and it was decided to revive monastic consecration according to the tradition of the Antiochene Church, properly termed Rabban per the Syriac, but locally called Ramban; and Corepiscopo, to honour a number of priests for their meritorious service in the Church. On Thursday, 18 January 2007, Cyril Baselios died, and was entombed by the side of his predecessors at St. Mary's Cathedral, Pattom, Thiruvananthapuram on 20 January 2007.", "Isaac Cleemis was elected the Major Archbishop of the Syro-Malankara Catholic Church through the first Episcopal Synod of election of the Syro-Malankara Catholic Church held on 7–10 February 2007 at the Catholicate Centre, Pattom, Thiruvananthapuram. Pope Benedict XVI confirmed the election on 9 February and it was announced on 10 February at St. Mary's Cathedral, Pattom, Thiruvananthapuram. The installation of Aboon Joshua Ignathios was held on 16 February 2007 at Mavelikara and Aboon Geevarghese Divannasios, the administrator of The Malankara Catholic Major Archiepiscopal Church, presided over the installation ceremony. The new eparchy has a 30,825 Syro-Malankara Catholic faithful of a total population of 2,998,325 inhabitants. Of this 269,849 are Malankara non-Catholics and 598,824 Christians of other denominations. On 7 February 2007, Pope Benedict XVI appointed Fr. Chacko Aerath OIC as the Apostolic Visitor with Episcopal status for the Malankara Catholic faithful residing in the Extraterritorial Regions of the Church within India. Baselios Cleemis was enthroned as the Major Archbishop of the Syro-Malankara Catholic Church on 5 March 2007 at St. Mary's Cathedral, Pattom, Thiruvananthapuram. On 26 March 2007 the Aboon Thomas Koorilos was appointed the Second Metropolitan Archbishop of the Archieparchy of Tiruvalla. His installation Ceremony was held on 2 May 2007 at St. John's Cathedral, Tiruvalla. Cleemis was the main celebrant. Baselios Cleemis visited Pope Benedict XVI on 28 May 2007 at the Vatican and exchanged ecclesiastical Communion. On 14 July 2007 Baselios Cleemis declared Ivanios a Servant of God. In accordance with the provisions of CCEO can. 1063, the Ordinary Tribunal of the Syro-Malankara Catholic Church was constituted on 15 November 2007. Aboon Abraham Julios, PhD, was consecrated Bishop of the Eparchy of Moovattupuzha by Baselios Cleemis on 9 February 2008 at Moovattupuzha. Baselios Cleemis blessed the newly built Tomb Chapel of the Servant of God Ivanios in St. Mary's Cathedral, Pattom, Thiruvananthapuram, on 1 July 2008. Leonardo Sandri, Cardinal Prefect of Congregation for the Oriental Churches, visited the Syro-Malankara Catholic Church on 10 November 2008. Holy Qurbono according to the Syro-Malankara Tradition was celebrated. Baselios Cleemis was the main celebrant. In the following meeting Cardinal Sandri recognized Queen of Peace Pro-Cathedral at Palayam, Thiruvananthapuram, as a Basilica. Cleemis dedicated St. Mary, Queen of Peace Basilica on 7 December 2008. Cleemis created two new eparchies in the Syro-Malankara Catholic Church, Pathanamthitta in Kerala and Puthur in the State of Karnataka. He appointed four new bishops, elected by the Holy Episcopal Synod. He announced the transfer of Bishop of Marthandom Yoohanon Chrysostom to the new See of Pathanamthitta and Bishop Geevarghese Divannasios from the See of Bathery to the new See of Puthur. Joseph Thomas, the Apostolic Visitator to North America and Europe was appointed Bishop of Bathery. To the See of Marthandom, vacant due the transfer of its Bishop, was appointed Vincent Kulapuravilai, Professor and Registrar of St. Mary's Malankara Seminary Thiruvananthapuram. Samuel Kattukallil, Syncellus of the Major Archeparchy of Thiruvananthapuram, and Stephen Thottathil, Dean of the Faculty of Theology of St. Mary's Malankara Seminary, were appointed auxiliary bishops of the Major Archeparchy of Thiruvananthapuram and the Archieparchy of Tiruvalla respectively. Antony Valiyavilayil, the Postulator of the Cause of Canonisation of Servant of God Archbishop Ivanios and the Chancellor of the Major Archiepiscopal Curia, was appointed the Bishop of the Curia. The episcopal ordination of Bishops Vincent Paulos, Samuel Irenios, Philipose Stephanos and Thomas Anthonios took place at Ivanios Vidya Nagar in Thiruvananthapuram on 13 March 2010 Thomas Naickamparampil was appointed as the first exarch of the Syro-Malankara Catholic Exarchate in the United States by Pope Benedict XVI, with consultation by Cleemis and the Holy Synod of Syro-Malankara Catholic Church, on 14 July 2010. He was ordained bishop and received the name Aboon Thomas Eusebius on 21 September 2010 at St. Mary's Malankara Syrian Catholic Cathedral, Thiruvananthapuram. His installation ceremony was on 3 October 2010 at Kellenberg Memorial High School, Uniondale, New York. Baselios Cleemis was elevated to the College of Cardinals of the Catholic Church by Pope Benedict XVI at the Papal Basilica of Saint Peter in the Vatican on 24 November 2012. As Cardinal-Priest he was assigned the titular church of \"San Gregorio VII\". He is the first bishop of the Syro-Malankara church and the fifth Keralite to become cardinal. The Syro-Malankara Catholic Church is fast growing in theological and canonical studies. Many authors have contributed to the development in the field of theology and canon law. Besides the canonical institutions of the Syro-Malankara Catholic Church, various associations including the Malankara Catholic Youth Movement (MCYM), the Malankara Catholic Association (MCA), and the Legion of Mary, Matruvedi, Pithruvedi, emerged. The Syro-Malankara Catholic Church engages in humanitarian activities. One example of such services is Thapovanam, Shelter of Hope, Sulthan Bathery, a centre for the rehabilitation of the mentally ill.", "According to the Pontifical yearbook \"Annuario Pontificio\" for 2012, the Syro-Malankara Church had approximately 436,870 members.", "The Malankara Syrian Catholic Church has 16 Hierarchs:", "The liturgy of the Syro-Malankara Catholic Church is of the Antiochene Rite, West Syriac in character. The liturgy today is celebrated in Malayalam, Syriac, English, Tamil, and Hindi. The church uses one of several Bible translations into Malayalam.", "There are 39 Syro-Malankara communities in North India, including churches at Bangalore, Chennai, Kolkata, Delhi, Mumbai, Pune and Hyderabad. On 26 March 2015, Cleemis and the Holy Synod in consultation with Pope Francis erected two Eparchies to cover all of India. Bishop Barnabas Jacob was appointed bishop of the Delhi-based Eparchy of St John Chrysostom of Gurgaon. Bishop Anthonios Thomas heads the Apostolic Exarchate of St Ephrem of Khadki.", "", "In July 2010, Pope Benedict XVI erected an apostolic exarchate for Syro-Malankara Catholics in the United States, and appointed Father Thomas Naickamparampil, then head secretary general of the major archiepiscopate of the Syro-Malankara Church, as first apostolic exarch of the new exarchate. The bishop-elect was ordained to the episcopacy on 21 September 2010 at St. Mary's Malankara Syrian Catholic Cathedral, Pattom, receiving the name \"Aboon Thomas Eusebius\". The Enthronement Ceremony in the United States was held on 3 October 2010 at Kellenberg High School, Uniondale, New York.", "In July 2010 Pope Benedict XVI also appointed Thomas Eusebius as Apostolic Visitor for Syro-Malankara Catholics in Canada and Europe, alongside his primary work as apostolic exarch of the above-mentioned newly created Syro-Malankara exarchate in the U.S. There are Syro-Malankara parishes and communities in Canada, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom.", "Thirteen Syro-Malankara communities are present in Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, and the United Arab Emirates. Because parishes (Qatar has parish) have not yet been organized, as the Syro-Malankara does not have ecclesiastical jurisdiction in the Middle East, the people are under the direct supervision of the Roman Catholic Apostolic Vicariates of Northern Arabia and Southern Arabia. Malankara Catholics of Abu Dhabi launched one of the early websites for the Syro Malankara Catholic Church before any official sites were existing and the first in the Middle East. Now almost all communities in the Gulf have their own websites. Recently Rev. Fr. Mathew Kandathil, a Syro Malankara priest serving in UAE, in the Apostolic Vicariate of Southern Arabia, is appointed the Coordinator of the Malankara Catholic Faithful in the Middle East. He oversees the pastoral engagement of the Syro-Malankara priests and coordinate the pastoral activities of common interest in the Gulf Region, according to Malankara, the official communiqué of the Syro Malankara Catholic Church regarding this new appointment.", "The Malankara Catholic Educational Society manages various ecclesiastical, charitable, and educational institutions. Baselios Cleemis is the president and Samuel Irenios the vice-chairman of Malankara Catholic Educational Society.", "Malankara Catholic Youth Movement (MCYM) is the official organization for the youth in Syro-Malankara Catholic Church. The Catholic Youth Movement of Kerala dates back to the second half of the 1960s. Although there were some youth organisations in the parish level at different parts of Kerala, the spread of the organization of the youth movements in the diocese took place rather late.", "1) Major Archieparchy of Thiruvananthapuram 2) Archieparchy of Thiruvalla 3) Eparchy of Bathery 4) Eparchy of Marthandom 5) Eparchy of Muvattupuzha 6) Eparchy of Mavelikkara 7) Eparchy of Pathanamthitta 1.) Eparchy of Marthanadom 1.) Eparchy of Puttur 1) Apostolic Visitation of North India Malankara Syrian Catholic Churches (MCCETR – New Delhi) 1) Exarchate of United States Malankara Syrian Catholic Churches (Elmont, New York)", "Founded in 1989, the Malankara Catholic Association is the association of lay faithful of the Church. Baselios Cleemis is the patron; there are now diocesan sections in the Thiruvananthapuram, Thiruvalla, Bathery, Moovattupuzha and Marthandom Dioceses and in North America.", "The official name of the church is Syro-Malankara Catholic Church which is mainly used in the English speaking Western regions. The name of the church as translated from Malayalam/Syriac is Malankara Syrian Catholic Church." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name and identity.", "History.", "Early history.", "Patriarchate of Antioch.", "Middle Ages.", "Early modern period.", "Late modern period.", "Leadership.", "Patriarch.", "Bishops.", "Priests.", "Deacons.", "Deaconess.", "Worship.", "Bible.", "Doctrine.", "Liturgy.", "Prayer.", "Sacraments.", "Vestments.", "Global presence.", "Demography.", "Jurisdiction of the patriarchate.", "Americas.", "Eurasia.", "India.", "Institutions.", "Ecumenical relations.", "See also.", "Further reading.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Syriac-speaking Christians have referred to themselves as \"\"Ārāmayē/Āṯūrāyē/Sūryāyē\"\" in native Aramaic terms based on their ethnic identity. In most languages besides English, a unique name has long been used to distinguish the church from the polity of Syria. In Arabic (the official language of Syria), the church is known as the \"Suriania Church\" as the term \"\"Suriania\"\" identifies the Syriac language. Chalcedonians referred to the church as \"Jacobite\" (after Jacob Baradaeus) since the Nestorian Schism in the. English-speaking historians identified the church as the \"Syrian Church\". The English term \"Syrian\" (from Aramaic: \"\"Aššūrāyu\"\"; \"Assyria\") was used to describe the community of Assyrian people in ancient Syria. In the 15th century, the term \"Orthodox\" (from Greek: \"\"orthodoxía\"\"; \"correct opinion\") was used to identify churches that practiced the set of doctrines believed by the early Christians. Since 1922, the term \"Syrian\" started being used for things named after the Syrian Federation. Hence, in 2000, the Holy Synod ruled that the church be named as \"Syriac Orthodox Church\" after the Syriac language, the official liturgical language of the church. The ethnic groups in the community contest their ethnic identification as \"Assyrians\" and \"Arameans\". \"Suryoye\" is the term used to identify the Syriacs in the diaspora. The Syriac Orthodox identity included auxiliary cultural traditions of the pagan Assyria and Aramean kingdoms. Church traditions crystallized into ethnogenesis through the preservation of their stories and customs by the 12th century. Syriac Orthodox intellectuals predominantly used the \"Assyrian\" identification in the 19th century. Since the 1910s, the identity of Syriac Orthodoxy in the Ottoman Empire was principally religious and linguistic.", "", "The church claims apostolic succession through the pre-Chalcedonian Patriarchate of Antioch to the Early Christian communities from Jerusalem led by Saint Barnabas and Saint Paul in Antioch, during the Apostolic era, as described in the Acts of the Apostles; \"\"The disciples were first called Christians in Antioch\"\" (New Testament, ). Saint Peter was selected by Jesus Christ (New Testament, ) and is venerated as the first bishop of Antioch in after the Incident at Antioch. Saint Evodius was Bishop of Antioch until 66 AD and was succeeded by Saint Ignatius of Antioch. The earliest recorded use of the term \"Christianity\" () was by Ignatius of Antioch, in around 100 AD. In A.D 169, Theophilus of Antioch wrote three apologetic tracts to Autolycus. Patriarch Babylas of Antioch was considered the first saint recorded as having had his remains moved or \"translated\" for religious purposes—a practice that was to become extremely common in later centuries. Eustathius of Antioch supported Athanasius of Alexandria who opposed the followers of the condemned doctrine of Arius (Arian controversy) at the First Council of Nicaea. During the time of Meletius of Antioch the church split due to his being deposed for Homoiousian leanings—which became known as the Meletian Schism and saw several groups and several claimants to the See of Antioch.", "Given the antiquity of the Bishopric of Antioch and the importance of the Christian community in the city of Antioch, a commercially significant city in the eastern parts of the Roman Empire, the First Council of Nicaea (325) recognized the Bishopric as a Primacy (Patriarchate), along with the Bishoprics of Rome, Alexandria, and Jerusalem, bestowing authority for the \"Church of Antioch and All of the East\" on the Patriarch. Because of the significance attributed to Ignatius of Antioch in the church, most of the Syriac Orthodox patriarchs since 1293 have used the name of Ignatius in the title of the Patriarch preceding their own Patriarchal name. Even though the Synod of Nicaea was convened by the Roman Emperor Constantine, the authority of the ecumenical synod was also accepted by the Church of the East which was politically isolated from the churches in the Roman Empire. Until Synod of Beth Lapat, Church of the East accepted the spiritual authority of the Patriarch of Antioch. The Christological controversies that followed the Council of Chalcedon in 451 resulted in a long struggle for the Patriarchate between those who accepted and those who rejected the Council. Flavian II of Antioch was appointed as Patriarch by Emperor Anastasius I in In, Patriarch Severus the Great was exiled from the city of Antioch by Byzantine Emperor Justin I, who enforced a uniform Chalcedonian Christian orthodoxy throughout the empire. Those who sought communion with Rome and Constantinople accepted the Council of Chalcedon and the formula of Pope Hormisdas and recognized the new Chalcedonian Patriarch of Antioch Paul the Jew. The patriarchate was forced to move from Antioch with Severus the Great who took refuge in Alexandria. The non-Chalcedonian community was divided between \"Severians\", followers of Severus, and aphthartodocetae, and divisions remained unresolved until 527. Severians continued to recognize Severus as the legitimate Patriarch even after his exile in 518 until his death in 538. Bishop Jacob Baradaeus (died 578) is credited for ordaining most of the miaphysite hierarchy while facing heavy persecution in the 6th century. In 544, Jacob Baradeus ordained Sergius of Tella continuing the non-Chalcedonian succession of patriarchs of the Church of Antioch. That was done in opposition to the government-backed Patriarchate of Antioch held by the pro-Chalcedonian believers leading to the Syriac Orthodox Church being known popularly as the \"Jacobite\" Church, while the Chalcedonian believers were known popularly as \"Melkites—c\"oming from the Syriac word for king (malka), an implication of the Chalcedonian Church's relationship to the Roman Emperor (later emphasised by the Melkite Greek Catholic Church). Because of many historical upheavals and consequent hardships that the Syriac Orthodox Church had to undergo, the patriarchate was transferred to different monasteries in Mesopotamia for centuries. John III of the Sedre was elected and consecrated Patriarch after the death of Athanasius I Gammolo in 631 A.D., followed by the fall of Roman Syria and the Muslim conquest of the Levant. John and several bishops were summoned before Emir Umayr ibn Sad al-Ansari of Hims to engage in open debate regarding Christianity and represent the entire Christian community, including non-Syriac Orthodox communities, such as Greek Orthodox Syrians. The Emir demanded translations of the Gospels into Arabic to confirm John's beliefs, which according to the Chronicle of Michael the Syrian was the first translation of the Gospels into Arabi Transfer to new locations During 1160, the patriarchate was transferred from Antioch to Mor Hananyo Monastery (Deir al-Za`faran), in southeastern Anatolia near Mardin, where it remained until 1933 and re-established in Homs, Syria, due to the adverse political situation in Turkey. In 1959, the patriarchate was transferred to Damascus. The mother church and official seat of the Syriac Orthodox Church are now situated in Bab Tuma, Damascus, capital of Syria.", "The 8th-century hagiography \"Life of Jacob Baradaeus\" is evidence of a definite social and religious differentiation between the Chalcedonians and Miaphysites (Syriac Orthodox). The longer hagiography shows that the Syriac Orthodox (called \"Jacobites\" in the work, \"suryoye yaquboye\") self-identified with Jacob's story more than those of other saints. Coptic Bishop Severus ibn al-Muqaffa (ca. 897), of Miaphysite (Syriac Orthodox) ancestry, speaks of Jacobite origins, on the veneration of Jacob Baradaeus. He explained that the Chalcedonian \"Melkites\" were labeled as such because the Miaphysite Jacobites never traded their Orthodoxy to win the favor of the king as the Melkites had done (\"malko\" is derived from \"king, ruler\"). In Antioch, after the 11th-century persecutions, the Syriac Orthodox population was almost extinguished. Only one Jacobite church is attested in Antioch in the first half of the 12th century, while a second and third are attested in the second half of the century, perhaps due to refugee influx. Dorothea Weltecke thus concludes that the Syriac Orthodox populace was very low in this period in Antioch and surroundings. In Adana, an anonymous 1137 report speaks of the entire population consisting of Syriac Orthodox. In the 12th century, several Syriac Orthodox Patriarchs visited Antioch and some established temporary residences. In the 13th century, the Syriac Orthodox hierarchy in Antioch was prepared to accept Latin supervision. The Syriac Orthodox were the most numerous non-Latin sect in Jerusalem and Bethlehem before 1187. Before the advent of the Crusades, the Syriacs occupied most of the hill country of Jazirah (Upper Mesopotamia).", "16th century Moses of Mardin (fl. 1549–d. 1592) was a diplomat of the Syriac Orthodox Church in Rome in the 16th century. 17th century By the early 1660s, 75% of the 5,000 Syriac Orthodox of Aleppo had converted to Roman Catholicism following the arrival of mendicant missionaries. The Catholic missionaries had sought to place a Catholic Patriarch among the Jacobites and consecrated Andrew Akhijan as the Patriarch of the newly founded Syriac Catholic Church. The Propaganda Fide and foreign diplomats pushed for Akhijan to be recognized as the Jacobite Patriarch, and the Porte then consented and warned the Syriac Orthodox that they would be considered an enemy if they did not recognize him. Despite the warning and gifts to priests, frequent conflicts and violent arguments continued between the Catholic and Orthodox Syriacs. Around 1665, many Saint Thomas Christians of Kerala, India, committed themselves in allegiance to the Syriac Orthodox Church, which established the Malankara Syrian Church, reuniting with the See of Antioch for the first time since the schism of the Church of the East from the jurisdiction of Antioch in 484 after the execution of Babowai. The Malankara Church consolidated under Mar Thoma I welcomed Gregorios Abdal Jaleel, who regularised the canonical ordination of Mar Thoma I as a native democratically elected Bishop of the Malabar Syrian Christians.", "In the 19th century, the various Syriac Christian denominations did not view themselves as part of one ethnic group. During the \"Tanzimat\" reforms (1839–78), the Syriac Orthodox was granted independent status by gaining recognition as their own millet in 1873, apart from Armenians and Greeks. In the late 19th century, the Syriac Orthodox community of the Middle East, primarily from the cities of Adana and Harput, began the process of creating the Syriac diaspora, with the United States being one of their first destinations in the 1890s. Later, in Worcester, the first Syriac Orthodox Church in the United States was built. The 1895–96 massacres in Turkey affected the Armenian and Syriac Orthodox communities when an estimated 105,000 Christians were killed. By the end of the 19th century, 200,000 Syriac Orthodox Christians remained in the Middle East, most concentrated around Saffron Monastery, the Patriarchal Seat. In 1870, there were 22 Syriac Orthodox settlements in the vicinity of Diyarbakır. In the 1870–71 Diyarbakır \"salnames\", there were 1,434 Orthodox Syriacs in that city. On 10 December 1876, Ignatius Peter IV consecrated Geevarghese Gregorios of Parumala as metropolitan. Rivalry within the Syriac Orthodox Church in Tur Abdin resulted in many conversions to the Syriac Catholic Church (the Uniate branch). Genocide (1914–18) The Ottoman authorities killed and deported Orthodox Syriacs, then looted and appropriated their properties. During 1915–16, the number of Orthodox Syriacs in the Diyarbakır province was reduced by 72%, and in the Mardin province by 58%. Interwar period In 1924, the patriarchate of the Church was transferred to Homs after Kemal Atatürk expelled the Syriac Orthodox Patriarch, who took the library of Deir el-Zaferan and settled in Damascus. The Syriac Orthodox villages in Tur Abdin suffered from the 1925–26 Kurdish rebellions and massive flight to Lebanon, northern Iraq and especially Syria ensued. In the early 1920s, the city of Qamishli was built mainly by Syriac Orthodox refugees, escaping the Assyrian genocide. 1945–2000 In 1959, the seat of the Syriac Orthodox Church was transferred to Damascus in Syria. In the mid-1970s, the estimate of Syriac Orthodox lived in Syria is 82,000. In 1977, the number of Syriac Orthodox followers in diaspora dioceses was: 9,700 in the Diocese of Middle Europe; 10,750 in the Diocese of Sweden and surrounding countries. On 20 October 1987, Geevarghese Mar Gregorios of Parumala was declared a saint by Ignatius Zakka I Iwas, Patriarch permitting additions to the diptychs.", "", "The supreme head of the Syriac Orthodox Church is named Patriarch of Antioch, in reference to his titular pretense to one of the five patriarchates of the Pentarchy of early Eastern Christianity. Considered the \"father of fathers\", he must be an ordained bishop. He is the general administrator to Holy Synod and supervises the spiritual, administrative, and financial matters of the church. He governs external relations with other churches and signs agreements, treaties, contracts, pastoral encyclicals (bulls), pastoral letters related to the affairs of the church.", "The title \"bishop\" comes from the Greek word\" episkopos,\" meaning \"the one who oversees\". A bishop is a spiritual ruler of the church who has different ranks. The highest rank in the ecclesiastical hierarchy is the Patriarch. The second-highest rank is the Maphrian, also known as Catholicos of India, who is the head of the Malankara Syrian Jacobite Church in India. Then there are Metropolitan bishops or Archbishops, and under them, there are auxiliary bishops. Historically, in the Malankara Church, the local chief was called as Archdeacon, who was the ecclesiastical authority of the Saint Thomas Christians in the Malabar region of India.\"\"", "The priest is the seventh rank and is the one duly appointed to administer the sacraments. Unlike in the Roman Catholic Church, Syriac deacons may marry before ordained as priests; they cannot marry after ordained as priests. There is an honorary rank among the priests that are Corepiscopos who has the privileges of \"first among the priests\" and is given a chain with a cross and specific vestment decorations. Corepiscopos is the highest rank a married man can be elevated to in the Syriac Orthodox Church. The ranks above the Corepiscopos are unmarried.", "In the Syriac Orthodox tradition, different ranks among the deacons are specifically assigned with particular duties. The six ranks of the diaconate are: Only a full deacon can take the censer during the Divine Liturgy to assist the priest. In Jacobite Syrian Christian Church, because of the lack of deacons, altar assistants who do not have a rank of deaconhood may assist the priest. Historically the Malankara Church was administered by a local chief called Archdeacon (\"Arkadiyokon\").", "An ordained deaconess is entitled to enter the sanctuary only for cleaning, lighting the lamps and is limited to give Holy Communion to women and the children who are under the age of five. She can read scriptures, Holy Gospel in a public gathering. The name of deaconess can also be given to a choirgirl. Deaconess is not ordained as chanter before reaching fifteen years of age. The ministry of the deaconess assists the priest and deacon outside the altar including in the service of baptizing women and anointing them with holy chrism.", "", "Syriac Orthodox Churches use the Peshitta (Syriac: simple, common) as its Bible. The New Testament books of this Bible are estimated to have been translated from Greek to Syriac between the late 1st century to the early 3rd century AD. The Old Testament of the Peshitta was translated from Hebrew, probably in the 2nd century. The New Testament of the Peshitta, which originally excluded certain disputed books, had become the standard by the early 5th century, replacing two early Syriac versions of the gospels.", "The Syriac Orthodox Church theology is based on the Nicene Creed. The Syriac Orthodox Church teaches that it is the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic Church founded by Jesus Christ in his Great Commission, that its metropolitans are the successors of Christ's Apostles, and that the Patriarch is the successor to Saint Peter on whom primacy was conferred by Jesus Christ. The church accepted first three synods held at Nicaea (325), Constantinople (381), and Ephesus (431), shaping the formulation and early interpretation of Christian doctrines. The Syriac Orthodox Church is part of Oriental Orthodoxy, a distinct communion of Churches claiming to continue the Patristic and Apostolic Christology before the schism following the Council of Chalcedon in 451. In terms of Christology, the Oriental Orthodox (Non-Chalcedonian) understanding is that Christ is \"One Nature—the Logos Incarnate, of the full humanity and full divinity\". Just as humans are \"of\" their mothers and fathers and not \"in\" their mothers and fathers, so too is the nature of Christ according to Oriental Orthodoxy. The Chalcedonian understanding is that Christ is \"in two natures, full humanity and full divinity\". This is the doctrinal difference that separated the Oriental Orthodox from the rest of Christendom. The church believes in the mystery of Incarnation and venerate Virgin Mary as Theotokos or \"Yoldath Aloho\" (Meaning: ‘Bearer of God’). The Fathers of the Syriac Orthodox Church gave a theological interpretation to the primacy of Saint Peter. They were fully convinced of the unique office of Peter in the early Christian community. Ephrem, Aphrahat, and Maruthas unequivocally acknowledged the office of Peter. The different orders of liturgies used for sanctification of church buildings, marriages, ordinations etc., reveal that the primacy of Peter is a part of faith of the church. The church does not believe in Papal Primacy as understood by the Roman See, rather, Petrine Primacy according to the ancient Syriac tradition. The church uses both Julian calendar and Gregorian calendar based on their regions and traditions they adapted.", "The liturgical service is called Holy Qurobo in the Syriac language meaning \"Eucharist\". Liturgy of Saint James is celebrated on Sundays and special occasions. The Holy Eucharist consists of Gospel reading, Bible readings, prayers, and songs. The recitation of the Liturgy is performed according to with specific parts chanted by the presider, the lectors, the choir, and the congregated faithful, at certain times in unison. Apart from certain readings, prayers are sung in the form of chants and melodies. Hundreds of melodies remain preserved in the book known as \"Beth Gazo\", the key reference to Syriac Orthodox church music.", "Syriac Orthodox clergy and some devout laity follow a regimen of seven prayers a day, in accordance with Psalm 119. According to the Syriac tradition, an ecclesiastical day starts at sunset and the Canonical hours are based on West Syriac Rite:", "The seven Holy Sacraments of the church are:", "The clergy of the Syriac Orthodox Church has unique liturgical vestments with their order in the priesthood: the deacons, the priests, the chorbishops, the bishops, and the patriarch each have different vestments. Bishops usually wear a black or a red robe with a red belt. They should not wear a red robe in the presence of the patriarch, who wears a red robe. Bishops visiting a diocese outside their jurisdiction also wear black robes in deference to the bishop of the diocese, who alone wears red robes. They carry a crosier stylised with serpents representing the staff of Moses during sacraments. Corepiscopos wear a black or a purple robe with a purple belt. Bishops and corepiscopos have hand-held crosses. A priest also wears a \"phiro\", or a cap, which he must wear for the public prayers. Monks also wear \"eskimo\", a hood. Priests also have ceremonial shoes which are called \"msone\". Without wearing these shoes, a priest cannot distribute Eucharist to the faithful. Then there is a white robe called \"kutino\" symbolizing purity. \"Hamniko\" or stole is worn over this white robe. Then he wears a girdle called \"zenoro\", and \"zende\", meaning sleeves. If the celebrant is a bishop, he wears a \"masnapto\", or turban (different from the turbans worn by Sikh men). A cope called \"phayno\" is worn over these vestments. \"Batrashil\", or pallium, is worn over the \"phayno\" by bishops, like \"hamnikho\" worn by priests. The priest's usual dress is a black robe. In India, due to the hot weather, priests usually wear white robes except during prayers in the church, when they wear a black robe over the white one. Deacons wear a phiro, white kutino(robe) and of rank Quroyo and higher wear an uroro'stole' in various shapes according to their rank. The deaconess wears a stole (uroro) hanging down from the shoulder in the manner of an archdeacon.", "", "The Patriarchate was initially established in Antioch (present-day Syria, Turkey, and Iraq), due to the persecutions by Romans followed by Muslim Arabs, the Patriarchate was seated in Mor Hananyo Monastery, Mardin, in the Ottoman Empire (1160-1933); following Homs (1933-1959); and Damascus, Syria, since 1959. Historically, the followers of the church are mainly ethnic Assyrians who comprise the indigenous pre-Arab populations of modern Syria, Iraq and southeastern Turkey. A diaspora has also spread from the Levant, Iraq, and Turkey throughout the world, notably in Sweden, Germany, United Kingdom, Netherlands, Austria, France, United States, Canada, Guatemala, Argentina, Brazil, Australia, and New Zealand. The Church's members are divided into 26 Archdioceses, and 13 Patriarchal Vicariates. It is estimated that the church has 500,000 Assyrian adherents, in addition to 2 million members of the Jacobite Syrian Christian Church and their own ethnic diaspora in India. Additionally, there is also a large Syriac community among Mayan converts in Guatemala. The number of Assyrians in Turkey is rising, due to refugees from Syria and Iraq fleeing ISIS, as well as Assyrians from the Diaspora who fled the region during the Turkey-PKK conflict (since 1978) returning and rebuilding their homes. The village of Kafro was populated by Syriacs from Germany and Switzerland. In the Syriac diaspora, there are approximately 80,000 members in the United States, 80,000 in Sweden, 100,000 in Germany, 15,000 in the Netherlands, 200,000 members in Brazil, Switzerland, and Austria.", "The Syriac Orthodox Church of Antioch originally covered the whole region of the Middle East and India. In recent centuries, its parishioners started to emigrate to other countries over the world. Today, the Syriac Orthodox Church has several archdioceses and patriarchal vicariates (exarchates) in many countries covering six continents.", "The presence of the Syrian Orthodox faithful in America dates back to the late 19th century. North America Central America In the Guatemala region, a Charismatic movement emerged in 2003 was excommunicated in 2006 by the Roman Catholic Church later joined the church in 2013. Members of this archdiocese are Mayan in origin and live in rural areas, and display charismatic-type practices. South America", "Middle East regions Syriac Orthodox Church in the Middle East and the diaspora, numbering between 150,000 and 200,000 people in their indigenous area of habitation in Syria, Iraq, and Turkey according to estimations. The community formed and developed in the Middle Ages. The Syriac Orthodox Christians of the Middle East speak Aramaic. Archbishoprics in the Middle East include regions of Jazirah, Euphrates, Aleppo, Homs, Hama, Baghdad, Basrah, Mosul, Kirkuk, Kurdistan, Mount Lebanon, Beirut, Istanbul, Ankara and Adiyaman, Israel, Palestine, Jordan. Patriarchal Vicariates in the Middle East includes Damascus, Mardin, Turabdin, Zahle, UAE and the Arab States of the Persian Gulf.", "Syriac Orthodox Church of Malankara (India) The Jacobite Syrian Christian Church, one of the various Saint Thomas Christian churches in India, is an integral part of the Syriac Orthodox Church, with the Patriarch of Antioch as its supreme head. The local head of the church in Malankara (Kerala) is Baselios Thomas I, ordained by Patriarch Ignatius Zakka I Iwas in 2002 and accountable to the Patriarch of Antioch. The headquarters of the church in India is at Puthencruz near Ernakulam in the state of Kerala in South India. Simhasana Churches and Honavar Mission is under the direct control of Patriarch. Historically, the St. Thomas Christians were part of the Church of the East, based in Persia which was under the Patriarch of Antioch until Council of Seleucia-Ctesiphon(410 AD.) and reunited with Syriac Orthodox Patriarchs of Antioch since 1652. Assyrian monks Mar Sabor and Mar Proth arrived at Malankara between the 8th and 9th centuries from Persia. They established churches in Quilon, Kadamattom, Kayamkulam, Udayamperoor, and Akaparambu. <br>The Malankara Marthoma Syrian Church is an independent reformed church under the jurisdiction of Marthoma Metropolitan and its first Reforming Metropolitan Mathews Athanasius was ordained by Ignatius Elias II in 1842. Catholicate was re-established in Malankara in 1912 by Ignatius Abded Mshiho II by the consecration of Paulose I as first Catholicos. Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church accepts the Patriarch of Antioch only as its spiritual Father as stated by the constitution of 1934. Knanaya Arch Diocese The Knanaya Syriac Orthodox Church is an archdiocese under the guidance and direction of Archbishop Severious Kuriakose with the patriarch as its spiritual head. They are the followers of the Syrian merchant Knāy Thoma (Thomas of Cana) in the 4th or 8th century, while another legend traces their origin to Jews in the Middle East. Evangelistic Association Of The East E.A.E Arch Diocese is the missionary association of Syriac Orthodox Church founded in 1924 by Geevarghese Athunkal Cor-Episcopa at Perumbavoor. This archdiocese is under the direct control of the patriarch under the guidance of Chrysostomos Markose, It is an organization with churches, educational institutions, orphanages, old age homes, convents, publications, mission centers, gospel teams, care missions, and a missionary training institute. It is registered in 1949 under the Indian Societies Registration Act. XXI of 1860 (Reg. No. S.8/1949ESTD 1924). Europe Earlier in the 20th century many Syrian Orthodox immigrated to Western Europe diaspora, located in the Sweden, Netherlands, Germany, and Switzerland for economic and political reasons. Dayro d-Mor Ephrem in Netherlands is the first Syriac Orthodox monastery in Europe established in 1981. Dayro d-Mor Awgen, Arth, Switzerland,Dayro d-Mor Ya`qub d-Sarug, Warburg, Germany are the other monasteries located in Europe. Patriarchal Vicariates:", "The church has various seminaries, colleges, and other institutions. Patriarch Aphrem I Barsoum established St. Aphrem's Clerical School in 1934 in Zahlé. In 1946, the school was moved to Mosul, where it provided the church with a selection of graduates, the first among them being Patriarch Ignatius Zakka I Iwas and many other church leaders. In 1990, the Order of St. Jacob Baradaeus was established for nuns. Seminaries have been instituted in Sweden and in Salzburg for the study of Syriac theology, history, language, and culture. Happy Child House project started in 2019 provides childcare services in Damascus, Syria. The church has an international Christian education center for religious education. The Antioch Syrian University was established on 8 September 2018 in Maarat Saidnaya, near Damascus. The university is offering engineering, management and economics courses.", "The Syriac Orthodox Church is active in ecumenical dialogues with various churches including the Roman Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox Churches, Anglican Communion, Russian Orthodox Church, Assyrian Church of the East and other Non-Chalcedonian Churches. The Church is an active member of the World Council of Churches since 1960 and Patriarch Ignatius Zakka I Iwas was one of the former presidents of WCC. It has also been involved in the Middle East Council of Churches since 1974. There are common Christological and pastoral agreements with the Catholic Church by the 20th century as the Chalcedonian schism was not seen with the same relevance, and from several meetings between the authorities of the Catholic Church and the Oriental Orthodoxy, reconciling declarations emerged in the common statements of the Patriarch Ignatius Jacob III and Pope Paul VI in 1971, Patriarch Ignatius Zakka I Iwas and Pope John Paul II in 1984: The precise differences in theology that caused the Chalcedonian controversy is said to have arisen \"\"only because of differences in terminology and culture and in the various formulae adopted by different theological schools to express the same matter\"\", according to a common declaration statement between Patriarch Ignatius Jacob III and Pope Paul VI on Wednesday 27 October 1971. In 2015, Pope Francis addressed the Syriac Orthodox Church as \"\"a Church of Martyrs\" \" welcoming the visit of Ignatius Aphrem II to Holy See. In 2015, Ignatius Aphrem II visited Patriarch Kirill of Moscow of the Russian Orthodox Church and discussed prospects of bilateral and theological dialogue existing since the late 1980s. Since 1998, the heads of the Oriental Orthodox churches including Coptic Orthodox Church, Armenian Apostolic Church participates in Interfaith dialogues each year.", "Communities", "Ecumenical relations with the Catholic Church", "Media Relating to Syriac Orthodox Church Relating to Malankara Jacobite Syrian Orthodox Church" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Background.", "Writings.", "Mythology.", "Early life.", "Travelling as an Argonaut.", "Death of Eurydice.", "Death.", "Orphic poems and rites.", "Post-Classical interpretations.", "Classical music.", "Literature.", "Film and stage.", "Reception." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Several etymologies for the name \"Orpheus\" have been proposed. A probable suggestion is that it is derived from a hypothetical PIE root 'orphan, servant, slave' and ultimately the verb root 'to change allegiance, status, ownership.' Cognates could include (; 'darkness') and (; 'fatherless, orphan') from which comes English 'orphan' by way of Latin. Fulgentius, a mythographer of the late 5th to early 6th century AD, gave the unlikely etymology meaning \"best voice,\" \"Oraia-phonos\".", "The earliest literary reference to Orpheus is a two-word fragment of the 6th century BC lyric poet Ibycus: ('Orpheus famous-of-name'). He is not mentioned in Homer or Hesiod. Most ancient sources accept his historical existence; Aristotle is an exception. Pindar calls Orpheus 'the father of songs' and identifies him as a son of the Thracian king Oeagrus and the Muse Calliope. Greeks of the Classical age venerated Orpheus as the greatest of all poets and musicians; it was said that while Hermes had invented the lyre, Orpheus had perfected it. Poets such as Simonides of Ceos said that Orpheus' music and singing could charm the birds, fish and wild beasts, coax the trees and rocks into dance, and divert the course of rivers. Orpheus was one of the handful of Greek heroes to visit the Underworld and return; his music and song even had power over Hades. The earliest known reference to this descent to the underworld is the painting by Polygnotus (5th century BC) described by Pausanias (2nd century AD), where no mention is made of Eurydice. Euripides and Plato both refer to the story of his descent to recover his wife, but do not mention her name; a contemporary relief (about 400 BC) shows Orpheus and his wife with Hermes. The elegiac poet Hermesianax called her Agriope; and the first mention of her name in literature is in the \"Lament for Bion\" (1st century BC) Some sources credit Orpheus with further gifts to mankind: medicine, which is more usually under the auspices of Asclepius (Aesculapius) or Apollo; writing, which is usually credited to Cadmus; and agriculture, where Orpheus assumes the Eleusinian role of Triptolemus as giver of Demeter's knowledge to mankind. Orpheus was an augur and seer; he practiced magical arts and astrology, founded cults to Apollo and Dionysus and prescribed the mystery rites preserved in Orphic texts. Pindar and Apollonius of Rhodes place Orpheus as the harpist and companion of Jason and the Argonauts. Orpheus had a brother named Linus, who went to Thebes and became a Theban. He is claimed by Aristophanes and Horace to have taught cannibals to subsist on fruit, and to have made lions and tigers obedient to him. Horace believed, however, that Orpheus had only introduced order and civilization to savages. Strabo (64 BC – c. AD 24) presents Orpheus as a mortal, who lived and died in a village close to Olympus. \"Some, of course, received him willingly, but others, since they suspected a plot and violence, combined against him and killed him.\" He made money as a musician and \"wizard\" – Strabo uses (), also used by Sophocles in \"Oedipus Tyrannus\" to characterize Teiresias as a trickster with an excessive desire for possessions. () most often meant charlatan and always had a negative connotation. Pausanias writes of an unnamed Egyptian who considered Orpheus a (), i. e., magician. \"Orpheus...is repeatedly referred to by Euripides, in whom we find the first allusion to the connection of Orpheus with Dionysus and the infernal regions: he speaks of him as related to the Muses (\"Rhesus\" 944, 946); mentions the power of his song over rocks, trees, and wild beasts (\"Medea\" 543, \"Iphigenia in Aulis\" 1211, \"Bacchae\" 561, and a jocular allusion in \"Cyclops\" 646); refers to his charming the infernal powers (\"Alcestis\" 357); connects him with Bacchanalian orgies (\"Hippolytu\"s 953); ascribes to him the origin of sacred mysteries (\"Rhesus\" 943), and places the scene of his activity among the forests of Olympus (\"Bacchae\" 561.)\" \"Euripides [also] brought Orpheus into his play \"Hypsipyle\", which dealt with the Lemnian episode of the Argonautic voyage; Orpheus there acts as coxswain, and later as guardian in Thrace of Jason’s children by Hypsipyle.\" \"He is mentioned once only, but in an important passage, by Aristophanes (\"Frogs\" 1032), who enumerates, as the oldest poets, Orpheus, Musaeus, Hesiod, and Homer, and makes Orpheus the teacher of religious initiations and of abstinence from murder...\" \"Plato (\"Apology\", \"Protagoras\")...frequently refers to Orpheus, his followers, and his works. He calls him the son of Oeagrus (\"Symposium\"), mentions him as a musician and inventor \"(Ion\" and \"Laws\" bk 3.), refers to the miraculous power of his lyre \"(Protagora\"s), and gives a singular version of the story of his descent into Hades: the gods, he says, imposed upon the poet, by showing him only a phantasm of his lost wife, because he had not the courage to die, like Alcestis, but contrived to enter Hades alive, and, as a further punishment for his cowardice, he met his death at the hands of women (\"Symposium\".)\" \"Earlier than the literary references is a sculptured representation of Orpheus with the ship \"Argo\", found at Delphi, said to be of the sixth century B.C.\" [c.a. 560 BCE]", "On the writings of Orpheus, Freeman, in the 1946 edition of \"The Pre- Socratic Philosophers\" pp. 4–8, writes: \"In the fifth and fourth centuries BC, there existed a collection of hexametric poems known as Orphic, which were the accepted authority of those who followed the Orphic way of life, and were by them attributed to Orpheus himself. Plato several times quotes lines from this collection; he refers in the \"Republic\" to a ‘mass of books of Musaeus and Orpheus’, and in the \"Laws\" to the hymns of Thamyris and Orpheus, while in the \"Ion\" he groups Orpheus with Musaeus and Homer as the source of inspiration of epic poets and elocutionists. Euripides in the \"Hippolytus\" makes Theseus speak of the ‘turgid outpourings of many treatises’, which have led his son to follow Orpheus and adopt the Bacchic religion. Alexis, the fourth century comic poet, depicting Linus offering a choice of books to Heracles, mentions ‘Orpheus, Hesiod, tragedies, Choerilus, Homer, Epicharmus’. Aristotle did not believe that the poems were by Orpheus; he speaks of the ‘so-called Orphic epic’, and Philoponus (seventh century AD) commenting on this expression, says that in the \"De Philosophia\" (now lost) Aristotle directly stated his opinion that the poems were not by Orpheus. Philoponus adds his own view that the doctrines were put into epic verse by Onomacritus. Aristotle when quoting the Orphic cosmological doctrines attributes them to ‘the \"theologoi\"’ ‘the ancient poets’, ‘those who first theorized about the gods ’. Nothing is known of any ancient Orphic writings except a reference in the \"Alcestis\" of Euripides to certain ‘Thracian tablets’ which ‘the voice of Orpheus had inscribed’ with pharmaceutical lore. The Scholiast, commenting on the passage, says that there exist on Mt. Haemus certain writings of Orpheus on tablets. There is also a reference, not mentioning Orpheus by name, in the pseudo-Platonic \"Axiochus\", where it is said that the fate of the soul in Hades is described on certain bronze tablets which two seers had brought to Delos from the land of the Hyperboreans. This is the only evidence for any ancient Orphic writings. Aelian (second century AD) gave the chief reason against believing in them: at the time when Orpheus is said to have lived, the Thracians knew nothing about writing. It came therefore to be believed that Orpheus taught, but left no writings, and that the epic poetry attributed to him was written in the sixth century BC by Onomacritus. Onomacritus was banished from Athens by Hipparchus for inserting something of his own into an oracle of Musaeus when entrusted with the editing of his poems. It may have been Aristotle who first suggested, in the lost \"De Philosophia\", that Onomacritus also wrote the so-called Orphic epic poems. By the time when the Orphic writings began to be freely quoted by Christian and Neo-Platonist writers, the theory of the authorship of Onomacritus was accepted by many. It is believed, however, that the Orphic literature current in the time of the Neo-Platonists (third century AD), and quoted by them as the authority for Orphic doctrines, was a collection of writings of different periods and varying outlook, something like that of the Bible. The earliest of these were composed in the sixth century by Onomacritus from genuine Orphic tradition; the latest which have survived, namely the \"Voyage of the Argonauts\", and the Hymns to various deities, cannot have been put together in their present form until the beginning of the Christian era, and are probably to be dated some time between the second and fourth centuries AD The Neo-Platonists quote the Orphic poems in their defence against Christianity, because Plato used poems which he believed to be Orphic. It is believed that in the collection of writings which they used there were several versions, each of which gave a slightly different account of the origin of the universe, of gods and men, and perhaps of the correct way of life, with the rewards and punishments attached thereto. Three principal versions are recognized by modern scholars; all three are mentioned by the Neo-Platonist Damascius (fifth-sixth centuries AD). These are: A long list of Orphic works is given in Suidas (tenth century AD); but most of these are there attributed to other authors. They are: Such was the list of works finally classed as Orphic writings, though it was known in early times that many of them were the works of Pythagoreans and other writers. Herodotus said of the so-called ‘Orphic and Bacchic rites’ that they were actually ‘Egyptian and Pythagorean’; and Ion of Chios said that Pythagoras himself attributed some of his writings to Orpheus. Others, as has been said, regarded the earliest epics as the work of Onomacritus. The original Hymns were thought to have been composed by Orpheus, and written down, with emendations, by Musaeus. There were also other writers named Orpheus: to one, of Croton, said to be a contemporary and associate of Peisistratus, were attributed two epic poems: an \"Argonautica\", and \"The Twelve-year Cycle\" (probably astrological); to another, Orpheus of Camarina, an epic \"Descent into Hades\". These namesakes are probably inventions.\"", "", "According to Apollodorus and a fragment of Pindar, Orpheus' father was Oeagrus, a Thracian king, or, according to another version of the story, the god Apollo. His mother was (1) the muse Calliope, (2) her sister Polymnia, (3) a daughter of Pierus, son of Makednos or (4) lastly of Menippe, daughter of Thamyris. According to Tzetzes, he was from Bisaltia. His birthplace and place of residence was Pimpleia close to the Olympus. Strabo mentions that he lived in Pimpleia. According to the epic poem \"Argonautica\", Pimpleia was the location of Oeagrus' and Calliope's wedding. While living with his mother and her eight beautiful sisters in Parnassus, he met Apollo, who was courting the laughing muse Thalia. Apollo, as the god of music, gave Orpheus a golden lyre and taught him to play it. Orpheus' mother taught him to make verses for singing. He is also said to have studied in Egypt. Orpheus is said to have established the worship of Hecate in Aegina. In Laconia Orpheus is said to have brought the worship of Demeter Chthonia and that of the (; 'Saviour Maidens'). Also in Taygetos a wooden image of Orpheus was said to have been kept by Pelasgians in the sanctuary of the Eleusinian Demeter. According to Diodorus Siculus, Musaeus of Athens was the son of Orpheus.", "The \"Argonautica\" () is a Greek epic poem written by Apollonius Rhodius in the 3rd century BC. Orpheus took part in this adventure and used his skills to aid his companions. Chiron told Jason that without the aid of Orpheus, the Argonauts would never be able to pass the Sirens—the same Sirens encountered by Odysseus in Homer's epic poem the \"Odyssey\". The Sirens lived on three small, rocky islands called Sirenum scopuli and sang beautiful songs that enticed sailors to come to them, which resulted in the crashing of their ships into the islands. When Orpheus heard their voices, he drew his lyre and played music that was louder and more beautiful, drowning out the Sirens' bewitching songs. According to 3rd century BC Hellenistic elegiac poet Phanocles, Orpheus loved the young Argonaut Calais, \"the son of Boreas, with all his heart, and went often in shaded groves still singing of his desire, nor was his heart at rest. But always, sleepless cares wasted his spirits as he looked at fresh Calais.\"", "The most famous story in which Orpheus figures is that of his wife Eurydice (sometimes referred to as Euridice and also known as Argiope). While walking among her people, the Cicones, in tall grass at her wedding, Eurydice was set upon by a satyr. In her efforts to escape the satyr, Eurydice fell into a nest of vipers and suffered a fatal bite on her heel. Her body was discovered by Orpheus who, overcome with grief, played such sad and mournful songs that all the nymphs and gods wept. On their advice, Orpheus traveled to the underworld. His music softened the hearts of Hades and Persephone, who agreed to allow Eurydice to return with him to earth on one condition: he should walk in front of her and not look back until they both had reached the upper world. He set off with Eurydice following, and, in his anxiety, as soon as he reached the upper world, he turned to look at her, forgetting that both needed to be in the upper world, and she vanished for the second time, but now forever. The story in this form belongs to the time of Virgil, who first introduces the name of Aristaeus (by the time of Virgil's \"Georgics\", the myth has Aristaeus chasing Eurydice when she was bitten by a serpent) and the tragic outcome. Other ancient writers, however, speak of Orpheus' visit to the underworld in a more negative light; according to Phaedrus in Plato's \"Symposium\", the infernal gods only \"presented an apparition\" of Eurydice to him. In fact, Plato's representation of Orpheus is that of a coward, as instead of choosing to die in order to be with the one he loved, he instead mocked the gods by trying to go to Hades to bring her back alive. Since his love was not \"true\"—he did not want to die for love—he was actually punished by the gods, first by giving him only the apparition of his former wife in the underworld, and then by being killed by women. In Ovid's account, however, Eurydice's death by a snake bite is incurred while she was dancing with naiads on her wedding day. Virgil wrote in his poem that Dryads wept from Epirus and Hebrus up to the land of the Getae (north east Danube valley) and even describes him wandering into Hyperborea and Tanais (ancient Greek city in the Don river delta) due to his grief. The story of Eurydice may actually be a late addition to the Orpheus myths. In particular, the name \"Eurudike\" (\"she whose justice extends widely\") recalls cult-titles attached to Persephone. According to the theories of poet Robert Graves, the myth may have been derived from another Orpheus legend, in which he travels to Tartarus and charms the goddess Hecate. The myth theme of not looking back, an essential precaution in Jason's raising of chthonic Brimo Hekate under Medea's guidance, is reflected in the Biblical story of Lot's wife when escaping from Sodom. More directly, the story of Orpheus is similar to the ancient Greek tales of Persephone captured by Hades and similar stories of Adonis captive in the underworld. However, the developed form of the Orpheus myth was entwined with the Orphic mystery cults and, later in Rome, with the development of Mithraism and the cult of Sol Invictus.", "According to a Late Antique summary of Aeschylus' lost play \"Bassarids\", Orpheus, towards the end of his life, disdained the worship of all gods except the sun, whom he called Apollo. One early morning he went to the oracle of Dionysus at Mount Pangaion to salute his god at dawn, but was ripped to shreds by Thracian Maenads for not honoring his previous patron (Dionysus) and buried in Pieria. Here his death is analogous with that of Pentheus, who was also torn to pieces by Maenads; and it has been speculated that the Orphic mystery cult regarded Orpheus as a parallel figure to or even an incarnation of Dionysus. Both made similar journeys into Hades, and Dionysus Zagreus suffered an identical death. Pausanias writes that Orpheus was buried in Dion and that he met his death there. He writes that the river Helicon sank underground when the women that killed Orpheus tried to wash off their blood-stained hands in its waters. Ovid recounts that Orpheus... Feeling spurned by Orpheus for taking only male lovers (eromenoi), the Ciconian women, followers of Dionysus, first threw sticks and stones at him as he played, but his music was so beautiful even the rocks and branches refused to hit him. Enraged, the women tore him to pieces during the frenzy of their Bacchic orgies. In Albrecht Dürer's drawing of Orpheus' death, based on an original, now lost, by Andrea Mantegna, a ribbon high in the tree above him is lettered \"Orfeus der erst puseran\" (\"Orpheus, the first pederast\"). His head and lyre, still singing mournful songs, floated down the River Hebrus into the sea, after which the winds and waves carried them to the island of Lesbos, at the city of Methymna; there, the inhabitants buried his head and a shrine was built in his honour near Antissa; there his oracle prophesied, until it was silenced by Apollo. In addition to the people of Lesbos, Greeks from Ionia and Aetolia consulted the oracle, and his reputation spread as far as Babylon. Orpheus' lyre was carried to heaven by the Muses, and was placed among the stars. The Muses also gathered up the fragments of his body and buried them at Leibethra below Mount Olympus, where the nightingales sang over his grave. After the river Sys flooded Leibethra, the Macedonians took his bones to Dion. Orpheus' soul returned to the underworld, to the fields of the Blessed, where he was reunited at last with his beloved Eurydice. Another legend places his tomb at Dion, near Pydna in Macedon. In another version of the myth, Orpheus travels to Aornum in Thesprotia, Epirus to an old oracle for the dead. In the end Orpheus commits suicide from his grief unable to find Eurydice. \"Others said that he was the victim of a thunderbolt.\"", "A number of Greek religious poems in hexameters were attributed to Orpheus, as they were to similar miracle-working figures, like Bakis, Musaeus, Abaris, Aristeas, Epimenides, and the Sibyl. Of this vast literature, only two works survived whole: the Orphic Hymns, a set of 87 poems, possibly composed at some point in the second or third century, and the epic poem \"Argonautica\", composed somewhere between the fourth and sixth centuries. Earlier Orphic literature, which may date back as far as the sixth century BC, survives only in papyrus fragments or in quotations. Some of the earliest fragments may have been composed by Onomacritus. In addition to serving as a storehouse of mythological data along the lines of Hesiod's \"Theogony\", Orphic poetry was recited in mystery-rites and purification rituals. Plato in particular tells of a class of vagrant beggar-priests who would go about offering purifications to the rich, a clatter of books by Orpheus and Musaeus in tow. Those who were especially devoted to these rituals and poems often practiced vegetarianism and abstention from sex, and refrained from eating eggs and beans — which came to be known as the \"Orphikos bios\", or \"Orphic way of life\". The Derveni papyrus, found in Derveni, Macedonia (Greece) in 1962, contains a philosophical treatise that is an allegorical commentary on an Orphic poem in hexameters, a theogony concerning the birth of the gods, produced in the circle of the philosopher Anaxagoras, written in the second half of the fifth century BC. Fragments of the poem are quoted making it \"the most important new piece of evidence about Greek philosophy and religion to come to light since the Renaissance\". The papyrus dates to around 340 BC, during the reign of Philip II of Macedon, making it Europe's oldest surviving manuscript. The historian William Mitford wrote in 1784 that the very earliest form of a higher and more cohesive ancient Greek religion was manifest in the Orphic poems. W. K. C. Guthrie wrote that Orpheus was the founder of mystery religions and the first to reveal to men the meanings of the initiation rites.", "", "The Orpheus motif has permeated Western culture and has been used as a theme in all art forms. Early examples include the Breton lai \"Sir Orfeo\" from the early 13th century and musical interpretations like Jacapo Peri's \"Euridice\" (1600, though titled with his wife's name, the libretto is based entirely upon books X and XI of Ovid's \"Metamorphoses\" and therefore Orpheus' viewpoint is predominant). Subsequent operatic interpretations include Claudio Monteverdi's \"L'Orfeo\" (1607), Luigi Rossi's L'Orfeo (1647), Marc-Antoine Charpentier's \"La descente d'Orphée aux enfers\" H 488, 1686 (he wrote also a cantata, \"Orphée descendant aux enfers\" H 471, 1683), Christoph Willibald Gluck's \"Orfeo ed Euridice\" (1762), Joseph Haydn's last opera \"L'anima del filosofo, ossia Orfeo ed Euridice\" (1791), Franz Liszt's symphonic poem \"Orpheus\" (1854), Igor Stravinsky's ballet \"Orpheus\" (1948) and two operas by Harrison Birtwistle: \"The Mask of Orpheus\" (1973–1984) and \"The Corridor\" (2009). The Bulgarian Rousse State Opera commissioned and performed \"Orpheus: A Masque\" by John Robertson (2015).", "Rainer Maria Rilke's \"Sonnets to Orpheus\" (1922) are based on the Orpheus myth. Poul Anderson's Hugo Award-winning novelette \"Goat Song\", published in 1972, is a retelling of the story of Orpheus in a science fiction setting. Some feminist interpretations of the myth give Eurydice greater weight. Margaret Atwood's \"Orpheus and Eurydice Cycle\" (1976–86) deals with the myth, and gives Eurydice a more prominent voice. Sarah Ruhl's \"Eurydice\" likewise presents the story of Orpheus' descent to the underworld from Eurydice's perspective. Ruhl removes Orpheus from the center of the story by pairing their romantic love with the paternal love of Eurydice's dead father. David Almond's 2014 novel, \"A Song for Ella Grey\", was inspired by the myth of Orpheus and Eurydice, and won the Guardian Children's Fiction Prize in 2015. The 2014 novel \"Orfeo\" by Richard Powers is based on Orpheus. Dino Buzzati adapted the Orpheus motif in his graphic novel \"Poem Strip\" (1969). Neil Gaiman depicts his version of Orpheus in \"The Sandman\" comics series (1989–2015). Gaiman's Orpheus is the son of Oneiros (the Dream Lord Morpheus) and the muse Calliope.", "Vinicius de Moraes' play \"Orfeu da Conceição\" (1956), later adapted by Marcel Camus in the 1959 film \"Black Orpheus\", tells the story in the modern context of a favela in Rio de Janeiro during Carnaval. Jean Cocteau's Orphic Trilogy – \"The Blood of a Poet\" (1930), \"Orpheus\" (1950) and \"Testament of Orpheus\" (1959) – was filmed over thirty years, and is based in many ways on the story. Philip Glass adapted the second film into the chamber opera \"Orphée\" (1991), part of an homage triptych to Cocteau. Nikos Nikolaidis' 1975 film \"Evrydiki BA 2O37\" is an innovative perspective on the classic Greek tragedy of Orpheus and Eurydice. Anaïs Mitchell's 2010 folk opera musical \"Hadestown\" retells the tragedy of Orpheus and Eurydice with a soundtrack inspired by American blues and jazz, portraying Hades as the brutal work-boss of an underground mining city. Mitchell, together with director Rachel Chavkin, later adapted her album into a multiple Tony award winning stage musical.", "Because of the pervasiveness of the Orpheus myth, many interpretations are in conversation with previous interpretations as well: Pina Bausch's dance-opera \"Orpheus und Euridike\" displays original choreography set to Gluck's \"Orfeo ed Euridice\". Baz Luhrmann, in DVD commentaries for his 2001 film \"Moulin Rouge!\", characterizes the film as, in part, a tale of an Orphic hero (in this case a songwriter) who embarks upon a visit to the underworld (in this case the demi-monde around Paris' Montmartre) in search of his fortune and ultimately to attempt the rescue of his doomed love. The film adapts a widely known piece from Jacques Offenbach's comedic operetta \"Orphée aux enfers\" (\"Orpheus in the Underworld\"), identified with the once-popular can-can music hall dance. Offenbach's operatic work had itself parodied the classical tale of Orpheus' attempted rescue of Eurydice from Pluto (Hades). Gavin Bryars' music for Édouard Lock's full length ballet \"Dido and Orfeo\" (2011) reworks music from the operas \"Dido and Aeneas\" (Purcell) and \"Orfeo ed Euridice\" (Gluck) for a small ensemble of saxophone, viola, cello and piano. In 2019, Sara Bareilles released her sixth studio album \"Amidst the Chaos\" which features a song titled \"Orpheus\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "Features.", "Areas hit." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "It is known in Greek as (\"mpóra\", pronounced \"bora\") and Italian as. In English, the name \"bora\" is used. The Serbo-Croatian name and Slovene are not etymologically related to \"bora\"; they derive from Common Slavic \"burja\"'storm' (from the verb \"*burĭti\"), and the meaning 'bora' developed later. The same root as \"bora\" is found in the name of the Greek mythological figure of Boreas (Βορέας), the North Wind. Historical linguists speculate that the name may derive from a Proto-Indo-European root *\"gorh-\"'mountain', which gave rise to Germanic \"burg\" and \"berg\". According to Croatian oral legends \"Bura\" was a beautiful young lady who was thought that she is far prettier than God's fairies. Because of that statement of her God has punished her by prisoned her into deepest pit of mountain Dinara. Every time when some girl thinks that she is beautiful, Bura girl screams so loudly and breaths so deeply what consequently leads to strong and dry wind called \"bura\".", "The changeable bora can often be felt all over Adriatic Croatia, Montenegrin Littoral, the Slovenian Littoral, Trieste, and the rest of the Adriatic east coast. It blows in gusts. The bora is most common during the winter. It blows hardest when a polar high-pressure area sits over the snow-covered mountains of the interior plateau behind the Dinaric coastal mountain range and a calm low-pressure area lies further south over the warmer Adriatic. As the air grows even colder and thus denser at night, the bora increases. Its initial temperature is so low that even with the warming occasioned by its descent it reaches the lowlands as a cold wind. The wind takes two different traditional names in areas of Italy depending on associated meteorological conditions: the \"light bora\" () is a bora in the presence of clear skies, whereas clouds gathering on the hilltops and moving towards the seaside with rain or snow characterize the \"dark bora\" (\"bora scura\").", "The area where some of the strongest bora winds occur is the Velebit mountain range in Croatia. This seaside mountain chain, spanning 145 kilometers, represents a huge weather and climatic divide between the sharp continental climate of the interior, characterized by significant day/night temperature differences throughout the year, and the Adriatic coast, with a Mediterranean climate. The bora occurs because these two divided masses tend to equalize. Sailing during the bora can be challenging and it requires caution, regarding readiness of both the boat and its crew. Short, high waves with white crests are its characteristics, making the navigation difficult. The small drops formed by the wind create a so-called \"sea smoke\" that reduces the visibility significantly. Experienced seamen have a proverb: \"When the bora sails, you don't!\" Sailing can be extremely dangerous for an inexperienced navigator in the Velebit channel because the wind can start suddenly on a clear and calm day and result in major problems, frequently also affecting road traffic. Near the towns of Senj, Stara Novalja, Karlobag and the southern portal of the Sveti Rok Tunnel in Croatia, it can reach speeds of up to 220 kilometers per hour. On 21 December 1998 the speed of a gust on the Maslenica Bridge (north of Zadar) was measured at a record speed of 248 kilometres per hour, and wind shields were installed. During 22 to 25 December 2003 on A1 highway near Sveti Rok Tunnel a new record was measured at a speed of 304 kilometers per hour. In February 2012, during the Eastern European Cold Wave, the shoreline in Senj froze and snow piled up after a 150 km/h bora plummeted the temperature to −14 °C, with waves of 7 metres. The bora ripped the trees from the soil and destroyed roofs of houses. On the island of Pag, the Bora threw fish out of the sea. In many Croatian coastal cities, fresh water froze inside the pipes. The wind is also an integral feature of Slovenia's Vipava Valley and, to a lesser extent, the Karst Plateau (known as \"Carso\" in Italian), an area of limestone heights over the Gulf of Trieste stretching towards the Istrian peninsula. Because the region separates the lower Adriatic coast from the Julian Alps range, extreme bora winds often occur there. They have influenced the region's traditional lifestyle and architecture. Towns on the coast, where the bora frequently occurs, are built densely with narrow streets in part because of the wind. Buildings in several towns and villages in Slovenia and the Province of Trieste (Italy) have stones on their roofs to prevent the tiles from being blown off. Chains and ropes are occasionally stretched along the sidewalks in downtown Trieste, Italy, to facilitate pedestrian traffic — gusts in the city are usually above 120 km/h reaching to maxima of near 200 km/h. A strong bora will often be reported on Italian television news. Slovenian towns where the strongest bora occurs are Ajdovščina, Vipava and, to a lesser extent, Nova Gorica. In Slovenia, the most affected section is usually the upper part of the Vipava Valley, stretching from Ajdovščina to Podnanos, where the speed of the wind can exceed 200 km/h. Strong bora winds also occur in the Tsemes Bay of the Black Sea near the Russian port of Novorossiysk, where they are known as nordost (\"northeastern\"). They can reach speeds of up to 220 kilometres per hour." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Blitters in personal computers and video games.", "Operation.", "Other approaches." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In early computers with raster-graphics output, the frame buffer was normally held in main memory and updated via software running on the CPU. For many simple graphics routines, like compositing a smaller image into a larger one (such as for a video game) or drawing a filled rectangle, large amounts of memory had to be manipulated, and many CPU cycles were spent fetching and decoding instructions for short repetitive loops of load/store instructions. For CPUs without caches, the bus requirement for instructions was as significant as data. Further, as a single byte usually held between 2 (for 16-colors) and 8 (for monochrome) pixels, the data was not naturally aligned for the CPU, so extra shifting and masking operations were required.", "1973: The Xerox Alto, where the term bit blit originated, has a bit block transfer instruction implemented in microcode, making it much faster than the same operation written on the CPU. The microcode was implemented by Dan Ingalls. 1982: The \"\" arcade game from Williams Electronics includes two blitter chips which allow the game to have up to 80 simultaneously moving objects. Performance was measured at roughly 910 KB/second. The blitter operates on 4-bit (16 color) pixels where color 0 is transparent, allowing for non-rectangular shapes. Williams used the same hardware in other games from the time period, including \"Sinistar\" and \"Joust\". 1984: The MS-DOS compatible Mindset personal computer contains a custom VLSI chip to move rectangular sections of a bitmap. The hardware handles transparency and eight modes for combining the source and destination data. The Mindset was claimed to have graphics up to 50x faster than PCs of the time, but the system was not successful. 1985: One of the hardware coprocessors in the Amiga personal computer is a blitter. The first US patent filing to use the term \"blitter\" was \"Personal computer apparatus for block transfer of bit-mapped image data,\" assigned to Commodore-Amiga, Inc. The blitter performs a 4 operand boolean operation: 1986: The TMS34010 is a general purpose 32-bit processor with additional blitter-like instructions for manipulating bitmap data. It is optimized for cases that take extra processing on the CPU, such as handling transparent pixels, working with non-byte aligned data, and converting between bit depths. The TMS34010 served as both CPU and GPU for a number of arcade games starting in 1988 with \"Narc\" and including \"Hard Drivin'\", ', \"Smash TV\", \"Mortal Kombat\", and \"NBA Jam\", It was also used in professional-level graphics accelerator boards in the 1990s. 1986: The Intel 82786 is a programmable graphics processor with a codice_2 instruction to move rectangular sections of bitmaps. 1987: The IBM 8514/A display adapter, introduced with the IBM Personal System/2 computers in April 1987, includes bit block transfer hardware. 1987: The Atari Mega ST 2 ships with a blitter chip. Officially called the \"Atari ST Bit-Block Transfer Processor\", stylized as BLiTTER, it provides 16 options for merging source and destination data. The blitter is supported on most subsequent ST machines, including later revisions of the entry level STfm home computers. 1989: The short-lived Atari Transputer Workstation contains blitter hardware as part of its (Mega ST-based) \"Blossom\" video system. 1993: The last game console produced by Atari Corporation, the Jaguar, ships with blitter hardware as part of the custom \"Tom\" chip.", "Typically, a computer program puts information into certain registers describing what memory transfer needs to be completed and the logical operations to perform on the data. The CPU then triggers the blitter to begin operating. The CPU is free for other processing while the blitter is working, though the blit running in parallel uses memory bandwidth. To copy data with transparent portions—such as sprites—a color can be designated to be ignored during the blit (such as color 0). On other systems, a second 1 bit per pixel image may be used as a \"mask\" to indicate which pixels to transfer and which to leave untouched (see image at right). The mask operates like a stencil. The logical operation for transparent-color system (after OR-summing the pixel bits to determine whether or not that pixel is color 0) is codice_3. For a separate, precalculated mask plane, where both the masked and unmasked pixels can be \"any\" palette entry / combination of 0 and 1 bits (and would, in the previous operation, potentially clash with the background even when supposedly masked-out), the operation is codice_4 (still three inputs, but using one of them twice), similar in operation to the XOR based method employed by software rendering (of e.g. 1-bit-plus-mask mouse pointers in early monochrome or color-bitplane GUIs, with any additional bitplanes all clamped to 0 in the masked areas).", "Hardware sprites are small bitmaps that can be positioned independently, composited together with the background on-the-fly by the video chip, so no actual modification of the frame buffer occurs. Sprite systems are more efficient for moving graphics, typically requiring 1/3 the memory cycles because only image data—not CPU instructions—need to be fetched, with the subsequent compositing happening on-chip. The downside of sprites is a limit of moving graphics per scanline, which can range from three (Atari 2600) to eight (Commodore 64 and Atari 8-bit family) to significantly higher for 16-bit arcade hardware and consoles, and the inability to update a permanent bitmap (making them unsuitable for general desktop GUI acceleration)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early years (1977–1979).", "Rise to fame (1980–1983).", "\"Hysteria\" era (1984–1989).", "\"Adrenalize\", Clark's death, and change in musical direction (1990–1999).", "2000–2007.", "\"Songs from the Sparkle Lounge\" (2008–2009).", "Recent events and self-titled album (2010–present).", "Musical style and legacy.", "Side projects.", "Awards and nominations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Rick Savage, Tony Kenning, and Pete Willis, all students at Tapton School in Sheffield, South Yorkshire, formed a band called Atomic Mass in 1977. The band originally consisted of Willis on guitar, Savage on bass guitar after briefly playing guitar, and Kenning on drums. Only 18 at the time, Joe Elliott tried out for the band as a guitarist following a chance meeting with Willis after missing a bus in November 1977. During his audition it was decided that he was better suited to be the lead singer. Their first gig was in the dining hall in A Block in Westfield School in Mosborough, Sheffield. Elliott proposed the name \"Deaf Leopard\" which was originally a band name he thought of while designing band posters in art class. At Kenning's suggestion, the spelling was slightly modified in order to make the name seem less like that of a punk band. In January 1978, Steve Clark joined the band.", "Def Leppard's debut album, \"On Through the Night\", was released on 14 March 1980. Although the album hit the Top 15 in the UK, many early fans were turned off by the perception that the band was trying too hard to appeal to American audiences by recording songs such as \"Hello America\" and touring more in the US (supporting Pat Travers, AC/DC, and Ted Nugent); a performance at the Reading Festival in August was marred when audience members expressed their displeasure by pelting the band with beer cans and bottles filled with urine. This incident was partially blamed", "Following their breakthrough, the band moved to Dublin in February 1984 for tax purposes to begin writing the follow-up to \"Pyromania\". Mutt Lange initially joined in on the songwriting sessions but then suddenly declined to return as producer due to exhaustion. Jim Steinman (of Meat Loaf's \"Bat Out of Hell\" fame) was brought in. However, Steinman worked only briefly with the band, and the recording work was not released. On 31 December 1984, drummer Rick Allen lost his left arm in a car crash on the A57 in the hills outside the band's home city of Sheffield. Allen was driving with his Dutch girlfriend, Miriam Barendsen, when his Corvette swerved off the road on a sharp bend", "Following \"Hysteria\", the band quickly set out to work on their fifth album, hoping to avoid another lengthy gap. Steve Clark's alcoholism worsened to the point that he was constantly in and out of rehab. Recording sessions suffered from this distraction, and in mid-1990, Clark was granted a six-month leave of absence from the band. Clark died from a mix of prescription drugs and alcohol on 8January 1991, in his London home. The remaining band members decided to carry on and recorded the album as a four-piece, with Collen mimicking Clark's style on his intended guitar parts. Def Leppard's fifth album, \"Adrenalize\", was finally released on 31 March 1992. The album", "On 5 September 2000, Def Leppard were inducted into Hollywood's RockWalk on Sunset Boulevard by their friend Brian May of Queen. In 2001, VH1 produced and aired \"Hysteria - The Def Leppard Story\", a biopic that included Anthony Michael Hall as Mutt Lange and Amber Valletta as Lorelei Shellist (Steve Clark's girlfriend). The docudrama covered the band's history between 1977 through 1986, recounting the trials and triumphs of Rick Allen and Steve Clark. Def Leppard's eighth album, \"X\", saw the band's musical direction moving more towards pop and further away from the band's hard rock roots. \"X\" ultimately became the band's least successful release, charting at No. 11 on the US \"Billboard\" 200, and No. 14 on the UK Albums Chart. An expanded and updated best-of collection, \"Best Of\", was", "On 25 April 2008, Def Leppard released their first album of new studio material in six years, \"Songs from the Sparkle Lounge\". The album debuted at No. 5 on the \"Billboard\" 200 in the US. The first single was entitled \"Nine Lives\" and featured country singer Tim McGraw, who co-wrote the song with Joe Elliott, Phil Collen, and Rick Savage. A tour in support of the album began on 27 March 2008 in Greensboro, North Carolina, with Styx and REO Speedwagon. They also played several European rock festivals. An", "After taking a year off from touring in 2010, the band announced on 22 February 2011 that they would be releasing their first live album in the summer. \"Mirror Ball – Live & More\", a two-disc live album, with three new studio tracks. It was released in parts of Europe on 3June, the rest of Europe on 6June, and on 7June in the US; it was announced at the same time that Def Leppard would perform at the Download Festival on 10 June 2011. Of the three new studio tracks, two were released as singles, the first single being \"Undefeated\" released in April 2011. Def Leppard embarked on a two-month US tour in the summer of 2011 with Heart, as well as another seven shows in Australia in October with The Choirboys and Heart, two shows in Japan in November, and six shows in the United Kingdom in December with Steel Panther and Mötley Crüe. The next year, they toured with Poison and Lita Ford from 20 June through 15 September, dubbed the \"Rock Of Ages 2012 Tour\". The year after, Def Leppard played an eleven show residency at the Hard Rock Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas, Nevada from 22 March through 13 April 2013. The residency, referred to as Viva! Hysteria, featured a two part show, with the first half featuring Def Leppard opening for themselves, under", "Def Leppard's music is a mixture of hard rock, AOR, pop and heavy metal elements, with its multi-layered, harmonic vocals and its melodic guitar riffs. However, even though they were often considered one of the top bands of the new wave of British heavy metal movement of the late 1970s, in the mid-1980s the band were associated with the growing glam metal scene, mainly due to their mainstream success and glossy production. \"Pyromania\" has been cited as the catalyst for the 1980s pop-metal movement. Def Leppard, however, expressed their dislike of the \"glam metal\" label, as they thought it did not accurately describe their look or musical style. By the release of the \"Hysteria\" album, the band had developed a distinctive sound featuring electronic drums and effects-laden guitar sounds overlaid with a multi-layered wall of husky, harmonised vocals. Def Leppard were influenced by Ian Hunter and Mott The Hoople and cited as an influence by a wide range of musical artists, including heavy metal and thrash metal bands such as Slayer, Pantera, and Metallica as part of the new wave of British heavy metal movement as well as by popular contemporary artists Matt Nathanson and Taylor Swift. With \"Pyromania\" and \"Hysteria\" both certified Diamond by the RIAA, Def Leppard are one of only five rock bands with two original studio albums selling over 10 million copies each in the US, alongside the Beatles, Led Zeppelin, Pink Floyd, and Van Halen. Both \"Pyromania\" and \"Hysteria\" feature in \"Rolling Stone\" list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time. Def Leppard were among the most successful of the new wave of British heavy metal bands in the early 1980s. They combined the raw power of metal with a pop emphasis on melody, catchy hooks and vocal harmonies that, particularly later on, contrasted sharply with harsher contemporary metal and punk bands. Their early album \"On Through the Night\" (1980) appealed to metal fans and influenced the likes of Dimebag Darrell of Pantera and Jeff Hanneman of Slayer. Their hugely popular later albums, such as \"Hysteria\" (1987), were different due to their perfectionism in the studio, but appealed to a broad range of music fans. In 2006, the band received a Sheffield Legends plaque in their hometown of Sheffield, England. Despite their huge commercial success, Elliott has said in an interview that he feels the band does not receive its fair share of respect from the British music press and he claimed the band had been barred from the BBC's \"Later with Jools Holland\" series because they were \"not cool enough\".", "Phil Collen played guitar, uncredited, on Sam Kinison's \"Wild Thing\" in 1988. The video featured members of bands such as Poison, Bon Jovi, Mötley Crüe, Guns N' Roses, Ratt, and Aerosmith. Collen also produced and played on the 1991 album \"On The Edge\" by Australian band BB Steal. Joe Elliott sang lead vocals on two tracks on Rolling Stones guitarist Ronnie Wood's 1992 solo album, \"Slide on This\". His then-wife Karla appeared in the videos for \"Always Wanted More\" and \"Somebody Else Might\". Various members of Def Leppard have played on tribute records for Jeff Beck, AC/DC, and Alice Cooper. A fan of his local football club Sheffield United F.C., Elliott performed on two tracks to the soundtrack of the 1996 Sheffield-set motion picture, \"When Saturday Comes\" (featuring fellow Sheffield native Sean Bean as a star football player), the title track and an instrumental, \"Jimmy's Theme\". Elliott sang and co-wrote the opening track, \"Don't Look Down\" on Mick Ronson's farewell album \"Heaven and Hull\". A promotional video was issued for the song as well. Cybernauts was a side project consisting of Elliott and Collen teamed with members of The Spiders From Mars (David Bowie's former band), minus the late Mick Ronson. The group played", "Def Leppard won two awards at the 1989 American Music Awards for favorite Heavy Metal/Hard Rock Artist and album for \"Hysteria\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The end of World War I saw significant turmoil, leading to a refugee crisis. Numerous governments were toppled, and national borders were re-drawn, often along generally ethnic lines. Civil war broke out in some countries. Many people left their homes because of war or persecution or fear thereof. The upheaval resulted in many people being without passports, or even nations to issue them, which prevented much international travel, often trapping refugees. The precipitating event for the Nansen passport was the 1921 announcement by the new government of the Soviet Union revoking the citizenship of Russians living abroad, including some 800,000 refugees from the Russian civil war. The first Nansen passports were issued following an international agreement reached at the Intergovernmental Conference on Identity Certificates for Russian Refugees, convened by Fridtjof Nansen in Geneva from July 3, 1922, to July 5, 1922, in his role as High Commissioner for Refugees for the League of Nations. By 1942, they were honoured by governments in 52 countries. In 1933, the Nansen arrangement was broadened to also include Armenian, Assyrian, and Turkish refugees. Approximately 450,000 Nansen passports were provided to stateless people and refugees who needed travel documents but could not obtain one from a national authority. Following Nansen's death in 1930, the passport was handled by the Nansen International Office for Refugees within the League of Nations. At that point the passport no longer included a reference to the 1922 conference, but were issued in the name of the League. The office was closed in 1938; passports were thereafter issued by a new agency, the Office of the High Commissioner for Refugees under the Protection of the League of Nations in London.", "The Nansen International Office for Refugees was awarded the 1938 Nobel Peace Prize for its efforts to establish the Nansen passports. While Nansen passports are no longer issued, existing national and supranational authorities, including the United Nations, issue travel documents for stateless people and refugees, including certificates of identity (or \"alien's passports\") and refugee travel documents." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "History.", "Description." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The word \"luzzu\" derives from the Sicilian \"guzzu\" (which itself is derived from the Italian \"guzzo\"). A \"guzzu\" or \"guzzo\" is a common fishing or transport vessel used in Italy and Sicily.", "The Italian \"gozzo\" visited Malta frequently in the 1880s, and the design of the \"luzzu\" is believed to have evolved from it in the early 20th century. The boat is also similar to the Maltese \"ferilla\", but it has a higher freeboard and a shorter stem and is made of stronger timber. Early \"luzzijiet\" were mainly used as transport vessels, but after they were motorised they became popular as fishing boats. Modern versions of the boats have a deck and some have a cabin. Today, no new \"luzzijiet\" are built, but a few hundred boats are still in operation, particularly at Marsaxlokk. Some \"luzzijiet\" have been converted to passenger carriers for tourists although the vast majority continue to be used as fishing vessels. On 30 October 1948, an overloaded \"luzzu\" that was being used to ferry passengers from Malta to Gozo capsized and sank off Ħondoq ir-Rummien, and 23 people were killed.", "The \"luzzu\" is a sturdy carvel-built boat with a double-ended hull. Originally, the \"luzzu\" was equipped with oars and sails although nowadays almost all are motorised, with onboard diesel engines being the most common. The boats are brightly painted in shades of yellow, red, green and blue, and the bow is normally pointed with a pair of eyes. These eyes may be the modern survival of an ancient Phoenician custom (also practiced by the ancient Greeks and Egyptians); they are referred to as the Eye of Horus or of Osiris. They are said to protect the fishermen while at sea. The town of Marsaxlokk is especially famous for the large numbers of luzzu and similar craft operating in its harbour. The luzzu is often considered as a symbol of Malta." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Character synopsis.", "Dogmatix books." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Dogmatix is the only animal among the main characters of the series. His role is minor and funny in most of the stories, significant mainly as a 'bone' of contention between Asterix and Obelix as to whether he should be allowed to accompany them on their adventures. However, he is often seen doing something interesting in the background and occasionally fulfills an important part of the plot. In the words of the authors, Dogmatix is the only known \"canine ecologist\": he loves trees and howls in distress whenever one is damaged. Despite his small size, he is quite fearless. He has drunk the magic potion on a number of occasions, but his favourite treat is to 'chew a bone'. A dog similar to Dogmatix appeared in page 28 of Asterix & the Golden Sickle. Dogmatix first appears in \"Asterix and the Banquet\". Sitting outside a butcher's shop in Lutetia, he observes Asterix and Obelix go in. He then follows them all around Gaul, appearing in nearly every panel of the remainder of the story. The two men do not notice him until the very end when he finally attracts Obelix's attention at the closing banquet and is given a pat on the head and a bone. He was meant to be a one-off character (hence his leaving the village in the final picture) but he was so effective it was decided to bring him back. Pilote, the magazine that published Asterix, held a contest to find a name for the dog. Hundreds of suggestions were received. The winning name, Idéfix, was submitted by Hervé Ambroise, Dominique and Anne Boucard, and Rémi Dujat. In the next adventure, \"Asterix and Cleopatra\", Dogmatix is given his name and plays a more active role. Asterix and Obelix argue about whether or not Dogmatix should accompany them to Egypt, but he proves his worth by following the Gauls into a pyramid in which they were lost and guiding them out safely. Like many dogs, Dogmatix is protective of his master, especially when he falls for, or is shown affection by, beautiful young women. In \"Asterix the Legionary\" he makes clear his loathing for Panacea with whom Obelix had fallen in love. He shows the same attitude to Influenza in \"Asterix and Caesar's Gift\" and Melodrama in \"Asterix and the Great Divide\". However, despite his loyalty to his master, Dogmatix has been shown to side with Asterix in arguments on various occasions, such as in \"Asterix and the Soothsayer\" and \"Obelix and Co.\" His friendship with Pepe in \"Asterix in Spain \" and \"Asterix in Corsica\" causes Obelix to become jealous. Likewise, Dogmatix is unimpressed by Obelix's attraction towards Panacea in the earlier stages of \"Asterix the Legionary\" and is hostile and growls when his master asks her to look after him while he is away. However, Panacea kisses him straightaway, putting him into a lovestruck daze. Like the other villagers, he does not like Cacofonix and his only dialogue (in a thought bubble) is in Asterix and the Magic Carpet where he comments on Cacofonix's music skills, when Cacophonix was commenting on Wazizneim. In \"Asterix and the Actress\", he finds a mate and returns with a litter of puppies.", "Dogmatix's great popularity gave rise to a line of children's books in 1973 featuring his \"adventures\". These were in the form of text with illustrations and were not consistent with the \"Asterix\" stories. Although they carry the Goscinny/Uderzo byline, these are licensed works aimed at the children's market. They lack the style and sophistication of the main \"Asterix\" creative team, and have little or no editing for continuity. Although widely translated (not by the regular English translators of the \"Asterix\" comics), these comics did not become very popular and are mostly forgotten. The English editions of these works also contain many glaring mistakes. For example, the chief's wife is referred to as \"Bacteria\", while her usual name is Impedimenta; Bacteria is the name of the fishmonger's wife. In 1983, an attempt was made to revive the series with two new stories. These were translated by Derek Hockridge and Anthea Bell, the regular English language translators of the \"Asterix\" albums." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Economy.", "Beaches.", "The Ancient Hospital of Sant Miquel.", "Roman villa of Ametllers.", "Parish church.", "The walled-in Old Town.", "Municipal museum." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "There is ample evidence of settlements dating back to the Neolithic period, and it is believed that the area has been continuously populated since that time. Between the 4th-1st century BC the first Iberian settlements appeared, followed shortly after by the Romans in the 1st century. In 966 Tossa was ceded by Count Miró of Barcelona to the Abbey of Ripoll. Some two centuries later, in 1187 Tossa was granted its charter by the Abbot of Ripoll, coinciding with the building of a church atop Mount Guardí, the remnants of which can still be seen today. Sometime in the 12th century the medieval town was walled off and a castle was built on the highest point of Mt. Guardí, this castle was to be subsequently replaced by a wind mill, and this in turn by a lighthouse which is still operational. By the year 1500 the first houses were built \"extra-muros\" to accommodate population growth. This process was greatly accelerated during the 17th and 18th centuries, shaping an urban configuration which was to remain practically unchanged until the arrival of mass tourism in the 1950s. In 1989 Tossa de Mar was the first place in the world to declare itself an anti-bullfighting city.", "Contrary to popular belief that Tossa has traditionally been a fishing town, in medieval times and until the arrival of tourism, the local economy was mostly based on agricultural production, principally grapes and cork. There was a thriving export market of the latter (in the form of cork taps shipped to the Americas) during the 18th century and early 19th century. Fishing has traditionally been a relatively minor contributor to the village's economy, although it has consistently provided an alternative source of income in times of economic crisis. A small fishing industry is still active as of 2005 and occupies a few members of local fishing families. Most of their captures are sold to local restaurants and in the fish markets in neighbouring Blanes and Sant Feliu de Guíxols.", "Tossa de Mar has three main beaches:", "This ancient hospital was founded in 1773 as a hospital for the poor. The founder, Tomás Vidal i Rey had become wealthy in America. It is a building with two floors and a central courtyard. It now houses the cultural centre of the village. At its side is the chapel of Sant Miquel with a baroque altar of some note.", "This rural villa (1st century BC - 6th century AD) belonged to the Roman province of Tarraconensis. It consists of two parts : the rural and the rustic. One can get an idea of its great value by looking, among other things, at the remains of the spa, the central heating system, the mosaics and the base of a fruit press with recipient for the crushed juices. Fragments of the mosaics, the stucco and several elements of sculptures attest to the wealth of the owners of the villa. The ceramic vases are proof of the trade with the Mediterranean world. Farming tools, fish tackle and loom tools reveal agricultural and fishing activities. Everyday life is evoked by other objects such as hairpins, small spoons and bone and ivory utensils.", "This church, dedicated to the martyr Vincent of Saragossa, was inaugurated at 29 November 1775, after 20 years of construction. The church is one of the largest in the diocese and can, during important celebrations, host the whole population of Tossa de Mar. Much of the interior of the church was devastated during the Civil War in 1936. Inside is the chapel of Saint Sebastian, a saint adored by the population. The devotion, started in the 15th or 16th century, culminates each year on 20 January into the commemoration of \"Vot del Poble\" (pledge of the people). The retable of the Rosary has also survived the destruction in 1936.", "The \"Vila Vella enceinte\" is the only example of a fortified medieval town still standing on the Catalan coast. Its present appearance dates back to the end of the 14th century. It still has the entire original perimeter with battlemented stone walls, four turrets and three cylindrical towers with parapets. At the highest point, where the lighthouse stands today, was, until the beginning of the 19th century, the castle of the Abbot of the Monastery \"Santa Maria de Ripoll\", the territorial Lord of the town. The site has been declared a national historic monument in 1931. The interior of the Old Town is a charming place with narrow, cobblestoned streets, the Governor's House (now the Municipal museum), the House of Holy Cloth (\"Sant Drap\"), a medieval hospital, and remnants of a Romanesque church and a Gothic church.", "The Municipal Museum, built in Late Gothic style, is situated in the Governor's House, inside the \"Vila Vella enceinte\". It used to be the residence of the jurisdictional governors of Tossa de Mar and its environs, who ruled for the Abbots of the monastery \"Santa Maria de Ripoll\". The museum was opened on 1 September 1935. It houses an important collection of contemporary art with works of Spanish and foreign artists who frequented Tossa de Mar during the 1930s, such as the \"Celestial Violinist\" by Marc Chagall. The archaeological section houses artefacts dating from the Paleolithical Period to the Late Middle Ages. Of particular note are the mosaics found in the atrium of the Roman Villa of the Ametllers, dating from the end of the 4th - beginning of the 5th century." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography and climate.", "History.", "Pre-Hispanic era.", "Colonial period.", "Independence and 19th century.", "Mexican Revolution to the present.", "Demographics.", "Religion.", "Indigenous peoples.", "Immigration.", "Economy.", "Industry, crafts and mining.", "Agriculture.", "Commerce, services and tourism.", "Culture.", "Festivals.", "Cuisine.", "Architecture.", "Arts and literature.", "Government and politics.", "Education.", "Media.", "Transportation.", "Archeological sites." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Guanajuato is located in the center of Mexico, northwest of Mexico City, bordering the states of Zacatecas, San Luis Potosí, Michoacán, Querétaro, and Jalisco. It covers an area of 30,589 km2 and is ranked 20th out of 32 states. It has an average altitude of above sea level, with its territory divided among three of Mexico's physical regions, the Sierra Madre Oriental, the Mexican Plateau and the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt. The Sierra Madre Oriental in Guanajuato consists of the Sierra Gorda and the Sierra del Azafrán in the northeast. The Mexican Plateau extends through the center of the state. Within, it subdivides into various regions parted by low-lying mountain chains such as the Sierra de la Cuatralba and the Sierra de Cubo. The Trans Mexican Volcanic Belt crosses the state in the south and includes the Bajío area, the Altos de Jalisco and the valleys area in the far south. The state is crossed by several mountain ranges which have mountains between 2,300 and 3,000 meters high. Mountain ranges average 2,305 meters and flat areas lie at around 1,725 meters above mean sea level. The other important mountain ranges include the Sierra Gorda to the north, the Sierra de Guanjuato in the southeast, the Comanja in the northwest and the Codorniz in the east. The state is divided into five regions, taking into consideration geography and climate. These are called Altos de Guanajuato, La Sierra Central, Bajío, La Sierra Gorda, and Los Valles del Sur. The Altos de Guanajuato, located in the north of the state, are a chain of forested mountains interspersed with pastures, small fields and areas with cacti and other desert plants. They begin near the border with San Luis Potosí, and extend south to Dolores Hidalgo and then to San Miguel de Allende, then to the Querétaro border. The altitude of this area varies from 1,800 to peaks over 2,900 meters such as the La Giganta and La Sierra del Cubo mountains. The climate is mostly semiarid with a rainy season in the summer, with average temperatures between 15 and 20 °C. However, lows in the winter frequently reach 0 °C or lower with frosts. Wildlife is found mostly in the most rugged and inaccessible areas and includes deer, coyotes, eagles and rattlesnakes. La Sierra Gorda is shared between Guanajuato and Querétaro and is considered to be an important biosphere. This area is the most rugged in the state where most of the natural areas and small villages remain intact due to their inaccessibility. The Sierra Gorda is part of the Sierra Madre Occidental, with extreme variations in its geography and climate. The rugged terrain means that there are a wide number and variety of micro-climates, although average temperatures vary only between 16 and 19 °C. It lowest point is a canyon called Paso de Hormigas in Xichú at 650 meters above sea level with a very warm climate suitable for tropical fruit. The highest point is Pinal de Zamorano at 3,300 meters, followed by El Picacho de Pueblo Nuevo, El Zorillo and El Cuervo all above 2,700 meters. The largest changes are seen in arid versus wetter zones, which can often be relatively nearby, with foliage changing from rainforest to pine forest to desert landscapes. In 1997, the Sierra Gorda region in Querétaro was declared a Biosphere Reserve by the federal government, with the Guanajuato portion added in 2007. On the Guanajuato side, it covers 236,882 hectares over the municipalities of Xichú, San Luis de la Paz, Atarjea, Victoria and Santa Catarina. Culturally, the Sierra Gorda region is the far western part of La Huasteca, which extends over parts of the states of Querétaro, San Luis Potosí, Hidalgo and Veracruz. The Sierra Central is a series of low, gentle mountains in the center of the state which are part of the Sierra Madre Occidental. They cover twelve municipalities: Ocampo, San Felipe, León, Silao, Guanajuato, Dolores Hidalgo, San Miguel de Allende, Irapuato, Salamanca, Santa Cruz de Juventino Rosas, Comonfort and Apaseo el Grande. Wild vegetation runs from tropical rainforest to arid grasslands with cactus, with cypress trees along rivers and other surface water. Wildlife includes raccoons, quail, rabbits, skunks and migratory birds. The land is productive, especially for fruit orchards producing guavas, tejocote, apples, limes, quince and more. Desert fruits such as cactus pears (tuna), garambullos and xoconostle are also produced commercially. The best-known geographical region of the state is called the Bajío, which is a relatively low, relatively flat area of between 1,700 and 1,800 meters, that surrounds the Lerma River and its tributaries. Centered in Guanajuato, parts also extend into the neighboring states of Querétaro and Jalisco. This low area is the source of its name, coming from the Spanish", "", "In the pre-Hispanic era, the Bajio saw the most human development due to the fertility of the soil and the presence of surface water for agriculture. The oldest group to inhabit the area were the people now known as the Chupícuarios, who dominated the center of the Bajío area and were active between 800 BCE and 300 CE. Their largest city is now the site called Chupícuaro, and their influence was widespread being found in the modern states of Zacatecas, Querétaro, Colima, Nayarit, Hidalgo, State of Mexico, Michoacán and Guerrero. Chupícuaro cities were associated with the Toltec city of Tula and when this city fell, these agricultural cities of Guanajuato also went into decline. This and a prolonged drought cause these cities to be", "As Guanajuato marks the beginning of the arid north of Mexico, at first relatively few Spanish came to settle as opposed to points south, where rainfall and indigenous labor was in much greater supply. The first Spanish expedition to arrive to the Guanajuato area was led by Cristóbal de Olid in 1522 which arrived to the Yuririhapúndaro and Pénjamo areas. The discovery of silver and gold in the area of the city of Guanajuato spurred Spanish settlement of the area in the 1520s and 1530s. When the Spanish did arrive,", "Despite the riches the area produced, most lived in oppression and poverty at the end of the 18th century, working on haciendas and in mines while a few, mostly European-born Spaniards, lived in opulence. Not only the indigenous, mestizo and Negro slaves were having problems with the social order. Many Criollos or New World-born Spanish were marginalized by the Spain-born. One of the first rebellions against colonial rule came in 1766, when a group attacked the Caja Real in Guanajuato city to protest high taxes. In 1767, there were protests against the expulsion of the Jesuits by the Spanish Crown. These were put down with extreme force, but they spurred conspiracies, and groups organizing against colonial rule, especially in San Miguel el Grande and León. Numerous", "The situation stabilized over much of the government of Porfirio Díaz at the end of the 19th century and the economy improved, but the Diaz government was oppressive. Diaz installed Francisco Mena as governor of the state, who made a fortune through the concession of railway lines which were being built to modernize the country. Even though slavery was officially abolished during the War of Independence, most laborers in farms and mines were extremely underpaid and in a number of cases not paid at", "As of 2005, the state had a population of 4,893,812, which is the sixth largest population in Mexico.(inplaneg) About 67% live in urban areas, with the rest in rural areas, with women slightly outnumbering men. The largest population centers are León with 1,134,842 people, Irapuato with 440,134, Celaya with 382,958 and Salamanca with 226,654.", "Over 96% of the population professes the Catholic religion, and the", "Guanajuato has the fourth lowest number of people who can speak an indigenous language. However, the ethnically indigenous population is about 10,347 (2005) or 2.6% of the population over the age of five. The languages spoken are Chichimeca Jonaz, Otomi and Nahuatl. The two most important indigenous groups are the Chichimeca Jonaz and the Otomi, both of which are concentrated in the Valles de Sur area. Culturally, both groups show significant Purépecha influence. Both live in arid regions, where rainfall is precious and the", "Concentrated in San Miguel de Allende are foreign residents mostly from the United States and Canada who have come to live because of the area's mild climate, cultural opportunities, and low crime rate. While only about ten percent of San Miguel's total population, they have had a large impact on the area economically, accounting for most home buyers. Estimates of foreign residents range from 8,000 to 12,000 with about 7,000 of these from the United States alone. This makes San Miguel one of the largest American communities", "Being located in the center of the country has important economic implications for the state, as a number of major national highways and railways pass through. The state is also a center of industry with most of the state's major cities and economy located in the La Sierra Central and El Bajío regions. It has equal access to both the Pacific Ocean and Gulf of Mexico as well as the major metropolitan areas of Monterrey, Mexico City and Guadalajara. In 2008, the total GDP for the state was US$38,204,000,000 (427,503,000,000 MXN) or 3.88% of the total for the country. From 2003 to 2008, the economy grew 1.06% (adjusted for inflation). The state has the sixth-largest economy in Mexico behind Mexico City, the State of Mexico, Nuevo León, Jalisco, and Veracruz. As of 2008, Guanajuato ranks fourth in per capita income at US$7,609, behind Mexico City, Nuevo León and Jalisco, with a rate of increase of 2.04%. Manufacturing accounts for 28% of total GDP, down slightly from a high of over 30%. Its importance is followed by commerce at 16.3% and real estate at 11.2%. Agriculture, which includes forestry, fishing and hunting accounts for 4.6. Other activities include financial and other professional services (17.6%) and transportation and storage at 11.8%. Employment figures break down differently with 13.2% employed in agriculture, 36.4% in mining and industry and 47.3 percent in commerce, services and tourism. There are two significant migration patterns in the state. Twenty-seven of 46 municipalities have a high level of migration out to other areas, with 19 having a moderate to low level of the same. The annual rate of migration to the United States is 7.07 people per thousand.", "Industry is the most important segment in the modern state economy, accounting for about 30%. Most of this is the production of automobiles and automobile parts, pharmaceuticals and other modern items. It also includes more traditional items such as processed foods (cheese, canned items and more) as well as shoes and other leather goods in León and a variety of crafts. The economy in this area continues to grow although there has been some drop in its percentage of GDP due to drop in prices for a number of manufactured products. The state has two large thermoelectrical plants in Salamanca and Celaya. Oil refining in Salamanca received raw material through pipelines from Poza Rica, Veracruz and from Tabasco. One traditional industry is the making of shoes and other leather items, especially in León. This industry grew 50% from 2009 to 2010 in the number of enterprises dedicated to it. They now total 7,981 and employ 297,413 people directly and indirectly according to INEGI. In 2010, Volkswagen announced a new motor plant to be built in Silao. The project is projected to cost US$550 million and will employ 700 people making 330,000 motors per year starting in 2013. A spokesman for the company acknowledged that part", "While the agricultural sector, which includes crops, livestock, fishing and forestry activities, accounts for only 4.6% of Guanajuato's current GDP, the sector is an important part of the state's identity and is still a major producer of a number of items nationally. The state has 1.1 million hectares suitable for agriculture, over 36% of the state's territory. Over of land is under cultivation, with the main crops being corn, sorghum, beans, wheat, barley and broccoli. Today, the Bajio is still one of the major grain producing regions in Mexico. Certain areas of the state have large orchards producing peaches, strawberries, cactus pear, avocado, grapes, apples, quince, walnuts, apricots and guava. Livestock raising is an important economic activity and can be found in all parts of the state, with animals such cattle, pigs, goats,", "About 95% of the state's visitors are from Mexico, with the rest from other countries. Within the state, there are about seventy hotels ranked as four or five stars. The three main cities for tourism are the capital city of Guanajuato, San Miguel de Allende and Dolores Hidalgo. Guanajuato is visited for its colonial architecture and its role in Mexico's history, especially during the War of Independence. Similarly, San Miguel has cultural and historical value. Both have been designated World Heritage Sites. Although not a World Heritage Site, Dolores Hidalgo is particularly important as the site as it is where Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla gave the cry called \"El Grito\" which began the War of Independence. The state has set up tourist routes such as the Ruta", "", "Culturally, the state is best known for the annual Festival Internacional Cervantino, which takes place in the city of Guanajuato and some other affiliated venues in the state. The event sponsors a large number of artistic and cultural events with artists invited from Mexico and other parts of the world. The festival hosts events such as opera, theater productions, film showings, art exhibitions, academic conferences and talks, concerts and dance recitals. The performances occur in 70 different venues over most of the month of October. In addition to the major events in venues, artists such as dancers, clowns and more, give small and sometimes impromptu shows on the streets, sidewalks and small plazas that are located in the city. Because of this, the event brings many visitors to the city who wander the streets, visiting the many sights of the city. During the event, hotel occupancy rates are as high as 98%.", "Many of the dishes that are traditionally eaten in Guanajuato are regional variations of dishes known in other parts such as carnitas, tamales, birria and pozole. A version of the enchilada is called the \"enchilada minero\" (miners’ enchilada), which is a tortilla fried in lard and then filled with chicken and covered with a sauce made with guajillo chili peppers, a ranchero cheese and chopped potatoes and carrots. Recently, there has been a movement to update many of these dishes, keeping to traditional ingredients, called \"Guanajuato fusion\". This is most popular in upscale restaurants in San Miguel de Allende and Guanajuato and can include dishes such as tuna with chili peppers and duck with mesquite honey. The state is better known as the producer of a number of food products such as cajeta, bread, candy, and ice cream. The best-known food product is \"cajeta\", a soft, spreadable sweet product made with goat's milk, sugar, and flavorings. The best known place for this is Celaya. The cajeta", "Most of the state's architecturally significant buildings are in Mexican Baroque style, especially in the capital city. This was because the mines of the state were at maximum production during the 18th century, when this style was fashionable. It can be found in mansions and civil buildings of that time but the most ornate examples are churches, with intricate facades and altarpieces both which often use the \"estipite\" column (inverted, truncated pyramid). A number of Baroque altarpieces from this time are also gilded with gold from local mines. Within the city of Guanajuato, the most notable examples are the San Cayetano or La Valenciana Church, the Basilica of Guanajuato, the Temple of the Company of Jesus and the San Roque Church. Outside the capital, notable examples include the Parish of Nuestra Señora de los Dolores, the La Tercera Orden Temple", "Guanajuato is home or place of origin of three important painters: Diego Rivera, José Chávez Morado and Olga Costa. Rivera was born in the city of Guanajuato and spent his early childhood there. When he was older, he moved to Mexico City to study painting and eventually became one of Mexico's most famous muralists. José Chávez Morado was a prolific painter who lived and worked in the city of Guanajuato. He initially worked with José Clemente Orozco, who impressed him both with art as well as politics. Chávez Morado's most prolific period was between 1955 and 1967, when he realized works in the Ciudad Universitaria in Mexico City, the Secretariat of Communications and Transportation building in Mexico City and the Alhóndiga de Granaditas in his hometown. Olga Costa's real last name was Kostakowsky, but it was Hispanicized to Costa. She was born in Leipzig, Germany but she and her family moved to Mexico when she was very young. She", "Politically the state is divided into eight regions: Region I North/Dolores Hidalgo, Region II North-East/San Luis de la Paz, Region III/León, Region IV Center-West/Guanajuato, Region V East/Celaya, Region VI South-West/Irapuato, Region VII Center-South/Salamanca and Region VIII/South-East/Acambaro. It is also divided into 46 municipalities for local government purposes. The municipalities are grouped into 15 political regions for elections. The state government is headed by an elected governor who controls the", "Guanajuato ranks seventh in the country in the number of schools per capita and sixth in teacher-student ratio. The state has over 4,000 preschools, 4,600 primary schools, about 1400 middle schools, about 650 high schools, 73 teachers’ colleges, 125 institutions offering bachelor's degrees and 60 offering advanced degrees. 12.1% of the population over 15 is illiterate according to the 2005 census. About half of the state's municipalities have one or more institutions of higher education, with the most important being the University of Guanajuato. This university is in the city of Guanajuato, and began as a Jesuit school for children in the first half of the 18th century. The establishment of this school was sponsored by Josefa Teresa de Busto y Moya, sister of the Marquis of San Clemente, who obtained permission for the school from the Spanish Crown in 1732 and established the institution in her home. She donated a fifth of her fortune to it and worked to obtain donations from other wealthy families in the city. Over time, the school grew and began to offer high school and professional level studies. It had several names over its history, from Real Colegio de la Purísima Concepción (1767), Colegio del Estado (1828), and Colegio Nacional de Guanajuato (1867) to its current name, adopted in 1945. The name \"Colegio del Estado\" was prompted by the fact that the institution became property of the state in 1828. In 1945, it gained university status. Today the institution serves approximately 30,000 students at the high school, bachelor's and graduate levels. In addition to", "Newspapers of Guanajuato include: \"a. m. de Guanajuato\", \"a. m. de Irapuato\", \"a. m. de San Francisco del Rincón\", \"a. m. el periódico libre de Celaya\",", "Guanajuato's highways directly connect to three of Mexico's ten major highways (Mexico City-Nuevo Laredo, Querétaro-Ciudad Juárez and Manzanillo-Tampico). The state has 11,061 km of highway, 5,281 km of which are rural. It also has 1,249 km of federal highways and 2,462 of state highways. In July 2010, the state government of Guanajuato in Mexico awarded the 30-year concession of the US$122 million Libramiento de Celaya toll road to consortium Concesionaria Bicentenario. The consortium will be responsible for constructing, operating and maintaining two highway sections. Work on the 12.9 km Libramiento Nororiente stretch was scheduled to start in September 2010 and on the 16.5 km Libramiento Sur stretch on August", "Chupícuaro is a site located in the south of the state on one side of the Lerma River. It is one of the older sites of Mesoamerica, having been active from 800 BCE to 300 CE and shows some of the earliest evidence of agriculture. The site has low flat rectangular platforms, with evidence of earlier structures below, which were probably the foundation of multigenerational houses; however most of the site is now under the waters of the Solís Dam. This site, along with some nearby contemporary sites, is known for its pottery called \"Blanco Levantado\", characterized with red and other colored lines on a light or cream background. This pottery has been shown to have elements in common with pottery in Zacatecas, other areas in northwest Mexico and even that of the Hohokam in Arizona and researchers believe that these people had trade relations that far north even finding turquoise. While the site has been extensively studied, it has also suffered looting, including some at the hands of Guanajuato authorities. Tierra Blanca is a large site which was a true city, not a ceremonial site, but most of the site had been sacked and practically destroyed when it fell and later as an archeological site although early photographs of it remain. There is evidence in Tula that this city, or one like it, had had significant influence on the Tula civilization. For this reason, the time span for Tierra Blanca is placed at before 950 CE although there is little evidence at the site itself to date it. Carabino is located in the northeast of the state. At this site items from and influenced by the city of Tula are found dating the city to about 900 to 1150 CE. There is some evidence to suggest that the city was a colony of one of the cities of the center of Mexico. In Villa de Reyes in the far north in the Valley of San Luis, there also evidence of Toltec presence or influence. However, this later site was occupied first between 550 and 710 CE, then again in the Toltec era 200 to 300 years later. Evidence suggests that groups in these parts of Guanajuato had an effect on the organization of the Toltec Empire as settlements were abandoned sometime between 600 and 900 CE. Through the Toltecs' influence in the Valley of Mexico, Guanajuato cultures eventually had some influence on the much later Aztec. Plazuelas is located just west of Pénjamo in the foothills of the Sierra de Pénjamo. The site, which is noted for the complexity of its architecture, was occupied during the first millennium of the Common Era with its height at around 600 to 900 CE. The site was constructed over three hillsides separated by two large arroyos called Los Cuijes and Agua Nacida. The ethnicity of its occupants is not known nor is its original name. It appears to have been a theocracy with the elite inhabiting the hillsides and the rest of the population on flatter lands below. The most important construction at the site is the complex called Casas Tapadas, which contains several large structures and one Mesoamerican ball court. Peralta is located on Abasolo, 21 km from Pénjamo. It developed between 300 and 700 CE, at the time that Teotihuacan was declining and Tula was rising. According to archeologists, the city declined and collapsed due to the overexploitation of the surrounding deciduous rainforest and it was abandoned around 900 CE. The site occupies 150 hectares divided into a center with five surrounding settlements. The most important structure is called the \"Patio Hundido\" (Sunken Patio), whose name comes from the four pyramids that are at the corners. Another important building is the La Mesita (The Small Table) or Recinto de los Gobernantes (Governors’ Precinct). It has a large plaza which is considered to have been the main square for the city. Among the walls and other structures a semicircle dedicated to the Danza de Voladores has been discovered. Cañada de la Virgen contains a number of closely related architectonic complexes. Complex A, also called the Casa de los Trece Cielos (House of the Thirteen Heavens or Skies), consists of a large \"sunken\" patio like that in Peralta surrounded a pyramidal base over 25 meters high and platforms that enclose the west, north and south sides. El Cóporo is situated on a small mountain and probably used by a group related to the Toltecs. It was at its height between 500 and 600 CE. but abandoned by 900 CE. It is a ceremonial center constructed of adobe and earth. One unique aspect of its construction is a series of columns which sink into the earth to a depth of about two and a half meters. Other archeological sites in the state include Morales in San Miguel and El Cóporo in the northwest. The latter has figurines that show influence from groups in Zacatecas." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography and environment.", "Demographics.", "Principal communities.", "Economy.", "Tourist attractions.", "Culture.", "Communications and transportation.", "Transport.", "Media.", "History.", "Name and seal.", "Pre-Hispanic period.", "Colonial era.", "Independence to the present.", "Archaeology.", "Education." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The state covers a territory of 5,455 km and is the fourth smallest federal entity after Tlaxcala, Morelos and the Federal District of Mexico City, containing only 0.3% of the country's total territory. The state is in the middle of Mexico's Pacific coast, bordered by the Pacific Ocean and the states of Jalisco and Michoacán. Colima's territory includes the Revillagigedo Islands—Socorro, San Benedicto, Clarión, and Roca Partida. These are under federal jurisdiction but are considered part of the municipality of Manzanillo. Politically, the state is divided into ten municipalities. Natural geography divides the state into a northern and southern region. The north has a cooler climate due to the higher mountains. The south is hotter and includes the Pacific Ocean coastline. The Revillagigedo Islands, of volcanic origin, are dispersed along the 19° north parallel over an area of about 400 km—with a total landmass of 205 km. The altitude varies from sea level to 3,839 m (12,595 ft) at the crater of the Volcán de Colima. The state is in an offshoot of the Sierra Madre Occidental mountain range and geographically consists of four mountain systems. The most important of these is the Cerro Grande and its related peaks of Jurípicho-Juluapan, Los Juanillos, La Astilla, El Ocote, El Peón, El Barrigón, San Diego, and La Media Luna. The second consists of mountain chains parallel to the coast between the Marabasco and Armería Rivers, which include El Espinazo del Diablo, El Escorpión, El Tigre, El Aguacate, El Centinela, El Tora and La Vaca. The third is located between the Armería and Salado Rivers and includes the Alcomún y Partida, San Miguel y Comala and San Gabriel/Callejones peaks. The last is between the Salado and Naranjo or Coahuayana Rivers and contains small mountain chains such as the Piscila, Volcancillos, La Palmera, El Camichín and Copales. Three quarters of the state is covered by mountains and hills. At the very north of the state, the border is marked by two volcanoes. The Colima Volcano, also called the Volcán de Fuego, is active and the Nevado de Colima is", "In the latter part of the 20th century, Colima had a very high population growth, expanding from 112,321 in 1950 to 567,996 in 2005. However, this growth has slowed due to family planning programs. Despite this population growth, the state still ranks last of Mexico's federal entities, with a total of 650,555 according to the 2010 census, only 0.6% of the country's total. By 1980, the majority of the state's population was living in urban centers. Today, 89% live in urban areas, above", "The city of Colima is the capital and gives the state its name. It is located in the north central part of the state, just south of the foothills of the Colima Volcano in the Valley of Colima. The city began as a Spanish settlement that was originally established further south in 1523 but moved to the current location in 1527. The capital remains the state's economic, political and cultural center. Villa de Álvarez is part of the city of Colima's metropolitan area. However, it maintains a distinct identity, with a combination bullfighting and charreada event that is one of the oldest of its kind in northwestern Mexico, which takes part in La Petatera, a bullring that is assembled each year for the event, made of logs and petates, and that is known as one of the world largest crafts. It is also known for late evening meals called cenadurias that typically feature sopes, enchiladas, tostadas, pozole, atole, and tamales. The city of Los Martínez began at the end of the 18th century,", "The state has a high level of socioeconomic development, with one of the highest standards of living in Mexico and lowest unemployment. In the state, 96% have running water, 82% have sewerage and 98% have electricity. The 2009 GDP of the state was 43,370,725,000 pesos; however, due to its small size and population, this is only 0.5% of Mexico's total GDP. Most population and employment growth has been in the main urban areas of the state such as Colima, Villa de Alvarez, Manzanillo and Tecomán. According to INEGI (2010), 24.1% are employed in services. 20.4% in commerce, restaurants and hotels, 15.9% in transportation, storage and communications, 11.1% in finance, insurance and real estate, 9.5% in electricity, gas and water services, 5.7% in manufacturing, 5.1% in construction, 4.9% in agriculture and livestock and 3.8% in mining. Agriculture, forestry and fishing employ 1.2% of the state's population and contribute 8.45% to its GDP. Colima produces about half of Mexico's lime crop, and is second in the production of coconut meat and tuna. The principal markets for Colima's agricultural products—especially produce—are Guadalajara, Mexico City, Puebla and Monterrey. During the dry season, there is migration from the rural areas into the urban ones as most agricultural work takes place during the rainy season. Most farm work consists of the harvesting of fruit. The agricultural production supports an agro-industry that attracts workers from neighboring Jalisco and Michoacán. Most of Colima's agriculture is based on perennial plants, such as fruit trees, producing limes, coconuts, mangos and bananas, accounting for ninety percent of the volume of agricultural production and 79% of its value. Colima is the primary producer of limes in Mexico. Other important crops include corn, rice, melons, sorghum, chili peppers, coffee, tomatoes and tomatillos. By volume the most important livestock is that of cattle, followed by domestic fowl, then honey and beeswax. Most livestock production is in the north of the state due to climate, and also includes pigs, goats and sheep. Commercially productive forest stands at about 108,225 hectares with about sixty percent of the trees salable. These forests are mostly rainforest, with some areas of holm oak. Lumber harvesting has decreased in the state owing to conservation measures. Fishing is concentrated on the coastline in ocean waters of about 641 km as well as in 8,350 hectares of lagoons and 2,032 inland bodies of waters. There are also about 3,000 hectares dedicated to fish farming.", "Colima's most important tourism destination is the beaches of Manzanillo, which is popular among those in western Mexico as well as many sports fishermen. Historically, the port was the point of departure for various maritime expeditions and received the annual Manila Galleon from the Philippines. It has called itself the \"World Capital of the Sailfish\" since 1957 when 336 species were caught off its shores. The abundance of this fish along with marlin has made it a popular destination with sports fishermen and the city holds the annual Dorsey International fishing tournament. However, it is not as well known or as well visited as other Pacific destinations such as Puerto Vallarta, despite long sandy beaches and docks for cruise ships. In the 2000s, the city worked to renovate its downtown, with all buildings now showing white facades and many with red tile roofs. The second most important destination is the small town of Comala, a small traditional town near the capital of Colima. Comala was named a \"Pueblo Mágico\" in 2002 because of its natural surroundings and traditional architecture, which its downtown declared a historic monument. Since 1962, all the buildings in the town have been painted", "Indigenous, and Spanish cultures have played a part in the shaping of the state, although traces can be hidden in modern local cultures and traditions. Most crafts and dances of the state are of indigenous origin although some originated after the Conquest. The Spanish contributed bullfighting and charreada. The most popular folk dances in the state include some that tell the story of the Spanish conquest—under various names, such as \"conquista,\" \"Virgin of Guadalupe,\" \"capotes,\" and \"the fox.\" Another popular dance is called \"apaches.\" These originated in the colonial period, along with \"moros y cristianos\" and \"matachines.\" Dances with indigenous roots include \"sonajera india\" and \"morenos.\" Pastorelas, or short plays with religious themes, are traditions that began in the very early colonial period. A popular one from that time is the \"Adoration of the Three Wise Men,\" though it has evolved to meet modern tastes. Colima has a number of important local festivals and other annual events. January 6 is the \"Los Chayacates de Ixtlahuacán\"—a mix of indigenous and Catholic practices based on the pastorela and the cultivation cycle of corn. On the Tuesday after Epiphany is the \"Entrance of the Señor de la Expiración\" in Rancho de Villa. On this date the image returns to this village from Coquimatlán. It includes parades, dances, fireworks, and jaripeos. Candlemas is an important event in Tecomán with traditional dances and fair. Candlemas in Suchitlán is the most important annual event in the region, celebrated with dances such as Los Gallitos, Los Apaches and Los Morenos. The last two dances involved dancers with elaborately carved and decorated masks.", "", "The most important transportation hub in the state is the port of Manzanillo, handling 91.3% of the shipping of the state and the immediate region. It also operates as an overflow port for the commercial and industrial zones of western Mexico, the Bajío area and the center of Mexico, but handles overflow from as far as Los Angeles. Most of the merchandise that passes through here is part of the trade between Mexico and Asia. The port infrastructure consists of two types of installations. One is artificial, located in the interior port of San Pedrito and the other located in the bay proper. The artificial structure is a tall dock with a length of 450 meters and 225 meters wide for a surface of 10,125m2. The Manzanillo port has a dock for cruise ships,", "There are eight AM radio stations operating in the state and five FM stations. Most are in Colima and Manzanillo. There is no local television station with programming coming from Mexico", "", "The formal name of the state is \"Estado Libre y Soberano de Colima\" (Free and Sovereign State of Colima). The state is named after the capital city of Colima. This name is most likely derived from a Nahuatl phrase \"coliman,\" but the original meaning is in doubt with two most accepted versions. One", "The state was home to a number of pre-Hispanic cultures as part of Western Mexico. Archeological evidence dates human occupation of the area as far back as 1500 BCE, with sites here contemporary with San Lorenzo on the Gulf Coast and Tlatilco in the Valley of Mexico. One period of the area's development is called the Los Ortices era, which began around 500 BCE. During this time the elements that characterize the pre-Hispanic peoples of Colima appear, including shaft tombs and a distinctive ceramic style called \"rojo bruñido,\" or burnished red. The next phase, called Comala and centered on a site of the same name, was from around 100 to 600 CE. Comala people perfected burnished red pottery and created representations of people and animals with skill and fluid lines. The best known of these figures are known as the", "After conquering the Aztecs and the Purépecha, the Spanish made incursions into Colima. The first incursion into the Colima area occurred under Juan Rodríguez de Villafuerte in 1522 but was defeated by the natives of the Tecomán Valley. Hernán Cortés then sent Gonzalo de Sandoval to defeat the Tecos, which he did at the Paso de Alima and the Palenque de Tecomán. Sandoval then established the first Spanish settlement in the Colima Valley called Caxitlán in 1523, making it the third oldest functioning city government in Mexico and", "In the early 19th century, the commercial port of Manzanillo was opened to domestic and international traffic for a brief time. The first Colima newspaper called \"El Observador de las Leyes\" was published at this time as well. With the outbreak of the Mexican War of Independence, authorities arrested the head of Indian communities along with suspected insurgents in October 1810. This was despite the fact that Nahua groups had organized to defend against the insurgents upon hearing that they were enemies of the king and planned to destroy churches. One accused insurgent was José Antonio Díaz, the parish priest of Almoloyán and friend of Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla. Later he would join the insurgent army. During the war, the city of Colima was taken by the insurgents Jose Antonio Torres at the end of 1810 without resistance and taken back by the royalist army in 1811. In 1811, royalist troops defeated the insurgents under José Calixto Martinez", "A very early culture in Colima was Capacha culture, developing in the region between 2000 and 1200 BCE. El Chanal is located four km north of the city of Colima. It is a complex of pyramid platforms with stairs, a Mesoamerican", "The state has 307 preschools, 510 primary schools, 131 middle schools and 57 high school and vocational level schools. Today, over 85% of the population finishes primary school. Just under 90% of those who start middle school finish. Over 91% of the population over the age of 15 is literate. However, only about 12% of the state's population has a university level education and 26% have not finished primary school or have had no schooling at all. High school level education is available in all regions of the state, with just under sixty percent of those starting a program finishing it, with most that do not dropping out. The state system also has schools dedicated to special education, vocational training and early childhood centers for those needing various types of physical and educational therapy. Literacy programs for adults are handled by INEA and CONAFE. Higher education consists of a number of technological schools, universities and teachers’ colleges. Just over half of these are located in the city of Colima, with about 19% in Villa de Alvarez and eleven percent in Tecomán. Most technology related higher education is provided by the Instituto Tecnológico de Colima, with 76% of the students, followed by ITESM- Colima with 7.6% and Instituto Autónomo de Educación Superior de Tecomán with 16.2%. Most of the general university education is provided by the University of Colima (over 93%) with the rest attending the Universidad Autónoma del Pacífico. The main teachers’ colleges are the Instituto Superior de Educación Normal de Colima and the Universidad Pedagógica Nacional. The main providers of post graduate education are the University of Colima and ITESM-Colima. The University of Colima was founded in 1940, following the educational philosophy of President Lázaro Cárdenas meant to provide higher education to the poorer classes. Today, the university offers high school level classes along with undergraduate and graduate degrees. Much of the institution's current size and offering is due to growth in the 1980s, and during that time its reputation in Mexico and abroad increased. Most of the university's majors are concentrated in agriculture, industry and commerce with aim of enhancing Colima's economy. The Instituto Tecnológico de Colima was founded in 1976 with three majors in engineering and business with the aim of providing an alternative education focusing on preparing students for industry and service markets. Since then it has added majors in biotechnology, computer science, mechatronics and architecture, offering six undergraduate degrees and one master's degree." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "Population.", "Geography.", "History.", "Culture.", "Archeology.", "Architecture.", "Notable inhabitants.", "Stari Grad bays." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Stari Grad was originally named Faros () by the Greek settlers from the island of Paros, who arrived in 384 BC. It is thought that the name may come from the previous inhabitants of the area. A great naval battle was recorded a year after the establishment of Pharos colony by a Greek inscription in Pharos (384 – 383 BC) and by the Greek historian Diodorus Siculus (80 – 29 BC), initiated by conflicts between the Greek colonists and the indigenous Hvar islanders, the Liburnians, who asked their compatriots for support. 10,000 Liburnians sailed out from their capital \"Idassa\" (Zadar), led by the \"Iadasinoi\" (people of Zadar), and laid siege to Pharos. The Syracusan fleet positioned in Issa was informed in time, and Greek triremes attacked the siege fleet, taking victory in the end. According to Diodorus, the Greeks killed more than 5,000 and captured 2,000 prisoners, ran down or captured their ships, and burned their weapons in dedication to their gods. This battle meant the loss of the most important strategic Liburnian positions in the centre of the Adriatic, resulting in their final retreat to their main ethnic region, Liburnia, and their complete departure from the Italic coast, apart from Truentum. In Roman times, the town became known as Faria, which was turned into Hvar by the incoming Slav population. When the administrative capital of the island was moved to today's Hvar town on the south coast, the old town became simply known as Stari Grad. (\"Stari\" translates as \"old\" and \"grad\" as \"city\" in Croatian.)", "The municipality of Stari Grad has a population of 2,781 (2011 Census), of which 1,885 live in the town itself. Four other settlements fall within the municipality, namely Dol (Pop. 311), Rudina (Pop. 70), Selca Kod Starog Grada (Pop. 17) and Vrbanj (Pop. 498).", "Stari Grad lies on the north side of the island of Hvar, at the end of the Stari Grad Bay, a deep water channel, protected to the north by the hills of the Kabal peninsula and by the high mountain ridge of Hvar to the south. The island's best agricultural land opens up to the east of Stari Grad town. This fertile plain has been farmed since pre-historic times, and the Greek field layout is still largely intact, thanks to continuing maintenance over the years of its dry stone walls. In 2008, the Stari Grad Plain became a UNESCO protected world heritage site.", "The area around present day Stari Grad was settled by the neolithic tribes of the Hvar culture who occupied the island between 3500 and 2500 BC, and who traded with other settlements around the Mediterranean. Remains of their pottery and other artifacts have been found, along with that of the Illyrian tribe that succeeded them. The settlement lay at the lower end of Stari Grad Bay, defended by two strongholds on the north and south hillsides overlooking the harbour (Glavica and Purkin Kuk). In 384 BC, the town was formally founded by ancient Greeks from the island of Paros in the Aegean Sea. They gave the name Faros (ΦΑΡΟΣ) to their new settlement, an independent state permitted to mint its own money. The nearby plain was marked out with roads at right angles, and divided into fields of standard size. The Stari Grad Plain today represents one of the best-preserved examples of ancient Greek agriculture throughout the Mediterranean. In 218 BC, the Romans defeated the Illyrian army at Pharos during the Second Illyrian War, and the town was destroyed by the Roman army, but remained under Illyrian control. The town came under permanent Roman control by force in 168 BC, following the defeat of Gentius during the Third Illyrian War. An inscription from the 2nd century BC, refers to the Farians and their delegation to the Greek island of Paros and the oracle at Delphi. It makes mention of the Roman senate and the people (who are) well disposed and benevolent towards the city of Faros from the times of their ancestors. Further inscriptions, mosaics, tombstones, stone reliefs, fine pottery, jewellery, coins, villae rusticae in the Plain tell the story of life in and around the ancient Roman town. The first church was built in the 5th century, in the southeast corner of the town, close to the city walls, on the foundations of a prior Greek house. In the 6th century, a new church was built on the same site, a twin basilica with a baptistry dedicated to St Mary and St John. In the 7th century, following the fall of Salona, the capital of the Roman province of Dalmatia, many of its people sought refuge in Faria and other Roman towns in the nearby islands, as noted by the historian Archdeacon Thomas of Split (1200–1268) in his Historia Salonitana. Roman Faria was taken over by the Slavs at the beginning of the 8th century. At this point, the town received the name we know it by today – \"Hvar\" (the letter F not being part of the old Slavonic alphabet). During the 10th century, Hvar came under the Narentines. Pirates from Omiš on the mainland were raiding the coastal settlements, and new villages grew up in the foothills – Dol, Vrbanj and Pitve. In 1278, the people of Hvar chose to put themselves under the protection of the Venetian Republic. As part of the contract, they undertook to expand the existing settlement on the south side of the island as a more suitable base for the Venetian fleet. This is the site of the present day town of Hvar. The old town of Stari Grad, also referred to as “Old Hvar”, remained the centre of the most densely populated part of the island, the area surrounding the agricultural plain. During the 16th century, the town was attacked by the Turks, the first time repulsing them, but in 1571 they lost, and much of the town was burnt down. Following that loss, Stari Grad was slowly rebuilt from the ruins. During the 17th and 18th centuries, prosperity once again grew from sea-trade. The old waterfront (Stara Riva) was extended and the town underwent a major architectural and urban transformation, resulting in the town structure we see today. In 1797 Napoleon overthrew the Venetian Republic, and Hvar briefly became part of the Austrian Empire. When the French also took over Austria, they conferred the status of an autonomous province on the town of Stari Grad. With the fall of the Napoleonic Empire, Stari Grad became part of the Dalmatian Kingdom, within the larger political body of the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The 19th century was peaceful, and a time of prosperity for the entire island. However, the advent of phylloxera destroyed the island's grapevines, and the town's sailing vessels could not compete with the new steam ships. Large numbers of people moved away to start a new life elsewhere. Today, Stari Grad is again rebuilding itself, this time with tourism as the main focus.", "", "The town itself, and the surrounding area are rich in archaeological sites dating from pre-history and classical times. Permanent exhibitions in the Stari Grad Museum display the collection of artifacts found at local sites, both on land and under the sea.", "The present-day Church of St. John, together with the archaeological remains found south of it, comprises an Early Christian complex dating from 5th/6th century. The original walls are preserved up to the beginning of the barrel vault that was built during the restoration in the early Romanesque period (11th century). The church floor was decorated with geometrical and figural details of which some are preserved. In the interior is original Early Christian altar. The large rosette on the facade is from the Gothic-era adaptation of the church in the 14th century. The Church of St. Rocco, patron of Stari Grad, was raised by the confraternity of the same name, with provisions by the poet and nobleman Petar Hektorović in the 16th century. The bell tower was added in 1783 and side chapels in 1898. The main altar is the work of Andrija Bruttapela from 1774; it is decorated with statue of St. Rocco made by unidentified Venetian workshop. St. Rocco is shown with a dog that was a faithful friend after he was abandoned by everyone. In 1898 the mosaic floor of ancient Roman baths was unearthed beneath the stairs. The place is marked with Latin inscription on one of the steps. The Dominican monastery of St. Peter the Martyr was founded, with help of townspeople, by friar Germanicus of Piacenza in 1482. The church and the monastery were ransacked and burned by the Turks in 1571 and after that the monastery was fortified with round towers. The church was partially demolished and built anew in 1894. All that remained from the old church is the bell tower and the chapel with the tomb of the Renaissance poet Petar Hektorović. The monastery museum host the oldest Greek inscriptions from Pharos (4th century BC). The picture gallery has a number of valuable paintings of Venetian artists such as the famous \"The Lamentation of Christ\" by Tintoretto (1518–1594).", "Notable inhabitants and persons with the origin from Stari Grad.", "There are numerous bays on each side of Stari Grad Bay. One of the largest bays is Tiha, located on the northern side. Tiha is a perfect anchoring point as it is safe, and sheltered from all winds (the name Tiha translates to silent/calm). Zavala is a slightly smaller bay, but equally calm, with plenty of anchoring spots. The other side (south side) of Stari Grad bay, is quite higher, and offers smaller bays with hills meters away from the beach. Gracisce is one of those bays, with a pebble covered beach, and a thick pine forest just meters above. Closer to the city on the southern side there are a few beautiful beaches, such as the small sandy Maslinica bay. One more worth mentioning is Arkada, located underneath the hotel of the same name on the northern side, with a calm space for anchoring nearby." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Prehistory.", "Colonial Era.", "Mexican War of Independence.", "Constituent legislatures.", "González's rebellion.", "Vicente Guerrero.", "Durango and Bustamante.", "Santa Anna.", "Mexican–American War.", "La Mesilla.", "The Reform War and the French Intervention.", "Juárez Government.", "Porfiriato.", "Mexican Revolution.", "Modern.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Flora and fauna.", "Demography.", "Ethnic groups.", "Religion.", "Main cities.", "Education.", "Government.", "Administrative divisions.", "Economy.", "Media." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The earliest evidence of human inhabitants of modern-day Chihuahua was discovered in the area of Samalayuca and Rancho Colorado. Clovis points have been found in northeastern Chihuahua that have been dated from 12,000 BC to 7000 BC. It is thought that these inhabitants were hunter gatherers. Inhabitants of the state later developed farming with the domestication of corn. An archeological site in northern Chihuahua known as \"Cerro Juanaqueña\" revealed squash cultivation, irrigation techniques, and ceramic artifacts dating to around 2000 BC. Between AD 300 and 1300 in the northern part of the state along the wide, fertile valley on the San Miguel River the Casas Grandes (\"Big Houses\") culture developed into an advanced civilization. The Casas Grandes civilization is part of a major prehistoric archaeological culture known as Mogollon which is related to the Ancestral Pueblo culture. Paquimé was the center of the Casas Grandes civilization. Extensive archaeological evidence", "Nueva Vizcaya (New Biscay) was the first province of northern New Spain to be explored and settled by the Spanish. Around 1528, a group of Spaniard explorers, led by Álvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, first entered the territory of what is now Chihuahua. The conquest of the territory lasted nearly one century and encountered fierce resistance from the Conchos tribe, but the desire of the Spanish Crown to transform the region into a bustling mining center led to a strong strategy to control the area. In 1562 Francisco de Ibarra headed a personal expedition", "During the Napoleonic Occupation of Spain, Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, a Catholic priest of progressive ideas, declared Mexican independence in the small town of Dolores, Guanajuato on September 16, 1810 with a proclamation known as the \"Grito de Dolores\". Hidalgo built a large support among intellectuals, liberal priests and many poor people. Hidalgo fought to protect the rights of the poor and indigenous population. He started on a march to the capital, Mexico City, but retreated back north when faced with the elite of the royal forces at the outskirts of the capital. He established a liberal government from Guadalajara, Jalisco but was soon forced to flee north by the royal forces that recaptured the city. Hidalgo attempted", "In the constituent legislature or convention, the conservative and liberal elements formed using the nicknames of \"Chirrines\" and \"Cuchas\". The military entered as a third party. The elections for the first regular legislature were disputed, and it was not until", "Opponents continued to plot against the new government. In March 1827, Lieutenant J.M. González proclaimed himself comandante general, arrested the governor, and dissolved the legislature. General Parras was sent to suppress the movement. Comandante general J. J. Ayestarán was replaced by José Figueroa. When elections failed, the government intervened in favor of the Yorkino party, which had elected Vicente Guerrero to the presidency. Because of the general instability", "The general features of the preceding occurrence applied also to Chihuahua, although in a modified form. The first person elected under the new constitution of 1825 was Simón Elías Gonzalez, who being in Sonora, was induced to remain there. José Antonio Arcé took his place as ruler in Chihuahua. In 1829, González became general commander of Chihuahua, when his term of office on the west coast expired. Arcé was less", "The anti-clerical feeling was widespread, and Durango supported the initial reaction against the government at Mexico. In May 1832, José Urrea, a rising officer, supported the restoration of President Pedraza. On July 20, Governor Elorriaga was reinstated, and Baca along", "Bishop José Antonio Laureano de Zubiría of Durango was banished for resisting the law relating to priests and other encroachments on the church; another joined the western states in a short lived coalition for sustaining the federal system. Chihuahua adopted the Plan of Cuernavaca in July 1834 while President Valentín Gómez Farías was in power. Because the plan was not enforced, commanding officer, Colonel J.I. Gutiérrez, declared the term of the legislature and governor expired on September 3. At a convention of citizens called to select a new provisional ruler, Gutiérrez obtained the vote, with P. J. Escalante for", "The state seemed at relative calm compared to the rest of the country due to its close ties to the United States until 1841. In 1843 the possibility of war was anticipated by the state government and it began to reinforce the defense lines along the political boundary with Texas. Supplies of weapons were sent to fully equip the military and steps were taken to improve efficiency at the presidios. Later, the Regimen for the Defenders of the Border were organized by the state which were made up of: light cavalry, four squads of two brigades, and a small force of 14 men and 42 officials at the price of 160,603 pesos per year. During the beginning of the 1840s, private citizens took it upon themselves to stop the commercial caravans of supplies from the United States, but being so far away from the large suppliers in central Mexico the caravan was allowed to continue in March 1844. Continuing to anticipate a war, the state legislature on July 11, 1846 by decree", "The frontier counties of the state along the border with the United States expected federal protection from the federal government under Herrera and Arista, but were soon disappointed by the federal government's decision to deploy military forces to other areas of the country due to internal challenges in the state of Jalisco. Ángel Trías led a rebellion to successfully depose the unpopular", "The state united behind the Plan of Ayutla and ratified the new constitution in 1855. The state was able to survive through the Reform War with minimal damage due to the large number of liberal political figures. The 1858 conservative movement did not succeed in the state even after the successful military campaign of the conservative Zuloaga with 1,000 men occupied the cities of Chihuahua and Parral. In August 1859, Zuloaga and his forces were defeated by the liberal Orozco and his forces; Orozco soon after deposed the state governor, but had to flee to Durango two months later. In the late 1860s the conservative General Cajen briefly entered the state after his campaign through the state of Jalisco and helped establish conservative politicians and ran out the liberal leaders Jesús González Ortega and José María Patoni. Cajen took possession of the state capital and established himself as governor; he brooked no delay in uniting a large force to combat the liberal forces which he defeated in \"La Batalla del Gallo\". Cajen attained several advantages over the liberals within the state, but soon lost his standing due to a strong resurgence of the liberal forces within the state. The successful liberal leaders José María Patoni of Durango and J.E. Muñoz of Chihuahua quickly strengthened their standing by limiting the political rights of the clergy implementing the presidential decree. The state elected General Luis Terrazas, a liberal leader, as governor; he would continue to fight small battles within the state to suppress conservative uprisings during 1861. In consequence to the Reform War, the federal government was bankrupt and could not pay its foreign debts to Spain, England, and France. On July 17,", "President Benito Juárez was re-elected in the general election of 1867 in which he received strong liberal support, especially in Chihuahua. Luis Terrazas was confirmed by the people of Chihuahua to be governor of the state. But soon after the election, President Juárez had another crisis on his hands; the Juárez administration was suspected to be involved in the assassination of the military chief José María Patoni executed by General Canto in August 1868. General Canto turned himself over to Donato Guerra. Canto was sentenced to death, but later his sentence changed to 10 years imprisonment. The sense of injustice gave rise to a new rebellion in 1869 that threatened the federal government. In response, the Juárez administration took drastic measures by temporarily suspending constitutional rights, but", "After the death of the president Benito Juárez in 1872, the first magistracy of the country was occupied by the vice-president Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada, who called for new elections. Two candidates were registered; Lerdo de Tejada and General Porfirio Díaz, one of the heroes of the Battle of Puebla which had taken place on May 5, 1862. Lerdeo de Tejada won the election, but lost popularity after he announced his intent to run for re-election. On March 21, 1876, Don Porfirio Díaz rebelled against President Sebastián Lerdo de Tejada. The Plan of Tuxtepec defended the \"No Re-election\" principle. On June 2, 1876 the garrisons in the state of Chihuahua surrendered to the authority of General Porfirio Díaz; Governor Antonio Ochoa was arrested until all the Lerdista forces were suppressed throughout the state. Porfirio Díaz then helped Trías regain the governorship of the state of Chihuahua allowing", "Díaz created an effective centralized government that helped concentrate wealth and political power among the elite upper class, mostly criollo. The economy was characterized by the construction of factories, roads, dams, and better farms. The Díaz administration passed new land laws that virtually unraveled all the rights previously recognized and the land reforms passed by President Benito Juárez. No peasant or farmer could claim the land he occupied without formal legal title. A handful of families owned large estates (known as haciendas) and controlled the greater part of the land across the state while the vast majority of Chihuahuans were landless. The state economy was largely defined by ranching and mining. At the expense of the working class, the Díaz administration promoted economic growth by encouraging investment from foreign companies from the United Kingdom, France, Imperial Germany and the United States. The proletariat was often exploited, and found no legal protection or political recourse to redress injustices. Despite the internal stability (known as the \"paz porfiriana\"), modernization, and economic growth in Mexico during the Porfiriato from 1876 to 1910, many across the state became deeply dissatisfied with the political system. When Díaz first ran for office, he committed to a strict “No Re-election” policy in which he disqualified himself to serve consecutive terms. Eventually backtracking on many of his initial political", "On February 6, 2010, former Governor José Reyes Baeza proposed to move the three State Powers (Executive, Legislative, and", "The state of Chihuahua is the largest state in the country and is known as El Estado Grande (The Big State); it accounts for 12.6% of the land of Mexico and is slightly larger than the United Kingdom. The area is landlocked by the states of Sonora to the west, Sinaloa to the south-west, Durango to the south, and Coahuila to the east, and by the U.S. states of Texas to the northeast and New Mexico to the north. The state is made up of three geologic regions: Mountains, Plains-Valleys, and Desert, which occur in large bands from west to east. Because of the different geologic regions there are contrasting climates and ecosystems. The main mountain range in the state is the Sierra Madre Occidental reaching a maximum altitude of 10,826 ft (3,300 m) known as Cerro Mohinora. Mountains account for one third of the state's surface area which include large coniferous forests. The climate in the mountainous regions varies. Chihuahua has more forests than any other state in Mexico making the area a bountiful source of wood; the mountainous areas are rich in minerals important to Mexico's mining industry. Precipitation and temperature in the mountainous areas depends on the elevation. Between the months of November and March snow storms are possible in the lower elevations and are frequent in the higher elevations. There are several watersheds located in the Sierra Madre Occidental all of the water that flows through the state; most of the rivers finally empty into the Río Grande. Temperatures in some canyons in the state reach over in the summer while the same areas rarely drop below in the winter. Microclimates found in the heart of the Sierra Madre Occidental in the state could", "The climate in the state depends mainly in the elevation of the terrain. According to Köppen climate classification the state has five major climate zones. The Sierra Madre Occidental dominates the western part of the state; there are two main climates in this area: Subtropical Highland (Cfb) and Humid Subtropical (Cwa). There are some microclimates in the state due to the varying topology mostly found in the western side of the state. The two best known microclimates are: Tropical savanna climate (Aw) in deep canyons located in the extreme southern part of the state; Continental Mediterranean climate (Dsb) in the", "The state has a great diversity due to the large number of microclimates found and dramatic varying terrain. The flora throughout the Sierra Madre Occidental mountain range varies with elevation. Pine (\"Pinus\") and oak (\"Quercus\") species are usually found at an elevation of 2,000 m (6,560 ft) above sea level. The most common species of flora found in the mountains are: \"Pinus\", \"Quercus\", \"Abies\", \"Ficus\", \"Vachellia\", Ipomoea, \"Acacia\", \"Lysiloma\", \"Bursera\", \"Vitex\", \"Tabebuia\", \"Sideroxylon\", \"Cordia\", \"Fouquieria\", \"Pithecellobium\". The state is home to one of the largest variation species of the genus \"Pinus\" in the world. The lower elevations have a steppe vegetation with a variety of grasses and small bushes. Several species of \"Juniperus\" dot the steppe and the transition zone. According to the World Wide Fund for Nature, the Chihuahuan Desert may be the most biologically diverse desert in the world, whether measured on species richness or endemism, although the region has been heavily degraded over time. Many native species have been replaced with creosote shrubs. The most common desert flora in the state includes: \"Agave\", \"Larrea\", \"Prosopis\", \"Fouquieria\", \"Dasylirion\", \"Yucca\", \"Poaceae\", \"Lophophora\", \"Opuntia\", \"Echinocereus\", \"Baileya\", \"Chilopsis\", \"Eucnide\", and \"Hylocereus\". The fauna in the state is just as diverse as the flora and varies greatly due to the large contrast in climates. In the mountain zone of the", "According to the census by the Instituto Nacional de Estadística y Geografía (INEGI) in 2005, the state population is 3,241,444 making the state the 11th most populated state in Mexico. Census recorded 1,610,275 men and 1,631,169 women. The median age of the population is 25 years. The northern state is placed seventh in the nation regarding quality of life and sixth in terms of life expectancy at 75.2 years of age. During the period from 2000–2005 it is estimated that 49,722 people left the state for the United States. Some 82,000 people are thought to have immigrated to the state from 2000–2005 mainly coming from Veracruz (17.6%), United States (16.2%), Durango (13.2%), Coahuila (8.0%) and Chiapas (4.5%). It is believed that there is a large number of undocumented immigrants in that state the come from Central and South America which mainly settle in Ciudad Juárez. According to the 2005 census, the population grew 1.06% from 2000 to 2005. The state has an uneven settlement of people and the lowest population density of any Mexican state; according to the 2005 census there were 12 people per km. Of all the 3,241,444 people in the state, two-thirds (2,072,129) live in the cities of Ciudad Juárez and Chihuahua. Only three other cities have populations over 100,000: Parral 101,147, Cuauhtémoc 105,725, and Delicias 108,187.", "The last census in Mexico that asked for an individual's race, which was taken in 1921, indicated that 50.09% of the population identified as Mestizo (mixed Amerindian and European descent). The second-largest", "Although the great majority of residents of the state of Chihuahua are Catholics, there is a large diversity of religions within the state. There are many apostolic churches, Mormon wards, and large Mennonite communities. Those aged 5 years and older claim to be the following religious beliefs: 84.6% are Catholic; 7.1% are Protestant; 2.0% are Nondenominational; 5.1% are Atheist. Compared to most of Mexico, the state has", "The state has one city with a population exceeding one million: Ciudad Juárez. Ciudad Juárez is ranked eighth most populous city in the country and Chihuahua City was ranked 16th most populous in Mexico. Chihuahua (along with Baja California) is the only state in Mexico to have two cities ranked in the top 20 most populated. El Paso and Ciudad Juárez comprise one of the largest binational metropolitan areas in the world with a combined population of 2.4 million. In fact, Ciudad Juárez is one of the", "According to the Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía e Informática (INEGI), 95.6% of the population over the age of 15 could read and write Spanish, and 97.3% of children of ages 8–14 could read and write Spanish. An estimated", "The current government of the state was established officially by the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States in 1917. The state government is divided into three branches: the legislative branch, the judicial branch, and the executive branch. The government is centrally located in the state capital Chihuahua City. The legislative branch consists of an elected assembly of representatives to form the state congress. The congress is composed of 33 deputies, of which 22 are directly elected to represent each of the 22 districts in the state. In addition 11 deputies are elected by system of proportional representation through a list of registered political party members. Deputies are elected every three years and cannot be reelected consecutively. The judicial branch is led by the Supreme Tribunal of Justice which is constituted of 15 magistrate judges. The judges are appointed by the governor and approved by the state congress. The executive branch is headed by the governor of the state, who is elected for one term of six years on the fourth day of October every election year. Governors are not eligible to be reelected due to constitutional one-term limitation. The state is represented at the federal level in the Congress of the Union by three senators and nine deputies (representatives). The deputies serve three-year terms and are elected in federal elections. The senators serve six-year terms and are elected in federal elections.", "Chihuahua is subdivided", "The state has the 12th-largest state economy in Mexico, accounting for 2.7% of the country’s GDP. Chihuahua has the fifth highest manufacturing GDP in Mexico and ranks second for the most factories funded by foreign investment in the country., the state had an estimated 396 billion pesos (31.1 billion dollars) of annual GDP. According to official federal statistical studies, the service sector accounted for the largest portion of the state economy at 59.28%; the manufacturing and industrial sector is estimated to account for 34.36% of the state's GDP, with the agricultural sector accounting for 6.36% of the state's GDP. Manufacturing sector was the principal foreign investment in the state followed by the mining sector. In 2011, the state received approximately 884 million dollars in remittances from the United States, which was 4.5% of all remittances from the United States to Mexico. During the 1990s after NAFTA was signed, industrial development grew rapidly with foreign investment. Large factories known as \"maquiladoras\" were built to export manufactured goods to the United States and Canada. Today, most of the maquiladoras produce electronics, automobile, and aerospace components. There are more than 406 companies operating under the federal IMMEX or Prosec program in Chihuahua. The large portion", "Newspapers of Chihuahua include: \"El Diario (Juárez)\", \"El Diario de Chihuahua\", \"El Heraldo de Chihuahua\", \"El Heraldo de la Tarde\", \"El Mexicano\", \"El Sol de Parral\", and \"Norte de Ciudad Juárez.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Common names.", "Geographic range.", "Habitat.", "Behavior." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Averages 30–60 cm in length with a maximum of 75 cm. They appear relatively stout. The head is short and slightly distinct from the neck with an upturned snout. The circumorbital ring includes 2 preoculars, 2 postoculars and 1-2 subocular scales. There are 6-7 sublabials. The temporal scales number 2+3 (rarely 2+4). Midbody there are 19-22 rows of faintly keeled dorsal scales that have a velvety appearance. There are 131-155 ventral scales. The anal scale is single. There are 16-27 paired subcaudals. The color pattern consists of a green ground color that may be anything from bright green to olive. This is overlaid with a series dark inverted chevron-like crossbars that run down the back, similar to \"C. defilippii\" and \"C. rhombeatus\". The chin and throat are yellow. The belly is a yellowish, cream or pearly in color.", "Green night adder, velvety-green night adder, green viper.", "Central and eastern Africa from Nigeria east to Sudan, Uganda, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, and south to Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi and DR Congo. An isolated population occurs in western Angola. The type locality is listed as \"Sennâr, vom Gebel-Ghule\" (Jebel Ghule, Sennar, Sudan).", "Prefers low-lying moist savanna, wooded hills, high grasslands, and the riparian zones of rivers that run through swamps, rocky gorges, coastal scrubland and semi-deserts. Also known to occur in man-made habitats, such as abandoned quarries, sugar cane plantations and in borrow pit pools along roads.", "If disturbed, they inflate themselves and put on a ferocious hissing and puffing threat display. The front part of the body is raised and coiled from which position they tend to make sweeping and lashing strikes as opposed to a stabbing motion. They are mostly terrestrial, but are also good swimmers and have been known to climb into sedges in pursuit of prey. Despite their common name, they are diurnal and are often seen basking. They hide under ground cover when not active." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "Geographic features.", "Islands.", "Water levels.", "Geology.", "History.", "Native Americans.", "European exploration and settlement.", "Great Lakes Compact.", "Lake environment.", "Climate.", "Lake Erie in winter.", "Windy conditions.", "Microclimates.", "Long term weather patterns.", "Ecosystems.", "Invasive species.", "Eutrophication and cyanobacteria blooms.", "Snakes.", "Asian carp.", "Snakehead fish.", "Agriculture and life around the lake.", "Water quality issues and restoration.", "Other ecosystem related issues.", "Economy.", "Fishing.", "Species of fish.", "Commercial fishing.", "Government regulation of fishing.", "Sport fishing.", "Ice fishing.", "Agriculture.", "Tourism.", "Diving for shipwrecks.", "Public parks.", "Biking.", "Islands.", "Water sports.", "Lighthouses.", "Towns along the lake.", "Vineyards.", "Summer rentals.", "Pleasure cruises.", "Shipping traffic.", "Ports.", "Ferryboats.", "Lake Erie airspace.", "Border crossings.", "See also.", "Great Lakes in general." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Lake Erie (42.2° N, 81.2W) has a mean elevation of above sea level. It has a surface area of with a length of and breadth of at its widest points. It is the shallowest of the Great Lakes with an average depth of 10 fathoms 3 feet or and a maximum depth of For comparison, Lake Superior has an average depth of 80 fathoms 3 feet or, a volume of and shoreline of 2,726 statute miles (4,385 km). Because it is the shallowest, it is also the warmest of the Great Lakes, and in 1999 this almost became a problem for two nuclear power plants which require cool lake water to keep their reactors cool. The warm summer of 1999 caused lake temperatures to come close to the limit necessary to keep the plants cool. Also because of its shallowness, and in spite of being the warmest lake in the summer, it is also the first", "Islands tend to be located in the western side of the lake and total 31 in number (13 in Canada, 18 in the U.S.). The island-village of Put-in-Bay on South Bass Island attracts young crowds who sometimes wear \"red bucket hats\" and are prone to \"break off cartwheels in the park\" and general merriment. Kelleys Island was depicted by the \"Chicago Tribune\" as having charms", "Lake Erie has a lake retention time of 2.6 years, the shortest of all the Great Lakes. The lake's surface area is. Lake Erie's water level fluctuates with the seasons as in the other Great Lakes. Generally, the lowest levels are in January and February, and the highest in June or July, although there have been exceptions. The average yearly level", "Lake Erie was carved out by glacier ice, and in its current form is less than 4,000 years old, which is a short span in geological terms. Before this, the land on which the lake now sits went through several complex stages. A large lowland basin formed over two million years ago as a result of an eastern flowing river that existed well before the Pleistocene ice ages. This ancient drainage system was destroyed by the first major glacier in the area, while it deepened and enlarged the lowland areas, allowing water to settle and form a lake. The glaciers were able to carve away more land on the eastern side of the lowland because the bedrock is made of shale which is softer than the carbonate rocks of dolomite and limestone on the western side. Thus, the eastern and central basins of the modern lake are much deeper", "", "At the time of European contact, there were several groups of Native American cultures living around the shores of the eastern end of the lake. The Erie tribe (from whom the lake takes its name) lived along the southern edge, while the Neutrals (also known as Attawandaron) lived along the northern shore. Near Port Stanley, there is a Native American village dating from the 16th century known as the \"Southwold Earthworks\" where as many as 800 Neutral Native Americans once lived; the archaeological remains include double earth walls winding around", "In 1669, the Frenchman Louis Jolliet was the first documented European to sight Lake Erie, although there is speculation that Étienne Brûlé may have come across it in 1615. Lake Erie was the last of the Great Lakes to be explored by Europeans, since the Iroquois who occupied the Niagara River area were in conflict with the French, and they did not allow explorers or traders to pass through. Explorers followed rivers out of Lake Ontario and portaged directly into Lake Huron. British authorities in Canada were nervous about possible expansion by American settlers across Lake Erie, so Colonel Talbot developed the Talbot Trail in 1809 as a way to stimulate settlement to the area; Talbot recruited settlers from Ireland and Scotland and there are numerous places named after him, such as Port Talbot and the Talbot River and Talbotville in southern Ontario. During the War of", "In 2005, the Great Lakes States of Ohio, Michigan, New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois, Indiana, Wisconsin, Minnesota and the Canadian Provinces of Ontario and Quebec endorsed the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence River Basin Sustainable Water Resources Compact (Compact). The Compact was signed into law by President George W. Bush in September", "", "", "Like the other Great Lakes, Erie produces lake effect snow when the first cold winds of winter pass over the warm waters. When the temperatures of the relatively warm surface water and the colder air separate to at least to apart, then \"lake-effect snow becomes possible:\" Heavy lake-effect snowfalls can occur when cold air travels or longer over a large unfrozen lake. Lake-effect snow makes Buffalo and Erie the eleventh and thirteenth snowiest places in the entire United States respectively, according to data collected from the National Climatic Data Center. Since winds blow primarily west–to–east along the main axis of the lake, lake effect snow effects are more pronounced on the eastern parts of the lake such as cities such as Buffalo and Erie. Buffalo typically gets of snow each winter, and sometimes of snow; the snowiest city is Syracuse, New York, which can receive heavy snowfall from both the lake", "Strong winds have caused lake currents to shift sediment on the bottom, leading to \"wickedly shifting sandbars\" that have been the cause of shipwrecks. But winds can have a peaceful purpose as well; there have been proposals to place electricity–producing wind turbines in windy and shallow points in the lake and along the coast, both in the United States and Canada. In 2010, there were plans for GE to develop five wind turbines to generate 20 megawatts of power by 2012 with plans to generate 1,000 megawatts by 2020; one proposal called for \"gearless turbines\" with long blades helped along with magnets. A nonprofit development group near Cleveland was developing plans to construct hundreds of turbines in the lake. A", "The lake is also responsible for microclimates that are important to agriculture. Along its north shore is one of the richest areas of Canada's fruit and vegetable production; this southernmost tip, particularly in the area around Leamington, is known as Canada's \"tomato capital\". The area around Port Rowan in Ontario has special trees which grow", "According to one estimate, of water evaporates each year from the surface of the lake, which allows for rainfall and other precipitation in surrounding areas. There are conflicting reports about the overall effect of global warming on the Great Lakes region, including Lake Erie. One account suggests that climate change is causing greater evaporation of lake water, leading to warmer temperatures as well as ice in winter which is less thick or nonexistent, fueling concerns that \"Erie appears to be shrinking\" and is the most likely candidate among the five Great Lakes to \"turn into a festering mud puddle.\" In 2010, the \"Windsor Star\" reported that the lake experienced \"record-breaking temperatures\" reaching in mid-August and compared the lake to a \"bath tub\". But the long term weather patterns are subject to controversy.", "Lake Erie has a complex ecosystem with many species in constant interaction. Human activity, such as pollution and maritime ship traffic, can affect this environment in numerous ways. The interactions between the new species can sometimes have beneficial effects, as well as harmful effects. Some introductions have been seen as beneficial such as the introduction of Pacific salmon. Occasionally there have been mass die-offs of certain species of fish, sometimes for reasons unknown, such as many numbers of rainbow smelt in May 2010.", "The lake has been plagued with a number of invasive species, including zebra and quagga mussels, the goby and the grass carp. One estimate was that there have been 180 invasive species in the Great Lakes, some having traveled in ballast water in international ships. Zebra mussels and gobies have been credited with the increased population and size of smallmouth bass in Lake Erie. In 2008 there were concerns that the \"newest invader swarming in the Great Lakes\", which was the bloody-red shrimp, might harm fish populations and promote algae", "An ongoing concern is that \"nutrient overloading from fertilizers, human and animal waste\", known as eutrophication, in which additional nitrogen and phosphorus enter the lake, will cause plant life to \"run wild and multiply like crazy\". Since there are fewer wetlands, which are like \"Nature's kidneys\" by filtering nutrients, as well as greater \"channelization of waterways\", nutrients in water can cause algal blooms to sprout as well as \"low-oxygen dead zones\" in a complex interaction of natural forces. As of the 2010s much of the phosphorus in the lake comes from fertilizer applied to no-till soybean and corn fields but washed into streams by heavy rains. The algal blooms result from growth of \"Microcystis\", a toxic blue-green algae that the zebra mussels", "The Lake Erie water snake, a subspecies of the northern water snake (\"Nerodia sipedon\"), lives in the vicinity of Ohio's Put-in-Bay Harbor, and had been put on the threatened species list. A threatened species is one which may soon become an endangered species. By 2010, the", "There is a concern that Asian carp might enter the Great Lakes region and alter the ecosystem negatively. They have been described", "There was concern in 2007 that snakehead fish could get into the Great Lakes area. Officials warn that if the fish invades, it could \"decimate the aquatic food chain\". A YouTube video mentioned in a newspaper account has a man claiming that the fish", "In 1999, Doppler radar weather sensors detected millions of mayflies heading for Presque Isle in blue and green splotches on the radar in clouds measuring long. These insects were a sign of Lake Erie's move back to health, since the mayflies require clean water to thrive. Biologist Masteller of Penn State Erie declared the bugs to be a \"nice nuisance\" since they signified the lake's return to health after forty years of absence. Each is long; the three main species of mayflies are \"Ephemera simulans\", \"Hexagenia rigida\" and \"Hexagenia limbata\". The insects mate over a 72-hour period from June through September; they fly in masses up to the shore, mate in the air, then females lay up", "Lake Erie infamously became very polluted in the 1960s and 1970s as a result of the quantity of heavy industry situated in cities on its shores, with reports of bacteria-laden beaches and fish contaminated by industrial waste. In the 1970s, patches of the lake were declared dead because of industrial waste as well as sewage from runoffs; as \"The New York Times\" reporter Denny Lee wrote in 2004, \"The lake, after all, is where the Rust Belt meets the water.\" The water quality deteriorated partially due to increasing levels of the nutrient phosphorus in both the water and lake bottom sediments. The resultant high nitrogen levels in the water caused eutrophication, which resulted in algal blooms and algae", "There was a tentative exploratory plan to capture CO, compress it to a liquid form, and pump it a half-mile (800 m) beneath Lake Erie's surface underneath the porous rock structure. According to chemical engineer Peter Douglas, there is sufficient storage space beneath Lake Erie to hold between 15 and 50 years of liquid CO2 emissions from the 4,000 megawatt Nanticoke coal plant. But there has been no substantial progress on this issue since 2007.", "", "", "Lake Erie is home to one of the world's largest freshwater commercial fisheries. Lake Erie's fish populations are the most abundant of the Great Lakes, partially because of the lake's relatively mild temperatures and plentiful supply of plankton, which is the basic building block of the food chain. The lake's fish population accounts for an estimated 50% of all fish inhabiting the Great Lakes. The lake is \"loaded with superstars\" such as steelhead, walleye (American usage) or pickerel (Canadian usage), smallmouth bass, perch, as well as bass, trout, salmon, whitefesh, smelt, and many others. The lake consists of a long list of well established introduced species. Common non-indigenous fish species include the rainbow smelt, alewife, white perch and common carp. Non-native sport fish such as rainbow trout and brown trout are stocked specifically for anglers to catch. Attempts failed to stock coho salmon and its numbers are once again dwindling. Commercial landings are dominated by yellow perch and walleye, with substantial quantities of rainbow smelt and white bass also taken. Anglers target walleye and yellow perch, with some effort directed at rainbow trout. A variety of other species are taken in smaller quantities by both commercial and sport fleets.", "Estimates vary about the fishing market for the Great Lakes region. One estimate of the total market for fishing, including commercial as well as sport or recreational fishing, for all of the Great Lakes, was $4 billion annually, in 2007. A second estimate was that the fishing industry was valued at more than $7 billion. But since high levels of pollution were discovered in the 1960s and 1970s, there has been continued debate over the desired intensity of commercial fishing. Commercial fishing in Lake Erie has been hurt by the bad economy as well as government regulations which limit the size of their catch; one report suggested that the numbers of fishing boats and employees had declined by two-thirds in recent decades. Another concern had been that pollution in the lake, as well as toxins found inside fish, were working against commercial fishing interests. U.S. fishermen based along Lake Erie \"lost their livelihood\" over the past few decades described as being \"caught in a net of laws and bans\", according to the \"Pittsburgh Post-Gazette\", and no longer catch fish such as whitefish for markets in New", "The lake can be thought of as a common asset with multiple purposes including being a \"fishery\". There was direct competition between commercial fishermen and sport fishermen (including charter boats and sales of fishing licenses) throughout the lake's history, with both sides seeking government assistance from either Washington or Ottawa, and trying to make their case in the \"court\" of public opinion through newspaper reporting. But other groups have entered the political process as well, including environmentalists, lakefront property owners, industry owners and workers seeking cost-effective solutions for sewage, ferry boat operators, even corporations making electric-generating wind turbines. Management of the fishery is by consensus", "The lake also supports a strong sport fishery. While commercial fishing declined, sport fishing has remained. The deep cool waters that spawn the best fishing is in the Canadian side of the lake. As a result, a fishing boat that crosses the international border triggers the security concerns of border crossings and fishermen are advised to have their passport. If their boat crosses the invisible border line in the lake, upon returning to the American shore, passengers will have to \"drive to a local government reporting station and pose for pictures\" to Customs officers by videophone. There are cumbersome rules for fishing boat operators as well, who will have to fax passenger personal information to a government agency an hour before", "In winter when the lake freezes, many fishermen go out on the ice, cut holes, and fish. It is even possible to build bonfires on the ice. But venturing on Lake Erie ice can be dangerous. In a freak incident in 2009, warming temperatures and winds of and currents pushing eastward dislodged a miles-wide ice floe which broke away from the shore, trapping more than 130 fishermen offshore; one man died while the rest were rescued by helicopters or boats.", "The lake's formerly more extensive lakebed creates a favorable environment for agriculture in the bordering areas of Ontario, Ohio, Michigan, Pennsylvania, and New York. The Lake Erie sections of western New York State have a suitable climate for growing grapes, and in Chautauqua County there have been many vineyards and wineries in the area as well as in Erie County in northwestern Pennsylvania. Much grape juice", "", "Lake Erie is a favorite for divers since there are many shipwrecks, perhaps 1,400 to 8,000 according to one estimate, of which about 270 are \"confirmed shipwreck locations.\" Most wrecks are undiscovered but believed to be well preserved and in good condition and at most only below the water surface. One report suggests there are more \"wrecks per square mile\" than any other freshwater location, including wrecks from Native American watercraft. There are efforts to identify shipwreck sites and survey the lake floor to map the location of underwater sites, possibly for further study or exploration. While the lake is relatively warmer than the", "There are numerous public parks around the lake. In western Pennsylvania, a wildlife reserve was established in 1991 in Springfield Township for hiking, fishing, cross-country skiing and walking along the beach. In Ontario, Long Point is a peninsula on the northwest shore near Port Rowan that extends into Lake Erie which is a stopover for birds migrating as well as turtles; one reporter found a \"turtle-crossing\" sign along the road; Long Point Provincial Park is located there and has been designated as a UNESCO", "\"The New York Times\" reporter Donna Marchetti took a bike tour around the Lake Erie perimeter in 1997, traveling per day and staying at bed and breakfasts. They went", "Lake Erie islands tend to be in the", "Kayaking has become more popular along the lake, particularly in places such as Put-in-Bay, Ohio. There are extensive views with steep cliffs with exotic wildlife and \"100 miles of paddle-friendly shoreline.\" Long distance swimmers have swum across the lake to set records; for example, a 15-year-old amputee swam the stretch across the lake in 2001. In 2008, 14-year-old Jade Scognamillo swam from", "The lake is dotted by distinct lighthouses. A lighthouse off the coast of Cleveland, beset", "A New York Times reporter, biking through the region in 1997, found the Ontario", "There are numerous vineyards around the lake, including", "People can rent summer houses and cabins near the lake to enjoy the beaches, swimming, as well as be close to activities such as wine tours and fishing and water parks. Presque Isle is a peninsula jutting out into the lake in northwestern Pennsylvania which has", "Pleasure boat operators offer dinner cruises in the Cleveland area on the Cuyahoga River as well as Lake Erie.", "The lake has been a \"bustling thoroughfare\" for maritime vessels for centuries. Ships headed eastward can take the Welland Canal and a series of eight locks descending to Lake Ontario which takes about 12 hours, according to one source. Thousands of ships make this journey each year. During the 19th century, ships could enter the Buffalo River and travel the Erie Canal eastward to Albany then south to New York City along the Hudson River. Generally there is heavy traffic on the lake except during the winter months from January through March when ice prevents vessels", "The Port of Cleveland generated over $350 million and over 15 million tons of cargo in a recent year. The", "Ferryboats operate in numerous places, such as the Jet Express Ferry from Sandusky and Port Clinton. However, plans to operate a ferryboat between the U.S. port of Erie and the Ontario port of Port Dover ran into a slew of political problems, including security restrictions on both sides as well as additional fees required to hire border inspectors. In particular,", "In 2004, debris from a plane", "Since the border between the two nations is largely unpatrolled, it is possible for people to cross undetected from one", "", "" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Western opening.", "Løgstør Banks and the Frederik VII Canal.", "Plans for re-closing the western inlet.", "In literature.", "Limgrim legend.", "Limfjord poets.", "Biology and climate." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The Limfjord had only an opening to the sea in the east from the early Middle Ages until 1825. In that year, the North Sea broke through from the west and created a second opening, turning the northern part of Jutland Vendsyssel-Thy into an island. An isthmus of shifting sand has separated the Limfjord from the North Sea during historic times. The present inlet, Thyborøn Channel, has existed only since 1862. A passage also existed during the Viking Age. Based on place names and the geography it is thought to have been to the south of the present one, between Ferring Sø (locally still called 'the Fjord') and Hygum Nor. Canute the Great sailed into it in 1027 on his way back from England. According to Saxo Grammaticus it closed at some time around 1200. There are records of several floods piercing the isthmus during the 16th to early 19th century. On 3 February 1825 a flood pierced a permanent opening, the so-called Agger Channel, in the north of the 13 km long and less than 1 km wide isthmus, the Agger Tange, which had until then linked Thy with the rest of Jutland. The western part of North Jutland lost its road connection with mainland Jutland, but the towns and harbours in the western part of the Limfjord could benefit from becoming directly accessible from the North Sea, to the dismay of Aalborg. From the 1840s the route became increasingly important, as Britain had opened for import of grain, and ships could return with British coal. However, the instability of Agger Channel made the towns of the western Limfjord look for a second option. In 1862, a flood pierced another opening, the Thyborøn Channel, through the remainder of Agger Tange (see satellite image). Agger Channel was continuously filling with sand and eventually closed in 1877. Since then, the remaining Thyborøn Channel has been kept open and navigable by dredging. The harbour of Thyborøn was built in 1914–1918 and a town was founded. The two isthmuses have shifted eastwards since the 1800s. They have only been preserved by groynes, persistent sandpumping and two road dams along their inward (eastern) side.", "At Løgstør, where the wide, western part of the Limfjord meets the narrow eastern section, the infamous sand banks of Løgstør Grunde were an obstacle to ships. Larger ships needed to be unloaded and reloaded when passing the banks. The Frederik VII Canal at Løgstør was completed in 1861 to allow for easier passage. Traffic had increased after the western opening at Thyborøn became navigable. The sand banks were finally dredged out in 1901, rendering the canal obsolete. The canal is now a well-preserved heritage site.", "A 1946 act provided for re-closing the Channel with dams and sluices at Thyborøn, but this was never carried out. This idea re-emerged in 2005 and is now officially being investigated. It is thought that the isthmuses would be easier to preserve, and that the water level of the Limfjord would be more controllable. In periods of persistent western winds, flooding occurs on low-lying land and harbour areas in the towns of the western Limfjord, since the water can't escape through the narrow, eastern part of the Limfjord. Historically, a North Sea to Limfjord canal has also been proposed between Hanstholm harbour and Vejlerne (or Klitmøller and Thisted), e.g. by Jørgen Fibiger in 1933, the engineer behind the project of Hanstholm harbour.", "", "According to myth, a woman (in some versions a \"jötunn\") gave birth to a pig, Limgrim, which soon grew so big that its bristles could be seen over the treetops. It strolled around and dug channels in the ground. One day it reached the sea and water broke in. This would have been at the eastern inlet of the Limfjord, at Hals. The legend is also handed down in a medieval ballad with a Christian tint. In the ballad, the pig is summoned to a Thing by peasants to pay for the damage to their crops, and it is sentenced to the breaking wheel. The state environmental surveillance vessel \"Limgrim\", based at Skive, is named after the legend.", "A number of writers of the Modern Breakthrough period (1870-1890) and the next decades came from the area around the Limfjord and often used it as a lyrical motif, or a setting for their prose. These include Jens Peter Jacobsen of Thisted, Johan Skjoldborg of Hannæs, Jakob Knudsen of Aggersborg, Jeppe Aakjær and Marie Bregendahl of Fjends, Nobel Prize laureate Johannes Vilhelm Jensen of Farsø and his sister Thit Jensen. Thøger Larsen of Lemvig belonged to the symbolism of the 1920s. Johannes Buchholtz in Struer was a prose writer and his home was a meeting point for many of the Limfjord writers. The house is still kept up by the Struer Museum, which allows visitors. Jeppe Aakjær's farm Jenle close to Skive, Johan Skjoldborg's house in Øsløs, and the Johannes V. Jensen Museum in Farsø are also open to the public. Erik Bertelsen of Harboør is best known for the song \"Blæsten går frisk over Limfjordens vande\" ('The Wind Goes Fresh over the Limfjord's Waters'), a much-used \"local anthem\". The later ones of these Limfjord writers, along with a few others, formed the Jutland Movement, which revolted against the symbolism of the early 20th century. Instead, they wrote social realistic prose, often about poor and exploited people in the countryside, who were a part of Danish society little known to the establishment in Copenhagen.", "The western breakthrough of 1825 changed the waters of the Limfjord from brackish to salty, with a considerable current from west to east. Hypoxia sometimes occurs due to warm windless periods in summer or ice in winter. The fjord today has oceanic salinity, approximately 30 PSU (or per mille by weight) at all depths. Many animals and maritime plants that can be found in Skagerrak, Kattegat and the North Sea can thus be found in the fjord. Due to its shallow waters, the temperature rises rather quickly during warm and sunny days from mid-April to early September. While in winter, ice can form faster during the cold periods, especially in bays with little current. Problematic ice conditions do not by any means occur every winter. The Limfjord is notable for its tasty mussels (\"Mytilus edulis\"). Gourmets appreciate its oysters, which are considered to be of extraordinary size and quality. Had it not been for the western breakthrough in 1825, these mussels wouldn't grow as well as they do in the waters with ocean-like salinity." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definition.", "Deficiency.", "Pregnancy, lactation and early childhood.", "Gastric bypass surgery.", "Diagnosis.", "Medical uses.", "Repletion of deficiency.", "Cyanide poisoning.", "Dietary recommendations.", "Sources.", "Bacteria and archaea.", "Animal-derived foods.", "Plants and algae.", "Fortified foods.", "Supplements.", "Intramuscular or intravenous injection.", "Pseudovitamin-B.", "Drug interactions.", "H-receptor antagonists and proton-pump inhibitors.", "Metformin.", "Other drugs.", "Chemistry.", "Vitamers.", "Biochemistry.", "Coenzyme function.", "Physiology.", "Absorption.", "Storage and excretion.", "Production.", "Biosynthesis.", "Industrial.", "Laboratory.", "History.", "Descriptions of deficiency effects.", "Identification of liver as an anti-anemia food.", "Identification of the active compound.", "Commercial production.", "Society and culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Vitamin B, also known as cobalamin, is a water-soluble vitamin essential to the function of all cells. \"Cobalamin\" actually refers to a group of compounds (corrinoids) with near-identical structure. Cobalamins are characterized by a porphyrin-like corrin nucleus that contains a single cobalt atom bound to a benzimidazolyl nucleotide and a variable residue (R) group. Because these chemical compounds have a similar molecular structure, each of which shows vitamin activity in a vitamin-deficient biological system, they are referred to as vitamers. The vitamin activity is as a coenzyme, meaning that its presence is required for some enzyme-catalyzed reactions. For cyanocobalamin, the R-residue is cyanide. For hydroxocobalamin it is a hydroxyl group. Both of these can be converted to either of the two cobalamin coenzymes that are active in human metabolism: adenosylcobalamin (AdoB)", "Vitamin B deficiency can potentially cause severe and irreversible damage, especially to the brain and nervous system. At levels only slightly lower than normal, a range of symptoms such as fatigue, lethargy, difficulty walking (staggering balance problems) depression, poor memory, breathlessness, headaches, and pale skin, among others, may be experienced, especially in people over age 60. Vitamin B deficiency can also cause symptoms of mania and psychosis. The main type of vitamin B deficiency anemia is pernicious anemia. It is characterized by a triad of symptoms: Vitamin B deficiency is most commonly caused by low intakes, but can also result from malabsorption, certain intestinal disorders, low presence of binding proteins, and use of certain medications. Vegans—people who choose to not consume any animal-sourced foods—are at risk because plant-sourced foods do not contain the vitamin in sufficient amounts to prevent vitamin deficiency. Vegetarians—people who will consume dairy products and eggs, but not the flesh of any animal—are also at risk. Vitamin B deficiency has been observed in between 40% to 80% of the vegetarian population who are not also consuming a vitamin B supplement or vitamin fortified foods. In Hong Kong and India, vitamin B deficiency has been found in roughly 80% of the vegan population. As with vegetarians, vegans can avoid this by consuming a dietary supplement or eating B fortified foods such as cereals, plant-based milks, and nutritional yeast as a regular part of their diet. The elderly are at increased risk because they tend to produce less stomach acid as they age, a condition known as achlorhydria, thereby increasing their probability of B deficiency due to reduced absorption.", "The U.S. Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) for pregnancy is 2.6 μg/day, for lactation 2.8 μg/day. Determination of these values was based on RDA of 2.4 μg/day for non-pregnant women plus what will be transferred to the fetus during pregnancy and what will be delivered in breast milk. However, looking at the same scientific evidence, the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) sets adequate intake (AI) at 4.5μg/day for pregnancy and 5.0 μg/day for lactation. Low maternal vitamin B, defined as serum concentration less than 148 pmol/L, increases the risk of miscarriage, newborn low birth weight and preterm birth. During pregnancy the placenta concentrates B, so that newborn infants have a higher serum concentration than their mothers. What the mother-to-be consumes during the pregnancy is more important than her liver tissue stores, as it is recently absorbed vitamin content that more effectively reaches the placenta. Women who consume a small percentage of their diet from animal-sourced foods or who by choice consume a vegetarian or vegan diet are", "Various methods of gastric bypass or gastric restriction surgery are used to treat morbid obesity. Roux-en-Y gastric bypass surgery (RYGB) but not sleeve gastric", "According to one review: \"At present, no ‘gold standard’ test exists for the diagnosis of vitamin B12 deficiency and as a consequence, the diagnosis requires consideration of both the clinical state of the patient and the results of investigations.\" The vitamin deficiency is typically suspected when a routine complete blood count shows anemia with an elevated MCV. In addition, on the peripheral blood smear, macrocytes and hypersegmented polymorphonuclear leukocytes may be seen. Diagnosis is supported based on vitamin B blood levels below 120–180 pmol/L (170–250 pg/mL)", "", "Severe vitamin B deficiency is corrected with frequent intramuscular injections of large doses of the vitamin, followed by maintenance doses of injections or oral dosing at longer intervals. One guideline specified intramuscular injections of 1000 micrograms", "For cyanide poisoning, a large amount of hydroxocobalamin may be given intravenously and sometimes in combination with sodium", "The U.S. Institute of Medicine (renamed National Academy of Medicine in 2015) updated estimated average requirement (EAR) and recommended dietary allowance (RDA) for vitamin B in 1998. The EAR for vitamin B for women and men ages 14 and up is 2.0μg/day; the RDA is 2.4μg/day. RDA is higher than EAR so as to identify amounts that will cover people with higher than average requirements. RDA for pregnancy equals 2.6μg/day. RDA for lactation equals 2.8 μg/day. For infants up to 12 months the adequate intake (AI) is 0.4–0.5μg/day. (AIs are established when there is insufficient information to determine EARs and RDAs.) For children ages 1–13 years the RDA increases with age from 0.9 to 1.8μg/day. Because 10 to 30 percent of older people may be unable to effectively absorb vitamin B naturally occurring in foods, it is advisable for those older than 50 years to meet their RDA mainly by consuming foods fortified with vitamin B or a supplement containing vitamin B. As for safety, tolerable upper intake levels (known as ULs) are set for vitamins and minerals when evidence is sufficient. In the case of vitamin B there is no UL, as there is no human data for adverse effects from high doses. Collectively the EARs, RDAs,", "Most omnivorous people in developed countries obtain enough vitamin B from consuming animal products including meat, fish, eggs, and milk. Absorption is promoted by intrinsic factor, a glycoprotein; deficiencies of intrinsic factor can lead to a vitamin deficient state despite adequate consumption, as can low postprandial stomach acid production, a common failing in the aged. Vegan sources in the common food supply are rare, hence the recommendations to consume a dietary supplement or fortified foods.", "Vitamin B is produced in nature by certain bacteria, and archaea. It is synthesized by some bacteria in the gut flora in humans and other animals, but humans cannot absorb this as it is made in the colon, downstream from the small intestine, where the absorption of most nutrients occurs. Ruminants, such as cows and sheep, are foregut fermenters, meaning that plant food undergoes microbial fermentation in the rumen before entering the true stomach (abomasum), and thus they are absorbing vitamin B produced by bacteria. Other mammalian species", "Animals store vitamin B in the liver and muscles and some pass the vitamin into their eggs and milk; meat, liver, eggs and milk are therefore sources of the vitamin for other animals as well as humans. For", "Natural plant and algae sources of vitamin B include fermented plant foods such as tempeh and seaweed-derived foods such as nori and laver. Other types of algae are rich in B, with some species, such as \"Porphyra yezoensis\", containing as much cobalamin as liver. Methylcobalamin has been", "Vegan advocacy organizations, among others, recommend that every vegan either consume B from fortified foods or supplements. Foods for which vitamin B-fortified versions are available include breakfast cereals, plant-derived milk substitutes such as'soy milk' and 'oat milk,' energy bars, and", "Vitamin B is included in multivitamin pills; in some countries grain-based foods such as bread and pasta are fortified with B. In the US, non-prescription products can be purchased providing up to 5,000μg each, and it is a common ingredient in energy drinks and energy shots, usually at many times the recommended dietary allowance of B. The vitamin can also be a prescription product via injection or other means.", "Injection of hydroxocobalamin is often used if digestive absorption is impaired, but this course of action may not be necessary with high-dose oral supplements (such as 0.5–1.0mg or more), because with large quantities of the vitamin taken orally, even the 1% to", "Pseudovitamin-B refers to B-like analogues that are biologically inactive in humans. Most cyanobacteria, including \"Spirulina\", and some algae, such as \"Porphyra tenera\" (used to make a dried seaweed food called nori in Japan), have been found to contain mostly pseudovitamin-B instead of biologically active B. These pseudo-vitamin compounds can be found in some types of", "", "Gastric acid is needed to release vitamin B from protein for absorption. Reduced secretion of gastric acid and pepsin produced by H blocker or proton-pump inhibitor (PPI) drugs can reduce absorption of protein-bound (dietary) vitamin B, although not of supplemental vitamin B. H-receptor antagonist examples include cimetidine, famotidine,", "Reduced serum levels of vitamin B occur in up to 30% of people taking long-term anti-diabetic metformin. Deficiency does not develop", "Certain medications can decrease the absorption of orally consumed vitamin B, including: colchicine, extended-release potassium products, and antibiotics such as gentamicin, neomycin and tobramycin. Anti-seizure medications phenobarbital,", "B is the most chemically complex of all the vitamins. The structure of B is based on a corrin ring, which is similar to the porphyrin ring found in heme. The central metal ion is cobalt. Four of the six coordination sites are provided by the corrin ring, and a fifth by a dimethylbenzimidazole group. The sixth coordination site, the reactive center, is variable, being a cyano group (–CN), a hydroxyl group (–OH), a methyl group (–CH) or a 5′-deoxyadenosyl group. Historically, the covalent C-Co bond is one of the first examples of carbon-metal bonds to be discovered in biology. The hydrogenases and, by necessity, enzymes associated with cobalt utilization, involve metal-carbon bonds. Animals have the ability to convert cyanocobalamin and hydroxocobalamin to the bioactive forms adenosylcobalamin and methylcobalamin by means of enzymatically replacing the cyano or hydroxo groups.", "The four vitamers of B (see figure) are all deeply red-colored crystals due to the color of the cobalt-corrin complex. Each vitamer has a different R-group, also referred to as a ligand. Reviews of what is reported in the literature about cobalamin chemistry, transport, and processing suggests that there is unlikely to be any advantage to the use of adenosylcobalamin or methylcobalamin for treatment of vitamin B deficiency over using cyanocobalamin or hydroxocobalamin except possibly in very rare", "", "Vitamin B functions as a coenzyme, meaning that its presence is required for enzyme-catalyzed reactions. Listed here are the three classes of enzymes that require B to function: In humans, two major coenzyme B-dependent enzyme families corresponding to the first two reaction types, are known. These are typified by the following two enzymes: Methylmalonyl Coenzyme A mutase (MUT) is an isomerase enzyme which uses the AdoB form and reaction type 1 to convert L-methylmalonyl-CoA to succinyl-CoA, an important step in the catabolic breakdown of some amino acids into succinyl-CoA, which then enters energy production via the citric acid cycle. This functionality is lost in vitamin B deficiency, and can be measured clinically as an increased serum methylmalonic acid (MMA) concentration. The MUT function is necessary for proper myelin synthesis. Based on animal research, it is thought that the increased", "", "Food B is absorbed by two processes. The first is a vitamin B-specific intestinal mechanism using intrinsic factor through which 1–2 micrograms can be absorbed every few hours, by which most food consumption of the vitamin is absorbed. The second is a passive diffusion process. The human physiology of active vitamin B absorption from food is complex. Protein-bound vitamin B must be released from the proteins by the action of digestive proteases in both the stomach and small intestine. Gastric acid releases the vitamin from food particles; therefore antacid and acid-blocking medications (especially proton-pump inhibitors) may inhibit absorption of B.", "How fast B levels change depends on the balance between how much B is obtained from the diet, how much is secreted and how much is absorbed. The total amount of vitamin B stored in body is about 2–5mg in adults. Around 50% of this is stored in the liver. Approximately 0.1% of this is lost", "", "Vitamin B is derived from a tetrapyrrolic structural framework created by the enzymes deaminase and cosynthetase which transform aminolevulinic acid via porphobilinogen and hydroxymethylbilane to uroporphyrinogen III. The latter is the first macrocyclic intermediate common to heme, chlorophyll, siroheme and B itself. Later steps, especially the incorporation of the additional methyl groups of its structure, were investigated using C methyl-labelled S-adenosyl", "Industrial production of B is achieved through fermentation of selected microorganisms. \"Streptomyces griseus\", a bacterium once thought to be a fungus, was the commercial source of vitamin B for many years. The species \"Pseudomonas denitrificans\" and \"Propionibacterium freudenreichii\" subsp. \"shermanii\" are more commonly used", "The complete laboratory synthesis of B was achieved by Robert Burns Woodward and Albert Eschenmoser in 1972, and remains one of the classic feats of organic synthesis, requiring the effort of 91 postdoctoral fellows (mostly at Harvard) and 12 PhD students (at ETH Zurich) from 19 nations. The synthesis constitutes a formal total", "Five people have been awarded Nobel Prizes for direct and indirect studies of vitamin B: George Whipple, George Minot and William Murphy (1934), Alexander R. Todd (1957), and Dorothy Hodgkin (1964).", "Between 1849 and 1887, Thomas Addison described a case of pernicious anemia, William Osler and William Gardner first described a case of neuropathy, Hayem", "During the 1920s, George Whipple discovered that ingesting large amounts of liver seemed to most rapidly cure the anemia of blood loss in dogs, and hypothesized that eating liver might treat pernicious anemia. Edwin Cohn prepared a liver extract that was 50 to 100 times more potent in treating", "While working at the Bureau of Dairy Industry, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Mary Shaw Shorb was assigned work on the bacterial strain \"Lactobacillus lactis\" Dorner (LLD), which was used to make yogurt and other cultured dairy products. The culture medium for LLD required liver extract. Shorb knew that the same liver extract was used to treat pernicious anemia (her father-in-law had died from the disease), and concluded that LLD could be developed as an assay method to identify the active compound. While at the University of", "Industrial production of vitamin B is achieved through fermentation of selected microorganisms. As noted above, the completely synthetic laboratory synthesis of", "In the 1970s John A. Myers, a physician residing in Baltimore, developed a program of injecting vitamins and minerals intravenously for various medical conditions. The formula included 1000 μg of cyanocobalamin. This came to be known as Myers' cocktail. After his death in 1984, other physicians and naturopaths took up prescribing “intravenous micro-nutrient therapy” with unsubstantiated health claims for treating fatigue, low energy, stress, anxiety, migraine, depression, immunocompromised, promoting weight loss and more. However, other than a report on case studies there are no benefits confirmed in the scientific literature. Healthcare practitioners at clinics and spas prescribe versions of these intravenous combination products, but also intramuscular injections of just vitamin B. A Mayo Clinic review concluded that there is no solid evidence that vitamin B injections provide an energy boost or aid weight loss. There is evidence that for elderly people, physicians often repeatedly prescribe and administer cyanocobalamin injections inappropriately, evidenced by the majority of subjects in one large study either having had normal serum concentrations or had not been tested prior to the injections." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Career.", "Awards." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Lerdorf was born on Disko Island in Greenland and moved to Denmark in his early years. Lerdorf's family moved to Canada from Denmark in 1980, and later moved to King City, Ontario in 1983. He graduated from King City Secondary School in 1988, and in 1993 he graduated from the University of Waterloo with a Bachelor of Applied Science in Systems Design Engineering. He contributed to the Apache HTTP Server and he added the LIMIT clause to the mSQL DBMS. A variant of this LIMIT clause had already been around for a decade in mainframe relational database management systems (like Oracle Rdb running on VAX/VMS, formerly from Digital Equipment Corporation), but apparently it had not yet been picked up by the emerging PC-based databases. It was later adapted by several other SQL-compatible DBMS. He released the first version of PHP in 1995.", "From September 2002 to November 2009 Lerdorf was employed by Yahoo! Inc. as an Infrastructure Architecture Engineer. In 2010, he joined WePay in order to develop their application programming interface. Throughout 2011 he was a roving consultant for startups. On 22 February 2012 he announced on Twitter that he had joined Etsy. In July 2013 Rasmus joined Jelastic as a senior advisor to help them with the creation of new technology. Lerdorf is a frequent speaker at Open Source conferences around the world. During his keynote presentation at OSCMS 2007, he presented a security vulnerability in each of the projects represented at the conference that year. Lerdorf also appeared at the WeAreDevelopers Conferences 2017 and 2019, making a speech on the history of PHP, the new PHP 7 release in 2017, and the 25 years of PHP..", "In 2003, Lerdorf was named in the \"MIT Technology Review\" TR100 as one of the top 100 innovators in the world under the age of 35." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "The Mauser BK 27 is used in the Panavia Tornado, the Alpha Jet, the JAS 39 Gripen, and the Eurofighter Typhoon. At one time the USAF was considering to license its production for the F-35 Lightning II, but instead elected for the GAU-22/A. Rheinmetall has also developed remote controlled naval versions, the MN 27 GS and the MLG 27 fully automatic naval guns, which are installed on many ships of the German Navy. Ninety-nine MLG 27s have been ordered by the German Navy so far. The cannon is a single-barrel, high performance, breech-cylinder gun operated by a fully automatic electrically fired gas-operated system at a selective rate of 1000 or 1700 rounds per minute(+/− 100 rpm). The Mauser BK 27 utilizes pyrotechnic cocking charges to cycle the action. The BK27 has a 3-4 times lower nominal fire rate than the M61 Vulcan, but its fire rate is constant throughout firing because the cannon do not need to start spinning the barrel/barrels. As a result, in conjunction with the higher caliber, the Mauser BK 27 fires in the first 0.5 s 4 kg of projectiles in contrast to the 2 kg of the M61 Vulcan which also needs about 25 kW electrical power on the maximum fire rate. The gun mainly fires mine shells as these have the best effect against aircraft, there are also several types of armor piercing shells like the frangible armour piercing shell named Fap 27 mm x 145 mm ammunition/peb327 (DM103)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Current layout.", "Modernisation.", "Alasdair Gray mural." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "During the modernisation of the underground system between 1977 and 1980, Hillhead subway station went through major rebuilding. Previously the station had a single island platform serving both tracks; the station was rebuilt with a much more spacious ticket office, escalators and an additional side platform. Hillhead is one of the stations mentioned in Cliff Hanley's song \"The Glasgow Underground\". The song reflects the traditional local pronunciation of the name, \"Hillheed\".", "There are three automated ticket machines located in the entrance way, which leads up to an information centre where passengers may buy tickets of longer duration and get more information on transport in Glasgow. Then there is the ticket office which is manned by one staff member at a time. There are six turnstiles into which a ticket must be entered in order to pass. There are three for entering and three for exiting the subway. Two escalators and one staircase provide access to the two platforms, and maps are present to guide passengers to the correct platform for their destination. This is the only station on the network to feature a retail unit inside the station. Beside the ticket office, there is a Costa Pronto store. The platform features, on one side, a perspex barrier with a handrail which was built for safety reasons.", "Hillhead was the first station to be upgraded as part of SPT's plan to modernise the Subway at a cost of £1.5million. Under the plans, the escalators were replaced and the interior design was refreshed. Lighting and facilities for disabled people were also be improved. In addition, SPT commissioned author and artist Alasdair Gray to create a piece of public artwork for the station. The improvement work was completed in 2012.", "On 16 September 2012 a mural that depicts the surrounding area was unveiled in the station's foyer. The work is by Alasdair Gray, and was developed over fourteen months with artist Nichol Wheatley using ceramics. Gray stated, \"The station is in the centre of Hillhead, which I know well. Kelvingrove Art Gallery and Museum, the old BBC building and Botanic Gardens had been among my favourite places since the age of eleven. I have lived and worked in the district since 1969, and I knew I would enjoy depicting it, and those who use the subway, in a symbolic and humorous way.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Practical considerations.", "Operational amplifiers parameter requirements.", "Component specification.", "Input bias currents and input offset.", "Power supply effects.", "Supply noise.", "Using power supply currents in the signal path.", "Amplifiers.", "Differential amplifier (difference amplifier).", "Inverting amplifier.", "Non-inverting amplifier.", "Voltage follower (unity buffer amplifier).", "Summing amplifier.", "Instrumentation amplifier.", "Oscillators.", "Wien bridge oscillator.", "Filters.", "Comparator.", "Integration and differentiation.", "Inverting integrator.", "Inverting differentiator.", "Synthetic elements.", "Inductance gyrator.", "Negative impedance converter (NIC).", "Non-linear.", "Precision rectifier.", "Logarithmic output.", "Exponential output." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "In order for a particular device to be used in an application, it must satisfy certain requirements. The operational amplifier must With these requirements satisfied, the op-amp is considered ideal, and one can use the method of virtual ground to quickly and intuitively grasp the 'behavior' of any of the op-amp circuits below.", "Resistors used in practical solid-state op-amp circuits are typically in the kΩ range. Resistors much greater than 1 MΩ cause excessive thermal noise and make the circuit operation susceptible to significant errors due to bias or leakage currents.", "Practical operational amplifiers draw a small current from each of their inputs due to bias requirements (in the case of bipolar junction transistor-based inputs) or leakage (in the case of MOSFET-based inputs). These currents flow through the resistances connected to the inputs and produce small voltage drops across those resistances. Appropriate design of the feedback network can alleviate problems associated with input bias currents and common-mode gain, as explained below. The heuristic rule is to ensure that the impedance \"looking out\" of each input terminal is identical. To the extent that the input bias currents do not match, there will be an effective input offset voltage present, which can lead to problems in circuit performance. Many commercial op-amp offerings provide a method for tuning the operational amplifier to balance the inputs (e.g., \"offset null\" or \"balance\" pins that can interact with an external voltage source attached to a potentiometer). Alternatively, a tunable external voltage can be added to one of the inputs in order to balance out the offset effect. In cases where a design calls for one input to be short-circuited to ground, that short circuit can be replaced with a variable resistance that can be tuned to mitigate the offset problem. Operational amplifiers using MOSFET-based input stages have input leakage currents that will be, in many designs, negligible.", "Although power supplies are not indicated in the (simplified) operational amplifier designs below, they are nonetheless present and can be critical in operational amplifier circuit design.", "Power supply imperfections (e.g., power signal ripple, non-zero source impedance) may lead to noticeable deviations from ideal operational amplifier behavior. For example, operational amplifiers have a specified power supply rejection ratio that indicates how well the output can reject signals that appear on the power supply inputs. Power supply inputs are often noisy in large designs because the power supply is used by nearly every component in the design, and inductance effects prevent current from being instantaneously delivered to every component at once. As a consequence, when a component requires large injections of current (e.g., a digital component that is frequently switching from one state to another), nearby components can experience sagging at their connection to the power supply. This problem can be mitigated with appropriate use of bypass capacitors connected across each power supply pin and ground. When bursts of current are required by a component, the component can \"bypass\" the power supply by receiving the current directly from the nearby capacitor (which is then slowly recharged by the power supply).", "Additionally, current drawn into the operational amplifier from the power supply can be used as inputs to external circuitry that augment the capabilities of the operational amplifier. For example, an operational amplifier may not be fit for a particular high-gain application because its output would be required to generate signals outside of the safe range generated by the amplifier. In this case, an external push–pull amplifier can be controlled by the current into and out of the operational amplifier. Thus, the operational amplifier may itself operate within its factory specified bounds while still allowing the negative feedback path to include a large output signal well outside of those bounds.", "The first example is the differential amplifier, from which many of the other applications can be derived, including the inverting, non-inverting, and summing amplifier, the voltage follower, integrator, differentiator, and gyrator.", "Amplifies the difference in voltage between its inputs. The circuit shown computes the difference of two voltages, multiplied by some gain factor. The output voltage Or, expressed as a function of the common-mode input \"V\" and difference input \"V\": the output voltage is In order for this circuit to produce a signal proportional to the voltage difference of the input terminals, the coefficient of the \"V\" term (the common-mode gain) must be zero, or With this constraint in place, the common-mode rejection ratio of this circuit is infinitely large, and the output where the simple expression \"R\" / \"R\" represents the closed-loop gain of the differential amplifier. The special case when the closed-loop gain is unity is a differential follower, with", "An inverting amplifier is a special case of the differential amplifier in which that circuit's non-inverting input \"V\" is grounded, and inverting input \"V\" is identified with \"V\" above. The closed-loop gain is \"R\" / \"R\", hence The simplified circuit above is like the differential amplifier in the limit of \"R\" and \"R\" very small. In this case, though, the circuit will be susceptible to input bias current drift because of the mismatch between \"R\" and \"R\". To intuitively see the gain equation above, calculate the current in \"R\": then recall that this same current must be passing through \"R\", therefore (because \"V\" = \"V\" = 0): A mechanical analogy is a seesaw, with the \"V\" node (between \"R\" and \"R\") as the fulcrum, at ground potential. \"V\" is at a length \"R\" from the fulcrum; \"V\" is at a length \"R\". When \"V\" descends \"below ground\", the output \"V\" rises proportionately to balance the seesaw, and \"vice versa\". As the negative input of the op-amp acts as a virtual ground, the input impedance of this circuit is equal to \"R\".", "A non-inverting amplifier is a special case of the differential amplifier in which that circuit's inverting input \"V\" is grounded, and non-inverting input \"V\" is identified with \"V\" above, with \"R\" ≫ \"R\". Referring to the circuit immediately above, To intuitively see this gain equation, use the virtual ground technique to calculate the current in resistor \"R\": then recall that this same current must be passing through \"R\", therefore: Unlike the inverting amplifier, a non-inverting amplifier cannot have a gain of less than 1. A mechanical analogy is a class-2 lever, with one terminal of \"R\" as the fulcrum, at ground potential. \"V\" is at a length \"R\" from the fulcrum; \"V\" is at a length \"R\" further along. When \"V\" ascends \"above ground\", the output \"V\" rises proportionately with the lever. The input impedance of the simplified non-inverting amplifier is high: where \"Z\" is the op-amp's input impedance to differential signals, and \"A\" is the open-loop voltage gain of the op-amp (which varies with frequency), and \"B\" is the feedback factor (the fraction of the output signal that returns to the input). In the case of the ideal op-amp, with \"A\" infinite and \"Z\" infinite, the input impedance is also infinite. In this case, though, the circuit will be susceptible to input bias current drift because of the mismatch between the impedances driving the \"V\" and \"V\" op-amp inputs. The feedback loop similarly decreases the output impedance: where \"Z\" is the output impedance with feedback, and \"Z\" is the open-loop output impedance.", "Used as a buffer amplifier to eliminate loading effects (e.g., connecting a device with a high source impedance to a device with a low input impedance). Due to the strong (i.e., unity gain) feedback and certain non-ideal characteristics of real operational amplifiers, this feedback system is prone to have poor stability margins. Consequently, the system may be unstable when connected to sufficiently capacitive loads. In these cases, a lag compensation network (e.g., connecting the load to the voltage follower through a resistor) can be used to restore stability. The manufacturer data sheet for the operational amplifier may provide guidance for the selection of components in external compensation networks. Alternatively, another operational amplifier can be chosen that has more appropriate internal compensation. The input and output impedance are affected by the feedback loop in the same way as the non-inverting amplifier, with \"B\"=1.", "A summing amplifier sums several (weighted) voltages:", "Combines very high input impedance, high common-mode rejection, low DC offset, and other properties used in making very accurate, low-noise measurements", "", "Produces a very low distortion sine wave. Uses negative temperature compensation in the form of a light bulb or diode.", "Operational amplifiers can be used in construction of active filters, providing high-pass, low-pass, band-pass, reject and delay functions. The high input impedance and gain of an op-amp allow straightforward calculation of element values, allowing accurate implementation of any desired filter topology with little concern for the loading effects of stages in the filter or of subsequent stages. However, the frequencies at which active filters can be implemented is limited; when the behavior of the amplifiers departs significantly from the ideal behavior assumed in elementary design of the filters, filter performance is degraded.", "An operational amplifier can, if necessary, be forced to act as a comparator. The smallest difference between the input voltages will be amplified enormously, causing the output to swing to nearly the supply voltage. However, it is usually better to use a dedicated comparator for this purpose, as its output has a higher slew rate and can reach either power supply rail. Some op-amps have clamping diodes on the input that prevent use as a comparator.", "", "The integrator is mostly used in analog computers, analog-to-digital converters and wave-shaping circuits. Integrates (and inverts) the input signal \"V\"(\"t\") over a time interval \"t\", \"t\" < \"t\" < \"t\", yielding an output voltage at time \"t\" = \"t\" of where \"V\"(\"t\") represents the output voltage of the circuit at time \"t\" = \"t\". This is the same as saying that the output voltage changes over time \"t\" < \"t\" < \"t\" by an amount proportional to the time integral of the input voltage: This circuit can be viewed as a low-pass electronic filter, one with a single pole at DC (i.e., where formula_27) and with gain. In a practical application one encounters a significant difficulty: unless the capacitor \"C\" is periodically discharged, the output voltage will eventually drift outside of the operational amplifier's operating range. This can be due to any combination of: A slightly more complex circuit can ameliorate the second two problems, and in some cases, the first as well. Here, the feedback resistor R provides a discharge path for capacitor C, while the series resistor at the non-inverting input R, when of the correct value, alleviates input bias current and common-mode problems. That value is the parallel resistance of R and R, or using the shorthand notation ||: The relationship between input signal and output signal is now", "Differentiates the (inverted) signal over time: where formula_31 and formula_32 are functions of time. The transfer function of the inverting differentiator has a single zero in the origin (i.e., where angular frequency formula_27). The high-pass characteristics of a differentiating amplifier can lead to stability challenges when the circuit is used in an analog servo loop (e.g., in a PID controller with a significant derivative gain). In particular, as a root locus analysis would show, increasing feedback gain will drive a closed-loop pole toward marginal stability at the DC zero introduced by the differentiator.", "", "Simulates an inductor (i.e., provides inductance without the use of a possibly costly inductor). The circuit exploits the fact that the current flowing through a capacitor behaves through time as the voltage across an inductor. The capacitor used in this circuit is smaller than the inductor it simulates and its capacitance is less subject to changes in value due to environmental changes. Applications where this circuit may be superior to a physical inductor are simulating a variable inductance or simulating a very large inductance. This circuit is of limited use in applications relying on the back EMF property of an inductor as this effect will be limited in a gyrator circuit to the voltage supplies of the op-amp.", "Creates a resistor having a negative value for any signal generator. In this case, the ratio between the input voltage and the input current (thus the input resistance) is given by: In general, the components formula_35, formula_36, and formula_37 need not be resistors; they can be any component that can be described with an impedance.", "", "The voltage drop V across the forward biased diode in the circuit of a passive rectifier is undesired. In this active version, the problem is solved by connecting the diode in the negative feedback loop. The op-amp compares the output voltage across the load with the input voltage and increases its own output voltage with the value of V. As a result, the voltage drop V is compensated and the circuit behaves very nearly as an ideal (\"super\") diode with V = 0 V. The circuit has speed limitations at high frequency because of the slow negative feedback and due to the low slew rate of many non-ideal op-amps.", "This implementation does not consider temperature stability and other non-ideal effects.", "where formula_45 is the saturation current and formula_46 is the. when the voltage is greater than zero, it can be approximated by: The output voltage is given by:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Prevention.", "Treatment." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Prevention of diabetic foot may include optimising metabolic control via the regulation of blood glucose levels; identification and screening of people at high risk for diabetic foot ulceration. especially those with advanced painless neuropathy; and patient education in order to promote foot self-examination and foot care knowledge. Patients would be taught routinely to inspect their feet for hyperkeratosis, fungal infection, skin lesions and foot deformities. Control of footwear is also important as repeated trauma from tight shoes can be a triggering factor, especially where peripheral neuropathy is present. Evidence is limited that low-quality patient education courses have a long-term preventative impact. \"Of all methods proposed to prevent diabetic foot ulcers, only foot temperature-guided avoidance therapy was found beneficial in RCTs\" according to a meta-analysis.", "Treatment of diabetic foot ulceration can be challenging and prolonged; it may include orthopaedic appliances, surgery and antimicrobial drugs and topical dressings. Most diabetic foot infections (DFIs) require treatment with systemic antibiotics. The choice of the initial antibiotic treatment depends on several factors such as the severity of the infection, whether the patient has received another antibiotic treatment for it, and whether the infection has been caused by a micro-organism that is known to be resistant to usual antibiotics (e.g. MRSA). The objective of antibiotic therapy is to stop the infection and ensure it does not spread. It is unclear whether any particular antibiotic is better than any other for curing infection or avoiding amputation. One trial suggested that ertapenem with or without vancomycin is more effective than tigecycline for resolving DFIs. It is also generally unclear whether different antibiotics are associated with more or fewer adverse effects. It is recommended however that the antibiotics used for treatment of diabetic foot ulcers should be used after deep tissue culture of the wound. Tissue culture and not pus swab culture should be done. Antibiotics should be used at correct doses in order to prevent the emergence of drug resistance. It is unclear if local antibiotics improve outcomes after surgery." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Influence." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Pauwels and Bergier worked on the book over five years, compiling voluminous documentation incorporated into the Bibliothèque nationale de France as \"Fonds Pauwels\" in 2007. Heavily influenced by Charles Fort's work and ideas, the authors' primary aim was to arouse the curiosity of their readership, stating \"Let us repeat that there will be a lot of silliness in our book, but this matters little if the book stirs up a few vocations and, to a certain degree, prepares broader tracks for research\".", "In a 2004 article for \"Skeptic\", the author Jason Colavito wrote that the book's tales of ancient astronauts predated Erich von Däniken's works on the topic, and that the ideas are so close to the fictional works of H. P. Lovecraft such as \"The Call of Cthulhu\" or \"At the Mountains of Madness\" (published in 1928 and 1931, respectively) that, according to Colavito, it is probable that Lovecraft's fiction directly inspired the book. The book is the origin of the conspiracy theory that the Vril Society and the Thule Society were the philosophical precursors to the Nazi Party. The book is the origin of the claims of a fictional Maria Orsic, a Vienna-born Croatian woman who was supposedly involved with the Vril Society (\"Vril Gesellschaft\") and vanished in 1945, going to \"Aldebaran\". The mythology of Maria Orsic has spread in the internet age, particularly among those inclined to Esoteric Nazism. The fifth track on The Flaming Lips album \"Yoshimi Battles the Pink Robots\" is called \"In the Morning of the Magicians\", referencing the novel." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Origins and development.", "Trading port.", "Industrialisation.", "Sanitation.", "Heraldry.", "Government and politics.", "Local government.", "Central government.", "Scottish Parliament.", "UK Westminster Parliament.", "Referendums.", "Voter turnout.", "Geography.", "Location.", "Climate.", "Demographics.", "Culture.", "Recreation.", "Music scene.", "Media.", "Religion.", "Language.", "Architecture.", "Economy.", "Transport.", "Public transport.", "Shipping.", "Roads.", "Airports.", "Housing.", "Healthcare.", "Education.", "Sport.", "Football.", "Rugby union.", "Rugby league.", "Ice hockey.", "Swimming.", "Basketball.", "Other sports.", "2014 Commonwealth Games.", "Twin towns and sister cities.", "Partnerships." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The name Glasgow is Brittonic in origin, with a first element being \"glas\", meaning \"grey-green, grey-blue\", and the second \"*cöü\", \"hollow\" (c.f. Welsh \"glas-cau\"), giving a meaning of \"green-hollow\". The green-hollow may refer to the ravine to the east of Glasgow Cathedral. A popular but mistaken idea is that the name Glasgow can be translated as \"dear green place\".", "", "The area around Glasgow has hosted communities for millennia, with the River Clyde providing a natural location for fishing. The Romans later built outposts in the area and, to keep Roman Britannia separate from the Celtic and Pictish Caledonia, constructed the Antonine Wall. Items from the wall, such as altars from Roman forts like Balmuildy, can be found at the Hunterian Museum today. Glasgow itself was reputed to have been founded by the Christian missionary Saint Mungo in the 6th century. He established a church on the Molendinar Burn, where the present Glasgow Cathedral stands, and in the following years Glasgow became a religious centre. Glasgow grew over the following centuries. The Glasgow Fair reportedly began in the year 1190. The first bridge over the River Clyde at Glasgow was recorded from around 1285, giving its name to the Briggait area of the city, forming the main North-South route over the", "After the Acts of Union in 1707, Scotland gained further access to the vast markets of the new British Empire, and Glasgow became prominent as a hub of international trade to and from the Americas, especially in sugar, tobacco, cotton, and manufactured goods. The city's \"Tobacco Lords\" created a", "The opening of the Monkland Canal and basin linking to the Forth and Clyde Canal at Port Dundas in 1795, facilitated access to the extensive iron-ore and coal mines in Lanarkshire. After extensive river engineering projects to dredge and deepen the River Clyde as far as Glasgow, shipbuilding became a major industry on the upper stretches of the river, pioneered by industrialists such as Robert Napier, John Elder, George Thomson, Sir William Pearce and Sir Alfred Yarrow. The River Clyde also became an important source of inspiration for artists, such as John Atkinson Grimshaw, John Knox, James Kay, Sir Muirhead Bone, Robert Eadie, Stanley Spencer and L.S. Lowry, willing to depict the new industrial era and the modern world. Glasgow's population had surpassed that of Edinburgh by 1821. The development of civic institutions included the City of Glasgow Police in 1800, one of the first municipal police forces in the world. Despite the crisis caused by the City of Glasgow", "With the population growing, the first scheme to provide a public water supply was by the Glasgow Company in 1806. A second company was formed in 1812, and the two merged in 1838, but there was some dissatisfaction with the quality of the water supplied. The Gorbals Gravitation Water Company began supplying water to residents living to the south of the River Clyde in 1846, obtained from reservoirs, which gave 75,000 people a constant water supply, but others were not so fortunate, and some 4,000 died in an outbreak of cholera in 1848/1849. This led to the development of the Glasgow Corporation Water Works, with a project to raise the level of Loch Katrine and to convey clean water by gravity along a aqueduct to a holding reservoir at Milngavie, and then by pipes into the city. The project cost £980,000 and was opened by Queen Victoria in 1859. The engineer for the project was John Frederick Bateman while James Morris Gale became the resident engineer for the city section of the project, and subsequently became Engineer in Chief for Glasgow Water Commissioners. He oversaw several improvements during his tenure,", "The coat of arms of the City of Glasgow was granted to the royal burgh by the Lord Lyon on 25 October 1866. It incorporates a number of symbols and emblems associated with the life of Glasgow's patron saint, Mungo, which had been used on official seals prior to that date. The emblems represent miracles supposed to have been performed by Mungo and are listed in the traditional rhyme: St Mungo is also said to have preached a sermon containing the words \"Lord, Let Glasgow flourish by the preaching of the word and the praising of thy name\". This was abbreviated to \"Let Glasgow Flourish\" and adopted as the city's motto. In 1450, John Stewart, the first Lord Provost", "", "Although Glasgow Corporation had been a pioneer in the municipal socialist movement from the late-nineteenth century, since the Representation of the People Act 1918, Glasgow increasingly supported left-wing ideas and politics at a national level. The city council was controlled by the Labour Party for over thirty years, since the decline of the Progressives. Since 2007, when local government elections in Scotland began to use the single transferable vote rather than the first-past-the-post system, the dominance of the Labour Party within the city started to decline. As a result of the 2017 United Kingdom local elections, the SNP was able to form a minority administration ending Labour's thirty-seven years of uninterrupted control. In the aftermath of the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the German Revolution of 1918–19, the city's frequent strikes and militant organisations caused serious alarm at Westminster, with one uprising in January 1919 prompting the Liberal Prime Minister, David Lloyd George, to deploy 10,000 soldiers and tanks on the city's streets. A huge demonstration in the city's George Square on 31 January ended in violence after the Riot Act was read. Industrial", "Since Glasgow is covered and operates under two separate central governments, the devolved Scottish Parliament and UK Government, they determine various matters that Glasgow City Council is not responsible for.", "The Glasgow electoral region of the Scottish Parliament covers the Glasgow City council area, the Rutherglen area of the South Lanarkshire and a small eastern portion of Renfrewshire. It elects nine of the parliament's 73 first past the post constituency members and seven of the 56 additional members. Both kinds of member are known as Members of the Scottish Parliament (MSPs). The system of election is designed to produce a form of proportional representation. The first past", "Following reform of constituencies of the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom (Westminster) in 2005, which reduced the number of Scottish Members of Parliament (MPs), the current Westminster constituencies representing Glasgow are: Following the 2014 Scottish independence referendum, in which 53.49% of the electorate of Glasgow voted in favour of Scottish independence; the SNP won every constituency in the city at the 2015 general election, including a record-breaking 39.3% swing", "In the Scottish independence referendum, Glasgow voted \"Yes\" by a margin of 53.5% to 46.5%. In the Brexit referendum, results varied from constituency to constituency. Glasgow North recorded the biggest remain vote with 78% opting to stay in the EU whilst in Glasgow East this figure dropped to 56%. The city as a whole voted to remain in the EU, by 66.6% to 33.3%.", "Voter turnout has often been lower in Glasgow than in the rest of the United Kingdom. In the Referendum of 2014 turnout was 75%, the lowest in Scotland; in the Brexit referendum the city's voters, while joining the rest of Scotland in voting to", "Glasgow is located on the banks of the River Clyde, in West Central Scotland. Its second most important river is the Kelvin whose name was used in creating the title of Baron Kelvin and thereby ended up as the SI unit of temperature. On older maps Glasgow is shown within the area of the pre-1975 county of Lanarkshire; from 1975 to 1996 it appears within Strathclyde Region; more recent maps generally show Glasgow as one of 32 Council Areas in Scotland.", "Glasgow is located in", "Despite its northerly latitude, similar to that of Moscow, Glasgow's climate is classified as oceanic (Köppen \"Cfb\"). Data is available online for 3 official weather stations in the Glasgow area: Paisley, Abbotsinch and Bishopton. All are located to the West of the city centre. Owing to its westerly position and proximity to the Atlantic Ocean, Glasgow is one of Scotland's milder areas. Winter temperatures are usually higher than in most places of equal latitude away from the UK, due to the warming influence of the Gulf Stream. However, this results in less distinct seasons as compared to continental Western Europe. At Paisley, the annual precipitation averages. Glasgow has been named as the rainiest city of the UK, having an average of 170 days of rain a year. Winters are cool and overcast, with a January mean of, though lows sometimes fall below freezing. Since 2000 Glasgow has experienced few very cold, snowy and harsh winters where temperatures have fallen much below freezing. The most extreme instances have however seen temperatures around in the area. Snowfall accumulation is infrequent and short-lived. The spring months (March to May) are usually mild and often quite pleasant. Many of Glasgow's trees", "In the 1950s, the population of the City of Glasgow area peaked at 1,089,000. Glasgow was then one of the most densely populated cities in the world. After the 1960s, clearances of poverty-stricken inner city areas like the Gorbals and relocation to \"new towns\" such as East Kilbride and Cumbernauld led to population decline. In addition, the boundaries of the city were changed twice during the late-twentieth century, making direct comparisons difficult. The city continues to expand beyond the city council boundaries into surrounding suburban areas, encompassing around of all adjoining suburbs, if commuter towns and villages are included. There are two distinct definitions for the population of Glasgow: the Glasgow City Council Area (which lost the districts of Rutherglen and Cambuslang to South Lanarkshire in 1996) and the Greater Glasgow Urban Area (which includes the conurbation around the city). Glasgow's population influx in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries was related to economic expansion as well as internally generated growth with the vast majority of newcomers to the city from outside Scotland being from Ireland, especially the north western counties of Donegal, Fermanagh, Tyrone and Londonderry. In the 1881 UK Census, 83% of the population was born in Scotland, 13% in Ireland, 3% in England and 1% elsewhere. By 1911, the city was no longer gaining population by migration. The demographic percentages in the 1951 UK census were: born in Scotland 93%, Ireland 3%, England 3% and elsewhere 1%. In the early twentieth century, many Lithuanian refugees began to settle in Glasgow and at its height in the 1950s; there were around 10,000 in the Glasgow area. Many Italian Scots also settled in Glasgow, originating from provinces like Frosinone between Rome and Naples and Lucca in north-west Tuscany at this time, many originally working as \"Hokey Pokey\" men. Historical population and city limits In the 1960s and 1970s, many Asians also settled in Glasgow, mainly in the Pollokshields area. These number 30,000 Pakistanis, 15,000 Indians and 3,000 Bangladeshis as well as Chinese people, many of whom settled in the Garnethill area of the city. Since 2000, the UK government has pursued a policy of dispersal of asylum seekers to ease pressure on social housing in the London area. The city is also home to some 8,406 (1.42%) Poles. Since the United Kingdom Census 2001 the population decline has been reversed. The population was static for a time; but due to migration from other parts of Scotland as well as immigration from overseas, the population has begun to grow. The population of the city council area was 593,245 in 2011 and around 2,300,000 people live in the Glasgow travel to work area. This area is defined as consisting of over 10% of residents travelling into Glasgow to work and is without fixed boundaries. The population density of London following the 2011 census was recorded as 5,200 people per square kilometre, while 3,395 people per square kilometre were registered in Glasgow. In 1931, the population density was, highlighting the \"clearances\" into the suburbs and new towns that were built to reduce the size of one of Europe's most densely populated cities. In 2005, Glasgow had the lowest life expectancy of any UK city at 72.9 years. Much was made of this during the 2008 Glasgow East by-election. In 2008, a World Health Organization report about health inequalities, revealing that male life expectancy varied from 54 years in Calton to 82 years in nearby Lenzie, East Dunbartonshire.", "The city has many amenities for a wide range of cultural activities, from curling to opera and ballet and from football to art appreciation; it also has a large selection of museums that include those devoted to transport, religion, and modern art. Many of the city's cultural sites were celebrated in 1990 when Glasgow was designated European City of Culture. The city's principal municipal library, the Mitchell Library, has grown into one of the largest public reference libraries in Europe, currently housing some 1.3 million books, an extensive collection of newspapers and thousands of photographs and maps. Of academic libraries, Glasgow University Library started in the 15th century and is one of the oldest and largest libraries in Europe, with unique and distinctive collections of international status. Most of Scotland's national arts organisations are based in Glasgow, including Scottish Opera, Scottish Ballet, National Theatre of Scotland, Royal Scottish National Orchestra, BBC Scottish Symphony Orchestra and Scottish Youth Theatre. Glasgow has its own \"Poet Laureate\", a post created in 1999 for Edwin Morgan and occupied by Liz Lochhead from 2005 until 2011, when she stood down to take up the position of Scots Makar. Jim Carruth was appointed to the position of Poet Laureate for Glasgow in 2014 as part of the 2014 Commonwealth Games legacy. In 2013, PETA declared Glasgow to be the most vegan-friendly city in the UK.", "Glasgow is home to a variety of theatres including the King's Theatre, the Theatre Royal and the Citizens Theatre and is home to many museums and art galleries, the largest and most famous being the Kelvingrove Art Gallery and Museum, the Hunterian Museum and Art Gallery, the Gallery of Modern Art (GoMA) and the Burrell Collection. Most of the museums and galleries in Glasgow are publicly owned and free to enter. The city has hosted", "The city is home to numerous orchestras, ensembles and bands including those of Scottish Opera, Scottish Ballet, Royal Scottish National Orchestra, BBC Scottish Symphony Orchestra and related to the Royal Conservatoire of Scotland, the National Youth Orchestra of Scotland and the Universities and Colleges. Choirs of all type are well supported. Glasgow has many live music venues, pubs, and clubs. Some of the city's more well-known venues include the Glasgow Royal Concert Hall, The Hydro, the SECC, Glasgow Cathouse, The Art School,", "There have been hundreds of films made about Glasgow or in Glasgow. Both BBC Scotland and STV have their headquarters in Glasgow. Television programs filmed in Glasgow include \"Rab C. Nesbitt\", \"Taggart\", \"Tutti Frutti\", \"High Times\", \"River City\", \"City Lights\", \"Chewin' the Fat\", \"Still Game\" and \"Lovesick\". Most recently the long-running series \"Question Time\" and the early evening quiz programme \"Eggheads\" moved its production base to the city. Most National Lottery game shows are also filmed in Glasgow. children's game show \"Copycats\" is filmed there, and the Irish/UK programme \"Mrs. Brown's Boys\" is filmed at BBC Scotland. The Scottish press publishes various newspapers in the city such as the \"Evening Times\", \"The Herald\", \"The Sunday Herald\", the \"Sunday Mail\" and the \"Daily Record\". Scottish editions of Trinity Mirror and News International titles are printed in the city. STV", "Glasgow is a city of significant religious diversity. The Church of Scotland and the Roman Catholic Church are the two largest Christian denominations in the city. There are 147 congregations in the Church of Scotland's Presbytery of Glasgow (of which 104 are within the city boundaries, the other 43 being in adjacent areas). Within the city boundaries there are 65 parishes of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Glasgow and four parishes of the Diocese of Motherwell. The city has four Christian cathedrals: Glasgow Cathedral, of the Church of Scotland; St Andrew's Cathedral, of the Roman Catholic Church; St Mary's Cathedral, of the Scottish Episcopal Church, and St Luke's Cathedral, of the Greek Orthodox Church. The Baptist Church and Salvation Army are well represented. 