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"title": [
"Example.",
"Properties.",
"Decomposition into symmetric and skew-symmetric.",
"Matrix congruent to a symmetric matrix.",
"Symmetry implies normality.",
"Real symmetric matrices.",
"Complex symmetric matrices.",
"Decomposition.",
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"The following formula_6 matrix is symmetric:",
"",
"Any square matrix can uniquely be written as sum of a symmetric and a skew-symmetric matrix. This decomposition is known as the Toeplitz decomposition. Let formula_19 denote the space of formula_20 matrices. If formula_21 denotes the space of formula_20 symmetric matrices and formula_23 the space of formula_20 skew-symmetric matrices then formula_25 and formula_26, i.e. where formula_28 denotes the direct sum. Let formula_29 then Notice that formula_31 and formula_32. This is true for every square matrix formula_33 with entries from any field whose characteristic is different from 2. A symmetric formula_20 matrix is determined by formula_35 scalars (the number of entries on or above the main diagonal). Similarly, a skew-symmetric matrix is determined by formula_36 scalars (the number of entries above the main diagonal).",
"Any matrix congruent to a symmetric matrix is again symmetric: if formula_33 is a symmetric matrix then so is formula_38 for any matrix formula_8.",
"A (real-valued) symmetric matrix is necessarily a normal matrix.",
"Denote by formula_40 the standard inner product on formula_41. The real formula_20 matrix formula_8 is symmetric if and only if Since this definition is independent of the choice of basis, symmetry is a property that depends only on the linear operator A and a choice of inner product. This characterization of symmetry is useful, for example, in differential geometry, for each tangent space to a manifold may be endowed with an inner product, giving rise to what is called a Riemannian manifold. Another area where this formulation is used is in Hilbert spaces. The finite-dimensional spectral theorem says that any symmetric matrix whose entries are real can be diagonalized by an orthogonal matrix. More explicitly: For every symmetric real matrix formula_8 there exists a real orthogonal matrix formula_46 such that formula_47 is a diagonal matrix. Every symmetric matrix is thus, up to choice of an orthonormal basis, a diagonal matrix. If formula_8 and formula_9 are formula_20 real symmetric matrices that commute, then they can be simultaneously diagonalized: there exists a basis of formula_41 such that every element of the basis is an eigenvector for both formula_8 and formula_9. Every real symmetric matrix is Hermitian, and therefore all its eigenvalues are real. (In fact, the eigenvalues are the entries in the diagonal matrix formula_54 (above), and therefore formula_54 is uniquely determined by formula_8 up to the order of its entries.) Essentially, the property of being symmetric for real matrices corresponds to the property of being Hermitian for complex matrices.",
"A complex symmetric matrix can be 'diagonalized' using a unitary matrix: thus if formula_8 is a complex symmetric matrix, there is a unitary matrix formula_58 such that formula_59 is a real diagonal matrix with non-negative entries. This result is referred to as the Autonne–Takagi factorization. It was originally proved by Léon Autonne (1915) and Teiji Takagi (1925) and rediscovered with different proofs by several other mathematicians. In fact, the matrix formula_60 is Hermitian and positive semi-definite, so there is a unitary matrix formula_61 such that formula_62 is diagonal with non-negative real entries. Thus formula_63 is complex symmetric with formula_64 real. Writing formula_65 with formula_33 and formula_67 real symmetric matrices, formula_68. Thus formula_69. Since formula_33 and formula_67 commute, there is a real orthogonal matrix formula_72 such that both formula_73 and formula_74 are diagonal. Setting formula_75 (a unitary matrix), the matrix formula_76 is complex diagonal. Pre-multiplying formula_58 by a suitable diagonal unitary matrix (which preserves unitarity of formula_58), the diagonal entries of formula_76 can be made to be real and non-negative as desired. To construct this matrix, we express the diagonal matrix as formula_80. The matrix we seek is simply given by formula_81. Clearly formula_82 as desired, so we make the modification formula_83. Since their squares are the eigenvalues of formula_84, they coincide with the singular values of formula_8. (Note, about the eigen-decomposition of a complex symmetric matrix formula_8, the Jordan normal form of formula_8 may not be diagonal, therefore formula_8 may not be diagonalized by any similarity transformation.)",
"Using the Jordan normal form, one can prove that every square real matrix can be written as a product of two real symmetric matrices, and every square complex matrix can be written as a product of two complex symmetric matrices. Every real non-singular matrix can be uniquely factored as the product of an orthogonal matrix and a symmetric positive definite matrix, which is called a polar decomposition. Singular matrices can also be factored, but not uniquely. Cholesky decomposition states that every real positive-definite symmetric matrix formula_8 is a product of a lower-triangular matrix formula_90 and its transpose, If the matrix is symmetric indefinite, it may be still decomposed as formula_92 where formula_93 is a permutation matrix (arising from the need to pivot), formula_90 a lower unit triangular matrix, and formula_54 is a direct sum of symmetric formula_96 and formula_97 blocks, which is called Bunch–Kaufman decomposition A complex symmetric matrix may not be diagonalizable by similarity; every real symmetric matrix is diagonalizable by a real orthogonal similarity. Every complex symmetric matrix formula_8 can be diagonalized by unitary congruence where formula_46 is a unitary matrix. If A is real, the matrix formula_46 is a real orthogonal matrix, (the columns of which are eigenvectors of formula_8), and formula_103 is real and diagonal (having the eigenvalues of formula_8 on the diagonal). To see orthogonality, suppose formula_105 and formula_106 are eigenvectors corresponding to distinct eigenvalues formula_107, formula_108. Then Since formula_107 and formula_108 are distinct, we have formula_112.",
"Symmetric formula_20 matrices of real functions appear as the Hessians of twice continuously differentiable functions of formula_14 real variables. Every quadratic form formula_115 on formula_41 can be uniquely written in the form formula_117 with a symmetric formula_20 matrix formula_8. Because of the above spectral theorem, one can then say that every quadratic form, up to the choice of an orthonormal basis of formula_41, \"looks like\" with real numbers formula_122. This considerably simplifies the study of quadratic forms, as well as the study of the level sets formula_123 which are generalizations of conic sections. This is important partly because the second-order behavior of every smooth multi-variable function is described by the quadratic form belonging to the function's Hessian; this is a consequence of Taylor's theorem.",
"An formula_20 matrix formula_8 is said to be symmetrizable if there exists an invertible diagonal matrix formula_54 and symmetric matrix formula_127 such that formula_128 The transpose of a symmetrizable matrix is symmetrizable, since formula_129 and formula_130 is symmetric. A matrix formula_131 is symmetrizable if and only if the following conditions are met:",
"Other types of symmetry or pattern in square matrices have special names; see for example: See also symmetry in mathematics."
]
} |
Bohumír Šmeral | null | Bohumír Šmeral (25 October 1880 in Třebíč, Margraviate of Moravia – 8 May 1941 in Moscow) was a Czech politician, leader of the Czech Social Democratic Party, and one of founders of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia. | null | [
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"title": [
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"Political career."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1"
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"content": [
"Šmeral was born into a relatively well to-do family in a small town. While studying at the gymnasium in Třebíč he joined the local wing of the Czech Social Democratic Party. During 1898–1904 he studied law at the Charles University in Prague and actively engaged in politics. Since 1899 he also worked as a journalist in the party newspaper Právo lidu and as a public speaker. He also published several theoretical works.",
"Being able, outspoken and hard working, Šmeral was elected to the executive committee of social democracy (in 1909) and into the parliament of Austria (Reichsrat), in 1911. According to historian Jan Galandauer he was the most competent politician among Czech social democrats. During World War I Šmeral became head of social democracy. He advocated federalization of Austria-Hungary as the best way to achieve the goals of the worker's movement and argued against creation of small national states. As the war dragged on and faith in the monarchy vanished, the other leaders of the party grew discontented. During September 1917, Gustav Habrman, František Soukup, František Tomášek, Rudolf Bechyně and others criticized Šmeral for his pro-Austrian stance and forced him to resign. After 28 October 1918, when Czechoslovakia was established, he refused to participate in politics of the new state and until the end of 1919 worked as a correspondent of \"Právo lidu\" in Switzerland. During the spring of 1920, Šmeral visited Soviet Russia where he discussed the future directions of the left movement in Czechoslovakia with V. I. Lenin. After his return, he led the left-wing of Social Democracy, preparing for the creation of the communist party and participated in work of the Comintern. In May 1921 he co-founded, together with Antonín Zápotocký, the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (KSČ) and served in its executive committee (later named the central committee, ÚV KSČ). Šmeral was criticized as too moderate and for \"social democratism\" by radicals. He worked as an executive of the Comintern from 1926, most of the time outside Czechoslovakia. During the 1930s he organized anti-fascist movements. In September 1938, after the Sudetenland Crisis resulted in the Munich Agreement, he left for Moscow and joined the exiled leadership (\"zahraniční vedení\") of the KSČ (soon banned in Nazi-occupied Czechoslovakia)."
]
} |
Fritz London | null | Fritz Wolfgang London (March 7, 1900 – March 30, 1954) was a German physicist and professor at Duke University. His fundamental contributions to the theories of chemical bonding and of intermolecular forces (London dispersion forces) are today considered classic and are discussed in standard textbooks of physical chemistry. With his brother Heinz London, he made a significant contribution to understanding electromagnetic properties of superconductors with the London equations and was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Chemistry on five separate occasions. | null | [
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"title": [
"Biography.",
"Academic achievements.",
"Fritz London Memorial Lectures and Prize."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
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"content": [
"London was born in Breslau, Germany (now Wrocław, Poland) as the son of Franz London (1863-1917). Being a Jew, London lost his position at the University of Berlin after Hitler's Nazi Party passed the 1933 racial laws. He took visiting positions in England and France, and emigrated to the United States in 1939, of which he became a naturalized citizen in 1945. Later in his life, London was a professor at Duke University. He was awarded the Lorentz Medal in 1953. He died from a heart ailment in Durham, North Carolina, in 1954.",
"London's early work with Walter Heitler on chemical bonding is now treated in any textbook on physical chemistry. This paper was the first to properly explain the bonding in a homonuclear molecule such as H. It is no coincidence that the Heitler–London work appeared shortly after the introduction of quantum mechanics by Heisenberg and Schrödinger, because quantum mechanics was crucial in their explanation of the covalent bond. Another necessary ingredient was the realization that electrons are indistinguishable, as expressed in the Pauli principle. Other early work of London was in the area of intermolecular forces. He coined the expression \"dispersion effect\" for the attraction between two rare gas atoms at large (say about 1 nanometer) distance from each other. Nowadays this attraction is often referred to as \"London force\". In 1930 he gave (together with R. Eisenschitz) a unified treatment of the interaction between two noble gas atoms that attract each other at large distance, but repel each other at short distances. Eisenschitz and London showed that this repulsion is a consequence of enforcing the electronic wavefunction to be antisymmetric under electron permutations. This antisymmetry is required by the Pauli principle and the fact that electrons are fermions. For atoms and nonpolar molecules, the London dispersion force is the only intermolecular force, and is responsible for their existence in liquid and solid states. For polar molecules, this force is one part of the van der Waals force, along with forces between the permanent molecular dipole moments. London was the first theoretical physicist to make the fundamental, and at the time controversial, suggestion that superfluidity is intrinsically related to the Einstein condensation of bosons, a phenomenon now known as Bose–Einstein condensation. Bose recognized that the statistics of massless photons could also be applied to massive particles; he did not contribute to the theory of the condensation of bosons. London was also one of the early authors (including Schrödinger) to have properly understood the principle of local gauge invariance (Weyl) in the context of the then new quantum mechanics. London predicted the effect of flux quantization in superconductors and with his brother Heinz postulated that the electrodynamics of superconductors is described by a massive field. I.e. that whilst magnetic flux is expelled from a superconductor, this happens exponentially over a finite length with an exponent which is now called the London penetration depth. London also developed a theory of a rotational response of a superconductor, pointing out that rotation of a superconductor generates magnetic field London moment. This effect is used in models of rotational dynamics of neutron stars.",
"Since 1956, the Fritz London Memorial Lectures have brought to the scientific community at Duke University a distinguished group of lecturers including twenty Nobel laureates. The scientific interests of each lecturer impinge at one or more points upon the various fields of physics and chemistry to which Fritz London contributed. In December 1972, John Bardeen, two-time winner of the Nobel Prize in Physics, established an endowment fund \"to perpetuate the memory of Fritz London, distinguished scientist and member of the Duke faculty from 1939 to the time of his death in 1954, and to promote research and understanding of Physics at Duke University and in the wider scientific community\". The fund is to be used to underwrite the Fritz London Memorial Prize, given in recognition of outstanding contributions in Low Temperature Physics, and provide support for the London Memorial Lectures at Duke University."
]
} |
Doubling the cube | null | Doubling the cube, also known as the Delian problem, is an ancient geometric problem. Given the edge of a cube, the problem requires the construction of the edge of a second cube whose volume is double that of the first. As with the related problems of squaring the circle and trisecting the angle, doubling the cube is now known to be impossible using only a compass and straightedge, but even in ancient times solutions were known that employed other tools. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-2434473 | en-train-2434473 | 2434473 | {
"title": [
"Proof of impossibility.",
"History.",
"Solutions via means other than compass and straightedge.",
"Using a marked ruler.",
"In music theory."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"We begin with the unit line segment defined by points (0,0) and (1,0) in the plane. We are required to construct a line segment defined by two points separated by a distance of. It is easily shown that compass and straightedge constructions would allow such a line segment to be freely moved to touch the origin, parallel with the unit line segment - so equivalently we may consider the task of constructing a line segment from (0,0) to (, 0), which entails constructing the point (, 0). Respectively, the tools of a compass and straightedge allow us to create circles centred on one previously defined point and passing through another, and to create lines passing through two previously defined points. Any newly defined point either arises as the result of the intersection of two such circles, as the intersection of a circle and a line, or as the intersection of two lines. An exercise of elementary analytic geometry shows that in all three cases, both the - and -coordinates of the newly defined point satisfy a polynomial of degree no higher than a quadratic, with coefficients that are additions, subtractions, multiplications, and divisions involving the coordinates of the previously defined points (and rational numbers). Restated in more abstract terminology, the new - and -coordinates have minimal polynomials of degree at most 2 over the subfield of generated by the previous coordinates. Therefore, the degree of the field extension corresponding to each new coordinate is 2 or 1. So, given a coordinate of any constructed point, we may proceed inductively backwards through the - and -coordinates of the points in the order that they were defined until we reach the original pair of points (0,0) and (1,0). As every field extension has degree 2 or 1, and as the field extension over of the coordinates of the original pair of points is clearly of degree 1, it follows from the tower rule that the degree of the field extension over of any coordinate of a constructed point is a power of 2. Now, is easily seen to be irreducible over – any factorisation would involve a linear factor for some, and so must be a root of ; but also must divide 2, that is, or, and none of these are roots of. By Gauss's Lemma, is also irreducible over, and is thus a minimal polynomial over for. The field extension is therefore of degree 3. But this is not a power of 2, so by the above, is not the coordinate of a constructible point, and thus a line segment of cannot be constructed, and the cube cannot be doubled.",
"The problem owes its name to a story concerning the citizens of Delos, who consulted the oracle at Delphi in order to learn how to defeat a plague sent by Apollo. According to Plutarch it was the citizens of Delos who consulted the oracle at Delphi, seeking a solution for their internal political problems at the time, which had intensified relationships among the citizens. The oracle responded that they must double the size of the altar to Apollo, which was a regular cube. The answer seemed strange to the Delians and they consulted Plato, who was able to interpret the oracle as the mathematical problem of doubling the volume of a given cube, thus explaining the oracle as the advice of Apollo for the citizens of Delos to occupy themselves with the study of geometry and mathematics in order to calm down their passions. According to Plutarch, Plato gave the problem to Eudoxus and Archytas and Menaechmus, who solved the problem using mechanical means, earning a rebuke from Plato for not solving the problem using pure geometry (Plut., \"Quaestiones convivales\" VIII.ii, 718ef). This may be why the problem is referred to in the 350s BC by the author of the pseudo-Platonic \"Sisyphus\" (388e) as still unsolved. However another version of the story (attributed to Eratosthenes by Eutocius of Ascalon) says that all three found solutions but they were too abstract to be of practical value. A significant development in finding a solution to the problem was the discovery by Hippocrates of Chios that it is equivalent to finding two mean proportionals between a line segment and another with twice the length. In modern notation, this means that given segments of lengths and, the duplication of the cube is equivalent to finding segments of lengths and so that In turn, this means that But Pierre Wantzel proved in 1837 that the cube root of 2 is not constructible; that is, it cannot be constructed with straightedge and compass.",
"Menaechmus' original solution involves the intersection of two conic curves. Other more complicated methods of doubling the cube involve neusis, the cissoid of Diocles, the conchoid of Nicomedes, or the Philo line. Pandrosion, a female mathematician of ancient Greece, found a numerically-accurate approximate solution using planes in three dimensions, but was heavily criticized by Pappus of Alexandria for not providing a proper mathematical proof. Archytas solved the problem in the 4th century BC using geometric construction in three dimensions, determining a certain point as the intersection of three surfaces of revolution. False claims of doubling the cube with compass and straightedge abound in mathematical crank literature (pseudomathematics). Origami may also be used to construct the cube root of two by folding paper.",
"There is a simple neusis construction using a marked ruler for a length which is the cube root of 2 times another length. Then AG is the given length times.",
"In music theory, a natural analogue of doubling is the octave (a musical interval caused by doubling the frequency of a tone), and a natural analogue of a cube is dividing the octave into three parts, each the same interval. In this sense, the problem of doubling the cube is solved by the major third in equal temperament. This is a musical interval that is exactly one third of an octave. It multiplies the frequency of a tone by, the side length of the Delian cube."
]
} |
Peter Debye | null | Peter Joseph William Debye (; ; March 24, 1884 – November 2, 1966) was a Dutch-American physicist and physical chemist, and Nobel laureate in Chemistry. | null | [
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"title": [
"Biography.",
"Early life.",
"Family and Personal Life.",
"Scientific contributions.",
"Later work.",
"War activities and controversies.",
"2006 controversy.",
"International response.",
"2007 NIOD report.",
"2008 Terlouw report.",
"Debye the spy."
],
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"content": [
"",
"Born Petrus Josephus Wilhelmus Debije in Maastricht, Netherlands, Debye enrolled in the Aachen University of Technology in 1901. In 1905, he completed his first degree in electrical engineering. He published his first paper, a mathematically elegant solution of a problem involving eddy currents, in 1907. At Aachen, he studied under the theoretical physicist Arnold Sommerfeld, who later claimed that his most important discovery was Peter Debye. In 1906, Sommerfeld received an appointment at Munich, Bavaria, and took Debye with him as his assistant. Debye got his Ph.D. with a dissertation on radiation pressure in 1908. In 1910, he derived the Planck radiation formula using a method which Max Planck agreed was simpler than his own. In 1911, when Albert Einstein took an appointment as a professor at Prague, Bohemia, Debye took his old professorship at the University of Zurich, Switzerland. This was followed by moves to Utrecht in 1912, to Göttingen in 1913, to ETH Zurich in 1920, to University of Leipzig in 1927, and in 1934 to Berlin, where, succeeding Einstein, he became director of the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics (now named the Max-Planck-Institut) whose facilities were built only during Debye's era. He was awarded the Lorentz Medal in 1935. From 1937 to 1939 he was the president of the Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft. In May 1914 he became member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences and in December of the same year he became foreign member.",
"Debye was described as a martinet when it came to scientific principles, yet was always approachable and made time for his students. His personal philosophy emphasized a fulfillment of purpose and enjoyment in one's work. Debye was an avid trout fisherman and gardener, collector of cacti, and was \"always known to enjoy a nice cigar\". While in Berlin as an assistant to Arnold Sommerfeld, Debye became acquainted with Mathilde Alberer. Mathilde was the daughter of the proprietor of the boarding house in which Debye was staying. Mathilde would soon change her citizenship and in 1913, Debye married Mathilde Alberer. Debye would enjoy working in his rose garden with Mathilde Albere late into his years. They had a son, Peter P. Debye (1916-2012), and a daughter, Mathilde Maria (born 1921). Peter became a physicist and collaborated with Debye in some of his researches, and had a son who was also a chemist. Debye was a faithful Catholic who insisted his family go to church.",
"His first major scientific contribution was the application of the concept of dipole moment to the charge distribution in asymmetric molecules in 1912, developing equations relating dipole moments to temperature and dielectric constant. In consequence, the units of molecular dipole moments are termed \"debyes\" in his honor. Also in 1912, he extended Albert Einstein's theory of specific heat to lower temperatures by including contributions from low-frequency phonons. See Debye model. In 1913, he extended Niels Bohr's theory of atomic structure, introducing elliptical orbits, a concept also introduced by Arnold Sommerfeld. In 1914–1915, Debye calculated the effect of temperature on X-ray diffraction patterns of crystalline solids with Paul Scherrer (the \"Debye–Waller factor\"). In 1923, together with his assistant Erich Hückel, he developed an improvement of Svante Arrhenius' theory of electrical conductivity in electrolyte solutions. Although an improvement was made to the Debye–Hückel equation in 1926 by Lars Onsager, the theory is still regarded as a major forward step in our understanding of electrolytic solutions. Also in 1923, Debye developed a theory to explain the Compton effect, the shifting of the frequency of X-rays when they interact with electrons.",
"From 1934 to 1939 Debye was director of the physics section of the prestigious Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in Berlin. From 1936 onwards he was also professor of Theoretical Physics at the Frederick William University of Berlin. These positions were held during the Nazi Germany in Germany and, from 1938 onward, Austria. In 1939 Debye traveled to the United States to deliver the Baker Lectures at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York. After leaving Germany in early 1940, Debye became a professor at Cornell, chaired the chemistry department for 10 years, and became a member of Alpha Chi Sigma. In 1946 he became an American citizen. Unlike the European phase of his life, where he moved from city to city every few years, in the United States Debye remained at Cornell for the remainder of his career. He retired in 1952, but continued research until his death. Much of Debye's work at Cornell concerned the use of light-scattering techniques (derived from his X-ray scattering work of years earlier) to determine the size and molecular weight of polymer molecules. This started as a result of his research during World War II on synthetic rubber, but was extended to proteins and other macromolecules. In April 1966, Debye suffered a heart attack, and in November of that year a second one proved fatal. He is buried in the Pleasant Grove Cemetery (Ithaca, New York, USA).",
"",
"In January 2006, a book (in Dutch) appeared in The Netherlands, written by Sybe Rispens, entitled \"Einstein in the Netherlands.\" One chapter of this book discusses the relationship between Albert Einstein and Debye. Rispens discovered documents that, as he believed, were new and proved that, during his directorship of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society, Debye was actively involved in cleansing German science institutions of Jewish and other \"non-Aryan elements\". Rispens records that on December 9, 1938, Debye wrote in his capacity as chairman of the \"Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft\" (DPG) to all the members of the DPG: \"In light of the current situation, membership by German Jews as stipulated by the Nuremberg laws, of the Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft cannot be continued. According to the wishes of the board, I ask of all members to whom these definitions apply to report to me their resignation. Heil Hitler!\" Many biographies published before Rispens' work, state that Debye moved to the US because he refused to accept German citizenship forced on to him by the Nazis. He planned his departure from Germany during a visit with his mother in Maastricht in late 1939, boarded a ship in Genoa in January 1940 and arrived in New York in early February 1940. He immediately sought a permanent position in the US and accepted such an offer from Cornell in June 1940. That month, he crossed the US border into Canada and returned within days on an immigration visa. He was able to get his wife out of Germany and to the US by December 1940. Although his son already was in the US before he departed, Peter Debye's 19-year-old daughter and his sister-in-law did not leave. They lived in his official residence in Berlin and were supported by Debye's official Berlin wages (he carefully maintained an official leave of absence for this purpose). Further, Rispens alleges that Albert Einstein in the first half of 1940 tried to prevent Debye from being appointed in the United States at Cornell. Einstein allegedly wrote to his American colleagues: \"I know from a reliable source that Peter Debye is still in close contact with the German (Nazi) leaders\" and, according to Rispens, called upon his colleagues to do \"what they consider their duty as American citizens\". To support this, Rispens refers to a well-known letter from Debye to Einstein and Einstein's response to it. Van Ginkel investigated 1940 FBI reports on this matter and traced the \"reliable source\" to a single letter directed to Einstein and written by someone whose name is lost. This person was not known personally to Einstein and, according to Einstein, probably did not know Debye personally either. Moreover, this accusatory letter did not reach Einstein directly but was intercepted by British censors who showed it to Einstein. Einstein sent the British agent with the letter to Cornell, and the Cornell authorities told Debye about the affair. Thereupon Debye wrote his well-known 1940 letter to Einstein to which Einstein answered. The latter two letters can be found in the published Einstein correspondence. Rispens alleges that Debye sent a telegram to Berlin on 23 June 1941 informing his previous employers that he was able and willing to resume his responsibilities at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institut, presumably in order to maintain his leave of absence and keep the Berlin house and wages available for his daughter. A copy of this telegram has not been recovered thus far. In summer 1941, Debye filed his intent to become a US citizen and was quickly recruited in the US to participate in the Allied War research. It has been well documented in many biographies, and also in Rispens' book, that Debye and Dutch colleagues helped his Jewish colleague Lise Meitner in 1938–1939 (at great risk to himself and his family) cross the Dutch-German border to escape Nazi persecution and eventually obtain a position in Sweden. Predating Rispens' work, and in contrast to it, an article by Rechenberg appeared 18 years earlier concerning Debye's letter. The article describes Debye's missive in more detail and presents a very favorable picture of Debye in his efforts to resist the Nazi activists. Moreover, this article points out that Max von Laue, well known for his anti-Nazi views, gave his approval to the letter from the DPG chairman.",
"Debye's son, Peter P. Debye, interviewed in 2006 at age 89 recollects that his father was completely apolitical and that in the privacy of their home politics were never discussed. According to his son, Debye just wanted to do his job at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute and as long as the Nazis did not bother him was able to do so. He recalls that his mother urged him (the son) to stay in the US in the event of war. Debye's son had come to the US on a planned 2-month vacation during the summer of 1939 and never returned to Germany because war did, indeed, break out. In an opinion article published on the Debye Institute website, Dr. Gijs van Ginkel, until April 2007 Senior Managing Director of the VM Debye Instituut in Utrecht deplored this decision. In his article he cites scholars who point out that the DPG was able to retain their threatened staff as long as could be expected under increasing pressure from the Nazis. He also puts forward the important argument that when Debye in 1950 received the Max Planck medal of the DPG, nobody objected, not even the known opponent of the national socialists Max von Laue, who would have been in a position to object. Also Einstein, with his enormous prestige, was still alive, as were other Jewish scientists such as Lise Meitner and James Franck who both knew Debye intimately. None of them protested against Debye's receiving the highest German scientific distinction. In fact, Albert Einstein, after many years of not participating in the voting for the Max Planck Medal nominees, joined the process again to vote for Debye. Maastricht University also announced that it was reconsidering its position on the \"Peter Debye Prijs voor natuurwetenschappelijk onderzoek\" (Peter Debye Prize for scientific research). In a reply on the DPG website, Dieter Hoffmann and Mark Walker also conclude that Debye was not a Nazi activist. They remark that Max von Laue also was required and obliged (as a civil servant) to sign letters with \"Heil Hitler\". They also state that the DPG was one of the last scientific societies to purge the Jewish members and only very reluctantly. They quote the response of the \"Reich University Teachers League\" (a National Socialist organization) to the Debye letter: \"Obviously the German Physical Society is still very backward and still clings tightly to their dear Jews. It is in fact remarkable that only \"because of circumstances beyond our control\" the membership of Jews can no longer be maintained\" In May 2006, the Dutch Nobel Prize winner Martinus Veltman who had written the foreword to the Rispen book, renounced the book's description of Peter Debye, withdrew his foreword, and asked the Board of Directors of Utrecht University to rescind their decision to rename the Debye Institute. Various historical investigations, both in The Netherlands and in the US, have been carried out subsequent to the actions of the University of Maastricht. The earliest of these investigations, carried out by the Cornell University's department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology is now complete. The report of the Cornell investigation, released on 31 May 2006, states that: \"Based on the information to-date, we have not found evidence supporting the accusations that Debye was a Nazi sympathizer or collaborator or that he held anti-Semitic views. It is important that this be stated clearly since these are the most serious allegations.\" It goes on to declare: \"Thus, based on the information, evidence and historical record known to date, we believe that any action that dissociates Debye's name from the Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology at Cornell is unwarranted.\" In June 2006, it was reported that the scientific director of the (formerly) Debye Institute had been reprimanded by the Board of Directors of the University of Utrecht for a new publication on Debye's war years on the grounds that it was too personally biased with respect to the Institute's naming dispute. According to the board, the book should have been published not as a Debye Institute publication, but as a personal one. The book was banned by the University of Utrecht and both Directors of the (former) Debye Institute were forbidden to have any further contact with the press. A dozen professors of the Physics Faculty, amongst whom Cees Andriesse, openly protested against the interventions of the Board and the censorship of their protest by the university. In May 2007, the universities of Utrecht and Maastricht announced that a new committee headed by Jan Terlouw would advise them regarding the name change. Also, in the beginning of 2007 an official report was announced, to be published by the NIOD and authorized by the Dutch Education Ministry (then scheduled for fall 2007).",
"The report describes Rispens' presentation of Debye, as an opportunist who had no objection to the Nazis, as a caricature. \"[I]t can be stated that Debye was rightly called an opportunist after his arrival in the United States. We have seen that he showed himself to be loyal to the dominant political system, first in the Third Reich and then in the United States, while at the same time keeping the back door open: in the Third Reich by retaining his Dutch nationality, in the United States by attempting to secretly maintain some contacts with Nazi Germany via the Foreign Office.\" It concludes that Debye's actions in 1933–45 were based on the nineteenth-century positivist view of science which saw research in physics as generating blessings for humankind. The report states that, by his contemporaries, Debye was considered an opportunist by some and as a man of highest character by others. The report asserts that Debye was not coerced by the Nazis into writing the infamous DPG \"Heil Hitler\" letter and that he also did not follow the lead of other societies in doing so but, rather, other societies followed his lead. The NIOD report also concludes that Debye felt obliged to send the letter and that it was, for him, simply a confirmation of an existing situation. The report argues that Debye, in the Third Reich, developed a survival method of ambiguity which allowed him to pursue his scientific career despite the political turmoil. Crucial to this survival method was the need to keep ready an escape hatch, for example in his secret dealings with the Nazis in 1941, if needed. Yet, the report also states that the picture of Debye should not be oversimplified as Debye's actions were also motivated by his loyalty to his daughter, who had remained in Berlin. In general, Debye developed a survival method of ambiguity, that \"could pull the wool over people's eyes\".",
"In January 2008 the Terlouw Commission advised \"the Boards of Utrecht and Maastricht Universities to continue to use Peter Debye’s name for the chemistry and physics institute in Utrecht, and to continue awarding the science prize in Maastricht\". The Commission concluded that Debye was not a party member, was not an anti-semite, did not further Nazi propaganda, did not cooperate with the Nazi war machine, was not a collaborator, and yet also was not a resistance hero. He was a rather pragmatic, flexible, and brilliant scientist, idealistic with respect to the pursuit of science, but only superficially oriented in politics. With respect to sending out the DPG letter, the Commission concluded that Debye found the situation inescapable. The Commission pointed out that the Royal Dutch Academy of Sciences also took away Albert Einstein's honorary membership, emphasizing the circumstances in which these decisions had been taken. The Commission stated that now, seventy years later, no judgment can be made concerning the decision of Debye to sign this letter in the exceptionally difficult circumstances in which he then found himself. Nevertheless, the Commission describes the DPG letter as an extraordinarily unpleasant fact, forming a dark page in his life history. Finally, the Commission concluded that based on the NIOD report \"since no bad faith on Debye’s part has been demonstrated, his good faith must be assumed\" and recommended that the University of Utrecht retain the name of the Debye Institute of NanoMaterials Science and that the University of Maastricht continue to associate itself with the Peter Debye Prize. Utrecht University accepted the recommendation, Maastricht University did not. But in February 2008, the Hustinx Foundation (Maastricht), originator and sponsor of the Peter Debye Prize, announced that it will continue to have the prize awarded. The City of Maastricht, Debye's birthplace, declared that it sees no reason to change the names of Debye Street and Debye Square.",
"In a 2010 publication Jurrie Reiding asserts that Debye may have been an MI6 spy. Reiding discovered that Debye was befriended by the well-documented spy Paul Rosbaud. They first met around 1930 when they were both working as editors for two scientific journals. They collaborated in the escape of Lise Meitner in 1938. According to Reiding, Debye was well connected in German scientific and industrial circles and could have provided MI6 with valuable information. For example, as board member of the German Academy for Aviation Research he was acquainted with Hermann Göring. Reiding also offers an explanation for Debye's hasty departure on 16 January 1940 for the United States: the date coincided with the planned (but later delayed) German invasion of the Netherlands a day later, information possibly passed on to him by Rosbaud. This hypothesis is contested by Philip Ball, as he notes that friendship with Rosbaud is no gauge of Debye's political stance. Rosbaud was well-connected with many people and Debye, while he was a friend of Rosbaud's, seems to have also felt regard for geologist Friedrich Drescher-Kaden, an ardent Nazi."
]
} |
Steven Gerrard | null | Steven George Gerrard (born 30 May 1980) is an English professional football manager and former player who manages Scottish Premiership club Rangers. He spent the majority of his playing career as a central midfielder for Liverpool, with most of that time spent as club captain, as well as captaining the England national team. Widely regarded as one of the greatest midfielders of his generation, and of all time, Gerrard was awarded the UEFA Club Footballer of the Year award in 2005, and the Ballon d'Or Bronze Award. In 2009, Zinedine Zidane and Pelé said that they considered Gerrard to be the best footballer in the world. A versatile and well-rounded player, highly regarded for his leadership, Gerrard is the only footballer to score in an FA Cup Final, a League Cup Final, a UEFA Cup Final and a UEFA Champions League Final, winning on each occasion. | null | [
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"title": [
"Early life.",
"Club career.",
"Liverpool.",
"1998–2004: Beginnings, Cup treble and club captaincy.",
"2004–2007: Champions League and FA Cup success.",
"2007–2012: Continued success and stardom.",
"2012–2015: Final seasons with Liverpool.",
"LA Galaxy.",
"International career.",
"Coaching career.",
"Liverpool Academy.",
"Rangers.",
"Style of play.",
"Outside football.",
"Personal life.",
"Autobiography.",
"Legal problems.",
"Entertainment.",
"Sponsorship.",
"Honours.",
"Player.",
"Manager."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"3",
"3",
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"content": [
"Born in Whiston, Merseyside, Gerrard started out playing for hometown team Whiston Juniors, where he was noticed by Liverpool scouts. He joined the Liverpool Academy at age nine. His childhood footballing heroes were John Barnes and Ian Rush at Liverpool and Paul Gascoigne for England. Although not a Catholic and living outside the catchment area, Gerrard attended",
"",
"",
"Gerrard made his Liverpool first-team debut on 29 November 1998 in a Premier League match against Blackburn Rovers as a last-minute substitute for Vegard Heggem. He made thirteen appearances in his debut season, filling in for injured captain Jamie Redknapp in centre-midfield. He also occasionally played on the right wing, but he scarcely contributed in the short on-pitch time he received, due to nervousness affecting his play. Gerrard recalled in a November 2008 interview with \"The Guardian\", \"I was out of position and out of my depth.\" The Liverpool hierarchy nonetheless remained convinced that he would improve. Gerrard saw himself as a defensive player primarily, looking to make key tackles rather than push the team forward. Gerrard began to regularly partner Redknapp in central midfield for the 1999–2000 season. After starting the derby against Everton on the bench, he replaced Robbie Fowler in the second half but received his first career red card for a challenge to the upper leg of Everton's Kevin Campbell shortly afterwards in a game Liverpool lost 1–0. Later that season, Gerrard scored his first senior goal",
"Liverpool had a number of injuries early in the 2004–05 season, and a foot injury suffered in a September league match against Manchester United shelved Gerrard until late November. He returned to score in the last five minutes of a Champions League group stage match against Olympiacos to secure Liverpool's advancement to the knockout round. He claimed that this was his most important, if not his best, goal for Liverpool to date. However, Gerrard netted an own goal during the 2005 League Cup final on 27",
"Gerrard suffered a toe fracture in an August 2007 Champions League qualifier against Toulouse, but returned four days later to play the entirety of a 1–1 league draw against Chelsea. On 28 October 2007, Gerrard played his 400th game for Liverpool in a league match against Arsenal, in which he scored. He scored in all but one of Liverpool's domestic and European matches during the month of November, and after scoring the only goal in a Champions League away tie against Olympique de Marseille on 11 December, he became the first Liverpool player since John Aldridge in 1989 to score in seven consecutive games in all competitions. In December 2007, Gerrard was voted sixth (after Kaká, Lionel Messi, Cristiano Ronaldo, Didier Drogba and Ronaldinho) for the 2007 FIFA World Player of the Year. Gerrard made his 300th Premier League appearance on 13 April 2008 in a match against Blackburn Rovers, scoring the opening goal in a",
"On 18 August 2012, Gerrard played his 250th match as Liverpool captain. He scored his first Premier League goal of the season on 23 September, opening the scoring in a 2–1 defeat against Manchester United. On 15 July 2013, Gerrard signed a contract extension with Liverpool. On 3 August 2013, Liverpool played Olympiacos, against whom Gerrard scored arguably his most celebrated goal, at Anfield for Gerrard's charity fund-raising testimonial match. Liverpool won the match 2–0, in a game where past players such as Jamie Carragher and Robbie Fowler made appearances. Alder Hey Children's Charity, of which Gerrard is a founding partner, received £500,000 from the proceeds. On 16 September, Gerrard captained Liverpool for the 400th time in a 2–2 draw at Swansea City. On 5 October, Gerrard scored in a 3–1 win over Crystal Palace, becoming Liverpool's first ever player to score in 15 successive league campaigns, overtaking the record previously set by Billy Liddell. Also in October 2013, he became the longest-serving Liverpool captain, 10 years after his appointment by Gérard Houllier on 15 October 2013, breaking the previous record held by Alex Raisbeck, who captained Liverpool from 1899 to 1909. On 19 October 2013, Gerrard scored his 100th Premier League goal, a penalty against Newcastle United in a 2–2 draw. On 16 March 2014, Gerrard scored two penalties and missed another in Liverpool's 3–0 win over Manchester United at Old Trafford. On 6 April, he scored another two penalties as Liverpool beat West Ham United 2–1 to go top of the Premier League table with five matches to play. These goals took him above Kenny Dalglish as Liverpool's sixth-top goalscorer of all time. On 27 April, Gerrard was",
"On 7 January 2015, the LA Galaxy of Major League Soccer announced the signing of Gerrard to an 18-month Designated Player contract, reportedly worth $9 million. He joined the team in July, following the end of the 2014–15 Premier League season. On 11 July, Gerrard made his debut for the club in a mid-season friendly match against Club América, playing the first 45 minutes of the match in which Galaxy won 2–1. Three days later, Gerrard made his competitive debut for LA, coming on at half time for Ignacio Maganto in a 1–0 loss at Real Salt Lake in the US Open Cup quarter-finals. He made his MLS debut on 17 July, scoring once, while assisting one goal of his former Liverpool teammate",
"Gerrard made his international debut against Ukraine on 31 May 2000. That summer, he was called up for Euro 2000, making only one appearance as a substitute in a 1–0 win over Germany before England were eliminated in the group stage. He scored his first international goal in the famous 5–1 victory over Germany in a 2002 World Cup qualifier in September 2001, and while England qualified, Gerrard was forced to pull out of the squad due to his ongoing groin problems after pulling up in Liverpool's final match of the season against Ipswich. Before the Euro he won the only trophy with the national team in his career - friendly 2004 FA Summer Tournament Gerrard scored his second goal for the national team in the Euro 2004 qualifier against Macedonia on 16 October 2002 in a 2–2 draw, his third goal was the opener in a 2–1 win over Serbia and Montenegro on 3 June 2003. He was a regular starter in Euro 2004, scoring once to make it 3–0 in England's win over Switzerland in the second Group game of the tournament but England would be eliminated by the tournament hosts Portugal in the quarter-finals losing 6–5 on penalties in a match when Gerrard was substituted off in the 81st minute for Owen Hargreaves. He participated in his first World Cup in 2006 and scored two goals, both in the group stage, against Trinidad & Tobago and Sweden, although his spot kick was one of three saved by goalkeeper Ricardo as England again bowed out to Portugal in the quarter-finals on penalties. He was England's top scorer in the tournament. Gerrard was made vice-captain of the England team by coach Steve McClaren, and while he filled in for John Terry as captain, England suffered back-to-back losses to Russia and Croatia that ended their Euro 2008 qualifying hopes. After new coach Fabio Capello took over the team in early 2008, Gerrard was given a trial run as captain but Capello settled on Terry for the role. Gerrard was subsequently replaced as England vice-captain by Rio Ferdinand. Gerrard helped England qualify for the 2010 World Cup, scoring two goals in England's 5–1 win over Croatia. John Terry was replaced by Rio Ferdinand as captain in 2010, following revelations about the former's private life, and Gerrard subsequently became vice-captain again. When the England team left for the 2010 World Cup, Gerrard was the most experienced player in the squad with 80 caps. During preparations for the 2010 FIFA World Cup, however, Rio Ferdinand was injured, meaning that Gerrard was appointed by Capello as captain for the tournament. After the tournament Gerrard, part of a group of England players dubbed the \"Golden Generation\", confirmed that he would continue to be available for selection, despite suggestions from Capello that he would seek to re-build the team.",
"",
"In November 2016, days before retiring as a player, Gerrard had an interview for the vacant managerial post at League One club Milton Keynes Dons, but said that he was not ready for the job. In January 2017, he was appointed youth coach at Liverpool, effective from February. On 11 April, it was reported that Gerrard would be",
"In late April 2018, Gerrard entered talks to become the new manager of Scottish Premiership club Rangers. After the incumbent manager Graeme Murty was sacked on 1 May, Rangers announced on 4 May that Gerrard would become their new manager from 1 June, ahead of the 2018–19 season, signing a four-year",
"Regarded by several pundits and footballing figures as one of the greatest players of his generation, in 2009, Zinedine Zidane and Pelé said that they considered Gerrard to be the best footballer in the world. Known for his versatility and wide range of skills, he was capable of playing in a number of positions. A hardworking box-to-box player with great endurance in his prime, Gerrard was usually deployed as a central midfielder, but he had also been used as a second striker, a holding midfielder, an attacking midfielder, a right back, and a right winger. Gerrard began his professional career as a wide midfielder on the right, although he did not excel in this position as he had a tendency to commit careless fouls in his youth. Nevertheless, Liverpool retained their faith in the youngster, and he was later shifted to a defensive midfield position as he matured, where he excelled as a ball-winner rather than as a playmaker. He continued to evolve tactically, coming into his own in a box-to-box central midfield role, which allowed him to be effective both offensively and defensively; indeed, at his peak, he was known for his ability to make late runs from behind into the",
"",
"Gerrard's cousin, Anthony Gerrard, became a professional centre-back. He came through at Everton, where he did not make the first team, and spent most of his career in the Football League. The two faced each other in a professional match for the first time in the 2012 Football League Cup Final, when Steven's Liverpool defeated Anthony's Cardiff City in a penalty shootout in which both Gerrards missed. Gerrard and his wife, Alex Curran, married on 16 June 2007, the same day",
"In September 2006, Gerrard published his autobiography, \"Gerrard: My Autobiography\", ghost-written by journalist Henry Winter, which went on to win the Sports Book of the Year honour at the British Book Awards. Gerrard's second volume of autobiography, \"My Story\", written with Donald McRae, was published in September 2015. The autobiography ends with \"I play for Jon-Paul.\" Gerrard's cousin,",
"On 1 October 2007, Gerrard was involved in a low-speed collision in Southport when the car he was driving hit a ten-year-old cyclist, who had shot into the street and inadvertently crossed Gerrard's path. He later visited the boy in the hospital and presented him with a pair of boots signed by Wayne Rooney, the boy's favourite player, after which he stayed to sign autographs for other young patients. On 29 December 2008, Gerrard was taken into custody outside the Lounge Inn in Southport on suspicion of a section 20 assault. He and two other men were later charged with assault",
"In 2011, Gerrard appeared in the film \"Will\", about an orphaned young Liverpool fan who hitch-hikes to the 2005 UEFA Champions League Final. In August 2014,",
"Gerrard has had several different sponsorships in his career including current deals with Adidas, Jaguar Cars and Lucozade. In 2014, \"Forbes\" listed his combined income from salaries, bonuses and off-field earnings at $17.2 million for the previous 12 months. While Gerrard has worn several football boots during his career, he first wore a pair of Nike boots on his Liverpool",
"",
"Liverpool Individual",
""
]
} |
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"title": [
"History.",
"The \"bubble\" and its aftermath.",
"Post-crash focus.",
"Major stockholders.",
"Hardware.",
"Motorola-based systems.",
"SPARC-based systems.",
"x86-based systems.",
"Software.",
"Operating systems.",
"Java platform.",
"Office suite.",
"Virtualization and datacenter automation software.",
"Database management systems.",
"Other software.",
"Storage.",
"High-performance computing.",
"Staff.",
"Acquisition by Oracle."