32% of the population follow the Protestant Church of Scotland whilst 29% following the Roman Catholic Church, according to the 2001 census (Christians overall form 65%). Much of the city's Catholic population are those of Irish ancestry. The divisions between the two denominations and their respective communities play", "\"Glaswegian\", otherwise known as the Glasgow patter, is a local variety of Scots. Glaswegian is a dialect, more than an alternative pronunciation; words also change their meaning depending on context, e.g. \"away\" can mean \"leaving\" as in \"A'm away\", an instruction to stop being a nuisance as in \"away wi ye\", or \"drunk\" or \"demented\" as in \"he's away wi it\". \"Ginger\" is a term for any carbonated soft drink, historically referring to ginger beer (\"A bottle o ginger\", ). Then there are words whose meaning has no obvious relationship to that in standard English: \"coupon\" means \"face\", via \"to punch a ticket coupon\". A headbutt is known in many parts of the British Isles as a \"Glasgow kiss\", although this term is rarely used by Glaswegians, who say \"Malkie\", e.g., \"ah'll Malkie ye\" or \"stick the heid/nut on ye\". Historically, a", "Very little of medieval Glasgow remains; the two main landmarks from this period being the 15th century Provand's Lordship and 13th century St. Mungo's Cathedral, although the original medieval street plan (along with many of the street names) on the eastern side of the city centre has largely survived intact. Also in the 15th century began the building of Cathcart Castle, completed C.1450 with an impressive view over the landscape in all directions. It was at this castle Mary Queen of Scots supposedly spent the night before her defeat at the Battle", "Glasgow has the largest economy in Scotland and is at the hub of the metropolitan area of West Central Scotland. Glasgow also has the third highest GDP Per capita of any city in the UK (after London and Edinburgh). The city itself sustains more than 410,000 jobs in over 12,000 companies. Over 153,000 jobs were created in the city between 2000 and 2005 – a growth rate of 32%. Glasgow's annual economic growth rate of 4.4% is now second only to that of London. In 2005, over 17,000 new jobs were created, and 2006 saw private-sector investment in the city reaching £4.2 billion, an increase of 22% in a single year. 55% of the residents in the Greater Glasgow area commute to the city every day. Once dominant export orientated manufacturing industries such as shipbuilding and other heavy engineering have been gradually replaced in importance by more diversified forms of economic activity, although major manufacturing firms continue to be headquartered in the city, such as Aggreko, Weir Group, Clyde Blowers, Howden, Linn Products, Firebrand Games, William Grant & Sons, Whyte and Mackay, The Edrington Group, British Polar Engines and Albion Motors. Glasgow was once one of the most significant cities in the UK for manufacturing, which generated a great deal of the city's wealth; the most prominent industry being shipbuilding based on the River Clyde. Although Glasgow owed much of its", "", "Glasgow has a large urban transport system, mostly managed by the Strathclyde Partnership for Transport (SPT). The city has many bus services; since bus deregulation almost all are provided by private operators, though SPT part-funds some services. The principal bus operators within the city are: First Glasgow, McGill's Bus Services, Stagecoach West Scotland and Glasgow Citybus. The main bus terminal in the city is Buchanan bus station. Glasgow has the most extensive urban rail network in the UK outside London, with rail services travelling to a large part of the West of Scotland. Most lines were electrified under British Rail. All trains running within Scotland, including the local Glasgow trains, are operated by Abellio ScotRail, who owns the franchise as determined by the Scottish Government. Central station and Queen Street station are the two main railway terminals. Glasgow Central is the terminus of the", "Global-ship-management is carried out by maritime and logistics firms in Glasgow, in client companies employing over 100,000 seafarers. This reflects maritime skills over many decades and the training and education of deck officers and marine engineers from around the world at the City of Glasgow College, Nautical Campus, from which graduate around one third of all such graduates in the United Kingdom. The main operational", "The main M8 motorway passes around the city centre and connects with the M77, M74, M73 and M80 motorways, all of which pass within the city's boundaries. The A82 connects", "The city has three international airports within 45 minutes travel of the city centre, as well as a centrally located seaplane terminal. Two are dedicated to Glasgow while the third is Edinburgh International which, as it is situated on the west side of Edinburgh, is relatively close to Glasgow. These airports are Glasgow Airport (GLA) ( west of the city centre) in Renfrewshire, Glasgow Prestwick Airport (PIK) ( south west) in Ayrshire, Edinburgh Airport (EDI), ( east) in Edinburgh and Glasgow Seaplane", "Glasgow is known for its tenements; the red and blond sandstone buildings are some of the most recognisable features of the city. These were the most popular form of housing in 19th- and 20th-century Glasgow, and remain the most common form of dwelling in Glasgow today. Tenements are commonly bought by a wide range of social types and are favoured for their large rooms, high ceilings and original period features. The Hyndland area of Glasgow became the first tenement conservation area in the UK and includes some tenement houses with as many as six bedrooms. Like many cities in the UK, Glasgow witnessed the construction of high-rise housing in tower blocks in the 1960s, along with large overspill estates on the periphery of the city, in areas like Pollok, Nitshill, Castlemilk, Easterhouse, Milton and Drumchapel. These were built to replace the decaying inner-city tenement buildings originally", "Medical care is mainly provided by NHS Scotland and is directly administered by NHS Greater Glasgow and Clyde. Major hospitals, including those with Accident & Emergency provision, are: the Western Infirmary, Gartnavel General Hospital, Glasgow Royal Infirmary and the Dental Hospital in the city Centre, Stobhill Hospital in the North and the Victoria Infirmary and Queen Elizabeth University Hospital in the South Side. Gartnavel Royal Hospital and The Priory are the two major psychiatric hospitals based in Glasgow. The Queen Elizabeth University Hospital (QEUH) Campus is a 1,677-bed acute hospital located in Govan in the south-west of Glasgow. The hospital is built on the site of the former Southern General Hospital and opened", "Glasgow is a major centre of higher and academic research, with the following universities and colleges within of the city centre: In 2011 Glasgow had 53,470 full-time students aged 18–74 resident in the city during term time, more than any other city in Scotland and the fifth-largest in the United Kingdom outside London. The majority of those who live away from home reside in Shawlands, Dennistoun and the West End of the city. The City Council operates 29", "", "The world's first international football match was held in 1872 at the West of Scotland Cricket Club's Hamilton Crescent ground in the Partick area of the city. The match, between Scotland and England finished 0–0. Glasgow was the first city (since joined by Liverpool in 1985, Madrid in 1986, 2014, 2016 and 2018, Milan in 1994 and London in 2019) to have had two football teams in European finals in the same season: in 1967, Celtic competed in the European Cup final with rivals Rangers", "Glasgow has a professional rugby union club, the Glasgow Warriors, which plays in the European Rugby Champions Cup and Pro14 alongside teams from Scotland, Ireland, Wales and Italy. The Warriors current home is Scotstoun Stadium and has been since 2012, previously they played at Firhill Stadium. They have won the Melrose 7s in both 2014 and 2015 and were also crowned champions of the Pro12 at the end of the 2014/15 season after beating Irish side Munster in Belfast. In the Scottish League, Glasgow Hawks RFC was formed in 1997 by the merger of two of Glasgow's", "The Easterhouse Panthers based in the East End of Glasgow are a rugby", "The City of Glasgow has a number of ice rinks, and a temporary one is set up in George Square in the Christmas period. From 1966 to 1986, the Glasgow Dynamos played at Crossmyloof Ice Rink.", "The Arlington Baths Club is the oldest swimming club in the world, founded in 1870. The Club in Arlington Street, in the Woodlands area of the city is still thriving today. It is believed the Club's first Baths Master William Wilson invented water polo at the", "Glasgow hosts Scotland's only professional basketball team, the Glasgow Rocks, who compete in the British Basketball League.", "Major international sporting arenas include the Kelvin Hall and Scotstoun Sports Centre. In 2003 the National Academy for Badminton was completed in Scotstoun. In 2003, Glasgow was also given the title of European Capital of Sport. Glasgow is also host to many cricket clubs including Clydesdale Cricket Club who have been title winners for the Scottish Cup many times. This club also acted as a neutral venue for a One Day International match between India and Pakistan in 2007, but due to bad weather it was called off. Smaller sporting facilities include an abundance of outdoor playing fields, as well as golf clubs such as Haggs Castle and artificial ski slopes. Between 1998 and 2004, the Scottish Claymores American football team played some or all of their home games each season at Hampden Park and the venue also hosted World Bowl XI. Glasgow Green", "On 9 November 2007, Glasgow was selected to be the host city of the 2014 Commonwealth Games. The games were held at a number of existing and newly", "Glasgow is twinned with various cities.", "The city is" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Mythology.", "Phliasian Asopus.", "Mixed tales.", "Daughters of Asopus (Asopides).", "Sons of Asopus." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "3" ], "content": [ "As mythological entities, the Boeotian river Asopus and the Phliasian river Asopus are much confounded. They are duplicated a second time as supposed mortal kings who gave their names to the corresponding rivers. Indeed, logically, since the children fathered by gods on various daughters of either Boeotian or Phliasian Asopus were mortal in these tales, then the daughters themselves must have been mortal, and therefore either the mother of these daughters (often given as Metope daughter of river Ladon) or their father Asopus must have been mortal, or both of them. The \"Bibliotheca\" informs that the river Asopus was a son of Oceanus and Tethys or, according to Acusilaus, of Poseidon by Pero (otherwise unknown to us), or according to yet others of Zeus by Eurynome; it is uncertain whether he knows there is more than one river named Asopus.", "Pausanias writes that during the reign of Aras, the first earth-born king of Sicyonian land, Asopus, said to be son of Poseidon by Celusa (this Celusa otherwise unknown but possibly identical to Pero mentioned above), discovered for him the river called Asopus and gave it his name. Diodorus Siculus similarly presents Asopus (here son of Oceanus and Tethys) as a settler in Phlius and wife of Metope daughter of Ladon, presumably here and elsewhere the Arcadian river Ladon. Pausanias mentions his daughter Nemea, eponym for the region of the same name (possibly the mother of Archemorus in Aeschylus' lost play \"Nemea\"). Pausanias and Diodorus Siculus also mention a daughter Harpina and state that according to the traditions of the Eleans and Phliasians Ares lay with her in the city of Pisa and she bore him Oenomaus who Pausanias says founded the city of Harpina named after her, not far from the river Harpinates. The \"Bibliotheca\" refers to Ismene daughter of Asopus who was wife of Argus Panoptes to whom she bore Iasus, the father of Io.", "", "We find first in Pindar's odes the sisters, Aegina and Thebe, here the youngest daughters of Boeotian Asopus by Metope who came from Stymphalia in Arcadia. Both are abducted by the god Zeus, one carried to the island of Oenone later to be named \"Aegina\" and the other to Dirce's water to be queen there. Corinna, Pindar's contemporary, in a damaged fragment, mentions nine daughters of Boeotian Asopus: Aegina, Thebe, and Plataea abducted by Zeus; Corcyra, Salamis, and Euboea abducted by Poseidon; Sinope and Thespia (who has been dealt with above) abducted by Apollo; and Tanagra abducted by Hermes. Asopus cannot discover what has become of them until the seer Acraephen (otherwise unknown) tells him that the gods Eros and Aphrodite persuaded the four gods to come secretly to his house and steal his nine daughters. He advises Asopus to yield to the immortals and cease grieving since he is father-in-law to gods. This hints that perhaps, for Corinna, Asopus himself is not a god. Asopus accepts Acraephen's advice. Of these daughters, Thebe, Plataea, Thespia and Tanagra are properly Boeotian. Euboea is near Boeotia, but Salamis and Aegina are regions that would perhaps associate better with the Phliasian Asopus. Korkyra (Corfu) is definitely Corinthian rather than Boeotian. Sinope is surely the colony of Sinope on the Black Sea (founded from Miletus). It is notable that tradition as it comes down to us does not record any children resulting from a union of gods with Thebe, Plataea, Thespia or Tanagra and only Diodorus mentions the otherwise unknown sons Phaiax, son of Poseidon by Corcyra, and Syrus sprung from Apollo by Sinope and that this child of Sinope is opposed by a conflicting tradition that Sinope tricked Zeus, Apollo and Halys and remained a virgin. Later texts mostly indicate Zeus' abduction of Aegina, presented as a solitary abduction. Asopus is often clearly the Phliasian Asopus (so indicated by Pherecydes) but not always so. Asopus chases after Zeus and his daughter until Zeus turns upon him and strikes him with a thunderbolt, whence ever after Asopus is lame and flows very slowly, a feature ascribed to both the Boeotian and Phliasian Asopus. In these tales Asopus discovers the truth about the abduction from Sisyphus, King of Corinth in return for creating a spring on the Corinthian Acropolis. This spring, according to Pausanias was behind the temple of Aphrodite and people said its water was the same as that of the spring Peirene, the water in the city flowing from it underground. Diodorus Siculus who, as mentioned, places his Asopus in Phlius, gives him twelve daughters. Diodorus' list omits the Plataea and Boeotia included by Corinna's list of nine daughters. But it introduces Chalcis which was the chief city of Boeotia and may represent Boeotia. To make up the twelve Diodorus' list also adds Peirene (the famous spring in Corinth), Cleone (possible eponym of the small city of Cleonae on the road from Corinth to Argos according to Pausanias), Ornia (possible eponym of the small town of Orneai south of Phlius), and Asopis. But \"Asopis\" may mean \"Asopian\" and be an epithet for one of the other known daughters. Ovid in his poem \"Metamorphoses\" twice calls Aegina by the name \"Asopis\". Indeed, in his very next section Diodorus discusses Asopus' daughter Harpina who has been discussed above. Apollodorus claims Asopus had twenty daughters but he does not provide a list. Pausanias mentions three supposed daughters of Phliasian Asopus named Corcyra, Aegina, and Thebe according to the Phliasians and notes additionally that the Thebans insist that this Thebe was daughter of the Boeotian Asopus. He mentions no dispute about the others which suggests that in his time the assignment of Aegina to the Phliasian Asopus was generally admitted. Pausanias also describes a group sculpture in the sanctuary of Hippodamia at Olympia donated by the Phliasians. It included Nemea, Zeus seizing Aegina, Harpina, Corcyra, Thebe, and Asopus himself. It seems the Phliasians were insistent that Thebe belonged to their Asopus.", "Both Apollodrus and Diodorus also mention two sons of Asopus, the first named Ismenus and the second named Pelagon (by Apollodorus) or Pelasgus (by Diodorus). Nothing else has survived about this Pelagon. Of Ismenus, Diodorus states only that he emigrated to Boeotia and settled near the Boeotian river, which was afterwards named Ismenus from his name." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Family.", "Mythology.", "The Labyrinth.", "Daedalus and Icarus.", "Sicily.", "Daedalus and Perdix.", "Innovator.", "Daedalus's statues." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Daedalus's parentage was supplied as a later addition, providing him with a father in Metion, Eupalamus, or Palamaon, and a mother, Alcippe, Iphinoe, or Phrasmede. Daedalus had two sons: Icarus and Iapyx, along with a nephew either Talos or Perdix. Athenians transferred Cretan Daedalus to make him Athenian-born, the grandson of the ancient king Erechtheus, claiming that Daedalus fled to Crete after killing his nephew Talos. Over time, other stories were told of Daedalus.", "", "Daedalus is first mentioned by Homer as the creator of a wide dancing-ground for Ariadne. He also created the Labyrinth on Crete, in which the Minotaur (part man, part bull) was kept. In the story of the labyrinth as told by the Hellenes, the Athenian hero Theseus is challenged to kill the Minotaur, finding his way with the help of Ariadne's thread. Daedalus' appearance in Homer is in an extended metaphor, \"plainly not Homer's invention\", Robin Lane Fox observes: \"He is a point of comparison and so he belongs in stories which Homer's audience already recognized.\" In Bronze Age Crete, an inscription (//) has been read as referring to a place at Knossos, and a place of worship. In Homer's language, \"daidala\" refers to finely crafted objects. They are mostly objects of armor, but fine bowls and furnishings are also \"daidala\", and on one occasion so are the \"bronze-working\" of \"clasps, twisted brooches, earrings and necklaces\" made by Hephaestus while cared for in secret by the goddesses of the sea. Ignoring Homer, later writers envisaged the Labyrinth as an edifice rather than a single dancing path to the center and out again, and gave it numberless winding passages and turns that opened into one another, seeming to have neither beginning nor end. Ovid, in his \"Metamorphoses\", suggests that Daedalus constructed the Labyrinth so cunningly that he himself could barely escape it after he built it. Daedalus built the labyrinth for King Minos, who needed it to imprison his wife's son the Minotaur. The story is told that Poseidon had given a white bull to Minos so that he might use it as a sacrifice. Instead, Minos kept it for himself; and in revenge, Poseidon, with the help of Aphrodite, made Pasiphaë, King Minos's wife, lust for the bull. For Pasiphaë, as Greek mythologers interpreted it, Daedalus also built a wooden cow so she could mate with the bull, for the Greeks imagined the Minoan bull of the sun to be an actual, earthly bull, the slaying of which later required a heroic effort by Theseus.", "The most familiar literary telling explaining Daedalus' wings is a late one, that of Ovid: in his \"Metamorphoses\" (VIII:183–235) Daedalus was shut up in a tower to prevent the knowledge of his Labyrinth from spreading to the public. He could not leave Crete by sea, as the king kept a strict watch on all vessels, permitting none to sail without being carefully searched. Since Minos controlled the land and sea routes, Daedalus set to work to fabricate wings for himself and his young son Icarus. He tied feathers together, from smallest to largest so as to form an increasing surface. He secured the feathers at their midpoints with string and at their bases with wax, and gave the whole a gentle curvature like the wings of a bird. When the work was done, the artist, waving his wings, found himself buoyed upward and hung suspended, poising himself on the beaten air. He next equipped his son in the same manner, and taught him how to fly. When both were prepared for flight, Daedalus warned Icarus not to fly too high, because the heat of the sun would melt the wax, nor too low, because the sea foam would soak the feathers. They had passed Samos, Delos and Lebynthos by the time the boy, forgetting himself, began to soar upward toward the sun. The blazing sun softened the wax that held the feathers together and they came off. Icarus quickly fell in the sea and drowned. His father cried, bitterly lamenting his own arts, and called the island near the place where Icarus fell into the ocean Icaria in memory of his child. Some time later, the goddess Athena visited Daedalus and gave him wings, telling him to fly like a god. An early image of winged Daedalus appears on an Etruscan jug of ca 630 BC found at Cerveteri, where a winged figure captioned \"Taitale\" appears on one side of the vessel, paired on the other side, uniquely, with \"Metaia\", Medea: \"its linking of these two mythical figures is unparalleled,\" Robin Lane Fox observes: \"The link was probably based on their wondrous, miraculous art. Magically, Daedalus could fly, and magically Medea was able to rejuvenate the old (the scene on the jug seems to show her doing just this)\". The image of Daedalus demonstrates that he was already well known in the West.", "Further to the west Daedalus arrived safely in Sicily, in the care of King Cocalus of Kamikos on the island's south coast; there Daedalus built a temple to Apollo, and hung up his wings, an offering to the god. In an invention of Virgil (\"Aeneid\" VI), Daedalus flies to Cumae and founds his temple there, rather than in Sicily; long afterward Aeneas confronts the sculpted golden doors of the temple. Minos, meanwhile, searched for Daedalus by traveling from city to city asking a riddle. He presented a spiral seashell and asked for a string to be run through it. When he reached Kamikos, King Cocalus, knowing Daedalus would be able to solve the riddle, privately fetched the old man to him. He tied the string to an ant which, lured by a drop of honey at one end, walked through the seashell stringing it all the way through. Minos then knew Daedalus was in the court of King Cocalus and demanded he be handed over. Cocalus managed to convince Minos to take a bath first, where Cocalus' daughters killed Minos. In some versions, Daedalus himself poured boiling water on Minos and killed him. The anecdotes are literary and late; however, in the founding tales of the Greek colony of Gela, founded in the 680s on the southwest coast of Sicily, a tradition was preserved that the Greeks had seized cult images wrought by Daedalus from their local predecessors, the Sicani.", "Daedalus was so proud of his achievements that he could not bear the idea of a rival. His sister had placed her son, named variously as Perdix, Talos, or Calos, under his charge to be taught the mechanical arts. The nephew was an art scholar and showed striking evidence of ingenuity. Walking on the seashore, he picked up the spine of a fish. According to Ovid, imitating it, he took a piece of iron and notched it on the edge, and thus invented the saw. He put two pieces of iron together, connecting them at one end with a rivet, and sharpening the other ends, and made a pair of compasses. Daedalus was so envious of his nephew's accomplishments that he took an opportunity and caused him to fall from the Acropolis. Athena turned Perdix into a partridge and left a scar that looked like a partridge on Daedalus' right shoulder and Daedalus left Athens due to this.", "Such anecdotal details as these were embroideries upon the reputation of Daedalus as an innovator in many arts. In Pliny's Natural History (7.198) he is credited with inventing carpentry \"and with it the saw, axe, plumb-line, drill, glue, and isinglass\". Pausanias, in travelling around Greece, attributed to Daedalus numerous archaic wooden cult figures (see \"xoana\") that impressed him: \"All the works of this artist, though somewhat uncouth to look at, nevertheless have a touch of the divine in them.\" It is said he first conceived masts and sails for ships for the navy of Minos. He is said to have carved statues so well they looked as if alive; even possessing self-motion. They would have escaped if not for the chain that bound them to the wall. Daedalus gave his name, eponymously, to any Greek artificer and to many Greek contraptions that represented dextrous skill. At Plataea there was a festival, the Daedala, in which a temporary wooden altar was fashioned, and an effigy was made from an oak-tree and dressed in bridal attire. It was carried in a cart with a woman who acted as bridesmaid. The image was called \"Daedale\" and the archaic ritual given an explanation through a myth to the purpose In the period of Romanticism, Daedalus came to denote the classic artist, a skilled mature craftsman, while Icarus symbolized the romantic artist, whose impetuous, passionate and rebellious nature, as well as his defiance of formal aesthetic and social conventions, may ultimately prove to be self-destructive. Stephen Dedalus, in Joyce's \"Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man\" envisages his future artist-self \"a winged form flying above the waves... a hawk-like man flying sunward above the sea, a prophecy of the end he had been born to serve”.", "Daedalus is said to have created statues that were so realistic that they had to be tied down to stop them from wandering off. In \"Meno\", Socrates and Meno are debating the nature of knowledge and true belief when Socrates refers to Daedalus' statues: \"... if they are not fastened up they play truant and run away; but, if fastened, they stay where they are.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Education, apprenticeship and poetry.", "Early scientific interests.", "Pneumatic Institution.", "Royal Institution.", "Herculaneum papyri.", "Electrochemical protection of ships' copper bottoms.", "President of the Royal Society.", "Last years and death.", "Publications." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Davy was born in Penzance, Cornwall in the United Kingdom on 17 December 1778, the eldest of the five children of Robert Davy, a woodcarver, and his wife Grace Millett. Davy's brother, John, writes that the society of their hometown was characterised by \"an almost unbounded credulity respecting the supernatural and monstrous... Amongst the middle and higher classes, there was little taste for literature, and still less for science... Hunting, shooting, wrestling, cockfighting, generally ending in drunkenness, were what they most delighted in\". At the age of six, Davy was sent to the grammar school at Penzance. Three years later, his family moved to Varfell, near Ludgvan, and subsequently, in term-time Davy boarded with John Tonkin, his godfather and later his guardian. On leaving Penzance grammar school in 1793, Tonkin paid for Davy to attend Truro Grammar School in 1793 to finish his education under the Rev Dr Cardew, who, in a letter to Davies Gilbert, said dryly: \"I could not discern the faculties by which he was afterwards so much distinguished.\" Yet, Davy entertained his school friends with writing poetry, Valentines, and telling stories from One Thousand and One Nights. Reflecting on his school days, in a letter to his mother, Davy wrote: \"Learning naturally is a true pleasure; how unfortunate then it is that in most schools it is made a pain.\" Davy said: \"I consider it fortunate I was left much to myself as a child, and put upon no particular plan of study... What I am I made myself.\" Davy's brother praises his \"native vigour\": \"there belonged, however, to his mind, it cannot be doubted, the genuine quality of genius, or of that power of intellect which exalts its possessor above the crowd.\" After Davy's father died in 1794, Tonkin apprenticed him to John Bingham Borlase, a surgeon with a practice in Penzance. Davy's indenture is dated 10", "Davies Giddy met Davy in Penzance carelessly swinging on the half-gate of Dr Borlase's house, and interested by his talk invited him to his house at Tredrea and offered him the use of his library. This led to an introduction to Dr Edwards, who lived at Hayle Copper House. Edwards was a lecturer in chemistry in the school of St. Bartholomew's Hospital. He permitted Davy to use his laboratory and possibly directed his attention to the floodgates of the port of Hayle, which were rapidly decaying as a result of the contact between copper and iron under the influence of seawater. Galvanic corrosion was not understood at that time, but the phenomenon prepared Davy's mind for subsequent experiments on ship's copper sheathing. Gregory Watt, son of James Watt, visited Penzance for his health's sake, and while lodging at the Davy's house became a friend and gave him instructions in chemistry. Davy was acquainted with the Wedgwood family, who spent a", "On 2 October 1798, Davy joined the Pneumatic Institution at Bristol. It had been established to investigate the medical powers of factitious airs and gases (gases produced experimentally or artificially), and Davy was to superintend the various experiments. The arrangement agreed between Dr Beddoes and Davy was generous, and enabled Davy to give up all claims on his paternal property in favour of his mother. He did not intend to abandon the medical profession and was determined to study and graduate at Edinburgh, but he soon began to fill parts of the institution with voltaic batteries. While living in Bristol, Davy met the Earl of Durham, who was a resident in the institution for his health, and became close friends with Gregory Watt, James Watt, Samuel Taylor Coleridge and Robert Southey, all of whom became regular users of nitrous oxide (laughing gas), to which Davy became addicted. The gas was first synthesized in 1772 by the natural philosopher and chemist Joseph Priestley, who called it \"phlogisticated nitrous air\" (see phlogiston). Priestley described his discovery in the book \"Experiments and Observations on Different Kinds of Air (1775)\", in which he described how to produce the preparation of \"nitrous air diminished\", by heating iron filings dampened with nitric acid. James Watt built a portable gas chamber to facilitate Davy's experiments with the inhalation of nitrous oxide. At one point the gas was combined with wine to judge its efficacy as a cure for hangover (his laboratory notebook indicated success). The gas was popular among Davy's friends and acquaintances, and he noted that it might be useful for performing surgical operations. Anesthetics were not regularly used in medicine or dentistry until decades after Davy's death. Davy threw himself energetically into the work of the laboratory and formed a long romantic friendship with Mrs Anna Beddoes, the novelist Maria Edgeworth's sister, who acted as his guide on walks and other fine sights of the locality. The critic Maurice Hindle was the first to reveal that Davy and Anna had written poems for each other. Wahida Amin has transcribed and discussed a number of poems written between 1803 and 1808 to \"Anna\" and one to her infant child. In December 1799 Davy visited London for the first time and extended his circle of friends. Davy features in the diary of William Godwin, with their first meeting recorded for 4 December 1799. In the gas experiments Davy ran considerable risks. His respiration of nitric oxide which may have combined with air in the mouth to form nitric acid (HNO), severely injured the mucous membrane, and in Davy's", "In 1799, Count Rumford had proposed the establishment in London of an 'Institution for Diffusing Knowledge', i.e. the Royal Institution. The house in Albemarle Street was bought in April 1799. Rumford became secretary to the institution, and Dr Thomas Garnett was the first lecturer. In February 1801 Davy was interviewed by the committee of the Royal Institution, comprising Joseph Banks, Benjamin Thompson (who had been appointed Count Rumford) and Henry Cavendish. Davy wrote to Davies Gilbert on 8 March 1801 about the offers made by Banks and Thompson, a possible move to London and the promise of funding for his work in galvanism. He also mentioned that he might not be collaborating further with Beddoes on therapeutic gases. The next day Davy left Bristol to take up his new post at the Royal Institution, it having been resolved 'that Humphry Davy be engaged in the service of the Royal Institution in the capacity of assistant lecturer in chemistry, director of the chemical laboratory, and assistant editor of the journals of the institution, and that he be allowed to occupy a room in the house, and be furnished with coals and candles, and that he be paid a salary of 100l. per annum.' On 25 April 1801, Davy gave his first lecture on the relatively new subject of 'Galvanism'. He and his friend Coleridge had had many conversations about the nature of human knowledge and progress, and Davy's lectures gave his audience a vision of human civilisation brought forward by scientific discovery. \"It [science] has bestowed on him powers which may almost be called creative; which have enabled him to modify and change the beings surrounding him, and by his experiments to interrogate nature with power, not simply as a scholar, passive and seeking only to understand her operations, but rather as a master, active with his own instruments.\" The first lecture garnered rave reviews, and by the June lecture Davy wrote to John King that his last lecture had attendance of nearly 500 people. \"There was Respiration, Nitrous Oxide, and unbounded Applause. Amen!\" Davy revelled in his public status. Davy's lectures included spectacular and sometimes dangerous chemical demonstrations along with scientific information, and were presented with considerable showmanship by the young and handsome man. Davy also included both poetic and religious commentary in his lectures, emphasizing that God's design was revealed by chemical investigations. Religious commentary was in part an attempt to appeal to women in his audiences. Davy, like many of his enlightenment contemporaries, supported female education and women's involvement in scientific pursuits, even proposing that women be admitted to evening events at the Royal Society. Davy acquired a large female following around London. In a satirical cartoon by Gillray, nearly half of the attendees pictured are female. His support of women caused Davy to be subjected to considerable gossip and innuendo, and to be criticized as unmanly. When Davy's lecture series on Galvanism ended, he progressed to a new series on Agricultural Chemistry, and his popularity continued to skyrocket. By June 1802, after just over a year at the Institution and at the age of 23, Davy was nominated to full lecturer at the Royal Institution of Great Britain. Garnett quietly resigned, citing health reasons. In November 1804 Davy became a Fellow of the Royal Society, over which he would later preside. He was one of the founding members of the Geological Society in 1807 and was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1810 and a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1822.", "Humphry Davy experimented on fragments of the Herculaneum papyri before his departure to Naples in 1818. His early experiments showed hope of success. In his report to the Royal Society Davy writes that: 'When a fragment of a brown MS. in which the layers were strongly adhered, was placed in an atmosphere of chlorine, there was an immediate action, the papyrus smoked and became yellow, and the letters appeared much more distinct; and by the application of heat the layers separated from each other, giving fumes of muriatic acid.' The success of the early trials prompted Davy to travel to Naples to", "From 1761 onwards, copper plating had been fitted to the undersides of Royal Navy ships to protect the wood from attack by shipworms. However, the copper bottoms were gradually corroded by exposure to the salt water. Between 1820 and 1825, Davy, assisted by Michael Faraday, attempted to protect the copper by electrochemical means. He attached sacrificial pieces of zinc or iron to the copper, which provided cathodic protection to the host metal. It was discovered, however, that protected copper became foul quickly, i.e. pieces of weed and/or marine creatures became attached to the hull, which had a detrimental effect on the", "Elections took place on St Andrew's Day and Davy was elected on 30 November 1820. Although he was unopposed, other candidates had received initial backing. These candidates embodied the factional difficulties that beset Davy's presidency and which eventually defeated him. The Society was in transition from a club for gentlemen interested in natural philosophy, connected with the political and social elite, to an academy representing increasingly specialised sciences. The previous president, Joseph Banks, had held the post for over 40 years and had presided autocratically over what David Philip Miller calls the \"Banksian Learned Empire\", in which natural history was prominent. Banks had groomed the engineer, author and politician Davies Gilbert to succeed him and preserve the status quo, but Gilbert declined to stand. Fellows who thought royal patronage was important proposed Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg (later Leopold I of Belgium), who also withdrew, as did the Whig Edward St Maur, 11th Duke of Somerset. Davy was the outstanding scientist but some fellows did not approve of his popularising work at the Royal Institution. The strongest alternative had been William Hyde Wollaston, who was supported by the \"Cambridge Network\" of outstanding mathematicians such", "In January 1819, Davy was awarded a baronetcy. Although Sir Francis Bacon (also later made a peer) and Sir Isaac Newton had already been knighted, this was, at the time, the first such honour ever conferred on a man of science in Britain. This was followed a year later with the Presidency of the Royal Society. Davy's laboratory assistant, Michael Faraday, went on to enhance Davy's work and would become the more famous and influential scientist. Davy is supposed to have even claimed Faraday as his greatest discovery. Davy later accused Faraday of plagiarism, however, causing Faraday (the first Fullerian Professor of Chemistry) to cease all research in electromagnetism until his mentor's death. According to one of Davy's biographers, June Z. Fullmer, he was a deist. Of a sanguine, somewhat irritable temperament, Davy displayed characteristic enthusiasm and energy in all his pursuits. As is shown by his verses and sometimes by his prose, his mind was highly imaginative; the poet Coleridge declared that if he \"had not been the first chemist, he would have been the", "See Fullmer's work for a full list of Davy's articles. Humphry Davy's books are as follows: Davy also contributed articles on chemistry to \"Rees's Cyclopædia\", but the topics are not known. His collected works were published in 1839–1840:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Family.", "Mythology.", "Reign.", "Conflict with Salmoneus.", "Cheating death.", "Punishment in the Underworld.", "Interpretations.", "Literary interpretations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Linguistics Professor R. S. P. Beekes has suggested a pre-Greek origin and a connection with the root of the word'(σοφός, \"wise\"). German mythographer Otto Gruppe thought that the name derived from'(σίσυς, \"a goat's skin\"), in reference to a rain-charm in which goats' skins were used.", "Sisyphus was the son of King Aeolus of Thessaly and Enarete and the brother of Salmoneus. He married the Pleiad Merope by whom he became the father of Glaucus, Ornytion, Thersander, Almus and Porphyrion. Sisyphus was the grandfather of Bellerophon through Glaucus, and Minyas, founder of Orchomenus, through Almus.", "", "Sisyphus was the founder and first king of Ephyra (supposedly the original name of Corinth). King Sisyphus promoted navigation and commerce but was avaricious and deceitful. He also killed travellers and guests to his palace, a violation of \"xenia\", which fell under Zeus's domain, thus angering the god. He took pleasure in these killings because they allowed him to maintain his iron-fisted rule.", "Sisyphus and his brother Salmoneus were known to hate each other, and Sisyphus consulted the Oracle of Delphi on just how to kill Salmoneus without incurring any severe consequences for himself. From Homer onward, Sisyphus was famed as the craftiest of men. He seduced Salmoneus's daughter Tyro in one of his plots to kill Salmoneus, only for Tyro to slay the children she bore him when she discovered that Sisyphus was planning on using them eventually to dethrone her father.", "King Sisyphus also betrayed one of Zeus's secrets by revealing the whereabouts of Aegina, (an Asopid who was taken away by Zeus) to her father (the river god Asopus) in return for causing a spring to flow on the Corinthian acropolis. Zeus then ordered Death (in Greek, Thanatos) to chain King Sisyphus down below in Tartarus. Sisyphus was curious as to why Charon, whose job it was to guide souls to the Underworld, had not appeared on this occasion. King Sisyphus slyly asked Thanatos to demonstrate how the chains worked. As Thanatos was granting him his wish, Sisyphus seized the opportunity and trapped Thanatos in the chains instead. Once Thanatos was bound by the strong chains, no one died on Earth. This caused an uproar especially for Ares (who was annoyed that his battles had lost their fun because his opponents would not die), and so he intervened. The exasperated Ares freed Thanatos and turned King Sisyphus over to him. In another version, Hades was sent to chain Sisyphus and was chained himself. As long as Hades was tied up, nobody could die. Because of this, sacrifices could not be made to the gods, and those that were old and sick were suffering. The gods finally threatened to make life so miserable for Sisyphus that he would wish he were dead. He then had no choice but to release Hades. Before King Sisyphus died, he had told his wife to throw his naked body into the middle of the public square (purportedly as a test of his wife's love for him). This caused King Sisyphus to end up on the shores of the river Styx. Then, complaining to Persephone, goddess of the Underworld, that this was a sign of his wife's disrespect for him, King Sisyphus persuaded her to allow him to return to the upper world. Once back in Ephyra, the spirit of King Sisyphus scolded his wife for not burying his body and giving it a proper funeral (as a loving wife should). When King Sisyphus refused to return to the Underworld, he was forcibly dragged back there by Hermes. In another version of the myth, Persephone was tricked by Sisyphus that he had been conducted to Tartarus by mistake, and so she ordered that he be released. In \"Philoctetes\" by Sophocles, there is a reference to the father of Odysseus (rumoured to have been Sisyphus, and not Laërtes, whom we know as the father in the \"Odyssey\") upon having returned from the dead. Euripides, in \"Cyclops\", also identifies Sisyphus as Odysseus' father.", "As a punishment for his trickery, Zeus made King Sisyphus roll a huge boulder endlessly up a steep hill. The maddening nature of the punishment was reserved for King Sisyphus due to his hubristic belief that his cleverness surpassed that of Zeus himself. Zeus accordingly displayed his own cleverness by enchanting the boulder into rolling away from King Sisyphus before he reached the top, which ended up consigning Sisyphus to an eternity of useless efforts and unending frustration. Thus it came to pass that pointless or interminable activities are sometimes described as \"Sisyphean\". King Sisyphus was a common subject for ancient writers and was depicted by the painter Polygnotus on the walls of the Lesche at Delphi.", "According to the solar theory, King Sisyphus is the disk of the sun that rises every day in the east and then sinks into the west. Other scholars regard him as a personification of waves rising and falling, or of the treacherous sea. The 1st-century BC Epicurean philosopher Lucretius interprets the myth of Sisyphus as personifying politicians aspiring for political office who are constantly defeated, with the quest for power, in itself an \"empty thing\", being likened to rolling the boulder up the hill. Friedrich Welcker suggested that he symbolises the vain struggle of man in the pursuit of knowledge, and Salomon Reinach that his punishment is based on a picture in which Sisyphus was represented rolling a huge stone Acrocorinthus, symbolic of the labour and skill involved in the building of the Sisypheum. Albert Camus, in his 1942 essay \"The Myth of Sisyphus\", saw Sisyphus as personifying the absurdity of human life, but Camus concludes \"one must imagine Sisyphus happy\" as \"The struggle itself towards the heights is enough to fill a man's heart.\" More recently, J. Nigro Sansonese, building on the work of Georges Dumézil, speculates that the origin of the name \"Sisyphus\" is onomatopoetic of the continual back-and-forth, susurrant sound (\"siss phuss\") made by the breath in the nasal passages, situating the mythology of Sisyphus in a far larger context of archaic (see Proto-Indo-European religion) trance-inducing techniques related to breath control. The repetitive inhalation–exhalation cycle is described esoterically in the myth as an up–down motion of Sisyphus and his boulder on a hill. In experiments that test how workers respond when the meaning of their task is diminished, the test condition is referred to as the Sisyphusian condition. The two main conclusions of the experiment are that people work harder when their work seems more meaningful, and that people underestimate the relationship between meaning and motivation. In his book \"The Philosophy of Recursive Thinking\", German author Manfred Kopfer suggested a viable solution for Sisyphus punishment. Every time Sisyphus reaches the top of the mountain, he breaks off a stone from the mountain and carries it down to the lowest point. This way, the mountain will eventually be levelled and the stone cannot roll down anymore. In Kopfers interpretation, the solution turns the punishment by the gods into a test for Sisyphus to prove his worthiness for godlike deeds. If Sisyphus is able \"to move a mountain\", he shall be allowed to do what otherwise only gods are entitled to do.", "Homer describes Sisyphus in both Book VI of the \"Iliad\" and Book XI of the \"Odyssey\". Ovid, the Roman poet, makes reference to Sisyphus in the story of Orpheus and Eurydice. When Orpheus descends and confronts Hades and Persephone, he sings a song so that they will grant his wish to bring Eurydice back from the dead. After this song is sung, Ovid shows how moving it was by noting that Sisyphus, emotionally affected, for just a moment, stops his eternal task and sits on his rock, the Latin wording being \"inque tuo sedisti, Sisyphe, saxo\" (\"and you sat, Sisyphus, on your rock\"). In Plato's \"Apology\", Socrates looks forward to the after-life where he can meet figures such as Sisyphus, who think themselves wise, so that he can question them and find who is wise and who \"thinks he is when he is not\" Albert Camus, the French absurdist, wrote an essay entitled \"The Myth of Sisyphus\", in which he elevates Sisyphus to the status of absurd hero. Franz Kafka repeatedly referred to Sisyphus as a bachelor; Kafkaesque for him were those qualities that brought out the Sisyphus-like qualities in himself. According to Frederick Karl: \"The man who struggled to reach the heights only to be thrown down to the depths embodied all of Kafka's aspirations; and he remained himself, alone, solitary.\" The philosopher Richard Taylor uses the myth of Sisyphus as a representation of a life made meaningless because it consists of bare repetition. Wolfgang Mieder has collected cartoons that build on the image of Sisyphus, many of them editorial cartoons." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definition.", "Etymology.", "Beliefs and teachings.", "The Masters.", "The ancient wisdom religion.", "Theology and cosmology.", "Personal development and reincarnation.", "Reincarnation and karma.", "Morality and ethics.", "Ritual.", "Historical development.", "Post-Blavatsky.", "Demographics.", "Reception and legacy.", "Influence on the arts and culture.", "Influence on other religious and esoteric groups.", "Scholarly research." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Theosophy's founder, the Russian Helena Blavatsky, insisted that it was not a religion, although she did refer to it as the modern transmission of the \"once universal religion\" that she claimed had existed deep into the human past. That Theosophy should not be labeled a religion is a claim that has been maintained by Theosophical organizations, who instead regard it as a system that embraces what they see as the \"essential truth\" underlying religion, philosophy, and science. As a result, Theosophical groups allow their members to hold other religious allegiances, resulting in Theosophists who also identify as Christians, Buddhists, or Hindus. Scholars of religion who have studied Theosophy have characterized it as a religion. In his history of the Theosophical movement, Bruce F. Campbell noted that Theosophy promoted \"a religious world-view\" using \"explicitly religious terms\" and that its central tenets are not unequivocal fact, but rather rely on belief. Olav Hammer and Mikael Rothstein termed it \"one of the modern world's most important religious traditions\". Various scholars have pointed to its eclectic nature; Joscelyn Godwin described it as a \"universally eclectic religious movement\", while scholar J. Jeffrey Franklin characterized Theosophy as a \"hybrid religion\" for its syncretic combination of elements from various other sources. More specifically, Theosophy has been categorized as a new religious movement. Scholars have also classified Theosophy as a form of Western esotericism. Campbell for instance referred to it as \"an esoteric religious tradition\", while the historian Joy Dixon called it an \"esoteric religion\". More specifically, it is considered a form of occultism. Along with other groups like the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, the Theosophical Society has been seen as part of an \"occult revival\" that took place in Western countries during the late nineteenth century. The historian of religion Wouter Hanegraaff noted that Theosophy helped to establish the \"essential foundations for much of twentieth-century esotericism\". Although Theosophy draws upon Indian religious beliefs, the sociologist of religion Christopher Partridge observed that \"Theosophy is fundamentally Western. That is to say, Theosophy is not Eastern thought in the West, but Western thought with an Eastern flavour.\"", "At a meeting of the Miracle Club in New York City on 7 September 1875, Blavatsky, Olcott, and Judge agreed to establish an organisation, with Charles Sotheran suggesting that they call it the Theosophical Society. Prior to adopting the name \"Theosophical\", they had debated various potential names, among them the Egyptological Society, the Hermetic Society, and the Rosicrucian Society. The term was not new, but had been previously used in various contexts by the Philaletheians and the Christian mystic Jakob Böhme. Etymologically, the term came from the Greek \"theos\" (\"god(s)\") and \"sophia\" (\"wisdom\"), thus meaning \"god-wisdom\", \"divine wisdom\", or \"wisdom of God\". The term \"theosophia\" appeared (in both Greek and Latin) in the works of early church fathers, as a synonym for theology. In her book \"The Key to Theosophy\", Blavatsky claimed that the term \"Theosophy\" had been coined by \"the Alexandrian philosophers\", especially Ammonius Saccas. Blavatsky's", "Although the writings of prominent Theosophists lay out a set of teachings, the Theosophical Society itself states that it has no official beliefs with which all members must agree. It therefore has doctrine but does not present this as dogma. The Society stated that the only tenet to which all members should subscribe was a commitment \"to form a nucleus of the Universal Brotherhood of Humanity without distinction of race, creed, sex, caste or color\". This means that there were members of the Theosophical Society who were skeptical about many, or even all, of the Theosophical doctrines, while remaining sympathetic to its basic aim of universal brotherhood. As noted by Santucci, Theosophy is \"derived primarily from the writings\" of Blavatsky, however revisions and innovations have also been produced by subsequent Theosophists like Annie Besant and Charles Leadbeater. Blavatsky claimed that these Theosophical doctrines were not her own invention, but had been received from a brotherhood of secretive spiritual adepts whom she referred to as the \"Masters\" or \"Mahatmas\".", "Central to Theosophical belief is the idea that a group of spiritual adepts known as the Masters not only exist but were responsible for the production of early Theosophical texts. For most Theosophists, these Masters are deemed to be the real founders of the modern Theosophical movement. In Theosophical literature, these Masters are also referred to as the Mahatmas, Adepts, Masters of Wisdom, Masters of Compassion, and Elder Brothers. They are perceived to be a fraternity of human men who are highly evolved, both in terms of having an advanced moral development and intellectual attainment. They are claimed to have achieved extra-long life spans, and to have gained supernatural powers, including clairvoyance and the ability to instantly project their soul out of their body to any other location. These are powers that they have allegedly attained through many years of training. According to Blavatsky, by the late 19th century their chief residence was in the Himalayan kingdom of Tibet. She also claimed that these Masters were the source of many of her published writings. The Masters are believed to preserve the world's ancient spiritual knowledge, and to represent a Great White Brotherhood", "According to Blavatsky's teachings, many of the world's religions have their origins in a universal ancient religion, a \"secret doctrine\" that was known to Plato and early Hindu sages and which continues to underpin the center of every religion. She promoted the idea that ancient societies exhibited a unity of science and religion that humanity has since lost, with their achievements and knowledge being far in excess of what modern scholars believe about them. Blavatsky also taught that a secret brotherhood has", "Theosophy promotes an emanationist cosmology, promoting the belief that the universe is an outward reflection from the Absolute. Theosophy presents the idea that the world as humans perceive it is illusory, or \"maya\", an idea that it draws from Asian religions. Accordingly, Blavatsky taught that a life limited by the perception of this illusory world was ignorant and deluded. According to Blavatsky's teaching, every solar system in the universe is the expression of what is termed a \"Logos\" or \"Solar Deity\". Ranked below this Solar Deity are seven ministers or planetary spirits, with each of these celestial beings being in control of evolution on a particular planet. In \"The Secret Doctrine\", Blavatsky stated that each planet had a sevenfold constitution, known as the \"Planetary Chains\"; these consist not only of a physical globe but also of two astral bodies, two mental bodies, and two spiritual bodies, all overlapping in the same space. According to Blavatsky, evolution occurs on descending and ascending arcs, from the first spiritual globe on to the first mental globe, then from the first astral globe to the first physical globe, and then on from there. She claimed that there were different levels of evolution, from mineral on to vegetable, animal, human, and then to superhuman or spiritual. Different levels of evolution occur in a successive order on each planet; thus when mineral evolution ends on the first planet and it proceeds on to vegetable evolution, then mineral", "According to Theosophy, the purpose of human life is the spiritual emancipation of the soul. The human individual is described as an \"Ego\" or \"Monad\" and believed to have emanated from the Solar Deity, to whom it will also eventually return. The human being is presented as composed of seven parts, while operating on three separate planes of being. As presented by Sinnett and often repeated in Theosophical literature, these seven parts are the Body (\"Rupa\"), Vitality (\"Prana-Jiva\"), the Astral Body (\"Linga Sarira\"), the Animal Soul (\"Kama-Rupa\"), the Human Soul (\"Manas\"), the Spiritual Soul (\"Buddhi\"), and the Spirit (\"Atma\"). According to Theosophical teaching, it is the latter three of these components that are immortal, while the other aspects perish following bodily death. Theosophy", "Throughout her writings, Blavatsky made a variety of statements about rebirth and the afterlife, and there is a discrepancy between her earlier and later teachings on the subject. Between the 1870s and circa 1882, Blavatsky taught a doctrine called \"metempsychosis\". In \"Isis Unveiled\", Blavatsky stated that on bodily death, the human soul progresses through more spiritual planes. Two years later, she introduced the idea of reincarnation into Theosophical doctrine, using it to replace her metempsychosis doctrine. In \"The Secret Doctrine\", she stated that the spirit was immortal and would repeatedly incarnate into a new, mortal soul and body on Earth. According to Theosophical teaching, human spirits will always be reborn into human bodies, and not into those of any other life forms. Blavatsky stated that spirits would not be reborn until some time after bodily death, and never during the lifetime of the deceased's relatives. Blavatsky taught that on the death of the body, the astral body survives for a time in a state called kama-loka, which she compared to limbo, before also dying. According", "Theosophy does not express any formal ethical teaching, a situation that generated ambiguity. However, it has expressed and promoted certain values, such as brotherhood and social improvement. During its early years, the Theosophical Society promoted a puritanical attitude toward sexuality, for instance by encouraging chastity even within marriage. By 1911, the Theosophical Society was involved in", "The Theosophical Society did not prescribe any specific rituals for adherents to practice. However, ritualized practices have been established by various", "The Theosophical Society was largely the creation of two individuals: Helena Blavatsky and Henry Steel Olcott. Established Christianity in the United States was experiencing challenges in the second half of the nineteenth century, a result of rapid urbanization and industrialization, high rates of immigration, and the growing understanding of evolutionary theory which challenged traditional Christian accounts of history. Various new religious communities were established in different parts of the country, among them the Free Religious Association, New Thought, Christian Science, and Spiritualism. Theosophy would inherit the idea — then popular in the United States — that emphasized the idea of free will and the inevitability of progress, including on a spiritual level. It was also influenced by a growing knowledge about Asian religions in the United States. Prior to her arrival in the United States, Blavatsky had experience with esoteric currents like Spiritualism. It was through Spiritualism that Blavatsky and Olcott met. In 1884, Olcott established the first Scottish lodge, in Edinburgh. In 1980, Campbell noted that Theosophical books were selling at record levels. In the United States, Judge had been devoting himself to the promotion of Theosophy with little success.", "During her lifetime, Blavatsky had suggested to many different persons that they would be her successor. Three of the most prominent candidates — Olcott, Judge, and Besant — all met in London shortly after her death to discuss the situation. Judge claimed that he too was in contact with the Masters, and that they had provided him with a message instructing him to co-delegate the Society's Esoteric Section with Besant. Olcott, however, suspected that the notes from the Masters which Judge was producing were forged, exacerbating tensions between them. Besant attempted to act as a bridge between the two men, while Judge informed her that the Masters had revealed to him a plot that Olcott was orchestrating to kill her. In 1893, Besant came down on Olcott's side in the argument and backed the internal proceedings that Olcott raised against Judge. A two-stage enquiry took place, which concluded that because the Society took no official stance on whether the Masters existed or not, Judge could not be considered guilty of forgery and would be allowed to retain his position. The details of this trial", "During its first century, Theosophy established itself as an international movement. Campbell believed that from its foundation until 1980, Theosophy had gained tens of thousands of adherents. He noted that in that latter year, there were circa 35,000 members of the Adyar-based Theosophical Society (9000 of whom were in India), c.5,500 members of the Theosophical Society in America, c.1500 members of the Theosophical Society International (Pasadena), and about 1200 members of the United Lodge of Theosophy. Membership of the Theosophical Society reached its highest peak in 1928, when it had 45,000 members. The HPB Lodge in Auckland, New Zealand was one of the world's", "Hammer and Rothstein believed that the formation and early history of the Theosophical Society was one of the \"pivotal chapters of religious history in the West.\" The Theosophical Society had significant effects on religion, politics, culture, and society. In the Western world, it was a major force for the introduction of Asian religious ideas. In 1980, Campbell described it as \"probably the most important non-traditional or occult group in the last century\", while in 2012 Santucci noted that it had had \"a profound impact on the contemporary religious landscape\". In approaching Asian religion with respect and treating its religious beliefs seriously, Blavatsky and Olcott influenced South Asian society. In India, it played an important role in the Indian independence movement and in the Buddhist revival. The Indian independence leader Mahatma Gandhi developed much of his interest in Hindu culture after being given a copy of the \"Bhagavad Gita\" by two Theosophists. Alongside her support for Indian home rule, Besant had also supported home rule for Scotland, Wales, and Ireland. Campbell suggested that Theosophy could be seen as a \"grandfather\" movement to this 20th century growth in Asian spirituality. Given the spread of such ideas in the West, some critics have perceived Theosophy's role as being largely obsolete.", "Many important figures, in particular within the humanities and the arts, were involved in the Theosophical movement and influenced by its teachings. Prominent scientists who had belonged to the Theosophical Society included the inventor Thomas Edison, the biologist Alfred Russel Wallace, and the chemist William Crookes. The educator Maria Montessori spent the World War II years as a guest at the headquarters of the Theosophical Society based in Adyar, India, along with her son Mario. During that period she opened schools and conducted courses for teachers in India. Theosophy", "The founders of many later new religious movements had been involved in Theosophy. Many esoteric groups — such as Alice Bailey's Arcane School and Rudolf Steiner's Anthroposophy — are \"directly dependent\" on Theosophy. Although he had split from Theosophy when renouncing Leadbeater's claim that he was the World Teacher, Krishnamurti continued to exhibit Theosophical influences in his later teachings. In 1923 a former Theosophist, the Anglo-American Alice Bailey, established the Arcane School, which also rested on claims regarding contact with the Ascended Masters. Another former Theosophist, the Austrian Rudolf Steiner, split from the Theosophical Society over the claims about Krishnamurti and then established his own Anthroposophical Society in 1913, which promoted Anthroposophy, a philosophy influenced by Theosophical ideas. Despite his departure from the Theosophists, Rudolf Steiner nevertheless maintained a keen interest in Theosophy for", "A considerable amount of literature has been produced on the subject of Theosophy and the Theosophical Society. Most early publications on Theosophy fell into two camps: either apologetic and highly defensive, or highly antagonistic and aggressive towards the movement. As of 2001, the scholar of religion Olav Hammer could still note that books presenting the Theosophical doctrines were mostly apologetic in nature. Examples of such works include William Q. Judge's 1893 book \"Ocean of Theosophy\" and Robert Ellwood's 1986 book \"Theosophy\". He noted that most of these works treated Theosophical doctrine as if it were a fixed entity and provided little or no discussion of how they have changed over the decades. Many articles on the historical development of the movement have" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Middle Ages.", "Modern era.", "Culture and religion.", "Divine Mercy.", "Mariavite Church.", "Jewish history.", "Economy.", "Politics.", "Twin towns - sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The area was long inhabited by pagan peoples. In the 10th century, a fortified location was established high of the Vistula River's bank. This location was at a junction of shipping and routes and was strategic for centuries. Its location was a great asset. In 1009 a Benedictine monastery was established here. It became a center of science and art for the area. During the rule of the first monarchs of the Piast dynasty, even prior to the Baptism of Poland, Płock served as one of the monarchial seats, including that of Prince Mieszko I and King Bolesław I the Brave. The king built the original fortifications on Cathedral Hill (), overlooking the Vistula River. From 1037 to 1047, Płock was capital of the independent Mazovian state of Miecław. Płock has been the residence of many Mazovian princes. In 1075, a diocese seat was created here for the Roman Catholic church. From 1079 to 1138, during the reign of the Polish monarchs Władysław I Herman and Bolesław III Wrymouth, the city was the capital of Poland, then earning its title as the Ducal Capital City of Płock (). It was also a seat of several of the dukes of Masovia. In 1180 the present-day Marshal Stanisław Małachowski High School (\"Małachowianka\"), the oldest still existing school in Poland and one of the oldest in Central Europe, was established. Among its notable graduates is scholar and jurist Paweł Włodkowic, a precursor of religious freedom in Europe, who studied there in the late 14th century.", "In the early modern period, Płock was a royal city of Poland and capital of the Płock Voivodeship. The 16th century was the golden age of the city, before it suffered major losses in population due to plague, fire, and warfare, with wars between Sweden and Poland in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. At that time, the Swedes destroyed much of the city, but the people rebuilt and recovered. In the late 18th century, it took down the old city walls, and made a New Town, filled with many German migrants. In the Second Partition of Poland in 1793 the city was annexed by Prussia. From 1807 it was part of the short-lived Polish Duchy of Warsaw and in 1815 it became part of Congress Poland, later on fully annexed by the Russian Empire. In 1831, the last sejm of Congress Poland was held in the Płock town hall. It was a seat of provincial government and an active center; its economy was closely tied to major grain trade. It laid out a new city plan in the early 19th century, as new residents continued to arrive. Many of its finest buildings were constructed in this period in the Classical style. It had a scientific society before mid-century, and in the late 19th century began to industrialize. During World War I, Płock was occupied by Germany from 1915 to 1918. In 1920, the city became famous for its heroic defense against the Soviets during the Polish–Soviet War. Germany invaded Poland in 1939, and began to take over its government annecting the town to the Reich as part of the Regierungsbezirk Zichenau. It impressed people as forced laborers for German factories, treating them harshly. The Germans renamed the city Schröttersburg in 1941 after the former Prussian Baron of the Empire Friedrich Leopold von Schrötter.", "The Museum of Mazovia provides exhibits and interpretation of the city and region's history. Płock is the oldest legislated seat of the Roman Catholic diocese; the Masovian Blessed Virgin Mary Cathedral was built here in the first half of the 12th century and houses the sarcophagi of Polish monarchs. It is one of the five oldest cathedrals in Poland.", "The city is famous for the Divine Mercy Sanctuary, where the apparition of Jesus to Saint Faustina Kowalska took place.", "From the visions of Feliksa Kozłowska in 1893, the Mariavite order of priests originated, originally working to renew clergy within the Roman Catholic Church. Despite repeated attempts, they were not recognized by the Vatican and in the early 20th century established a separate and independent denomination. This site is the main seat of the Mariavite bishops. Their most important church was built here in the beginning of the 20th century; it is called the Temple of Mercy and Charity and is situated in a pleasant garden on the hill on which the historical centre of Płock is built, near the Vistula River. Poland in total has about 25,000 members of the Old Catholic Mariavite Church, as it is now named, with another 5,000 in France. A smaller breakaway church, the Catholic Mariavite Church, which has an integrated female priesthood (since 1929), has 3,000 members in Poland.", "The Jewish presence in Płock (Yiddish: \"Plotzk\") dates back many centuries, probably to the 13th and 14th centuries, when records include them. The Polish kings extended rights to them in 1264 and the 14th century, and provided continued political support through the centuries. At the beginning of the 19th century, their more than 1200 residents comprised more than 48% of the city's population in what is considered the city's Old Town; through the century, their proportions ranged from 30s and 40 percent. It varied as German migrants were arriving in the region, and the area was becoming urbanized, as more people moved to the city. As in other parts of Poland, they were restricted to employment in trades and crafts. In the late 19th century, Jews established two factories to produce farm machines and tools, and the first iron foundry in the city. They had two synagogues and two cemeteries (dating to the 15th century), religious and secular schools, and established a library and hospital. They contributed strongly to the economy and culture of the city. In the early 20th century, they had two newspapers, representing active political parties. In 1939, Płock had a Jewish population of 9,000, an estimated 26% of the city's total. It had one of the highest proportional Jewish populations in Poland. After the 1939 invasion of Poland, German Nazi persecution began, about 2,000 Jews fled the city, with half going to Soviet-controlled territory. They were assigned to locations far from the front. In 1940, the Nazis established a ghetto in Płock. They started actions against the Jews, killing those in an old people's home and sick children, and transporting others to be killed at Brwilski Forest. Ultimately, they transported the Jews to 20 camps and sites in the Radom district, where most died. By 1946, only 300 Jews survived in Płock. While they were active in the new politics, gradually the Jews left, and by 1959 three remained. Herman Kruk, a survivor and notable chronicler of life inside the Nazi concentration camps, was born in Płock in 1897. The small synagogue, built in 1810, was one of the few to survive World War II in the Masovia region of Poland. The Great Synagogue was destroyed during the Holocaust. The small synagogue was designated as a historic building about 1960, but deteriorated in physical condition while vacant. It was renovated and adapted for use as a museum, opening in April 2013 as the Museum of Masovian Jews, a branch of the Museum of Płock Mazowiecki.", "The main industry is oil refining, which was established in 1960. The country's largest oil refinery (Płock refinery) and parent company, PKN Orlen, are located here. It is served by a large pipeline leading from Russia to Germany. Associated industrial activities connected with the refinery are servicing and construction. A Levi Strauss & Co. factory is located in Płock and provides manufacturing jobs. Bus service covers the entire city, with 41 routes.", "Members of Parliament (Sejm) elected from Płock constituency", "Płock is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Visual identification.", "Chestnut family colors.", "Inheritance and expression." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Chestnuts can vary widely in shade and different terms are sometimes used to describe these shades, even though they are genetically indistinguishable. Collectively, these coat colors are usually called \"red\" by geneticists.", "Chestnut is considered a \"base color\" in the discussion of equine coat color genetics. Additional coat colors based on chestnut are often described in terms of their relationship to chestnut: Combinations of multiple dilution genes do not always have consistent names. For example, \"dunalinos\" are chestnuts with both the dun gene and one copy of the cream gene.", "The chestnut color, called \"red\" by geneticists, is created by an allele that is a mutation from the wildtype and is genetically the most recessive coat color that exists in modern horses. The gene for \"red\" color is designated as \"e\". This is because the presence or absence of red color in horses is determined by the equine melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R), a protein positioned on chromosome 3 (ECA3) at the Extension locus. The wild type version of the gene encoding MC1R is the \"E\" allele (colloquially, though imprecisely, called the \"Extension gene\"), and is part of the genetic pathway that allows melanocytes to produce eumelanin, or black pigment. When the \"E\" allele is not present, no eumelanin is produced, but the \"e\" allele still allows melanin to be produced in the form of pheomelanin, or red pigment, creating a chestnut or red-based coat color. In general, alleles that create fully functional MC1R proteins are inherited dominantly and result in a black-based coat color (\"E\"), while mutated alleles that create \"dysfunctional\" MC1R are recessive and result in a lighter coat color (\"e\"). Red hair color in horses (\"e\") is created by a missense mutation in the code for MC1R, which results in a protein that cannot bind to the Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH), which is released by the pituitary gland, and stimulates the production and release of melanin in skin and hair. So long as one functional copy (\"E\") is present, the protein is formed normally and black pigment is produced. However, when only mutant copies (\"e) of the gene are available, non-functional MC1R proteins are produced. As a result, no black pigment is deposited into the hair and the entire coat is red-based. However, the skin of chestnut horses is still generally black, unless affected by other genes. Some chestnut foals are also born with lighter eyes and lightened skin, which darken not long after birth. This is not the same as the blue eyes and pink skin seen at birth in foals carrying the champagne gene. It is a genetic mechanism not fully understood, but may be related to the pheomelanistic characteristics of \"e\". The recessive nature the chestnut or \"red\" coat in horses occurs because a single copy of the \"E\" allele is dominant over the \"e\" allele. Therefore, for example, bay and black horses may be heterozygous for \"e\" and if so, could produce a chestnut foal when bred to another horse with at least one copy of \"e\". However, all chestnut horses are homozygous for the \"e\" allele and thus breeding a chestnut to another chestnut will always produce a chestnut foal. Thus, unlike many coat colors, chestnut can be true-breeding; if any color other than chestnut occurs, then one of the parents was not chestnut. Red can occur in horses that carry \"E\" when other genes influence its expression. In some cases, MC1R exists but is locally antagonized by the agouti signalling peptide (ASIP), or \"agouti gene\", which \"suppresses\" black color and allows some red pigment to be formed. This results in localized regions of black-rich or red-rich pigmentation, as seen in bay horses." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Rules.", "Tournaments." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In racketlon a player competes against an opponent, or a doubles pair, in each of the four biggest racket sports: table tennis, badminton, squash and tennis. One set is played in each sport, in the order from the smallest to the biggest racket. Each of the four sets are played with running score to 21 points, with a margin of two points needed to finish a set. In team competitions, however, the individual matches are played to 11 points. Each player serves two serves at a time, and except in table tennis, this is always one serve from the right side and one serve from the left side of the court. Lots are drawn to decide who starts serving in table tennis, and this player will also start serving in squash. The winner of a racketlon match is the player or doubles pair who has won the most points in total. When a player leads a match with more points than there are points left for the opponent to obtain, the match is over. If the score is tied after all four sports, a \"gummiarm\"-point is played. This is a single extra point played in tennis, with only one serve to start off the rally. Lots are drawn to decide the server, and the winner of this rally wins the entire match. In doubles, the squash set is played individually. One player from each pair plays until someone reaches 11 points. From here, the rest of the game is finished by the two remaining players. With the exception of the above-mentioned rules, all rules that apply to the four individual sports also apply for racketlon.", "As of June 2016, the International World Tour contains 23 events divided into six challengers, 12 International World Tour tournaments, two Super World Tour tournaments and three World Championships (singles, doubles and national teams)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Mutants arise by mutation.", "Etymology.", "Epigenetic alterations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Mutants arise by mutations occurring in pre-existing genomes as a result of errors of DNA replication or errors of DNA repair. Errors of replication often involve translesion synthesis by a DNA polymerse when it encounters and bypasses a damaged base in the template strand. A DNA damage is an abnormal chemical structure in DNA, such as a strand break or an oxidized base, whereas a mutation, by contrast, is a change in the sequence of standard base pairs. Errors of repair occur when repair processes inaccurately replace a damaged DNA sequence. The DNA repair process microhomology-mediated end joining is particularly error-prone.", "Although not all mutations have a noticeable phenotypic effect, the common usage of the word \"mutant\" is generally a pejorative term only used for genetically or phenotypically noticeable mutations. Previously, people used the word \"sport\" (related to spurt) to refer to abnormal specimens. The scientific usage is broader, referring to any organism differing from the wild type. Mutants should not be confused with organisms born with developmental abnormalities, which are caused by errors during morphogenesis. In a developmental abnormality, the DNA of the organism is unchanged and the abnormality cannot be passed on to progeny. Conjoined twins are the result of developmental abnormalities. Chemicals that cause developmental abnormalities are called teratogens; these may also cause mutations, but their effect on development is not related to mutations. Chemicals that induce mutations are called mutagens. Most mutagens are also considered to be carcinogens.", "Mutations are distinctly different from epigenetic alterations, although they share some common features. Both arise as a chromosomal alteration that can be replicated and passed on to subsequent cell generations. Both, when occurring within a gene, may silence expression of the gene. Whereas mutant cell lineages arise as a change in the sequence of standard bases, epigenetically altered cell lineages retain the sequence of standard bases but have gene sequences with changed levels of expression that can be passed down to subsequent cell generations. Epigenetic alterations include methylation of CpG islands of a gene promoter as well as specific chromatin histone modifications. Faulty repair of chromosomes at sites of DNA damage can give rise both to mutant cell lineages and/or epigenetically altered cell lineages." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Phonology.", "Sociolinguistic variation.", "Grammar.", "Pronominal system.", "Copula.", "Orthography.", "Vocabulary.", "Literature and film.", "Bible." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Accounts of basilectal Jamaican Patois (that is, its most divergent rural varieties) suggest around 21 phonemic consonants with an additional phoneme () in the Western dialect. There are between nine and sixteen vowels. Some vowels are capable of nasalization and others can be lengthened. Examples of palatalization include: Voiced stops are implosive whenever in the onset of prominent syllables (especially word-initially) so that ('beat') is pronounced and ('good') as. Before a syllabic, the contrast between alveolar and velar consonants has been historically neutralized with alveolar consonants becoming velar so that the word for 'bottle' is and the word for 'idle' is. Jamaican Patois exhibits two types of vowel harmony; peripheral vowel harmony, wherein only sequences of peripheral vowels (that is,,, and ) can occur within a syllable; and back harmony, wherein and cannot occur within a syllable together (that is, and are allowed but and are not). These two phenomena account for three long vowels and four diphthongs:", "Jamaican Patois features a creole continuum (or a \"linguistic continuum\"): the variety of the language closest to the lexifier language (the acrolect) cannot be distinguished systematically from intermediate varieties (collectively referred to as the mesolect) or even from the most divergent rural varieties (collectively referred to as the basilect). This situation came about with contact between speakers of a number of Niger–Congo languages and various dialects of English, the latter of which were all perceived as prestigious and the use of which carried socio-economic benefits. The span of a speaker's command of the continuum generally corresponds to social context.", "The tense/aspect system of Jamaican Patois is fundamentally unlike that of English. There are no morphological marked past participles; instead, two different participle words exist: \"en\" and \"a\". These are not verbs, but simply invariant particles that cannot stand alone like the English \"to be\". Their function also differs from English. According to Bailey (1966), the progressive category is marked by. Alleyne (1980) claims that marks the progressive and that the habitual aspect is unmarked but by its accompaniment with words such as \"always\", \"usually\", etc. (i.e. is absent as a grammatical category). Mufwene (1984) and Gibson and Levy (1984) propose a past-only habitual category marked by as in ('where we used to live is not as cold as here'). For the present tense, an uninflected verb combining with an iterative adverb marks habitual meaning as in ('Tom always knows when Katy tells/has told about him'). As in other Caribbean Creoles (that is, Guyanese Creole and San Andrés-Providencia Creole; Sranan Tongo is excluded) has a number of functions, including:", "The pronominal system of Standard English has a four-way distinction of person, number, gender and case. Some varieties of Jamaican Patois do not have the gender or case distinction, but all varieties distinguish between the second person singular and plural (you).", "This is akin to Spanish in that both have 2 distinct forms of the verb \"to be\" – \"ser\" and \"estar\" – in which \"ser\" is equative and \"estar\" is locative. Other languages, such as Portuguese and Italian, make a similar distinction. (See Romance Copula.)", "Patois has long been written with various respellings compared to English so that, for example, the word \"there\" might be written,, or, and the word \"three\" as,, or. Standard English spelling is often used and a nonstandard spelling sometimes becomes widespread even though it is neither phonetic nor standard (e.g. for, 'child'). In 2002, the Jamaican Language Unit was set up at the University of the West Indies at Mona to begin standardizing the language, with the aim of supporting non-English-speaking Jamaicans according to their constitutional guarantees of equal rights, as services of the state are normally provided in English, which a significant portion of the population cannot speak fluently. The vast majority of such persons are speakers of Jamaican Patois. It was argued that failure to provide services of the state in a language in such general use or discriminatory treatment by officers of the state based on the inability of a citizen to use English violates the rights of citizens. The proposal was made that freedom from discrimination on the ground of language be inserted into the Charter of Rights. They standardized the Jamaican alphabet as follows: Nasal vowels are written with \"-hn\", as in \"kyaahn\" (can't) and \"iihn\" (isn't it?) \"h\" is written according to local pronunciation, so that \"hen\" (hen) and \"en\" (end) are distinguished in writing for speakers of western Jamaican, but not for those of central Jamaican.", "Jamaican Patois contains many loanwords, most of which are African in origin, primarily from Twi (a dialect of Akan). Many loanwords come from English, but are also borrowed from Spanish, Portuguese, Hindi, Arawak and African languages as well as Scottish and Irish dialects. Examples from African languages include meaning \"that\" (in the sense of \"he told me that...\" = ), taken from Ashanti Twi, and Duppy meaning \"ghost\", taken from the Twi word \"dupon\" ('cotton tree root'), because of the African belief of malicious spirits originating in the root of trees (in Jamaica and Ghana, particularly the cotton tree known in both places as \"Odom\"). The pronoun, used for the plural form of \"you\", is taken from the Igbo language. \"Red eboe\" describes a fair-skinned black person because of the reported account of fair skin among the Igbo in the mid 1700s. \"De\" meaning \"to be\"(at a location) comes from Yoruba. From the Ashanti-Akan, comes the term \"Obeah\" which means witchcraft, from the Ashanti Twi word \"Ɔbayi\" which also means \"witchcraft\". Words from Hindi include \"ganja\" (marijuana), and \"janga\" (crawdad). \"Pickney\" or \"pickiney\" meaning child, taken from an earlier form (\"piccaninny\") was ultimately borrowed from the Portuguese \"pequenino\" (the diminutive of \"pequeno\", small) or Spanish \"pequeño\" ('small'). There are many words referring to popular produce and food items—\"ackee\", \"callaloo\", \"guinep\", \"bammy\", \"roti\", \"dal\", \"kamranga\". See Jamaican cuisine. Jamaican Patois has its own rich variety of swearwords. One of the strongest is \"blood claat\" (along with related forms \"raas claat\", \"bomba claat\", \" claat\" and others—compare with \"bloody\" in Australian English and British English, which is also considered a profanity). Homosexual men may be referred to with the pejorative term, fish or \"batty boys\".", "A rich body of literature has developed in Jamaican Patois. Notable among early authors and works are Thomas MacDermot's \"All Jamaica Library\" and Claude McKay's \"Songs of Jamaica\" (1909), and, more recently, dub poets Linton Kwesi Johnson and Mikey Smith. Subsequently, the life-work of Louise Bennett or Miss Lou (1919–2006) is particularly notable for her use of the rich colorful patois, despite being shunned by traditional literary groups. \"The Jamaican Poetry League excluded her from its meetings, and editors failed to include her in anthologies.\" Nonetheless, she argued forcefully for the recognition of Jamaican as a full language, with the same pedigree as the dialect from which Standard English had sprung: After the 1960s, the status of Jamaican Patois rose as a number of respected linguistic studies were published, by Frederic Cassidy (1961, 1967), Bailey (1966) and others. Subsequently, it has gradually become mainstream to codemix or write complete pieces in Jamaican Patois; proponents include Kamau Brathwaite, who also analyses the position of Creole poetry in his \"History of the Voice: The Development of Nation Language in Anglophone Caribbean Poetry\" (1984). However, Standard English remains the more prestigious literary medium in Jamaican literature. Canadian-Caribbean science-fiction novelist Nalo Hopkinson often writes in Trinidadian and sometimes Jamaican Patois. Jean D'Costa penned a series of popular children's novels, including \"Sprat Morrison\" (1972; 1990), \"Escape to Last Man Peak\" (1976), and \"Voice in the Wind\" (1978), which draw liberally from Jamaican Patois for dialogue, while presenting narrative prose in Standard English. Marlon James employs Patois in his novels including \"A Brief History of Seven Killings\" (2014). In his science fiction novel \"Kaya Abaniah and the Father of the Forest\" (2015), British-Trinidadian author Wayne Gerard Trotman presents dialogue in Trinidadian Creole, Jamaican Patois, and French while employing Standard English for narrative prose. Jamaican Patois is also presented in some films and other media, for example, the character Tia Dalma's speech from \"\", and a few scenes in \"Meet Joe Black\" in which Brad Pitt's character converses with a Jamaican woman. In addition, early Jamaican films like \"The Harder They Come\" (1972), \"Rockers\" (1978), and many of the films produced by Palm Pictures in the mid-1990s (e.g. \"Dancehall Queen\" and \"Third World Cop\") have most of their dialogue in Jamaican Patois; some of these films have even been subtitled in English. It was also used in the second season of Luke Cage but the accents were described as \"awful\" by Jamaican Americans.", "In December 2011, it was reported that the Bible was being translated into Jamaican Patois. The Gospel of St Luke has already appeared as: \"\". While the Rev. Courtney Stewart, managing the translation as General Secretary of the West Indies Bible Society, believes this will help elevate the status of Jamaican Patois, others think that such a move would undermine efforts at promoting the use of English. The Patois New Testament was launched in Britain (where the Jamaican diaspora is significant) in October 2012 as \"Di Jamiekan Nyuu Testiment\", and with print and audio versions in Jamaica in December 2012. A comparison of the Lord's Prayer" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Used in various styles of music.", "Notation.", "Bowed string instrument technique.", "Practical implications.", "Other pizzicato techniques." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The first recognised use of pizzicato in classical music is found in Tobias Hume's \"Captain Humes Poeticall Musicke\" (1607), wherein he instructs the viola da gamba player to use pizzicato ('thumpe'). Another early use is found in Claudio Monteverdi's \"Il combattimento di Tancredi e Clorinda\" (around 1638), in which the players are instructed to use two fingers of their right hand to pluck the strings. Later, in 1756, Leopold Mozart in his \"Versuch einer gründlichen Violinschule\" instructs the player to use the index finger of the right hand. This has remained the most usual way to execute a pizzicato, though sometimes the middle finger is used. The bow is held in the hand at the same time unless there is enough time to put it down and pick it up again between bowed passages.", "In jazz and bluegrass, and the few popular music styles which use double bass (such as French modern chanson, American psychobilly and rockabilly), pizzicato is the usual way to play the double bass. This is unusual for a violin-family instrument, because regardless whether violin-family instruments are being used in jazz (e.g., jazz violin), popular, traditional (e.g., Bluegrass fiddle) or Classical music, they are usually played with the bow for most of a performance. In classical double bass playing, pizzicato is often performed with the bow held in the hand; as such, the string is usually only plucked with a single finger. In contrast, in jazz, bluegrass, and other non-Classical styles, the player is not usually holding a bow, so they are free to use two or three fingers to pluck the string. In classical music, however, string instruments are most usually played with the bow, and composers give specific indications to play pizzicato where required. Pieces in classical music that are played entirely pizzicato include: Antonio Vivaldi, in the \"Ah Ch'Infelice Sempre\" section of his cantata \"Cessate, omai cessate\", combined both pizzicato and bowed instruments to create a unique sound. He also included pizzicato in the second movement of \"Winter\" from \"The Four Seasons\".", "In music notation, a composer will normally indicate the performer should use pizzicato with the abbreviation \"pizz.\" A return to bowing is indicated by the Italian term \"arco\". A left hand pizzicato is usually indicated by writing a small cross above the note, and a Bartók pizzicato is often indicated by a circle with a small vertical line through the top of it above the note in question or by writing \"Bartók pizz\" at the start of the relevant passage. In classical music, arco playing is the default assumption; as such, if a music notation part starts and no indication is given as to whether the notes are arco or pizz, the player assumes that the notes are bowed.", "", "If a string player has to play pizzicato for a long period of time, the performer may put down the bow. Violinists and violists may also hold the instrument in the \"banjo position\" (resting horizontally on the lap), and pluck the strings with the thumb of the right hand. This technique is rarely used, and usually only in movements which are pizzicato throughout. A technique similar to this, where the strings are actually strummed like a guitar, is called for in the 4th movement of Rimsky-Korsakov's \"Capriccio Espagnol\" (Scena e canto gitano), where the violins, violas and cellos are instructed to play pizzicato \"quasi guitara\", the music here consists of three- and four-note chords, which are fingered and strummed much like the instrument being imitated.", "Another colorful pizzicato technique used in the same Rimsky-Korsakov piece mentioned above is two-handed pizzicato, indicated by the markings \"m.s.\" and \"m.d.\" (for \"mano sinistra\", left hand, and \"mano destra\", right hand); here, the open E string is plucked alternately in rapid succession by the left and right hands. One can also use the left hand fingers for pizzicato, either when they are not in use or as they are leaving their previous position. This allows pizzicati in places where there would not normally be time to bring the right hand from or to the bowing position. Use of left-hand pizzicato is relatively uncommon and is most often found in the violin solo repertoire; two famous examples of left-hand pizzicato are Paganini's 24th Caprice and Sarasate's Zigeunerweisen. Left hand pizzicato can also be used while bowed notes are being held, an effect appearing primarily in repertoire of the late 19th century and beyond. Examples of this technique can be found in the works of Wieniawski, Berg (\"Violin Concerto\"), Stravinsky (\"Three Pieces for String Quartet\") and many others. Maurice Delage calls for slurred pizzicati in the cello part of his \"Quatre poèmes hindous\" for soprano and chamber orchestra. This is achieved by playing one note, and then stopping a new note on the same string without plucking the string again. This technique (known as \"hammering-on\" to guitarists) is rarely used on bowed instruments. A further variation is a particularly strong pizzicato where the string is plucked vertically by snapping and rebounds off the fingerboard of the instrument. This is known as \"snap pizzicato\" or \"Bartók pizzicato\", after one of the first composers to use it extensively (e.g. in the 4th movement of his Fourth String Quartet, 1928). Gustav Mahler famously employs this kind of pizzicato in the third movement of his Seventh Symphony, in which he provides the cellos and double basses with the footnote 'pluck so hard that the strings hit the wood' (bar 401). On the double bass, this style of snap pizzicato, or \"slapping\", was used in jazz since the 1920s and later used in rockabilly. Because an unamplified double bass is generally the quietest instrument in a jazz band, many players of the 1920s and 1930s used the slap style, slapping and pulling the strings so that they make a rhythmic \"slap\" sound against the fingerboard. The slap style cuts through the sound of a band better than simply plucking the strings, and allowed the bass to be more easily heard on early sound recordings, as the recording equipment of that time did not favor low frequencies. Bartók also made use of pizzicato glissandi, executed by plucking a note and then sliding the stopping finger up or down the string. This technique can be heard in his \"Music for Strings, Percussion and Celesta\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "History.", "Demographics.", "Economy.", "Sport.", "Culture and education.", "Twin towns — sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "It is located on the main train line between Bratislava and Košice. It is half way between Trenčín and Žilina, two major Slovak cities, approximately 30 minutes train from both cities. The Váh river crosses Púchov, and there is a small dam open to public crossing. The health resort Nimnica (until 1990 part of Púchov) is situated in the vicinity and is a starting point for tours to Javorníky and White Carpathians mountains. Parts:", "The nearness of the Váh river and town`s strategic location contributed to create cultural and social relations, which were a part of its history. The first written reference dates back to 1243, when Béla IV., King of Hungary, signed his gift certificate to Vychlap Bechend. In this reference are also mentioned Leustrak`s son and Puch from his immediate vicinities. The word „puch“ is of Indo-European origin and it can be translated as „puffed up“, „haughty“ and „ov“ is a possessive suffix, therefore this name can be translated as a former „land of Puch“. There exist another version, that origin of town`s name originates from the word „Pochov“, which denotes a place many deceased from the whole vicinities were buried in the past. This claim was supported by many archaeological excavations of the graves throughout the centuries. Púchov vicinities, especially Púchovská skala (Púchov rock) was settled earlier during palaeolithic period. The excavations give evidence of settlements since the early Stone Age to the Roman period. During 1888-1894 an Austrian Army commissioned officer, an amateur archaeologist, baron Emil Friedrich Johannes Hoenning O` Carroll carried out an exploration of Púchovská Skala and his discovery of two bronze swords explained the town`s ancient history. His discoveries later contributed to the origin of the official archaeological name Púchov culture. During the 7th – 8th centuries was the town settled by Slavs and in the 9th century the Moravian settlements shared the most expansion. In 1469 Matthias Corvinus, the King of Hungary, gave Púchov homestead to the Marczibányis, who were the lineal descendants of Púchovs since the 13th century.", "According to the 2001 census, the town had 18,833 inhabitants. 97.4% of inhabitants were Slovaks, 1.3% Czechs and 0.2% Roma. The religious make-up was 71.4% Roman Catholics, 13.8% Lutherans, and 11.3% people with no religious affiliation.", "It is a strong industry base - home to Matador and Continental Tire plants, producers of pneumatic tyres, and Makyta, a producer of fashion clothes. Matador is a 20-minute walk from the train station in Púchov, while the city center is a 10-minute walk in the other direction.", "The number one sport in the town is football. The local team FK Matador Púchov had several successful seasons in the Slovak highest league, but currently is only in the Slovak second league. Among other sports, there has been a long tradition of swimming. Several of the best swimmers made it to the European championship. Some other sport clubs worth mentioning are volleyball and handball. The local ice hockey team is actually the Slovak National Ice Hockey Team under 20. The team named \"Slovakia 20\" is a permanent member of the highest Ice Hockey league. This was done as an experiment to help the young players to get more tough matches and increase their motivation. Cyclists, Peter and Martin Velits, come from Púchov as well. Slovak Bandy Association has organised rink bandy practice in Púchov.", "The town has several high schools and a branch of the Slovak University of Technology.", "Púchov is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "Boundaries.", "Streams, animals and salinity.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The strait is called \"Øresund\" in Danish and \"Öresund\" in Swedish, informally \"Sundet\" (lit. \"the Strait\") in both languages. The first part of the name is \"øre\" \"gravel/sand beach\", and the second part is \"sund\", i.e. \"sound, strait\". The name is first attested on a runestone dated to ca. AD 1000, where it is written as \"ura suti\", read as Old East Norse (the dative case). The Old West Norse (and modern Icelandic) form of the name is \"Eyrarsund\". \"Ör\" is the modern form of the old Norse word (aur) meaning a gravel beach or shoal (see also ayre), often forming a spit. Such landforms are common in the area and \"ör\" is found in many place names along the strait e.g. Helsingør, Skanör, Dragør and Halör, an important center of trade during the Viking Age.", "The northern boundary between Øresund and Kattegat is a line which goes from Gilleleje at Zealand's northern peak to the westernmost point of Kullaberg (Kullen's Lighthouse) at the smaller peninsula north of Helsingborg, known as Kullahalvön. In the south, the boundary towards the Baltic Sea starts at Stevns Klint, at the westernmost peak of the peninsula just south of Køge Bay, Stevns Peninsula to Falsterbo at the Falsterbo peninsula. Its eastern boundary is the Swedish coastline; to the west Amager may be considered part of Øresund (in which case it is the largest island) or a part of Zealand. Amager has eight connections with Zealand (two street bridges, a road bridge, a motorway bridge, a dual-track railway tunnel, an underground metro and a bicycle bridge) as well as a combined motorway and dual track railway to Scania and Sweden.", "Øresund, like other Danish and Danish-German straits, is at the border between oceanic salt water (which has a salinity of more than 30 PSU or per mille by weight) and the far less salty Baltic Sea. As the Kattegat in the north has almost oceanic conditions and the Baltic Sea (around 7 PSU, in its main basin) has brackish water, Øresund's water conditions are rather unusual and shifting. The streams are very complex, but the surface stream is often northbound (from the Baltic Sea) which gives a lower surface salinity, though streams can change from one day to another. The average surface salinity is about 10–12 PSU in the southern part but above 20 PSU north of Helsingør. Near the seafloor (where the sea is deep enough), conditions are more stable and salinity is always oceanic (above 30 PSU) below a certain depth that varies between 10 and 15 metres. In the southern part, however, the depth is 5–6 metres (outside the rather narrow waterways Drogden and Flintrännan), and this is the definite border of oceanic salt water, therefore also a border for many maritime species of animals. Only 52 known salt-water species reside in the central Baltic Sea, compared to around 1500 in the North Sea. Close to 600 species are known to exist in at least some part of Øresund. Well-known examples, for which the bottom salinity makes a distinct breeding border, include lobster, small crabs (\"Carcinus maenas\"), several species of flatfish and the lion's mane jellyfish; the latter can sometimes drift into the southwest Baltic Sea, but it cannot reproduce there. There are daily tides, but the lunar attraction cannot force much water to move from west to east, or vice versa, in narrow waters where the current is either northbound or southbound. So, not much of the difference in water levels in Øresund is due to daily tides, and other circumstances \"hide\" the little tide that still remains. The current has a much stronger effect than the tide on the water level, but strong winds may also affect the water level. During exceptional conditions, such as storms and hurricanes, oceanic water may suddenly flow into the Baltic Sea at all depths. Such events give deep waters in the southern Baltic Sea higher salinity, which makes it possible for cod to breed there. If no such inflow of oceanic water to the Baltic Sea occurs for around a decade, the breeding of cod becomes endangered. Generally, when the current shifts from northbound to southbound, it never turns 180 degrees with the same flow, instead the current will \"slow down to zero\" and then begins to flow in opposite direction. (Local phenomenon close to shores, might differ from this general pattern)", "Political control of Øresund has been an important issue in Danish and Swedish history. Denmark maintained military control with the coastal fortress of Kronborg at Elsinore on the west side and Kärnan at Helsingborg on the east, until the eastern shore was ceded to Sweden in 1658, based on the Treaty of Roskilde. Both fortresses are located where the strait is 4 kilometres wide. In 1429, King Eric of Pomerania introduced the Sound Dues which remained in effect for more than four centuries, until 1857. Transitory dues on the use of waterways, roads, bridges and crossings were then an accepted way of taxing which could constitute a great part of a state's income. The Strait Dues remained the most important source of income for the Danish Crown for several centuries, thus making Danish kings relatively independent of Denmark's Privy Council and aristocracy. To be independent of the Øresund, Sweden carried out two great projects, the foundation of Göteborg (Gothenborg) in 1621 and the construction of the Göta Canal from 1810 to 1832. The Copenhagen Convention of 1857 abolished the Dues and made the Danish straits an international waterway. A fixed connection was opened across the strait in 2000, the Øresund Bridge." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Regular dodecahedra.", "Other pentagonal dodecahedra.", "Pyritohedron.", "Crystal pyrite.", "Cartesian coordinates.", "Geometric freedom.", "Tetartoid.", "Cartesian coordinates.", "Variations.", "Dual of triangular gyrobianticupola.", "Rhombic dodecahedron.", "Other dodecahedra.", "Practical usage." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The convex regular dodecahedron is one of the five regular Platonic solids and can be represented by its Schläfli symbol {5, 3}. The dual polyhedron is the regular icosahedron {3, 5}, having five equilateral triangles around each vertex. The convex regular dodecahedron also has three stellations, all of which are regular star dodecahedra. They form three of the four Kepler–Poinsot polyhedra. They are the small stellated dodecahedron {5/2, 5}, the great dodecahedron {5, 5/2}, and the great stellated dodecahedron {5/2, 3}. The small stellated dodecahedron and great dodecahedron are dual to each other; the great stellated dodecahedron is dual to the great icosahedron {3, 5/2}. All of these regular star dodecahedra have regular pentagonal or pentagrammic faces. The convex regular dodecahedron and great stellated dodecahedron are different realisations of the same abstract regular polyhedron; the small stellated dodecahedron and great dodecahedron are different realisations of another abstract regular polyhedron.", "In crystallography, two important dodecahedra can occur as crystal forms in some symmetry classes of the cubic crystal system that are topologically equivalent to the regular dodecahedron but less symmetrical: the pyritohedron with pyritohedral symmetry, and the tetartoid with tetrahedral symmetry:", "A pyritohedron is a dodecahedron with pyritohedral (T) symmetry. Like the regular dodecahedron, it has twelve identical pentagonal faces, with three meeting in each of the 20 vertices (see figure). However, the pentagons are not constrained to be regular, and the underlying atomic arrangement has no true fivefold symmetry axis. Its 30 edges are divided into two sets – containing 24 and 6 edges of the same length. The only axes of rotational symmetry are three mutually perpendicular twofold axes and four threefold axes. Although regular dodecahedra do not exist in crystals, the pyritohedron form occurs in the crystals of the mineral pyrite, and it may be an inspiration for the discovery of the regular Platonic solid form. The true regular dodecahedron can occur as a shape for quasicrystals (such as holmium–magnesium–zinc quasicrystal) with icosahedral symmetry, which includes true fivefold rotation axes.", "Its name comes from one of the two common crystal habits shown by pyrite, the other one being the cube. In pyritohedral pyrite, the faces have a Miller index of (210), which means that the dihedral angle is 2·arctan(2) ≈ 126.87° and each pentagonal face has one angle of approximately 121.6° in between two angles of approximately 106.6° and opposite two angles of approximately 102.6°. In a perfect crystal, the measurements of an ideal face would be: These ideal proportions are rarely found in nature.", "If the eight vertices of a cube have coordinates of: Then a pyritohedron has 12 additional vertices: where \"h\" is the height of the wedge-shaped \"roof\" above the faces of the cube. When \"h\" = 1, the six cross-edges degenerate to points and the pyritohedron reduces to a rhombic dodecahedron. When \"h\" = 0, the cross-edges are absorbed in the facets of the cube, and the pyritohedron reduces to a cube. When \"h\" =, the multiplicative inverse of the golden ratio, the result is a regular dodecahedron. When \"h\" =, the conjugate of this value, the result is a regular great stellated dodecahedron. For natural pyrite, \"h\" =. A reflected pyritohedron is made by swapping the nonzero coordinates above. The two pyritohedra can be superimposed to give the compound of two dodecahedra. The image to the left shows the case where the pyritohedra are convex regular dodecahedra.", "The pyritohedron has a geometric degree of freedom with limiting cases of a cubic convex hull at one limit of collinear edges, and a rhombic dodecahedron as the other limit as 6 edges are degenerated to length zero. The regular dodecahedron represents a special intermediate case where all edges and angles are equal. It is possible to go past these limiting cases, creating concave or nonconvex pyritohedra. The \"endo-dodecahedron\" is concave and equilateral; it can tessellate space with the convex regular dodecahedron. Continuing from there in that direction, we pass through a degenerate case where twelve vertices coincide in the centre, and on to the regular great stellated dodecahedron where all edges and angles are equal again, and the faces have been distorted into regular pentagrams. On the other side, past the rhombic dodecahedron, we get a nonconvex equilateral dodecahedron with fish-shaped self-intersecting equilateral pentagonal faces.", "A tetartoid (also tetragonal pentagonal dodecahedron, pentagon-tritetrahedron, and tetrahedric pentagon dodecahedron) is a dodecahedron with chiral tetrahedral symmetry (T). Like the regular dodecahedron, it has twelve identical pentagonal faces, with three meeting in each of the 20 vertices. However, the pentagons are not regular and the figure has no fivefold symmetry axes. Although regular dodecahedra do not exist in crystals, the tetartoid form does. The name tetartoid comes from the Greek root for one-fourth because it has one fourth of full octahedral symmetry, and half of pyritohedral symmetry. The mineral cobaltite can have this symmetry form. Its topology can be as a cube with square faces bisected into 2 rectangles like the pyritohedron, and then the bisection lines are slanted retaining 3-fold rotation at the 8 corners.", "The following points are vertices of a tetartoid pentagon under tetrahedral symmetry: under the following conditions:", "It can be seen as a tetrahedron, with edges divided into 3 segments, along with a center point of each triangular face. In Conway polyhedron notation it can be seen as gT, a gyro tetrahedron.", "A lower symmetry form of the regular dodecahedron can be constructed as the dual of a polyhedra constructed from two triangular anticupola connected base-to-base, called a \"triangular gyrobianticupola.\" It has D symmetry, order 12. It has 2 sets of 3 identical pentagons on the top and bottom, connected 6 pentagons around the sides which alternate upwards and downwards. This form has a hexagonal cross-section and identical copies can be connected as a partial hexagonal honeycomb, but all vertices will not match.", "The \"rhombic dodecahedron\" is a zonohedron with twelve rhombic faces and octahedral symmetry. It is dual to the quasiregular cuboctahedron (an Archimedean solid) and occurs in nature as a crystal form. The rhombic dodecahedron packs together to fill space. The \"rhombic dodecahedron\" can be seen as a degenerate pyritohedron where the 6 special edges have been reduced to zero length, reducing the pentagons into rhombic faces. The rhombic dodecahedron has several stellations, the first of which is also a parallelohedral spacefiller. Another important rhombic dodecahedron, the Bilinski dodecahedron, has twelve faces congruent to those of the rhombic triacontahedron, i.e. the diagonals are in the ratio of the golden ratio. It is also a zonohedron and was described by Bilinski in 1960. This figure is another spacefiller, and can also occur in non-periodic spacefillings along with the rhombic triacontahedron, the rhombic icosahedron and rhombic hexahedra.", "There are 6,384,634 topologically distinct \"convex\" dodecahedra, excluding mirror images—the number of vertices ranges from 8 to 20. (Two polyhedra are \"topologically distinct\" if they have intrinsically different arrangements of faces and vertices, such that it is impossible to distort one into the other simply by changing the lengths of edges or the angles between edges or faces.) Topologically distinct dodecahedra (excluding pentagonal and rhombic forms)", "Armand Spitz used a dodecahedron as the \"globe\" equivalent for his Digital Dome planetarium projector. based upon a suggestion from Albert Einstein." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Discovery.", "19th century.", "20th century.", "21st century.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Flora and fauna.", "Invasive species.", "Economy.", "Transport.", "Communications.", "Government.", "Chief Islander.", "Demographics.", "Language.", "Education.", "Religion.", "Health.", "Culture.", "Media.", "Holidays." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The islands were first recorded as sighted in 1506 by Portuguese explorer Tristão da Cunha, though rough seas prevented a landing. He named the main island after himself, \"Ilha de Tristão da Cunha.\" It was later anglicised from its earliest mention on British Admiralty charts to Tristan da Cunha Island. Some sources state that the Portuguese made the first landing in 1520, when the \"Lás Rafael\" captained by Ruy Vaz Pereira called at Tristan for water. The first undisputed landing was made on 7 February 1643 by the crew of the Dutch East India Company ship \"Heemstede,\" captained by Claes Gerritsz Bierenbroodspot. The Dutch stopped at the island four more times in the next 25 years, and in 1656 created the first rough charts of the archipelago. The first full survey of the archipelago was made by crew of the French corvette \"Heure du Berger\" in 1767. The first scientific exploration was conducted by French naturalist Louis-Marie Aubert du Petit-Thouars, who stayed on the island for three days in January", "The first permanent settler was Jonathan Lambert of Salem, Massachusetts, United States, who moved to the island in December 1810 with two other men, and later a third. Lambert publicly declared the islands his property and named them the Islands of Refreshment. Three of the four men died in 1812; however, the survivor among the original three permanent settlers, Thomas Currie (or Tommaso Corri) remained as a farmer on the island. On 14 August 1816, the United Kingdom annexed the islands, making them a dependency of the Cape Colony in South Africa. This was explained as a measure to prevent the islands' use as a base for any attempt to free Napoleon Bonaparte from his prison on Saint Helena. The occupation also prevented the United States from using Tristan da Cunha as a base for naval cruisers, as it had during the War of 1812. Possession was abandoned in November 1817, although some members of the garrison, notably William Glass, stayed and formed the nucleus", "After years of hardship since the 1880s and an especially difficult winter in 1906, the British government offered to evacuate the island in 1907. The Tristanians held a meeting and decided to refuse, despite the crown's warning that it could not promise further help in the future. No ships called at the islands from 1909 until 1919, when HMS \"Yarmouth\" finally stopped to inform the islanders of the outcome of World War I. The Shackleton–Rowett Expedition stopped in Tristan for five days in May 1922, collecting geological and botanical samples before returning to Cape Town. Among the few ships that visited in the coming years were the RMS \"Asturias\", a Royal", "On 23 May 2001, the islands were hit by an extratropical cyclone that generated winds up to. A number of structures were severely damaged, and numerous cattle were killed, prompting emergency aid provided by the British government. In 2005, the islands were given a United Kingdom post code (TDCU 1ZZ), to make it easier for the residents to order goods online. On 13 February 2008, a fire destroyed the island's four power generators and fish canning factory, severely disrupting the economy. On 14 March 2008, new generators were installed and power restored, and a new factory", "Tristan da Cunha is thought to have been formed by a long-lived centre of upwelling mantle called the Tristan hotspot. Tristan da Cunha is the main island of the Tristan da Cunha archipelago, which consists of the following islands: Inaccessible Island and the Nightingale Islands are SW by W and SSW away from the main island, respectively, whereas Gough Island is SSE. The main island is generally mountainous. The only flat area is on the north-west coast, which is the location of the only settlement, Edinburgh of the Seven Seas. The highest point is the summit of a volcano called Queen Mary's Peak at an elevation of, high enough to develop snow cover in winter. The other islands of the group are uninhabited, except for a weather station with a staff of six on Gough Island, which has been operated by South Africa since 1956 and has been at its present location at Transvaal Bay on the southeast coast since 1963.", "The archipelago has a Cfb, wet oceanic climate, under the Köppen system, with mild temperatures and very limited sunshine but consistent moderate-to-heavy rainfall due to the persistent westerly winds. Under the Trewartha classification, Tristan da Cunha has a humid subtropical climate due to the lack of cold weather. The", "Many of the flora and fauna of the archipelago have a broad circumpolar distribution in the South Atlantic and South Pacific Oceans. For example, the plant species \"Nertera depressa\" was first collected in Tristan da Cunha, but has since been recorded as far away as New Zealand. Tristan is primarily known for its wildlife. The island has been identified as an Important Bird Area by BirdLife International because there are 13 known species of breeding seabirds on the island and two species of resident land birds. The seabirds include northern rockhopper penguins, Atlantic yellow-nosed albatrosses, sooty albatrosses, Atlantic petrels, great-winged petrels, soft-plumaged petrels, broad-billed prions, grey petrels, great shearwaters, sooty shearwaters, Tristan skuas, Antarctic terns and brown noddies. Tristan and Gough Islands are the only known breeding sites in the world for the Atlantic petrel. Inaccessible Island is also the only known breeding ground of the spectacled petrel. The Tristan albatross is known to breed only on Gough and Inaccessible Islands: all nest on Gough, except for one or two pairs which nest on Inaccessible Island. The endemic Tristan thrush, also known as the \"starchy\", occurs on all of the northern islands and each has its own subspecies, with Tristan birds being slightly smaller and duller than those on Nightingale and Inaccessible. The endemic Inaccessible Island rail, the smallest extant flightless bird in the world, is found only on Inaccessible Island. In 1956, eight Gough moorhens were released at Sandy Point on Tristan, and have subsequently colonised the island. No birds of prey breed on Tristan da Cunha, but the Amur falcon occasionally passes through the area on its migrations, thus putting it on the island's bird list. Various species of whales and dolphins can be seen around Tristan from time to time with increasing sighting rates, although recovery of baleen whales, especially the southern right whale, were severely hindered by illegal whaling by the Soviet Union in the aftermath of the 1960 volcanic eruption. The subantarctic fur seal \"Arctocephalus tropicalis\" can also be found in the Tristan archipelago, mostly on Gough Island.", "The islands of Tristan da Cunha has a high significance of global biodiversity as the island is considered a natural World Heritage Site. This designation is largely due to the seabird population found on the archipelago. The biodiversity of the island is on the decline because of the introduction of invasive species. Due to Tristan da Cunha's isolated archipelago ecology, and increase of tourism with cruise ships and research vessels, more invasive species are set to be introduced to Tristan da Cunha. The islands' vegetation and mammal species are not equipped to defend against or control introduced species, increasing island vulnerability, due to lack of defensive behavioral mechanisms, slow generational output rates. Efforts to decrease and eradicate invasive flora, fauna, and marine species are in the works and have yet to show any successful outcomes. The following described invasive species have been known to have harmful effects on the islands' vegetation and native species.", "The island has a unique social and economic structure in which all resident families farm and all land is communally owned. Outsiders are prohibited from buying land or settling on Tristan. Besides subsistence agriculture, major industries are commercial fishing and government. Major export industries are the Tristan rock lobster (\"Jasus\") fishery, the sale of the island's postage stamps and coins, and limited tourism. Like most British Overseas Territories, it was never a part of the European Union, but was a member of the EU's Overseas Countries and Territories Association. The Bank of Saint Helena was established on Saint Helena and Ascension Island in 2004. This bank does not have a physical presence on Tristan da Cunha, but residents of Tristan are entitled to its services. Although Tristan da Cunha is part of the same overseas territory as Saint Helena, it does not use the local Saint Helena pound, instead using the United Kingdom issue of the pound sterling. The island is located in the South Atlantic Anomaly, an area of the Earth with an abnormally weak magnetic field. On 14 November 2008 a geomagnetic observatory was inaugurated on the island as part of a joint venture between the Danish Meteorological Institute and DTU Space.", "The remote location of the islands makes transport to the outside world difficult. Tristan da Cunha has no airstrip and is not generally accessible to air travel, though the wider territory is served by Saint Helena Airport and RAF Ascension Island. Fishing boats from South Africa service the islands eight or nine times per year. The RMS \"Saint Helena\" used to connect the main island to St Helena and South Africa once each year during its January voyage, but has done so only a few times in the last years, in 2006, in 2011, and most recently in 2018. In the same", "Since 2006, a very-small-aperture terminal has provided 3072 kbit/s of publicly accessible bandwidth via an internet cafe. As of 2016,", "There are no political parties or trade unions on Tristan. Executive authority is vested in the Queen, who is represented in the territory by the Governor of Saint Helena. As the Governor resides permanently in Saint Helena, an Administrator is appointed to represent the Governor in the islands. The Administrator is a career civil servant in the Foreign Office, selected by London, who acts as the local head of government and takes advice from the Tristan da Cunha Island Council. Since 1998, each Administrator has served a three-year term (which begins in September, upon arrival of the supply ship from Cape Town). Sean Burns began a second term as Administrator in November 2016. The Administrator and Island Council work from the Government Building, which is the only two-storey building on the island. The building is sometimes referred to as \"Whitehall\" or the \"H'admin Building\" and contains the Administrator's Office, Treasury Department, Administration Offices, and the Council Chamber where Island Council meetings are held. Policing is undertaken by one full-time police inspector and three special constables. Tristan da Cunha has some legislation of its own, but the law of Saint Helena applies generally to the extent that it is not inconsistent with local law, insofar as it is suitable for local circumstances and subject to such modifications as local circumstances make necessary.", "The Island Council is made up of eight elected and three appointed members, who serve a three-year term which begins in February or March. A separate", "Tristan da Cunha recorded a population of 251 in the September 2018 census. The only settlement is Edinburgh of the Seven Seas (known locally as \"The Settlement\"). The current residents are thought to have descended from fifteen outside ancestors, eight male and seven female, who arrived on the island at various dates between 1816 and 1908. The men were European, and the women were mixed race and African. Now all of the population has mixed ancestry. In addition, a male contributor of eastern European / Russian descent arrived in the early 1900s. In 1963, when families returned after the evacuation due to the 1961 volcanic eruption, the 200 settlers included four Tristan da Cunha women who brought with them new English husbands. The female descendants have been traced by genetic study to five female founders, believed to be mixed-race (African, Asian and European descent) and from Saint Helena. The historical data recounted that there were two pairs of sisters, but the mtDNA evidence showed only one pair of sisters. The early male founders originated from Scotland, England, the Netherlands, the United States, and Italy, who belonged to three Y-haplogroups: I (M170), R-SRY10831.2, and R (M207) (xSRY10831.2). The male founders shared nine surnames: Collins, Glass, Green, Hagan, Lavarello, Repetto, Rogers, Squibb, and Swain. In addition, a new haplotype was found that is associated with men of eastern Europe and Russia. It entered the population in the early 1900s, at a time when the island was visited by Russian sailing ships. There is \"evidence for the contribution of a hidden ancestor who left his genes, but not his name, on the island.\" Another four instances of non-paternity were found among male descendants, but researchers believed their fathers were probably among the early island population. There are eighty families on the island.", "Tristan da Cunha's isolation has led to development of its own dialect of English. In popular writing,", "Education is fairly rudimentary; children leave school at age 16, and although they can take GCSEs a year later, few do. The school on the island is St. Mary's School, which serves children from ages 4 to 16. The Naval Station had established a school building during World War II. The current facility opened in 1975 and has five classrooms, a kitchen, a stage, a computer room, and a craft and science room. Tristan students doing post-16 education receive assistance from the Tristan da Cunha Association", "The only religion is Christianity, with the only denominations being Anglican and Roman Catholic. The Roman Catholic population is", "Healthcare is funded by the government, undertaken at most times by one resident doctor. Surgery or facilities for complex childbirth are therefore limited, and emergencies can necessitate communicating with passing fishing vessels so the injured person can be ferried to Cape Town. As of late 2007, IBM and Beacon Equity Partners, co-operating with Medweb, the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center and the", "", "Local television began in 1984 using taped programming on Tuesday, Thursday and Sunday evenings. Live television did not arrive on the island until 2001, with the introduction of the British Forces Broadcasting Service, which now provides BBC One, BBC Two, Channel 4, ITV and BFBS Extra, relayed to islanders", "The island holds an annual break from government and factory work which begins before" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Regular icosahedra.", "Convex regular icosahedron.", "Great icosahedron.", "Stellated icosahedra.", "Pyritohedral symmetry.", "Cartesian coordinates.", "Jessen's icosahedron.", "Other icosahedra.", "Rhombic icosahedron.", "Pyramid and prism symmetries.", "Johnson solids." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "There are two objects, one convex and one nonconvex, that can both be called regular icosahedra. Each has 30 edges and 20 equilateral triangle faces with five meeting at each of its twelve vertices. Both have icosahedral symmetry. The term \"regular icosahedron\" generally refers to the convex variety, while the nonconvex form is called a \"great icosahedron\".", "The convex regular icosahedron is usually referred to simply as the \"regular icosahedron\", one of the five regular Platonic solids, and is represented by its Schläfli symbol {3, 5}, containing 20 triangular faces, with 5 faces meeting around each vertex. Its dual polyhedron is the regular dodecahedron {5, 3} having three regular pentagonal faces around each vertex.", "The great icosahedron is one of the four regular star Kepler-Poinsot polyhedra. Its Schläfli symbol is {3, }. Like the convex form, it also has 20 equilateral triangle faces, but its vertex figure is a pentagram rather than a pentagon, leading to geometrically intersecting faces. The intersections of the triangles do not represent new edges. Its dual polyhedron is the great stellated dodecahedron, 3}, having three regular star pentagonal faces around each vertex.", "Stellation is the process of extending the faces or edges of a polyhedron until they meet to form a new polyhedron. It is done symmetrically so that the resulting figure retains the overall symmetry of the parent figure. In their book \"The Fifty-Nine Icosahedra\", Coxeter et al. enumerated 58 such stellations of the regular icosahedron. Of these, many have a single face in each of the 20 face planes and so are also icosahedra. The great icosahedron is among them. Other stellations have more than one face in each plane or form compounds of simpler polyhedra. These are not strictly icosahedra, although they are often referred to as such.", "A \"regular icosahedron\" can be distorted or marked up as a lower pyritohedral symmetry, and is called a snub octahedron, snub tetratetrahedron, snub tetrahedron, and pseudo-icosahedron. This can be seen as an alternated truncated octahedron. If all the triangles are equilateral, the symmetry can also be distinguished by colouring the 8 and 12 triangle sets differently. Pyritohedral symmetry has the symbol (3*2), [3,4], with order 24. Tetrahedral symmetry has the symbol (332), [3,3], with order 12. These lower symmetries allow geometric distortions from 20 equilateral triangular faces, instead having 8 equilateral triangles and 12 congruent isosceles triangles. These symmetries offer Coxeter diagrams: and respectively, each representing the lower symmetry to the regular icosahedron, (*532), [5,3] icosahedral symmetry of order 120.", "The coordinates of the 12 vertices can be defined by the vectors defined by all the possible cyclic permutations and sign-flips of coordinates of the form (2, 1, 0). These coordinates represent the truncated octahedron with alternated vertices deleted. This construction is called a \"snub tetrahedron\" in its regular icosahedron form, generated by the same operations carried out starting with the vector (\"φ\", 1, 0), where \"φ\" is the golden ratio.", "In Jessen's icosahedron, sometimes called \"Jessen's orthogonal icosahedron\", the 12 isosceles faces are arranged differently so that the figure is non-convex and has right dihedral angles. It is scissors congruent to a cube, meaning that it can be sliced into smaller polyhedral pieces that can be rearranged to form a solid cube.", "", "The rhombic icosahedron is a zonohedron made up of 20 congruent rhombs. It can be derived from the rhombic triacontahedron by removing 10 middle faces. Even though all the faces are congruent, the rhombic icosahedron is not face-transitive.", "Common icosahedra with pyramid and prism symmetries include:", "Several Johnson solids are icosahedra:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Features.", "Engine extensions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Irrlicht supports 3D rendering via OpenGL, DirectX 8, 9, and 11 (with DirectX 11 extension), and internal software rasterizers. DirectX 8 will not be supported after 1.8.1, effectively ending support for Xbox. External renderers and windowing systems plug in through simple interfaces, giving rise to a community-made Simple DirectMedia Layer (SDL) video driver and support for iPhone and Symbian devices. The engine comes with a library of standard material renderers, allowing fallback materials where user hardware is unable to handle advanced methods. New materials can be added to the engine at run-time, allowing users to write their own as needed. In addition to legacy fixed-function pipeline materials, programmable Pixel and Vertex Shaders (1.1 to 3.0 and 4.0 using GLSL), ARB Fragment and Vertex Programs, HLSL, Cg and GLSL materials are supported. Irrlicht supports many file formats. It will load and display 3ds Max files, Quake 2 MD2 Models, Wavefront.obj objects, Quake 3.bsp maps, Milkshape3D objects, and DirectX.x files. Additional format loaders have been written as external plugins. Lights, cameras and 3D objects are managed as a tree of \"Scene Nodes\", arbitrary groupable entities linked together in a scene graph. These nodes are responsible for their own behaviour, but can also be managed by animators, each other, or manually by users. Many built-in node types exist and can be used together to make complex indoor and outdoor scenes. New nodes are trivial to make and can be added at runtime; many additional node types are available from the community. Node types packaged with Irrlicht include a terrain renderer and sky domes-boxes for outdoor rendering, binary space partitioning (BSP) for indoor rendering, bone based animated meshes, stencil shadows, billboards and particle systems, water surfaces and primitives. A skinnable 2D graphical user interface (GUI) is available, supporting many controls and the ability for users to plug in their own (or community made) custom widgets at runtime. Irrlicht's internal event system provides mouse, keyboard, joystick and GUI events without having to rely on additional libraries. Filesystem access is abstracted allowing platform-independent file and folder access, and transparent access to files within ZIP archives. Other I/O features include an XML reader and writer, the ability to take screenshots, manipulate images and meshes and then save them in several different file formats. Irrlicht provides support for simple collision detection including mouse picking, but users are advised that this is not intended as a replacement for a full featured physics engine.", "Irrlicht was designed to be able to load and save the current scene to an XML file; this combined with the engine's open-source licensing model has attracted various programmers and developers to create world editors for Irrlicht to simplify the world-creation process. One such example is the irrEdit world editor, developed by Nikolaus Gebhardt and other members of the company Ambiera. IrrEdit contains a radiosity lightmap generator and a scripting interface using Squirrel scripts. Since Irrlicht does not support sound by itself, Ambiera has also developed irrKlang, a non-free, proprietary audio library with an API similar to Irrlicht. Being developed by the same group, irrEdit supports the use of sounds in levels made by irrEdit for use with irrKlang-enabled compiled DLLs. Also, among Ambiera's creations is irrXML, Irrlicht's XML parser. Many physics libraries have had plugins and wrappers written for Irrlicht, including Nvidia PhysX, Bullet, and Open Dynamics Engine. More extensions can be found in the Irrlicht forums and in the irrExt project, a side-project of Irrlicht for special purpose add-ons. There are also some new technologies in forums such as Deferred shading or Shadow mapping. Many users contribute extensions such as Compute Shaders (OpenGL 4.3) and Tessellation Shaders (Shader Model 5.0)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Prefects from 1800 until 1814.", "Governors from 1815 until 1830.", "Governors since 1830.", "Language.", "Religion.", "Government.", "Traffic infrastructure.", "Tourism.", "Education and research.", "Economy.", "Unemployment.", "Chemical industry.", "Diamond.", "Paper.", "Metallurgies.", "Glass.", "Dynamite.", "Textile.", "Tobacco.", "Administrative subdivisions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "During the early Middle Ages the region was part of the Frankish Empire, which was divided into several pagi. The territory of the present day province belonged to several pagi of which the region around what would become the city of Antwerp belonged to the \"Pagus Renesium\". The Pagus Toxandria stretched from North Brabant into the Campine region. To the south there was the \"Pagus Bracbatinse\" and the Pagus Hasbaniensis. In 843 the Carolingian Empire of Charlemagne was divided among his sons and the river Scheldt became the border between West Francia and East Francia. In 974 Otto II established the Margraviate of Antwerp as a defence against the County of Flanders. In 1106, Henry V granted the Margraviate to Godfrey I of Leuven. His descendants would from 1235 onwards become the Dukes of Brabant and the region itself was the northern part of the Duchy of Brabant. In 1430 the Duchy became part of the Duchy of Burgundy until 1477 when it fell to the House of Habsburg. In 1713, at the end of the Spanish Succession War the region became part of the Austrian Netherlands until 1794, with in 1790 the short lived United States of Belgium. On 1 October 1795 the former Austrian Netherlands were annexed by France under the French Directory. The modern province was created as the \"Department of the two Netes\" during the First French Empire (when the Southern Netherlands were part of France). After the defeat of Napoleon, the territory became part of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands as the province of Central Brabant, distinguishing it from North Brabant and South Brabant. In 1830, after Belgium's independence the province was renamed Antwerp (after its major city and capital).", "Prefects of the Department of the two Netes during the First French Empire", "Governors of the province of Antwerp during the United Kingdom of the Netherlands", "Governors of the Belgian province of Antwerp", "As in all Flemish provinces, the official and standard language of the Antwerp province is Dutch. Common with Flemish Brabant, North Brabant and Brussels, the local dialect is a Brabantian variety.", "According to the \"International Social Survey Programme 2008: Religion III\" by the Association of Religion Data Archives, 73.3% of Antwerp's population identify themselves as Catholics, 24.1% as non-religious, 2.6% identify themselves in other religions.", "The province of Antwerp has a provincial council, elected every six years, and an executive deputation headed by a governor. The current governor is Cathy Berx, appointed in 2008 by the Flemish Government. The last elections were held on 14 October 2018. The following parties were elected to the 36-member council:", "The province has a network of roads, railroads, canals and rivers which provide a modern infrastructure. Historically, the traffic infrastructure was an important element of connecting the Port of Antwerp with the Ruhr Area in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. Both the Iron Rhine railroad and the E313 (\"King Baudouin highway\") and E34 highway connect Antwerp with the Ruhr Area. The river Schelde, an important waterway, connects the Port of Antwerp with the North Sea. The Albert Canal connects the Scheldt in Antwerp with the Meuse and Liège. Other canals are the Canal Dessel – Kwaadmechelen, Schoten – Turnhout – Dessel, and Herentals – Bocholt which flows into the Nete canal. Of the International E-road network, the E313, E19, and E34 run through parts of the province. The Kennedy Tunnel and the Liefkenshoek Tunnel connect the highway network of the province with East Flanders and Ghent. In addition a new Oosterweelconnection is under consideration. The railroads connect the major cities of the province, such as Antwerp, Mechelen, Herentals, Turnhout and Mol. The Iron Rhine connects Antwerp with Mönchengladbach in Germany. The new High Speed Train connects Antwerpen-Centraal railway station with Brussels (HSL 4) and Amsterdam (HSL-Zuid) at high speed. Antwerp International Airport, located in Deurne is a regional airport.", "The province harbors several historical cities, such as Antwerp, Mechelen, Turnhout, Herentals and Lier. The Campine region is becoming a popular destination for tourists searching for a quiet and relaxed weekend. Old farms were transformed into bed and breakfast-hotels, the restaurant and café business is very active and an ingenious network for bicycle tours has come to life the past few years. Here and there still up to several dozens acres of large heathland - and forests, such as the Kalmthoutse Heide (E: Kalmthout heathland) in Kalmthout, the moors around Turnhout, the \"Liereman\" (Oud-Turnhout) and the \"Prinsenpark\" in Retie. In a number of villages one can still see the typical Campine \"langgevelboerderijen\" (E: \"long facade farms\").", "The province is home to several educational institutions and the University of Antwerp. Several research institutions are located in the province, such as the SCK•CEN, the European Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements (IRMM) and the Flemish Institute for Technological Research (VITO). International schools in Antwerp include Antwerp International School and Lycée Français International d'Anvers.", "The Gross domestic product (GDP) of the province was 88 billion € in 2018. GDP per capita adjusted for purchasing power was 41,900 € or 139% of the EU27 average in the same year. The Port of Antwerp is the economic heart of the province. Until the agricultural crisis of 1880, the eastern part of the province was a largely agricultural region. The industrial development of the eastern part of the province, part of the Campine region, started at the end of the 19th century when industry established itself in the region. The availability of cheap labor, new roads, canals, tramways and railroads such as the Iron Rhine, stimulated the settlement of new industry. Brick making industry alongside the canals, paper and printing business in Turnhout. Non-ferrous metallurgy in Balen-Nete, dynamite factories in Arendonk and Balen. Tobacco and cigar factories in Arendonk and the first shoe factory in Herentals. During the 1920s, the industrial expansion of the region continued with the radium and copper factories in Olen, the glass factory in Mol-Gompel and the diamond industry in Grobbendonk and Nijlen. In the 20th century the first nuclear installation in Belgium was established at the SCK•CEN in Mol in 1962. The European Institute for Reference Materials and Measurements (IRMM), one of the EU Joint Research Centres, was founded in Geel in 1957 as a result of the Treaty of Rome. Innotek is a technology centre located in Geel and is part of the \"European Business and Innovation Centre Network\" (EBN). Industry in the Campine region of the province is mainly located alongside the E313, the E34 and the Albert Canal.", "The unemployment rate stood at 5.9% in 2017 and was lower than the national average.", "After World War II the Port of Antwerp was expanded and on its premises several chemical factories and oil refineries were established, such as Bayer, BASF, Monsanto Company. The chemical and petrochemical industry is widely represented in the port region and comprises the world's second largest cluster of petrochemical industry, next to Houston (United States). In 1967 \"Amoco Chemical Belgium N.V.\", now BP, was founded in Geel. Pharmaceutical industry was founded in Beerse in the 1960s, with Janssen Pharmaceutica and more recently with Genzyme in Geel. Soudal (silicon) in Turnhout and Ravago (plastics) in Arendonk became leading companies in their markets.", "The diamond industry and trade is traditionally located in Antwerp. At the end of the 19th century Hendrik Cassiers founded a diamond cutting company outside Antwerp, in Grobbendonk. Hendrik Cassiers and Frans Dela Montagne laid the foundations of the diamond industry in the Campine region. The industry would settle in Nijlen, Herenthout, Bevel, Kessel, Vorselaar and Berlaar.", "The region around Turnhout became famous for its printing business, with companies such as Brepols, which roots date back to 1796 when Pieter Corbeels established his printing business in Turnhout. In 1833, Van Genechten N.V., Splichal N.V. in 1856, Mesmaekers Freres in 1859, Meses-Goris in 1872, L. Biermans in 1875, Poupaert in 1881, La Belgica N.V. in 1907, H. Proost & Co in 1913, J. Van Mierlo-Proost in 1918, Lityca in 1932 and Veloutex in 1951. More recently in 1970, Cartamundi was established, a world leader in playing cards.", "While Wallonia was famous for its steel industry, the Campine region became renowned for its non ferrous metallurgies. The Campine region was scarcely populated in the 19th century and with the availability of canals, the Iron Rhine and cheap labor, several metallurgies were established in the region. In 1888-1889 the metallurgy La Vieille Montagne was founded in Balen-Nete, close the Iron Rhine and the canal to Beverlo. The company had its roots in the exploitation of the zinc mines of Moresnet. The Union Minière du Haut Katanga founded the \"Société Générale Métallurgique de Hoboken\" in Olen, which was established along the Iron Rhine and the Albert Canal. The factory produced radium, cobalt and copper from the mines of the \"Union Minière\" in Katanga, Belgian Congo and Rhodesia. Along the canal Turnhout-Schoten the \"Métallurgique de la Campine\" was established in 1910 for the production of lead and antimony. In 1919 \"La Metallo-Chimique\" was established which specialized in the production of copper.", "In 1872 the \"Sablières et Carrières Réunies\" (SCR), now Sibelco, was founded to extract the silica sand layers in Mol for industrial applications (glass). In 1920 the glass bottle manufacture \"Beles Réunios\" was set up in Mol-Donk. In 1921 a group of Belgian banks, the \"Mutuelle Mobilière & Immobilière\", the Société Générale de Belgique, the \"Banque de Bruxelles\" and the \"Financière de Transport\" together with the American group Libbey-Owens founded the \"Cie Internationale pour la fabrication mécanique de Verre\" in Mol Gompel. In 1931, due to the economic crisis, the company merged into \"Glaces et Verres\" (Glaver). In 1961 Glaver would merge with \"Univerbel\" into Glaverbel.", "As the Campine region was sparsely populated several dynamite factories were established in the region. In 1875, the \"Societe Anonyme d'Arendonk\" was established which premises would later become part of Ravago. In 1881 \"La Forcite N.V.\" was established near Balen, which was later acquired in 1920 by the \"Poudreries Réunies de Belgique\" (PRB). In 1887 a factory was founded near Herentals, which was closed due to the vicinity to the city. The factories produced explosives for the mines and quarries. The factories in the province are now closed down.", "Historically, wool processing industry was based on the wool from the sheep which were kept on the Campine heath. The centre of the textile industry in the province could be found in Turnhout. Wool processing companies such as \"Wolspinnerij Van Iersel\", \"Spinnerij en Weverij Van Hoof\" and \"De Wollendekensfabriek Van Doren\" were located in Mol.", "At the end of the 19th century Arendonk became the centre of the tobacco industry. Additional factories were founded in Turnhout, Mol, Geel and Herentals. After World War II, the ALTO cigar factory was founded by Frans Van den Bergh who would also play an important role at Janssen Pharmaceutica.", "The province is divided into three administrative arrondissements (\"arrondissementen\" in Dutch) containing 70 municipalities :" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Discovery.", "Organised settlement.", "Botany.", "Astronomical observation.", "Early government.", "World wars.", "Later military involvement.", "Twenty-first century.", "Geography.", "Geology.", "Climate.", "Ecology.", "Flora.", "Fauna.", "Bird life.", "Marine Protected Area.", "Government.", "Island Council.", "Laws.", "Relationship to St Helena.", "Demographics.", "Culture.", "Economy.", "Tourism and related industries.", "Communications.", "Banking and currency.", "Education.", "Transport." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "In 1501, the Portuguese navigator João da Nova sighted the island on Ascension Day (which fell on 21 May that year) and named it \"Ilha da Ascensão\" after this feast day. Dry and barren, the island had little appeal for passing ships except for collecting fresh meat, and was not claimed for the Portuguese Crown. Mariners could hunt for the numerous seabirds and the enormous female green turtles that laid their eggs on the sandy beaches. The Portuguese also introduced goats as a potential source of meat for future mariners. In February 1701, HMS \"Roebuck\", commanded by William Dampier, sank in", "Organised settlement of Ascension Island began in 1815, when the British garrisoned it as a precaution after imprisoning Napoleon on Saint Helena to the southeast. On 22 October the s and claimed the island for King George III. The Royal Navy designated the island as a stone", "In 1836 the second \"Beagle\" voyage visited Ascension. Charles Darwin described it as an arid treeless island, with nothing growing near the coast. Sparse vegetation inland supported \"about six hundred sheep, many goats, a few cows & horses,\" large numbers of guineafowl imported from the Cape Verde islands, rats, mice, and land crabs; he agreed with the saying attributed to the people of St Helena that \"We know we live on a rock, but the poor people at Ascension live on a cinder.\" He noted the care taken to sustain \"houses, gardens & fields placed near the summit of the central mountain,\" and cisterns at roadsides to provide drinking water. The springs were carefully managed, \"so that a", "Beginning in July 1877, the astronomer Sir David Gill and his wife Isobel spent six months on Ascension Island. This was to take advantage of the near approach of Mars occurring that year. Based on Johannes Kepler's laws of planetary motion, Gill conceived that in pioneering the use of a heliometer he would be able to accurately measure the transit of Mars on his own, rather than in combination with many observers simultaneously recording the position of the planet as had been the technique during the time. This is because a heliometer is a telescope that uses a split image to measure the angular separation of celestial bodies. In observing this from near the equator a greater observable distance would be visible, hence a temporary observatory being decided upon for Ascension. Although originally based", "In 1899, the Eastern Telegraph Company installed the first underwater cable from the island, connecting the UK with its colonies in South Africa. In 1922, letters patent", "During World War II, to supply and augment extensive amphibious aircraft antisubmarine patrol operations ongoing from the early days of the war, the United States built an airbase on Ascension Island, known as \"Wideawake\", after a nearby colony of sooty terns (locally called 'wideawake' birds because of their loud, distinctive constant (day-and-night) cawing chatter). The airbase, which was under construction by the 38th Combat Engineer Battalion of the Army Corps of Engineers, was unexpectedly visited by two British Fairey Swordfish torpedo planes on 15 June 1942. According to one of the pilots, Peter Jinks, the planes were fired upon before being recognised as allies. The Swordfish had to land on the unfinished airstrip, thus becoming the first aircraft to", "With the Space Race and the Cold War, the Americans returned in 1956. Wideawake Airfield expanded in the mid-1960s. The runway, with its strange hump, was extended, widened, and improved to allow its use by large aircraft, and later to act as an emergency runway for the Space Shuttle, although the Shuttle never had to use it. At the time, it was the world's longest airport runway. The United States Air Force used the island as part of its Eastern Range. NASA established a tracking station on the island in 1967, which it operated for more than 20 years before closing it down in 1990. A joint Government Communications Headquarters and National Security Agency signals intercept station was also established on Ascension during the", ", it was reported that the Composite Signals Organisation, an arm of GCHQ, continued to operate a signals interception facility at Cat Hill on Ascension. NASA continued to list Ascension Island as a \"downrange site\" used for range safety instrumentation. In particular, the Post-Detect Telemetry System used to acquire launch vehicle telemetry includes a station on Ascension. In 2008 British diplomats at the United Nations Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (UN CLCS), requested sovereignty over of submarine territory around the island. This would enable exploration into new reserves of oil, gas and minerals, though none are thought to exist. The 2009 Constitution order ended", "The main island has an area of approximately 88 km. A volcanic peak rising from west of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, much of the island is a wasteland of lava flows and cinder cones; forty-four distinct dormant craters have been identified.", "Ascension is a geologically young formation, the tip of an undersea volcano which rose above the waves only a million years ago. Although volcanic activity is mainly associated with the Mid-Atlantic Ridge plate boundary 80 km to the west, Ascension also displays some features which are commonly attributed to \"hotspot\" volcanism. Such volcanism is typically", "Ascension has a hot desert climate (\"BWh\", according to the Köppen climate classification). The temperatures at the coast average from, and about 5 to 6 °C (9 to 11 °F) cooler at the highest point. Rain showers may occur at any time during the year, but tend to be heavier between June", "", "The endemic flora includes plants like \"Pteris adscensionis\", \"Asplenium ascensionis\", \"Euphorbia origanoides\" as well as the extinct species \"Oldenlandia adscensionis\", \"Sporobolus durus\" and \"Dryopteris ascensionis\". \"Anogramma ascensionis\" (Ascension Island parsley fern) was thought to have become extinct due to habitat loss, until four plants were found on the island in 2010. Over 60 specimens were then successfully cultivated. Portuguese explorers released goats in the 1500s which ate many species to extinction. The later introduction of rabbits, sheep, rats and donkeys, and over 200 imported species further marginalised the original flora. By 1843 the island was barren with few plants. However, due to the introduction of species by the British, Ascension Island's Green Mountain is now one of", "A variety of mammals have been introduced: donkeys, sheep, cats and rats among others. Reptiles consist of two species of lizards. Endemic insect species include the minute, wingless Psocopteran \"Troglotroctes ashmoleorum\", that has been found in caves and between lava blocks. In summer, flies are known to be a problem. The largest native land animal is the land crab \"Johngarthia lagostoma\" (formerly \"Gecarcinus lagostoma\"). Offshore, there is a variety of open-ocean fish, including sharks, wahoo, tuna, bonito, barracuda, marlin, blackfish and sailfish. The protected green turtle is perhaps the most notable of the endemic fauna, coming ashore to lay their eggs on the beaches from November to May. Turtles were regularly harvested until 1930, when the practice was banned. By", "After cats were introduced to Ascension Island in 1815, large seabird breeding colonies were quickly wiped out everywhere except in small cat-inaccessible areas, such as on the offshore Boatswain Bird Island. Following a two-year campaign, feral cats were eradicated by 2009 and seabirds began to recolonise the main island.", "In January 2016 the UK Government announced that an area around Ascension Island was to become a huge marine reserve, to protect its varied and unique ecosystem, including some of the largest marlin in the world, large populations of green turtle, and the island's own species of frigate bird. On 22 August 2019 the Ascension Island Government announced", "Ascension had formed part of a British overseas territory together with Saint Helena and Tristan da Cunha. and was governed by St Helena, until it achieved its own Constitution. Although being legally and economically separate from Saint Helena and Tristan da Cunha, for efficiency purposes, the three territories share some administrative resources. Executive authority is vested in Elizabeth II, who is represented by the Governor of Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha. The Governor resides in Jamestown, Saint Helena, and an Administrator is appointed to represent the Governor on Ascension Island.", "As a result of changes in the constitutional arrangements for Ascension Island, a unicameral Legislative Council with advisory powers was introduced in 2002. The first Island Council of seven members was elected, and took office on 1 November 2002. This Council was dissolved by order of the Governor of Saint Helena on 24 October 2005, and a new election was held on 16 November 2005. 697 electors chose among ten candidates contesting the seven seats. Six of the seven members resigned in January 2007 in the belief that they were \"assisting to legitimise a democracy that doesn't really exist on Ascension Island\". A memorandum sent by a group of Ascension Island residents suggests that the handling of economic development, taxation and representation led to the dispute and that all six councillors", "Ascension Island has its own local system of law, much of which is based on the laws of Saint Helena and some parts of English law with modifications. The Island Council advises on new or revised laws. Where local legislation does not exist, Saint Helena law may be used where appropriate and suitable for local adaptation, or specific Ascension Island law is enacted. Employment legislation is a mixture of contract law and the Workmen's Protection Ordinance, which guarantees a", "Although the first Island Council was elected in 2002, between 1922 and 2009 Ascension was a dependency of St Helena with an appointed Administrator representing the UK Government on the island under the purview of the Governor of St Helena. Whilst the Ascension Island Government is distinct from the St Helena Government, the Governor of St Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha serves as head of both of these. The executive authority of Ascension is exercised on behalf of Her Majesty by the Governor, either directly or through the Administrator of Ascension and other officers subordinate to the Governor. In practice the Administrator is the head of the Ascension Island Government and is responsible for the day-to-day running of the", "In the February 2016 census, 806 people were recorded living on Ascension Island, 556 from Saint Helena (nicknamed the \"Saints\") and 250 people of other nationalities. RAF Ascension Island is made up of 17 staff. There has never been an indigenous population on the island. There are five settlements: Additionally, there are some cottages on Green Mountain, occasionally occupied by visitors, and the Residency, the official residence of the Administrator. To", "There are Scouting and Guiding groups on Saint Helena and Ascension Island. Scouting was established on Ascension Island in November", "The main economic activity on the island is centred on the military bases at Wideawake Airfield, and the BBC World Service's Atlantic Relay station. The Ministry of Defence estate and facilities are managed by the infrastructure support provider Interserve Defence. Serco runs the airport services and Sodexo provides catering and domestic facilities. A former feature of Ascension was a 70,000-tonne tanker permanently moored offshore that was operated by Maersk as a bulk fuel facility. In December 2002, this was replaced by an on-shore Petroleum Supply Depot under military management, with fuel still being delivered by a chartered tanker, \"Maersk Rapier\", which operates on an MOD resupply contract for both Ascension and the Falkland Islands every two months. Fuel for the island is transferred via a floating hose, which is connected to the on-shore depot at the island's pier head and to the ship at anchor. The main export items are Ascension Island postage stamps, first issued in 1922, and, since 2010, commemorative coins (which are legal tender but non-circulating) and commercial fishing licences for long-line tuna fishing vessels operating to ICCAT quotas. A secondary export is the international internet domain code.ac, which small UK educational colleges and science museums are favouring due to its similarity to.ac.uk, the domain code reserved for well-established UK educational institutions. In December 2013, The Pirate Bay (one of the most well-known file piracy websites in the world) moved to.ac following the seizure of their.sx website.", "Until 2002, tourism was virtually non-existent because of the inaccessibility of the island to transport, the absence of guest accommodation and the need for a sponsor. Limited air travel has, however, been made available in recent years to", "The island hosts many communications and relay stations, exploiting its mid-Atlantic position. Both the BBC and Cable & Wireless Worldwide (owned by Vodafone since 2012) have communications posts there. The European Space Agency (ESA) also has a tracking station on the island that tracks the Ariane 5 and the Soyuz rockets shortly after their launch from Kourou in French Guiana. Ascension has one local radio", "The Bank of St. Helena has a branch on the island; it holds an account with the UK's Lloyds Bank for the purposes of conducting money transfers with the rest of the world. The currency on Ascension Island is the Saint Helena", "Its school", "In 2003 the British and US governments signed the Wideawake agreement designed to allow a limited number of non-scheduled civilian aircraft to land on Ascension Island, under responsibility of the British government. Poor runway conditions at RAF Ascension Island led in April 2017 to the cancellation of twice-weekly flights from there to the UK (RAF Brize Norton) and to the Falkland Islands (RAF Mount Pleasant). An Airbus A330 aircraft operated by AirTanker Services on behalf of the Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom) carried out those flights, called the South Atlantic Air Bridge, although a limited number of commercial passenger tickets were available. Those flights now travel via Cape Verde. AW Ship Management arranged for civilians to board RAF flights to and from RAF Ascension Island and RAF Brize Norton. Previously AW Ship Management had a package deal where passengers could travel in one direction on the RAF flights and in the other on the RMS \"St Helena\", which travelled between Ascension, Saint Helena, and Cape Town, South Africa until the opening of St Helena Airport to passenger flights. While A330s are for now unable to land at the airport, the United States military uses Air Transport International flying 757 \"combi\" jets to maintain a twice monthly flight between the island and Patrick Air Force Base in Florida for the use of its personnel only, while the () supply ship regularly services US facilities. A mixture of A400 and C17 planes land at Ascension every three weeks to supply its own operations and deliver mail. There is no taxi service on the island and most visitors requiring transport hire a car. There are around of roads on the island, all hard-surfaced, along with many unsurfaced paths and trails. Some of the road surfacing used was surplus tarmac from a previous airstrip construction operation. Traffic drives on the left. Currently the cargo vessel M/V \"Helena\", under AW Shipping Management, takes a limited number of passengers between Cape Town and St Helena and Ascension on its voyages." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Growth in the Netherlands.", "International expansion.", "Accounting crisis.", "Legal ramifications.", "Road to recovery.", "Strategy for profitable growth.", "Merger with Delhaize Group.", "Assets.", "Europe.", "Major shareholders in Ahold.", "Key people." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The company started in 1887, when Albert Heijn, Sr. opened the first Albert Heijn grocery store in Oostzaan, Netherlands. The grocery chain expanded through the first half of the 20th century, and went public in 1948. Under the leadership of the founder's grandsons, Albert and Gerrit Jan Heijn, the company continued to make a significant impact on food retail in the Netherlands in the next four decades, pioneering self-service shopping, and the development of own brand and of non-food as a grocery store category. The company also influenced culinary development in the country, popularizing products such as wine, sherry and kiwi fruit, contributing to the introduction of the refrigerator in Dutch households and introducing convenience items, such as ready meals and frozen pizzas, to Dutch consumers. Albert Heijn became the largest grocery chain in the Netherlands during this time, and expanded into liquor stores and health and beauty care stores in the 1970s. In 1973, the holding company changed its name to \"Ahold\", an abbreviation of Albert Heijn Holding\".", "In the mid-1970s, the company began expanding internationally, acquiring companies in Spain and the United States. Under a new leadership team, which for the first time did not include any members of the Heijn family, the company accelerated its growth through acquisitions in the latter half of the 1990s in Latin America, Central Europe, and Asia. Ahold N.V. received the designation “Royal” from Dutch Queen Beatrix in 1987, awarded to companies that have operated honorably for one hundred years. That same year Gerrit Jan Heijn, Ahold executive and only brother of Albert Heijn, was kidnapped for ransom and murdered.", "The company's ambitious global expansion was halted by the announcement of accounting irregularities at some of Ahold's subsidiaries in February 2003. The CEO, Cees van der Hoeven, and CFO, Michael Meurs, and a number of senior management resigned as a result, and earnings over 2001 and 2002 had to be restated. The main accounting irregularities occurred at U.S. Foodservice, and, on a smaller scale, Tops Markets, in the United States, where income related to promotional allowances was overstated. In addition, accounting irregularities were found at the company's Argentine subsidiary Disco, and it was determined that the financial results of certain joint ventures had been accounted for improperly. As a result of the announcements, the company's share price plunged by two-thirds, and its credit rating was reduced to BB+ by Standard & Poor's.", "The irregularities led to various investigations and criminal charges by both Dutch and U.S. law enforcement authorities against Ahold and several of its former executives. Dutch law enforcement authorities filed fraud charges against Ahold, which were settled in September 2004, when Ahold paid a fine of approximately €8 million. Ahold's former CEO, CFO, and the former executive in charge of its European activities were charged with fraud by the Dutch authorities. In May 2006, a Dutch appeals court found Ahold's former CEO and CFO guilty of false authentication of documents, and they received suspended prison sentences and unconditional fines. The United States Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) announced in October 2004, that it had completed its investigation and reached a final settlement with Ahold. In January 2006, Ahold announced that it had reached a settlement of US$1.1 billion (€937 million) in a securities class action lawsuit filed against the company in the United States by shareholders and former shareholders. Another class action lawsuit was filed against Ahold's auditors, Deloitte, but this suit was dismissed. The suit was brought up again by shareholders in 2007, and by a different shareholder group in 2012. The SEC filed fraud charges against four former executives of U.S. Foodservice: the company's former CFO, former chief marketing officer, and two former purchasing executives. The purchasing executives settled the charges. The former chief marketing officer was sentenced to 46 months in prison. The former CFO was sentenced to six months of home detention and three years' probation.", "Anders Moberg became CEO on 5 May 2003. Under his and other new leadership appointed following the crisis, Ahold launched a “Road to Recovery” strategy in late 2003 to restore its financial health, regain credibility, and strengthen its business. As part of this strategy, Ahold announced it would divest all operations in markets where it could not achieve a sustainable number one or two position within three to five years, and that could not meet defined profitability and return criteria over time. The company divested all its operations in South America and Asia, retaining a core group of profitable companies in Europe and the United States. As part of its Road to Recovery strategy, Ahold strengthened accountability, controls and corporate governance and restored its financial health, regaining investment grade in 2007.", "In November 2006, Ahold announced the results of a major strategic review of its businesses. As a result of this review, Ahold launched its strategy for profitable growth focused on strengthening its retail competitive position, particularly in the United States. The company focused on building its brands by creating an improved product and service offering, delivered an improved price position and lowered operating costs; and reorganized the company into two continental organizations led by Chief Operating Officers. As part of the strategy, Ahold further focused its portfolio, including the divestment of U.S. Foodservice (completed in July 2007, to CD&R and KKR for US$7.1 billion), Tops (completed in December 2007, for US$310 million to Morgan Stanley Private Equity) and the company's operations in Poland (completed in July 2007, to Carrefour). The company made solid progress in delivering its strategy under the leadership of John Rishton, appointed CEO in November 2007, who had been part of the team that developed the strategy in his previous role as CFO. In November 2011, under the leadership of Dick Boer, appointed CEO in March 2011, Ahold announced a new phase of its growth strategy, “Reshaping Retail.” This strategy has six pillars - three designed to create growth and three to enable this growth. The six pillars are: increasing customer loyalty, broadening our offering, expanding geographic reach, simplicity, responsible retailing, and our people.", "On 24 June 2015, Delhaize Group reached an agreement with Ahold to merge, forming a new company, Ahold Delhaize. At completion of the merger, Ahold shareholders will own 61% of the new combined company while Delhaize Group shareholders will hold the remaining 39%. Ahold CEO Dick Boer will become CEO of the merged company, with Frans Muller, CEO of Delhaize to become deputy CEO and chief integration officer.", "", "Formerly owned Formerly owned Ahold also formerly owned the Edwards chain of stores but changed most of the stores under that banner to Stop & Shop in 2000.", "Ahold's major shareholders are:", "Source:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Role in \"Stargate\".", "Character arc in \"Stargate SG-1\".", "Character arc in \"Stargate Atlantis\".", "\"Stargate Universe\".", "Relationships.", "SG-1 leadership.", "Conceptual history.", "Reception." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Before the present-time events of \"Stargate SG-1\", Samantha Carter worked at the Pentagon for several years, trying to get the Stargate operational. She has a Ph.D. in theoretical astrophysics and \"logged over 100 hours in enemy airspace\" during the Gulf War. She is the daughter of Major General Jacob Carter, and has a brother named Mark. Her mother died in a car accident when she was a teenager. Holding the rank of captain, Samantha Carter joins the SG-1 team in the pilot episode, \"Children of the Gods\". She comes under the temporary control of the Tok'ra Jolinar in season 2 and retains many of her memories, leading to an alliance with the Tok'ra against the Goa'uld. Carter's brief merging with Jolinar also assists her in detecting a Goa'uld presence and using certain Goa'uld technology. Carter is promoted to the rank of Major early in season 3. A misunderstanding of an alien technology in early season 4 forces Carter and her superior officer, Colonel Jack O'Neill, to admit that they care for one another \"a lot more than [they're] supposed to\". In Exodus (season 4), Carter uses a stargate to destroy a star by dialing the gate on P3W-451, the planet being consumed by a black hole (originally discovered in A Matter of Time), and launching the active stargate into the nearby star; the resulting imbalance in mass causing the star to go supernova and destroy Apophis's fleet. Trapped on board the Earth ship \"Prometheus\" in season 7's \"Grace\", Carter realizes that her feelings for O'Neill stop her from exploring other romances. Two episodes later in Chimera, Carter begins dating her brother's friend Pete Shanahan, but finds it hard not to disclose her job to him. In the season 8 premiere, \"New Order\", Carter gets captured by a humanoid Replicator named Fifth she had first encountered in season 6's \"Unnatural Selection\". Fifth eventually releases her, but keeps a replicator copy of her, known commonly as 'RepliCarter'. Upon O'Neill's promotion to brigadier general in the same episode, he promotes her to lieutenant colonel. Carter assumes command of the SG-1 team, which includes the de-ascended Daniel Jackson, the alien Teal'c, and herself. Shortly after the death of her father in late season 8, Carter breaks up with Pete and goes fishing with Jack, Daniel and Teal'c to celebrate the defeat of the System Lords. Season 9 reveals that Carter left SG-1 to work at Area 51 after the collapse of the Goa'uld power structure. After Lieutenant Colonel Cameron Mitchell assumes command of SG-1, General O'Neill orders Carter to assist SG-1 on a mission concerning the new Ori threat. Carter officially rejoins SG-1 in the season 9 episode \"Ex Deus Machina\". Samantha Carter appears in the 2008 direct-to-DVD films \"\" and \"\".", "Lieutenant Colonel Carter makes her first appearance in \"Stargate Atlantis\" at the end of its first season (airing in parallel to season 8 of \"Stargate SG-1\"), receiving a very brief data transmission from the Atlantis expedition to Earth. The \"Atlantis\" character Dr. Rodney McKay (David Hewlett) has a hallucination of Carter which enables him to survive while trapped in a sinking Puddle Jumper in season 2. Lieutenant Colonel Carter approaches McKay's sister Jeannie Miller with an offer to work for Stargate Command in season 3. At an unknown point after the end of the Ori conflict in \"Stargate SG-1\", Carter is promoted to a \"full bird\" colonel and is transferred to the Midway space station to oversee the final stages of completion. The IOA appoints Carter as the new commander of the Atlantis expedition early in season 4 of \"Atlantis\". Carter finds the Atlantis command experience quite relaxed in terms of military protocol, but enjoys it nonetheless (\"Midway\"). True to her SG-1 heritage she conducts herself bravely by actively taking part in missions (\"Reunion\", \"Trio\") and protecting and defending those under her command (\"Be All My Sins Remember'd\", \"Search and Rescue\"). Carter even builds a more amicable relationship with Dr. Rodney McKay, having put their past tensions aside, and clearly respects Lt. Colonel Sheppard's command and past accomplishments in the Pegasus Galaxy. Carter is recalled to Earth at the end of the first episode of season five for a Tok'ra extraction ceremony concerning the final Ba'al clone (a ceremony witnessed in \"\"), followed by an exhaustive first-year command review by the International Oversight Advisory (IOA). Upon arrival, however, Richard Woolsey informs her that the IOA has removed her from command, and that he will be replacing her. As of \"Enemy at the Gate\", she is the temporary SGC base commander while General Hank Landry is heading a task force based in Washington. After this assignment she is to be made commander of the new Daedalus Class (BC-304) battlecruiser, formerly known as the \"Phoenix\", now named the \"George Hammond\" in memory of General George Hammond.", "Carter is in command of the \"George Hammond\" when it ferries personnel from Earth to Icarus Base to witness the latest attempt to dial the ninth chevron. The \"Hammond\" attempts to fight off the assault on the base by fleet of Goa'uld ships that Carter presumes belong to the Lucian Alliance. Although they are unsuccessful in preventing the destruction of the base, they are able to rescue most of the survivors stranded outside, including Colonel David Telford, who was to command the expedition to \"Destiny\". She also appears later in season 1 where she is the officer in charge of the assault on the Lucian Alliance base.", "Over the course of the two shows, a number of men are in love with, infatuated with, or attracted to, Carter. This includes Jack O'Neill, the Tok'ra Martouf, Dr. Rodney McKay, Fifth, Orlin, Agent Malcolm Barrett, Narim, Pete Shanahan, Dr. Jay Felger, her former fiancé Jonas Hanson, and her husband of a possible future Joseph Faxon. Many of these individuals have since died, including: Martouf (and symbiote Lantash); Fifth; Narim; Hanson; Faxon; and two alternate versions of Jack O'Neill. This has led many of the cast and crew of \"Stargate SG-1\" to humorously nickname her character Samantha \"the Black Widow\" Carter. Asked why the series never confirmed a relationship between Carter and O'Neill, producer Joseph Mallozzi stated in his blog, The Sam/Jack relationship was fraught with complications given that he was her commanding officer. Pursuing any sort of relationship would have been inappropriate for both and would only have really been possible late in the series after Jack's retirement. [...] Jack and Sam could have gotten together after Jack's retirement, but it was never made canon because, quite frankly, it wasn't my call. Still, despite the lack of official confirmation, it was only natural that they should get together after the events of Threads and, in my mind, they have been together ever since. An attempt to suggest as much in [Stargate Atlantis'] season 4's Trio unfortunately ended up on the cutting room floor when the episode ran long. When Carter joins the Atlantis expedition as commanding officer, a framed photo of O'Neill is seen on top of a box of her personal effects. A scene was cut from the \"Stargate Atlantis\" season 4 episode \"Trio\" in which Carter and Dr. Jennifer Keller discuss their love lives. When asked by Keller if she's seeing anyone, Carter initially avoids the question before admitting that \"it's complicated\" and that the man in question is in Washington D.C. but is going to retire soon. In episode 12 season 10, Samantha was shot and reveals to Mitchell that she has a file on her laptop with letters to people who she cares for in case she dies. The password is 'fishing', it indicates to O'Neill. Carmen Argenziano, the actor who plays Carter's father Jacob Carter, was asked in an interview who would be a good match for his on-screen daughter. He said: I like Daniel Jackson. I felt that Daniel would have been the right choice because Daniel is well educated, is intelligent, gentlemanly and he was everything that I envisioned that my daughter would end up with.", "Carter first assumes command of SG-1 in \"SG-1\"s season 2 episode \"Spirits\" when Jack O'Neill is in the infirmary injured. Carter takes over command from O'Neill as SG-1 leader at the end of season 7. Hammond had instructed Carter to relieve O'Neill of duty had she deemed him too unstable while under the influence of the Repository of the Ancients. O'Neill subsequently \"quits\" to avoid making Carter feel guilty. When Amanda Tapping was on maternity leave at the beginning of season 9, Cameron Mitchell was introduced as the leader of SG-1 who would bring the team back together. Following negative fan reactions to Carter's cancelled leadership within the team, Ben Browder noted the production difficulties that came with Amanda Tapping's maternity leave, and pointed out that new leaders are brought in routinely into units of the military. Tapping admitted to also have been \"kind of put off\" upon learning that someone else would lead SG-1, hoping that the producers would make SG-1 more of an ensemble team in season 10 by removing the patriarchal line of command. The writers eventually decided after an animated discussion during season 9 that Mitchell and Carter would co-command the team, although they left Mitchell in the official leadership position. Tapping considered the question of leadership in season 10 irrelevant; Mitchell cannot give orders to his team since he and Carter hold the same military rank, and Daniel and Teal'c are not members of the United States military.", "During the casting process of \"Stargate SG-1\", the producers were looking for an actress who could portray a strong woman whom the audience would accept as a soldier. The character should have had combat training and have been in wars, but should also be a brilliant scientist and a beautiful woman. Amanda Tapping at first assumed that the show would put more emphasis on intellect, but found that it was an action-adventure scifi show where the characters often got physical. Tapping described Carter as a cross between Jack O'Neill and Daniel Jackson, and the conflict of her character whether to go the scientific route or with military protocol. Amanda Tapping was part of the \"Stargate SG-1\" main cast for all of the show's ten seasons. She did not appear in season 6's \"Disclosure\" or season 7's \"Inauguration\" except in clips from previous episodes and was completely absent from season 8's \"Prometheus Unbound\" and the season nine episodes \"Avalon (Part 2)\", \"Origin\", \"The Ties That Bind\" and \"The Powers That Be\" due to Tapping's maternity leave (she appeared briefly in \"Avalon (Part 1)\" to explain her absence); and season ten's \"Bad Guys\". While Amanda Tapping was part of the main cast of \"Stargate SG-1\", she made several cameo appearances in the first three seasons of \"Stargate Atlantis\". Amanda Tapping became a member of the \"Atlantis\" main cast for 14 episodes of Season 4. She did not appear in \"Travelers\", \"Missing\", \"Miller's Crossing\", \"This Mortal Coil\", \"Spoils of War\" and \"Harmony\". Tapping sat down with Robert C. Cooper at the beginning of \"Stargate SG-1\"'s season 7 to discuss Carter's struggle with her demons and her life choices in regards to work and family. The events of \"Grace\" are left open for interpretation, both for the audience and the actors. Grace could be Sam's child within, her hopes and dreams for having a child, the child Sam left behind when she started her career as an astrophysicist, or Carter's potential future with a family. \"Chimera\" is an offshoot of what happened in \"Grace\", and the writers were trying to \"dispel the black widow curse that Carter has, and also to open her up for more experiences and to flesh her out just a little bit more as a human being\". Tapping felt out of her element doing these two episodes, as the flirty side of the character had not really been explored in the show until then. Also, Pete Shanahan does not die, which confuses Carter. According to Tapping, Carter is oblivious what lengths Shanahan is going (stalking, background checks) to find out more about her classified life, although the character is finally free to talk about her life at the end of episode. Several fans refused to watch the episode \"Chimera\" because Carter was getting involved with someone other than who they wanted her to be involved with. Tapping received letters of fans who said that Carter's integrity \"is completely out the window, and, 'What the hell [were you] thinking.'\" According to Tapping, Carter \"harbors great depth of feeling for Colonel O'Neill, but because nothing can ever happen... He's the one who let her go. He says, 'I'm a safe bet. You know you can't have me so you're just protecting your heart by, you know, hanging your hat on someone you can't have. So, let me go,' is essentially what's said at the end of \"Grace\"\". Tapping said, The whole episode is her sort of rethinking her life and rethinking her choices, and I don't think that she's lost integrity. I don't think that her feelings for O'Neill are any less. I think she's just placed them in a different box, if you will. It was weird, I have to say, for her to hand her heart over to somebody else. But it's baby steps for her, and this is all new for her. And I think it's ultimately O'Neill who says, 'You have to move on.' And it's her father, too, who says, you know, 'Don't give up your chance of love. You know, I would live my whole life over again even knowing that your mother's gonna die, I would do all that again.' So it's her opening up her heart as opposed to actually – it's been closed this whole time because she's, you know, been protecting it with thoughts of O'Neill, who she knows she can't have, so it opens her up. Working around Richard Dean Anderson's reduced schedule was a challenge for Tapping. Nevertheless, Tapping, Michael Shanks and Christopher Judge knew going into season 7 that this allowed for their characters to be fleshed out a bit more and to have a bit more screen time. She did not think the dynamics or the chemistry of the team had suffered. Unlike O'Neill and Jackson, Carter did not appear in the series premiere of \"Atlantis\". This was probably to do with the legalities of her being a character specifically created for \"Stargate SG-1\". Tapping considered the elevator scene with Cassandra in season 1's \"Singularity\" to be one of the scenes to best fully capture Carter.", "For her portrayal of Samantha Carter, Amanda Tapping was nominated for a 2000 Leo Award in the category \"Dramatic Series: Best Lead Performance — Female\" for the episode \"Point of View\", and won the Leo for \"Ascension\" in 2003, for \"Grace\" in 2004, and for \"Threads\" in 2005. Tapping was a nominated for a Saturn Award in the category \"Best Supporting Actress on Television\" in 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003 and 2004. Tapping was nominated for a 2001 Gemini Award in the category \"Best Performance by an Actress in a Continuing Leading Dramatic Role\". In 2008 Amanda Tapping was nominated for a Constellation Award nomination in the category \"Outstanding Canadian Contribution to Science Fiction Film or Television in 2008\". \"Variety\" reviewed the pilot episode \"Children of the Gods\", where he stated that Tapping's character was \"Pushy\" and her acting was \"Wooden\". Tory Ireland Mell, reviewer from IGN said that Carter's presence was a \"slap in the face\" and further stated that she was \"underused\". In 2008, Amanda Tapping started to produce her own web series entitled \"Sanctuary\" with Damian Kindler and Martin Wood among others. Many reviewers have felt that Tapping accepted the role of Doctor Helen Magnus to make a name of herself outside the \"Stargate\" universe as Samantha Carter. AOL named her one of the 100 Most Memorable Female TV Characters." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Neck or bow yoke.", "Head yoke.", "Withers yoke.", "Comparison.", "Single yoke.", "Symbolism." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The word \"yoke\" is believed to derive from Proto-Indo-European *yugóm (yoke), from verb *yeug- (join, unite). This root has descendants, all meaning a yoke, in almost all known Indo-European languages including:", "A \"bow yoke\" is a shaped wooden crosspiece bound to the necks of a pair of oxen (or occasionally to horses). It is held on the animals' necks by an oxbow, from which it gets its name. The oxbow is usually U-shaped and also transmits force from the animals' shoulders. A swivel between the animals, beneath the centre of the yoke, attaches to the pole of a vehicle or to chains (traces) used to drag a load. Bow yokes are traditional in Europe, and in the United States, Australia and Africa.", "A \"head yoke\" fits onto the head of the oxen. It usually fits behind the horns, and has carved-out sections into which the horns fit; it may be a single beam attached to both oxen, or each ox may have a separate short beam (see picture). The yoke is then strapped to the horns of the oxen with yoke straps. Some types fit instead onto the front of the head, again strapped to the horns, and ox pads are then used for cushioning the forehead of the ox. A tug pole is held to the bottom of the yoke using yoke irons and chains. The tug pole can either be a short pole with a chain attached for hauling, or a long pole with a hook on the end that has no chain at all. Sometimes the pole is attached to a wagon and the oxen are simply backed over this pole, the pole is then raised between them and a backing bolt is dropped into the chains on the yoke irons in order to haul the wagon. Head yokes are widely used in southern Europe, much of South America and in Canada.", "A \"withers yoke\" is a yoke that fits just in front of the withers, or the shoulder blades, of the oxen. The yoke is held in position by straps, either alone or with a pair of wooden staves on either side of the ox's withers; the pull is however from the yoke itself, not from the staves. Withers yokes particularly suit zebu cattle, which have high humps on their withers. Withers yokes are widely used in Africa and India, where zebu cattle are common.", "Although all three yoke types are effective, each has its advantages and disadvantages. As mentioned above, withers yokes suit zebu cattle, and head yokes can of course only be used for animals with suitable horns. Head yokes need to be re-shaped frequently to fit the animals' horns as they grow; unlike other types, a single-beam head yoke fixes the heads of the oxen apart, helping them to stand quietly without fighting. A single-beam head yoke may offer better braking ability on downhill grades and appears to be preferred in rugged mountainous areas such as Switzerland, Spain and parts of Italy. Bow yokes need to be the correct size for the animal, and new ones are often made as the animal grows, but they need no adjustment in use. Whichever type is used, various lengths of yoke may be required for different agricultural implements or to adjust to different crop-row spacings.", "A yoke may be used with a single animal. Oxen are normally worked in pairs, but water buffalo in Asian countries are commonly used singly, with the aid of a bow-shaped withers yoke. Use of single bow or withers yokes on oxen is documented from North America, China, Zimbabwe, Tanzania and Switzerland, and several designs of single head or forehead yoke are recorded in Germany.", "The yoke has connotations of subservience and toiling; in some ancient cultures it was traditional to force a vanquished enemy to pass beneath a symbolic yoke of spears or swords. The yoke may be a metaphor for something oppressive or burdensome, such as feudalism, imperialism, corvée, tribute, or conscription, as in the expressions the \"Norman Yoke\" (in England), the \"Tatar Yoke\" (in Russia), or the \"Turkish Yoke\" (in the Balkans). The metaphor can also refer to the state of being linked or chained together by contract or marriage, similar to a pair of oxen. This sense is also the source of the word yoga, as linking with the divine. The yoke is frequently used metaphorically in the Bible, first in Genesis regarding Esau. In the 20th century, the yoke and arrows became a political symbol of the Falange political movement in Spain." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Examples." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Circa 1969, Ken Thompson and later Dennis Ritchie developed B basing it mainly on the BCPL language Thompson used in the Multics project. B was essentially the BCPL system stripped of any component Thompson felt he could do without in order to make it fit within the memory capacity of the minicomputers of the time. The BCPL to B transition also included changes made to suit Thompson's preferences (mostly along the lines of reducing the number of non-whitespace characters in a typical program). Much of the typical ALGOL-like syntax of BCPL was rather heavily changed in this process. The assignment operator codice_1 changed to codice_2 and the equality operator codice_2 was replaced by codice_4. Thompson added \"two-address assignment operators\" using codice_5 syntax to add y to x (in C the operator is written codice_6). This syntax came from Douglas McIlroy's implementation of TMG, in which B's compiler was first implemented (and it came to TMG from ALGOL 68's codice_7 syntax). Thompson went further by inventing the increment and decrement operators (codice_8 and codice_9). Their prefix or postfix position determines whether the value is taken before or after alteration of the operand. This innovation was not in the earliest versions of B. According to Dennis Ritchie, people often assumed that they were created for the auto-increment and auto-decrement address modes of the DEC PDP-11, but this is historically impossible as the machine didn't exist when B was first developed. B is typeless, or more precisely has one data type: the computer word. Most operators (e.g. codice_10, codice_11, codice_12, codice_13) treated this as an integer, but others treated it as a memory address to be dereferenced. In many other ways it looked a lot like an early version of C. There are a few library functions, including some that vaguely resemble functions from the standard I/O library in C. Early implementations were for the DEC PDP-7 and PDP-11 minicomputers using early Unix, and Honeywell 36-bit mainframes running the operating system GCOS. The earliest PDP-7 implementations compiled to threaded code, and Ritchie wrote a compiler using TMG which produced machine code. In 1970 a PDP-11 was acquired and threaded code was used for the port; an assembler, dc, and the B language itself were written in B to bootstrap the computer. An early version of yacc was produced with this PDP-11 configuration. Ritchie took over maintenance during this period. The typeless nature of B made sense on the Honeywell, PDP-7 and many older computers, but was a problem on the PDP-11 because it was difficult to elegantly access the character data type that the PDP-11 and most modern computers fully support. Starting in 1971 Ritchie made changes to the language while converting its compiler to produce machine code, most notably adding data typing for variables. During 1971 and 1972 B evolved into \"New B\" (NB) and then C. B is almost extinct, having been superseded by the C language. However, it continues to see use on GCOS mainframes () and on certain embedded systems () for a variety of reasons: limited hardware in small systems, extensive libraries, tooling, licensing cost issues, and simply being good enough for the job. The highly influential AberMUD was originally written in B.", "The following examples are from the \"Users' Reference to B\" by Ken Thompson: /* The following function will print a non-negative number, n, to printn(n, b) { /* The following program will calculate the constant e-2 to about main() { v[2000]; n 2000;" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Branches.", "Comparative.", "Textual.", "Cognitive.", "Decipherment.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The term \"philology\" is derived from the Greek (\"philología\"), from the terms (\"phílos\") \"love, affection, loved, beloved, dear, friend\" and (\"lógos\") \"word, articulation, reason\", describing a love of learning, of literature, as well as of argument and reasoning, reflecting the range of activities included under the notion of. The term changed little with the Latin \"philologia\", and later entered the English language in the 16th century, from the Middle French \"philologie\", in the sense of \"love of literature\". The adjective (\"philólogos\") meant \"fond of discussion or argument, talkative\", in Hellenistic Greek, also implying an excessive (\"sophistic\") preference of argument over the love of true wisdom, (\"philósophos\"). As an allegory of literary erudition, \"philologia\" appears in fifth-century postclassical literature (Martianus Capella, \"De nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii\"), an idea revived in Late Medieval literature (Chaucer, Lydgate). The meaning of \"love of learning and literature\" was narrowed to \"the study of the historical development of languages\" (historical linguistics) in 19th-century usage of the term. Due to the rapid progress made in understanding sound laws and language change, the \"golden age of philology\" lasted throughout the 19th century, or \"from Giacomo Leopardi and Friedrich Schlegel to Nietzsche\". In the Anglo-Saxon world, the term philology to describe work on languages and literatures, which had become synonymous with the practices of German scholars, was abandoned as a consequence of anti-German feeling following World War I. Most continental European countries still maintain the term to designate departments, colleges, position titles, and journals. J. R. R. Tolkien opposed the nationalist reaction against philological practices, claiming that \"the philological instinct\" was \"universal as is the use of language\". In British English usage, and in British academia, \"philology\" remains largely synonymous with \"historical linguistics\", while in US English, and US academia, the wider meaning of \"study of a language's grammar, history and literary tradition\" remains more widespread. Based on the harsh critique of Friedrich Nietzsche, some US scholars since the 1980s have viewed philology as responsible for a narrowly scientistic study of language and literature.", "", "The comparative linguistics branch of philology studies the relationship between languages. Similarities between Sanskrit and European languages were first noted in the early 16th century and led to speculation of a common ancestor language from which all these descended. It is now named Proto-Indo-European. Philology's interest in ancient languages led to the study of what were, in the 18th century, \"exotic\" languages, for the light they could cast on problems in understanding and deciphering the origins of older texts.", "Philology also includes the study of texts and their history. It includes elements of textual criticism, trying to reconstruct an author's original text based on variant copies of manuscripts. This branch of research arose among Ancient scholars in the 4th century BC Greek-speaking world, who desired to establish a standard text of popular authors for the purposes of both sound interpretation and secure transmission. Since that time, the original principles of textual criticism have been improved and applied to other widely distributed texts such as the Bible. Scholars have tried to reconstruct the original readings of the Bible from the manuscript variants. This method was applied to Classical Studies and to medieval texts as a way to reconstruct the author's original work. The method produced so-called \"critical editions\", which provided a reconstructed text accompanied by a \"critical apparatus\", i.e., footnotes that listed the various manuscript variants available, enabling scholars to gain insight into the entire manuscript tradition and argue about the variants. A related study method known as higher criticism studies the authorship, date, and provenance of text to place such text in historical context. As these philological issues are often inseparable from issues of interpretation, there is no clear-cut boundary between philology and hermeneutics. When text has a significant political or religious influence (such as the reconstruction of Biblical texts), scholars have difficulty reaching objective conclusions. Some scholars avoid all critical methods of textual philology, especially in historical linguistics, where it is important to study the actual recorded materials. The movement known as New Philology has rejected textual criticism because it injects editorial interpretations into the text and destroys the integrity of the individual manuscript, hence damaging the reliability of the data. Supporters of New Philology insist on a strict \"diplomatic\" approach: a faithful rendering of the text exactly as found in the manuscript, without emendations.", "Another branch of philology, cognitive philology, studies written and oral texts. Cognitive philology considers these oral texts as the results of human mental processes. This science compares the results of textual science with the results of experimental research of both psychology and artificial intelligence production systems.", "In the case of Bronze Age literature, philology includes the prior decipherment of the language under study. This has notably been the case with the Egyptian, Sumerian, Assyrian, Hittite, Ugaritic and Luwian languages. Beginning with the famous decipherment and translation of the Rosetta Stone by Jean-François Champollion in 1822, a number of individuals attempted to decipher the writing systems of the Ancient Near East and Aegean. In the case of Old Persian and Mycenaean Greek, decipherment yielded older records of languages already known from slightly more recent traditions (Middle Persian and Alphabetic Greek). Work on the ancient languages of the Near East progressed rapidly. In the mid-19th century, Henry Rawlinson and others deciphered the Behistun Inscription, which records the same text in Old Persian, Elamite, and Akkadian, using a variation of cuneiform for each language. The elucidation of cuneiform led to the decipherment of Sumerian. Hittite was deciphered in 1915 by Bedřich Hrozný. Linear B, a script used in the ancient Aegean, was deciphered in 1952 by Michael Ventris and John Chadwick, who demonstrated that it recorded an early form of Greek, now known as Mycenaean Greek. Linear A, the writing system that records the still-unknown language of the Minoans, resists deciphering, despite many attempts. Work continues on scripts such as the Maya, with great progress since the initial breakthroughs of the phonetic approach championed by Yuri Knorozov and others in the 1950s. Since the late 20th century, the Maya code has been almost completely deciphered, and the Mayan languages are among the most documented and studied in Mesoamerica. The code is described as a logosyllabic style of writing, which could be used to fully express any spoken thought.", "In the \"Space Trilogy\" by C.S. Lewis, the main character, Elwin Ransom, is a philologist - as was Lewis' close friend J. R. R. Tolkien. Dr. Edward Morbius, one of the main characters in the science-fiction film \"Forbidden Planet\", is a philologist. Philip, the main character of Christopher Hampton's 'bourgeois comedy' The Philanthropist, is a professor of philology in an English university town. Moritz-Maria von Igelfeld, the main character in Alexander McCall Smith's 1997 comic novel \"Portuguese Irregular Verbs\" is a philologist, educated at Cambridge. The main character in the Academy Award Nominee for Best Foreign Language film in 2012, \"Footnote\", is a Hebrew philologist, and a significant part of the film deals with his work." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "The history of Kaufland began when Joseph Schwarz entered the \"Südfrüchte Großhandlung Lidl & Co.\" at Heilbronn as a shareholder in 1930, which was then renamed \"Lidl & Schwarz KG\". In subsequent years it was the company aimed to expand its range and become a food wholesaler. After the Second World War, the company was rebuilt: in 1954 it entered the \"A & O\"-chain. With \"Handels- und Fruchthof Heilbronn GmbH\" the first regional warehouse was opened in northern Wurttemberg. In 1964, the company expanded its range of products by opening a meat department. In 1968 the first \"Handelshof\" discount store was opened in Backnang, and in 1977 at the same place a hypermarket of the same name was established. After the death of Joseph Schwarz in 1977 his son Dieter Schwarz took over the management of the company. In 1984 the first \"Kaufland\" hypermarket was opened in Neckarsulm, the place of the company's headquarters since 1972. After the reunification of Germany the Kaufland chain expanded into the Eastern German states and opened numerous markets. The first East German \"Kaufland\" store was opened in Meissen in 1990, the first \"Kaufmarkt SB Warenhaus\" opened in 1994 in Zwickau. In 1998, the first department store outside of Germany was established in Ostrava, Czech Republic. In the 2000s, the company established branches in Slovakia (since 2000), Croatia (2001), Poland (2001), Romania (2005), Bulgaria (2006) and Moldova (2018). In 2006 and 2007, other store openings followed in Germany and Kaufland also took over shares of competitors. In February 2009 the corporation claimed to have 73,000 employees in Germany. In December 2009, Kaufland announced the building of a new meat processing plant in Heiligenstadt, Thuringia for a total of € 85 million until 2013. About 400 local employees were to deliver 45,000 tons of meat per year to around 600 stores of the corporation. In January 2010, it was announced that \"Karl Lupus GmbH & Co. KG\" was cleared by antitrust authorities to sell their 12 stores of the \"famila Handels-Betriebe GmbH & Co. KG Rhein-Neckar\" and the \"Cash-&-Carry-Markt Lupus Food Service\" with 1,400 employees to Kaufland. In January 2010, the Kaufland group had purchased all five Schleckerland drug stores in Ehingen, Geislingen, Tempe, Neu-Ulm, Schwäbisch Gmünd and all but the Neu-Ulm store had been converted to the Kaufland brand by then. The local Schleckerland was closed down because Kaufland was already present in Neu-Ulm. From 2011 onward, all Handelshof stores were to be gradually be converted to the \"Kaufland\" brand and to be partly rebuilt and enlarged. In November 2016, Kaufland’s parent company applied for Kaufland trademarks in Australia. In September 2019, Kaufland announced plans to open 20 stores in Australia. In January 2020, Kaufland announced it would leave Australia, two years after buying its first store and six months after starting work on its distribution centre. It had invested about 310 million euro and hired over 200 staff members but never opened a store. The first stores were originally expected to open in 2019 but the launch date had been pushed back to 2021. On 26 September 2019, the first two Moldovan stores were opened in the capital city of Chișinău." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology and history.", "Preparation.", "Cultural references." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Its name is derived from a Slavic word meaning \"sour\" (cf. Russian кислый \"kisly\"), after a similar old Slavic dish — a leavened flour porridge (or weak sourdough) which was made from grain — most commonly oats, but any grain, and even legumes like peas or lentils could be used, though bean kissels usually weren't leavened — and lacked the sweetness of the modern variants. Kissel is first mentioned in the old East Slavic Primary Chronicle where there is a story of how it saved the 10th-century Rus' city of Belgorod Kievsky, besieged by nomadic Pechenegs in 997. When the food in the city became scarce and a hunger started, the inhabitants of the city followed an advice of an old man, who told them to make kissel from the remnants of grain, and a sweet drink from the last mead they could find. Then they filled a wooden container with the kissel, and another one with the mead drink, put those containers into the holes in the ground and made up two fake wells over them. When the Pechenegian ambassadors came into the town, they saw how the inhabitants took the food from those \"wells\", and the Pechenegs even were allowed to taste the kissel and mead beverage. Impressed by that show and degustation, Pechenegs decided to lift the siege and to go away, having concluded that the Ruthenians were mysteriously fed from the earth itself.", "Nowadays most Polish households prepare kissel from instant mixes instead of the traditional way. The most popular flavours are strawberry, gooseberry, and raspberry. In Russia, the most popular flavours are cranberry, cherry, and redcurrant. Cranberry kissel () is a traditional meal on Kūčios (Christmas Eve supper) in Lithuania. In Finland, kissel is often made of bilberries (since those can often be found growing wild in the forests and are thus both easy to gather and free) as well as from prunes, apricots, strawberries, etc. The thickness can vary depending on how much potato flour is used: thin bilberry soup is most easily consumed by drinking while the thickest version is almost like jelly and is eaten with a spoon. Rhubarb can also be used, but it is often combined with strawberries to make it less tart. Prune kiisseli (\"luumukiisseli\") is traditionally eaten with rice pudding on Christmas. Milk kiisseli (\"maitokiisseli\") is another variant, made from milk and flavoured with sugar and vanillin (or vanilla).", "In Russian fairy tales, the land of marvels (similar to Cockaigne) is described as the land of \"milk rivers and kissel banks\". This expression became an idiom in Russian for prosperous life or \"paradise on earth\". Another phrase common in Russia and Poland, \"the seventh water after kissel\", is used to describe a distant relative." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Beginnings.", "Expansion and growth.", "Recent history.", "Campus.", "Administration and organization.", "Academics.", "Admissions.", "Graduate profile.", "Undergraduate curriculum.", "Trinity College of Arts and Sciences.", "Pratt School of Engineering.", "Libraries and museums.", "Research.", "Reputation and rankings.", "Undergraduate rankings.", "Graduate school rankings.", "Student life.", "Student body.", "Residential life.", "Greek and social life.", "Activities.", "Student organizations.", "Civic engagement.", "Student media.", "Duke Alumni Association.", "\"Duke Magazine\".", "Athletics.", "Men's basketball.", "Football.", "Track and field.", "Notable people.", "Government.", "Academia and research.", "Journalism.", "Literature.", "Business.", "Athletics." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Duke first opened in 1838 as Brown's Schoolhouse, a private subscription school founded in Randolph County in the present-day town of Trinity. Organized by the Union Institute Society, a group of Methodists and Quakers, Brown's Schoolhouse became the Union Institute Academy in 1841 when North Carolina issued a charter. The academy was renamed Normal College in 1851 and then Trinity College in 1859 because of support from the Methodist Church. In 1892, Trinity College moved to Durham, largely due to", "Engineering, which had been taught at Duke since 1903, became a separate school in 1939. In athletics, Duke hosted and competed in the only Rose Bowl ever played outside California in Wallace Wade Stadium in 1942. During World War II, Duke was one of 131 colleges and universities nationally that took part in the V-12 Navy College Training Program which offered students a path to a navy commission. In 1963 the Board of Trustees officially desegregated the undergraduate college. Duke enrolled its first black graduate students in 1961. The school did not admit Black undergraduates until September 1963. The teaching staff remained all-White until 1966. Increased activism on campus during the 1960s prompted Martin Luther King Jr. to speak at the University in November", "Duke's growth and academic focus have contributed to continuing the university's reputation as an academic and research powerhouse. In April 2005, the Duke-NUS Medical School opened in Singapore. It is a collaboration between Duke and the National University of Singapore. Among academic achievements at Duke, three students were named Rhodes Scholars in both 2002 and 2006, a number surpassed only by Harvard in 2002 and the United States Military Academy in 2006. Overall, Duke has produced 50 through 2019, including 28 between 1990 and 2019. In 2006, three men's lacrosse team members were falsely accused of rape, which garnered significant media attention. On April 11, 2007, North Carolina Attorney General Roy Cooper dropped all charges and declared the three players innocent. Cooper stated that the charged players were victims of a \"tragic rush to accuse.\" The District Attorney, Michael Nifong, was subsequently disbarred. In 2013, Duke Kunshan University opened in Kunshan, China. Duke Forward, a seven-year fundraising campaign, raised $3.85 billion through June 30, 2017. The record giving by", "Duke University currently owns 256 buildings on of land, which includes the Duke Forest. The campus is divided into four main areas: West, East, and Central campuses and the Medical Center, which are all connected via a free bus service. On the Atlantic coast in Beaufort, Duke owns as part of its marine lab. One of the major public attractions on the main campus is the Sarah P. Duke Gardens, established in the 1930s. Duke students often refer to the campus as \"the Gothic Wonderland\", a nickname referring to the Collegiate Gothic architecture of West Campus. Much of the campus was designed by Julian Abele, one of the first prominent African-American architects and the chief designer in the offices of architect Horace Trumbauer. The residential quadrangles are of an early and somewhat unadorned design, while the buildings in the academic quadrangles show influences of the more elaborate late French and Italian styles. The freshmen campus, known as East Campus, is composed of buildings in the Georgian architecture style. In 2011, Travel+Leisure listed Duke among the most beautiful college campuses in the United States. The stone used for West Campus has seven primary colors and seventeen shades of color. The university supervisor of planning and construction wrote that the stone has \"an older, more attractive antique effect\" and a \"warmer and softer coloring than the Princeton stone\" that gave the university an \"artistic look.\" James B. Duke initially suggested the use of stone from a quarry in Princeton, New Jersey, but later amended the plans to purchase a local quarry in Hillsborough to reduce costs. Duke Chapel stands at the center of West Campus on the highest ridge. Constructed from 1930 to 1935, the chapel seats 1,600 people and, at is one of the tallest buildings in Durham County. A number of construction projects were in progress during 2015, including renovations to Duke Chapel, Wallace Wade Stadium (football) and Cameron Indoor Stadium (basketball). In early 2014, the Nicholas School of the Environment opened a new home, Environmental Hall, a five-story, glass-and-concrete building that incorporates the highest sustainable features and technologies, and meets or exceeds the criteria for LEED platinum certification. The School of Nursing in April 2014 opened a new 45,000-square-foot addition to the Christine Siegler Pearson Building. In summer 2014, a number of construction projects were completed. The project is part of the final phase of renovations to Duke's West Campus libraries that have transformed one of the university's oldest and most recognizable buildings into a state-of-the-art research facility. The David M. Rubenstein Rare Book and Manuscript Library reopened in August 2015 after about $60 million in renovations to the sections of the building built in 1928 and 1948. The renovations include more space, technology upgrades and new exhibits. In 2013, construction projects included transforming buildings like Gross Hall and Baldwin Auditorium, plus new construction such as the Events Pavilion. About 125,000 square feet was updated at Gross Hall, including new lighting and windows and a skylight. Baldwin's upgrades include a larger stage, more efficient air conditioning for performers and audience and enhanced acoustics that will allow for the space to be \"tuned\" to each individual performance. The 25,000-square-foot Events Pavilion opened to students in 2013 and serves as temporary dining space while the West Campus Union undergoes major renovations, expected to be completed in the spring of 2016. From February 2001 to November 2005, Duke spent $835 million on 34 major construction projects as part of a five-year strategic plan, \"Building on Excellence.\" Completed projects since 2002 include major additions to the business, law, nursing, and divinity schools, a new library, the Nasher Museum of Art, a football training facility, two residential buildings, an engineering complex, a public policy building, an eye institute, two genetic research buildings, a student plaza, the French Family Science Center, and two new medical-research buildings. In early 2012, the Duke Cancer Center opened next to Duke Hospital in Durham. The patient care facility consolidates nearly all of Duke's outpatient clinical care services.", "Duke University has 12 schools and institutes, three of which host undergraduate programs: Trinity College of Arts and Sciences, Pratt School of Engineering, and Duke Kunshan University. The university has \"historical, formal, ongoing, and symbolic ties\" with the United Methodist Church, but is a nonsectarian and independent institution. Duke's endowment", "", "Admission to Duke is defined by \"U.S. News & World Report\" as \"most selective.\" Duke received nearly 39,800 applications for the Class of 2024, with an overall acceptance rate of 7.7%. The yield rate (the percentage of accepted students who choose to attend) for the Class of 2023 was 54%. The Class of 2022 had an ACT range of 33-35 and an SAT range of 1490–1560. (Test score ranges account for the 25th-75th percentile of accepted students.) From 2001 to 2011, Duke has had the sixth highest number of Fulbright, Rhodes, Truman, and Goldwater scholarships in the nation", "In 2009, the School of Medicine received 5,166 applications and accepted approximately 4% of them, while the average GPA and MCAT scores for accepted students from 2002 through 2009 were 3.74 and 34, respectively. The School of Law accepted approximately 13% of its applicants for the", "Duke offers 46 arts and sciences majors, four engineering majors, 52 minors (including two in engineering) and Program II, which allows students to design their own interdisciplinary major in arts & sciences, and IDEAS, which allows students to design their own engineering major. Twenty-four certificate programs also are available. Students pursue a major and can pursue a combination of a total of up to three, including minors, certificates, and/or a second major. Eighty-five percent of undergraduates enroll in the Trinity College of Arts and Sciences. The balance enroll in Duke's Pratt School of Engineering.", "Trinity's curriculum operates under the revised version of \"Curriculum 2000.\" It ensures that students are exposed to a variety of 5 \"areas of knowledge\" and 6 \"modes of inquiry.\" List of Duke Curricular Requirements, Retrieved April 25, 2019.</ref> The curriculum aims to help students develop critical faculties and", "The curriculum of Duke's Pratt School of Engineering, significantly transformed in recent years, immerses students in design, computing, research, and entrepreneurship — but still accommodates educational opportunities, including double majors, in a variety of disciplines from across Duke. The school emphasizes undergraduate research opportunities with faculty. Research and design opportunities arise through a real-world design course for first-year students, internships, independent study and research fellowships, and through design-focused capstone courses. More than 60 percent of Duke Engineering undergraduates have an intensive research experience during their four years, and nearly a fifth publish or present a research paper off-campus. Nearly 54 percent of Duke Engineering undergraduates intern or study abroad. Eighty-five percent have jobs or job offers at the time of graduation.", "Duke Libraries includes the Perkins, Bostock, and Rubenstein Libraries on West Campus, the Lilly and Music Libraries on East Campus, the Pearse Memorial Library at the Duke Marine Lab, and the separately administered libraries serving the schools of business, divinity, law and medicine. Duke's art collections are housed at the Nasher Museum of", "Duke's research expenditures in the 2018 fiscal year were $1.168 billion, the tenth largest in the U.S. In fiscal year 2019 Duke received $571 million in funding from the National Institutes of Health. Throughout the school's history, Duke researchers have made breakthroughs, including the biomedical engineering department's development of the world's first real-time, three-dimensional ultrasound diagnostic system and the first engineered blood vessels and stents. In 2015, Paul Modrich shared the Nobel Prize in Chemistry. In 2012, Robert Lefkowitz along with Brian Kobilka, who is also a former affiliate, shared the Nobel Prize in chemistry for their work on cell surface receptors. Duke has pioneered studies involving nonlinear dynamics, chaos, and complex systems in physics.", "", "In the past thirty years, \"U.S. News & World Report\" has placed Duke as high as 3rd and as low as 10th. Duke University is ranked in the top 10 in the following college ranking publications: \"Niche\" (6th), \"U.S. News & World Report\" (10th), \"Washington Monthly\" (6th), Kiplinger (8th), The Wall Street Journal \"Student Outcomes\" (3rd), \"The Wall Street Journal\" (10th), Forbes (9th), \"The Washington Post\" (7th), CollegeFactual (3rd) and \"Business Insider\" (8th). In 2014, Duke was ranked 1st in the United States for majors in psychology, and 10th overall for computer science and engineering. In 2014 and", "Duke has been named one of the top universities for graduate outcomes several years in a row, having tied with Harvard University and Yale University. In \"U.S. News & World Report\"s \"America's Best Graduate Schools 2021\", Duke's medical school ranked tied for 12th in research and 26th in primary care. The School of Law was ranked 12th in the 2021 rankings by the same publication, with Duke's nursing school ranked 2nd while the Sanford School of Public Policy ranked 5th in Public Policy Analysis for 2019. Among business schools in the United States, the Fuqua School of Business is ranked tied for 10th overall by \"U.S. News & World Report\" for 2020, while \"BusinessWeek\" ranked its full-time MBA program 1st in the nation in 2014. The graduate programs of Duke's Pratt School of Engineering ranked 24th in the U.S. by \"U.S. News & World Report\" in its 2020 rankings. \"Times Higher Education\" ranked the mathematics department tenth in the world in 2011. Duke's graduate level specialties that are ranked among the top ten in the nation include areas in the following departments: biological sciences, medicine, nursing, engineering, law, business, English, history, physics, statistics, public affairs, physician assistant (ranked #1), clinical psychology, political science, and sociology. In 2007, Duke", "", "Duke's student body consists of 6,994 undergraduates", "Duke requires its students to live on campus for the first three years of undergraduate life, except for a small percentage of second-semester juniors who are exempted by a lottery system. This requirement is justified by the administration as an effort to help students connect more closely with one another and sustain a sense of belonging within the Duke community. Thus, 85% of undergraduates live on campus. All freshmen are housed in one of 14 residences on East Campus. These buildings range in occupancy size from 50 (Epworth—the oldest residence hall, built in 1892 as \"the Inn\") to 250 residents (Trinity). Most of these are in the Georgian style typical of the East Campus architecture. Although the newer residence halls differ in style, they still relate to East's Georgian heritage. Learning communities connect the residential component of East Campus with", "About 30% of undergraduate men and about 40% of undergraduate women at Duke are members of fraternities and sororities. Most of the 17 Interfraternity Council recognized fraternity chapters live in sections within the residence halls. Eight National Pan-Hellenic Council (historically African American) fraternities and sororities also hold chapters at Duke. The first historically African American Greek letter organization at Duke University was the Omega Psi Phi, Omega Zeta chapter, founded on April 12, 1974. In addition, there are seven other fraternities and sororities that are a part of the Inter-Greek Council, the multicultural Greek", "", "More than 400 student clubs and organizations operate on Duke's campus. These include numerous student government, special interest, and service organizations. Duke Student Government (DSG) charters and provides most of the funding for other student groups and represents students' interests when dealing with the administration. The Duke University Union (DUU) is the school's primary programming organization, serving a center of social, cultural, intellectual and recreational life. There are a number of student-run businesses operating on campus, including Campus Enterprises, which offer students real-world business experience. Cultural groups are provided funding directly from the university via the Multicultural Center as well as other institutional funding sources. One of the most popular activities on campus is competing in", "More than 75 percent of Duke students pursue service-learning opportunities in Durham and around the world through DukeEngage and other programs that advance the university's mission of \"knowledge in service to society.\" Launched in 2007, DukeEngage provides full funding for select Duke undergraduates who wish to pursue an immersive summer of service in partnership with a U.S. or international community. As of summer 2013, more than 2,400 Duke students had volunteered through DukeEngage in 75 nations on six continents. Duke students have created more than 30 service organizations in Durham and the surrounding area. Examples include a weeklong camp for children of cancer patients (Camp Kesem) and a group that promotes awareness about sexual health, rape prevention, alcohol and drug use, and eating disorders (Healthy Devils). The Duke-Durham Neighborhood Partnership, started by the", "\"The Chronicle\", Duke's independent undergraduate daily newspaper, has been continually published since 1905 and now, along with its website, has a readership of about 70,000. Its editors are responsible for selecting the term \"Blue Devil\". The newspaper won Best in Show in the tabloid division at the 2005 Associated Collegiate Press National College Media Convention. Cable 13, established in 1976, is Duke's student-run television station. It is a popular activity for students interested in film production and media. WXDU, licensed in 1983, is the university's nationally recognized, noncommercial FM radio station, operated by student and community volunteers. \"The Rival Duke\" is an online-only, student run publication. The three sections, campus, culture, and current, feature opinion and commentary.", "Duke Alumni Association (DAA) is an alumni association automatically available to all Duke graduates. Benefits include alumni events, a global network of regional DAA", "Duke Magazine, an alumni magazine, is the university's flagship vehicle for stories about", "Teams for then Trinity College were known originally as the Trinity Eleven, the Blue and White or the Methodists. William H. Lander, as editor-in-chief, and Mike Bradshaw, as managing editor, of the Trinity Chronicle began the academic year 1922-23 referring to the athletic teams as the Blue Devils. The Chronicle staff continued its use and through repetition, Blue Devils eventually caught on. The Duke University Athletic Association chairs 27 sports and more than 650 student-athletes. The Blue Devils are members of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I level, the Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) and Atlantic Coast Conference. Men's sports include baseball, basketball, cross country, fencing, football, golf, lacrosse, soccer, swimming & diving, tennis, track & field, and wrestling; women's sports include basketball, cross country, fencing, field hockey, golf, lacrosse, rowing, soccer, softball, swimming & diving, tennis, track & field, and volleyball. Duke's teams have won 16 NCAA team national championships—the women's golf team has won six (1999, 2002, 2005, 2006, 2007 and 2014), the men's basketball team has won five (1991, 1992, 2001, 2010, and 2015), the men's lacrosse team has won three (2010, 2013, and 2014), and the men's soccer (1986) and women's tennis (2009) teams have won one each. Duke consistently ranks among the top in the National Association of Collegiate Directors of Athletics (NACDA) Directors' Cup, an overall measure of an institution's athletic success. For Division I in 2015, Duke finished 20th overall and fifth in the ACC. The Blue Devils have finished within the top 10 six times since the inception of the Cup in 1993–94. Also, Athletic Director Kevin White earned multiple awards in 2014, including the National Football Foundation's John L. Toner Award. On the academic front, nine Duke varsity athletics programs registered a perfect 1,000 score in the NCAA's multi-year Academic Progress Report (APR) released in April 2016.", "Duke's men's basketball team is one of the nation's most successful basketball programs. The team's success has been particularly outstanding over the past 30 years under coach Mike Krzyzewski (often simply called \"Coach K\"). The Blue Devils are the only team to win five national championships since the NCAA Tournament field was expanded to 64 teams in 1985,", "The Blue Devils have won seven ACC Football Championships, have had ten players honored as ACC Player of the Year (the most in the ACC), and have had three Pro Football Hall of Famers come through the program (second in the ACC to only Miami's four). The Blue Devils have produced 11 College Football Hall of Famers, which is tied for the 2nd most in the ACC. Duke has also won 18 total conference championships (7 ACC, 9 Southern Conference, and 1 Big Five Conference). That total", "In 2003 Norm Ogilvie was promoted to Director of Track and Field, and has led athletes to over 60 individual ACC", "Duke's active alumni base of more than 145,000 devote themselves to the university through organizations and events such as the annual Reunion Weekend and Homecoming. There are 75 Duke clubs in the U.S. and 38 such international clubs. For the 2008–09 fiscal year, Duke tied for third in alumni giving rate among U.S. colleges and universities according to \"U.S. News & World Report\". Based on statistics compiled by PayScale in 2011, Duke alumni rank seventh in mid-career median salary among all U.S. colleges and universities. A number of alumni have made significant contributions in the fields of government, law, science, academia, business, arts, journalism, and athletics, among others.", "Richard Nixon, 37th President of the United States graduated with a law degree in 1937. Former U.S. Senator and Secretary of Transportation Elizabeth Dole, 33rd President of Chile Ricardo Lagos, former U.S. Secretary of Commerce Juanita M. Kreps, congressman and three-time presidential candidate Ron Paul, U.S. Secretary of Veterans Affairs and former Chief of", "Duke affiliates who have won the Nobel Prize in Physics include Hans Dehmelt for his development of the ion trap technique, Robert Richardson for his discovery of superfluidity in helium-3, and Charles Townes for his work on quantum electronics. Other alumni in research and academia include Turing Award winners Fred Brooks, Edmund M. Clarke", "Prominent journalists include talk show host Charlie Rose, \"The Washington Post\" sports writer John Feinstein, Chief Washington Correspondent for CNBC and \"The Wall Street Journal\" writer John Harwood, CBS News President Sean McManus, chief", "In the area of literature, William Styron won the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction in 1968 for his novel \"The Confessions of Nat Turner\" and is well known for his 1979 novel \"Sophie's Choice.\" Anne Tyler also received the Pulitzer Prize for her 1988 novel \"Breathing Lessons\". Additionally, Elizabeth A. Fenn won the Pulitzer Prize for History in 2015. Other acclaimed writers include John W.", "The current or recent president, CEO, or chairman of each of the following Fortune 500 companies is a Duke alumnus: Apple (Tim Cook), Bear Stearns (Alan Schwartz), BB&T (John A. Allison IV), Chesapeake Energy (Aubrey McClendon), Cisco Systems (John Chambers), General Motors (Rick Wagoner), Ingersoll Rand (Michael Lamach), JPMorgan Chase (Steven Black), Kaplan (Andrew S. Rosen), Medtronic (William A. Hawkins), Morgan Stanley and Credit Suisse First Boston (John J. Mack), Norfolk Southern (David R. Goode), Northwest Airlines (Gary L. Wilson), Panda", "Management and ownership of professional athletic franchises include Adam Silver (NBA commissioner), John P. Angelos (Executive Vice President of the Baltimore Orioles), Aubrey McClendon (former part owner of the Oklahoma City Thunder), John Canning, Jr. (co-owner of Milwaukee Brewers), Danny Ferry (former general manager of the Cleveland Cavaliers), Stephen Pagliuca (co-owner of Boston Celtics), and Jeffrey Vinik (owner of the Tampa Bay Lightning). Several athletes have become stars at the professional level, especially in basketball's NBA. Art Heyman, Shane Battier, Corey Maggette, Elton Brand, Carlos Boozer, Luol" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Lineage and title.", "Early life.", "Acceptance of Islam.", "Subsequent life in Mecca.", "Persecution by the Quraysh, 613.", "Last years in Mecca.", "Migration to Medina.", "Life in Medina.", "Military campaigns under Muhammad.", "Battle of Badr.", "Battle of Uhud.", "Battle of the Trench.", "Battle of Khaybar.", "Military campaigns during final years of Muhammad.", "Battles of Hunayn and Ta'if.", "Abu Bakr as Amir-ul-Hajj.", "Expedition of Abu Bakr As-Siddiq.", "Expedition of Usama bin Zayd.", "Death of Muhammad.", "Saqifa.", "Reign.", "Ridda wars.", "Expeditions into Persia and Syria.", "Preservation of the Quran.", "Death.", "Appearance.", "Legacy.", "Sunni view.", "Shia view." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Abu Bakr's full name was Abdullah ibn Uthman ibn Amir ibn Amr ibn Ka'b ibn Sa'd ibn Taym ibn Murrah ibn Ka'b ibn Lu'ayy Ghalib ibn Fihr. In Arabic, the name \"Abd Allah\" means \"servant of Allah\". One of his early titles, preceding his conversion to Islam, was \"Ateeq\", meaning \"saved one\". Muhammad later restated this", "Abu Bakr was born in Mecca sometime in 573 CE, to a rich family in the Banu Taym tribe of the Quraysh tribal confederacy. His father's name was Uthman and given the laqab \"Abu Quhafa\", and his mother was Salma bint Sakhar who was given the laqab of \"Umm ul-Khair\". He spent his early childhood like other Arab children of the time, among the Bedouins who called themselves \"Ahl-i-Ba'eer\"- the people of the camel, and developed a particular fondness for camels. In his early years he played with the camel calves and goats, and his love for camels earned him the nickname (\"kunya\") \"\"Abu Bakr\"\", the father of the camel's calf. Like other children of the rich Meccan merchant families, Abu Bakr was literate and developed", "On his return from a business trip in Yemen, friends informed him that in his absence, Muhammad had declared himself the Messenger of God and proclaimed a new religion. The historian Al-Tabari, in his \"Ta'rikh al-Tabari\", quotes from Muhammad ibn Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas, who said: Other Sunni and all Shi'a Muslims maintain that the second person to publicly accept Muhammed as the Messenger of God was Ali ibn Abi Talib, the first being Muhammad's wife Khadija. Ibn Kathir, in his \"Al Bidaya Wal Nihayah\", disregards this. He stated that the first woman to embrace Islam was Khadijah. Zayd ibn Harithah was the first freed slave to embrace Islam. Ali ibn Abi Talib was the first child to embrace Islam, for he has not even reached the age of puberty at that time, while Abu Bakr was the first free man to embrace Islam.", "His wife Qutaylah bint Abd-al-Uzza did not accept Islam and he divorced her. His other wife, Um Ruman, became a Muslim. All his children accepted Islam except Abdul-Rahman, from whom Abu Bakr disassociated himself. His conversion also brought many people to Islam. He persuaded his intimate friends to convert, and presented Islam to other friends in such a way that many of them also accepted the faith. Those who converted to Islam at the insistence of Abu Bakr were: Abu Bakr's acceptance proved to be a milestone in Muhammad's", "For three years after the birth of Islam, Muslims kept their faith secret. In 613, according to Islamic tradition, Muhammad was commanded by God to call people to Islam openly. The first public address inviting people to offer allegiance to Muhammad was delivered by", "In 617, the Quraysh enforced a boycott against the Banu Hashim. Muhammad along with his supporters from Banu Hashim, were cut off in a pass away from Mecca. All social relations with the Banu Hashim were cut off and their state was that of imprisonment. Before it many Muslims migrated to Abyssinia (now Ethiopia). Abu Bakr, feeling distressed, set out for Yemen and then to Abyssinia from there. He met a friend of his", "In 622, on the invitation of the Muslims of Medina, Muhammad ordered Muslims to migrate to Medina. The migration began in batches. Ali was the last to remain in Mecca, entrusted with responsibility for settling any loans the Muslims had taken out, and famously slept in the bed of Muhammad when the Quraysh, led by Ikrima, attempted to murder Muhammad as he slept. Meanwhile, Abu Bakr accompanied Muhammad to Medina. Due to the danger posed by the Quraysh, they did not take the road, but moved in the opposite direction, taking refuge in a cave in Jabal Thawr, some five miles south of Mecca. `Abdullah ibn Abi Bakr, the son of Abu Bakr, would listen to the plans and discussions of the Quraysh, and at night he would carry the news to the fugitives in the cave. Asma bint Abi Bakr, the daughter of Abu Bakr, brought them meals every day. Aamir, a servant of Abu Bakr, would bring a flock of goats to the mouth of the cave every night, where they were milked. The Quraysh sent search parties in all directions. One party came close to the entrance to the cave, but was unable to see them. Due to this, Qur'an verse was revealed. Aisha, Abu Sa‘id al-Khudri and Abdullah ibn Abbas in interpreting this verse said that Abu Bakr was the companion who stayed with Muhammad in the cave. After staying at the cave for three days and three nights, Abu Bakr and Muhammad proceed to Medina, staying for some time at Quba, a suburb of Medina.", "In Medina, Muhammad decided to construct a mosque. A piece of land was chosen and the price of the land was paid for by Abu Bakr. The Muslims, including Abu Bakr, constructed a mosque named Al-Masjid al-Nabawi at the site. Abu Bakr was paired with Khaarij ah bin Zaid Ansari (who was from Medina) as a brother in faith. Abu Bakr's relationship with Khaarijah was most cordial, which was further strengthened when Abu Bakr married Habiba, a daughter of Khaarijah. Khaarijah bin Zaid Ansari lived at Sunh, a suburb of Medina,", "", "In 624, Abu Bakr was involved in the first battle between the Muslims and the Quraysh of Mecca, known as the Battle of Badr, but did not fight, instead acting as one of the guards of Muhammad's tent. In relation to this, Ali allegedly later asked his associates as to who they thought was", "In 625, he participated in the Battle of Uhud, in which the majority of the Muslims were routed and he himself was wounded. Before the battle had begun, his son Abdul-Rahman, at that time still non-Muslim and fighting on the side of the Quraysh, came forward and threw down a challenge for a duel. Abu Bakr accepted the challenge but was stopped by", "In 627 he participated in the Battle of the Trench and also in the Invasion of Banu Qurayza. In the Battle of the Trench, Muhammad divided the ditch into a number of sectors and a contingent was posted", "Abu Bakr took part in the Battle of Khaybar. Khaybar had eight fortresses, the strongest and most well-guarded of which was called Al-Qamus. Muhammad sent Abu Bakr with a group of warriors to attempt", "In 629 Muhammad sent 'Amr ibn al-'As to Zaat-ul-Sallasal, followed by Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah in response to a call for reinforcements. Abu Bakr and Umar commanded an army under al-Jarrah, and they attacked and defeated the enemy. In 630, when the Muslims conquered Mecca, Abu Bakr was part of the army. Before the conquest of Mecca his father Uthman Abu Quhafa converted to Islam.", "In 630, the Muslim army was ambushed by archers from the local tribes as it passed through the valley of Hunayn, some eleven miles northeast of Mecca. Taken unaware, the advance guard of the Muslim army fled in panic. There was considerable confusion, and the camels, horses and men ran into one another in an attempt to seek cover. Muhammad, however, stood firm. Only nine companions remained around him, including Abu Bakr. Under Muhammad's instruction, Abbas shouted at the top of his voice, \"O Muslims, come to the Prophet of Allah\". The call was heard by the Muslim soldiers and they gathered beside Muhammad. When the Muslims had gathered in sufficient number, Muhammad ordered a charge against the enemy. In the hand-to-hand fight that followed the tribes were routed and they fled to Autas.", "In 631 AD, Muhammad sent from Medina a delegation of three hundred Muslims to perform the Hajj according to the new Islamic way and appointed Abu Bakr as the leader of the delegation. The day after Abu Bakr and his party had left for the Hajj, Muhammad received a new revelation: Surah Tawbah, the ninth chapter of the Qur'an. It is related that when this revelation came, someone suggested to Muhammad that he should send news of it to Abu Bakr. Muhammad said that only a man of his house could proclaim", "Abu Bakr led one military expedition, the Expedition of Abu Bakr As-Siddiq, which took place in Nejd, in July 628 (third month", "In 632, during the final weeks of his life, Muhammad ordered an expedition into Syria to avenge the defeat of the Muslims in the Battle of Mu'tah some years previously. Leading the campaign was Usama ibn Zayd, whose father, Muhammad's erstwhile adopted son Zayd ibn Harithah, had been killed in the earlier conflict. No more than", "There are a number of traditions regarding Muhammad's final days which have been used to reinforce the idea of the great friendship and trust which is said to have existed between him and Abu Bakr. In one such episode, as Muhammad was nearing death, he found himself unable to lead prayers as he usually would. He instructed Abu Bakr to take his place, ignoring concerns from Aisha that her father was too emotionally delicate for the role. Abu Bakr subsequently took up the position, and when Muhammad entered the prayer hall one morning during Fajr prayers, Abu Bakr attempted to step back to let him to take up his normal place and lead. Muhammad however, allowed him to continue. In a related incident, around this time, Muhammad ascended the pulpit and addressed the congregation, saying \"God has given his", "In the immediate aftermath of the death of Muhammad, a gathering of the Ansar (natives of Medina) took place in the \"Saqifah\" (courtyard) of the Banu Sa'ida clan. The general belief at the time was that the purpose of the meeting was for the Ansar to decide on a new leader of the Muslim community among themselves, with the intentional exclusion of the Muhajirun (migrants from Mecca), though this has later become the subject of debate. Nevertheless, Abu Bakr and Umar, upon learning of the meeting, became concerned of a potential coup and hastened to the gathering. Upon arriving, Abu Bakr addressed the assembled men with a warning that an attempt to elect a leader outside of Muhammad's own tribe, the Quraysh, would likely result in dissension, as only they can command the necessary respect among the community. He then took Umar and another companion, Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah, by the hand and offered them to the Ansar as", "After assuming the office of Caliph, Abu Bakr's first address was as follows: Abu Bakr's reign lasted for 27 months, during which he crushed the rebellion of the Arab tribes throughout the Arabian Peninsula in the successful Ridda Wars. In the last months of his rule, he sent Khalid ibn al-Walid on conquests against the Sassanid Empire in Mesopotamia and against the Byzantine Empire in Syria. This would set in motion a historical trajectory (continued later on by Umar and Uthman ibn Affan) that in just a few short decades would lead to one of the largest empires in history. He had little time to pay attention to the administration of state, though state affairs remained stable during his Caliphate. On the advice of Umar and Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah, he agreed to draw a salary from the state treasury and discontinue his cloth trade.", "Troubles emerged soon after Abu Bakr's succession, with several Arab tribes launching revolts, threatening the unity and stability of the new community and state. These insurgencies and the caliphate's responses to them are collectively referred to as the Ridda wars (\"Wars of Apostasy\"). The opposition movements came in two forms. One type challenged the political power of the nascent caliphate as well as the religious authority of Islam with the acclamation of rival ideologies, headed by political leaders who claimed the mantle of prophethood in the manner that Muhammad had done. These rebellions include: These leaders are all denounced in Islamic histories as \"false prophets\". The second form of opposition movement was more strictly political in character. Some of the revolts of this type took the form of tax rebellions in Najd among tribes such as the Banu Fazara and Banu Tamim. Other dissenters, while initially allied to the Muslims, used Muhammad's death as an opportunity to attempt to restrict the growth of the new Islamic state. They include some of the Rabīʿa in Bahrayn, the", "With Arabia having united under a single centralised state with a formidable military, the region could now be viewed as a potential threat to the neighbouring Byzantine and Sasanian empires. It may be that Abu Bakr, reasoning that it was inevitable that one of these powers would launch a pre-emptive strike against the youthful caliphate, decided that it was better to deliver the first blow himself. Regardless of the caliph's motivations, in 633, small forces were dispatched into Iraq and Palestine, capturing several towns. Though the Byzantines and Sassanians were certain to retaliate, Abu Bakr", "Abu Bakr was instrumental in preserving the Quran in written form. It is said that after the hard-won victory over Musaylimah in the Battle of Yamama in 632, Umar saw that some five hundred of the Muslims who had memorised the Quran had been killed. Fearing that it may become lost or corrupted, Umar requested that Abu Bakr authorise the compilation and preservation of the scriptures in written format. The caliph was initially hesitant, being quoted as saying \"how can we do that which the Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless and keep him,", "On 23 August 634, Abu Bakr fell sick and did not recover. He developed a high fever and was confined to bed. His illness was prolonged, and when his condition worsened, he felt that his end was near. Realising this, he sent for Ali and requested him to perform his ghusl since Ali had also done it for Muhammad. Abu Bakr felt", "The historian Al-Tabari, in regards to Abu Bakr's appearance, records the following interaction between Aisha and her paternal nephew, Abdullah ibn Abdul-Rahman ibn Abi Bakr: When she was in her howdah and saw a man from among the Arabs passing by, she said, \"I have not seen a man more like Abu Bakr than this one.\"", "Though the period of his caliphate covers only two years, two months and fifteen days, it included successful invasions of the two most powerful empires of the time: the Sassanid Empire and Byzantine Empire. Abu Bakr had the distinction of being the first Caliph in the history of Islam and also the first Caliph to nominate a successor. He was the only Caliph in the history of Islam who refunded to the state treasury at the time of his death the entire amount of the allowance that he had drawn during the period of his caliphate. He has the distinction of purchasing the land for Al-Masjid al-Nabawi.", "Sunni Muslims believe that Abu Bakr is the best man of all the human beings after the prophets. They also consider Abu Bakr as one of The Ten Promised Paradise (\"al-‘Ashara al-Mubashshara\") whom Muhammad had testified were destined for Paradise. He is regarded as the \"Successor of Allah's Messenger\" (\"Khalifa Rasulullah\"), and first of the Rightly", "The Twelver Shia (as the main branch of Shia Islam, with 85% of all Shias) believe that Ali ibn Abi Talib was supposed to assume the Caliphate, and that he had been publicly and unambiguously appointed by Muhammad as his successor at Ghadir Khumm. It is also believed that Abu Bakr and Umar conspired to take over power in the Muslim nation after Muhammad's death, in a coup d'état against Ali. The Twelver Shi'a do not believe that Abu Bakr's being with Muhammad in the cave when the two fled Mecca was a meritorious act, and, indeed, find significant criticism of Abu Bakr in the Qur'anic verse of the cave. Most Twelver Shia criticize Abu Bakr because, after Muhammad's death, Abu Bakr refused to grant Muhammad's daughter, Fatimah, the lands of the village of Fadak which she claimed her father had given to her as a gift before his death. He refused to accept the testimony of her witnesses, so she claimed the land would still belong to her as inheritance from her deceased father. However, Abu Bakr replied by saying that Muhammad had told him that the prophets of God do not leave as inheritance any worldly possessions and on this basis he refused to give her the lands of Fadak. However, as Sayed Ali Asgher Razwy notes in his book \"A Restatement of the History of Islam & Muslims\", Muhammad inherited a maid servant, five camels, and ten sheep. This" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Tourism.", "Historical sites.", "Transport.", "Hydro-electricity.", "Black Wood of Rannoch." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The area around has many attractions, which can be found on the Rannoch and Tummel Tourist Association site which has information about the glen. The loch offers good sport fishing, with brown and ferox trout, arctic charr, pike and perch all present, although there are no salmon in the loch. Fishing is managed by the Loch Rannoch Conservation Association, who issue permits and control catches in accordance with the Salmon and Freshwater Fisheries (Consolidation) (Scotland) Act 2003. Areas of forestry around Loch Rannoch owned by Forestry and Land Scotland (FLS) form part of the Tay Forest Park, a network of FLS forests spread across the Highland parts of Perthshire that are managed to provide walks and amenities for visitors.", "A crannog is present at Eilean nam Faoileag in the western half of the loch. A folly was constructed on the island in the nineteenth century, reputedly by a Baron Granbley. The folly, which is still standing, takes the form of a tower, and may be based on the design of a small island prison. There may also be crannog at Eilean Beal na Gaoire at the very western end of the loch, however the level of the loch has been raised causing the island to become submerged, and so its status as a crannog was regarded as uncertain when surveyed in 1969.", "The historic route of the Road to the Isles went along Loch Rannoch as part of the route between Pitlochry on the main Stirling to Inverness road, and Lochaber, and Loch Rannoch is one of the places mentioned in the Scottish folk song named after the road. The road is now classified as the B846, which runs along the north shore of the loch. The road terminates at Rannoch railway station on the West Highland Line, some west of Loch Rannoch. The route of the Road to the Isles continues only as an untarmaced track from here to the west.", "Rannoch Power Station, on the northern shore of the loch, is part of the Tummel hydro-electric power scheme, which is operated by SSE. The power station has a vertical head of and a total generating capacity of 44 MW, and uses water fed by pipeline and tunnel from Loch Ericht which is discharged into Loch Rannoch.", "The Black Wood of Rannoch, a fragment of the former Caledonian Forest, lies on the southern shore of Loch Rannoch. It is designated as a Special Area of Conservation (SAC), and is the largest remaining area of Caledonian Forest in Perth and Kinross. The forest supports a number of rare plants including species such as coralroot \"Corallorhiza trifida\" and serrated wintergreen \"Orthilia secunda\". It also supports populations of Scottish crossbill and capercaillie. The Black Wood of Rannoch had been used to provide timber for nearly 200 years, and during the Great War, there were plans to fell it completely. The wood has been owned and managed by the Forestry Commission and its successor body, Forestry and Land Scotland (FLS), since 1947. FLS manage the wood as a forest reserve as well as to provide Scots pine seeds for use in regeneration projects across Scotland." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Physiological functions.", "Synthesis and degradation.", "Research." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Anandamide was first described (and named) in 1992 by Raphael Mechoulam and his lab members W. A. Devane and Lumír Hanuš. Anandamide's effects can occur in either the central or peripheral nervous system. These distinct effects are mediated primarily by CB cannabinoid receptors in the central nervous system, and CB cannabinoid receptors in the periphery. The latter are mainly involved in functions of the immune system. Cannabinoid receptors were originally discovered as being sensitive to Δ-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ-THC, commonly called THC), which is the primary psychoactive cannabinoid found in cannabis. The discovery of anandamide came from research into CB and CB, as it was inevitable that a naturally occurring (endogenous) chemical would be found to affect these receptors. Anandamide has been shown to impair working memory in rats. Studies are under way to explore what role anandamide plays in human behavior, such as eating and sleep patterns, and pain relief. Anandamide is also important for implantation of the early stage embryo in its blastocyst form into the uterus. Therefore, cannabinoids such as Δ-THC might influence processes during the earliest stages of human pregnancy. Peak plasma anandamide occurs at ovulation and positively correlates with peak estradiol and gonadotrophin levels, suggesting that these may be involved in the regulation of anandamide levels. Subsequently, anandamide has been proposed as a biomarker of infertility, but so far lacks any predictive values in order to be used clinically. Anandamide plays a role in the regulation of feeding behavior, and the neural generation of motivation and pleasure. Anandamide injected directly into the forebrain reward-related brain structure nucleus accumbens enhances the pleasurable responses of rats to a rewarding sucrose taste, and enhances food intake as well. Moreover, the acute beneficial effects of exercise (termed as \"runner's high\") seem to be mediated by anandamide in mice. Anandamide is the precursor of a class of physiologically active substances, the prostamides. Anandamide inhibits human breast cancer cell proliferation. Anandamide is found in chocolate together with two substances that might mimic the effects of anandamide, \"N\"-oleoylethanolamine and \"N\"-linoleoylethanolamine. Additionally, anandamide and other endocannabinoids are found in the model organism \"Drosophila melanogaster\" (fruit fly), although no CB receptors have been found in any insects.", "In humans, anandamide is biosynthesized from \"N\"-arachidonoyl phosphatidylethanolamine (NAPE). In turn NAPE arises by transfer of arachidonic acid from lecithin to the free amine of cephalin through an \"N\"-acyltransferase enzyme. Anandamide synthesis from NAPE occurs via multiple pathways and includes enzymes such as phospholipase A2, phospholipase C and N-acetylphosphatidylethanolamine-hydrolysing phospholipase D (NAPE-PLD). The crystal structure of NAPE-PLD in complex with phosphatidylethanolamine and deoxycholate shows how the cannabinoid anandamide is generated from membrane \"N\"-acylphosphatidylethanolamines (NAPEs), and reveals that bile acids – which are mainly involved in the adsorption of lipids in the small intestine – modulate its biogenesis. Endogenous anandamide is present at very low levels and has a very short half-life due to the action of the enzyme fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), which breaks it down into free arachidonic acid and ethanolamine. Studies of piglets show that dietary levels of arachidonic acid and other essential fatty acids affect the levels of anandamide and other endocannabinoids in the brain. High fat diet feeding in mice increases levels of anandamide in the liver and increases lipogenesis. This suggests that anandamide may play a role in the development of obesity, at least in rodents. Paracetamol (called acetaminophen in the US and Canada) is metabolically combined with arachidonic acid by FAAH to form AM404. This metabolite of paracetamol is a potent agonist at the TRPV1 vanilloid receptor, a weak agonist at both CB and CB receptors, and an inhibitor of anandamide reuptake. As a result, anandamide levels in the body and brain are elevated. In this fashion, paracetamol acts as a pro-drug for a cannabimimetic metabolite. This action may be partially or fully responsible for the analgesic effects of paracetamol. Endocannabinoid transporters for anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol include the heat shock proteins (Hsp70s) and fatty acid binding proteins (FABPs). It is found that anandamide prefer cholesterol and ceramide more than other membrane lipids, and cholesterol can behave as a binding partner for it, and following an initial interaction mediated by the establishment of a hydrogen bond, the endocannabinoid is attracted towards the membrane interior, where it forms a molecular complex with cholesterol after a functional conformation adaptation to the apolar membrane milieu, and from there, the complex is further directed to the cannabinoid receptor (CB1) and out.", "Black pepper contains the alkaloid guineesine, which is an anandamide reuptake inhibitor. It may therefore increase anandamide's physiological effects. Low dose intake of anandamide has an anxiolytic effect, but high dose intake injected directly into the cerebral fluid of the brain of mice shows evident cell apoptosis (programmed cell death) invitro as opposed to necrosis. Although this is contradicted by another study also done in both invitro and vivo showing neuron growth in the same situation. A Scottish woman with a rare genetic mutation in her FAAH gene with resultant elevated anandamide levels was reported to be immune to anxiety, unable to experience fear and insensitive to pain. The frequent burns and cuts she suffered due to her hypoalgesia healed quicker than average." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "1996–1999: Early years.", "2000–2006: Commercial success.", "2007–2008.", "2010.", "2013.", "2015.", "2016.", "2017.", "2018." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The festival was created in 1996 by Ozzy Osbourne's wife and manager, Sharon Osbourne, after she was rebuffed by Lollapalooza when she tried to get Ozzy on that festival circuit. The tour was well-received, which prompted the festival to become a yearly occurrence. The first Ozzfest was not a national tour, but rather a two-day festival held in Phoenix, Arizona and Devore, California on 25 and 26 October 1996 respectively. In 1997, there were large protests outside of the festival to cancel Marilyn Manson's performance. However, no dates were cancelled. There were also protests of a similar nature in 2001, following the Columbine High School massacre, which some groups had blamed on Marilyn Manson. In 1998, Ozzfest ventured outside the United States for the first time into the United Kingdom, which featured a different line-up of bands. The festival would eventually return to the UK in 2001 and 2002. The concert on 18 July 1998 at Float Rite Park was merged with Warped Tour 1998. Some 39,000 fans were at the 12-hour, six-stage, 48-band event.", "In the early 2000s, artists and bands including Slipknot, Kittie, Pantera, Marilyn Manson, Mudvayne, Godsmack, Rob Zombie, Incubus, Linkin Park, System of a Down, Chevelle, P.O.D., and Disturbed played the yearly music festival. Two compilation albums of the Ozzfest tour were released, one covering select 2001 performances and another for 2002. On-stage footage of the Ozzfest 2004 tour was shown on MTV, as Ozzy and Sharon hosted a show on the network titled \"Battle for Ozzfest\" where they chose eight out of hundreds of bands to compete for a spot on the following year's Ozzfest. Ozzy selected one member from each chosen band to \"tag along\" on the tour. Each contestant had to complete numerous challenges to improve his/her band's chances of winning the contest. Occasionally, meetings would be held and certain contestants would be eliminated for various reasons. The person who prevailed as the winner and guaranteed his band's spot on the Ozzfest tour was Marc Serrano from metalcore act A Dozen Furies. At Iron Maiden's last Ozzfest performance, on 20 August 2005 at the Hyundai Pavilion at Glen Helen in San Bernardino, California, several negative events took place. During the first song, several members of the crowd, brought on by Sharon Osbourne, bombarded the British metal band Iron Maiden with eggs, bottle caps and ice after vocalist Bruce Dickinson allegedly ridiculed Ozzy's need for a teleprompter during his performances, as well as the Osbourne family's ventures into reality television (\"The Osbournes\", \"Battle for Ozzfest\"). During three of Iron Maiden's songs, the P.A. system was switched off, cutting power to Dickinson's microphone and then to all the band's instruments. During the concert, Bruce Dickinson can be heard accusing the festival's organizers of deliberately cutting off the band's power. On Iron Maiden's departure, Sharon Osbourne came on stage to make a few statements, telling the audience that she \"absolutely loved Iron Maiden\" but thought that Dickinson is a \"prick.\" Rod Smallwood, manager for Iron Maiden, issued a statement shortly after the debacle condemning the attack on the band. On a later Howard Stern Show, In 2006, Bruce Dickinson commented, \"Did I have a go at Ozzy and Black Sabbath? No. Why would I? But I do find \"The Osbournes\" TV series loathsome, and the whole cult of reality TV celebrities disgusting.\" In response to claims that he had apologised to Ozzy for Dickinson's behaviour, Steve Harris stated \"No I didn't [apologise]. What I actually said was that, if there was anything to apologise for, then I'd do it. But that was twisted around to seem like I'd said sorry – that never happened!\"", "On 7 February 2007, it was announced that tickets to Ozzfest 2007 would be offered free of charge, dubbing the 2007 Ozzfest as \"free fest.\" Tickets were made available through sponsor websites, the Ozzfest web site and to those buying an advance copy of Ozzy Osbourne's new release, \"Black Rain\". Sponsorship money provided the revenue for the tour, but organizers did not pay any of the bands appearing. Ozzy Osbourne returned to the headlining slot on the tour after being absent from the 2006 tour. Ozzfest 2007 featured well-established acts such as Lamb of God, Static X, and Hatebreed. There were problems with distribution of the free tickets. Fans were given codes to receive tickets through the official Ozzfest website, but due to the heavy load on Live Nation's secure servers, there were issues with ticket redemption. Another problem was that many \"eBay scalpers\" charged fans to pay for the free tickets, often turning out to be unusable duplicates of other tickets. Then, on 26 July, Ozzfest gave away free tickets without requiring its \"redemption code\" previously required. At the show of 16 August 2007 in Holmdel, New Jersey at the PNC Bank Arts Center, controversy was generated as 83 attendees were arrested at the show, most of them underage and arrested prior to 8:00. In addition, two men died, one after overdosing on alcohol and energy drinks. Questions over whether the event would be held in 2008 began when in April that year Ozzy Osbourne announced that he would be headlining the Canadian Monsters of Rock festival. The 2008 version of the festival took place for only one date at Pizza Hut Park in Frisco, Texas on 9 August 2008. The line-up featured Metallica and Ozzy Osbourne as the headliner bands, as well as other acts such as Jonathan Davis (frontman of Korn), Sevendust, DevilDriver, Serj Tankian (frontman of System of a Down), Cavalera Conspiracy, Shadows Fall, Apocalyptica and In This Moment. Along with the two main stages was a third, named the Texas Stage, which, according to Sharon Osbourne, featured such Texas-based bands as The Sword, Drowning Pool, Goatwhore, Soilent Green and Rigor Mortis. The Canadian Version of \"The Monsters of Rock\" was held exclusively on 26 July 2008 at the McMahon Stadium located in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. It was also scheduled as a \"one time only\" event. The main attraction for the festival of heavy metal and mayhem were metal giants Judas Priest and the headliner, Ozzy Osbourne. In addition, various other \"big league\" heavy metal outfits attended the festivities. The following bands preceded the two main attractions: Serj Tankian, Hatebreed, Cavalera Conspiracy (featuring current frontman of Soulfly,and former frontman of Sepultura, Max Cavalera), Shadows Fall, Canadian metal unit Voivod, Testament, 3 Inches of Blood, Priestess, Zimmers Hole, and Dillinger Escape Plan.", "Ozzy Osbourne, Mötley Crüe, Halford, DevilDriver, Nonpoint Black Label Society (Cancelled in Mansfield & Camden and Bristow due to inclement weather.), Drowning Pool (Cancelled in Mansfield due to inclement weather.), Kingdom of Sorrow (NOTE: Exodus played instead on the San Bernardino date), Goatwhore (canceled on the Hartford date due to a medical emergency with their bassist), Skeletonwitch, Saviours, Kataklysm (Cancelled in Mansfield due to inclement weather.), California Wildebeest (San Bernardino date only), Immune (San Bernardino date only). The guitar prodigy Yuto Miyazawa was invited by Ozzy to play \"Crazy Train\" at the event.", "On 19 October 2012, it was announced that Ozzfest will be revived on 11–12 May 2013 at Makuhari Messe in Chiba, Japan; this was the first time the festival took place in that country. Acts confirmed for the Ozzfest Japan include Slipknot, Slash featuring Myles Kennedy and The Conspirators, Deftones, Black Sabbath, Tool and Stone Sour.", "Tokyo, Japan. This will be the second time the festival has taken place in the country. Acts confirmed for Ozzfest Japan include Ozzy and Friends, Korn, Evanescence, Jane's Addiction, Bullet for My Valentine, A Day to Remember, Hatebreed, Black Label Society, Corey Taylor, Crossfaith, and Babymetal. Originally, Black Sabbath was announced, but it was cancelled and replaced by Ozzy and Friends. Geezer Butler, Tom Morello, Dave Navarro, Zakk Wylde, and Funassyi are going to appear as guests of Ozzy and Friends. Of Mice and Men was once announced, but cancelled due to surgery of Austin Carlile.", "In 2016, Ozzfest joined with Knotfest and on September 24th and 25th, 2016, \"Ozzfest Meets Knotfest 2016\" was held in San Bernardino, California, at the San Manuel Amphitheater.", "The 2017 Ozzfest was held again in conjunction with Knotfest, under the title \"Ozzfest Meets Knotfest 2017\" on November 4th & 5th, 2017 in San Bernardino, California, at the Glen Helen Amphitheater.", "The 2018 Ozzfest was held at The Forum in Inglewood, California on December 31st, 2018. The event was hosted by Ozzy Osbourne, Marilyn Manson, Rob Zombie, Jonathan Davis of Korn, and Body Count. And on the 2nd stage, Zakk Wylde's Black Sabbath tribute band Zakk Sabbath took the stage along with DevilDriver and Wednesday 13 of Murderdolls." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Features.", "Integration.", "User interface.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Features of Ekiga include:", "Ekiga is integrated with a number of different software packages and protocols such as LDAP directories registration and browsing along with support for Novell Evolution so that contacts are shared between both programs and ZeroConf (Apple Bonjour) support. It auto-detects devices including USB, ALSA and legacy OSS soundcards, Video4linux and FireWire camera.", "Ekiga supports a Contact list based interface along with Presence support with custom messages. It allows for the monitoring of contacts and viewing call history along with an addressbook, dialpad, and chat window. SIP URLs and H.323/callto support is built-in along with full-screen videoconferencing (accelerated using a graphics card).", "Ekiga was originally started over Christmas in the year 2000. Originally written by Damien Sandras it grew to being maintained by a team of nine regular contributors by 2011. Sandras wanted to create a Netmeeting clone for Linux as his graduating project at UCLouvain. Ekiga was referred to as GnomeMeeting until 2004 when a name change was thought necessary by the developers. Concerns were cited that the original name was associated with a dead Microsoft product called NetMeeting, and not always recoginized as VoIP software. It was also proposed that some people assumed they needed to run GNOME to run GnomeMeeting, which was no longer the case. Eventually on January 18, 2006 the name Ekiga was chosen based on an old way of communicating between villages in Cameroon. Around that the time the direction of the software project was changed and it turned into a SIP client. The following shows major version releases:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "Views on open source.", "Political beliefs and activism.", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Raymond was born in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1957 and lived in Venezuela as a child. His family moved to Pennsylvania in 1971. He developed cerebral palsy at birth; his weakened physical condition motivated him to go into computing.", "Raymond began his programming career writing proprietary software, between 1980 and 1985. In 1990, noting that the Jargon File had not been maintained since about 1983, he adopted it; he currently has a third edition in print. Paul Dourish maintains an archived original version of the Jargon File, because, he says, Raymond's updates \"essentially destroyed what held it together.\" In 1996 Raymond took over development of the open-source email software \"popclient\", renaming it to Fetchmail. Soon after this experience, in 1997, he wrote the essay \"The Cathedral and the Bazaar\", detailing his thoughts on open-source software development and why it should be done as openly as possible (the \"bazaar\" approach). The essay was based in part on his experience in developing Fetchmail. He first presented his thesis at the annual Linux Kongress on May 27, 1997. He later expanded the essay into a book, \"The Cathedral and the Bazaar: Musings on Linux and Open Source by an Accidental Revolutionary\", in 1999. The essay has been widely cited. The internal white paper by Frank Hecker that led to the release of the Mozilla (then Netscape) source code in 1998 cited \"The Cathedral and the Bazaar\" as \"independent validation\" of ideas proposed by Eric Hahn and Jamie Zawinski. Hahn would later describe the 1999 book as \"clearly influential\". From the late 1990s onward, due in part to the popularity of his essay, Raymond became a prominent voice in the open source movement. He co-founded the Open Source Initiative in 1998, taking on the self-appointed role of ambassador of open source to the press, business and public. He remains active in OSI, and stepped down as president of the initiative in February 2005. In 1998 Raymond received and published a Microsoft document expressing worry about the quality of rival open-source software. Raymond named this document, together with others subsequently leaked, \"\"the Halloween Documents\"\". In 2000–2002 he created Configuration Menu Language 2 (CML2), a source code configuration system; while originally intended for the Linux operating system, it was rejected by kernel developers. Raymond attributed this rejection to \"kernel list politics\". Linus Torvalds on the other hand said in a 2007 mailing list post that as a matter of policy, the development team preferred more incremental changes. His 2003 book \"The Art of Unix Programming\" discusses user tools for programming and other tasks. Raymond is currently the administrator of the project page for the Global Positioning System data tool gpsd. Also, some versions of NetHack include his guide. He has also contributed code and content to the free software video game \"The Battle for Wesnoth\". Raymond is also the main developer on NTPSec, a \"secure, hardened replacement\" for the Unix utility NTP.", "Raymond coined an aphorism he dubbed Linus's law, inspired by Linus Torvalds: \"Given enough eyeballs, all bugs are shallow\". It first appeared in his book \"The Cathedral and the Bazaar\". Raymond has refused to speculate on whether the \"bazaar\" development model could be applied to works such as books and music, saying that he does not want to \"weaken the winning argument for open-sourcing software by tying it to a potential loser\". Raymond has had a number of public disputes with other figures in the free software movement. As head of the Open Source Initiative, he argued that advocates should focus on the potential for better products. The \"very seductive\" moral and ethical rhetoric of Richard Stallman and the Free Software Foundation fails, he said, \"not because his principles are wrong, but because that kind of language... simply does not persuade anybody\". In a 2008 essay he \"defended the right of programmers to issue work under proprietary licenses because I think that if a programmer wants to write a program and sell it, it's neither my business nor anyone else's but his customer's what the terms of sale are\". In the same essay he also said that the \"logic of the system\" puts developers into \"dysfunctional roles\", with bad code the result.", "Raymond is a member of the Libertarian Party. He is a gun rights advocate. He has endorsed the open source firearms organization Defense Distributed, calling them \"friends of freedom\" and writing \"I approve of any development that makes it more difficult for governments and criminals to monopolize the use of force. As 3D printers become less expensive and more ubiquitous, this could be a major step in the right direction.\" In 2015 Raymond accused the Ada Initiative and other women in tech groups of attempting to entrap male open source leaders and accuse them of rape, saying \"Try to avoid even being alone, ever, because there is a chance that a 'women in tech' advocacy group is going to try to collect your scalp.\" Raymond has claimed that \"Gays experimented with unfettered promiscuity in the 1970s and got AIDS as a consequence\", and that \"Police who react to a random black male behaving suspiciously who might be in the critical age range as though he is an near-imminent lethal threat, are being rational, not racist.\" Progressive campaign The Great Slate was successful in raising funds for candidates in part by asking for contributions from tech workers in return for not posting similar quotes by Raymond. Matasano Security employee and Great Slate fundraiser Thomas Ptacek said, \"I’ve been torturing Twitter with lurid Eric S. Raymond quotes for years. Every time I do, 20 people beg me to stop.\" It is estimated that as of March 2018 over $30,000 has been raised in this way.", "Raymond describes himself as neo-pagan." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Features.", "Evolution Data Server.", "Connecting to Microsoft Exchange Server.", "History.", "Distribution.", "Defunct Mac OS X and Windows ports." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Evolution delivers the following features: The Novell GroupWise plug-in is no longer in active development. A Scalix plug-in is also available, but its development stopped in 2009.", "Evolution Data Server (EDS) is a collection of libraries and session services for storing address books and calendars. Other software such as California and GNOME Calendar depends on EDS as well. Some documentation about the software architecture is available in the GNOME wiki.", "Depending on which version of Microsoft Exchange Server is used, different packages need to be installed to be able to connect to it. The documentation recommends the \"evolution-ews\" package (which uses Exchange Web Services) for Exchange Server 2007, 2010 and newer. If \"evolution-ews\" does not work well, it is advised to try the \"evolution-mapi\" package. This supports Exchange Server 2010, 2007 and possibly older versions supporting MAPI. For Exchange Server 2003, 2000 and possibly earlier versions supporting Outlook Web App the package \"evolution-exchange\" is recommended.", "Ximian decided to develop Evolution in 2000. It felt there were no e-mail clients for Linux at the time that could provide the functionality and interoperability necessary for corporate users. Ximian saw an opportunity for Linux to penetrate the corporate environment if the right enterprise software was available for it. It released Evolution 1.0 in December 2001 and offered the paid Ximian Connector plug-in which allowed users to connect with Microsoft Exchange Server. Evolution itself has been free software from the start, but Ximian Connector was sold as proprietary software so that Ximian could generate revenue. This changed after Novell's acquisition of Ximian in August 2003. Novell decided to integrate the Exchange plug-in as free software in Evolution 2.0 in May 2004. Novell was in turn acquired by The Attachmate Group in 2011. It transferred Novell's former Evolution developers to its subsidiary SUSE. In 2012 SUSE decided to stop its funding of Evolution's development and assigned its developers elsewhere. As a consequence only two full-time developers employed by Red Hat remained. Later in 2013 Red Hat dedicated more developers to the project, reinvigorating its development. The reasons given for the decision were the cessation of active development on Mozilla Thunderbird and the need for an e-mail client with good support for Microsoft Exchange.", "As a part of GNOME, Evolution is released as source code. Linux distributions provide packages of GNOME for end-users. Evolution is used as the default personal information manager on several Linux distributions which use GNOME by default, most notably Debian and Fedora. Ubuntu has replaced Evolution with Mozilla Thunderbird as the default e-mail client since Ubuntu 11.10 Oneiric Ocelot.", "In the past, Evolution was ported to Apple Mac OS X and Microsoft Windows, but these ports are no longer developed. In 2006, Novell released an installer for Evolution 2.6 on Mac OS X. In January 2005, Novell's Nat Friedman announced in his blog that the company had hired Tor Lillqvist, the programmer who ported GIMP to Microsoft Windows, to do the same with Evolution. Prior to this announcement, several projects with the same goal had been started but none of them reached alpha status. In 2008 DIP Consultants released a Windows installer for Evolution 2.28.1-1 for Microsoft Windows XP and newer. Currently it is only available for download from the project's page on SourceForge. A slightly more recent (2010/2011) experimental installer for Evolution 3.0.2 is provided by openSUSE. Users have faced difficulties getting this version working." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Functions.", "Limitations.", "Add-ons.", "Uses in media." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Celestia displays the Hipparcos Catalogue (HIP) of 118,322 stars and a compiled catalogue of galaxies. Celestia uses the VSOP87 theory of planetary orbits to provide a solar and lunar eclipse finder and to display the orbital paths of planets (including extrasolar planets), dwarf planets, moons, asteroids, comets, artificial satellites, and spacecraft. Using the installed catalogues, the names of celestial objects can be displayed, including artificial satellites, as well as the names and locations of Earth features. Celestia allows users to navigate at different speeds, and allow users to orbit stars, planets, moons, and other space objects, track space objects such as spacecraft, asteroids, and comets as they fly by, or travel to and/or fly through galaxies. Light time delay is an optional function. The time simulated by Celestia can be set to any time 2 billion years forward or backward from the present, although planetary orbits are only accurate within a few thousand years of the present day, and Celestia simulates the appearance of atmospheres on planets and moons, planetshine on orbiting satellites, and miscellaneous planetary details such as sunrise and sunset. Information about the objects that Celestia draws can also be displayed. The user can change Celestia's field of view, and allows users to split the window into multiple panes. Screenshots and movies can be captured in classic or HD resolutions. Celestia's support for gamepads and joysticks is relatively limited. Celestia can be extended with new objects, and has support for third-party, user-created add-ons available for installation, both fictional and realistic. The extension mechanism uses Lua as its built-in scripting language.", "The default setting for Celestia's Earth is a spheroid. The irregular surface of the Earth causes low Earth orbit satellites to appear to be in the wrong places in the sky when watched from Celestia's ground, even when the Earth's oblateness is specified. Many types of astronomical objects are not included with Celestia. Variable stars, supernovae, black holes, and nebulae are missing from the standard distribution. Some are available as add-ons. Although objects that form part of a planetary system move, and stars rotate about their axes and orbit each other in multiple star systems, stellar proper motion is not simulated, and galaxies are at fixed locations. As a result, the constellations in Celestia do not gradually change shape as they do in the real world. In addition, Celestia's binary star catalogs only describe a few hundred systems of multiple stars. Most binary star systems cannot be simulated because adequate orbital information is not yet available. Celestia does not include any stars that are more than a few thousand light-years from the Sun because the parallaxes of more distant stars are too small to be accurately measured by the Hipparcos astrometric satellite. In addition, objects in solar systems are only drawn to a distance of one light-year from their suns, and Celestia does not consider the wobbling of some stars induced by their planets. Wavelength filtering is not implemented in Celestia's engine. The actual rendering tries to match human vision at the observer's position as accurately as possible. This means false-color maps and multi-color nebulae are not part of the official distribution. Camera artifacts such as lens flare and glare are not rendered. Celestia also does not simulate gravity. For example, a near-Earth object approaching the Earth will not be deflected by the Earth's gravity unless the person who defined the NEO's trajectory for Celestia included that effect. Some moons do not cast shadows on their planet during eclipses. This is because irregularly shaped objects do not cast shadows in the current version of Celestia, although this is planned for future versions. Most real-world spacecraft such as \"Voyager 2\" are not available in Celestia but are provided as add-ons by users. Celestia uses the Julian calendar and cannot go back or forward more than 2 billion years, and the default time-setting system cannot go further than the years -9999 or 9999.", "Well over 10 GB of extensions are available in addition to the base program, produced by an active user community. Higher resolution surface textures are available for most solar system bodies, including Virtual Textures with coverage up to 32768 pixels wide (1.25 km/pixel at the Earth's equator), with selected coverage at higher resolutions. This allows closer views of the Earth, Mars, and the Moon. 3D models of historical and existing spacecraft are available flying in reasonably accurate trajectories, such as Sputnik 1, Voyager 2, the Hubble Space Telescope, and the International Space Station, as are extended data plots for stars (2 million with correct spatial coordinates), DSOs (nebulae, galaxies, open clusters, etc.), as well as catalogs of asteroids and comets, and more than 96,000 locations on the Earth can be drawn by the program. Add-ons also include space objects such as red and blue supergiants, red and brown dwarfs, neutron stars, spinning pulsars, rotating black holes with accretion disks, protostars, star nursery nebulae, supernova remnants, planetary nebulae, galactic redshifts, geological planetary displays (e.g. 3D interiors, topographic and bathymetric maps, paleogeography), planetary aurorae, rotating magnetic fields, animated solar prominences, 3D craters and mountains, and historic collision events. Numerous scripts are available. These include simple tours, reconstructions of complex space missions such as Cassini–Huygens and \"Deep Impact\", and scripts showing useful information, like size comparisons, or particular events such as multiple simultaneous eclipses of Jupiter's moons or the evolution of a star. Fictional universes can be depicted, with planetary systems and 3D models—films such as \"\", \"Star Trek\" and \"Star Wars\", and TV shows including \"Stargate SG-1\" and \"Babylon 5\". Add-ons illustrating less well-known Web fiction, like \"Orion's Arm\", or role-playing games, like 2300 AD, and personal works by members of the Celestia community depicting fictional solar systems with inhabited worlds, spacecraft, cities, and special effects can also be added. Educational add-ons can also be implemented in different languages. These activities provide approximately 40 hours of space journeys and astronomical lessons to include extensive tours of the Celestia universe, the complete life cycle of stars, the solar system, the human space program, the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence (SETI), and depictions of astronomical events such as the formation of our moon billions of years ago, and the possible terraforming of Mars in the future. In late 2017, a massive addon pack project called Celestia Origin was created, which replaces all vanilla textures and graphics with higher-quality renderings.", "NASA and ESA have used Celestia in their educational and outreach programs, as well as for interfacing to trajectory analysis software. Celestia was used in the media by the CBS television show \"NCIS\" (Season 4, Episode 22: \"In the Dark\"). Character Timothy McGee explains what Celestia is and how an add-on can allow the user to store a diary within the program, as well. Textures designed by Celestia graphic artists were used in the movie \"The Day After Tomorrow\" and the 2008 miniseries \"The Andromeda Strain\". Celestia has also appeared on the Science Channel's \"Through the Wormhole\". Eurogamer's Jim Rossignol named \"Celestia\" among a top 20 list of \"Summer of PC\" Freeware games in 2006." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Schemas and schema documents.", "Schema components.", "Types.", "Post-Schema-Validation Infoset.", "Secondary uses for XML Schemas.", "Code generation.", "Generation of XML file structure documentation.", "Criticism.", "Version 1.1.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "XML Schema, published as a W3C recommendation in May 2001, is one of several XML schema languages. It was the first separate schema language for XML to achieve Recommendation status by the W3C. Because of confusion between XML Schema as a specific W3C specification, and the use of the same term to describe schema languages in general, some parts of the user community referred to this language as WXS, an initialism for W3C XML Schema, while others referred to it as XSD, an initialism for XML Schema Definition. In Version 1.1 the W3C has chosen to adopt XSD as the preferred name, and that is the name used in this article. In its appendix of references, the XSD specification acknowledges the influence of DTDs and other early XML schema efforts such as DDML, SOX, XML-Data, and XDR. It has adopted features from each of these proposals but is also a compromise among them. Of those languages, XDR and SOX continued to be used and supported for a while after XML Schema was published. A number of Microsoft products supported XDR until the release of MSXML 6.0 (which dropped XDR in favor of XML Schema) in December 2006. Commerce One, Inc. supported its SOX schema language until declaring bankruptcy in late 2004. The most obvious features offered in XSD that are not available in XML's native Document Type Definitions (DTDs) are namespace awareness and datatypes, that is, the ability to define element and attribute content as containing values such as integers and dates rather than arbitrary text. The XSD 1.0 specification was originally published in 2001, with a second edition following in 2004 to correct large numbers of errors. XSD 1.1 became a W3C Recommendation in April 2012.", "Technically, a schema is an abstract collection of metadata, consisting of a set of schema components: chiefly element and attribute declarations and complex and simple type definitions. These components are usually created by processing a collection of schema documents, which contain the source language definitions of these components. In popular usage, however, a schema document is often referred to as a schema. Schema documents are organized by namespace: all the named schema components belong to a target namespace, and the target namespace is a property of the schema document as a whole. A schema document may \"include\" other schema documents for the same namespace, and may \"import\" schema documents for a different namespace. When an instance document is validated against a schema (a process known as \"assessment\"), the schema to be used for validation can either be supplied as a parameter to the validation engine, or it can be referenced directly from the instance document using two special attributes, codice_1 and codice_2. (The latter mechanism requires the client invoking validation to trust the document sufficiently to know that it is being validated against the correct schema. \"xsi\" is the conventional prefix for the namespace \"http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance\".) XML Schema Documents usually have the filename extension \".xsd\". A unique Internet Media Type is not yet registered for XSDs, so \"application/xml\" or \"text/xml\" should be used, as per RFC 3023.", "The main components of a schema are: Other more specialized components include annotations, assertions, notations, and the schema component which contains information about the schema as a whole.", "Simple types (also called data types) constrain the textual values that may appear in an element or attribute. This is one of the more significant ways in which XML Schema differs from DTDs. For example, an attribute might be constrained to hold only a valid date or a decimal number. XSD provides a set of 19 primitive data types (codice_3, codice_4, codice_5, codice_6, codice_7, codice_8, codice_9, codice_10, codice_11, codice_12, codice_13, codice_14, codice_15, codice_16, codice_17, codice_18, codice_19, codice_20, and codice_21). It allows new data types to be constructed from these primitives by three mechanisms: Twenty-five derived types are defined within the specification itself, and further derived types can be defined by users in their own schemas. The mechanisms available for restricting data types include the ability to specify minimum and maximum values, regular expressions, constraints on the length of strings, and constraints on the number of digits in decimal values. XSD 1.1 again adds assertions, the ability to specify an arbitrary constraint by means of an XPath 2.0 expression. Complex types describe the permitted content of an element, including its element and text children and its attributes. A complex type definition consists of a set of attribute uses and a content model. Varieties of content model include: A complex type can be derived from another complex type by restriction (disallowing some elements, attributes, or values that the base type permits) or by extension (allowing additional attributes and elements to appear). In XSD 1.1, a complex type may be constrained by assertions — XPath 2.0 expressions evaluated against the content that must evaluate to true.", "After XML Schema-based validation, it is possible to express an XML document's structure and content in terms of the data model that was implicit during validation. The XML Schema data model includes: This collection of information is called the Post-Schema-Validation Infoset (PSVI). The PSVI gives a valid XML document its \"type\" and facilitates treating the document as an object, using object-oriented programming (OOP) paradigms.", "The primary reason for defining an XML schema is to formally describe an XML document; however the resulting schema has a number of other uses that go beyond simple validation.", "The schema can be used to generate code, referred to as XML Data Binding. This code allows contents of XML documents to be treated as objects within the programming environment.", "The schema can be used to generate human-readable documentation of an XML file structure; this is especially useful where the authors have made use of the annotation elements. No formal standard exists for documentation generation, but a number of tools are available, such as the Xs3p stylesheet, that will produce high quality readable HTML and printed material.", "Although XML Schema is successful in that it has been widely adopted and largely achieves what it set out to, it has been the subject of a great deal of severe criticism, perhaps more so than any other W3C Recommendation. Good summaries of the criticisms are provided by James Clark, Anders Møller and Michael Schwartzbach, Rick Jelliffe and David Webber. General problems: Practical limitations of expressibility: Technical problems:", "XSD 1.1 became a W3C Recommendation in April 2012, which means it is an approved W3C specification. Significant new features in XSD 1.1 are: Until the Proposed Recommendation draft, XSD 1.1 also proposed the addition of a new numeric data type, precisionDecimal. This proved controversial, and was therefore dropped from the specification at a late stage of development.", "W3C XML Schema 1.0 Specification W3C XML Schema 1.1 Specification Other" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Regional definitions.", "A wave of diverse acts.", "Effect on mainstream popular music.", "Included in contemporary media." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In North America, in the late 1990s, the mainstream music industry adopted and to some extent manufactured \"electronica\" as an umbrella term encompassing styles such as techno, big beat, drum and bass, trip hop, downtempo, and ambient, regardless of whether it was curated by indie labels catering to the \"underground\" nightclub and rave scenes, or licensed by major labels and marketed to mainstream audiences as a commercially viable alternative to alternative rock music. By the early 2010s, however, the industry abandoned \"electronica\" in favor of \"electronic dance music\" (EDM), a term with roots in academia and an increasing association with outdoor music festivals and relatively mainstream, post-rave electro house and dubstep music. Nevertheless, the U.S.-based \"AllMusic\" still categorises electronica as a top-level genre, stating that it includes danceable grooves, as well as music for headphones and chillout areas. In other parts of the world, especially in the UK, \"electronica\" is also a broad term, but is associated with non-dance-oriented music, including relatively experimental styles of downtempo electronic music. It partly overlaps what is known chiefly outside the UK as \"intelligent dance music\" (IDM).", "Electronica benefited from advancements in music technology, especially electronic musical instruments, synthesizers, music sequencers, drum machines, and digital audio workstations. As the technology developed, it became possible for individuals or smaller groups to produce electronic songs and recordings in smaller studios, even in project studios. At the same time, computers facilitated the use of music \"samples\" and \"loops\" as construction kits for sonic compositions. This led to a period of creative experimentation and the development of new forms, some of which became known as \"electronica\". Electronica currently includes a wide variety of musical acts and styles, linked by a penchant for overtly electronic production; a range which includes more popular acts such as Björk, Madonna, Goldfrapp and IDM artists such as Autechre, and Aphex Twin to dub-oriented downtempo, downbeat, and trip hop. Madonna and Björk are said to be responsible for electronica's thrust into mainstream culture, with their albums \"Ray of Light\" (Madonna), \"Post\" and \"Homogenic\" (Björk). Electronica artists that would later become commercially successful began to record in the late 1980s, before the term had come into common usage, including for example The Prodigy, Fatboy Slim, Daft Punk, The Chemical Brothers, The Crystal Method, Moby, Underworld and Faithless. Electronica composers often create alternate versions of their compositions, known as \"remixes\"; this practice also occurs in related musical forms such as ambient, jungle, and electronic dance music. Wide ranges of influences, both sonic and compositional, are combined in electronica recordings. In the US, New York City became one center of experimentation and growth for the electronica sound, with DJs and music producers from areas as diverse as Southeast Asia and Brazil bringing their creative work to the nightclubs of that city.", "Around the mid-1990s, with the success of the big beat-sound exemplified by The Chemical Brothers and The Prodigy in the UK, and spurred by the attention from mainstream artists, including Madonna in her collaboration with William Orbit on her album \"Ray of Light\" and Australian singer Dannii Minogue with her 1997 album \"Girl\", music of this period began to be produced with a higher budget, increased technical quality, and with more layers than most other forms of dance music, since it was backed by major record labels and MTV as the \"next big thing\". According to a 1997 \"Billboard\" article, \"the union of the club community and independent labels\" provided the experimental and trend-setting environment in which electronica acts developed and eventually reached the mainstream. It cites American labels such as Astralwerks (The Chemical Brothers, Fatboy Slim, The Future Sound of London, Fluke), Moonshine (DJ Keoki), Sims, and City of Angels (The Crystal Method) for playing a significant role in discovering and marketing artists who became popularized in the electronica scene.", "In the late 1990s and early 2000s, electronica music was increasingly used as background scores for television advertisements, initially for automobiles. It was also used for various video games, including the \"Wipeout\" series, for which the soundtrack was composed of many popular electronica tracks that helped create more interest in this type of music—and later for other technological and business products such as computers and financial services. Then in 2011, Hyundai Veloster, in association with The Grammys, produced a project that became known as Re:Generation." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Taxonomy.", "Subspecies.", "Distribution and habitat.", "Behavior and ecology.", "\"Head in the sand\" myth.", "Feeding.", "Mating.", "Predators.", "Physiology.", "Respiration.", "Anatomy.", "Function.", "Circulation.", "Heart anatomy.", "Blood composition.", "Osmoregulation.", "Physiological challenges.", "System overview.", "Thermoregulation.", "Physical adaptations.", "Internal adaptations.", "Breathing adaptations.", "Metabolism.", "Status and conservation.", "Ostriches and humans.", "Economic use.", "Attacks.", "Racing." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Common ostriches usually weigh from, or as much as two adult humans. The Masai ostriches of East Africa (\"S. c. massaicus\") averaged in males and in females, while the nominate subspecies, the North African ostrich (\"S. c. camelus\"), was found to average in unsexed adults. Exceptional male ostriches (in the nominate subspecies) can weigh up to. At sexual maturity (two to four years), male common ostriches can be from in height, while female common ostriches range from tall. New chicks are fawn in color, with dark brown spots. During the first year of life, chicks grow at about per month. At one year of age, common ostriches weigh approximately. Their lifespan is up to 40–45 years. The feathers of adult males are mostly black, with white primaries and a white tail. However, the tail of one subspecies is buff. Females and young males are grayish-brown and white. The head and neck of both male and female ostriches is nearly bare, with a thin layer of down. The skin of the female's neck and thighs is pinkish gray, while the male's is gray or pink dependent on subspecies. The long neck and legs keep their head up to above the ground, and their eyes are said to be the largest of any land vertebrate: in diameter; helping them to see predators at a great distance. The eyes are shaded from sunlight from above. However, the head and bill are relatively small for the birds' huge size, with the bill measuring. Their skin varies in color depending on the subspecies, with some having light or dark gray skin and others having", "The common ostrich was originally described by Carl Linnaeus from Sweden in his 18th-century work, \"Systema Naturae\" under its current binomial name. Its scientific name is derived from Latin, \"struthio\" meaning \"ostrich\" and \"camelus\" meaning \"camel\", alluding to its dry habitat. The common ostrich belongs to the ratite order Struthioniformes. Other members include rheas, emus, cassowaries, moa, kiwi and the largest known bird ever, the now-extinct elephant bird (\"Aepyornis\"). However, the classification of the ratites as a single order has always been questioned, with the alternative classification restricting the Struthioniformes to the ostrich lineage and elevating the other groups.", "Four living subspecies are recognized: Some analyses indicate that the Somali ostrich is now considered a full species by the Tree of Life Project, \"The Clements Checklist of Birds of the World\", BirdLife International, and the recognize it as a different species. A few authorities, including the \"Howard and Moore Complete Checklist of the Birds of the World\" do not recognize it as separate. Mitochondrial DNA haplotype comparisons suggest that it diverged from the other ostriches not quite 4 mya due to formation of the East African Rift. Hybridization with the subspecies that evolved southwestwards of its range,", "Common ostriches formerly occupied Africa north and south of the Sahara, East Africa, Africa south of the rainforest belt, and much of Asia Minor. Today common ostriches prefer open land and are native to the savannas and Sahel of Africa, both north and south of the equatorial forest zone. In southwest Africa they inhabit the semi-desert or true desert. Farmed common ostriches in Australia have established feral populations. The Arabian ostriches", "Common ostriches normally spend the winter months in pairs or alone. Only 16 percent of common ostrich sightings were of more than two birds. During breeding season and sometimes during extreme rainless periods ostriches live in nomadic groups of five to 100 birds (led by a top hen) that often travel together with other grazing animals, such as zebras or antelopes. Ostriches are diurnal, but may be active on moonlit nights. They are most active early and late in the day. The male common ostrich territory is between. With their acute eyesight and hearing, common ostriches can sense predators such as lions from far away. When being pursued by a predator, they have been known to reach speeds in excess of, and can maintain a steady speed of, which makes the common ostrich the world's fastest two-legged animal. When lying down and hiding from predators, the birds lay their heads and necks flat on the ground, making them appear like a mound of earth from a distance, aided by the heat haze in their hot, dry habitat. When threatened, common ostriches run away, but they can cause serious injury and death with kicks from their powerful legs. Their legs can only kick forward.", "Contrary to popular belief, ostriches do not bury their heads in sand to avoid danger. This myth likely began with Pliny the Elder (AD 23–79), who wrote that ostriches \"imagine, when they have thrust their head and neck into a bush, that the whole of their body is concealed.\" This may have been a misunderstanding of their sticking their heads in the", "They mainly feed on seeds, shrubs, grass, fruit and flowers; occasionally they also eat insects such as locusts. Lacking teeth, they swallow pebbles that act as gastroliths to grind food in the gizzard. When eating, they will fill their gullet with food, which is in turn passed down their esophagus in the form of a ball called a bolus. The", "Common ostriches become sexually mature when they are 2 to 4 years old; females mature about six months earlier than males. As with other birds, an individual may reproduce several times over its lifetime. The mating season begins in March or April and ends sometime before September. The mating process differs in different geographical regions. Territorial males typically boom in defense of their territory and harem of two to seven hens; the successful male may then mate with several females in the area, but", "As a flightless species in the rich biozone of the African savanna, the common ostrich must face a variety of formidable predators throughout its life cycle. Animals that prey on ostriches of all ages may include cheetahs, lions, leopards, African hunting dogs, and spotted hyenas. Common ostriches can often outrun most of their predators in a pursuit, so most predators will try to ambush an unsuspecting bird using obstructing vegetation or other", "", "", "Morphology of the common ostrich lung indicates that the structure conforms to that of the other avian species, but still retains parts of its primitive avian species, ratite, structure. The opening to the respiratory pathway begins with the laryngeal cavity lying posterior to the choanae within the buccal cavity. The tip of the tongue then lies anterior to the choanae, excluding the nasal respiratory pathway from the buccal cavity. The trachea lies ventrally to the cervical vertebrae extending from the larynx to the syrinx, where the trachea enters the thorax, dividing into two primary bronchi, one to each lung, in which they continue directly through to become mesobronchi. Ten different air sacs attach to the lungs to form areas for respiration. The most posterior air sacs (abdominal and post-thoracic) differ in that the right abdominal air sac", "The common ostrich is an endotherm and maintains a body temperature of in its extreme living temperature conditions, such as the heat of the savanna and desert regions of Africa. The ostrich utilizes its respiratory system via a costal pump for ventilation rather than a diaphragmatic pump as seen in most mammals. Thus, they are able to use a series of air sacs connected to the lungs. The use of air sacs forms the basis for the three main avian respiratory characteristics: Inhalation begins at the mouth and the nostrils located at the front of the beak. The air then flows through the anatomical dead space of a highly vascular trachea (c. ) and expansive bronchial system, where it is further conducted to the posterior air sacs. Air flow through the parabronchi of the paleopulmo is in the same direction to the dorsobronchi during inspiration and expiration. Inspired air moves into the respiratory system as a result of the expansion of thoraco abdominal cavity; controlled by inspiratory muscles. During expiration, oxygen poor air flows to the anterior air sacs and is expelled by the action of the expiratory muscles. The common ostrich air sacs play a key role in respiration since they are capacious, and increase surface area (as described by the Fick Principle). The oxygen rich air flows unidirectionally across the respiratory surface of the lungs; providing the blood that has a crosscurrent flow with a high concentration of oxygen. To compensate for the large \"dead\"", "", "The common ostrich heart is a closed system, contractile chamber. It is composed of myogenic muscular tissue associated with heart contraction features. There is a double circulatory plan in place possessing both a pulmonary circuit and systemic circuit. The common ostrich's heart has similar features to other avian species like having a conically shaped heart, and being enclosed by a pericardium layer. Moreover, similarities also include a larger right atrium volume, and a thicker left ventricle to fulfil the systemic circuit. The ostrich heart has three features that are absent in related birds: The atrioventricular node position differs from other fowl. It is located in the endocardium of the atrial surface of the right atrioventricular valve. It is not covered by connective tissue, which is characteristic of vertebrate heart anatomy. It also contains fewer myofibrils than usual myocardial cells. The AV node connects the atrial and ventricular chambers. It functions to carry the electrical impulse from the atria to", "The red blood cell count per unit volume in the ostrich is about 40% of that of a human; however, the red blood cells of the ostrich are about three times larger than the red blood cells of a human. The blood oxygen affinity, known as P, is higher than that of both humans and similar avian species. The reason for this decreased oxygen affinity is due to the hemoglobin configuration found in common ostrich blood. The common ostrich's tetramer is composed of hemoglobin type A and D, compared to typical mammalian tetramers composed of hemoglobin type A and B; hemoglobin D configuration causes a decreased oxygen affinity at the site of the respiratory surface. During the embryonic stage Hemoglobin E is present. This subtype increases oxygen affinity in order to transport oxygen across the allantoic membrane of the embryo. This can be attributed to the high metabolic need of the developing embryo, thus high oxygen affinity serves to satisfy this demand. When the chick hatches hemoglobin E", "", "The common ostrich is a xeric animal, due to the fact that it lives in habitats that are both dry and hot. Water is scarce in dry and hot environment, and this poses a challenge to the ostrich's water consumption. Also the ostrich is", "The common ostrich is well adapted to hot, arid environments through specialization of excretory organs. The common ostrich has an extremely long and developed colon the length of approximately between the coprodeum and the paired caeca, which are around long. A well developed caeca is also found and in combination with the rectum forms the microbial fermentation chambers used for carbohydrate breakdown. The catabolism of carbohydrates produces around of water that can be used internally. The majority of their urine is stored in the coprodeum, and the faeces are separately stored in the terminal colon. The coprodeum is located ventral to the terminal rectum and urodeum (where the ureters open). Found between the terminal rectum and coprodeum is a strong sphincter. The coprodeum and cloaca are the main osmoregulatory mechanisms used for the regulation and reabsorption of ions and water, or net water conservation. As expected", "Common ostriches are homeothermic endotherms; they regulate a constant body temperature via regulating their metabolic heat rate. They closely regulate their core body temperature, but their appendages may be cooler in comparison as found with regulating species. The temperature of their beak, neck surfaces, lower legs, feet and toes are regulated through heat exchange with the environment. Up to 40% of their produced metabolic heat is dissipated across these structures, which account for about 12% of their total surface area. Total evaporative water loss (TEWL) is statistically lower in the common ostrich than in membering ratites. As ambient temperature increases, dry heat loss decreases, but evaporative heat loss increases because of increased respiration. As ostriches experience high ambient temperatures, circa, they become slightly hyperthermic; however, they can maintain a stable body temperature, around, for up to 8 hours in these conditions. When dehydrated, the common ostrich minimizes water loss, causing the body temperature to increase further. When the body heat is allowed to increase the temperature gradient between the common ostrich and ambient heat is equilibrated.", "Common ostriches have developed a comprehensive set of behavioral adaptations for thermoregulation, such as altering their feathers. Common ostriches display a feather fluffing behavior that aids them in thermoregulation by regulating convective heat loss at high ambient temperatures. They may also physically seek out shade in times of high ambient temperatures. When feather fluffing, they contract their muscles to raise their feathers to increase the air space next to their skin. This air space provides an insulating thickness of. The ostrich will also expose the thermal windows of their unfeathered skin", "The use of countercurrent heat exchange with blood flow allows for regulated conservation/ elimination of heat of appendages. When ambient temperatures are low, heterotherms will constrict their arterioles to reduce heat loss along skin surfaces. The reverse occurs at high ambient temperatures, arterioles dilate to increase heat loss. At ambient temperatures below their body temperatures (thermal neutral zone (TNZ)), common ostriches decrease body surface temperatures so that heat loss occurs only across about 10% of total surface area. This 10% include critical areas that require blood flow to remain high to prevent freezing, such as their eyes. Their eyes and ears tend to be the warmest regions. It has been found that temperatures of lower appendages were no more than above ambient temperature, which minimizes heat exchange between feet, toes, wings, and legs. Both the Gular and air sacs, being close to body temperature, are the main contributors to heat and water loss. Surface temperature can be affected by the rate of blood flow to a certain area, and also by the surface area of the", "The common ostrich has no sweat glands, and under heat stress they rely on panting to reduce their body temperature. Panting increases evaporative heat (and water) loss from its respiratory surfaces, therefore forcing air and heat removal without the loss of metabolic salts. Panting allows the common ostrich to have a very effective respiratory evaporative water loss (REWL). Heat dissipated by respiratory evaporation increases linearly with ambient temperature, matching the rate of heat production. As a result of panting the common ostrich should eventually experience alkalosis. However, The CO concentration in the blood does not change when hot ambient temperatures are experienced. This effect is caused by a lung surface shunt. The lung is not completely shunted, allowing enough oxygen to fulfill the bird's metabolic needs. The common ostrich utilizes gular fluttering, rapid rhythmic contraction and relaxation of throat muscles, in a similar way", "Common ostriches are able to attain their necessary energetic requirements via the oxidation of absorbed nutrients. Much of the metabolic rate in animals is dependent upon their allometry, the relationship between body size to shape, anatomy, physiology and behavior of an animal. Hence, it is plausible to state that metabolic rate in animals with larger masses is greater than animals with a smaller mass. When a bird is inactive, unfed, and the ambient temperature (i.e. in the thermo-neutral zone) is high, the energy expended is at its minimum. This level of expenditure is better known as the basal metabolic rate (BMR), and can be calculated by measuring the amount of oxygen consumed during various activities. Therefore, in common ostriches we see use of more energy when compared to smaller birds in absolute terms, but less per unit mass. A key point when looking at the common ostrich metabolism is to note that", "The wild common ostrich population has declined drastically in the last 200 years, with most surviving birds in reserves or on farms. However, its range remains very large (), leading the IUCN and BirdLife International", "Common ostriches have inspired cultures and civilizations for 5,000 years in Mesopotamia and Egypt. A statue of Arsinoe II of Egypt riding a common ostrich was found in a tomb in Egypt. Hunter-gatherers in the Kalahari use ostrich eggshells as water containers, punching a hole in them. They also produce jewelry from it. The presence of such eggshells with engraved hatched symbols dating from the Howiesons Poort period of the Middle Stone Age at Diepkloof Rock Shelter in South Africa suggests common ostriches were an important part of human life as early as 60,000 BP. In Eastern Christianity it is common to hang decorated common ostrich eggs on the chains holding the oil lamps. The initial reason was probably to prevent mice and rats from climbing down the chain to eat the oil. Another, symbolical explanation is based in the fictitious tradition that female common ostriches do not sit on their eggs, but stare at them incessantly until they hatch out, because if they stop staring even for a second the egg will addle. This is equated to the obligation of the Christian to direct his entire attention towards God during prayer, lest the prayer be fruitless.", "In Roman times, there was a demand for common ostriches to use in \"venatio\" games or cooking. They have been hunted and farmed for their feathers, which at various times have been popular for ornamentation in fashionable clothing (such as hats during the 19th century). Their skins are valued for their leather. In the 18th century they were almost hunted to extinction; farming for feathers began in the 19th century. At the start of the 20th century there were over 700,000 birds in captivity. The market for feathers collapsed after World War I, but commercial farming for feathers and later for skins and meat became widespread during the 1970s. Common ostriches are so", "Common ostriches typically avoid humans in the wild, since they correctly assess humans as potential predators. If approached, they often run away, but sometimes ostriches can be very aggressive when threatened, especially if cornered, and may also attack if they feel the need to defend their territories or offspring. Similar behaviors are noted in captive or domesticated common ostriches, which retain", "In some countries, people race each other on the backs of common ostriches. The practice is common in Africa and is relatively unusual elsewhere. The common ostriches are ridden in the same way as horses with special saddles, reins, and bits. However, they are harder to manage than horses. The racing is also a part of modern South African culture. Within" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Formation.", "Baccara (1977–1981).", "Split." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Mayte Mateos graduated as a teacher from the Royal Spanish Academy for Arts, Drama and Dance in Madrid and then joined Spanish Television's Ballet Company. While there she met fellow performer María Mendiola. In 1976 the two women formed a singing and dancing duo (using the title \"Venus\") and left the Ballet Company. Initially the duo's act was simply that of variety show dancers. Their first television appearance was on the Palmarés light entertainment programme and they were engaged at a nightclub in the Aragon city of Zaragoza, but their contract was cancelled when the club manager decided that they were \"too elegant\" for the style of show. Mateos and Mendiola relocated to the Canary Islands in search of work. Here they found that there was an audience for the performance of traditional Spanish music and dance in a form that was adapted to suit international tastes. The duo were spotted by Leon Deane, manager of the German subsidiary of record company RCA, whilst performing flamenco dance and traditional Spanish songs for tourists (mostly German) in the Tres Islas Hotel on the island of Fuerteventura. He invited them to Hamburg in order for them to meet the 30‐year‐old Dutch producer/composer Rolf Soja. Soja was the prime mover behind what became Baccara. He developed their stage performance and recruited their instrumental support. Mateos and Mendiola were retitled Baccara, after the name of the black rose, in reference to the women's dark Spanish appearance. Soja is generally credited with the Baccara formula—consisting of breathy lyrics, lush backing, a disco beat and the striking image of two women (Mateos dressed in black, Mendiola in white) dancing. While drawing lightly on Spanish flamenco song and dance tradition, the formula was very much rooted in 1970s disco music. Soja's song arrangements generally used Mateos as the lead singer while Mendiola contributed backing and refrains.", "Together with fellow writer Frank Dostal, Soja penned their début single \"Yes Sir, I Can Boogie\" and most of their other 1970s hits. Recorded in the Netherlands and released in 1977, \"Yes Sir, I Can Boogie\" was an enormous pan-European hit and was a prime example of the phenomenon that is known as the \"summer hit\". It is also an example of the Euro disco genre, described in \"The Independent\" newspaper in 1999 as follows : This mind-bending Common Market melding of foreign accents, bad diction, bizarre arrangements and lightweight production, usually top-heavy with strings \"Yes Sir,...\" reached the top of the charts in Germany, the Netherlands, the UK, Sweden, Belgium, and Switzerland, and number three in France. Baccara sold more than 16 million copies of \"Yes Sir, I Can Boogie\" and featured in the 1977 edition of the \"Guinness Book of Records\" as the highest-selling female musical duo to date. They were the first female duo to reach number one in the UK, and had the only number one by a Spanish artist in the UK until Julio Iglesias, four years later. Later that year, a self-titled album, written and produced by Soja and Dostal, was released. The album Baccara was the first platinum selling album - actually double platinum in 1978 - by a foreign group in Finland. In 2013, the album still remains the 6th biggest selling album of all time in Finland. A follow-up single, \"Sorry, I'm a Lady\", was also an international hit, peaking at the top of the charts in Germany, the Netherlands and Belgium and reaching the top ten in the UK, Sweden and Switzerland. Most of Baccara's recordings were sung in English although they also recorded in Spanish, German and French. They recorded different language versions of some songs (see Discography below). Touring in Europe during the late 1970s helped the duo establish a firm fan base in Germany (where their records continued to be produced) and the Scandinavian countries, and their Spanish-flavoured interpretation of the disco sound also brought them recognition in Japan and Russia. Baccara represented West Germany at the eighth \"World Popular Song Festival\" held in November 1977 – until it ended in 1989 the largest such contest in the world. Their song, \"Mad in Madrid\", came 14th out of 37 participating countries. In 1978 the second Baccara album, \"Light My Fire\", was released across Europe, and whilst not matching the international success of the first, it spawned the single \"Parlez-vous français?\" which was selected as Luxembourg's entry in that year's \"Eurovision Song Contest\". Despite full marks from Italy, Portugal and Spain the duo finished in 7th place. However high sales, particularly in Denmark, Sweden and Belgium, meant that the single was a commercial success. Further recognition came in 1978 when Baccara was granted Germany's most prestigious media award, \"Burda Publishing Group's Bambi\" prize. This is offered annually to \"celebrities whose abilities have impressed, moved and enthused the people in Germany\". The duo made regular television appearances, becoming weekly guests on Sacha Distel's show in the UK, and on \"Musikladen\" in Germany. 1978 was the high point of Baccara's artistic and commercial success. Late that year the duo released the single \"The Devil Sent You to Laredo\" with \"Somewhere in Paradise\" as its B side. Both of these Baccara recordings have become iconic. \"Somewhere in Paradise\" (with its allusions to life after death) is regularly played by Christian radio stations while \"The Devil...\" (with its background pistol shots) is sometimes identified with the gay community. A Spanish-language version of \"The Devil...\" (\"El diablo te mandó a Laredo\") was released at the same time as the English one, and both the original English version and \"Somewhere in Paradise\" subsequently featured on the duo's first \"greatest hits\" compilation, \"The Hits of Baccara\", released under the name \"Los Éxitos de Baccara\" in Spain and South America. In 1979, the album \"Colours\" and the separately-recorded single \"Eins plus eins ist eins\", released to mark the United Nations' International Year of the Child and celebrate the 20th anniversary of the UN adoption of the Declaration of the Rights of the Child. Although still successful, sales of these and other releases in 1979 were disappointing. Baccara's fourth and final album (in the band's original incarnation) was \"Bad Boys\", released in 1981. By this time, the disco sound had been overshadowed by newer music movements (such as punk, new wave and synthpop) in much of Europe and interest was largely confined to those countries where the duo had an established fan base, notably Germany. The album was not released in the UK or US; they never achieved any recognition in the US despite some of their songs being given significant airplay. One music critic suggested that the Baccara formula lacked artistic depth but had been \"mined for all it was worth\" over two years until public interest moved on to other things. The same critic also drew attention to an element of \"anti-feminist subservience\" in the lyrics of some Baccara songs. The \"New Musical Express\" commented in May 2002: \"Think what you like about Baccara, seen today their 1978 Eurovision performance has a certain style while their competition from that event looks dated and amateurish\".", "The 1980 single release of \"Sleepy-Time-Toy\" led to a disagreement within Baccara over the vocal mix used. Mendiola complained that her voice was not given sufficient prominence in the song's arrangement and sued RCA for breach of contract. Mendiola's case was that the song should not have been released as a Baccara recording when it amounted to a Mateos solo. A court hearing in Munich resulted in 250,000 records being recalled from dealers and a revised recording with a new vocal mix being issued in place of the original. A twenty eight second instrumental bridge was removed from the start of the recording (thereby reducing the play time from 6:12 to 5:44) and the vocals were remixed so as to give Mendiola and Mateos equal prominence. The artwork for the single's cover appears to have remained unchanged. The single failed to chart successfully (see Discography below). As a result of the dispute, relationships between all parties involved were damaged. One consequence of this was that Soja and Dostal were not involved with Baccara's final album. The duo recorded \"Bad Boys\" with Bruce Baxter and Graham Sacher in the UK. Neither the album nor its spin-off single \"Colorado\" were successful. In 1981, after RCA declined to renew their contract, Mateos and Mendiola ended their professional partnership and both launched solo careers. By 1988, both artists had released a series of singles and one studio album each of their own – Mendiola with \"Born Again\" and Mateos with \"Spanish Dreams\" under the name Mayte Mathée — which saw moderate success amongst Baccara's original fan base. Mateos' \"Spanish Dreams\" was re-released on CD in Germany in the 2000s under the title \"Noche Latina\" but Mendiola's \"Born Again\" still remains unreleased in digital format. However, there remained a demand for Baccara's music, particularly on the European television circuit, and by the end of the decade both Mateos and Mendiola had formed their own versions of Baccara with new singing partners. Despite a series of name and line-up changes, both Baccara duos continue to perform around Europe and have released new albums. Both have also made re-recordings of their hits for various minor record labels, which are regularly re-packaged and re-issued under the original \"Baccara\" name, occasionally with photos of the original duo, Mateos and Mendiola, on the album covers. However, the original song versions - those recorded between 1977 and 1981 - remain the property of Sony Music Entertainment, which now holds the rights to the RCA back catalogue. On the occasion of Baccara's 30th Anniversary, Sony-BMG Germany released a very complete 3 CD box set on 31 August 2007. This collection includes 50 RCA original recordings. Several songs such as \"Mad in Madrid\", \"Amoureux\", \"Baila tú\", \"En el año 2000\", \"Eins plus eins ist eins\" and \"Candido\" made their debut on CD. The only tracks missing from this otherwise comprehensive career retrospective are the US 12\" versions of \"Yes Sir, I Can Boogie\" and \"Sorry, I'm a Lady\" from debut album \"Baccara\", the full 12 minute album version of \"Baby, Why Don't You Reach Out?\"/\"Light My Fire\" and the extended album version of \"Darling\" from 1978's \"Light My Fire\" and the extended 12\" versions of \"Body-Talk\" and \"By 1999\" from 1979's \"Colours\". After the split, Mateos and Mendiola never performed together again. However, the two women remained on friendly terms. When Mateos married in Stockholm in 1982, Mendiola attended the wedding as a guest. There Mendiola met a fellow guest who she subsequently married and with whom she had two sons. Mateos's marriage failed and in 2010 she was living in Hamburg, where she worked as a dance instructor when not touring with her own revived version of Baccara. In 2010 Mendiola was living in Madrid and still performing as a singer. Mayte Mateos' Baccara (1983–present) Following the original Baccara's dissolution in 1981 Mayte Mateos released three solo singles through the RCA-Victor label, \"Souvenirs from Paradise\", \"Recuerdos del ayer\" and \"Malaguena\", the first two produced by Rolf Soja. Re-forming as Baccara in 1983 with Marisa Pérez, a contemporary of Mateos and Mendiola at the Spanish TV ballet company, Mateos re-established the band on the European entertainment circuit. Pérez was followed by a succession of partners including Ángela Muro, Sole García, Jane Comerford, Carmen, Cristina Sevilla, Paloma Blanco, Isabel Patton, Romy Abradelo, Rose, Francesca Rodrigues and María Marín. Mateos' current singing partner is once again fellow Spaniard Paloma Blanco. Although having no new hits to their name, Mateos' Baccara have remained in demand for television and live performances, performing the band's extensive back catalogue — versions of which have been released as compilations — as well as up-tempo interpretations of traditional Spanish songs. In 1999, Mateos and Cristina Sevilla released a new studio album through RCA-Victor/Sony-BMG, \"Baccara 2000\", as well as an updated dance version of breakthrough hit \"Yes Sir, I Can Boogie\" as a single. In 2004, Mayte Mateos was once again involved with Eurovision, when she took part (along with Cristina Sevilla) in the Swedish \"Melodifestivalen\" preselection contest to represent Sweden with the song \"Soy tu Venus\". However, Baccara lost out to local star Lena Philipsson, who eventually placed 5th in the competition. A full-length studio album recorded in Sweden, \"Soy tu Venus\", followed. A new Baccara album with Mayte Mateos and Paloma Blanco, entitled \"Satin...In Black & White\" and produced by the original Baccara team Rolf Soja and Frank Dostal, was released on 30 May 2008. This album contained remakes of original Baccara recordings from the late 1970s and some new songs. Although appreciated by Baccara fans, sales of the album were disappointing. In 2013 Mayte appears on vocals in the cover version of Yes Sir I Can Boogie by the indie rock band, based in London, Sala & The Strange Sound. Maria Mendiola's Baccara (1985–present) Initially called \"New Baccara\" to distinguish it from Mayte Mateos' re-formed \"Baccara\", Mendiola teamed up with vocalist Marisa Pérez and in 1987 reached the top five in Spain and top 40 in Germany with the single \"Call Me Up\", written by Ian Cussick. 1988 saw the duo release a series of euro-influenced Hi-NRG dance tracks on the \"Bellaphon\" recording label. \"Call Me Up\", \"Fantasy Boy\" and \"Touch Me\" were produced by Luis Rodríguez, and were big club hits across Europe. A version of Bette Midler's \"Wind Beneath My Wings\", released on the \"Loading Bay\" label in the late 1990s, was also a hit in UK clubs. Towards the end of the decade \"New Baccara\" was renamed back to \"Baccara\", and releases continued, although the group did not chart as their output was directed towards the club scene with singles pressed in strictly limited quantities. Mendiola and Pérez were stars of the UK 2000 tour and appeared at Wembley, London with various other music groups. In 2004, they appeared on British reality show \"Hit Me Baby One More Time\". In August 2005, Mendiola and Pérez were honoured with a memorial on Vienna's \"Musical Mile\", along its Hollywood-style \"Walk of the Stars\". In late 2008 Marisa Pérez was diagnosed with acute polyarthritis. It was agreed that until Pérez recovered, her place at Baccara live performances would be taken by Mendiola's niece Laura Mendiola. This measure (stated to be temporary) allowed Mendiola's Baccara to honour its outstanding commitments over the period Pérez needed to recover. Marisa Pérez left the Band shortly afterwards and Maria Mendiola has been performing with Cristina Sevilla since then. In 2016 they released a new version of \"Yes Sir, I Can Boogie\" with the band Plugin. In 2017 they release \"I Belong To Your Heart\" produced by Luis Rodríguez with 11 brand new songs plus \"I Belong To Your Heart\" extended and a new \"Fantasy Boy\" version." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life and career.", "Early life.", "Brno.", "Defection.", "Chicago, Covent Garden and Munich.", "Last years.", "Compositions.", "Selected recordings." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Kubelík was born in Býchory, Bohemia, Austria-Hungary, today's Czech Republic, the day after Archduke Ferdinand's assassination that triggered the First World War. He was the sixth child of the Bohemian violinist Jan Kubelík, whom the younger Kubelík described as \"a kind of god to me\". His mother was a Hungarian countess, Anna Julie Marie Széll von Bessenyö. Kubelík studied the violin with his father, and entered the Prague Conservatory at the age of 14, studying violin, piano, composition, and conducting. He graduated from the conservatory in 1933, at the age of 19; at his graduation concert he played a Paganini concerto and a composition of his own for violin and orchestra. Kubelík was also an accomplished pianist, and served as his father's accompanist on a tour of the United States in 1935.", "In 1939, Kubelík became music director of the Brno Opera, a position he held until the Nazis shut the company down in November 1941. The Nazis allowed the Czech Philharmonic to continue operating; Kubelík, who had first conducted the orchestra when he was 19, became its principal conductor. In 1943 he married the Czech violinist Ludmilla Bertlová, with whom he had one son. In 1944, after various incidents, including one in which he declined to greet the Nazi Reichsprotektor Karl Hermann Frank with a Hitler salute, along with his refusal to conduct Wagner during the War, Kubelík \"deemed it advisable to disappear from Prague and to spend a few months undercover in the countryside so as not to fall into the clutches of the SS or Gestapo\". Kubelík conducted the orchestra's first post-war concert in May 1945. In 1946, he helped found the Prague Spring Festival, and conducted its opening concert.", "After the Communist coup of February 1948, Kubelík left Czechoslovakia, vowing not to return until the country was liberated. \"I had lived through one form of bestial tyranny, Nazism,\" he told an interviewer, \"As a matter of principle I was not going to live through another.\" He defected during a trip to Britain, where he had flown to conduct Mozart's \"Don Giovanni\" with the Glyndebourne company at the Edinburgh Festival. He had been engaged on the recommendation of Bruno Walter, whom Kubelík had assisted in this work at the 1937 Salzburg Festival. Kubelík told his wife of his decision to defect as their plane left Czechoslovakia. In 1953, the Communist government convicted the couple \"in absentia\" of \"taking illicit leave\" abroad. In 1956, the regime invited him back \"with promises of freedom to do anything I wanted,\" said Kubelík, but he refused the invitation. In a 1957 letter to \"The Times\", Kubelík said he would seriously consider returning only when all the country's political prisoners were freed and all émigrés were given as much freedom as he would have possessed. He was invited back by the regime in 1966 but again refused; in 1968, after the Prague Spring had been ended by the Soviet invasion, he organised an international boycott, in which many of the major classical artists of the West participated.", "In 1950, Kubelík became music director of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra, choosing the position over an offer from the BBC to succeed Sir Adrian Boult as chief conductor of the BBC Symphony Orchestra. He left the post in 1953. Some hold that he was \"hounded out of the [Chicago] job\" (to quote \"Time magazine\") by the \"savage attacks\" (to quote the New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians) of the \"Chicago Tribune\" music critic Claudia Cassidy. But \"Chicago Sun-Times\" music critic Robert C. Marsh argued in 1972 that it was the Chicago Symphony trustees who were behind the departure. Their foremost complaint, and that of Cassidy as well, was that Kubelík introduced too many contemporary works (about 70) to the orchestra; there were also objections to his demanding exhaustive rehearsals and engaging several black artists. Many recordings made by Kubelík in Chicago for Mercury Records are available on CD, and have received critical praise. After leaving Chicago, Kubelík toured the US with the Concertgebouw Orchestra, and, in the words of Lionel Salter in the Grove Dictionary, \"had a brilliant success with Janáček's Kát'a Kabanová at Sadler's Wells in London in 1954\". Kubelík became musical director of The Royal Opera, Covent Garden, from 1955 to 1958. Among his achievements there was, in 1957, the first practically complete production in any opera house of Berlioz's \"Les Troyens\". Although Covent Garden sought to renew his contract, he chose to leave, partly because of a campaign by Sir Thomas Beecham against the engagement of foreign artists at Covent Garden. In 1961 Kubelík accepted the position of music director of the Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra (BRSO) in Munich. He remained with the BRSO until 1979, when he retired. Salter considers this 18-year association the high point of Kubelík's career, both artistically and professionally. In 1961 Ludmilla Kubelík died after a car crash. Also in 1961, he premiered the concerto performance version of Schoenberg's Jakobsleiter-Fragment in Vienna, with the Cologne Radio Symphony Orchestra and choir. In 1963 Kubelík married the Australian soprano Elsie Morison (1924-2016). In 1967 he became a Swiss citizen, and began an association with the Lucerne Festival, in addition to his work with the BRSO. In 1971, Göran Gentele, the new general manager of the Metropolitan Opera, New York, asked Kubelík to accept the position of music director. Kubelík accepted partly because of his strong artistic relationship with Gentele. The first production he conducted as the Met's music director was \"Les Troyens\". The death of Gentele in a road accident in 1972 undermined Kubelík's reasons for working at the opera house. He had prior conducting commitments away from the Met in his first season there, which diverted his attention. He resigned from the Met in 1974, after only six months in the post. In his post-Czechoslovakian career, Kubelík worked with the Berlin Philharmonic, Boston Symphony, Chicago Symphony, Cleveland, Israel Philharmonic, London Symphony, New York Philharmonic, Vienna Philharmonic and Royal Concertgebouw orchestras, among others. His final concert was with the Czech Philharmonic.", "In 1985, ill-health (notably severe arthritis in his back) caused Kubelík to retire from full-time conducting, but the fall of Communism in his native land led him to accept a 1990 invitation to return to conduct the Czech Philharmonic at the festival he had founded, the Prague Spring Festival. He recorded Smetana's \"Má Vlast\" live with the Czech Philharmonic for Supraphon, his fifth recording of the piece. He also recorded the Mozart \"Prague\" Symphony and Dvořák's \"New World\" Symphony at the festival. During the rehearsal of the \"New World,\" he told the Czech Philharmonic, \"It is my joy to hear this. I always wanted it to sound like this but never really found it with any other orchestra in the world. That eighth [note] is great!\" On October 18, 1991, Kubelík shared the podium with Sir Georg Solti and Daniel Barenboim and the Chicago Symphony Orchestra in a performance that re-created the orchestra's inaugural October 16 and 17, 1891, concerts. Kubelík led the final work on the program: Antonín Dvořák's \"Husitská\" Overture. Kubelík died in 1996, aged 82, in Kastanienbaum, in the Canton of Lucerne, Switzerland. His ashes are interred next to the grave of his father in Slavín, Vyšehrad cemetery in Prague.", "Among Kubelík's compositions are five operas, three symphonies, three settings of the requiem, other choral works, many pieces of chamber music, and songs. Salter describes his musical style as \"neo-romantic\".", "Kubelík recorded a large repertory, in many cases more than once per work. There are two complete recordings of his traversals of three major symphony cycles - those of Brahms, Schumann, and Beethoven. When Kubelík recorded his first complete Beethoven symphony cycle for Deutsche Grammophon, he employed nine different orchestras, one for each symphony. His complete cycle of Mahler's symphonies (recorded from 1967 to 1971 with the Bavarian Radio Symphony Orchestra) is highly regarded. Of his Mahler, Daniel Barenboim remarked, \"I often thought I was missing something in Mahler until I listened to Kubelík. There is a lot more to be discovered in these pieces than just a generalized form of extrovert excitement. That is what Kubelík showed.\" Kubelík also left much-admired recordings of operas by Verdi (his \"Rigoletto\" was recorded at La Scala with Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau), Mozart, Janáček, Dvořák and others, including Wagner, whose music he had shunned during the war, but which he conducted in later years. His recordings of Die Meistersinger and Parsifal have been ranked the top choice by many critics, including BBC Radio 3's Building a Library programme. Kubelík's complete discography is enormous, with music ranging from Malcolm Arnold to Jan Dismas Zelenka, with recordings both in the studio and in concert. In addition to complete cycles of Beethoven, Brahms, Dvořák, and Mahler, Kubelík made recordings of orchestral and operatic works by Bach, Mozart, Haydn, Tchaikovsky, Berlioz, Wagner, Verdi and many others, including modern composers. In May 2018, Deutsche Grammophon released a 66-disc box-set of his complete recordings for the label." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Prehistoric.", "Babylonian.", "Egyptian.", "Greek.", "Roman.", "Chinese.", "Indian.", "Islamic empire.", "Maya.", "Medieval European.", "Renaissance.", "Mathematics during the Scientific Revolution.", "17th century.", "18th century.", "Modern.", "19th century.", "20th century.", "21st century.", "Future." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The origins of mathematical thought lie in the concepts of number, magnitude, and form. Modern studies of animal cognition have shown that these concepts are not unique to humans. Such concepts would have been part of everyday life in hunter-gatherer societies. The idea of the \"number\" concept evolving gradually over time is supported by the existence of languages which preserve the distinction between \"one\", \"two\", and \"many\", but not of numbers larger than two. Prehistoric artifacts discovered in Africa, dated 20,000 years old or more suggest early attempts to quantify time. The Ishango bone, found near the headwaters of the Nile river (northeastern Congo), may be more than 20,000 years old and consists of a series of marks carved in three columns running the length of the bone. Common interpretations are that", "Babylonian mathematics refers to any mathematics of the peoples of Mesopotamia (modern Iraq) from the days of the early Sumerians through the Hellenistic period almost to the dawn of Christianity. The majority of Babylonian mathematical work comes from two widely separated periods: The first few hundred years of the second millennium BC (Old Babylonian period), and the last few centuries of the first millennium BC (Seleucid period). It is named Babylonian mathematics due to the central role of Babylon as a place of study. Later under the Arab Empire, Mesopotamia, especially Baghdad, once again became an important center of study for Islamic mathematics. In contrast to the sparsity of sources in Egyptian mathematics, our knowledge of Babylonian mathematics is derived from more than 400 clay tablets unearthed since the 1850s. Written in Cuneiform script, tablets were inscribed whilst the clay was moist, and baked hard in an oven or by the heat of the sun. Some of these appear to be graded homework. The earliest evidence of written mathematics dates back to the ancient Sumerians, who built the earliest civilization in Mesopotamia. They developed a complex system of metrology from 3000 BC. From around 2500 BC onwards, the Sumerians wrote multiplication tables on clay tablets and dealt with geometrical exercises and division problems. The earliest traces of the Babylonian numerals also date back to this period. Babylonian mathematics were written using a sexagesimal (base-60)", "Egyptian mathematics refers to mathematics written in the Egyptian language. From the Hellenistic period, Greek replaced Egyptian as the written language of Egyptian scholars. Mathematical study in Egypt later continued under the Arab Empire as part of Islamic mathematics, when Arabic became the written language of Egyptian scholars. The most extensive Egyptian mathematical text is the Rhind papyrus (sometimes also called the Ahmes Papyrus after its author), dated to c. 1650 BC but likely a copy of an older document from the Middle Kingdom of about 2000–1800 BC. It is an instruction manual for students in arithmetic and geometry.", "Greek mathematics refers to the mathematics written in the Greek language from the time of Thales of Miletus (~600 BC) to the closure of the Academy of Athens in 529 AD. Greek mathematicians lived in cities spread over the entire Eastern Mediterranean, from Italy to North Africa, but were united by culture and language. Greek mathematics of the period following Alexander the Great is sometimes called Hellenistic mathematics. Greek mathematics was much more sophisticated than the mathematics that had been developed by earlier cultures. All surviving records of pre-Greek mathematics show the use of inductive reasoning, that is, repeated observations used to establish rules of thumb. Greek mathematicians, by contrast, used deductive reasoning. The Greeks used logic to derive conclusions from definitions and axioms, and used mathematical rigor to prove them. Greek mathematics is thought to have begun with Thales of Miletus (c. 624–c.546 BC) and Pythagoras of Samos (c. 582–c. 507 BC). Although the extent of the influence is disputed, they were probably inspired by Egyptian and Babylonian mathematics. According to legend, Pythagoras traveled to Egypt to learn mathematics, geometry, and astronomy from Egyptian priests. Thales used geometry to solve problems such as calculating the height of pyramids and the distance of ships from the shore. He is credited with the first use of deductive reasoning applied to geometry, by deriving four corollaries to Thales' Theorem. As a result, he has been hailed as the first true mathematician and the first known individual to whom a mathematical discovery has been attributed. Pythagoras established the Pythagorean School, whose doctrine it was that mathematics ruled the universe and whose motto was \"All is number\". It was the Pythagoreans who coined the term \"mathematics\", and with whom the study of mathematics for its own sake begins. The Pythagoreans are credited with the first proof of the Pythagorean theorem, though the statement of the theorem has a long history, and with the proof of the existence of irrational numbers. Although he was preceded by the Babylonians and the Chinese, the Neopythagorean mathematician Nicomachus (60–120 AD) provided one of the earliest Greco-Roman multiplication tables, whereas the oldest extant Greek multiplication table is found on a wax tablet dated to the 1st century AD (now found in the British Museum). The association of the Neopythagoreans with the Western invention of the multiplication table is evident in its later Medieval name: the \"mensa Pythagorica\". Plato (428/427 BC – 348/347 BC) is important in the history of mathematics for inspiring and guiding others. His Platonic Academy, in Athens, became the mathematical center of the world in the 4th century BC, and it was from this school that the leading mathematicians of the day, such as Eudoxus of Cnidus, came. Plato also discussed the foundations of mathematics, clarified some of the definitions (e.g. that of a line as \"breadthless length\"), and reorganized the assumptions. The analytic method is ascribed to Plato, while a formula for obtaining Pythagorean triples bears his name. Eudoxus (408–c. 355 BC) developed the method of exhaustion, a precursor of modern integration and a theory of ratios that avoided the problem of incommensurable magnitudes. The former allowed the calculations of areas and volumes of curvilinear figures, while the latter enabled subsequent geometers to make significant advances in geometry. Though he made no specific technical mathematical discoveries, Aristotle (384–c. 322 BC) contributed significantly to the development of mathematics by laying the foundations of logic. In the 3rd century BC, the premier center of mathematical education and research was the Musaeum of Alexandria. It was there that Euclid (c. 300 BC) taught, and wrote the \"Elements\", widely considered the most successful and influential textbook of all time. The \"Elements\" introduced mathematical rigor through the axiomatic method and is the earliest example of the format still used in mathematics today, that of definition, axiom, theorem, and proof. Although most of the contents of the \"Elements\" were already known, Euclid arranged them into a single, coherent logical framework. The \"Elements\" was known to all educated people in the West up", "Although ethnic Greek mathematicians continued under the rule of the late Roman Republic and subsequent Roman Empire, there were no noteworthy native Latin mathematicians in comparison. Ancient Romans such as Cicero (106–43 BC), an influential Roman statesman who studied mathematics in Greece, believed that Roman surveyors and calculators were far more interested in applied mathematics than the theoretical mathematics and geometry that were prized by the Greeks. It is unclear if the Romans first derived their numerical system directly from the Greek precedent or from Etruscan numerals used by the Etruscan civilization centered in what is now Tuscany, central Italy. Using calculation, Romans were adept at both instigating and detecting financial fraud, as well as managing taxes for the treasury. Siculus Flaccus, one of the Roman \"gromatici\" (i.e. land surveyor), wrote the \"Categories of Fields\", which aided Roman surveyors in measuring the surface areas of allotted lands and territories. Aside from managing trade and taxes, the Romans also regularly applied mathematics to solve problems in engineering, including the erection of architecture such as bridges, road-building, and preparation for military campaigns. Arts and crafts such as Roman mosaics, inspired by previous Greek designs, created illusionist geometric patterns and rich, detailed scenes that required precise measurements for each tessera", "An analysis of early Chinese mathematics has demonstrated its unique development compared to other parts of the world, leading scholars to assume an entirely independent development. The oldest extant mathematical text from China is the \"Zhoubi Suanjing\", variously dated to between 1200 BC and 100 BC, though a date of about 300 BC during the Warring States Period appears reasonable. However, the Tsinghua Bamboo Slips, containing the earliest known decimal multiplication table (although ancient Babylonians had ones with a base of 60), is dated around 305 BC and is perhaps the oldest surviving mathematical text of China. Of particular note is the use in Chinese mathematics of a decimal positional notation system, the so-called \"rod numerals\" in which distinct ciphers were used for numbers between 1 and 10, and additional ciphers for powers of ten. Thus, the number 123 would be written using the symbol for \"1\", followed by the symbol for \"100\", then the symbol for \"2\" followed by the symbol for \"10\", followed by the symbol for \"3\". This was the most advanced number system in the world at the time, apparently in use several centuries before the common era and well before the development of the Indian numeral system. Rod numerals allowed the representation of numbers as large as desired and allowed calculations to be carried out on the \"suan pan\", or Chinese abacus. The date of the invention of the \"suan pan\" is not certain, but the earliest written mention dates from AD 190, in Xu Yue's \"Supplementary Notes on the Art of Figures\". The oldest existent work on geometry in China comes from the philosophical Mohist canon c. 330 BC, compiled by the followers of Mozi (470–390 BC). The \"Mo Jing\" described various aspects of many fields associated with physical science, and provided a small number of geometrical theorems as well. It also defined the concepts of circumference, diameter, radius, and volume. In 212 BC, the Emperor Qin Shi Huang commanded all books in the Qin Empire other than officially sanctioned ones be burned. This decree was not universally obeyed, but as a consequence of this order little is known about ancient Chinese mathematics before this date.", "The earliest civilization on the Indian subcontinent is the Indus Valley Civilization (mature phase: 2600 to 1900 BC) that flourished in the Indus river basin. Their cities were laid out with geometric regularity, but no known mathematical documents survive from this civilization. The oldest extant mathematical records from India are the Sulba Sutras (dated variously between the 8th century BC and the 2nd century AD), appendices to religious texts which give simple rules for constructing altars of various shapes, such as squares, rectangles, parallelograms, and others. As with Egypt, the preoccupation with temple functions points to an origin of mathematics in religious ritual. The Sulba Sutras give methods for constructing a circle with approximately the same area as a given square, which imply several different approximations of the value of π. In addition, they compute the square root of 2 to several decimal places, list Pythagorean triples, and give a statement of the Pythagorean theorem. All of these results are present in Babylonian mathematics, indicating Mesopotamian influence. It is not known to what extent the Sulba Sutras influenced later Indian mathematicians. As in China, there is a lack of continuity in Indian mathematics; significant advances are separated by long periods of inactivity. Pāṇini (c. 5th century BC) formulated the rules for Sanskrit grammar. His notation was similar to modern mathematical notation, and used metarules, transformations, and recursion. Pingala (roughly 3rd–1st centuries BC) in his treatise of prosody uses a device corresponding to a binary numeral system. His discussion of the combinatorics of meters corresponds to an elementary version of the binomial theorem. Pingala's work also contains the basic ideas of Fibonacci numbers (called \"mātrāmeru\"). The next significant mathematical documents from India after the \"Sulba Sutras\" are the \"Siddhantas\", astronomical treatises from the 4th", "The Islamic Empire established across Persia, the Middle East, Central Asia, North Africa, Iberia, and in parts of India in the 8th century made significant contributions towards mathematics. Although most Islamic texts on mathematics were written in Arabic, most of them were not written by Arabs, since much like the status of Greek in the Hellenistic world, Arabic was used as the written language of non-Arab scholars throughout the Islamic world at the time. Persians contributed to the world of Mathematics alongside Arabs. In the 9th century, the Persian mathematician Muḥammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī wrote several important books on the Hindu–Arabic numerals and on methods for solving equations. His book \"On the Calculation with Hindu Numerals\", written about 825, along with the work of Al-Kindi, were instrumental in spreading Indian mathematics and Indian numerals to the West. The word \"algorithm\" is derived from the Latinization of his name, Algoritmi, and the word \"algebra\" from the title of one of his works, \"Al-Kitāb al-mukhtaṣar fī hīsāb al-ğabr wa’l-muqābala\" (\"The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing\"). He gave an exhaustive explanation for the algebraic solution of quadratic equations with positive roots, and he was the first to teach algebra in an elementary form and for its own sake. He also discussed the fundamental method of \"reduction\" and \"balancing\", referring to the transposition of subtracted terms to the other side of an equation, that is, the cancellation of like terms on opposite sides of the equation. This is the operation which al-Khwārizmī originally described as \"al-jabr\". His algebra was also no longer concerned \"with a series of problems to be resolved, but an exposition which starts with primitive terms in which the combinations must give all possible prototypes for equations, which henceforward explicitly constitute the true object of study.\" He also studied an equation for its own sake and \"in a generic manner, insofar as it does not simply emerge in the course of solving a", "In the Pre-Columbian Americas, the Maya civilization that flourished in Mexico and Central America during the 1st millennium AD developed a unique tradition of mathematics that, due to its geographic isolation, was entirely independent of existing European, Egyptian, and Asian mathematics. Maya numerals utilized a base", "Medieval European interest in mathematics was driven by concerns quite different from those of modern mathematicians. One driving element was the belief that mathematics provided the key to understanding the created order of nature, frequently justified by Plato's \"Timaeus\" and the biblical passage (in the \"Book of Wisdom\") that God had \"ordered all things in measure, and number, and weight\". Boethius provided a place for mathematics in the curriculum in the 6th century when he coined the term \"quadrivium\" to describe the study of arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music. He wrote \"De institutione arithmetica\", a free translation from the Greek of Nicomachus's \"Introduction to Arithmetic\"; \"De institutione musica\", also derived from Greek sources; and a series of excerpts from Euclid's \"Elements\". His works were theoretical, rather than practical, and were the basis of mathematical study until the recovery of Greek and Arabic mathematical works. In the 12th century, European scholars traveled to Spain and Sicily seeking scientific Arabic texts, including al-Khwārizmī's \"The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing\", translated into Latin by Robert of Chester, and the complete text of Euclid's \"Elements\", translated in various versions by Adelard of Bath, Herman of Carinthia, and Gerard of Cremona. These and other new sources sparked a renewal of mathematics. Leonardo of Pisa, now known as Fibonacci, serendipitously learned about the Hindu–Arabic numerals on a trip to what is now Béjaïa, Algeria with his merchant father. (Europe was still using Roman numerals.) There, he observed a system of arithmetic (specifically algorism) which due to the positional notation of Hindu–Arabic numerals was", "During the Renaissance, the development of mathematics and of accounting were intertwined. While there is no direct relationship between algebra and accounting, the teaching of the subjects and the books published often intended for the children of merchants who were sent to reckoning schools (in Flanders and Germany) or abacus schools (known as \"abbaco\" in Italy), where they learned the skills useful for trade and commerce. There is probably no need for algebra in performing bookkeeping operations, but for complex bartering operations or the calculation of compound interest, a basic knowledge of arithmetic was mandatory and knowledge of algebra was very useful. Piero della Francesca (c. 1415–1492) wrote books on solid geometry and linear perspective, including \"De Prospectiva Pingendi (On Perspective for Painting)\", \"Trattato d’Abaco (Abacus Treatise)\", and \"De corporibus regularibus (Regular Solids)\". Luca Pacioli's \"Summa de Arithmetica, Geometria, Proportioni et Proportionalità\" (Italian: \"Review of Arithmetic, Geometry, Ratio and Proportion\") was first printed and published in Venice in 1494. It included a 27-page treatise on bookkeeping, \"\"Particularis de Computis et Scripturis\"\" (Italian: \"Details of Calculation and Recording\"). It was written primarily for, and sold mainly to, merchants who used the book as a reference text,", "", "The 17th century saw an unprecedented increase of mathematical and scientific ideas across Europe. Galileo observed the moons of Jupiter in orbit about that planet, using a telescope based on a toy imported from Holland. Tycho Brahe had gathered an enormous quantity of mathematical data describing the positions of the planets in the sky. By his position as Brahe's assistant, Johannes Kepler was first exposed to and seriously interacted with the topic of planetary motion. Kepler's calculations were made simpler by the contemporaneous invention of logarithms by John Napier and Jost Bürgi. Kepler succeeded in formulating mathematical laws of planetary motion. The analytic geometry developed by René Descartes (1596–1650) allowed those orbits to be plotted on a graph, in Cartesian", "The most influential mathematician of the 18th century was arguably Leonhard Euler. His contributions range from founding the study of graph theory with the Seven Bridges of Königsberg problem to standardizing many modern mathematical terms and notations. For example, he named the square root of minus 1 with the symbol \"i\", and he popularized the use of the Greek letter", "", "Throughout the 19th century mathematics became increasingly abstract. Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777–1855) epitomizes this trend. He did revolutionary work on functions of complex variables, in geometry, and on the convergence of series, leaving aside his many contributions to science. He also gave the first satisfactory proofs of the fundamental theorem of algebra and of the quadratic reciprocity law. This century saw the development of the two forms of non-Euclidean geometry, where the parallel postulate of Euclidean geometry no longer holds. The Russian mathematician Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky and his rival, the Hungarian mathematician János Bolyai, independently defined", "The 20th century saw mathematics become a major profession. Every year, thousands of new Ph.D.s in mathematics were awarded, and jobs were available in both teaching and industry. An effort to catalogue the areas and applications of mathematics was undertaken in Klein's encyclopedia. In a 1900 speech to the International Congress of Mathematicians, David Hilbert set out a list of 23 unsolved problems in mathematics. These problems, spanning many areas of mathematics, formed a central focus for much of 20th-century mathematics. Today, 10 have been solved, 7 are partially solved, and 2 are still open. The remaining 4 are too loosely formulated to be stated as solved or not. Notable historical conjectures were finally proven. In 1976, Wolfgang Haken and Kenneth Appel proved the four color theorem, controversial at the time for the use of a computer to do so. Andrew Wiles, building on the work of others, proved Fermat's Last Theorem in 1995. Paul Cohen and Kurt Gödel proved that the continuum hypothesis is independent of (could neither be proved nor disproved", "In 2000, the Clay Mathematics Institute announced the seven Millennium Prize Problems, and in 2003 the Poincaré conjecture was solved by Grigori Perelman (who declined to accept an", "There are many observable trends in mathematics, the most notable being that the subject is growing ever larger, computers are ever more important and powerful, the application of mathematics to bioinformatics is rapidly expanding, and the volume of data being produced by science and industry, facilitated by computers, is explosively expanding." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Economic history.", "Soviet economy.", "Industrialization under Stalin.", "Transition to market economy (1991–98).", "Recovery and growth (1999–2008).", "2009–14.", "2014–present.", "Data.", "Currency and central bank.", "Public policy.", "Fiscal policy.", "National wealth fund.", "Public debt.", "Protectionism.", "Corruption.", "Sectors.", "Primary.", "Energy.", "Mining.", "Forestry.", "Agriculture.", "Industry.", "Defense industry.", "Aerospace.", "Automotive industry.", "Electronics.", "Services.", "Retail.", "Telecommunications.", "Transportation.", "Construction.", "Insurance.", "Information technology.", "Tourism.", "External trade and investment.", "Trade.", "Mergers and acquisitions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "", "Beginning in 1928, the course of the Soviet Union's economy was guided by a series of five-year plans. By the 1950s, the Soviet Union had rapidly evolved from a mainly agrarian society into a major industrial power. By the 1970s the Soviet Union entered the Era of Stagnation. The complex demands of the modern economy and inflexible administration overwhelmed and constrained the central planners. The volume of decisions facing planners in Moscow became overwhelming. The cumbersome procedures for bureaucratic administration foreclosed the free communication and flexible response required at the enterprise level for dealing with worker alienation, innovation, customers, and suppliers. From 1975 to 1985, corruption and data fiddling became common practice among bureaucracy to report satisfied targets and quotas thus entrenching the crisis. Starting in 1986, Mikhail Gorbachev attempted to address economic problems by moving towards a market-oriented socialist economy. Gorbachev's policies of Perestroika failed to rejuvenate the Soviet economy; instead, a process of political and economic disintegration culminated in the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991.", "Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russia had undergone a radical transformation, moving from a centrally planned economy to a globally integrated market economy. Corrupt and haphazard privatization processes turned over major state-owned firms to politically connected \"oligarchs\", which has left equity ownership highly concentrated. Yeltsin's program of radical, market-oriented reform came to be known as a \"shock therapy\". It was based on the policies associated with the Washington Consensus, recommendations of the IMF and a group of top American economists, including Larry Summers. With deep corruption afflicting the process, the result was disastrous, with real GDP falling by more than 40% by 1999, hyperinflation which wiped out personal savings, crime and destitution spreading rapidly. This was accompanied by a drop in the standard of living, including", "Russia bounced back from the August 1998 financial crash with surprising speed. Much of the reason for the recovery was the devaluation of the ruble, which made domestic producers more competitive nationally and internationally. Between 2000 and 2002, there was a significant amount of pro-growth economic reforms including a comprehensive tax reform, which introduced a flat income tax of 13%; and a broad effort at deregulation which improved the situation for small and medium-sized enterprises.", "Russian banks were hit by the global credit crunch in 2008, though no long term damage was done thanks to proactive and timely response by the government and central bank, which shielded the banking system from effects of the global financial crisis. A sharp, but brief recession in Russia was followed by a strong recovery beginning in late 2009. After 16 years of negotiations, Russia's membership to the WTO was accepted in 2011. In 2013, Russia was labeled a high-income economy by the World Bank. Russian leaders repeatedly spoke of the need to diversify the economy away from its dependence on oil and gas and foster a high-technology sector. In 2012 oil, gas and petroleum products accounted for over 70% of total exports. This economic model appeared to show", "Following the annexation of Crimea in March 2014 and Russia's involvement in the ongoing conflict in Ukraine, the United States, the EU (and some other European countries), Canada and Japan imposed sanctions on Russia's financial, energy and defense sectors. This led to the decline of the Russian ruble and sparked fears of a Russian financial crisis. Russia responded with sanctions against a number of countries, including a one-year period of total ban on food imports from the European Union and the United States. As of 2018 it is estimated that Western sanctions may have reduced Russian economy by as much as 6%. According to the Russian economic ministry in July 2014, GDP growth in the first half of 2014 was 1%. The ministry projected growth of 0.5% for 2014. The Russian economy grew by a better than expected 0.6% in 2014.", "The following table shows the main", "The Russian ruble is the unit of currency of the Russian Federation. It is also accepted as legal tender in the partially recognised states of Abkhazia and South Ossetia and the unrecognised Donetsk People's Republic and Lugansk People's Republic. The Russian monetary system is managed by the Bank of Russia. Founded on 13 July 1990 as the State Bank of the RSFSR, Bank of Russia assumed responsibilities of the central bank following the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991. According to the Constitution, Bank of Russia is an independent entity, with the primary responsibility of protecting the stability of the national currency, the ruble. It is also chief regulator and a lender of last resort for the banking industry in Russia. Bank of Russia is governed by a board of directors, headed by a governor who is appointed by the President of Russia. Large current account surpluses caused rapid real appreciation of the ruble between 2000 and 2008. Bank of Russia attempted to combat this trend by aggressively accumulating foreign currency reserves. This was a major contributing cause to relatively high inflation rates during this period.", "", "Russia was expected to have a Government Budget deficit of $21 billion in 2016. The budget deficit narrowed to 0.6% of GDP in 2017 from 2.8% in 2016.", "On 1 January 2004, the Government of Russia established the Stabilization fund of the Russian Federation as a part of the federal budget to balance it if oil price falls. On 1 February 2008 the Stabilization fund was divided into two parts. The first part is a reserve fund equal to 10% of GDP (10% of GDP equals to about $200 billion now), and was to be invested in a similar way as the Stabilization Fund. The second part is the National Prosperity Fund of Russian Federation. Deputy Finance Minister Sergei Storchak estimated it would reach 600–700 billion rubles by 1 February 2008. The National Prosperity Fund is to be invested into more risky instruments, including the shares of foreign companies.", "Russia has very low debt-to-GDP ratio, it is among the lowest ratios in the world. Most of its external debt", "Russia is one of the leading nations for protectionist policies. According to the independent Global Trade Alert, Russia put significant protectionist policies in place. Russia's strategic trade bloc consisting of Russia, Belarus, and Kazakhstan is", "Starting from Putin's second term, very few corruption cases have been the subject of outrage. Putin's system is remarkable for its ubiquitous and open merging of the civil service and business, as well as its use of relatives, friends, and acquaintances to benefit from budgetary expenditures and take over state property. Corporate, property, and land raiding is commonplace. Corruption in Russia is perceived as a significant problem impacting all aspects of life, including public administration, law enforcement, healthcare and education. The phenomenon of corruption is strongly established in the historical model of public governance in Russia and attributed to general weakness of rule of law in Russia. According to the 2018 results of the Corruption Perceptions Index by Transparency International, Russia ranked 138th out of 180 countries with a score of 28 out of 100, tying with Guinea, Iran, Lebanon, Mexico and Papua New Guinea. There are many different estimates of the actual", "In Russia, services are the biggest sector of the economy and account for 58% of GDP. Within services the most important segments are: wholesale and retail trade, repair of motor vehicles, motorcycles and personal and household goods (17% of total GDP); public administration, health and education (12%); real estate (9%) and transport storage and communications (7%). Industry contributes 40% to total output. Mining (11% of GDP), manufacturing (13%) and construction (4%) are the most important industry segments. Agriculture accounts for the remaining 2%.", "", "The mineral-packed Ural Mountains and the vast fossil fuel (oil, gas, coal), and timber reserves of Siberia and the Russian Far East make Russia rich in natural resources, which dominate Russian exports. Oil and gas exports, specifically, continue to be the main source of hard currency. The petroleum industry in Russia is one of the largest in the world. Russia has the largest", "Russia is also a leading producer and exporter of minerals and gold. Russia is the largest diamond-producing nation in the world, estimated to produce over 33 million carats in 2013, or 25% of global output valued at over $3.4 billion, with state-owned ALROSA accounting for approximately 95% of all Russian production. Expecting the area to become more accessible as climate change melts Arctic ice, and believing the area contains large reserves of untapped oil and natural gas, Russian explorers on 2 August 2007 in submersibles planted the Russian flag on the Arctic seabed, staking a claim to energy sources right up to the", "Russia has more than a fifth of the world's forests, which makes it the largest forest country in the world. However, according to a 2012 study", "Russia comprises roughly three-quarters of the territory of the former Soviet Union. Following the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991 and after nearly 10 years of decline, Russian agriculture began to show signs of improvement due to organizational and technological modernization. Northern areas concentrate mainly on livestock, and the southern parts and western Siberia produce grain. The 2014 devaluation of the rouble and imposition of sanctions spurred domestic production, and in 2016 Russia exceeded Soviet grain production levels, and in that year became the world's largest exporter of wheat. In 2016 agriculture surpassed the arms industry as Russia's second largest export sector after oil and gas. As of 2020, Russia faces problems of over-nutrition with over 23% of the adults obese and over 57% overweight. Under 2.5% of the population suffer from undernourishment.", "", "Russia's defense industry employs 2.53 million people, accounting for 20% of all manufacturing jobs. Russia is the world's second largest conventional arms exporter after the United States. The largest firearm manufacturer in the country, Kalashnikov Concern, produces about 95% of all small arms in Russia and supplies to more than 27", "Aircraft manufacturing is an important industry sector in Russia, employing around 355,300 people. The Russian aircraft industry offers a portfolio of internationally competitive military aircraft such as MiG-29 and Su-30, while new projects such as the Sukhoi Superjet 100 are hoped to revive the fortunes of the civilian aircraft segment. In 2009, companies belonging to the United Aircraft Corporation delivered 95 new fixed-wing aircraft to its customers, including 15 civilian models. In", "Automobile production is a significant industry in Russia, directly employing around 600,000 people or 0.7% of the country's total workforce. In addition, the industry supports around 2–3 million people in related industries. Russia was the", "Russia is experiencing a regrowth of microelectronics, with the revival of JCS Mikron.", "", "As of 2013, Russians spent 60% of their pre-tax income shopping, the highest percentage in Europe. This is possible because many Russians pay no rent or house payments, owning their own home after privatization", "Russia's telecommunications industry is growing in size and maturity. As of December 2007, there were an estimated 4,900,000 broadband lines in Russia. In 2006, there were more than 300 BWA operator networks, accounting for 5% of market share, with dial-up accounting for 30%, and Broadband Fixed Access accounting for the remaining 65%. In December 2006, Tom Phillips, chief government and regulatory", "Russian Railways accounts for 2.5% of Russia's GDP. The percentage of freight and passenger traffic that goes by rail is unknown, since no statistics are available for private transportation such as private automobiles or company-owned trucks. In 2007, about 1.3 billion passengers and 1.3 billion", "In 2009 the Russian construction industry survived its most difficult year in more than a decade. The 0.8% reduction recorded by the industry for the first three quarters of 2010 looked remarkably healthy in comparison with the", "According to the Central Bank of Russia 422 insurance companies operate on the Russian insurance market by the end of 2013. The concentration of insurance business is significant across all major segments except, as the Top 10 companies in 2013 charged 58.1% premiums in total without compulsory health insurance (CHI). Russian insurance market in 2013 demonstrated quite significant rate of growth in operations. Total amount of premiums charged (without CHI) in 2013 is RUB 904.9 bln (increase on 11.8% compared to 2012), total amount of claims paid is RUB 420.8 bln (increase on 13.9% compared to 2012). Premiums to GDP ratio (total without CHI) in 2013 increased to 1.36% compared to 1.31 a year before. The share of premiums in household spending increased to 1.39%. Level of claims paid on the market total", "The IT market is one of the most dynamic sectors of the Russian economy. Russian software exports have risen from just $120 million in 2000 to $3.3 billion in 2010. Since the year 2000 the IT market has started growth rates of 30–40% a year, growing by 54% in 2006 alone. The biggest sector in terms of revenue is system and network integration, which accounts for 28.3% of the total market revenues. Meanwhile, the fastest growing segment of the IT market is offshore programming. Currently, Russia controls 3% of the offshore software development market and is the third leading country (after India and China) among software exporters. Such growth of software outsourcing in Russia is caused by a number of factors. One of them is the supporting role of the Russian Government. The government has launched a program promoting construction of IT-oriented technology parks (Technoparks)—special zones that have an established infrastructure and enjoy a favorable tax and customs", "Tourism in Russia has seen rapid growth since the late Soviet period, first domestic tourism and then international tourism. Rich cultural heritage and great natural variety place Russia among the most popular tourist destinations in the world. In 2013, Russia was visited by 28.4 million tourists being the ninth most visited country in the world. The most visited destinations in Russia are Moscow and Saint Petersburg, recognized as World Cities.", "", "Russia recorded a trade surplus of USD$15.8 billion in 2013. Balance of trade in Russia is reported by the Central Bank of Russia. Historically, from 1997 until 2013, Russia balance of trade averaged 8338.23 USD million reaching an all-time high of 20647 USD million in December 2011 and a record low of −185 USD million in February 1998. Russia runs regular trade surpluses primarily due to exports of commodities. In 2015, Russia main exports are oil and natural gas (62.8% of total", "Between 1985 and 2018 almost 28,500 mergers or acquisitions have been announced in Russia. This cumulates to an overall value of around 984 bil. USD which translates to 5.456 bil. RUB. In terms of value, 2007 has been the most active year with 158 bil. USD, whereas the number of deals peaked in 2010 with 3,684 (964 compared to the value record year 2007). Since 2010 value and numbers have decreased constantly and another wave of M&A is expected. The majority of deals in, into or out of Russia have taken place in the financial sector (29%), followed by banks (8.6%), oil and gas (7.8%) and Metals and Mining (7.2%). Here is a list of the top deals with Russian companies participating ranked by deal value in mil. USD: The majority of the top 10 deals are within the Russian Oil and Gas sector, followed by Metals and Mining." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Works.", "Setting.", "Story.", "\"Titus Groan\".", "\"Gormenghast\".", "\"Titus Alone\".", "Characters.", "Ruling family.", "Bright Carvers.", "Beyond Gormenghast.", "Reception.", "Adaptations.", "Radio.", "Television.", "Theatre.", "Music.", "Influence." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The series consists of three books: \"Titus Groan\" (1946), \"Gormenghast\" (1950) and \"Titus Alone\" (1959). A short book, \"Boy in Darkness\" (1956), tells the story of a brief adventure by the young Titus away from Gormenghast, although it does not name the castle. Peake had intended to write a series of books following Titus Groan through his life, as well as detailing his relationship with Gormenghast. At least two other books, tentatively titled \"Titus Awakes\" and", "Gormenghast is a remote and reclusive earldom dominated by the huge Castle Gormenghast at its centre, and ruled by the noble family of Groan since time immemorial. The earldom derives its name from Gormenghast Mountain, and is isolated from the outside world by inhospitable regions on each side of it. To the North are marshy wastelands, to the South are salt grey marshes (and presumably then the ocean), to the East are quicksands and the tideless sea, and to the West are knuckles of endless rock. To the West also lies the claw-like Gormenghast Mountain, with the Twisted Woods and Gormenghast river at its foot. East of them are escarpments described as \"an irregular tableland of greeny-black rock, broken and scarred and empty\", then desolate swamp before the vicinity of the castle is reached. Gormenghast Mountain is said to be so large that from the castle it looks at most a few miles distant, whereas in fact it is a day's ride away on horseback. However, this is contradicted by events within the story, when various characters are able to travel on foot to the castle and back within a single", "", "The story begins with the birth of the eponymous Titus, as the heir to the throne of the House of Groan, and finishes just over a year later with his \"Earling\" or formal investiture as the seventy-seventh Earl of Groan, after the untimely death of his father Sepulchrave. As Titus is only an infant in this novel, he plays a minor role. The main plot therefore follows the", "The second book follows Titus from the age of seven to seventeen. As the 77th earl and lord of Gormenghast, he dreads the life of pre-ordained ritual that stretches before him. His desire for freedom is awakened by the sight of his foster sister, known only as \"The Thing\", a feral child who lives in the woods of Gormenghast (due to her mother being banished as an outcast) and who terrorizes the", "The story follows Titus as he travels far from Gormenghast and finds a futuristic city dominated by scientists and advanced technology. He then travels to a region where a huge modern factory stands by a lake, filled with identical-looking workers. There is a smell of death from the factory and it is hinted that sinister experiments are taking place there. Titus is increasingly haunted by his memories of Gormenghast and begins to realise its importance to his identity. At the same time, the world he encounters is so different from his old", "Peake populated his imaginary world with a large cast of characters. These include:", "Titus Groan: The main character of the series, and heir to the Earldom of Gormenghast. He succeeds to the title of 77th Earl while still a child, but as he grows older, he develops ambivalent feelings toward his home. He is torn between pride in his lineage and the desire to escape from the castle and its traditions. Titus is born at the beginning of the first book of the series, the son of Sepulchrave and Gertrude, and is an infant throughout the whole of \"Titus Groan\". He grows up and reaches young adulthood in the second book Gormenghast, which ends with him leaving Gormenghast after defeating Steerpike in battle. In the third book Titus Alone Titus discovers a world outside of Gormenghast where the castle and its inhabitants are unknown. Titus also features in another book called Boy in Darkness which appears to take place during his youth in Gormenghast, but which is unconnected to the main story. Titus's character is one of yearning for freedom and the romance of being an ordinary person without the restrictions and responsibilities of the Earldom and the tradition that comes with it. As for Titus, he was almost grown now to his full height. But he was of an odd highly-strung natures -- sullen and excitable by turns. Strong as need be for his years, he was more apt to have his energy sapped by the excess of his imagination than of his body. Lord Sepulchrave: 76th Earl and Titus's father. He is a melancholy man who feels shackled by his duties as Earl, although he never questions them. His only escape is reading. However, when the castle's Library is burnt down, he is driven insane and comes to believe that he is one of the death-owls that live in the abandoned Tower of Flints. ... a dark figure stole forth, closing the door behind him quietly, and with an air of the deepest dejection... His face was very long and was olive coloured. The eyes were large, and of an eloquence, withdrawn. His nostrils were mobile and sensitive. His mouth, a narrow line... The Countess Gertrude: 76th Countess and", "Also known as the Mud Dwellers or the Outer Dwellers, the Bright Carvers live directly outside the castle walls, crammed closely together in hovels of mud and straw. Their lives are hard and monotonous, and they live solely on jarl root (a kind of tree growing in Gormenghast forest), and crusts of bread lowered down from the castle walls each morning. Their sole obsession is the carving of beautiful wooden sculptures, brightly painted, which they present to the Groans on a particular day each year in June. Only three of these carvings are chosen by the Earl of Gormenghast to be kept and the rest are burnt. Fierce rivalry exists between the Carvers to present the best carvings, and their lives are dominated by this", "In \"Titus Alone\" Titus leaves Gormenghast and after a time spent wandering comes to the city, a futuristic place of glass and steel buildings, flying machines and other modern technology. Titus is disoriented by the huge contrast between the city and his old home, particularly since none of the people he meets have ever heard of Gormenghast or show much interest in it. In his journey through the city Titus meets a large number of characters, some friendly and some hostile. Later Titus leaves the city and travels to a land dominated by a sinister factory beside a lake. Muzzlehatch is a man who drives around the city in a large shark-like car, who comes upon Titus lying faint on the waterfront and brings him home with him. He initially helps Titus not because he cares for him, but because he hates the city's police authorities, who are pursuing Titus as a vagrant. Muzzlehatch has", "The first book, \"Titus Groan\", was published in 1946 to ecstatic reviews and the series has continued to grow in its critical reputation since Peake's death. Contemporary reviewers praise it for its iconic imagery and characters, and it is often cited as one of the greatest fantasy novels of all time. Anthony Burgess called the", "", "The Australian Broadcasting Corporation produced a dramatization of all three Gormenghast novels. It was first broadcast in 1983 as eight one-hour episodes, and repeated in 1986 in four two-hour parts. This is the first adaptation that includes \"Titus Alone\" in addition to \"Titus Groan\" and \"Gormenghast\". In 1984, BBC Radio 4 broadcast two 90-minute plays based on \"Titus Groan\" and \"Gormenghast\", adapted by Brian Sibley and starring Sting as Steerpike and Freddie Jones as the Artist (narrator). A slightly abridged compilation of the two, running to 160 minutes, and", "In 2000, the BBC and the PBS station WGBH of Boston produced a miniseries, titled \"Gormenghast\", based on the first two books of the series. The cast included Jonathan Rhys Meyers as Steerpike and Christopher Lee as Mr. Flay. Also made in 2000, the 30-minute TV short", "A minimalist stage version of Gormenghast performed by the David Glass Ensemble, relying heavily on mime, toured theatres in the UK during 2006 and 2007. A stage version of \"Titus Alone\" was produced at the University of Sussex in 2001, using sound and physical theatre to evoke the strange world beyond Gormenghast Castle. It focused on themes of madness and the nature of reality to question whether Titus's memories", "Irmin Schmidt, founder of seminal German experimental group Can, composed a three-act opera, \"Gormenghast\", based on the novels. It premiered at the Opernhaus Wuppertal in 1998 and was released on CD the following year. A number of songs including \"Stranger Than Fiction\" and \"Titus\" by New Zealand rock group Split Enz and \"The Drowning Man\" by The Cure were inspired by Peake's work. The British progressive rock group", "The \"Gormenghast\" series has influenced other fantasy works." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Implementation.", "Other uses.", "Comparison with prepared statements.", "Comparison with smart contracts." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Stored procedures are similar to user-defined functions (UDFs). The major difference is that UDFs can be used like any other expression within SQL statements, whereas stored procedures must be invoked using the codice_7 statement. or The exact and correct implementation of stored procedures varies from one database system to the other. Most major database vendors support them in some form. Depending on the database system, stored procedures can be implemented in a variety of programming languages, for example SQL, Java, C, or C++. Stored procedures written in non-SQL languages may or may not execute SQL statements themselves. The increasing adoption of stored procedures led to the introduction of procedural elements to the SQL language in the and standards in the part SQL/PSM. That made SQL an imperative programming language. Most database systems offer proprietary and vendor-specific extensions, exceeding SQL/PSM. A standard specification for Java stored procedures exists as well as SQL/JRT.", "In some systems, stored procedures can be used to control transaction management; in others, stored procedures run inside a transaction such that transactions are effectively transparent to them. Stored procedures can also be invoked from a database trigger or a condition handler. For example, a stored procedure may be triggered by an insert on a specific table, or update of a specific field in a table, and the code inside the stored procedure would be executed. Writing stored procedures as condition handlers also allows database administrators to track errors in the system with greater detail by using stored procedures to catch the errors and record some audit information in the database or an external resource like a file.", "Prepared statements take an ordinary statement or query and parameterize it so that different literal values can be used at a later time. Like stored procedures, they are stored on the server for efficiency and provide some protection from SQL injection attacks. Although simpler and more declarative, prepared statements are not ordinarily written to use procedural logic and cannot operate on variables. Because of their simple interface and client-side implementations, prepared statements are more widely reusable between DBMS.", "Smart contract is a term applied to executable code stored on a blockchain as opposed to an RDBMS. Despite the execution result consensus mechanisms of public blockchain networks differing in principle from traditional private or federated databases, they perform ostensibly the same function as stored procedures, albeit usually with a sense of value transaction." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Career.", "Early work and television (1983–1997).", "Move to films and critical acclaim (1999–2004).", "Directorial work and writer for hire (2005–2014).", "Continued directing and debut novel (2015–present).", "Themes and influences.", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Kaufman was born in New York City to a Jewish family on November 19, 1958, the son of Helen and Myron Kaufman. He grew up in Massapequa, New York, before moving to West Hartford, Connecticut, where he graduated from high school. In high school, Kaufman was in the drama club, performing in numerous productions before landing the lead role in a production of \"Play It Again, Sam\" during his senior year. After high school graduation, Kaufman attended Boston University before transferring to New York University, where he studied film. While attending NYU, Kaufman met Paul Proch, with whom he wrote many unproduced scripts and plays.", "", "Between 1983 and 1984, Kaufman and Proch wrote comedic articles and spoofs for \"National Lampoon\". His work included parodies of Kurt Vonnegut and the X-Men. Kaufman and Proch tried to get their screenplays produced, sending them to many people in the film industry. The only response the two ever received was a supportive letter from Alan Arkin about their screenplay \"Purely Coincidental\". In hope of finding a talent agent he began to write spec scripts for television series such as \"Married... with Children\", \"Newhart\", \"It's Garry Shandling's Show\" and \"The Simpsons\". While pursuing his writing career he began working odd jobs in customer service to support himself and his wife, Denise. In 1991, one of Kaufman's spec scripts finally got attention and he gained a talent agent. The agent suggested Kaufman move from Minneapolis to Los Angeles in search of more job prospects. He moved to Los Angeles alone for two months interviewing for a variety of different television writing jobs. The only offer he got was a Comedy Central series titled \"Access America\", hosted by actor Fred Willard, which coincidentally was being filmed in Minneapolis. Kaufman was prepared to accept the job and move back to Minneapolis until he was offered a job by David Mirkin writing for the second season of his and Chris Elliott's sitcom \"Get a Life\", starring Elliott. He wrote two episodes of \"Get a Life\" before its cancellation in 1992. At first Kaufman found the experience of working on a writing staff nerve-wracking and did not speak in the writer's room for the first few weeks. After his work was well received by other members of the staff, Kaufman overcame his timidity and became more susceptible to showing others his work. After \"Get a Life\"'s cancellation, Kaufman pursued work on series such as \"Seinfeld\", \"The Larry Sanders Show\", \"The Simpsons\" and \"Mr. Show\", but to no avail. He continued to work on other comedic series: Fox's sketch comedy show \"The Edge\", \"The Trouble with Larry\" and \"Ned and Stacey\", the last of which he also produced. The most notable series he worked on in this period was \"The Dana Carvey Show\", which featured writers and performers such as Louis C.K., Robert Smigel, Greg Daniels, Stephen Colbert and Steve Carell. On all these series Kaufman struggled to keep his material from being adulterated or not produced at all, due to his unconventional writing and his quiet nature. Kaufman also wrote some pilot scripts of his own, but none of them were produced. These included two pilots for Disney, \"Depressed Roomies\" and \"Rambling Pants\" (the former a surrealist take on the \"buddy sitcom\" and the latter focused on the adventures of a time-travelling poet named Pants) and a pilot for HBO, \"In Limbo\", a naturalistic look at a romantic relationship devoid of the usual tropes of romantic films.", "Kaufman first came to mainstream notice as the writer of \"Being John Malkovich\", directed by Spike Jonze, earning an Academy Award nomination for his effort and winning a BAFTA. He wrote the script on spec in 1994, sending it to many companies and studios, all of which turned it down. The script eventually reached Francis Ford Coppola, who passed it on to his then-son-in-law Jonze, who agreed to direct the film. After the success of \"Being John Malkovich\", another of Kaufman's screenplays was produced: \"Human Nature\", which was directed by Michel Gondry and produced by Kaufman and Jonze. Kaufman and Jonze reunited yet again as the screenwriter and director of \"Adaptation\", which earned him another Academy Award nomination and his second BAFTA. \"Adaptation\" featured a fictionalized version of Kaufman and his fictional brother, Donald, who is credited as writer of the film along with Kaufman. The idea came to Kaufman while attempting to adapt Susan Orlean's book \"The Orchid Thief\" into film. Struggling with writer's block, Kaufman turned the script into an exaggerated account of his struggles with adapting the screenplay. Kaufman wrote the screenplay for \"Confessions of a Dangerous Mind\", a biopic based on the \"unauthorized autobiography\" of Chuck Barris, the creator of such popular game shows as \"The Dating Game\" and host of \"The Gong Show\". The film focuses on Barris's claim to have been a CIA hit man. It was George Clooney's directorial debut. Kaufman criticized Clooney for making drastic alterations to the script without consulting him (instead, Clooney consulted Barris). Kaufman said in an interview with William Arnold: \"The usual thing for a writer is to deliver a script and then disappear. That's not for me. I want to be involved from beginning to end. And these directors [Gondry and Jonze] know that, and respect it.\" \"Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind\", released in 2004, was Kaufman's second pairing with director Michel Gondry. Kaufman won his first Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay and third BAFTA for the film together with Gondry and French artist Pierre Bismuth. The trio also received the prestigious PEN American Center 2005 prize for screenplay for the film. David Edelstein described the film in \"Slate\" as \"\"The Awful Truth\" turned inside-out by Philip K. Dick, with nods to Samuel Beckett, Chris Marker, John Guare—the greatest dramatists of our modern fractured consciousness. But the weave is pure Kaufman.\"", "After agreeing to participate in Carter Burwell's \"Theater of the New Ear\", a double bill \"sound play\", Kaufman wrote and directed the audio play \"Hope Leaves the Theater\", while the other play in the production, \"Sawbones\", was written and directed by the Coen Brothers. \"Hope Leaves the Theater\" follows a middle-aged woman, dissatisfied with her life and relationships, watching a play-within-the-play, and featured performances by Hope Davis, Peter Dinklage and Meryl Streep. \"Theater of the New Ear\" debuted in April 2005 at St. Ann's Warehouse in Brooklyn, New York. Due to scheduling conflicts, later productions of \"Theater of the New Ear\" did not feature the Coens' play, replacing it with \"Anomalisa\", which Kaufman wrote under the pseudonym \"'Francis Fregoli\". \"Anomalisa\" centers around a man (David Thewlis) who perceives everyone in the world to be the same person (Tom Noonan) until he meets an exception (Jennifer Jason Leigh). Kaufman made his directorial film debut with the postmodern film \"Synecdoche, New York\", starring an ensemble cast led by Philip Seymour Hoffman. It premiered at the Cannes Film Festival in 2008. The idea for the film came when Kaufman and Spike Jonze were approached to direct a horror film. Rather than make a conventional horror film, the two agreed to have the film deal with things they found frightening, such as mortality and life's brevity. Kaufman decided to direct the film after Jonze left the project to direct \"Where the Wild Things Are\" instead. The film premiered at the 2008 Cannes Film Festival where it split critics, with some calling it the best film of the year and others finding it pretentious. In the years since its release it has appeared on multiple lists ranking the best films of the 21st century. The film's poor box office resulted in Kaufman finding it difficult to gain funding for scripts in which he has attached himself to as director. Kaufman was slated to write and direct a film with the working title \"Frank or Francis\". Few details have been confirmed about the plot except that it is a musical comedy about internet anger culture and was set to star Jack Black, Nicolas Cage, Steve Carell, Kevin Kline, Catherine Keener, Paul Reubens, Jackie Weaver and Elizabeth Banks. In July 2012, Black said that funding for the project had fallen through, as the studio was unsure about its chances for success after the financial failure of \"Synecdoche, New York\". Although the future of the project is not certain, Kaufman says \"It could still happen. It would have to be reinvented, though. We had a whole cast and we were headed into pre-production. So, I’d have to get people back and who knows if they would be interested anymore. But at this point, we don’t have any money, so that’s a secondary concern.\" Trying to make a return to television when the funding for \"Frank or Francis\" fell through, Kaufman sold a series to HBO in the May of 2012 with Catherine Keener attached to star, but the series did not get past the scripting stage. Kaufman also directed and wrote a pilot for FX titled \"How and Why\" in 2014. The plot was described as being about a \"man (played by John Hawkes) who can explain how and why a nuclear reactor works but is clueless about life\". Along with Hawkes, the pilot co-starred Michael Cera, Sally Hawkins, Catherine Keener and Tom Noonan. FX decided to not pick up the pilot. While struggling to get his directorial work made, Kaufman continued to work as a writer for hire, writing numerous unproduced screenplays. These included a satire set around a group of global leaders, to be directed by Spike Jonze, with Joaquin Phoenix in the lead role; an adaptation of George Saunders's book \"CivilWarLand in Bad Decline\", to be directed by Ben Stiller; an adaptation of Kurt Vonnegut's novel \"Slaughterhouse Five\", to be directed by Guillermo del Toro; and an adaptation of Arthur Herzog's novel \"IQ 83\" with Steve Carell. In April 2012, Kaufman was hired to adapt Patrick Ness's \"Chaos Walking\" book series, of which he wrote the first draft. The film is scheduled to be released in 2021; Kaufman will share writing credit with John Lee Hancock and Ness, both of whom worked on the script after Kaufman's draft.", "Dino Stamatopoulos, a former colleague of Kaufman's from \"The Dana Carvey Show\", became interested in adapting Kaufman's \"Anomalisa\" play script into a stop motion animated film. With Kaufman's permission, Stamatopoulos turned to the crowdfunding website Kickstarter to fund the film. The Kickstarter page was set up in August 2012 and by the time funding had ended $406,237 was pledged. The rest of the $8 million budget was funded by the film's production company, Starburns Industries. Kaufman co-directed the film with Duke Johnson, who had previous experience in stop motion filmmaking, and the original cast of the play production returned to reprise their roles. It had its world premiere at the Telluride Film Festival on September 4, 2015, receiving universal acclaim from critics. The film went on to win the Grand Jury Prize at the Venice Film Festival and was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Animated Feature, but like \"Synecdoche\", it did poorly at the box office. In January 2018, it was announced that Kaufman was working on writing and directing an adaptation of Iain Reid's 2016 novel \"I'm Thinking of Ending Things\". In December 2018, it was announced that Brie Larson and Jesse Plemons were signed to co-star as the leads; the film was described as \"the story of a woman’s trip to a family farm that leads to an unexpected detour leaving her stranded, [and] a twisted mix of palpable tension, psychological frailty and sheer terror ensues.\" The project begun filming in March 2019, with Jessie Buckley having replaced Larson, and Toni Collette and David Thewlis joining the cast. Kaufman's debut novel, \"Antkind\", is due for release in 2020. Kaufman said in 2016 that the novel was being written so as to be unfilmable, and is itself about \"an impossible movie\".", "Kaufman's works explore such universal themes as identity crisis, mortality, and the meaning of life through a metaphysical or parapsychological framework. While his work resists labels, it is sometimes described as surrealist. He sometimes includes fictionalized \"facts\" about his life in his work, notably \"Adaptation.\" and \"Hope Leaves the Theater\". Apes recur in Kaufman's work: in \"Being John Malkovich\", Lotte has a pet chimp named Elijah; in \"Human Nature\", Puff was raised as an ape; in \"Confessions of a Dangerous Mind\", Penny dreams about an ape; and in \"Adaptation\", the original deus ex machina was a swamp ape. Some writers and directors Kaufman has named as favorites of his, or as influences, are Franz Kafka, Samuel Beckett, Stanisław Lem, Flannery O'Connor, Shirley Jackson, Italo Svevo, David Lynch, Lars von Trier, Woody Allen and Patricia Highsmith.", "Kaufman lived and worked for a time during the late 1980s in Minneapolis, answering calls about missing newspapers at the \"Star Tribune\", before moving to Los Angeles. He lives in Pasadena, California, with his wife Denise and their child." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Transcription.", "Types.", "Falling and rising.", "Closing, opening, and centering.", "Narrow and wide.", "Length.", "Phonology.", "Sound changes.", "Difference from semivowels and vowel sequences.", "Examples.", "Germanic languages.", "English.", "Dutch.", "German.", "Standard German.", "Bernese German.", "Yiddish.", "Norwegian.", "Faroese.", "Icelandic.", "Romance languages.", "French.", "Quebec French.", "Catalan.", "Portuguese.", "Spanish.", "Italian.", "Romanian.", "Celtic languages.", "Irish.", "Scottish Gaelic.", "Cornish.", "Welsh.", "Slavic languages.", "Czech.", "Serbo-Croatian.", "Finno-Ugric languages.", "Estonian.", "Finnish.", "Northern Sami.", "Semitic languages.", "Maltese.", "Sino-Tibetan languages.", "Mandarin Chinese.", "Cantonese.", "Tai–Kadai languages.", "Thai.", "Mon-Khmer languages.", "Vietnamese.", "Khmer.", "Bantu languages.", "Zulu.", "Austronesian languages.", "Indonesian." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "4", "4", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "4", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "2", "3" ], "content": [ "In the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA), monophthongs are transcribed with one symbol, as in English \"sun\", in which represents a monophthong. Diphthongs are transcribed with two symbols, as in English \"high\" or \"cow\", in which and represent diphthongs. Diphthongs may be transcribed with two vowel symbols or with a vowel symbol and a semivowel symbol. In the words above, the less prominent member of the diphthong can be represented with the symbols for the palatal approximant and the labiovelar approximant, with the symbols for the close vowels and, or the symbols for the near-close vowels and : Some transcriptions are broader or narrower (less precise or more precise phonetically) than others. Transcribing the English diphthongs in \"high\" and \"cow\" as or is a less precise or broader transcription, since these diphthongs usually end in a vowel sound that is more open than the semivowels or the close vowels. Transcribing the diphthongs as is a more precise or narrower transcription, since the English diphthongs usually end in the near-close vowels. The non-syllabic diacritic, the inverted breve below, is placed under the less prominent part of a diphthong to show that it is part of a diphthong rather than a vowel in a separate syllable:. When there is no contrastive vowel sequence in the language, the diacritic may be omitted. Other common indications that the two sounds are not separate vowels are a superscript,, or a tie bar, or. The tie bar can be useful when it is not clear which symbol represents the syllable nucleus, or when they have equal weight. Superscripts are especially used when an on- or off-glide is particularly fleeting. The period is the opposite of the non-syllabic diacritic: it represents a syllable break. If two vowels next to each other belong to two different syllables (hiatus), meaning that they do not form a diphthong, they can be transcribed with two vowel symbols with a period in between. Thus, \"lower\" can be transcribed, with a period separating the first syllable,, from the second syllable,. The non-syllabic diacritic is used only when necessary. It is typically omitted when there is no ambiguity, as in. No words in English have the vowel sequences, so the non-syllabic diacritic is unnecessary.", "", "Falling (or descending) diphthongs start with a vowel quality of higher prominence (higher pitch or volume) and end in a semivowel with less prominence, like in \"eye\", while rising (or ascending) diphthongs begin with a less prominent semivowel and end with a more prominent full vowel, similar to the in \"yard\". (Note that \"falling\" and \"rising\" in this context do \"not\" refer to vowel height; for that, the terms \"opening\" and \"closing\" are used instead. See below.) The less prominent component in the diphthong may also be transcribed as an approximant, thus in \"eye\" and in \"yard\". However, when the diphthong is analysed as a single phoneme, both elements are often transcribed with vowel symbols (, ). Semivowels and approximants are not equivalent in all treatments, and in the English and Italian languages, among others, many phoneticians do not consider rising combinations to be diphthongs, but rather sequences of approximant and vowel. There are many languages (such as Romanian) that contrast one or more rising diphthongs with similar sequences of a glide and a vowel in their phonetic inventory (see semivowel for examples).", "In closing diphthongs, the second element is more close than the first (e.g. ); in opening diphthongs, the second element is more open (e.g. ). Closing diphthongs tend to be falling (), and opening diphthongs are generally rising (), as open vowels are more sonorous and therefore tend to be more prominent. However, exceptions to this rule are not rare in the world's languages. In Finnish, for instance, the opening diphthongs and are true falling diphthongs, since they begin louder and with higher pitch and fall in prominence during the diphthong. A third, rare type of diphthong that is neither opening nor closing is height-harmonic diphthongs, with both elements at the same vowel height. These occurred in Old English: A centering diphthong is one that begins with a more peripheral vowel and ends with a more central one, such as,, and in Received Pronunciation or and in Irish. Many centering diphthongs are also opening diphthongs (, ). Diphthongs may contrast in how far they open or close. For example, Samoan contrasts low-to-mid with low-to-high diphthongs:", "Narrow diphthongs are the ones that end with a vowel which on a vowel chart is quite close to the one that begins the diphthong, for example Northern Dutch, and. Wide diphthongs are the opposite - they require a greater tongue movement, and their offsets are farther away from their starting points on the vowel chart. Examples of wide diphthongs are RP/GA English and.", "Languages differ in the length of diphthongs, measured in terms of morae. In languages with phonemically short and long vowels, diphthongs typically behave like long vowels, and are pronounced with a similar length. In languages with only one phonemic length for pure vowels, however, diphthongs may behave like pure vowels. For example, in Icelandic, both monophthongs and diphthongs are pronounced long before single consonants and short before most consonant clusters. Some languages contrast short and long diphthongs. In some languages, such as Old English, these behave like short and long vowels, occupying one and two morae, respectively. Languages that contrast three quantities in diphthongs are extremely rare, but not unheard of; Northern Sami is known to contrast long, short and \"finally stressed\" diphthongs, the last of which are distinguished by a long second element.", "In some languages, diphthongs are single phonemes, while in others they are analyzed as sequences of two vowels, or of a vowel and a semivowel.", "Certain sound changes relate to diphthongs and monophthongs. Vowel breaking or diphthongization is a vowel shift in which a monophthong becomes a diphthong. Monophthongization or smoothing is a vowel shift in which a diphthong becomes a monophthong.", "While there are a number of similarities, diphthongs are not the same phonologically as a combination of a vowel and an approximant or glide. Most importantly, diphthongs are fully contained in the syllable nucleus while a semivowel or glide is restricted to the syllable boundaries (either the onset or the coda). This often manifests itself phonetically by a greater degree of constriction, but the phonetic distinction is not always clear. The English word \"yes\", for example, consists of a palatal glide followed by a monophthong rather than a rising diphthong. In addition, the segmental elements must be different in diphthongs and so when it occurs in a language, it does not contrast with. However, it is possible for languages to contrast and. Diphthongs are also distinct from sequences of simple vowels. The Bunaq language of Timor, for example, distinguishes 'exit' from 'be amused', 'dance' from'stare at', and 'choice' from 'good'.", "", "", "In words coming from Middle English, most cases of the Modern English diphthongs originate from the Middle English long monophthongs through the Great Vowel Shift, although some cases of originate from the Middle English diphthongs. Due to complex regional variation Hiberno-English diphthongs are not enumerated below.", "The dialect of Hamont (in Limburg) has five centring diphthongs and contrasts long and short forms of,,, and.", "", "Phonemic diphthongs in German: In the varieties of German that vocalize the in the syllable coda, other diphthongal combinations may occur. These are only phonetic diphthongs, not phonemic diphthongs, since the vocalic pronunciation alternates with consonantal pronunciations of if a vowel follows, cf. \"du hörst\" ‘you hear’ – \"ich höre\" ‘I hear’. These phonetic diphthongs may be as follows:", "The diphthongs of some German dialects differ from standard German diphthongs. The Bernese German diphthongs, for instance, correspond rather to the Middle High German diphthongs than to standard German diphthongs: Apart from these phonemic diphthongs, Bernese German has numerous phonetic diphthongs due to L-vocalization in the syllable coda, for instance the following ones:", "Yiddish has three diphthongs: Diphthongs may reach a higher target position (towards ) in situations of coarticulatory phenomena or when words with such vowels are being emphasized.", "There are five diphthongs in the Oslo dialect of Norwegian, all of them falling: An additional diphthong,, occurs only in the word \"hui\" in the expression \"i hui og hast\" \"in great haste\". The number and form of diphthongs vary between dialects.", "Diphthongs in Faroese are:", "Diphthongs in Icelandic are the following: Combinations of semivowel and a vowel are the following:", "", "In French,,, and may be considered true diphthongs (that is, fully contained in the syllable nucleus: ). Other sequences are considered part of a glide formation process that turns a high vowel into a semivowel (and part of the syllable onset) when followed by another vowel. Diphthongs Semivowels", "In Quebec French, long vowels are generally diphthongized in informal speech when stressed.", "Catalan possesses a number of phonetic diphthongs, all of which begin (\"rising diphthongs\") or end (\"falling diphthongs\") in or. In standard Eastern Catalan, rising diphthongs (that is, those starting with or ) are possible only in the following contexts: There are also certain instances of \"compensatory diphthongization\" in the Majorcan dialect so that ('logs') (in addition to deleting the palatal plosive) develops a compensating palatal glide and surfaces as (and contrasts with the unpluralized ). Diphthongization compensates for the loss of the palatal stop (part of Catalan's segment loss compensation). There are other cases where diphthongization compensates for the loss of point of articulation features (property loss compensation) as in ('year') vs ('years'). The dialectal distribution of this compensatory diphthongization is almost entirely dependent on the dorsal plosive (whether it is velar or palatal) and the extent of consonant assimilation (whether or not it is extended to palatals).", "The Portuguese diphthongs are formed by the labio-velar approximant and palatal approximant with a vowel, European Portuguese has 14 phonemic diphthongs (10 oral and 4 nasal), all of which are falling diphthongs formed by a vowel and a nonsyllabic high vowel. Brazilian Portuguese has roughly the same amount, although the European and non-European dialects have slightly different pronunciations ( is a distinctive feature of some southern and central Portuguese dialects, especially that of Lisbon). A onglide after or and before all vowels as in \"quando\" ('when') or \"guarda\" ('guard') may also form rising diphthongs and triphthongs. Additionally, in casual speech, adjacent heterosyllabic vowels may combine into diphthongs and triphthongs or even sequences of them. In addition, phonetic diphthongs are formed in most Brazilian Portuguese dialects by the vocalization of in the syllable coda with words like \"sol\" ('sun') and \"sul\" ('south') as well as by yodization of vowels preceding or its allophone at syllable coda in terms like \"arroz\" ('rice'), and (or ) in terms such as \"paz mundial\" ('world peace') and \"dez anos\" ('ten years').", "Phonetically, Spanish has seven falling diphthongs and eight rising diphthongs. In addition, during fast speech, sequences of vowels in hiatus become diphthongs wherein one becomes non-syllabic (unless they are the same vowel, in which case they fuse together) as in \"poeta\" ('poet') and \"maestro\" ('teacher'). The Spanish diphthongs are:", "The existence of true diphthongs in Italian is debatable; however, a list is: The second table includes only 'false' diphthongs, composed of a semivowel + a vowel, not two vowels. The situation is more nuanced in the first table: a word such as 'baita' is actually pronounced ['baj.ta] and most speakers would syllabify it that way. A word such as 'voi' would instead be pronounced and syllabified as ['vo.i], yet again without a diphthong. In general, unstressed in hiatus can turn into glides in more rapid speech (e.g. \"biennale\" 'biennial'; \"coalizione\" 'coalition') with the process occurring more readily in syllables further from stress.", "Romanian has two true diphthongs: and. There are, however, a host of other vowel combinations (more than any other major Romance language) which are classified as vowel glides. As a result of their origin (diphthongization of mid vowels under stress), the two true diphthongs appear only in stressed syllables and make morphological alternations with the mid vowels and. To native speakers, they sound very similar to and respectively. There are no perfect minimal pairs to contrast and, and because doesn't appear in the final syllable of a prosodic word, there are no monosyllabic words with ; exceptions might include \"voal\" ('veil') and \"trotuar\" ('sidewalk'), though Ioana Chițoran argues that these are best treated as containing glide-vowel sequences rather than diphthongs. In addition to these, the semivowels and can be combined (either before, after, or both) with most vowels, while this arguably forms additional diphthongs and triphthongs, only and can follow an obstruent-liquid cluster such as in \"broască\" ('frog') and \"dreagă\" ('to mend'), implying that and are restricted to the syllable boundary and therefore, strictly speaking, do not form diphthongs.", "", "All Irish diphthongs are falling.", "There are 9 diphthongs in Scottish Gaelic. Group 1 occur anywhere (\"eu\" is usually [eː] before \"-m\", e.g. \"Seumas\"). Group 2 are reflexes that occur before \"-ll, -m, -nn, -bh, -dh, -gh\" and \"-mh\". For more detailed explanations of Gaelic diphthongs see Scottish Gaelic orthography.", "The following diphthongs are used in the Standard Written Form of Cornish. Each diphthong is given with its \"Revived Middle Cornish\" (RMC) and \"Revived Late Cornish\" (RLC) pronunciation.", "Welsh is traditionally divided into Northern and Southern dialects. In the north, some diphthongs may be short or long according to regular vowel length rules but in the south they are always short (see Welsh phonology). Southern dialects tend to simplify diphthongs in speech (e.g. \"gwaith\" is reduced to ).", "", "There are three diphthongs in Czech: The vowel groups \"ia, ie, ii, io\", and \"iu\" in foreign words are not regarded as diphthongs, they are pronounced with between the vowels. is conventionally considered a diphthong. However, it is actually in hiatus or separated by a semivowel,.", "Some Serbo-Croatian dialects also have \"uo\", as in \"kuonj, ruod, uon\" whereas, in Standard Croatian and Serbian, these words are konj, rod, on.", "", "All nine vowels can appear as the first component of an Estonian diphthong, but only occur as the second component. There are additional diphthongs less commonly used, such as in Euroopa (Europe), in söandama (to dare), and in näuguma (to mew).", "All Finnish diphthongs are falling. Notably, Finnish has true opening diphthongs (e.g. ), which are not very common crosslinguistically compared to centering diphthongs (e.g. in English). Vowel combinations across syllables may in practice be pronounced as diphthongs, when an intervening consonant has elided, as in \"näön\" instead of for the genitive of \"näkö\" ('sight').", "The diphthong system in Northern Sami varies considerably from one dialect to another. The Western Finnmark dialects distinguish four different qualities of opening diphthongs: In terms of quantity, Northern Sami shows a three-way contrast between long, short and finally stressed diphthongs. The last are distinguished from long and short diphthongs by a markedly long and stressed second component. Diphthong quantity is not indicated in spelling.", "", "Maltese has seven falling diphthongs, though they may be considered VC sequences phonemically.", "", "Rising sequences in Mandarin are usually regarded as a combination of a medial semivowel () plus a vowel, while falling sequences are regarded as one diphthong.", "Cantonese has eleven diphthongs.", "", "In addition to vowel nuclei following or preceding and, Thai has three diphthongs which exist as long-short pairs:", "", "In addition to vowel nuclei following or preceding /j/ and /w/, Vietnamese has three diphthongs:", "Khmer language has rich vocalics with an extra distinction of long and short register to the vowels and diphthongs.", "", "Zulu has only monophthongs. \"Y\" and \"w\" are semi-vowels:", "", "Indonesian language, has four native diphthong and may be located at the beginning, middle and end of the words. they are:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Convergence.", "Failed calls for a referendum.", "Roadmap for euro adoption.", "Linguistic issues.", "Latvian euro design.", "Circulating mintage quantities.", "Mints." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Latvia's Treaty of Accession to the European Union (EU) obliged it to eventually adopt the euro. Latvia had originally planned to adopt the euro on 1 January 2008, but for various reasons this was subsequently delayed several times. After being elected in 2011, Latvian President Andris Bērziņš announced the official goal was for Latvia to join the eurozone in 2014, saying \"personally I'm very optimistic we'll join the euro on 1 January 2014. It's our goal and we are working hard to implement this process.\" In September 2012, Latvian Prime Minister Valdis Dombrovskis reiterated that \"Latvia is on track for 2014 and permission to join would be sought in 2013.\"", "Before Latvia could adopt the euro, it had to meet five convergence criteria set by the EU. An assessment by the European Central Bank (ECB) in April 2012 found that Latvia met three of the five criteria. The Latvian Finance Minister announced in December 2012 that since convergence checks were only conducted biennially, an extraordinary report would be requested in February 2013, but in January 2013 Prime Minister Dombrovskis stated that for \"technical reasons\" the request had been delayed until March. However, he was confident that Latvia was \"fulfilling the Maastricht euro adoption criteria with a considerable reserve, therefore I don't see any basis on which this convergence report would be negative.\" The Latvian government formally applied for a convergence check at the beginning of March, and the resulting convergence report, published on 5 June 2013 by the European Commission, concluded that \"the Commission considers that Latvia fulfils the conditions for the adoption of the euro.\" The ECB simultaneously published a report which noted that \"Latvia is within the reference values of the convergence criteria\". Latvia's adoption of the euro, a legal obligation now that the convergence criteria have been met, was given final approval by the Economic and Financial Affairs Council on 9 July, and the lats was replaced with the euro on 1 January 2014. The Euro switchover ceremony took place at a site where Latvia's crisis began – the former headquarters of the collapsed Parex bank, now headquarters of state-owned Citatele bank, which emerged from Parex's ruins.", "Some members of Latvia's parliament, the Saeima, originally pushed for a referendum on euro adoption, but Latvian Prime Minister Valdis Dombrovskis argued that a referendum is unnecessary because Latvians already voted in favour of their EU accession treaty in 2003, which binds them to adopt the euro as soon as the country is found to comply with all the convergence criteria. He argued that, given the legal obligation, a referendum could only serve to delay or prevent euro adoption. According to Latvian law, if more than 1/3 of all members of parliament object to a bill, and propose an alternative bill within two weeks of the original bill being passed by parliament, a referendum can be called to allow the public to decide between the two bills. On 31 January 2013, the Latvian parliament passed its \"euro adoption bill\". Four days later, the biggest opposition party, Harmony Center, stated that it would not support the alternative \"referendum bill\", which was tabled by the other opposition party, Union of Greens and Farmers. Shortly after this, on 9 February, the referendum proposal had only gathered the support of 4 out of the Saeima's 100 members. These MPs stated that they would turn to the last remaining legal option to force a referendum: gathering a petition of at least 30,000 electoral signatories. Latvia officially requested an extraordinary convergence report to assess their readiness for euro adoption on 4 March 2013. Latvia's Central Election Commission rejected the proposed referendum on 18 March, as the proposed bill was considered not to comply with the Latvian constitution or Latvia's international obligations.", "A draft law outlining the euro switchover process was presented by the government's cabinet on 6 November 2012. It specified that: The law was passed on 31 January 2013.", "The Latvian Parliament adopted on 26 July 2005 \"Regulation Nr.564\", outlining that the official Latvian name of the euro currency would be \"eiro\". In December 2007 the regulation was amended, so that the name in all legal matters would be \"euro\" and in all non-legal matters \"eiro\". The ECB was asked to approve this special naming convention, but declined on 13 November 2012 and asked Latvia to repeal either the entire regulation or at least the paragraph that granted the euro currency a special Latvian name. On 4 March 2013, the Latvian Ministry of Justice clarified that while the official name of the currency for all financial and legal documents shall be \"euro\", the public will continue to be able to use the Latvian name \"eiro\", furthermore it is required to write \"euro\" in italics indicating the word is in a foreign language.", "Latvian euro coins feature three separate designs on the national side, which were publicised in July 2006 on the home page of the National Bank of Latvia. The designs featured were the Latvian maiden, which was featured on the 5 lats coin prior to World War II, on the 1 and 2 euro coins, the greater coat of arms of Latvia on the 10, 20 and 50-cent coins, and the lesser Coat of arms of Latvia on the 1, 2 and 5-cent coins. Originally, it was planned that the Freedom Monument would be featured on the 2 euro coin, but the original design did not meet the regulations of the ECB since it reached out into the ring of the coin and changed one of the stars. Latvia decided that a changed design of the monument would not be as recognisable and decided to use the Latvian maiden, used on the 1 euro coin, on the 2 euro coin as well. For the design of images on the common side and a detailed description of the coins, see euro coins. A tender for minting the Latvian euro coins began on 20 September 2012. On 10 December 2012, it was announced that Latvia will utilise the Baden-Württemberg Mint. The coins were minted in Stuttgart except the 1 cent, 10 cent and 1 euro coins, which were minted in Karlsruhe. The production of Latvian euros began in July 2013.", "", "2014: Germany (Stuttgart): 2 cent, 5 cent, 20 cent, 50 cent, 2 euro. 2014: Germany (Karlsruhe): 1 cent, 10 cent, 1 euro. 2015-2018: Germany (Stuttgart)" ] }

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{ "title": [ "State farm in the USSR." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Soviet state farms, began to be created in 1918 as an ideological example of \"socialist agriculture of the highest order\". Kolkhozes, or collective farms, were regarded for a long time as an intermediate stage in the transition to the ideal of state farming. While kolkhozy were typically created by combining small individual farms together in a cooperative structure, a sovkhoz would be organized by the state on land confiscated from former large estates (so-called \"state reserve land\" that was left over after distribution of land to individuals) and sovkhoz workers would be recruited from among landless rural residents. The sovkhoz employees would be paid regulated wages, whereas the remuneration system in a kolkhoz relied on cooperative-style distribution of farm earnings (in cash and in kind) among the members. In farms of both types, however, a system of internal passports prevented movement of employees and members from rural areas to urban areas. In effect farmers became tied to their sovkhoz or kolkhoz in what is described by some as a system of \"neo-serfdom\". In 1990, the Soviet Union had 23,500 sovkhozy, or 45% of the total number of large-scale collective and state farms. The average size of a sovkhoz was 15,300 hectares (153 km2), nearly three times the average kolkhoz (5,900 hectares or 59 km2 in 1990). Sovkhoz farms were more dominant in the Central Asian part of the Soviet Union. During the transition era of the 1990s, many state farms were reorganized using joint stock arrangements, although the development of land markets remained constrained by opposition to private ownership of land." ] }