],
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"The initial design for what became Sun's first Unix workstation, the Sun-1, was conceived by Andy Bechtolsheim when he was a graduate student at Stanford University in Palo Alto, California. Bechtolsheim originally designed the SUN workstation for the Stanford University Network communications project as a personal CAD workstation. It was designed around the Motorola 68000 processor with an advanced memory management unit (MMU) to support the Unix operating system with virtual memory support. He built the first ones from spare parts obtained from Stanford's Department of Computer Science and Silicon Valley supply houses. On February 24, 1982, Scott McNealy, Andy Bechtolsheim, and Vinod Khosla, all Stanford graduate students, founded \"Sun Microsystems\". Bill Joy of Berkeley, a primary developer of the Berkeley Software Distribution (BSD), joined soon after and is counted as one of the original founders. The Sun name is derived from the initials of the Stanford University Network. Sun was profitable from its first quarter in July 1982. By 1983 Sun was known for producing 68k-based systems with high-quality graphics that were the only computers other than DEC's VAX to run 4.2BSD. It licensed the computer design to other manufacturers, which typically used it to build Multibus-based systems running Unix from UniSoft. Sun's initial public offering was in 1986 under the stock symbol \"SUNW\", for \"Sun Workstations\" (later \"Sun Worldwide\"). The symbol was changed in 2007 to \"JAVA\"; Sun stated that the brand awareness associated with its Java platform better represented the company's current strategy. Sun's logo, which features four interleaved copies of the word \"sun\" in the form of a rotationally symmetric ambigram, was designed by professor Vaughan Pratt, also of Stanford. The initial version of the logo was orange and had the sides oriented horizontally and vertically, but it was subsequently rotated to stand on one corner and re-colored purple, and later blue.",
"In the dot-com bubble, Sun began making much more money, and its shares rose dramatically. It also began spending much more, hiring workers and building itself out. Some of this was because of genuine demand, but much was from web start-up companies anticipating business that would never happen. In 2000, the bubble burst. Sales in Sun's important hardware division went into free-fall as customers closed shop and auctioned high-end servers. Several quarters of steep losses led to executive departures, rounds of layoffs, and other cost cutting. In December 2001, the stock fell to the 1998, pre-bubble level of about $100. It continued to fall, faster than many other technology companies. A year later, it had reached below $10 (a tenth of what it was in 1990), but it eventually bounced back to $20. In mid-2004, Sun closed their Newark, California, factory and consolidated all manufacturing to Hillsboro, Oregon and Linlithgow, Scotland. In 2006, the rest of the Newark campus was put on the market.",
"In 2004, Sun canceled two major processor projects which emphasized high instruction-level parallelism and operating frequency. Instead, the company chose to concentrate on processors optimized for multi-threading and multiprocessing, such as the UltraSPARC T1 processor (codenamed \"Niagara\"). The company also announced a collaboration with Fujitsu to use the Japanese company's processor chips in mid-range and high-end Sun servers. These servers were announced on April 17, 2007, as the M-Series, part of the SPARC Enterprise series. In February 2005, Sun announced the Sun Grid, a grid computing deployment on which it offered utility computing services priced at US$1 per CPU/hour for processing and per GB/month for storage. This offering built upon an existing 3,000-CPU server farm used for internal R&D for over 10 years, which Sun marketed as being able to achieve 97% utilization. In August 2005, the first commercial use of this grid was announced for financial risk simulations which was later launched as its first software as a service product. In January 2005, Sun reported a net profit of $19 million for fiscal 2005 second quarter, for the first time in three years. This was followed by net loss of $9 million on GAAP basis for the third quarter 2005, as reported on April 14, 2005. In January 2007, Sun reported a net GAAP profit of $126 million on revenue of $3.337 billion for its fiscal second quarter. Shortly following that news, it was announced that Kohlberg Kravis Roberts (KKR) would invest $700 million in the company. Sun had engineering groups in Bangalore, Beijing, Dublin, Grenoble, Hamburg, Prague, St. Petersburg, Tel Aviv, Tokyo, Canberra and Trondheim. In 2007–2008, Sun posted revenue of $13.8 billion and had $2 billion in cash. First-quarter 2008 losses were $1.68 billion; revenue fell 7% to $12.99 billion. Sun's stock lost 80% of its value November 2007 to November 2008, reducing the company's market value to $3 billion. With falling sales to large corporate clients, Sun announced plans to lay off 5,000 to 6,000 workers, or 15–18% of its work force. It expected to save $700 million to $800 million a year as a result of the moves, while also taking up to $600 million in charges.",
"As of May 11, 2009, the following shareholders held over 100,000 common shares of Sun and at $9.50 per share offered by Oracle, they received the amounts indicated when the acquisition closed.",
"For the first decade of Sun's history, the company positioned its products as technical workstations, competing successfully as a low-cost vendor during the Workstation Wars of the 1980s. It then shifted its hardware product line to emphasize servers and storage. High-level telecom control systems such as Operational Support Systems service predominantly used Sun equipment.",
"Sun originally used Motorola 68000 family central processing units for the Sun-1 through Sun-3 computer series. The Sun-1 employed a 68000 CPU, the Sun-2 series, a 68010. The Sun-3 series was based on the 68020, with the later Sun-3x using the 68030.",
"In 1987, the company began using \"SPARC\", a RISC processor architecture of its own design, in its computer systems, starting with the Sun-4 line. SPARC was initially a 32-bit architecture (SPARC V7) until the introduction of the SPARC V9 architecture in 1995, which added 64-bit extensions. Sun has developed several generations of SPARC-based computer systems, including the SPARCstation, Ultra and Sun Blade series of workstations, and the SPARCserver, Netra, Enterprise and Sun Fire line of servers. In the early 1990s the company began to extend its product line to include large-scale symmetric multiprocessing servers, starting with the four-processor SPARCserver 600MP. This was followed by the 8-processor SPARCserver 1000 and 20-processor SPARCcenter 2000, which were based on work done in conjunction with Xerox PARC. In 1995 the company introduced Sun Ultra series machines that were equipped with the first 64-bit implementation of SPARC processors (UltraSPARC). In the late 1990s the transformation of product line in favor of large 64-bit SMP systems was accelerated by the acquisition of Cray Business Systems Division from Silicon Graphics. Their 32-bit, 64-processor Cray Superserver 6400, related to the SPARCcenter, led to the 64-bit Sun Enterprise 10000 high-end server (otherwise known as \"Starfire\"). In September 2004 Sun made available systems with UltraSPARC IV which was the first multi-core SPARC processor. It was followed by UltraSPARC IV+ in September 2005 and its revisions with higher clock speeds in 2007. These CPUs were used in the most powerful, enterprise class high-end CC-NUMA servers developed by Sun, such as Sun Fire E25K. In November 2005 Sun launched the UltraSPARC T1, notable for its ability to concurrently run 32 threads of execution on 8 processor cores. Its intent was to drive more efficient use of CPU resources, which is of particular importance in data centers, where there is an increasing need to reduce power and air conditioning demands, much of which comes from the heat generated by CPUs. The T1 was followed in 2007 by the UltraSPARC T2, which extended the number of threads per core from 4 to 8. Sun has open sourced the design specifications of both the T1 and T2 processors via the OpenSPARC project. In 2006, Sun ventured into the \"blade server\" (high density rack-mounted systems) market with the Sun Blade (distinct from the Sun Blade workstation). In April 2007 Sun released the SPARC Enterprise server products, jointly designed by Sun and Fujitsu and based on Fujitsu SPARC64 VI and later processors. The \"M-class\" SPARC Enterprise systems include high-end reliability and availability features. Later T-series servers have also been badged SPARC Enterprise rather than Sun Fire. In April 2008 Sun released servers with UltraSPARC T2 Plus, which is an SMP capable version of UltraSPARC T2, available in 2 or 4 processor configurations. It was the first CoolThreads CPU with multi-processor capability and it made possible to build standard rack-mounted servers that could simultaneously process up to massive 256 CPU threads in hardware (Sun SPARC Enterprise T5440), which is considered a record in the industry. Since 2010, all further development of Sun machines based on SPARC architecture (including new SPARC T-Series servers, SPARC T3 and T4 chips) is done as a part of Oracle Corporation hardware division.",
"In the late 1980s, Sun also marketed an Intel 80386-based machine, the Sun386i; this was designed to be a hybrid system, running SunOS but at the same time supporting DOS applications. This only remained on the market for a brief time. A follow-up \"486i\" upgrade was announced but only a few prototype units were ever manufactured. Sun's brief first foray into x86 systems ended in the early 1990s, as it decided to concentrate on SPARC and retire the last Motorola systems and 386i products, a move dubbed by McNealy as \"all the wood behind one arrowhead\". Even so, Sun kept its hand in the x86 world, as a release of Solaris for PC compatibles began shipping in 1993. In 1997 Sun acquired Diba, Inc., followed later by the acquisition of Cobalt Networks in 2000, with the aim of building \"network appliances\" (single function computers meant for consumers). Sun also marketed a Network Computer (a term popularized and eventually trademarked by Oracle); the JavaStation was a diskless system designed to run Java applications. Although none of these business initiatives were particularly successful, the Cobalt purchase gave Sun a toehold for its return to the x86 hardware market. In 2002, Sun introduced its first general purpose x86 system, the LX50, based in part on previous Cobalt system expertise. This was also Sun's first system announced to support Linux as well as Solaris. In 2003, Sun announced a strategic alliance with AMD to produce x86/x64 servers based on AMD's Opteron processor; this was followed shortly by Sun's acquisition of Kealia, a startup founded by original Sun founder Andy Bechtolsheim, which had been focusing on high-performance AMD-based servers. The following year, Sun launched the Opteron-based Sun Fire V20z and V40z servers, and the Java Workstation W1100z and W2100z workstations. On September 12, 2005, Sun unveiled a new range of Opteron-based servers: the Sun Fire X2100, X4100 and X4200 servers. These were designed from scratch by a team led by Bechtolsheim to address heat and power consumption issues commonly faced in data centers. In July 2006, the Sun Fire X4500 and X4600 systems were introduced, extending a line of x64 systems that support not only Solaris, but also Linux and Microsoft Windows. On January 22, 2007, Sun announced a broad strategic alliance with Intel. Intel endorsed Solaris as a mainstream operating system and as its mission critical Unix for its Xeon processor-based systems, and contributed engineering resources to OpenSolaris. Sun began using the Intel Xeon processor in its x64 server line, starting with the Sun Blade X6250 server module introduced in June 2007. On May 5, 2008, AMD announced its Operating System Research Center (OSRC) expanded its focus to include optimization to Sun's OpenSolaris and xVM virtualization products for AMD based processors.",
"Although Sun was initially known as a hardware company, its software history began with its founding in 1982; co-founder Bill Joy was one of the leading Unix developers of the time, having contributed the vi editor, the C shell, and significant work developing TCP/IP and the BSD Unix OS. Sun later developed software such as the Java programming language and acquired software such as StarOffice, VirtualBox and MySQL. Sun used community-based and open-source licensing of its major technologies, and for its support of its products with other open source technologies. GNOME-based desktop software called Java Desktop System (originally code-named \"Madhatter\") was distributed for the Solaris operating system, and at one point for Linux. Sun supported its Java Enterprise System (a middleware stack) on Linux. It released the source code for Solaris under the open-source Common Development and Distribution License, via the OpenSolaris community. Sun's positioning includes a commitment to indemnify users of some software from intellectual property disputes concerning that software. It offers support services on a variety of pricing bases, including per-employee and per-socket. A 2006 report prepared for the EU by UNU-MERIT stated that Sun was the largest corporate contributor to open source movements in the world. According to this report, Sun's open source contributions exceed the combined total of the next five largest commercial contributors.",
"Sun is best known for its Unix systems, which have a reputation for system stability and a consistent design philosophy. Sun's first workstation shipped with UniSoft V7 Unix. Later in 1982 Sun began providing SunOS, a customized 4.1BSD Unix, as the operating system for its workstations. In the late 1980s, AT&T tapped Sun to help them develop the next release of their branded UNIX, and in 1988 announced they would purchase up to a 20% stake in Sun. UNIX System V Release 4 (SVR4) was jointly developed by AT&T and Sun; Sun used SVR4 as the foundation for Solaris 2.x, which became the successor to SunOS 4.1.x (later retrospectively named Solaris 1.x). By the mid-1990s, the ensuing Unix wars had largely subsided, AT&T had sold off their Unix interests, and the relationship between the two companies was significantly reduced. From 1992 Sun also sold Interactive Unix, an operating system it acquired when it bought Interactive Systems Corporation from Eastman Kodak Company. This was a popular Unix variant for the PC platform and a major competitor to market leader SCO UNIX. Sun's focus on Interactive Unix diminished in favor of Solaris on both SPARC and x86 systems; it was dropped as a product in 2001. Sun dropped the Solaris 2.x version numbering scheme after the Solaris 2.6 release (1997); the following version was branded Solaris 7. This was the first 64-bit release, intended for the new UltraSPARC CPUs based on the SPARC V9 architecture. Within the next four years, the successors Solaris 8 and Solaris 9 were released in 2000 and 2002 respectively. Following several years of difficult competition and loss of server market share to competitors' Linux-based systems, Sun began to include Linux as part of its strategy in 2002. Sun supported both Red Hat Enterprise Linux and SUSE Linux Enterprise Server on its x64 systems; companies such as Canonical Ltd., Wind River Systems and MontaVista also supported their versions of Linux on Sun's SPARC-based systems. In 2004, after having cultivated a reputation as one of Microsoft's most vocal antagonists, Sun entered into a joint relationship with them, resolving various legal entanglements between the two companies and receiving US$1.95 billion in settlement payments from them. Sun supported Microsoft Windows on its x64 systems, and announced other collaborative agreements with Microsoft, including plans to support each other's virtualization environments. In 2005, the company released Solaris 10. The new version included a large number of enhancements to the operating system, as well as very novel features, previously unseen in the industry. Solaris 10 update releases continued through the next 8 years, the last release from Sun Microsystems being Solaris 10 10/09. The following updates were released by Oracle under the new license agreement; the final release is Solaris 10 1/13. Previously, Sun offered a separate variant of Solaris called Trusted Solaris, which included augmented security features such as multilevel security and a least privilege access model. Solaris 10 included many of the same capabilities as Trusted Solaris at the time of its initial release; Solaris 10 11/06 included Solaris Trusted Extensions, which give it the remaining capabilities needed to make it the functional successor to Trusted Solaris. After releasing Solaris 10, its source code was opened under CDDL free software license and developed in open with contributing Opensolaris community through SXCE that used SVR4.pkg packaging and supported Opensolaris releases that used IPS. Following acquisition of Sun by Oracle, Opensolaris continued to develop in open under illumos with illumos distributions. Oracle Corporation continued to develop OpenSolaris into next Solaris release, changing back the license to proprietary, and released it as Oracle Solaris 11 in November 2011.",
"The Java platform was developed at Sun by James Gosling in the early 1990s with the objective of allowing programs to function regardless of the device they were used on, sparking the slogan \"Write once, run anywhere\" (WORA). While this objective was not entirely achieved (prompting the riposte \"Write once, debug everywhere\"), Java is regarded as being largely hardware- and operating system-independent. Java was initially promoted as a platform for client-side \"applets\" running inside web browsers. Early examples of Java applications were the HotJava web browser and the HotJava Views suite. However, since then Java has been more successful on the server side of the Internet. The platform consists of three major parts: the Java programming language, the Java Virtual Machine (JVM), and several Java Application Programming Interfaces (APIs). The design of the Java platform is controlled by the vendor and user community through the Java Community Process (JCP). Java is an object-oriented programming language. Since its introduction in late 1995, it became one of the world's most popular programming languages. Java programs are compiled to byte code, which can be executed by any JVM, regardless of the environment. The Java APIs provide an extensive set of library routines. These APIs evolved into the \"Standard Edition\" (Java SE), which provides basic infrastructure and GUI functionality; the \"Enterprise Edition\" (Java EE), aimed at large software companies implementing enterprise-class application servers; and the \"Micro Edition\" (Java ME), used to build software for devices with limited resources, such as mobile devices. On November 13, 2006, Sun announced it would be licensing its Java implementation under the GNU General Public License; it released its Java compiler and JVM at that time. In February 2009 Sun entered a battle with Microsoft and Adobe Systems, which promoted rival platforms to build software applications for the Internet. JavaFX was a development platform for music, video and other applications that builds on the Java programming language.",
"In 1999, Sun acquired the German software company Star Division and with it the office suite StarOffice, which Sun later released as OpenOffice.org under both GNU LGPL and the SISSL (Sun Industry Standards Source License). OpenOffice.org supported Microsoft Office file formats (though not perfectly), was available on many platforms (primarily Linux, Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, and Solaris) and was used in the open source community. The principal differences between StarOffice and OpenOffice.org were that StarOffice was supported by Sun, was available as either a single-user retail box kit or as per-user blocks of licensing for the enterprise, and included a wider range of fonts and document templates and a commercial quality spellchecker. StarOffice also contained commercially licensed functions and add-ons; in OpenOffice.org these were either replaced by open-source or free variants, or are not present at all. Both packages had native support for the OpenDocument format.",
"In 2007, Sun announced the Sun xVM virtualization and datacenter automation product suite for commodity hardware. Sun also acquired VirtualBox in 2008. Earlier virtualization technologies from Sun like \"Dynamic System Domains\" and \"Dynamic Reconfiguration\" were specifically designed for high-end SPARC servers, and Logical Domains only supports the UltraSPARC T1/T2/T2 Plus server platforms. Sun marketed \"Sun Ops Center\" provisioning software for datacenter automation. On the client side, Sun offered virtual desktop solutions. Desktop environments and applications could be hosted in a datacenter, with users accessing these environments from a wide range of client devices, including Microsoft Windows PCs, Sun Ray virtual display clients, Apple Macintoshes, PDAs or any combination of supported devices. A variety of networks were supported, from LAN to WAN or the public Internet. Virtual desktop products included Sun Ray Server Software, Sun Secure Global Desktop and Sun Virtual Desktop Infrastructure.",
"Sun acquired MySQL AB, the developer of the MySQL database in 2008 for US$1 billion. CEO Jonathan Schwartz mentioned in his blog that optimizing the performance of MySQL was one of the priorities of the acquisition. In February 2008, Sun began to publish results of the MySQL performance optimization work. Sun contributed to the PostgreSQL project. On the Java platform, Sun contributed to and supported Java DB.",
"Sun offered other software products for software development and infrastructure services. Many were developed in house; others came from acquisitions, including Tarantella, Waveset Technologies, SeeBeyond, and Vaau. Sun acquired many of the Netscape non-browser software products as part a deal involving Netscape's merger with AOL. These software products were initially offered under the \"iPlanet\" brand; once the Sun-Netscape alliance ended, they were re-branded as \"Sun ONE\" (Sun Open Network Environment), and then the \"Sun Java System\". Sun's middleware product was branded as the \"Java Enterprise System\" (or JES), and marketed for web and application serving, communication, calendaring, directory, identity management and service-oriented architecture. Sun's Open ESB and other software suites were available free of charge on systems running Solaris, Red Hat Enterprise Linux, HP-UX, and Windows, with support available optionally. Sun developed data center management software products, which included the \"Solaris Cluster\" high availability software, and a grid management package called \"Sun Grid Engine\" and firewall software such as SunScreen. For Network Equipment Providers and telecommunications customers, Sun developed the Sun Netra High-Availability Suite. Sun produced compilers and development tools under the \"Sun Studio\" brand, for building and developing Solaris and Linux applications. Sun entered the software as a service (SaaS) market with zembly, a social cloud-based computing platform and Project Kenai, an open-source project hosting service.",
"Sun sold its own storage systems to complement its system offerings; it has also made several storage-related acquisitions. On June 2, 2005, Sun announced it would purchase Storage Technology Corporation (StorageTek) for US$4.1 billion in cash, or $37.00 per share, a deal completed in August 2005. In 2006, Sun introduced the Sun StorageTek 5800 System, the first application-aware programmable storage solution. In 2008, Sun contributed the source code of the StorageTek 5800 System under the BSD license. Sun announced the Sun Open Storage platform in 2008 built with open source technologies. In late 2008 Sun announced the Sun Storage 7000 Unified Storage systems (codenamed Amber Road). Transparent placement of data in the systems' solid-state drives (SSD) and conventional hard drives was managed by ZFS to take advantage of the speed of SSDs and the economy of conventional hard disks. Other storage products included Sun Fire X4500 storage server and SAM-QFS filesystem and storage management software.",
"Sun marketed the Sun Constellation System for high-performance computing (HPC). Even before the introduction of the Sun Constellation System in 2007, Sun's products were in use in many of the TOP500 systems and supercomputing centers: The \"Sun HPC ClusterTools\" product was a set of Message Passing Interface (MPI) libraries and tools for running parallel jobs on Solaris HPC clusters. Beginning with version 7.0, Sun switched from its own implementation of MPI to Open MPI, and donated engineering resources to the Open MPI project. Sun was a participant in the OpenMP language committee. Sun Studio compilers and tools implemented the OpenMP specification for shared memory parallelization. In 2006, Sun built the \"TSUBAME supercomputer\", which was until June 2008 the fastest supercomputer in Asia. Sun built \"Ranger\" at the Texas Advanced Computing Center (TACC) in 2007. Ranger had a peak performance of over 500 TFLOPS, and was the 6th most powerful supercomputer on the TOP500 list in November 2008. Sun announced an OpenSolaris distribution that integrated Sun's HPC products with others.",
"Notable Sun employees included John Gilmore, Whitfield Diffie, Radia Perlman, and Marc Tremblay. Sun was an early advocate of Unix-based networked computing, promoting TCP/IP and especially NFS, as reflected in the company's motto \"The Network Is The Computer\", coined by John Gage. James Gosling led the team which developed the Java programming language. Jon Bosak led the creation of the XML specification at W3C. Sun staff published articles on the company's blog site. Staff were encouraged to use the site to blog on any aspect of their work or personal life, with few restrictions placed on staff, other than commercially confidential material. Jonathan I. Schwartz was one of the first CEOs of large companies to regularly blog; his postings were frequently quoted and analyzed in the press. In 2005, Sun Microsystems was one of the first Fortune 500 companies that instituted a formal Social Media program.",
"Sun was sold to Oracle Corporation in 2009 for $5.6B. Sun's staff were asked to share anecdotes about their experiences at Sun. A web site containing videos, stories, and photographs from 27 years at Sun was made available on September 2, 2009. In October, Sun announced a second round of thousands of employees to be laid off, blamed partially on delays in approval of the merger. The transaction was completed in early 2010. In January 2011, Oracle agreed to pay $46 million to settle charges that it submitted false claims to US federal government agencies and paid \"kickbacks\" to systems integrators. In February 2011, Sun's former Menlo Park, California, campus of about was sold, and it was announced that it would become headquarters for Facebook. The sprawling facility built around an enclosed courtyard had been nicknamed \"Sun Quentin\". On September 1, 2011, Sun India legally became part of Oracle. It had been delayed due to legal issues in Indian court."
]
} |
Isa (name) | null | Isa is a name originating from a variety of sources. The name is most commonly derived from the [classical Arabic] "‘Isa", an Arabic translation of Jesus, itself having a Hebrew origin. However, it is not the only translation; it is most commonly associated with Jesus as depicted in Islam, and thus, commonly used by Muslims. Meanwhile, Arabic-speaking Christians use "Yasū‘", which comes from "Yešū‘", the Aramaic name for Jesus. The origin of the Qur'anic "Isa" is complex and is detailed below. | null | [
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"title": [
"Etymology.",
"Non-Islamic uses."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The English form of the name \"Jesus\" is derived from the Latin \"Iēsus\", which in turn comes from the Greek (Iēsoûs). The Greek is a Hellenized form of the Hebrew name Yēšua (), which is in turn a shortened form of Hebrew Yhōšua () or \"Joshua\" in English. Aramaic (Classical Syriac) and East Syriac, which are ancestral to West Syriac, render the pronunciation of the same letters as ܝܫܘܥ ishoʕ (išoʕ) /iʃoʕ/. The Aramaic Bible (c. 200 AD) or the Peshitta preserve this same spelling. The \"Encyclopedia of the Qur'an\" by Brill Publishers quotes scholarship that notes that the Greek name Iesous, (Iēsoûs), also is known to have represented many different Biblical Hebrew names (which causes issues when seeking to find what Jesus' original Hebrew name would have been from the Greek) \"Josephus used the Greek name lesous to denote three people mentioned in the Bible whose Hebrew names were not Yeshua', Y'hoshua' or Y'hoshua'. They were Saul's son Yishwi (Anglicized as 'Ishvi' in the RSV of I Samuel 14:49), the Levite Abishua' (mentioned in I Chronicles 6:4, etc.) and Yishwah the son of Asher (Anglicized as 'Ishva' in the RSV of Genesis 46:17).... Josephus furnishes important evidence for the wide variety of Hebrew names represented in Greek by Iesous.\" Also, the classical theologians Clement of Alexandria and Cyril of Jerusalem both stated that the Greek name Iesous was allegedly Jesus' original name itself and that the name was not a transliteration of a Hebrew form. There is a major discrepancy between the Hebrew/Aramaic and Muslim Arabic forms of this name, since the Hebrew form of this name has the voiced pharyngeal ʿAyin or ʿAyn consonant at the end of the name (as does Christian Arabic \"yasūʿ\"), while the Muslim Arabic form \"ʿīsā\" has the ʿAyn at the beginning of the name. For this reason, some (such as Ahmed Deedat) state the Arabic name Isa is related to the Biblical name Esau (which begins with a pharyngeal); it is also similar in the vowels to an Aramaic version of Jesus, viz. \"Eeshoʿ\" (Aramaic forms of the name, however, still have the voiced pharyngeal `Ayn consonant at the end of the name). [Other Aramaic pronunciations of the same name include yeshuuʕ (ʕ is IPA ayin). Vowels in Semitic languages are somewhat fluid between dialects while consonants are structurally more stable. The vowels in an Anglicized quote \"Eesho`\" by themselves are insignificant for this discussion since \"i\" and \"e\" and short \"a\" can interchange between dialects, and \"u\" and \"o\" can also interchange between dialects. The dominant consonsonantal discrepancy remains, between Aramaic yeshuuʕ [consonantal y-sh-w-ʕ] and Arabic ʕiisa [consonantal ʕ-y-s-alef].] Scholars have been puzzled by the use of \"ʿĪsā\" in the Qur'an since Christians in Arabia used \"yasūʿ\" before and after Islam, itself derived from the Syriac form \"Yēshūaʿ\" by a phonetic change. The Encyclopedia of the Qur'an by Brill Publishers states this has also come about because many Western scholars have held a \"conviction that Jesus' authentic Hebrew name is Yeshua'\" and because of this they often \"have been puzzled by the Qur'an's reference to him as 'Isa\". Brill's Encyclopedia of the Qur'an further states \"It is not certain that Jesus' original name was Yeshua'\" However, the early Syriac/Aramaic form of the name Yeshua, the etymological link with'salvation' (note the Hebrew consonantal root y-sh-`) in Matthew 1:21, all of the correspondences of in the Greek OT and Second Temple Jewish writings, and the common attestation of Yeshua among 1st century Jewish names have led to a consensus among scholars of the gospels that Yeshua was \"Jesus\"'s original name. \"Esau\" (and derivatives with `ayin as a first letter) is not a realistic possibility. With all this in mind, some scholars have proposed a number of explanations. James A. Bellamy of the University of Michigan suggested that the Qur'anic name is a corruption of \"Masīḥ\" itself derived from \"yasūʿ\", suggesting that this resulted from a copyist error and an attempt to conceal the Arabic verb \"sāʿa\"/\"yasūʿu\" which has obscene connotations. Josef Horovitz on the other hand holds that the Qur'anic form is meant to parallel \"Mūsā\" (Moses). Similar pairs are also frequently found in the Quran as well which supports this theory. For example, compare Ismā‘īl and Ibrāhīm (Ishmael and Abraham) or Jālūt and Tālūt (Goliath and Saul). It is thus possible that the Arabs referred to him as Yasaʿ, but the Quran reversed the letters so as to parallel Mūsā. Another explanation given is that in ancient Mesopotamia divine names were written in one way and pronounced in another. Thus it is possible for borrowed words to have their consonants reversed. Another explanation is that Muhammad adopted \"Isa\" from the polemical Jewish form \"Esau\". However, there is no evidence that the Jews have ever used \"Esau\" to refer to Jesus, and if Muhammad had unwittingly adopted a pejorative form his many Christian acquaintances would have corrected him. A fourth explanation is that prior to the rise of Islam, Christian Arabs had already adopted this form from Syriac. According to the \"Encyclopaedia of the Qurʼān\", \"Arabic often employs an initial 'ayn in words borrowed from Aramaic or Syriac and the dropping of the final Hebrew 'ayin is evidenced in the form Yisho of the 'koktiirkish' Manichaean fragments from Turfan.\" This is supported by Macúch with an example in classical Mandaic, a variety of Eastern Aramaic (hence closely related to Syriac) used as liturgical language by the Mandaean community of southern Mesopotamia, where the name for Jesus is rendered \"ʿ-š-u\" (ࡏࡔࡅ), though the pharyngeal ('ayin) is pronounced like a regular long i (\"Īshu\"). Also the name Yeshu (ישו in Hebrew and Aramaic) lacking the final 'ayin is also used to refer to Jesus in the Jewish work the Toledot Yeshu, and scholar David Flusser presents evidence Yeshu was also a name itself rather than claims it was meant to supposedly be an acronym to insult Jesus. The Brill Encyclopedia of the Qur'an notes scholar Anis al-Assiouty as noting the fact that \"In the Talmud, however, he (Jesus) is called Yeshu.\" Scholar David Flusser and other scholars like Adolf Neubauer, Hugh J. Schonfield, and Joachim Jeremias also further argued that the name or pronunciation Yeshu (ישו in Hebrew and Aramaic) could also be \"the Galilean pronunciation\" of Yeshua' that came about because of an inability to pronounce the 'ayin in the Galilee region where Jesus came from. Scholar Alphonse Mingana writes there may have been a monastery named \"ʿĪsāniyya\" in the territory of the Christian Ghassanid Arabs in southern Syria as early as 571 CE. Christoph Luxenberg's \"The Syro-Aramaic Reading of the Koran\" equates the Qur'anic name with Hebrew \"Jesse\". However, neither \"Yeshu\" nor \"Jesse\" begins with a pharyngeal consonant in their original Hebrew forms. The earliest archaeological evidence of an Arabic name for Jesus is a Jordanian inscription. Enno Littman (1950) states: \"Mr. G. Lankaster Harding, Chief Curator of Antiquities Hashimite Kingdom of Jordan, kindly sent me copies of a little more than five hundred Thamudic inscriptions. [...] It is the inscription [Harding No. 476] that interests us here. [...] Below the circle there are four letters: a y, a sh, a ʿ, and again a y.\" He also states: \"These letters are so placed that they can be read from right to left or from left to right y-sh-ʿ, probably pronounced Yashaʿ, and this name is the same as Yashuaʿ, the Hebrew form of the name of Christ.\" An archaic Arabic root for 'Salvation' exists in Yatha, which may have later formed this name: y-sh-ʿ. The lack of a \"Waw\" is still unexplained. Also, the closer correspondence with another name [y'sha'yá, \"Isaiah\" in English] needs explanation or discussion before this inscription can be entertained as an Arabic \"Jesus\".",
"ʿĪsā is used as well by several Christian groups in Muslim countries. A 14th-century Persian translation of Matthew, one of the earliest surviving Persian manuscripts of the scripture, uses \"ʿĪsā\". Later translations in other languages also follow suit. Some modern Evangelical translations also use Isa, such as David Owen's \"Life of Christ\" (Arabic 1987). Nicolas Notovitch's 1894 book \"Life of Saint Issa\" claims that during his unknown years, Jesus (\"īśa\" meaning 'the Lord' in Sanskrit) left Galilee for India and studied with Buddhists and Hindus there before returning to Judea."
]
} |
Annie Hall | null | Annie Hall is a 1977 American romantic comedy film directed by Woody Allen from a screenplay he co-wrote with Marshall Brickman. Produced by Allen's manager, Charles H. Joffe, the film stars the director as Alvy Singer, who tries to figure out the reasons for the failure of his relationship with the film's eponymous female lead, played by Diane Keaton in a role written specifically for her. | null | [
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"title": [
"Plot.",
"Cast.",
"Production.",
"Writing.",
"Casting.",
"Filming, editing and music.",
"Style and technique.",
"Critical analysis.",
"Love and sexuality.",
"Jewish identity.",
"Woody Allen persona.",
"Location.",
"Psychoanalysis and modernism.",
"Release.",
"Box office.",
"Critical response.",
"Awards and accolades.",
"Legacy and influence."
],
"section_level": [
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"1",
"2",
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"content": [
"The comedian Alvy Singer is trying to understand why his relationship with Annie Hall ended a year ago. Growing up in Brooklyn, he vexed his mother with impossible questions about the emptiness of existence, but he was precocious about his innocent sexual curiosity. Annie and Alvy, in a line for \"The Sorrow and the Pity,\" overhear another man deriding the work of Federico Fellini and Marshall McLuhan; McLuhan himself steps in at Alvy's invitation to criticize the man's comprehension. That night, Annie shows no interest in sex with Alvy. Instead, they discuss his first wife, whose ardor gave him no pleasure. His second marriage was to a New York writer who didn't like sports and was unable to reach orgasm. With Annie, it is different. The two of them have fun making a meal of boiled lobster together. He teases her about the unusual men in her past. He met her playing tennis doubles with friends. Following the game, awkward small talk led her to offer him first a ride uptown and then a glass of wine on her balcony. There, what seemed a mild exchange of trivial personal data is revealed in \"mental subtitles\" as an escalating flirtation. Their first date follows Annie's singing audition for a night club (\"It Had to",
"Truman Capote has a cameo. Alvy is making quips about people walking by. He says \"There's the winner of the Truman Capote look-alike contest\" as Truman Capote walks through the frame. Several actors who later gained a",
"",
"The idea for what would become \"Annie Hall\" was developed as Allen walked around New York City with co-writer Marshall Brickman. The pair discussed the project on alternative days, sometimes becoming frustrated and rejecting the idea. Allen wrote a first draft of a screenplay within a four-day period, sending it to Brickman to make alterations. According to Brickman, this draft centered on a man in his forties, someone whose life consisted \"of several strands.\" One was a relationship with a young woman, another was a concern with the banality of the life that we all live, and a third an obsession with proving himself and testing himself to find out what kind of character he had. Allen himself turned forty in 1975, and Brickman suggests that \"advancing age\" and \"worries about death\" had influenced Allen's philosophical, personal approach to complement his \"commercial side\". Allen made the conscious decision to \"sacrifice some of the laughs for a story about human beings\". He recognized that for the first time he had the courage to abandon",
"Several references in the film to Allen's own life have invited speculation that it is autobiographical. Both Alvy and Allen were comedians. His birthday appears on the blackboard in a school scene; certain features of his childhood are found in Alvy Singer's; Allen went to New York University and so did Alvy. Diane Keaton's real surname is \"Hall\" and \"Annie\" was her nickname, and she and Allen were once romantically involved. However, Allen is quick to dispel these suggestions. \"The stuff that people insist is autobiographical is almost invariably not,\" Allen said. \"It's so exaggerated that it's virtually meaningless to the people upon whom these little nuances are based. People got it into their heads that \"Annie Hall\" was autobiographical, and I couldn't convince them it wasn't\". Contrary to various interviewers and commentators, he says, Alvy is not the character that is closest",
"Principal photography began on May 19, 1976 on the South Fork of Long Island with the scene in which Alvy and Annie boil live lobsters; filming continued periodically for the next ten months, and deviated frequently from the screenplay. There was nothing written about Alvy's childhood home lying under a roller coaster, but when Allen was scouting locations in Brooklyn with Willis and art director Mel Bourne, he \"saw this roller-coaster, and... saw the house under it. And I thought, we have to use this.\" Similarly, there is the incident where Alvy scatters a trove of cocaine with",
"Technically, the film marked an advance for the director. He selected Gordon Willis as his cinematographer—for Allen \"a very important teacher\" and a \"technical wizard,\" saying, \"I really count \"Annie Hall\" as the first step toward maturity in some way in making films.\" At the time, it was considered an \"odd pairing\" by many, Keaton among them. The director was known for his comedies and farces, while Willis was known as \"the prince of darkness\" for work on dramatic films like \"The Godfather\". Despite this, the two became friends during filming and continued the collaboration on several later films, including \"Zelig\", which earned Willis his first Academy Award nomination for Best Cinematography. Willis described the production for the film as \"relatively easy.\" He shot in varying styles; \"hot golden light for California, grey overcast for Manhattan and a forties Hollywood glossy for... dream sequences,\" most of which were cut. It was his suggestion which led Allen to film the dual therapy scenes in one set divided by a wall instead of the usual split screen method. He tried long takes, with some shots, unabridged, lasting an entire scene, which, for Ebert, add to the dramatic power of the film: \"Few viewers probably notice how much of \"Annie Hall\" consists of people talking, simply talking. They walk and talk, sit and talk, go to shrinks, go to lunch, make love and talk, talk to the camera, or",
"",
"Sociologists Virginia Rutter and Pepper Schwartz consider Alvy and Annie's relationship to be a stereotype of gender differences in sexuality. The nature of love is a repeating subject for Allen and co-star Tony Roberts described this film as \"the story of everybody who falls in love, and then falls out of love and goes on.\" Alvy searches for love's purpose through his effort to get over his depression about the demise of his relationship with Annie. Sometimes he sifts through",
"Singer is identified with the stereotypical neurotic Jewish male, and the differences between Alvy and Annie are often related to the perceptions and realities of Jewish identity. Vincent Brook notes that \"Alvy dines with the WASP-y Hall family and imagines that they must see him as a Hasidic Jew, complete with payot (ear locks) and a large black hat.\" Robert M. Seltzer and Norman J. Cohen highlight",
"Christopher Knight points out that \"Annie Hall\" is framed through Alvy's experiences. \"Generally, what we know about Annie and about the relationship comes filtered through Alvy, an intrusive narrator capable of halting the narrative and stepping out from it in order to entreat the audience's interpretative favor.\" He suggests that because Allen's",
"\"Annie Hall\" \"is as much a love song to New York City as it is to the character,\" reflecting Allen's adoration of the island of Manhattan. It was a relationship he explored repeatedly, particularly in films like \"Manhattan\" (1979) and \"Hannah and Her Sisters\" (1986). Annie Hall's apartment, which still exists on East 70th Street between Lexington Avenue and Park Avenue is by Allen's own confession his favorite block in the city. Peter Cowie argues that the film shows \"a romanticized",
"\"Annie Hall\" has been cited as a film which uses both therapy and analysis for comic effect. Sam B. Girgus considers \"Annie Hall\" to be a story about memory and retrospection, which \"dramatizes a return via narrative desire to the repressed and the unconscious in a manner similar to psychoanalysis\". He argues that the film constitutes a self-conscious assertion of how narrative desire and humor interact in the film to reform ideas and perceptions and that Allen's deployment of Freudian concepts and humor forms a \"pattern of skepticism toward surface meaning that compels further interpretation\". Girgus believes that proof of the pervasiveness of Sigmund Freud in the film is demonstrated at the beginning through a reference to a joke in \"Jokes and Their Relation to the Unconscious\", and makes another joke about a psychiatrist and patient, which Girgus argues is also symbolic of the dynamic between humor and the unconscious in the film. Further Freudian concepts are later addressed in the film with Annie's recall of a dream to her psychoanalyst in",
"",
"\"Annie Hall\" was shown at the Los Angeles Film Festival in March 1977, before its official release on April 20, 1977. The film ultimately earned $38,251,425 ($143,228,400 in 2013 dollars) in the United States against a $4-million budget, making it the",
"\"Annie Hall\" was met with widespread critical acclaim upon its release. Tim Radford of \"The Guardian\" called the film \"Allen's most closely focused and daring film to date\". \"The New York Times\"' Vincent Canby preferred \"Annie Hall\" to Allen's second directorial effort, \"Take the Money and Run\", since the former is more \"humane\" while the latter is more a \"cartoon\". Several critics have compared the film favorably to Bergman's \"Scenes from a Marriage\" (1973), including Joseph McBride in \"Variety\", who found it Allen's \"most three-dimensional film to date\" with an ambition equal to Bergman's best even as the co-stars become the \"contemporary equivalent of... Tracy-Hepburn.\" More critically, Peter Cowie commented that the film \"suffers from its profusion of cultural references and asides\". Writing for \"New York\" magazine, John Simon called the film \"unfunny comedy, poor moviemaking, and embarrassing self-revelation,\" and wrote that Keaton's performance was \"in bad taste to watch and indecency to display,\" saying that the part should have been played by Robin Mary Paris, the actress who appears briefly in the scene where Alvy Singer has written a two-character play nakedly based on",
"\"Annie Hall\" won four Oscars at the 50th Academy Awards on April 3, 1978, and was nominated for five in total. Producer Charles H. Joffe received the statue for Best Picture, Allen for Best Director and, with Brickman, for Best Original Screenplay, and Keaton for Best Actress. Allen was also nominated for Best Actor. Many had expected \"Star Wars\" to win the major awards, including Brickman and Executive Producer Robert Greenhut. The film was also honored five times at the BAFTA awards. Along with the top award for Best Film and the award for Film Editing, Keaton won for Best Actress, Allen won for Best Direction and Best Original Screenplay alongside Brickman. The film received only one Golden Globe Award, for Best Film Actress in a Musical or Comedy (Diane Keaton), despite nominations for three other awards: Best Motion Picture (Musical or Comedy), Best Director, and Best Film Actor in a Musical or Comedy (Woody Allen). In 1992, the United States' Library of Congress selected the film for preservation in its National Film Registry that includes \"culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant\" films. The film is often mentioned among the greatest comedies of all time. The American Film Institute lists it 31st in American cinema history. In 2000, they named it second greatest romantic comedy in American cinema. Keaton's performance of \"Seems Like Old Times\" was ranked 90th on their list of greatest songs included",
"Although the film received critical acclaim and several awards, Allen himself was disappointed with it, and said in an interview, \"When \"Annie Hall\" started out, that film was not supposed to be what I wound up with. The film was supposed to be what happens in a guy's mind... Nobody understood anything that went on. The relationship between myself and Diane Keaton was all anyone cared about. That was not what I cared about... In the end, I had to reduce the film to just me and Diane Keaton, and that relationship, so I was quite disappointed in that movie\". Allen has repeatedly declined to make a sequel, and in a 1992 interview stated that \"Sequelism has become an annoying thing. I don't think Francis Coppola should have done \"Godfather III\" because \"Godfather II\" was quite great. When they make a sequel, it's just a thirst for more money, so I don't like that idea so much\". Diane Keaton has stated that Annie Hall was her favorite role and that the film meant everything to her. When asked if being most associated with the role concerned her as an actress, she replied, \"I'm not haunted by Annie Hall. I'm happy to be Annie Hall. If somebody wants to see me that way,"
]
} |
Slowhand | null | Slowhand is the fifth solo studio album by Eric Clapton. Released on 25 November 1977 by RSO Records, and titled after Clapton's nickname, it is one of his most commercially and critically successful studio albums. "Slowhand" produced the two hit singles "Lay Down Sally" and "Wonderful Tonight", reached various international music charts and was honoured with numerous awards and recording certifications. In 2012, a deluxe edition was released to celebrate the album's 35th anniversary. | null | [
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"title": [
"Recording.",
"Title and artwork.",
"Release and reception.",
"Censorship in Argentina.",
"Deluxe Edition."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2"
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"content": [
"Clapton wanted to work with record producer Glyn Johns, because he thought Johns produced great work with famous groups like the Rolling Stones and Eagles and understood how to work with both British and American musicians. While in the studio with Johns, Clapton noted that the A-list producer was very disciplined and disliked jamming, because it would kill important recording time. Although Clapton and his band were intoxicated nearly all the time when recording, Johns liked Clapton's work and brought out the best in every musician, according to Clapton.",
"The album was titled after Clapton's nickname, which was given to him by Giorgio Gomelsky. In his 2007 autobiography, Clapton recalled that the name \"Slowhand\" seemed to be hanging on to his real name, because it seemed to be well received by both his American friends and fans who think of the Wild West when hearing the nickname. The album's artwork was done by Clapton himself with the help of Pattie Boyd and Dave Stewart, credited as \"El & Nell Ink\". Besides choosing various photos for the inner side of the gramophone record packaging are two pictures, Clapton notes, which have deeper importance to him: one picture, in which he kisses Boyd and another photograph showing a demolished Ferrari 365 GT4 BB, which Clapton bought after seeing George Harrison turning up with the same model at his Hurtwood Edge Estate. The car, which had been involved with Clapton in a car accident after the British recording artist finished touring in Australia, nearly killed him.",
"\"Slowhand\" was released on 25 November 1977 by RSO Records. In a contemporary review for \"Rolling Stone\", John Swenson found Clapton's playing more subtle than before but his songs sobering and interesting psychologically, especially \"Next Time You See Her\", as they showed him \"in touch with the horrible moral power and long-suffering self-righteousness that is the essence of the blues\". Robert Christgau was less enthusiastic, lamenting how most of the record's best guitar solos were played by George Terry and feeling Clapton had regressed as a singer, \"sounding like he's blown his voice. Doing what, I wonder.\" In a retrospective review for AllMusic, Stephen Thomas Erlewine wrote that the confident, virtuosic quality in the band's playing and the diversity of the songwriting made \"Slowhand\" \"rank with \"461 Ocean Boulevard\" as Eric Clapton's best albums\". Yahoo! Music's Dave DiMartino said the record was full of hits and \"tasteful\" music. In 2003, \"Slowhand\" was ranked number 325 on \"Rolling Stone\"s list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time, and again in 2012.",
"The rock song \"Cocaine\" was censored and removed from the Argentinian edition of the album in late 1977. The military government of the time considered the song harmful to young people and inviting them to get high. The ban was lifted in 1984. Clapton later said that it is useless to intentionally write an anti-drug song like \"Cocaine\" and hope that people grasp the meaning. After several years, Clapton began including the phrase 'that dirty cocaine' in live performances to highlight the anti-drug message of the song. In addition, Clapton donated much of their funds to \"Crossroads Centre\", a center that helps drug addicts kick their habit and rehabilitate themselves.",
"In November 2012, a remastered two-compact-disc 35th anniversary deluxe edition of \"Slowhand\" was released. The first disc consists of the remastered album, with additional bonus tracks and studio jam sessions. The second disc features a previously unreleased live concert, recorded in April 1977 at the Hammersmith Odeon; although the concert is of the same era as the \"Slowhand\" sessions, it was performed prior to the album's recording and release, and so does not include any of the album's tracks."
]
} |
Zippo | null | A Zippo lighter is a reusable metal lighter manufactured by American Zippo Manufacturing Company of Bradford, Pennsylvania, United States of America. Thousands of different styles and designs have been made in the eight decades since their introduction including military versions for specific regiments. Since its invention, Zippos have been sold around the world and have been described "a legendary and distinct symbol of America". Zippo’s 100 year anniversary is happening in 2032 and it is said that there will be a large gathering that year, where the relatives of the inventors of zippo come to visit. In 2012 the company produced the 500-millionth unit. Since its inception Zippo Lighters have been almost exclusively manufactured in the United States, with the exception of those manufactured in Niagara, Canada (an operation that has since been shut down). | null | [
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"title": [
"Company history.",
"Usage.",
"Vietnam War.",
"Price.",
"Date codes.",
"Construction.",
"Zippo BLU and Zippo BLU 2.",
"Zippo subsidiaries.",
"In popular culture."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
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"content": [
"American George G. Blaisdell founded Zippo Manufacturing Company in 1932, and produced the first Zippo lighter in early 1933, being inspired by an Austrian cigarette lighter of similar design made by IMCO. It got its name because Blaisdell liked the sound of the word \"zipper\" and \"zippo\" sounded more modern. On March 3, 1936, a patent was granted for the Zippo lighter. Zippo lighters became popular in the United States military, especially during World War II—when, as the company's web site says, Zippo \"ceased production of lighters for consumer markets and dedicated all manufacturing to the US military\". Period Zippos were made of brass, but Zippo used a black crackle finished steel during the war years because of metal shortages. While the Zippo Manufacturing Company never had an official contract with the military, soldiers and armed forces personnel insisted that base exchange (BX) and post exchange (PX) stores carry this sought-after lighter. While it had previously been common to have Zippos with authorized badges, unit crests, and division insignias, it became popular among the American soldiers of the Vietnam War to get their Zippos engraved with personal mottos. These lighters are now sought after collector's items and popular souvenirs for visitors to Vietnam. After World War II, the Zippo lighter became increasingly used in advertising by companies large and small through the 1960s. Much of the early Zippo lighter advertising are works of art painted by hand, and as technology has evolved, so has the design and finish of the Zippo lighter. The basic mechanism of the Zippo lighter has remained unchanged, but they developed into a popular fashion accessory, with a huge variety of artistic designs produced. In 2002, Zippo expanded its product line to include a variety of utility-style multi-purpose lighters, known as Zippo MPLs. This was followed in 2005 with the Outdoor Utility Lighter, known as the OUL. These lighters are fueled with butane. In August 2007, Zippo released a new butane lighter called the Zippo BLU. A museum called \"Zippo/Case visitors center\" is located in Bradford, Pennsylvania, at 1932 Zippo Drive. This building contains rare and custom made Zippo lighters, and also sells the entire Zippo line. The museum was featured on the NPR program \"Weekend Edition\" on Sunday, January 25, 2009. The museum also contains an enormous collection of Case knives. Since the Zippo company's 60th anniversary in 1992, annual editions have been produced for Zippo collectors. From 1949 to 2002, Zippos were also produced in Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada. Since 1933, over 500,000,000 Zippo lighters have been produced. In 2009, Zippo announced plans to purchase Ronson Consumer Products Corporation, a long-time competitor in the lighter market. On February 3, 2010, the deal was finalized. In March 2011, due to significant decrease of sales from 18 million lighters a year in the mid-1990s to about 12 million lighters a year recently, combined with increasing pressure on people not to smoke, Zippo Manufacturing Co. tried offering a wider variety of products using the Zippo name, such as watches, leisure clothing and eau de cologne. This strategy is similar to the success Victorinox Swiss Army Brands Inc. has had selling watches, luggage, clothing, and fragrance. On June 5, 2012, the company manufactured its 500,000,000th lighter and celebrated its 80th anniversary. In 2018, Zippo announced the sound trademark of its windproof lighter, making the Zippo lighter’s click officially one of the most recognised sounds in the world.",
"Zippo lighters, which have gained popularity as “windproof” lighters, are able to stay lit in harsh weather, due to the design of the windscreen and adequate rate of fuel delivery. A consequence of the windproofing is that it is hard to extinguish a Zippo by blowing out the flame. However, if the flame is blown from the top down, it will be easily extinguished. The proper way to extinguish the lighter is to close the top half, which starves the flame of oxygen, but unlike other lighters, this does not cut off the fuel supply. One of the recognizable features of Zippo is the fact that it burns with a wick. Opening the top lid produces an easily recognizable \"clink\" sound for which Zippo lighters are known, and a different but similarly recognizable \"clunk\" when the lighter is closed. This noise is produced by the spring-loaded toggling cam, a little lever that keeps the lid closed or opened securely. Unlike disposable lighters, Zippo lighters purchased new do not contain fuel. Instructions for safely fueling the Zippo are included in its packaging. Zippo also offers for sale a name brand lighter fluid.",
"Morley Safer, in his August 5, 1965 \"CBS News\" report of the Cam Ne affair and Private First Class Reginald \"Malik\" Edwards, the rifleman 9th Regiment, US Marine Corps Danang (June 1965 – March 1966) whose profile comprises chapter one of Wallace Terry's book, \"Bloods: An Oral History of the Vietnam War by Black Veterans\" (1984), describe the use of Zippo lighters in search and destroy missions during the Vietnam War. Edwards stated: \"when you say level a village, you don't use torches. It's not like in the 1800s. You used a Zippo. Now you would use a Bic. That's just the way we did it. You went in there with your Zippos. Everybody. That's why people bought Zippos. Everybody had a Zippo. It was for burnin' shit down.\" \"Zippo squad\" became a phrase of American military jargon for being assigned to burn a village. The M132 Armored Flamethrower was referred to as a \"Zippo\".",
"Current Zippos carry a suggested retail price between US$14.95 and US$11,893.95 (for the 18k solid gold model). In 2001, according to the fall 2003 issue of \"IUP Magazine,\" a 1933 model was purchased for $18,000 at a swap meet in Tokyo, and in 2002 the company bought one valued at $12,000 for its own collection. During the 2007 75th anniversary celebrations, Zippo sold a near mint 1933 model for $37,000. All Zippo windproof lighters carry an unlimited lifetime guarantee, promoted using the trademarked phrase \"It works or we fix it for free.\" The corporate web site boasts: \"in almost 75 years, no one has ever spent a cent on the mechanical repair of a Zippo lighter regardless of the lighter’s age or condition.\"",
"In mid-1955, Zippo started year coding their lighters by the use of dots. From 1966 until 1973 the year code was denoted by combinations of vertical lines. From 1974 until 1981 the coding comprised combinations of forward slashes. In 1979 an error was inadvertently introduced into fabrication, with some lighters reading / on the left and // on the right instead of // on the left and / on the right, but was fixed within the year. From 1982 until June 1986 the coding was by backslash. After July 1986, Zippo began including a date code on all lighters showing the month and year of production. On the left of the underside was stamped a letter A–L, denoting the month (A = January, B = February, C = March, etc.). On the right was a Roman numeral which denoted the year, beginning with II in 1986. However, in 2001, Zippo altered this system, changing the Roman numerals to more conventional Arabic numerals. Thus a Zippo made in August 2004 was stamped H 04.",
"The cases of Zippo lighters are typically made of brass and are rectangular with a hinged top. On most models, the top of the case is slightly curved. Inside the case are the works of the lighter. The insert contains the spring-toggle lever that keeps the top closed, the wick, windscreen chimney, flintwheel, and flint, all of which are mounted on an open-bottom metal box that is slightly smaller than the bottom of the outer case, and into which it slips snugly. The hollow part of the interior box encloses five rayon balls (similar to cotton balls) which are in contact with the wick. The bottom of this is covered by a piece of felt approximately 1/4 of an inch thick. Printed on the bottom of the felt (in modern Zippos, not on older models ) are the words, \"LIFT TO FILL,\" to indicate one must lift the felt away from the \"cotton\" in order to refuel it. The fuel, light petroleum distillate or synthetic isoparaffinic hydrocarbon (commonly referred to as lighter fluid or naphtha), is poured into the rayon balls (sometimes called the \"cotton,\" or the \"batting\"), which absorbs it. It also contains a tube that holds a short, cylindrical flint. The tube has an interior spring and exterior cap-screw that keeps the flint in constant contact with the exterior flint-wheel. Spinning this rough-surfaced wheel against flint results in a spark that ignites the fluid in the wick. All parts of the lighter are replaceable. The Zippo lighter requires 108 manufacturing operations.",
"Zippo released the Zippo BLU in 2007 (although there are many 2005 pre-release models). These are butane torch lighters, which Zippo has gone to great lengths to make sure are still \"identifiable as a Zippo\". Specifically, the lid and cam were \"tuned\" so that the lighter still makes the distinctive \"Zippo click\", and also it is one of the only butane torch lighters that uses a flint and striker wheel. There is also the BLU2, which features a squarer frame and eliminates the fuel gauge on the side of the original Zippo BLU. As of January 1, 2016, production of the BLU line of lighters was discontinued. Zippo stated that they would continue to service all previously sold BLU lighters.",
"In addition to its 2010 purchase of the Ronson brand in the US and Canada, Zippo also owns W. R. Case & Sons Cutlery Co. of Bradford, Pennsylvania, Zippo UK, Ltd. of London, England, and Zippo Fashion Italia of Vicenza, Italy.",
"A Zippo lighter has a key role in an episode of \"Alfred Hitchcock Presents\" (aired on January 3, 1960). The 1959-1960, Season 5, Episode 15 is entitled \"Man from the South\", starring Steve McQueen, Peter Lorre, and Neile Adams. McQueen's character portrays a down-and-out small-time gambler in Las Vegas, who accepts a bet for a convertible automobile from Lorre's character 'Carlos'. Betting that his Zippo lighter will light ten times in a row, or he will lose his little finger to Carlos's borrowed kitchen meat cleaver. The Zippo had worked seven times when Carlos' wife rushes in and stops the proceedings, explaining that Carlos is 'insane' and owns nothing to bet on, it is all hers now. McQueen's character then offers a light to a woman acquaintance who has been present (Neile Adams, McQueen's actual wife). The lighter failed on this eighth try. In the popular television series \"Supernatural\" the protagonist brothers Sam and Dean often have to set fire to long-dead human remains, in order to end the existence of the ghost or other spirit formed from the soul of the previous inhabitant of the body. As a Zippo lighter is one of the few lighters that will remain burning without holding down a button or lever, it is common for a slow motion image of an open Zippo lighter, in flames, tumbling into an opened grave or crypt, to be used as cinematographic symbol of the brothers' (usually) successful terminaton of a supernatural threat's existence. Conversely, the cinematographic use of any ignition method \"other\" than a Zippo lighter is a visual cue to the audience of some major difference, which may or may not be known to the protagonists."
]
} |
The Last Continent | null | The Last Continent is a fantasy novel by British writer Terry Pratchett, the twenty-second book in his "Discworld" series. First published in 1998, it mocks the aspects of time travel such as the grandfather paradox and the Ray Bradbury short story "A Sound of Thunder". It also parodies Australian people and aspects of Australian culture, such as the "Crocodile Dundee", "The Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert" and "Mad Max" movies, the Australian beer XXXX, Vegemite, thongs, cork hats, the Peach Melba, "Skippy the Bush Kangaroo", the Henley-on-Todd Regatta, and the popular Australian songs "Waltzing Matilda", "Down Under", and "The Man From Snowy River". | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-211846 | en-train-211846 | 211846 | {
"title": [
"Plot summary.",
"Reception.",
"External links."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The story opens weeks after the events of \"Interesting Times\", in which Rincewind is magically transported to the continent of Xxxx due to a miscalculation made by the Unseen University wizards. He meets the magical kangaroo Scrappy, who was sent by the creator of Fourecks. Scrappy explains to Rincewind that he is fated to bring back \"The Wet\", meaning the rain, and that he is the reason for the eons-long drought. Scrappy says that the continent is unfinished, and time and space will be an eternal anomaly there until it is finished, i.e., the rain is brought back. Rincewind is shown cave paintings of wizards. Meanwhile, the senior wizards (Archchancellor Mustrum Ridcully, The Dean, The Bursar, The Chair of Indefinite Studies, The Lecturer in Recent Runes, The Senior Wrangler, and Ponder Stibbons) are trying to find a cure for the Librarian's magical malady, which causes him to transform into a native object, such as a book when near a library, whenever he sneezes. The wizards soon find out that the books in the Library become hostile and attack when not in the librarian's care. The wizards cannot cure the Librarian without knowing his name. The Librarian, being also the archivist, destroyed any evidence of his true name since he believed the wizards would attempt to turn him human again, as he rather enjoyed his orang-utan body (brought on by a magical accident years before). The Lecturer in Recent Runes suggests they interrogate Rincewind, as he once worked closely with the Librarian and seemed to know more about him than anyone else. To find Rincewind, they have to find the continent of Xxxx. They seek out the Egregious Professor of Cruel and Unusual Geography, and find his office but no sign of the professor himself. They then find a magical window in space leading from the professor's bathroom to a tropical island thousands of years in the past. Back in the present, Rincewind attempts to run away from his destiny, but in fact runs towards it. With the secret assistance of Scrappy, (a parody of \"Skippy the Bush Kangaroo\", a television show from 1969 to 1970, with re-runs into the early 1980s) he eventually ends up wrongfully arrested for sheep theft and taken to Bugarup, where he is hoping to find a ship to escape on. Along the way he subsequently ends up inventing several things that are considered Australian Icons in the real world, as well as becoming the subject of a ballad that is hinted at being a parody of the song \"Waltzing Matilda\". A gigantic circular storm surrounding Fourecks prevents any ships from leaving, however. The people of Bugarup regard sheep thieves as folk heroes and encourage Rincewind to escape, while not actually allowing him to. He finds a hidden message on the ceiling of his holding cell, left by a previous escapee named Tinhead Ned, a reference to the bushranger Ned Kelly, telling him: \"G'day mait, check the hinges.\" He discovers that he is able to lift the door off its hinges and escape. The wizards become trapped when Mrs Whitlow, the head maid, closes the window that leads back into the Professor's study. The wizards soon encounter plants that rapidly evolve to suit their needs (such as a cigarette plant, a coconut tree with chocolate hull coconuts with coconut candy on the inside, and a spoon bush) but (apart from Ponder) do not question the turn of events until a large dinosaur evolves into a chicken in front of their eyes. After finding a plant-based boat, the wizards start to question their surroundings even more and the god of evolution, who has been causing the events, then turns up and helps explain things a bit. He created the boat plant so that the wizards would leave him in peace, as the plants are going haywire attempting to evolve to suit the wizards' every needs. The god doesn't understand the purpose of the seeds and is, it turns out, unaware of the concept of sexual reproduction. After Mrs Whitlow explains it to him, the excited god decides to redesign the creatures on the island in order to incorporate the idea. The wizards then reach Fourecks, inventing surfing along the way, and meet the Creator of Fourecks (not of the Disc) in the process of creating it by way of impressionistic cave paintings. The wizards bicker over the Creator's technique and inadvertently create the duck-billed platypus. The Librarian meanwhile steals the Creator's bullroarer and spins it, causing the drought Rincewind is in the process of stopping. The wizards are then frozen in time for thousands of years by the stray magic left over from creating the continent. Rincewind, having escaped from gaol, meets up with a group of female impersonators, Darleen and Letitia, and a female, Neilette. The \"ladies\" have found his Luggage, which rescues him from the Watch. In the escape, Rincewind and Neilette break into the old brewery (which was never used because all the beer kept going flat). An earthquake (induced by the voice of the creator) causes the brewery to collapse, trapping them inside the Luggage. When they emerge, Rincewind can see the ethereal outlines of the wizards (who were trapped, frozen in time, for 30,000 years in the brewery). Eventually he arrives at the University of Fourecks (which has a tower that is taller on the inside than it is on the outside). Rincewind figures out how to free the wizards. The wizards attempt to find a way to bring back the rain, but are unsuccessful. As they are sitting around, Rincewind idly twirls the bullroarer, which soon begins to fly faster and farther than it should. Rincewind lets go and the bullroarer flies off; immediately, it begins to rain. Having saved Fourecks, Rincewind and the wizards return to Ankh-Morpork by ship, and the story ends with the old man with the sack (the Creator of the last continent) catching the bullroarer in front of a young boy.",
"The \"SF Site\" described it as \"(l)oads of sarcasm, an outrageous plot and tons of sheer fun\". \"Infinity Plus\" was less positive, recommending that \"Discworld\" newcomers start elsewhere, and stating that it \"falls below (Pratchett's) normal very high standard on several counts\", because although it is \"great fun\" and \"worth buying\", it \"doesn't hang together as a plot, as an unfolding story\".",
""
]
} |
Titular bishop | null | A titular bishop in various churches is a bishop who is not in charge of a diocese. By definition, a bishop is an "overseer" of a community of the faithful, so when a priest is ordained a bishop, the tradition of the Roman Catholic and Orthodox churches is that he be ordained for a specific place. There are more bishops than there are functioning dioceses. Therefore, a priest appointed not to head a diocese as its diocesan bishop but to be an auxiliary bishop, a papal diplomat, or an official of the Roman Curia is appointed to a titular see. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-1618084 | en-train-1618084 | 1618084 | {
"title": [
"Roman Catholic Church.",
"Eastern Orthodox Church."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"In the Roman Catholic Church, a titular bishop is a bishop who is not in charge of a diocese. Examples of bishops belonging to this category are coadjutor bishops, auxiliary bishops, bishops emeriti, vicars apostolic, nuncios, superiors of departments in the Roman Curia, and cardinal bishops of suburbicarian dioceses (since they are not in charge of the suburbicarian dioceses). Most titular bishops hold the title to a titular see. Assigning titular sees serves two purposes. Since part of being a bishop means being the head of a Christian Church, titular sees serve that purpose for bishops without a diocese. At the same time, the office of titular bishop memorializes ancient Churches, most of which were suppressed because they fell into the hands of non-Christian conquerors. For this reason the former terminology was not \"titular bishop\" but \"bishop in infidel regions\" (\"in partibus infidelium\"). In recent times the names of titular sees are drawn also in numerous cases from those of former dioceses which were absorbed into other dioceses or expanded and hence moved to larger towns and cities. Since 1970, there are two more exceptions. Diocesan bishops who resign their see or are transferred to a non-diocesan appointment are no longer habitually transferred to a titular see. Instead, they take the title \"Bishop\" (or \"Archbishop\") \"Emeritus\" of the last see. Also, coadjutors are no longer named to titular sees, instead taking the title \"Coadjutor Bishop\" (or \"Coadjutor Archbishop\") of the see they will inherit. In other cases titular bishops still take a titular see. Beginning in 2019, titular sees are no longer being assigned to new Vicars Apostolic. When Francis Green was named Coadjutor Bishop of Tucson, Arizona, in 1960, his official title remained \"Titular Bishop of Serra\" until he succeeded Daniel James Gercke later that same year. However, when Gerald Kicanas became Coadjutor Bishop of Tucson in 2001, he ceased being Titular Bishop of Bela. He remained a titular bishop until he succeeded Manuel Moreno in 2003, but his official title changed from \"Titular Bishop of Bela\" to \"Coadjutor Bishop of Tucson.\" Cardinal Bishops of suburbicarian dioceses are also titular bishops, but unlike others, they hold titles to existing dioceses, namely one or more of the suburbicarian sees near Rome. While they do not govern their see, they are obliged to give it their patronage. Angelo Sodano, as Cardinal Bishop of Albano, is titular bishop of the see, while Bishop Marcello Semeraro is its actual diocesan bishop. The Cardinal Dean is by tradition Cardinal Bishop of Ostia, in addition to the suburbicarian see he previously held. Occasionally, the transfer of a diocesan bishop to a titular see has been used by the Holy See to strip of responsibilities a bishop whose behavior was disapproved. For instance, in 1995, Jacques Gaillot, known for his activism on Catholic-sensitive social and political topics (such as support for contraception and abortion), was transferred from the see of Évreux in France to Partenia, a titular see in Algeria, instead of becoming Bishop Emeritus of Évreux.",
"Titular bishops and titular metropolitans are often appointed in the Eastern Orthodox Church. In Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, titular bishops and metropolitans are usually appointed with titles of former dioceses in the regions of Thrace, Asia Minor and Pontus (now Turkey), that were often active until the Greek-Turkish population exchange of 1923. In Serbian Orthodox Church, titular bishops are usually appointed to serve as auxiliary bishops, assisting diocesan bishops in various fields of diocesan administration."
]
} |
Curry | null | Curry is a variety of dishes originating in the Indian subcontinent that use a complex combination of spices or herbs, usually including ground turmeric, cumin, coriander, ginger, and fresh or dried chilies. Curry is generally prepared in a sauce. Curry dishes prepared in the southern states of India, where the word also originated, may be spiced with leaves from the curry tree. | null | [
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"title": [
"Etymology.",
"Origins, history and dissemination.",
"Indian subcontinent.",
"Bangladesh and West Bengal.",
"Northern India.",
"Gujarat.",
"Maharashtra.",
"Punjab.",
"Rajasthan.",
"Southern India.",
"Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.",
"Goa.",
"Karnataka.",
"Kerala.",
"Tamil Nadu.",
"Kashmir.",
"Maldives.",
"Nepal.",
"Pakistan.",
"Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.",
"Punjab.",
"Sindh.",
"Sri Lanka.",
"Southeast Asia.",
"Burma.",
"Indonesia.",
"Malaysia.",
"Philippines.",
"Thailand.",
"Vietnam.",
"East Asia.",
"China.",
"Hong Kong.",
"Japan.",
"Korea.",
"United Kingdom.",
"Historical development.",
"Curry house.",
"Terminology.",
"Balti.",
"South Africa.",
"West Indies.",
"Other countries.",
"Fiji.",
"Curry powder."
],
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"content": [
"\"Curry\" is an anglicised form of the Tamil word \"\" meaning'sauce' or'relish for rice' that uses the leaves of the curry tree (\"Murraya koenigii\"). \"Kaṟi\" is described in a mid-17th century Portuguese cookbook by members of the British East India Company, who were trading with",
"Archaeological evidence dating to 2600 BCE from Mohenjo-daro suggests the use of mortar and pestle to pound spices including mustard, fennel, cumin, and tamarind pods with which they flavoured food. Black pepper is native to the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia and has been known to Indian cooking since at least 2000 BCE. Domesticated Pacific coconuts and coconut milk extraction technology was introduced to southern India and Sri Lanka by the ancient maritime trade network of the Austronesian peoples, which influenced the curries of these regions. The establishment of the Mughal Empire, in the early 15th century, also influenced some curries, especially",
"From the culinary point of view, it is useful to consider the Indian subcontinent to be the entire historical region encompassed prior to independence since August 1947; that is, the modern countries of India, Bangladesh, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. It is usual to distinguish broadly between northern and southern styles of Indian cuisine, recognising that within those categories are innumerable sub-styles and variations. The distinction is commonly made with reference to the staple starch: wheat in the form of unleavened breads in the north; rice in the east; rice and millet in the south.",
"Bengali cuisine, which refers to the cuisine of Bangladesh and the West Bengal state of India, includes curries, including seafood and fresh fish. Mustard seeds and",
"Curries are the most well-known part of Indian cuisine. Most Indian dishes are usually curry based, prepared by adding different types of vegetables, lentils or meats in the curry. The content of the curry and style of preparation varies per the region. Most curries are water based, with occasional use of dairy and coconut milk. Curry dishes are usually thick and spicy and are eaten along with steamed rice and variety of Indian breads.",
"Although wet curries play a smaller role in Gujarat than elsewhere, there are a number of vegetarian examples with gravies based on buttermilk or coconut milk. The main ingredient may",
"The curries of Maharashtra vary from mildly spicy to very spicy and include vegetarian, mutton, chicken and fish. Coastal Maharashtrian – Konkani – curries use coconut extensively along with spices. In western Maharashtra, curries are very spicy, often with peanut powder. Vidharba's cuisine is usually spicier than that of the coastal and southern regions. The ingredients commonly",
"Most Punjabi dishes are prepared using \"tadka\", which is made with the frying of a \"masala\", which is a mix of ginger, garlic, onions and tomatoes with some dried spices. This is followed by the",
"Rajasthani cuisine was influenced both by the war-like lifestyles of its inhabitants and the availability of ingredients in this arid region. Food that could last for several days and could be eaten without heating was preferred. Scarcity of water and fresh green vegetables have each had their effect on the cooking. Hence the curries in Rajasthan are usually made using dry spices and herbs and other dry items like gram flour. \"Kadhi\" is a popular gram flour curry, usually served with steamed rice and bread. To decrease the use of water in this desert state they use a lot of milk and milk-products to cook curries. Laal maans is a popular meat curry from Rajasthan.",
"",
"The food in general from Andhra Pradesh and Telangana, both with Telugu-speaking natives, is considered the hottest in India. The",
"Curries known as vindaloo have become well known in Great Britain, America, and elsewhere, where the name is usually used simply to indicate a fiery dish of lamb or chicken frequently including potatoes. Such dishes are far from the Goan originals. The name \"vindaloo\" derives",
"The curries of Karnataka are typically vegetarian or with meat and fish around mostly coastal areas. They use a wide variety of vegetables, spices, coconut and",
"Malayali curries of Kerala typically contain shredded coconut paste or coconut milk, curry leaves, and various spices. Mustard seeds are used in almost every dish, along with onions, curry leaves, and sliced red chilies fried in hot oil. Most of the non-vegetarian dishes are",
"Tamil cuisine's distinctive flavour and aroma is achieved by a blend and combination of spices including curry leaves, tamarind, coriander, ginger, garlic, chili, pepper, poppy seeds, mustard seeds, cinnamon, cloves, cardamom, cumin, fennel or anise seeds, fenugreek seeds, nutmeg, coconut, turmeric root or powder, and rosewater. Lentils, vegetables and dairy products are essential accompaniments and are often served with rice. Traditionally vegetarian foods dominate the menu with a range of non-vegetarian dishes including freshwater fish and seafood cooked with spices and seasoning.",
"In the West, the best-known Kashmiri curry is \"rogan josh\", a wet curry of lamb with a brilliant red gravy whose colour is derived from",
"The most important curry in the cuisine of the Maldives is cooked with diced fresh tuna and is known as \"mas riha\". \"Kukulhu riha\", chicken curry, is cooked with a different mixture of spices.",
"The curries of Nepalese cuisine have been influenced by its neighbours, mainly India and Tibet. Well known Indian spices are used less. Goat is",
"Pakistani curries, especially in the provinces of Punjab and Sindh, are basically similar to their counterparts in northern India. Mutton and beef are common ingredients. A typical Pakistani lunch or dinner often consists of some form of bread (such as naan or roti) or rice with a meat or vegetable-based curry. Barbecue style or roasted meats are also very popular in the form of kebabs. It is worth noting that the term \"curry\" is virtually never used inside the country; instead, regional words such as \"salan\" or \"shorba\" are used to denote what is known outside the country as a \"curry\". Several different types of curries exist, depending on the cooking style, such as bhuna, bharta, roghan josh, qorma, qeema, and shorba. A favourite Pakistani curry is karahi, which is either mutton or chicken cooked in a cooking utensil called karahi, which is similar in shape to a wok. Lahori karahi incorporates garlic, ginger, fresh chillies, tomatoes and select spices. Peshawari karahi is another very popular version made with just meat, salt, tomatoes, and coriander.",
"The cuisine from the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan is somewhat similar to the cuisine of neighbouring Afghanistan. Extreme winters in some areas made the supply of fresh vegetables impossible, so a lot of dried fruits and vegetables are incorporated",
"Cuisine in Pakistani Punjab differs from Indian Punjab on account of contents and religious diet rules. A typical Punjabi meal consists of some form of bread or rice with a \"salan\" (curry). Most preparations start with the frying of a masala which is a concoction of ginger, garlic, onions, tomatoes, and dried spices.",
"In Pakistan, the provinces of Sindh and Balochistan border the Arabian Sea. Due to this, the Sindhi cuisine often has abundant use of fish in curries. Among Pakistani food, the Sindhi curries generally tend to be the hottest. The daily food in most Sindhi households consists of wheat-based flatbread (phulka) and rice accompanied by two dishes, one gravy and one dry.",
"In Sri Lankan cuisine, rice, which is usually consumed daily, can be found at any",
"",
"Burmese cuisine is based on a very different understanding of curries. The principal ingredients of almost all Burmese curries are fresh onion (which provides the gravy and main body of the curry), Indian spices and red chilies. Usually, meat and fish are the main ingredients for popular curries. Burmese curries can be generalised into two types – the hot spicy dishes",
"In Indonesia curry is called \"kari\" or \"kare\". The most common type of \"kari\" consumed in Indonesia is \"kari ayam\" (chicken curry) and \"kari kambing\" (goat meat curry). In Aceh and North Sumatra roti cane is often eaten with \"kari kambing\". Other dishes such as gulai and opor are dishes based on curry. They are often highly localised and reflect the meat and vegetables available. They can therefore employ a variety of meats (chicken, beef, water buffalo and goat as in the flavoursome \"gulai kambing\"), seafood (such as prawn, crab, mussel, clam, and squid), fish (tuna, mackerel, carp, pangasius, catfish), or vegetables (young jackfruit, common beans, cassava leaf) dishes in a spiced sauce. They",
"Being at the crossroads of ancient trade routes has left a mark on Malaysian cuisine. While curry may have initially found its way to Malaysian shores via the Indian population, it has since become a staple among the Malays and Chinese. Malaysian curries differ from state to state, even within similar ethnic groupings, as they are influenced by many factors, be they cultural,",
"In the Philippines, two kinds of curry traditions are seen corresponding with the cultural divide between the Hispanicised north and Indianised/Islamised south. In the northern areas, a linear range of new curry recipes could be seen. The most common is a variant of the native \"ginataang manok\" (chicken is cooked in coconut milk) dish with the addition of curry powder, known as the \"Filipino chicken curry\". This is the usual curry dish that northern Filipinos are familiar with. Similarly, other northern Filipino dishes that can be considered \"curries\" are usually",
"In Thai cuisine, curries are called \"kaeng\", and usually consist of meat, fish or vegetables in a sauce based on a paste made from chilies, onions or shallots, garlic, and shrimp paste. Additional spices and herbs define the type of curry. Local ingredients, such as chili peppers, kaffir lime leaves, lemongrass, galangal are used and, in central and southern Thai cuisine, coconut milk. Northern and northeastern",
"In Vietnam where curry is called \"cà ri\", curry features include coconut milk, potato, sweet potato, taro roots, chicken garnished with coriander, and green",
"",
"Although not an integral part of Chinese cuisine, curry powder is added to some dishes in southern part of China. The curry powder sold in Chinese grocery stores is similar to Madras curry powder but with addition of star anise and cinnamon. Chinese curries (咖哩, gā lǐ) typically consist of chicken, beef, fish, lamb, or other meats, green peppers, onions, large chunks of potatoes, and a variety of other ingredients and spices in a mildly spicy yellow",
"In Hong Kong, curry fish balls are a street snack,",
"is usually eaten as \"karē raisu\" — curry, rice, and often pickled vegetables, served on the same plate and eaten with a spoon, a common lunchtime canteen dish. It is less spicy and seasoned than Indian and Southeast Asian curries, being more of a thick stew than a curry. British people brought curry from the Indian colony back to Britain and introduced it to Japan during the Meiji period (1868 to 1912), after Japan ended its policy of national self-isolation (\"sakoku\"), and curry in Japan was categorised as a Western dish. Its spread across the country is commonly attributed to its use in the Japanese Army and Navy which adopted it extensively as convenient field and naval canteen cooking, allowing even conscripts from the remotest countryside to experience the",
"Though curry was introduced to Korea in the 1940s, the Indian dish was only popularized decades later, when Ottogi entered the Korean food industry by launching its powder-type curry product in 1969. Korean curry, usually served with rice, is characterized by the golden yellow colour from turmeric. Curry tteokbokki,",
"Curry is very popular in the United Kingdom, with a curry house in nearly every town. Such is the popularity of curry in the United Kingdom, it has frequently been called its \"adopted national dish\". It was estimated that in 2016 there were 12,000 curry houses, employing 100,000 people and with annual combined sales of approximately £4.2 billion. In general the food offered is Indian food cooked to British taste; however, there is increasing demand for authentic Indian food. As of 2015 curry houses accounted for a fifth of the restaurant business in the U.K. but, being historically a low wage sector, they were plagued by a shortage of labour. Established Indian immigrants from South Asia were moving on to other occupations; there were difficulties in training Europeans to cook curry; and immigration restrictions, which require payment of a high wage to skilled immigrants, had crimped the supply of new cooks.",
"Historically, the word \"curry\" was first used in British cuisine to denote dishes of meat (often leftover lamb) in a Western-style sauce flavoured with curry powder. The first curry recipe in Britain appeared in \"The Art of Cookery made Plain and Easy\" by Hannah Glasse in 1747. The first edition of her book used only black pepper and coriander seeds for seasoning of \"currey\". By the fourth edition of the book, other ingredients such as turmeric and ginger were called for. The use of hot spices was not mentioned, which reflected the limited use of chili in India — chili plants had only been introduced into India around the late 16th century and at that time were only popular in southern India. Many curry recipes are contained in 19th century cookbooks such as those",
"In 1810, the entrepreneur Sake Dean Mahomed, from the Bengal Presidency, opened the first Indian curry house in England: the Hindoostanee Coffee House in London. (Curry was served prior to this in some London coffee houses.) The first modern \"upscale\" Indian restaurant in Britain is thought to have been The Shafi in 1915, followed by Veeraswamy in London's Regent Street, founded in 1926; the latter is still standing and is the oldest surviving Indian restaurant in Britain. Bengalis in the UK settled in",
"Restaurants in Great Britain have adopted a number of Indian terms to identify popular dishes. Although the names may derive from traditional dishes, often the recipes do not. Representative names include: The",
"Baltis are a style of curry thought to have been developed in Birmingham, England which have spread to other western countries and are traditionally cooked and served in the same pot, typically made of cast iron, called karahi or \"balty\".",
"African curries, Cape Malay curries and Natal curries include the traditional Natal curry, the Durban curry, bunny chow, and roti rolls. South African curries appear to have been founded in two distinct regions – one in the east (KwaZulu-Natal) and the other in the west (Western Cape) – with a variety of other curries developing across the country over the late 20th century and early 21st century to include ekasi, coloured, and Afrikaner curries. Durban has the largest single population of Indians outside of India, who have been developing traditional Natal curries since their arrival in the late 19th century. Natal curries are mostly based on South Indian dishes and mostly consist",
"In the West Indies, curry is a very popular dish. The Indian indentured servants that were brought over from India by different European powers brought this dish to the West",
"",
"In Fiji curries are made in most Indian homes and are eaten with rice or roti. Roti (circle or square) is mainly eaten for breakfast with vegetable curries. Lunch is often dal and rice with some side dishes. Most working people take roti and curry for their lunch. Dinner is usually curry, rice with some chutneys. Curries are normally cooked in vegetable oil. Ghee is mainly used to fry dal, to make puris or sweets. To make a curry, spices like cumin, fenugreek, mustard, and curry leaves are added to the hot oil. Onion is",
"Curry powder is a spice mixture of widely varying composition developed by the British during the days of the Raj as a means of approximating the taste of Indian cuisine at home. Masala refers to spices, and this is the name given to the thick and pasty sauce based on a combination of spices with ghee (clarified butter), butter, palm oil or coconut milk. Most commercial curry powders available in Britain, the U.S. and Canada rely heavily on ground turmeric, in turn producing a very yellow sauce. Lesser ingredients in these Western yellow curry powders are often coriander, cumin, fenugreek, mustard, chili, black pepper and salt. By contrast, curry powders and curry pastes produced and consumed in India are extremely diverse; some red, some yellow, some brown; some with five spices and some with as many as 20 or more. Besides the previously mentioned spices, other commonly found spices in different curry powders in India are allspice, white pepper, ground mustard, ground ginger, cinnamon, roasted cumin, cloves, nutmeg, mace, green cardamom seeds or black cardamom pods, bay leaves and coriander seeds. Curry powder is used as an incidental ingredient in other cuisines, including for example a \"curry sauce\" (\"sauce au curry\", sometimes even \"au cari\") variation of the classic French béchamel."
]
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] | null | null | en-train-1322515 | en-train-1322515 | 1322515 | {
"title": [
"Structure.",
"Innervation.",
"Function.",
"Blood supply.",
"Clinical significance.",
"History.",
"Etymology and spelling."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"2"
],
"content": [
"Anconeus originates on the posterior surface of the lateral epicondyle of the humerus and inserts distally on the superior posterior surface of the ulna and the lateral aspect of the olecranon.",
"Anconeus is innervated by a branch of the radial nerve (cervical roots 7 and 8) from the posterior cord of the brachial plexus called the nerve to the anconeus. The somatomotor portion of radial nerve innervating anconeus bifurcates from the main branch in the radial groove of the humerus. This innervation pattern follows the rules of innervation of the musculature of the posterior forearm (extensor) compartment by the radial nerve.",
"Its role in elbow extension is trivial in humans. It assists in extension of the elbow, where the triceps brachii is the principal agonist, and supports the elbow in full extension. It also prevents the elbow joint capsule being pinched in the olecranon fossa during extension of the elbow. Anconeus also abducts the ulna and stabilizes the elbow joint. Anconeus serves to make minute movements with the radius on the ulna. In making slight abduction of the ulna, it allows any finger to be used as an axis of rotation of the forearm.",
"Anconeus is supplied by the middle collateral artery from the profunda brachii artery.",
"Trauma to the nerve supply of the anconeus muscle can usually result from a shoulder dislocation or fractures of the upper part of the humerus or around the olecranon, or any injury that damages the radial nerve. Harm inflicted upon the radial nerve through these mechanisms can paralyze the anconeus muscle as well as other extensors of the elbow and wrist. There are no specific acquired injuries that exclusively affect the anconeus muscle; however, any disease that compromises muscular functions, particularly arm extension (i.e. muscular dystrophy) will affect this particular accessory muscle. Heterotopic ossification can result from certain trauma as it is an abnormal growth of osseous tissue in non-osseous tissue (e.g. muscle tissue). The condition is usually found in the hips, although there have been documented cases of certain individuals with it occurring in the arms and legs. The cause for the process to initiate is not well understood, only that it typically results from surgery or trauma.",
"",
"\"Anconeus muscle\" is the anglicized form of the Latin expression \"musculus anconaeus\", as can be found in the \"Nomina Anatomica\" as ratified in Basel in 1895 and in Jena in 1935. The anatomic Latin adjective \"anconaeus\" was written as \"anconeus\" in the subsequent edition of the \"Nomina Anatomica\" as authorized in 1955 in Paris, without any further explanation of this specific diphthong reduction. The following edition of 1961 specified its policy by stating that: \"All diphthongs should be eliminated\". Although a selected number of monophthongizations was reverted, subsequent editions of the \"Nomina Anatomica\" and its most recent outing \"Terminologia Anatomica\" insisted on writing \"musculus anconeus\". Despite the earlier preference of the \"Nomina Anatomica\" for \"anconaeus\" no ancient Greek form ἀγκωναῖος is attested. In modern Greek the expression ἀγκωνιαίος μυς is used, with the from \"anconaeus\" deviating adjective ἀγκωνιαίος. Anconaeus is derived from the ancient Greek noun, ἀγκών. 'Ακών can be translated as \"bend of the arm\" or \"elbow\". The expression \"musculus anconaeus\" was translated into English as \"elbow muscle\" in 1907 in the English translation of the first edition of the \"Nomina Anatomica\"."
]
} |
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"title": [
"Early history.",
"1970s.",
"Commercialization (1980s).",
"Relational Technologies Inc.",
"Recent years.",
"Actian.",
"Postgres.",
"Actian X - The new Ingres."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
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"3",
"2",
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],
"content": [
"Ingres began as a research project at the University of California, Berkeley, starting in the early 1970s and ending in 1985. The original code, like that from other projects at Berkeley, was available at minimal cost under a version of the BSD license. Ingres spawned a number of commercial database applications, including Sybase, Microsoft SQL Server, NonStop SQL and a number of others. Postgres (Post Ingres), a project which started in the mid-1980s, later evolved into PostgreSQL. It is ACID compatible and is fully transactional (including all DDL statements) and is part of the Lisog open-source stack initiative.",
"In 1973 when the System R project was getting started at IBM, the research team released a series of papers describing the system they were building. Two scientists at Berkeley, Michael Stonebraker and Eugene Wong, became interested in the concept after reading the papers, and started a relational database research project of their own. They had already raised money for researching a geographic database system for Berkeley's economics group, which they called Ingres, for INteractive Graphics REtrieval System. They decided to use this money to fund their relational project instead, and used this as a seed for a new and much larger project. They decided to re-use the original project name, and the new project became \"University INGRES\". For further funding, Stonebraker approached the DARPA, the obvious funding source for computing research and development at the time, but both the DARPA and the Office of Naval Research (ONR) turned them down as they were already funding database research elsewhere. Stonebraker then introduced his idea to other agencies, and, with help from his colleagues he eventually obtained modest support from the NSF and three military agencies: the Air Force Office of Scientific Research, the Army Research Office, and the Navy Electronic Systems Command. Thus funded, Ingres was developed during the mid-1970s by a rotating team of students and staff. Ingres went through an evolution similar to that of System R, with an early prototype in 1974 followed by major revisions to make the code maintainable. Ingres was then disseminated to a small user community, and project members rewrote the prototype repeatedly to incorporate accumulated experience, feedback from users, and new ideas. The research project ended in 1985.",
"Ingres remained largely similar to IBM's System R in concept, but it was based largely on DEC machines, both under UNIX and VAX/VMS. Unlike System R, the Ingres source code was available (on tape) for a modest fee. By 1980 some 1,000 copies had been distributed, primarily to universities. Many students from U.C. Berkeley and other universities who used the Ingres source code worked on various commercial database software systems. Berkeley students Jerry Held and later Karel Youseffi moved to Tandem Computers, where they built a system that evolved into NonStop SQL. The Tandem database system was a re-implementation of the Ingres technology. It evolved into a system that ran effectively on parallel computers; that is, it included functionality for distributed data, distributed execution, and distributed transactions (the last being fairly difficult). Components of the system were first released in the late 1970s. By 1989, the system could run queries in parallel and the product became fairly famous for being one of the few systems that scales almost linearly with the number of processors in the machine: adding a second CPU to an existing NonStop SQL server will almost exactly double its performance. Tandem was later purchased by Compaq, which started a re-write in 2000, and now the product is at Hewlett-Packard. In the early 1980s, Ingres competed head-to-head with Oracle. The two products were widely regarded as the leading hardware-independent relational database implementations; they had comparable functionality, performance, market share, and pricing, and many commentators considered Ingres to be a (perhaps marginally) superior product. From around 1985, however, Ingres steadily lost market share. One reason was Oracle's aggressive marketing; another was the increasing recognition of SQL as the preferred relational query language. Ingres originally had provided a different language, Quel, and the conversion to SQL (delivered in Ingres version 6) took about three years, losing valuable time in the race. Robert Epstein, the chief programmer on the project while he was at Berkeley, formed Britton Lee, Inc. along with other students from the Ingres Project, Paula Hawthorn and Michael Ubell; they were joined later by Eric Allman. Later, Epstein founded Sybase. Sybase had been the #2 product (behind Oracle) for some time through the 1980s and into the 1990s, before Informix came \"out of nowhere\" and took over in 1997. Sybase's product line had also been licensed to Microsoft in 1992, who rebranded it as Microsoft SQL Server. This relationship soured in the late 1990s, and today SQL Server outsells Sybase by a wide margin.",
"Several companies used the Ingres source code to produce products. The most successful was a company named Relational Technology, Inc. (RTI), founded in 1980 by Stonebraker and Wong, and another Berkeley professor, Lawrence A. Rowe. RTI was renamed Ingres Corporation in the late 1980s. The company ported the code to DEC VAX/VMS, which was the commercial operating system for DEC VAX computers. They also developed a collection of front-end tools for creating and manipulating databases (e.g., reporterwriters, forms entry and update, etc.) and application development tools. Over time, much of the source was rewritten to add functionality (for example, multiple-statement transactions, SQL, B-tree access method, date/time datatypes, etc.) and improve performance (for example, compiled queries, multithreaded server). The company was purchased by ASK Corporation in November 1990. The founders left the company over the next several months. In 1994, ASK/Ingres was purchased by Computer Associates, who continued to offer Ingres under a variety of brand names (for example, OpenIngres, Ingres II, or Advantage Ingres). In 2004, Computer Associates released Ingres r3 under an open source license. The code includes the DBMS server and utilities and the character-based front-end and application-development tools. In essence, the code has everything except OpenROAD, the Windows 4GL GUI-based development environment. In November 2005, Garnett & Helfrich Capital, in partnership with Computer Associates, created a new company called Ingres Corporation, which provided support and services for Ingres, OpenROAD, and the connectivity products.",
"In February 2006, Ingres Corporation released Ingres 2006 under the GNU General Public Licence. Ingres 9.3 was released on October 7, 2009. It was a limited release targeted at new application development on Linux and Windows only. Ingres 10 was released on October 12, 2010, as a full release, supporting upgrade from earlier versions of the product. It was available on 32-bit and 64-bit Linux, and 32-bit Microsoft Windows. Open-source community initiatives with Ingres included: Community Bundles – Alliances with other open-source providers and projects, such as Alfresco, JasperSoft, Hibernate, Apache Tomcat, and Eclipse, enable Ingres to provide its platform and technology with other open-source technologies. Established by Ingres and Carleton University, a series of Open Source Boot Camps were held in 2008 to work with other open-source communities and projects to introduce university and college students and staff to the concepts and realities of open source. Other involvement includes: Global Ingres University Alliances, Ingres Engineering Summit, Ingres Janitors Project and several memberships in open-source initiatives. Ingres Icebreaker is an appliance that combines the Ingres Database with the Linux operating system, enabling people to simultaneously deploy and manage a database and operating system. Ingres CAFÉ (Consolidated Application Foundation for Eclipse), created by a team of developers at Carleton University, is an integrated environment that helps software architects accelerate and simplify Java application development. Ingres Geospatial was community-based project to create industry-standards-compliant geospatial storage features in the Ingres DBMS. In other words, for storing map data and providing powerful analysis functions within the DBMS. In November 2010 Garnett & Helfrich Capital acquired the last 20% of equity in Ingres Corp that it did not already own.",
"On September 22, 2011, Ingres Corporation became Actian Corporation. It focused on Action Apps, which use Ingres or Vectorwise RDBMS systems.",
"The Postgres project was started in the mid 1980s to address limitations of existing database-management implementations of the relational model. Primary among these was their inability to let the user define new domains (or \"types\") which are combinations of simpler domains (see relational model for an explanation of the term \"domain\"). The project explored other ideas including the incorporation of write-once media (e.g., optical disks), the use of massive storage (e.g., never delete data), inferencing, and object-oriented data models. The implementation also experimented with new interfaces between the database and application programs (e.g., \"portals\", which are sometimes referred to as \"fat cursors\"). The resulting project, named \"Postgres\", aimed at introducing the minimum number of features needed to add complete types support. These included the ability to define types, but also the ability to fully describe relationships – which up until this time had been widely used but maintained entirely by the user. In Postgres, the database \"understood\" relationships, and could retrieve information in related tables in a natural way using \"rules\". In the 1990s, Stonebraker started a new company to commercialize Postgres, under the name Illustra. The company and technology were later purchased by Informix Corporation.",
"Ingres 11 was released on 18 April 2017 and is now known as Actian X Hybrid Database."
]
} |
Eric Clapton | null | Elias Boudinot ( ; May 2, 1740 – October 24, 1821) was a lawyer and statesman from Elizabeth, New Jersey who was a delegate to the Continental Congress (more accurately referred to as the Congress of the Confederation) and served as President of Congress from 1782 to 1783. He was elected as a U.S. Congressman for New Jersey following the American Revolutionary War. He was appointed by President George Washington as Director of the United States Mint, serving from 1795 until 1805. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-53015 | en-train-53015 | 53015 | {
"title": [
"Early life and education.",
"Career.",
"Marriage and family.",
"Later career.",
"Political career.",
"Later public service.",
"Archival collections."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Elias Boudinot was born in Philadelphia on May 2, 1740. His father, Elias Boudinot III, was a merchant and silversmith; he was a neighbor and friend of Benjamin Franklin. His mother, Mary Catherine Williams, was born in the British West Indies; her father was from Wales. Elias' paternal grandfather, Elie (sometimes called Elias) Boudinot, was the son of Jean Boudinot and Marie Suire of Marans, Aunis, France. They were a Huguenot (French Protestant) family who fled to New York about 1687 to avoid the religious persecutions of King Louis XIV. Mary Catherine Williams and Elias Boudinot Sr. were married on August 8, 1729. Over the next twenty years, they had nine children. The first, John, was born in the British West Indies-Antigua. Of the others, only the younger Elias and his siblings Annis, Mary, and Elisha reached adulthood. Annis became one of the first published women poets in the Thirteen Colonies, and her work appeared in leading newspapers and magazines. Elisha Boudinot became Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of New Jersey. After studying and being tutored at home, Elias Boudinot went to Princeton, New Jersey to read the law as a legal apprentice to Richard Stockton. An attorney, he had married Elias' older sister Annis Boudinot. Richard Stockton was later a signatory of the Declaration of Independence.",
"In 1760, Boudinot was admitted to the bar, and began his practice in Elizabeth, New Jersey. He owned land adjacent to the road from Elizabethtown to Woodbridge Township, New Jersey.",
"After getting established, on April 21, 1762, Boudinot married Hannah Stockton (1736–1808), Richard's younger sister. They had two children, Maria Boudinot, who died at age two, and Susan Vergereau Boudinot. Susan married William Bradford, who became Chief Justice of Pennsylvania and Attorney General under George Washington. After her husband's death in 1795, Susan Boudinot Bradford returned to her parents' home to live. The young widow edited her father's papers. Now held by Princeton University, these provide significant insight into the events of the Revolutionary era. In 1805, Elias, Hannah and Susan moved to a new home in Burlington, New Jersey. Hannah died a few years after their move, and Elias lived there for the remainder of his years.",
"In his later years, Boudinot invested and speculated in land. He owned large tracts in Ohio including most of Green Township in what is now the western suburbs of Cincinnati, where there is a street bearing his surname. At his death, he willed to the city of Philadelphia for parks and city needs. He was buried in the churchyard of St. Mary's Church, Burlington, New Jersey.",
"Boudinot became a prominent lawyer and his practice prospered. As the revolution drew near, he aligned with the Whigs, and was elected to the New Jersey provincial assembly in 1775. In the early stages of the Revolutionary War, he was active in promoting enlistment; several times he loaned money to field commanders to purchase supplies. Boudinot helped support the activities of rebel spies. After the British occupation of New York City, spies were sent to Staten Island and Long Island, New York to observe and report on movements of specific British garrisons and regiments. On May 5, 1777, General George Washington asked Boudinot to be appointed as commissary general for prisoners. Congress through the board of war concurred. Boudinot was commissioned as a colonel in the Continental Army for this work. He served until July 1778, when competing responsibilities forced him to resign. The commissary managed enemy prisoners, and also was responsible for supplying American prisoners who were held by the British. In November 1777, the New Jersey legislature named Boudinot as one of their delegates to the Second Continental Congress. His duties as Commissary prevented his attendance, so in May 1778 he resigned. By early July he had been replaced and attended his first meeting of the Congress on July 7, 1778. As a delegate, he still continued his concerns for the welfare of prisoners of war. His first term ended that year. In 1781, Boudinot returned to the Congress, for a term lasting through 1783. In November 1782, he was elected as President of the Continental Congress for a one-year term. The President of Congress was a mostly ceremonial position with no real authority, but the office did require him to handle a good deal of correspondence and sign official documents. On April 15, 1783 he signed the Preliminary Articles of Peace. When the United States (US) government was formed in 1789, Boudinot was elected from New Jersey to the US House of Representatives. He was elected to the second and third congresses as well, where he generally supported the administration. He refused to join the expansion of affiliated groups that formed formal political parties. In 1794, he declined to serve another term, and left Congress in early 1795. In October 1795, President George Washington appointed him as Director of the United States Mint, a position he held through succeeding administrations until he retired in 1805.",
"In addition to serving in political office, Elias supported many civic, religious, and educational causes during his life. Boudinot served as one of the trustees of the College of New Jersey (later Princeton University) for nearly half a century, from 1772 until 1821. When the Continental Congress was forced to leave Philadelphia in 1783 while he was president, he moved the meetings to Princeton, where they met in the College's Nassau Hall. On September 24, 1789, the House of Representatives voted to recommend the First Amendment of the newly drafted Constitution to the states for ratification. The next day, Congressman Boudinot proposed that the House and Senate jointly request of President Washington to proclaim a day of thanksgiving for \"the many signal favors of Almighty God.\" Boudinot said that he could not think of letting the session pass over without offering an opportunity to all the citizens of the United States of joining, with one voice, in returning to Almighty God their sincere thanks for the many blessings he had poured down upon them. Boudinot was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1814. A devout Presbyterian, Boudinot supported missions and missionary work. He wrote \"The Age of Revelation\" in response to Thomas Paine's \"The Age of Reason.\" He was one of the founders of the American Bible Society, and after 1816 served as its President. He argued for the rights of black and American Indian citizens, and sponsored students to the Board School for Indians in Connecticut. One of these, a young Cherokee named \"Gallegina Uwatie\", also known as \"Buck Watie\", stayed with him in Burlington on his way to the school. The two so impressed each other that \"Gallegina\" asked for and was given permission to adopt the statesman's name. Later known as Elias Boudinot, he was an editor of the \"Cherokee Phoenix\", the nation's first newspaper, which was published in Cherokee and English.",
"The Presbyterian Historical Society in Philadelphia has a collection of incoming correspondence and several legal agreements pertaining to land ownership related to Boudinot from 1777–1821 in its holdings. The correspondence dating from 1777–1778 almost exclusively deals with the trading and releasing of prisoners."
]
} |
2006 Hungarian Grand Prix | null | The 2006 Hungarian Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race held on 6 August 2006 at the Hungaroring, Budapest. It was the 13th race of the 2006 Formula One season. Jenson Button won the race driving a Honda, the first victory of his career, the first race win for a British driver since David Coulthard won the Australian Grand Prix three years previously, and the first by an Englishman since Johnny Herbert won the 1999 European Grand Prix nearly seven years previously, in similarly changeable weather circumstances. Pedro de la Rosa finished second for McLaren-Mercedes, the only podium finish of his career, and Nick Heidfeld finished third, giving BMW Sauber their first ever podium. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-1971301 | en-train-1971301 | 1971301 | {
"title": [
"Report.",
"Background.",
"Qualifying.",
"Race.",
"Awards.",
"Classification.",
"Race."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"2"
],
"content": [
"",
"During Friday practice Fernando Alonso was given a two-second qualifying penalty by the stewards for dangerous driving and overtaking under a yellow flag condition. This meant that two seconds would be added to his times in each part of qualifying. Christijan Albers was given a ten-place grid penalty for an engine change, his second in as many weekends. Jenson Button received the same penalty after having an engine change when his let go in the final practice session. In a similar situation to Alonso's penalty, Michael Schumacher was given a two-second penalty for overtaking Robert Kubica and Alonso under \"red flag\" conditions at the end of Saturday's last free practice session. The decision left Schumacher \"fuming,\" with him saying \"I blame myself partly for what did happen, but I didn't expect this kind of penalty.\"",
"In qualifying, Kimi Räikkönen achieved pole position with a time of 1:19.599 seconds. Felipe Massa qualified second, with Rubens Barrichello starting the race in third.",
"The track was wet at the start of the race, making it the first ever wet Hungarian Grand Prix. Polesitter Kimi Räikkönen took the lead early on. Alonso and Schumacher made their way through the field with Schumacher up into 6th place from 11th into the first corner, and Alonso climbing from 15th place with a spectacular first hard-fought lap. He went on to pass Schumacher on the outside of turn 5 after a straight fight for several laps and reached 3rd place. He then took the lead after the McLarens of Pedro de la Rosa and Räikkönen pitted. Bridgestone wet-tyres used to dictate the field in non-dry conditions but today it seemed a one-off for the Japanese rubber. All Bridgestone-drivers, including the Ferraris, were seen struggling and seriously down on pace compared to their competitors. Schumacher fell right back in the clutches of Giancarlo Fisichella and lost his front wing battling for 5th place, hitting the Italian mid-corner fighting off snap-oversteer. This forced the German to pit, going a lap down. Soon after Jenson Button overtook Massa, Fisichella and Schumacher in just under the space of 2 laps. Räikkönen struggled on his second set of tyres and ended up crashing into the back of Vitantonio Liuzzi's Toro Rosso, vaulting the car and bringing out the safety car. Alonso then pitted, allowing Schumacher to get back on the lead lap. Another beneficiary of the safety car was Jenson Button, who decided not to pit during the safety car period and climbed up to 2nd place behind Alonso. After the period was over Button began to challenge Alonso, but soon had to pit for fuel. Alonso led, but after a pitstop for dry tyres his right-rear wheel nut detached, causing the Spaniard to lose control and crash. Button inherited the lead and was never challenged from then on. Schumacher made his way up to 2nd by staying on intermediate tyres as others around him pitted for dry weather ones, but this gamble backfired as the cars on drys caught him in the final laps. Schumacher defended his position (including controversially cutting a chicane on consecutive laps without penalty), but Pedro de la Rosa and Nick Heidfeld both ultimately passed him. Whilst he was being overtaken Schumacher banged wheels with Heidfeld, damaging his Ferrari's suspension and forcing him out of the race three laps short of the finish. Button won the race despite beginning in 14th place through relentless driving with de la Rosa scoring his first podium with second place, and Heidfeld getting BMW Sauber's first ever podium with 3rd. Debutant driver Robert Kubica finished in seventh place and scored two points, but was later disqualified as his car was underweight due to excessive tire wear. This coincidentally meant that Michael Schumacher earned a point despite not finishing, as he was elevated to 8th place in the final results.",
"ITV's coverage of this race won a BAFTA in 2007, in the category \"Best Sport\". The awards took place May 20, 2007.",
"",
"Notes"
]
} |
Archduke Rudolf of Austria | null | Rudolph Johann Joseph Rainier, Archduke of Austria, Cardinal and Archbishop of Olomouc (8 January 1788 – 24 July 1831), was a member of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine, and an Austrian clergyman and noble. He was consecrated as Archbishop of Olomouc (Olmütz) in 1819 and became cardinal in the same year. Rudolph is known for his patronage of the arts, most notably as sponsor of Ludwig van Beethoven who dedicated several of his works to him. | null | [
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"title": [
"Biography."
],
"section_level": [
"1"
],
"content": [
"Born in the Pitti Palace in Florence, Tuscany, he was the youngest son of Emperor Leopold II and Maria Louisa of Spain. In 1803 or 1804, Rudolph began taking lessons in piano and composition from Ludwig van Beethoven. The two became friends, and Rudolph became a supporter and patron of Beethoven; their meetings continued until 1824. Beethoven dedicated 14 compositions to Rudolph, including the \"Archduke\" Trio, the \"Hammerklavier\" Sonata, the \"Emperor\" Concerto and the \"Missa Solemnis\". Rudolph, in turn, dedicated one of his own compositions to Beethoven. The letters Beethoven wrote to Rudolph are today kept at the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde in Vienna. Schubert and Ferdinand Ries also dedicated works to Rudolf. On 24 March 1819 aged 31 Rudolph was appointed, Archbishop of Olomouc, in the present day Czech Republic but then part of the Austrian Empire. He was made Cardinal-Priest of the titular church of \"S. Pietro in Montorio\" by Pope Pius VII on 4 June 1819. He was ordained a priest on 29 August 1819, and consecrated a bishop on 26 September. In 1823–24, he was one of the 50 composers who composed a variation on a waltz by Anton Diabelli for \"Vaterländischer Künstlerverein\". In Rudolph's case, the music was published anonymously, as by \"S.R.D\" (standing for \"Serenissimus Rudolfus Dux\"). He died on 24 July 1831 of a cerebral hemorrhage in Baden bei Wien at the age of 43 and was interred in the Imperial Crypt in Vienna; his heart was buried in the crypt in Saint Wenceslas Cathedral in Olomouc."
]
} |
Carl Wilhelm Scheele | null | Carl Wilhelm Scheele (, ; 9 December 1742 – 21 May 1786) was a Swedish Pomeranian and German pharmaceutical chemist. Isaac Asimov called him "hard-luck Scheele" because he made a number of chemical discoveries before others who are generally given the credit. For example, Scheele discovered oxygen (although Joseph Priestley published his findings first), and identified molybdenum, tungsten, barium, hydrogen, and chlorine before Humphry Davy, among others. Scheele discovered organic acids tartaric, oxalic, uric, lactic, and citric, as well as hydrofluoric, hydrocyanic, and arsenic acids. He preferred speaking German to Swedish his whole life, as German was commonly spoken among Swedish pharmacists. | null | [
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"title": [
"Biography.",
"Existing theories before Scheele.",
"The theory of phlogiston.",
"New elements and compounds.",
"Death.",
"Published papers."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
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"content": [
"Scheele was born in Stralsund, in western Pomerania, which at the time was a Swedish Dominion inside the Holy Roman Empire. Scheele's father Joachim (or Johann) Christian Scheele, was a grain dealer and brewer from a respected German family. His mother was Margaretha Eleanore Warnekros. Friends of Scheele's parents taught him the art of reading prescriptions and the meaning of chemical and pharmaceutical signs. Then, in 1757, at age fourteen Carl was sent to Gothenburg as an apprentice pharmacist with another family friend and apothecary. (Martin Andreas Bauch). Scheele retained this position for eight years. During this time he ran experiments late into the night and read the works of Nicolas Lemery, Caspar Neumann, Johann von Löwenstern-Kunckel and Georg Ernst Stahl (the champion of the phlogiston theory). Much of Scheele's later theoretical speculations were based upon Stahl. In 1765 Scheele worked under the progressive and well informed apothecary, C. M. Kjellström in Malmö, and became acquainted with Anders Jahan Retzius who was a lecturer at the University of Lund and later a professor of chemistry at Stockholm. Scheele arrived in Stockholm between 1767 and 1769 and worked as a pharmacist. During this period he discovered tartaric acid and with his friend, Retzius, studied the relation of quicklime to calcium carbonate. While in the capital, he also became acquainted with many luminaries, such as: Abraham Bäck, Peter Jonas Bergius, Bengt Bergius and Carl Friedreich von Schultzenheim. In the fall of 1770 Scheele became director of the laboratory of the great pharmacy of Locke, at Uppsala which is about 40 miles north of Stockholm. The laboratory supplied chemicals to Professor of Chemistry Torbern Bergman. A friendship developed between Scheele and Bergman after Scheele analyzed a reaction which Bergman and his assistant Johan Gottlieb Gahn could not resolve. The reaction was between melted saltpetre and acetic acid which produced a red vapor. Further study of this reaction later led to Scheele's discovery of oxygen (see \"The theory of phlogiston\" below). Based upon this friendship and respect Scheele was given free use of Bergman's laboratory. Both men were profiting from their working relationship. In 1774 Scheele was nominated by Peter Jonas Bergius to be a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences and was elected February 4, 1775. In 1775 Scheele also managed for a short time a pharmacy in Köping. Between the end of 1776 and the beginning of 1777 Scheele established his own business there. On October 29, 1777, Scheele took his seat for the first, and only time, at a meeting of the Academy of Sciences and on November 11 passed the examination as apothecary before the Royal Medical College and did so with highest honours. After his return to Köping he devoted himself, outside of his business, to scientific researches which resulted in a long series of important papers.",
"By the time he was a teenager, Scheele had learned the dominant theory of gases which in the 1770s was the phlogiston theory. Phlogiston, classified as \"matter of fire\", was supposed to be released from any burning material, and when it was exhausted, combustion would stop. When Scheele discovered oxygen he called it \"fire air\" as it supported combustion. Scheele explained oxygen using phlogistical terms because he did not believe that his discovery disproved the phlogiston theory. Before Scheele made his discovery of oxygen, he studied air. Air was thought to be an element that made up the environment in which chemical reactions took place but did not interfere with the reactions. Scheele's investigation of air enabled him to conclude that air was a mixture of \"fire air\" and \"foul air;\" in other words, a mixture of two gases. Scheele performed numerous experiments in which he heated substances such as saltpetre (potassium nitrate), manganese dioxide, heavy metal nitrates, silver carbonate and mercuric oxide. In all of these experiments, he isolated the same gas: his \"fire air,\" which he believed combined with phlogiston in materials to be released during heat-releasing reactions. However, his first publication, \"Chemische Abhandlung von der Luft und dem Feuer\", was delivered to the printer Swederus in 1775, but not published until 1777, at which time both Joseph Priestley and Lavoisier had already published their experimental data and conclusions concerning oxygen and the phlogiston theory. Carl was credited for finding oxygen with two other people, Joseph Priestley and Antoine Lavoisier. The first English edition, \"Chemical Observation and Experiments on Air and Fire\" was published in 1780, with an introduction \"Chemical Treatise on Air and Fire\".",
"Scheele achieved astonishingly prolific and important results without the expensive laboratory equipment to which his Parisian contemporary Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier was accustomed. Through the studies of Lavoisier, Joseph Priestley, Scheele, and others, chemistry was made a standardized field with consistent procedures. Although Scheele was unable to grasp the significance of his discovery of the substance that Lavoisier later named oxygen, his work was essential for the abandonment of the long-held theory of phlogiston. Scheele's study of the gas not yet named oxygen was prompted by a complaint by Torbern Olof Bergman, a professor at Upsala University who would eventually become Scheele's friend. Bergman informed Scheele that the saltpeter he had purchased from Scheele's employer, after long heating, produced red vapors (now known to be nitrogen dioxide) when it came into contact with acetic acid. Scheele's quick explanation was that the saltpeter had absorbed phlogiston with the heat (had been reduced to nitrite, in modern terms) and gave off a new phlogisticated gas as an active principle when combined with an acid (even a weak acid). Bergman next suggested that Scheele analyze the properties of manganese (IV) oxide. It was through his studies of manganese(IV)oxide that Scheele developed his concept of \"fire air\" (his name for oxygen). He ultimately obtained oxygen by heating mercuric oxide, silver carbonate, magnesium nitrate, and other nitrate salts. Scheele wrote about his findings to Lavoisier who was able to see the significance of the results. His discovery of oxygen (ca. 1771) was chronologically earlier than the corresponding work of Priestley and Lavoisier, but he did not publish this discovery until 1777, after both of his rivals had published. Although Scheele would always believe in some form of the phlogiston theory, his work reduced phlogiston to an unusually simple form, complicated only by the fact that chemists of Scheele's day still believed that light and heat were elements and were to be found in combination with them. Thus, Scheele assumed that hydrogen was composed of phlogiston (a reducing principle lost when objects were burned) plus heat. Scheele speculated that his fire air or oxygen (which he found the active part of air, estimating it to compose one quarter of air) combined with the phlogiston in objects to produce either light or heat (light and heat were presumed to be composed of differing proportions of phlogiston and oxygen). When other chemists later showed water is produced when burning hydrogen and that rusting of metals added weight to them and that passing water over hot iron gave hydrogen, Scheele modified his theory to suggest that oxygen was the salt (or \"saline principle\" of water), and that when added to iron, water was reproduced, which added weight to the iron as rust.",
"In addition to his joint recognition for the discovery of oxygen, Scheele is argued to have been the first to discover other chemical elements such as barium (1772), manganese (1774), molybdenum (1778), and tungsten (1781), as well as several chemical compounds, including citric acid, lactic acid, glycerol, hydrogen cyanide (also known, in aqueous solution, as prussic acid), hydrogen fluoride, and hydrogen sulfide (1777). In addition, he discovered a process similar to pasteurization, along with a means of mass-producing phosphorus (1769), leading Sweden to become one of the world's leading producers of matches. Scheele made one other very important scientific discovery in 1774, arguably more revolutionary than his isolation of oxygen. He identified lime, silica, and iron in a specimen of pyrolusite (impure manganese dioxide) given to him by his friend, Johann Gottlieb Gahn, but could not identify an additional component (this was the manganese, which Scheele recognized was present as a new element, but could not isolate). When he treated the pyrolusite with hydrochloric acid over a warm sand bath, a yellow-green gas with a strong odor was produced. He found that the gas sank to the bottom of an open bottle and was denser than ordinary air. He also noted that the gas was not soluble in water. It turned corks a yellow color and removed all color from wet, blue litmus paper and some flowers. He called this gas with bleaching abilities, \"dephlogisticated muriatic acid\" (dephlogisticated hydrochloric acid, or oxidized hydrochloric acid). Eventually, Sir Humphry Davy named the gas chlorine. Chlorine's bleaching properties were eventually turned into an industry by Berzelius, and became the foundation of a second industry of disinfection and deodorization of putrefied tissue and wounds (including wounds in living humans) in the hands of Labarraque, by 1824.",
"In the fall of 1785, Scheele began to suffer from symptoms described as kidney disease. In early 1786, he also contracted a disease of the skin, which, combined with kidney problems, so enfeebled him that he could foresee an early death. With this in mind, he married the widow of his predecessor, Pohl, two days before he died, so that he could pass undisputed title to his pharmacy and his possessions to her. While Scheele's experiments generated substances which have long since been found to be hazardous, the compounds and elements he used to start his experiments were dangerous to begin with, especially heavy metals. Like most of his contemporaries, in an age where there were few methods of chemical characterisation, Scheele would smell and taste any new substances he discovered. Cumulative exposure to arsenic, mercury, lead, their compounds and perhaps hydrofluoric acid which he had discovered, as well as other substances took their toll on Scheele, who died at the early age of 43, on 21 May 1786, at his home in Köping. Doctors said that he died of mercury poisoning.",
"All of the following papers were published by Scheele within a span of fifteen years. Scheele's papers appeared first in the \"Transactions\" of the Swedish Academy of Sciences, and in various periodicals such as Lorenz Florenz Friedrich von Crell's \"Chemische Annalen\". Scheele's work was collected and published in four languages beginning with \"Mémoires de Chymie\" by Mme. Claudine Picardet in 1785 and \"Chemical Essays\" by Thomas Beddoes in 1786, followed by Latin and German. Another English translation was published by Dr Leonard Dobbin, in 1931."
]
} |
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"title": [
"Name.",
"Biographers.",
"Hagiographic life.",
"Miracles.",
"Analysis.",
"Veneration.",
"Other churches and schools.",
"Fiction."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
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"content": [
"In Wales and England, this saint is known by his birth and baptismal name Kentigern (). This name probably comes from the British *\"Cuno-tigernos\", which is composed of the elements *\"cun\", a hound, and *\"tigerno\", a lord, prince, or king. The evidence is based on the Old Welsh record \"Conthigirn(i)\". Other etymologies have been suggested, including British *\"Kintu-tigernos\" 'chief prince' based on the English form Kentigern, but the Old Welsh form above and Old English \"Cundiʒeorn\" do not appear to support this. Particularly in Scotland, he is known by the pet name Mungo, possibly derived from the Cumbric equivalent of the'my dear (one)'. The Mungo pet name or hypocorism has a Gaelic parallel in the form Mo Choe or Mo Cha, under which guise Kentigern appears in Kirkmahoe, for example, in Dumfriesshire, which appears as 'ecclesia Sancti Kentigerni' in the \"Arbroath Liber\" in 1321. An ancient church in Bromfield, Cumbria is named after him, as are Crosthwaite Parish Church and some other churches in the northern part of Cumbria, for example St Mungo's Church, Dearham.",
"The \"Life of Saint Mungo\" was written by the monastic hagiographer Jocelyn of Furness in about 1185. Jocelin states that he rewrote the 'life' from an earlier Glasgow legend and an Old Irish document. There are certainly two other medieval lives: the earlier partial life in the Cottonian manuscript now in the British Library, and the later \"Life\", based on Jocelyn, by John of Tynemouth.",
"Mungo's mother Teneu was a princess, the daughter of King Lleuddun (Latin: Leudonus) who ruled a territory around what is now Lothian in Scotland, perhaps the kingdom of Gododdin in the Old North. She became pregnant after being raped by Owain mab Urien according to the British Library manuscript. However, other historic accounts claim Owain and Teneu (also known as Thaney) had a love affair whilst he was still married to his wife Penarwen and that her father, King Lot, separated the pair after she became pregnant. Later, allegedly, after Penarwen died, Tenue/Thaney returned to King Owain and the pair were able to marry before King Owain met his death battling Bernicia in 597 AD. Her furious father had her thrown from the heights of Traprain Law. Surviving, she was then abandoned in a coracle in which she drifted across the Firth of Forth to Culross in Fife. There Mungo was born. Mungo was brought up by Saint Serf who was ministering to the Picts in that area. It was Serf who gave him his popular pet-name. At the age of twenty-five, Mungo began his missionary labours on the Clyde, on the site of modern Glasgow. He built his church across the water from an extinct volcano, next to the Molendinar Burn, where the present medieval cathedral now stands. For some thirteen years, he laboured in the district, living a most austere life in a small cell and making many converts by his holy example and his preaching. A strong anti-Christian movement in Strathclyde, headed by a certain King Morken, compelled Mungo to leave the district, and he retired to Wales, via Cumbria, staying for a time with Saint David at St David's, and afterwards moving on to Gwynedd where he founded a cathedral at Llanelwy (St Asaph in English). While there, he undertook a pilgrimage to Rome. However, the new King of Strathclyde, Riderch Hael, invited Mungo to return to his kingdom. He decided to go and appointed Saint Asaph/Asaff as Bishop of Llanelwy in his place. For some years, Mungo fixed his Episcopal seat at Hoddom in Dumfriesshire, evangelising thence the district of Galloway. He eventually returned to Glasgow where a large community grew up around him. It was nearby, in Kilmacolm, that he was visited by Saint Columba, who was at that time labouring in Strathtay. The two saints embraced, held long converse, and exchanged their pastoral staves. In old age, Mungo became very feeble and his chin had to be set in place with a bandage. He is said to have died in his bath, on Sunday 13 January.",
"In the \"Life of Saint Mungo\", he performed four miracles in Glasgow. The following verse is used to remember Mungo's four miracles: <poem>Here is the bird that never flew Here is the tree that never grew Here is the bell that never rang Here is the fish that never swam</poem> The verses refer to the following:",
"Mungo's ancestry is recorded in the \"Bonedd y Saint\". His father, Owain was a King of Rheged. His maternal grandfather, Lleuddun, was probably a King of the Gododdin; Lothian was named after him. There seems little reason to doubt that Mungo was one of the first evangelists of Strathclyde, under the patronage of King Rhiderch Hael, and probably became the first Bishop of Glasgow. Jocelin seems to have altered parts of the original life that he did not understand; while adding others, like the trip to Rome, that served his own purposes, largely the promotion of the Bishopric of Glasgow. Some new parts may have been collected from genuine local stories, particularly those of Mungo's work in Cumbria. S. Mundahl-Harris has shown that Mungo's associations with St Asaph were a Norman invention. However, in Scotland, excavations at Hoddom have brought confirmation of early Christian activity there, uncovering a late 6th-century stone baptistery. Details of Mungo's infirmity have a ring of authenticity about them. The year of Mungo's death is sometimes given as 603, but is recorded in the Annales Cambriae as 612. 13 January was a Sunday in both 603 and 614. David McRoberts has argued that his death in the bath is a garbled version of his collapse during a baptismal service. In a late 15th-century fragmentary manuscript generally called 'Lailoken and Kentigern', Mungo appears in conflict with the mad prophet, Lailoken alias Merlin. Lailoken's appearance at the Battle of Arfderydd in 573 has led to a connection being made between this battle, the rise of Riderch Hael and the return of Mungo to Strathclyde. The \"Life of Saint Mungo\" bears similarities with Chrétien de Troyes's French romance \"Yvain, the Knight of the Lion\". In Chrétien's story, Yvain, a version of Owain mab Urien, courts and marries Laudine, only to leave her for a period to go adventuring. This suggests that the works share a common source.",
"On the spot where Mungo was buried now stands the cathedral dedicated in his honour. His shrine was a great centre of Christian pilgrimage until the Scottish Reformation. His remains are said to still rest in the crypt. A spring called \"St. Mungo's Well\" fell eastwards from the apse. His festival was kept throughout Scotland on 13 January. The Bollandists have printed a special mass for this feast, dating from the 13th century. His feast day in the West is 13 January. His feast day in the Eastern Orthodox Church is 14 January. Mungo's four religious miracles in Glasgow are represented in the city's coat of arms. Glasgow's current motto \"Let Glasgow flourish by the preaching of His word and the praising of His name\" and the more secular \"Let Glasgow flourish\", are both inspired by Mungo's original call \"\"Let Glasgow flourish by the preaching of the word\"\". Saint Mungo's Well was a cold water spring and bath at Copgrove, near Ripon, North Yorkshire, formerly believed effective for treating rickets. Glasgow Fire Brigade also named their fireboat \"St. Mungo\", which served the around the Clyde from 1959 to 1975. One of Arthur H. Peppercorn's A1 Pacific locomotives (ordered by the LNER but not built until after nationalisation of Britain's railways) was named Saint Mungo, entering service in 1949 and carrying the BR number 60145. This was the last of the design to be withdrawn in 1966.",
"Saint Mungo founded a number of churches during his period as Archbishop of Strathclyde of which Stobo Kirk is a notable example. At Townhead and Dennistoun in Glasgow there is a modern Roman Catholic church and a traditional Scottish Episcopal Church respectively dedicated to the saint. St Mungo's Academy is a Roman Catholic, co-educational, comprehensive, secondary school located in Bridgeton, Glasgow. Another church established by the saint himself was St Kentigern's Church of Lanark, founded shortly before his death, and which now stands in ruins. Another church called St Kentigern's was built in the town in the late 19th century. It is still present but has been converted to housing and office space. In Kilmarnock, a Church of Scotland congregation is named St Kentigern's. St. Kentigern's Academy opened in Blackburn, West Lothian in September 1974. In Alloa, a chapel dedicated to St. Mungo is thought to have been erected during the fourteenth or fifteenth-century. The present Church of Scotland St. Mungo's Parish Church in Alloa was built in 1817. In Cumbernauld, there is St. Mungo’s Parish Church in the centre of the New Town. In the Lake District village of Caldbeck there is a church and a well named after him. The Cumbrian parish churches at Crossthwaite in Keswick, Mungrisdale, Castle Sowerby, and Irthington are also dedicated to St Kentigern. There are two Cumbrian churches dedicated to St Mungo, one at Bromfield (also a well and castle) and one at Dearham. There is a St Kentigern's school and church in Blackpool. In Falkirk, there is a St. Mungo's High School In Grinsdale, Cumbria there is a church venerated to St. Kentigern. In Fallowfield, a suburb of the city of Manchester, a Roman Catholic church is dedicated to Saint Kentigern. St Kentigern's is a small Roman Catholic Church in the village of Eyeries, on the Beara peninsula in West Cork, Ireland. Mungo or Kentigern is the patron of a Presbyterian church school in Auckland, New Zealand, which has three campuses: Saint Kentigern College, a secondary co-ed college in the suburb of Pakuranga, Saint Kentigern Boys School, a boys-only private junior primary school in the suburb of Remuera, and Saint Kentigern Girls School, a girls-only private junior primary school also in Remuera. There is a United Church of Canada charge in Cushing Quebec Canada, Saint Mungos United Church. built in the 1836 originally as a Church of Scotland, it has recently been restored for its 180th anniversary.",
"St. Mungo is referenced in the \"Father Brown\" series of books by G. K. Chesterton, as the titular saint of Father Brown's parish. St. Mungo's Hospital for Magical Maladies and Injuries is the primary hospital of Magical Britain in the \"Harry Potter\" series of books by J. K. Rowling. Kentigern Gardens is the location of a murder in \"The Cuckoo's Calling\", a novel published under J. K. Rowling's pseudonym of Robert Galbraith."
]
} |
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] | null | null | en-train-1473876 | en-train-1473876 | 1473876 | {
"title": [
"History.",
"Scientific research: asterism or open cluster?",
"Location."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"M73 was discovered by Charles Messier on October 4, 1780, who originally described the object as a cluster of four stars with some nebulosity. Subsequent observations by John Herschel, however, failed to reveal any nebulosity. Moreover, Herschel noted that the designation of M73 as a cluster was questionable. Nonetheless, Herschel included M73 in his General Catalogue of clusters, nebulae, and galaxies, and John Dreyer included M73 when he compiled the New General Catalogue.",
"M73 was once treated as a potential sparsely populated open cluster, which consists of stars that are physically associated in space as well as on the sky. The question of whether the stars were an asterism or an open cluster generated a small, interesting debate. In 2000, L. P. Bassino, S. Waldhausen, and R. E. Martinez published an analysis of the colors and luminosities of the stars in and around M73. They concluded that the four bright central stars and some other nearby stars followed the color-luminosity relation that is also followed by stars in open clusters (as seen in a Hertzsprung-Russell diagram). Their conclusion was that M73 was an old open cluster that was 9 arcmin wide. G. Carraro, however, published results in 2000 based on a similar analysis and concluded that the stars did not follow any color-luminosity relation. Carraro's conclusion was that M73 was an asterism. Adding to the controversy, E. Bica and collaborators concluded that the chance alignment of the four bright stars seen in the center of M73 as well as one other nearby star was highly unlikely, so M73 was probably a sparse open cluster. The controversy was solved in 2002, when M. Odenkirchen and C. Soubiran published an analysis of the high resolution spectra of the six brightest stars within 6 arcmin of the central position of M73. Odenkirchen and Soubiran demonstrated that the distances from the Earth to the six stars were very different from each other, and the stars were moving in different directions. Therefore, they concluded that the stars were only an asterism. Although M73 was determined to be only a chance alignment of stars, further analysis of asterisms is still important for the identification of sparsely populated open clusters. Such clusters can be important for demonstrating how open clusters are ripped apart by the gravitational forces in the Milky Way.",
"The asterism's location in the sky is shown in the following map of the constellation Aquarius:"
]
} |
Facing the Flag | null | Facing the Flag or For the Flag () is an 1896 patriotic novel by Jules Verne. The book is part of the "Voyages extraordinaires" series. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-1515367 | en-train-1515367 | 1515367 | {
"title": [
"Plot summary.",
"Response.",
"Politics.",
"Legacy."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Thomas Roch, a brilliant French inventor, has designed the Fulgurator, a weapon so powerful that \"the state which acquired it would become absolute master of earth and ocean.\" However, unable to sell his unproven idea to France or any other government, Roch begins to lose his sanity, becoming bitter, megalomaniacal and paranoid. The United States Government reacts by tucking him away at a luxurious asylum in New Bern, North Carolina, where he is visited by one \"Count d'Artigas\"—actually Ker Karraje, a notorious pirate of Malagasy origin. His heterogeneous crew is drawn from \"escaped convicts, military and naval deserters, and the scum of Europe.\" Karraje and his crew lead double lives. Karraje goes around openly, under the alias of \"Count d'Artigas\", a pleasure-loving, slightly eccentric but eminently respectable member of nobility. He is a regular visitor to the ports of the East Coast aboard his schooner \"Ebba\". To outward appearances, \"Ebba\" has no other means of propulsion than its sails, but in fact, it is pulled by an underwater tug. By this means, Karraje and his crew can pull up to becalmed sailing vessels without raising suspicion and board them without warning. They then rob and massacre the crews, scuttling the ships, adding to the statistics of \"unexplained disappearances\". Karraje hears of Roch and his invention takes them both seriously and decides to gain possession of them. Actually, his aim is rather modest. He has no intention to seize mastery over the world, but just to make his hide-out impregnable. He and his men successfully kidnap Roch from his American asylum, and then bring him to their hide-out—the desolate island of Back Cup in the Bermudas. Here a wide cavern, accessible only by submerged submarine, has been made into a well-equipped pirate base. It has its own electrical power plant and is completely unknown to the rest of the world. During the kidnapping, however, Karraje orders his men to also take along Gaydon, Roch's attendant for the past fifteen months. The reader knows (and, as is later shown, Karraje is also aware) that Gaydon is actually Simon Hart, a French engineer and explosives expert. Hart had decided \"to perform the menial and exacting duties of an insane man's attendant\" in the hope of learning Roch's secret and, thereby, saving it for France, actuated by \"a spirit of the purest and noblest patriotism.\" Hart is kept imprisoned at the pirate base, though in quite comfortable conditions. He can only watch in dismay as the pirate chief easily manages what four governments in succession have failed to do: win Roch over. Roch is given \"many rolls of dollar bills and banknotes, and handfuls of English, French, American and German gold coins\" with which to fill his pockets. Further, Roch is formally informed that the entire secret cavern and all in it are henceforward his property, and egged on to \"defend his property\" against the world which has wronged him so badly. Soon, the inventor is busy constructing his fearsome weapon, happily unaware that he is nothing but a glorified prisoner in the pirate's hands. The paranoid Roch does, however, keep to himself the secret of the detonator or \"Deflagrator\", a liquid without which the explosive is merely an inert powder. By holding fast to that last secret, Roch unwittingly preserves the life of his ex-keeper Gaydon/Simon Hart. Karraje suspects, wrongly, that Hart knows much more of Roch's secrets than he is willing to let on. It serves the purposes of the pirate chief, a completely ruthless killer, to let Hart live. The pirate engineer Serko, Hart's \"colleague,\" hopes to win him over in prolonged friendly conversations. Hart's reticence is misunderstood as proof that he has something to hide. The pirates underestimate Hart, giving him a practically free run of their hide-out since the only way out is via submarine. But after carefully studying the currents, Hart succeeds in secretly sending out a message in a metal keg, giving the full details of Karraje's operations and his impending acquisition of the Fulgurator. The message gets through to the British authorities at their nearby naval base in Bermuda, and the British Navy sends a submarine,, to find Hart. The submarine's crew makes contact with Hart, and take him and Roch on board, but the \"Sword\" is discovered, attacked and sunk by the pirates in a direct underwater submarine vs. submarine battle. The unconscious Hart and Roch are extracted from the sunken British sub by pirate divers, leaving the entire British crew to perish. Hart manages to convince the pirates that he had been kidnapped by the British sailors and had nothing to do with their \"visit.\" He resumes his role as a tolerated prisoner with a free run of the pirate base. Meanwhile, Roch's weapon is completed and becomes operational. A hastily gathered international naval task force approaches the island, consisting of five warships dispatched by the world's five largest powers. The weapon, operated personally by Roch himself, works fully as advertised. Roch has no compunction in using it on British or American ships, and the first cruiser to approach the island is easily destroyed with only a handful of its crew surviving. Undaunted, the next ship approaches the shore, and the moment comes towards which the entire book was leading and from which its title was drawn: \"A flag unfurls to the breeze. It is the Tricolour, whose blue, white and red sections stand out luminously against the sky. Ah! What is this? Thomas Roch is fascinated at the sight of his national emblem. Slowly he lowers his arm as the flag flutters up to the mast-head. Then he draws back and covers his eyes with his hand. Heavens above! All sentiment of patriotism is not then dead in his ulcerated heart, seeing that it beats at the sight of his country's flag!\" Having at the moment of truth, rediscovered his patriotism, Roch refuses to fire on his country's ship. He struggles with the pirates who try to seize his phial and the Deflagrator. During the struggle, Roch resorts to blowing up himself, his weapon, and the pirates along with the entire island. The single survivor of the cataclysm is Simon Hart, whose unconscious body with the diary at his side is found by the landing French sailors. Hart is eventually revived, to be amply rewarded for his dedication to his country. He proudly bears witness to Thomas Roch's last-minute change of heart and self-sacrifice. French patriotism is the moral and material victor.",
"Following publication of the book, Verne was sued by the chemist Eugène Turpin, inventor of the explosive Melinite, who recognized himself in the character of Roch and was not amused. Turpin had tried to sell his invention to the French government, which in 1885 refused it, though later purchasing it (it was extensively used in the First World War); but Turpin had never gone mad, nor did he ever offer his invention to any but the Government of France, so he had some justified grievance. Verne was successfully defended by Raymond Poincaré, later president of France. A letter to Verne's brother Paul seems to suggest, however, that after all Turpin was indeed the model for Roch. The character of Roch and his revolutionary powerful explosive might also have been inspired by the real-life Alfred Nobel who invented dynamite and later reportedly regretted having introduced such a destructive force into the world.",
"The book was written and published when France was in the throes of the Dreyfus Affair, Frenchmen were deeply divided over whether or not the Jewish officer Alfred Dreyfus was guilty of treason and espionage on behalf of the hated Germany (and over more fundamental issues bound up with the Dreyfus case). Verne is known to have initially supported the right-wing anti-Dreyfusards. The question whether or not Verne was an anti-semite is hotly debated; while Walter A. McDougall finds \"no overt evidence of anti-Semitism on Verne's part,\" Brian Taves and Jean-Michel Margot note that his \"Off on a Comet\" contains \"unflattering Shylock-style stereotypes.\" Be that as it may, Verne certainly was a nationalist caught up in the mindset of revanchism, to whom the idea of a French army officer, Jewish or not, spying for Germany would be the greatest of anathemas; and initially Verne, like most French people, believed Dreyfus to be guilty. However, in 1899 Verne came to support a judicial review of the Dreyfus case. While Roch cannot be said to represent Dreyfus in any concrete way, the theme of an apparent traitor, who in the end proves to be a self-sacrificing patriot, may be connected to the change of heart which Verne (and many readers) underwent about Dreyfus.",
"Film historian Thomas C. Renzi considers Roch the archetype of the \"mad scientist,\" the thriller fiction stock character of a monomaniac whose warped genius endangers the world. If so, much of 20th-century thriller fiction, including such films as \"Thunderball\" and \"Barbarella\", may be considered direct descendants of \"Facing the Flag\". In 1958, Czech director Karel Zeman used the novel as the basis for his 1958 film \"Vynález zkázy\" (a.k.a. \"The Deadly Invention\" and \"The Fabulous World of Jules Verne\"). The film, which made considerable use of the steel engravings in the original editions of Verne's novels, won the Grand Prix at the International Film Festival at Expo 58 in Brussels. And, to a lesser extent, this novel also inspired the climactic scene, at Vulcania, in the 1954 Walt Disney film \"20,000 Leagues Under The Sea\" (adapted from Verne's better-known novel of the same name).. In 2012 French comics artist Goux adapted the novel into a comic book, \"Le Fulgurateur Roch\"."
]
} |
Life of Pi | null | Life of Pi is a Canadian philosophical novel by Yann Martel published in 2001. The protagonist is Piscine Molitor "Pi" Patel, an Indian Tamil boy from Pondicherry who explores issues of spirituality and metaphysics from an early age. He survives 227 days after a shipwreck while stranded on a lifeboat in the Pacific Ocean with a Bengal tiger which raises questions about the nature of reality and how it is perceived and told. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-2300356 | en-train-2300356 | 2300356 | {
"title": [
"Plot.",
"Part one.",
"Part two.",
"Part three.",
"Themes.",
"Inspiration.",
"Richard Parker and shipwreck narratives.",
"Moacyr Scliar.",
"Characters.",
"Piscine Molitor \"Pi\" Patel.",
"Richard Parker.",
"Reception.",
"Adaptations.",
"Illustrated edition.",
"Film adaptation.",
"Theatrical adaptations."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2"
],
"content": [
"The book begins with a note from the author, which is an integral part of the novel. Unusually, the note describes entirely fictional events. It serves to establish and enforce one of the book's main themes: the relativity of truth.",
"The narrator describes how he acquired his full name, Piscine Molitor Patel, as a tribute to the swimming pool in France. After hearing schoolmates tease him by transforming the first name into \"Pissing\", he establishes the short form of his name as \"Pi\" when he starts secondary school. The name, he says, pays tribute to the transcendental number which is the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter. In recounting his experiences, Pi describes several other unusual situations involving proper names: two visitors to the zoo, one a devout Muslim, and the other a committed atheist, bear identical names; and a 450-pound tiger at the zoo bears the name Richard Parker as the result of a clerical error, in which the human and animal names were reversed and the name stuck. Pi is raised as a Hindu who practices vegetarianism. At the age of fourteen, he investigates Christianity and Islam, and decides to become an adherent of all three religions, much to his parents' dismay, saying he \"just wants to love God\". He tries to understand God through the lens of each religion, and comes to recognize benefits in each one. A few years later in February 1976, during the period when Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi declares \"The Emergency\", Pi's father decides to sell the zoo and emigrate with his wife and sons to Canada.",
"The second part of the novel begins with Pi's family aboard the \"Tsimtsum\", a Japanese freighter that is transporting animals from their zoo to North America. A few days out of port from Manila, the ship encounters a storm and sinks. Pi manages to escape in a small lifeboat, only to learn that the boat also holds a spotted hyena, an injured Grant's zebra, and an orangutan named Orange Juice. Much to the boy's distress, the hyena kills the zebra and then Orange Juice. A tiger has been hiding under the boat's tarpaulin: it is Richard Parker, who had boarded the lifeboat with ambivalent assistance from Pi himself some time before the hyena attack. Suddenly emerging from his hideaway, Richard Parker kills and eats the hyena. Frightened, Pi constructs a small raft out of rescue flotation devices, tethers it to the bow of the boat and makes it his place of retirement. He begins conditioning Richard Parker to take a submissive role by using food as a positive reinforcer, and seasickness as a punishment mechanism, while using a whistle for signals. Soon, Pi asserts himself as the alpha animal, and is eventually able to share the boat with his feline companion, admitting in the end that Richard Parker is the one who helped him survive his ordeal. Pi recounts various events while adrift in the Pacific Ocean. At his lowest point, exposure renders him blind and unable to catch fish. In a state of delirium, he talks with a marine \"echo\", which he initially identifies as Richard Parker having gained the ability to speak, but it turns out to be another blind castaway, a Frenchman, who boards the lifeboat with the intention of killing and eating Pi, but is immediately killed by Richard Parker. Some time later, Pi's boat comes ashore on a floating island network of algae inhabited by hundreds of thousands of meerkats. Soon, Pi and Richard Parker regain strength, but the boy's discovery of the carnivorous nature of the island's plant life forces him to return to the ocean. Two hundred and twenty-seven days after the ship's sinking, the lifeboat washes onto a beach in Mexico, after which Richard Parker disappears into the nearby jungle without looking back, leaving Pi heartbroken at the abrupt farewell.",
"The third part of the novel describes a conversation between Pi and two officials from the Japanese Ministry of Transport, who are conducting an inquiry into the shipwreck. They meet him at the hospital in Mexico where he is recovering. Pi tells them his tale, but the officials reject it as unbelievable. Pi then offers them a second story in which he is adrift on a lifeboat not with zoo animals, but with the ship's cook, a Taiwanese sailor with a broken leg, and his own mother. The cook amputates the sailor's leg for use as fishing bait, then kills the sailor himself as well as Pi's mother for food, and soon he is killed by Pi, who dines on him. The investigators note parallels between the two stories. They soon conclude that the hyena symbolizes the cook, the zebra the sailor, the orangutan Pi's mother, and the tiger represents Pi. Pi points out that neither story can be proven and neither explains the cause of the shipwreck, so he asks the officials which story they prefer: the one without animals or the one with animals. They eventually choose the story with the animals. Pi thanks them and says: \"And so it goes with God.\" The investigators then leave and file a report.",
"Martel has said that \"Life of Pi\" can be summarized in three statements: \"Life is a story\"; \"You can choose your story\"; \"A story with God is the better story\". Gordon Houser suggests that there are two main themes of the book: \"that all life is interdependent, and that we live and breathe via belief.\"",
"Martel said in a 2002 interview with PBS that he was \"looking for a story... that would direct my life\". He spoke of being lonely and needing direction in his life, and he found that writing the novel met this need.",
"The name Richard Parker for the tiger was inspired by a character in Edgar Allan Poe's nautical adventure novel \"The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of Nantucket\" (1838). Richard Parker is a mutineer who is stranded and eventually cannibalized on the hull of an overturned ship, and there is a dog aboard who is named Tiger. Martel also had another occurrence in mind in the famous legal case R v Dudley and Stephens (1884), where a shipwreck again results in the cannibalism of a cabin boy named Richard Parker, this time in a lifeboat. A third Richard Parker drowned in the sinking of the \"Francis Spaight\" in 1846, described by author Jack London, and later the cabin boy was cannibalized. \"So many victimized Richard Parkers had to mean something\", Martel suggested",
"Martel has mentioned that a book review of Brazilian author Moacyr Scliar's 1981 novella \"Max and the Cats\" accounts in part for his novel's premise. Scliar's story describes a Jewish-German refugee crossing the Atlantic Ocean with a jaguar in his boat. Scliar said that he was perplexed that Martel \"used the idea without consulting or even informing me,\" and indicated that he was reviewing the situation before deciding whether to take any action in response. After talking with Martel, Scliar elected not to pursue the matter. A dedication to Scliar \"for the spark of life\" appears in the author's note of \"Life of Pi\". Literary reviews have described the similarities as superficial between \"Life of Pi\" and \"Max and the Cats\". Reviewer Peter Yan wrote: \"Reading the two books side-by-side, one realizes how inadequate bald plot summaries are in conveying the unique imaginative impact of each book,\" and noted that Martel's distinctive narrative structure is not found in Scliar's novella. The themes of the books are also dissimilar, with \"Max and the Cats\" being a metaphor for Nazism. In \"Life of Pi\", 211 of 354 pages are devoted to Pi's experience in the lifeboat, compared to 17 of 99 pages in \"Max and the Cats\" depicting time spent in a lifeboat.",
"",
"Piscine Molitor Patel, known to all as just \"Pi\", is the narrator and protagonist of the novel. He was named after a swimming pool in Paris, despite the fact that neither his mother nor his father particularly liked swimming. The story is told as a narrative from the perspective of a middle-aged Pi, now married with his own family, and living in Canada. At the time of main events of the story, he is sixteen years old. He recounts the story of his life and his 227-day journey on a lifeboat when his ship sinks in the middle of the Pacific Ocean during a voyage to North America.",
"Richard Parker is a Bengal tiger who is stranded on the lifeboat with Pi when the ship sinks. Richard Parker lives on the lifeboat with Pi and is kept alive with the food and water Pi delivers. Richard Parker develops a relationship with Pi that allows them to coexist in their struggle. In the novel, a hunter named Richard Parker is hired to kill a panther that has been terrorising the people of a small village in Bangladesh and thought to have killed seven people within two months. Instead, he accidentally immobilizes a female Bengal tiger with tranquilizer darts while her cub is caught hiding in a bush. Parker names the cub Thirsty after his enthusiasm when drinking from a nearby river. The paperwork that accompanies the shipment of the two tigers to Pi's family's zoo in Pondicherry states that the cub's name is \"Richard Parker\" and the hunter's given name is \"Thirsty\" and his surname is \"None Given\", due to a mix-up with the names. Pi's father finds the story so amusing that they continue to call the tiger \"Richard Parker\".",
"Brian Bethune of \"Maclean's\" describes \"Life of Pi\" as a \"head-scratching combination of dense religious allegory, zoological lore and enthralling adventure tale, written with warmth and grace\". \"Master Plots\" suggested that the \"central themes of \"Life of Pi\" concern religion and human faith in God\". Reutter said, \"So believable is Pi's story telling that readers will be amazed.\" Gregory Stephens added that it \"achieves something more quietly spectacular.\" Smith stated that there was \"no bamboozlement here.\" Gary Krist of \"The New York Times\" praised the book, but added that at times Martel \"pushes the didactic agenda of his story too hard.\" In 2010, U.S. President Barack Obama wrote a letter directly to Martel, describing \"Life of Pi\" as \"an elegant proof of God, and the power of storytelling.\"",
"",
"The first edition of Life of Pi was illustrated by Andy Bridge. In October 2005, a worldwide competition was launched to find an artist to illustrate \"Life of Pi\". The competition was run by Scottish publisher \"Canongate Books\" and UK newspaper \"The Times\", as well as Australian newspaper \"The Age\" and Canadian newspaper \"The Globe and Mail\". Croatian artist Tomislav Torjanac was chosen as the illustrator for the new edition, which was published in September 2007.",
"A 2012 adaptation directed by Ang Lee and based on an adapted screenplay by David Magee was given a wide release in the United States on 2012. At the 85th Academy Awards, it won four awards from eleven nominations, including Best Director.",
"This novel has also been adapted as a play by Keith Robinson, artistic director of the youth-oriented Twisting Yarn Theatre Company. Andy Rashleigh wrote the adaptation, which was directed by Keith Robinson. The premier/original cast contained only six actors – Tony Hasnath (Pi), Taresh Solanki (Richard Parker), Melody Brown (Mother), Conor Alexander (Father), Sanjay Shalat (Brother) and Mark Pearce (Uncle). The play was produced at the Alhambra Theatre in Bradford, England, in 2003. The company toured England and Ireland with the play in 2004 and 2007. Keith Robinson also directed a second version of the play. He brought some of his company to work with students of the BA (Hons) Drama, Applied Theatre and Education Course at the Central School of Speech and Drama. The joint production was performed at the Minack Theatre, in Cornwall, England, in late June 2008. It was well received by the press and community. A new adaptation by Lolita Chakrabarti was produced at the Crucible Theatre, Sheffield in June 2019. It was directed by Max Webster, with puppetry and movement directed by Finn Caldwell. It was well reviewed unanimously by critics and will open in the West End, at Wyndham's Theatre, in June 2020."
]
} |
Rohan (Middle-earth) | null | Rohan is a kingdom of horsemen, the Rohirrim, in J. R. R. Tolkien's fantasy setting of Middle-earth. It is mainly a grassland, and provides its ally Gondor with cavalry. | null | [
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"title": [
"In Tolkien's works.",
"Etymology.",
"Geography.",
"Borders.",
"Capital.",
"Other settlements.",
"Regions.",
"Culture.",
"People.",
"Horses and warfare.",
"Language.",
"History.",
"Early history.",
"Kingdom of Rohan.",
"War of the Ring.",
"Reception.",
"Portrayal in adaptations."
],
"section_level": [
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"2",
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"3",
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"3",
"3",
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"content": [
"",
"Tolkien's own account, given in \"The Letters of J. R. R. Tolkien\", No. 297 (never sent), gives both the fictional and the actual etymologies of Rohan:",
"In Tolkien's Middle-earth, Rohan is an inland realm. Its countryside is described as a land of pastures and lush tall grassland which is frequently windswept. The meadows contain \"many hidden pools, and broad acres of sedge waving above wet and treacherous bogs\" that water the grasses. Karen Wynn Fonstad calculated Rohan to be 52,763 square miles (136,656 km2) in area (slightly larger than England).",
"Rohan is bordered to the north by the Fangorn forest, home to the Ents (tree-giants) led by Treebeard, and by the great river Anduin, called Langflood by the Rohirrim. To the northeast are the walls of Emyn Muil. After the War of the Ring, the kingdom is extended northwards over the Limlight to the borders of Lothlórien. To the east are the mouths of the River Entwash, and the Mering Stream, which separated Rohan from the Gondorian province of Anórien, known to the Rohirrim as Sunlending. To the south lie the White Mountains (\"Ered Nimrais\"). To the west are the rivers Adorn and Isen, where Rohan borders the land of the Dunlendings. To the northwest, just under the southern end of the Misty Mountains, lies the walled circle of Isengard around the ancient tower of Orthanc; at the time of the War of the Ring, it had been taken over by the evil wizard Saruman. The area of the western border where the Misty Mountains and the White Mountains drew near to each other is known as the Gap of Rohan.",
"The capital of Rohan is the fortified town of Edoras, on a hill in a valley of the White Mountains. \"Edoras\" is Old English for \"enclosures\". The town of Edoras was built by Rohan's second King, Brego son of Eorl the Young. The hill on which Edoras is built stands in the mouth of the valley of Harrowdale. The river Snowbourn flows past the town on its way east towards the Entwash. The town is protected by a high wall of timber. Meduseld, the Golden Hall of the Kings of Rohan, is in the centre of the town at the top of the hill. \"Meduseld\", a modernized form of the Old English \"Maeduselde\", \"mead hall\", is meant to be a translation of an unknown Rohirric word with the same meaning. Meduseld is based on the mead hall Heorot in \"Beowulf\"; it is a large hall with a thatched roof that appears golden from far off. The walls are richly decorated with tapestries depicting the history and legends of the Rohirrim, and it serves as a house for the King and his kin, a meeting hall for the King and his advisors, and a gathering hall for ceremonies and festivities. It is at Meduseld that Aragorn, Gimli, Legolas, and Gandalf meet with King Théoden. Legolas describes Meduseld in a line that directly translates a line of \"Beowulf\", \"The light of it shines far over the land\", representing \"líxte se léoma ofer landa fela\". The hall is anachronistically described as having louvres to remove the smoke, derived from William Morris's 1889 \"The House of the Wolfings\".",
"Upstream from Edoras, deeper into Harrowdale, lies the hamlets of Upbourn and Underharrow. At the head of Dunharrow (from Old English \"Dûnhaerg\", \"the heathen fane on the hillside\") is a refuge in the White Mountains. Aldburg, capital of the Eastfold, is the original settlement of Eorl the Young. The settlement Snowbourne, similar in appearance to the hill-fort of Edoras, is named after the river of the same name which runs nearby. The Hornburg, a major fortress guarding the western region, is located in Helm's Deep, a valley in the White Mountains.",
"The kingdom of Rohan, also called the Mark, is primarily divided into two regions, the East-mark and the West-mark. They are each led by a marshal of the kingdom. Rohan's capital, Edoras, lies in a small but populous region in the centre south of the kingdom, the Folde. In an earlier concept, Rohan's capital region was called the King's Lands, of which the Folde was a sub-region to the south-east of Edoras. North of the Folde, the boundary between the East-mark and West-mark runs along the Snowbourn River and the Entwash. Most of the rest of Rohan's population is spread along the foothills of the White Mountains in both directions from the Folde. In the West-mark the Westfold extends along the mountains to Helm's Deep (the defensive centre of Westfold) and to the Gap of Rohan. Beyond the Gap of Rohan lies the West Marches, the kingdom's far west borderland. The Eastfold extends along the White Mountains in the opposite direction (and was thus a part of the East-mark). It is bound by the Entwash to the north. Its eastern borderland is called the Fenmarch; beyond this lies the Kingdom of Gondor. The centre of Rohan is a large plain, divided by the Entwash into the East Emnet and the West Emnet. These regions fell respectively into the East-mark and the West-mark. The northernmost region of Rohan, and the least populous, is the Wold. The Field of Celebrant (named for a synonym of the River Silverlode), even further north, is added to Rohan after the War of the Ring.",
"",
"The Dúnedain of Gondor and the Rohirrim are distantly related (having, in-universe, descended from the same place), However, as opposed to the inhabitants of Gondor, who were portrayed as enlightened and highly civilized, the Rohirrim were portrayed as being on a lower level of enlightenment. The names and many details of Rohirric culture are derived from Germanic cultures, particularly that of the Anglo-Saxons and their Old English language, towards which Tolkien felt a strong affinity. Anglo-Saxon England was defeated by the cavalry of the Normans at the Battle of Hastings, and some Tolkien scholars have speculated that the Rohirrim are Tolkien's wishful version of an Anglo-Saxon society that retained a \"rider culture\", and would have been able to resist such an invasion. The Tolkien scholar Tom Shippey notes that Tolkien derived the emblem of the House of Éorl, a \"white horse upon green\", from the Uffington White Horse carved into the grass of the chalk downs in England. While Tolkien represents the Rohirrim with Anglo-Saxon culture and language, their ancestors are given Gothic attributes. The names of Rhovanion's royal family, (the ancestors of the Rohirrim), include such names as Vidugavia, Vidumavi and Vinitharya, which are of Gothic origin. Vidugavia specifically has been seen as an synonym for Vitiges, king of the Ostrogoths in Italy from 536 to 540. Tolkien saw this as a parallel with the real-world relationship between Old English and Gothic. In response to a query about clothing styles in Middle-earth, Tolkien wrote:",
"The armies of Rohan were largely horsemen. The basic tactical unit was the \"éored\", Old English for \"a unit of cavalry, a troop\", which at the time of the War of the Ring had a nominal strength of 120 riders. In time of war, every able man was obliged to join the Muster of Rohan. They were also bound by the Oath of Éorl to help Gondor in times of peril, and the latter asked for their aid through the giving of the Red Arrow. This has a historical antecedent in the Old English poem \"Elene\", in which Constantine the Great summoned an army of mounted Visigoths to his aid against the Huns by sending an arrow as a \"token of war\". Gondor could also call the Rohirrim in need by lighting the warning beacons of Gondor, a series of signal fires along the White Mountains from Minas Tirith to the Rohan border: \"Amon Dîn\", \"Eilenach\", \"Nardol\", \"Erelas\", \"Min-Rimmon\", \"Calenhad\" and \"Halifirien\". At the start of the War of the Ring a Full Muster would have been over 12,000 riders.Among the horses of the Rohirrim were the famed \"mearas\" (from the Old English for horse) the noblest and fastest horses that ever roamed Arda. It was because of the close affiliation with horses, both in war and peace, that they received their name. \"Rohirrim\" (or more properly \"Rochirrim\") is Sindarin for \"Horse-lords,\" and \"Rohan\" (or \"Rochand\") means \"Land of the Horse-lords\".",
"Tolkien generally called the language simply \"the language of Rohan\" or \"of the Rohirrim\". The adjectival form \"Rohirric\" is common; Tolkien once also used \"Rohanese\". Like many languages of Men, it is akin to Adûnaic, the language of Númenóreans, and therefore to the Westron or Common Speech. The Rohirrim called their homeland the \"Riddermark,\" a modernization by Tolkien of Old English \"Riddena-mearc\", meaning, according to the Index to \"The Lord of the Rings\", \"the border country of the knights\"; also \"Éo-marc\", the \"Horse-mark\", or simply the \"Mark\". They call themselves the \"Éorlingas\", the Sons of Éorl. Tolkien rendered the language of the Riders of Rohan, Rohirric, as the Mercian dialect of Old English. Even words and phrases that were printed in modern English showed a strong Old English influence. This solution occurred to Tolkien when he was searching for an explanation of the Eddaic names of the dwarves already published in \"The Hobbit\". Tolkien, a philologist, with a special interest in Germanic languages, pretended that the names and phrases of Old English were translated from Rohirric, just as the English used in The Shire was supposedly translated from Middle-earth's Westron or Common Speech. Examples include words such as \"éored\" and \"mearas\" (another Old English word for \"horses\", which survives into Modern English as \"mares\"). The Riders' names for the cunningly-built tower of Isengard, Orthanc, and for the Ents, the tree-giants of Fangorn forest, are similarly Old English, both being found in the phrase \"orþanc enta geweorc\", \"the work of cunning giants\" in the poem \"The Ruin\", though Shippey suggests that Tolkien may have chosen to read the phrase also as \"Orthanc, the Ent's fortress\". In \"The Two Towers\", chapter 6, the Riders of Rohan are introduced before they are seen, by Aragorn, who chants in the language of the Rohirrim words \"in a slow tongue unknown to the Elf and the Dwarf\", a \"lai\" that Legolas senses \"is laden with the sadness of Mortal Men\". The song is called the \"Lament of the Rohirrim\". To achieve a resonant sense of the lost past, the now-legendary time of a peaceful alliance of the Horse-lords with the realm of Gondor, Tolkien adapted the short \"Ubi sunt\" (\"Where are they?\") passage of the Old English poem \"The Wanderer\". \"Thus spoke a forgotten poet long ago in Rohan, recalling how tall and fair was Eorl the Young, who rode down out of the North,\" Aragorn explains, after singing the \"Lament\".",
"",
"In the 13th century of the Third Age, the Kings of Gondor made close alliances with the Northmen of Rhovanion, a people said in \"The Lord of the Rings\" to be akin to the Three Houses of Men (later the Dúnedain) from the First Age. In the 21st century, a remnant tribe of such Northmen, the Éothéod, moved from the valleys of Anduin to the northwest of Mirkwood, disputing with the Dwarves over the treasure-hoard of Scatha the dragon. In 2509, Cirion the Steward of Gondor summoned the Éothéod to help repel an invasion of Men from Rhûn and Orcs from Mordor. Eorl the Young, lord of the Éothéod, answered the summons, arriving unexpected at a decisive battle on the Field of Celebrant, routing the orc army. As a reward, Éorl was given the Gondorian province of Calenardhon (except for Isengard).",
"Eorl the Young founded the Kingdom of Rohan in the former Calenardhon in. The first line of kings lasted for 249 years, until the ninth king Helm Hammerhand died. His sons had been killed earlier, and his nephew Fréaláf Hildeson began the second line of kings, which lasted until the end of the Third Age. In 2758, Rohan was invaded by Dunlendings under Wulf, son of Freca, of mixed Dunland and Rohan blood. The King, Helm Hammerhand, took refuge in the Hornburg until help from Gondor and Dunharrow arrived a year later. Soon after this Saruman took over Isengard, and was welcomed as an ally.",
"Saruman used his influence through the traitor Grima Wormtongue to weaken Théoden. Saruman then launched an invasion of Rohan, with victory in early battles at the Fords of Isen, killing Théoden's son, Théodred. Saruman was defeated at the Battle of the Hornburg, where the tree-like Huorns came from the forest of Fangorn to help the Rohirrim. Théoden then rode with his army to Minas Tirith, helping to break its siege in the Battle of the Pelennor Fields and killing the leader of the Haradrim, but was killed when his horse fell. He was succeeded by his nephew Éomer. His niece Éowyn killed the Lord of the Nazgûl. Éomer rode with the armies of Gondor to the Black Gate of Mordor and took part in the Battle of the Morannon against the forces of Sauron; the destruction of the Ruling Ring ended the battle and the war. Éowyn married Faramir, Prince of Ithilien.",
"The critic Jane Chance writes that Theoden is transformed by Gandalf into a good bold \"Germanic king\"; she contrasts this with the failure of \"the proud Beorhtnoth\" in the Old English poem \"The Battle of Maldon\". In her view, in the account of the battle of Helm's Deep, the fortress of the Riddermark, Tolkien is emphasising the Rohirrim's physical prowess. The critic Tom Shippey notes that the Riders of Rohan are, despite Tolkien's protestations, much like the ancient English (the Anglo-Saxons), but that they differed from the ancient English in having a culture based on horses. They use many Old English words related to horses; their name for themselves is \"Éotheod\", horse-people, and the names of riders like Éomund, Éomer, and Éowyn begin with the word for horse, \"eo[h]\". In Shippey's view, a defining virtue of the Riders is panache, which he explains means both \"the white horsetail on [Éomer's] helm floating in his speed\" and \"the virtue of sudden onset, the dash that sweeps away resistance.\" Shippey notes that this allows Tolkien to display Rohan both as English, based on their Old English names and words like \"\"éored \"\" (troop of cavalry), and as \"alien, to offer a glimpse of the way land shapes people\". The Tolkien scholar Thomas Honegger, agreeing with Shippey's description of the Rohirrim as \"Anglo-Saxons on Horseback\", calls the sources for them \"quite obvious to anyone familiar with Anglo-Saxon literature and culture\". The resemblances, according to Honegger, include masterly horsemanship, embodying the Old English saying \"Éorl sceal on éos boge, éored sceal getrume rídan\" (\"The leader shall on horse's back, warband shall ride in a body\"). The Riders are a Germanic warrior-society, exemplifying the \"northern heroic spirit\", like the Anglo-Saxons. But the \"crucial\" fact is the language; Honneger notes that Tolkien had represented Westron speech as modern English; since Rohan spoke a related but older language, Old English was the natural choice in the same style; Tolkien's 1942 table of correspondences also showed that the language of the people of Dale was represented by Norse. Honegger notes that this does not equate the Rohirrim with the Anglo-Saxons (on horseback or not), but it does show a strong connection, making them \"the people most dear to Tolkien and all medievalists.\" Jane Ciabattari writes on BBC Culture that Lady Éowyn's fear of being caged rather than \"doing great deeds\" by riding to battle with the Rohirrim resonated with 1960s feminists, contributing to the success of \"Lord of the Rings\" at that time.",
"For Peter Jackson's \"The Lord of the Rings\" film trilogy, the Poolburn Reservoir in Central Otago, New Zealand was used for Rohan scenes. The theme for Rohan is played on a Hardanger fiddle. A fully realised set for Edoras was built on Mount Sunday in the upper reaches of the Rangitata Valley, near Erewhon in New Zealand. Some of the set was built digitally, but the main buildings atop the city were built on location; the mountain ranges in the background are part of the actual location shot. The interiors of buildings such as the Golden Hall, however, were located on soundstages in other parts of New Zealand; when the camera is inside of the Golden Hall, looking out the open gates, the image of the on-set Edoras set is digitally inserted into the door-frame. It was known among the cast and crew for being extremely windy, as can be seen during the film and DVD interviews. After filming, Mount Sunday was returned to its original state."
]
} |
Diogenes | null | Diogenes ( ; ), also known as Diogenes the Cynic (, ), was a Greek philosopher and one of the founders of Cynic philosophy. He was born in Sinope, an Ionian colony on the Black Sea, in 412 or 404 BC and died at Corinth in 323 BC. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-532485 | en-train-532485 | 532485 | {
"title": [
"Life.",
"In Athens.",
"In Corinth.",
"Diogenes and Alexander.",
"Death.",
"Philosophy.",
"Cynicism.",
"Obscenity.",
"Diogenes as dogged or dog-like.",
"Contemporary theory.",
"Diogenes syndrome.",
"Depictions.",
"Art.",
"Comics.",
"Literature."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2"
],
"content": [
"Nothing is known about Diogenes' early life except that his father, Hicesias, was a banker. It seems likely that Diogenes was also enrolled into the banking business aiding his father. At some point (the exact date is unknown), Hicesias and Diogenes became involved in a scandal involving the adulteration or debasement of the currency, and Diogenes was exiled from the city and lost his citizenship and all his material possessions. This aspect of the story seems to be corroborated by archaeology: large numbers of defaced coins (smashed with a large chisel stamp) have been discovered at Sinope dating from the middle of the 4th century BC, and other coins of the time bear the name of Hicesias as the official who minted them. During this time there was much counterfeit money circulating in Sinope. The coins were deliberately defaced in order to render them worthless as legal tender. Sinope was being disputed between pro-Persian and pro-Greek factions in the 4th century, and there may have been political rather than financial motives behind the act.",
"According to one story, Diogenes went to the Oracle at Delphi to ask for her advice and was told that he should \"deface the currency\". Following the debacle in Sinope, Diogenes decided that the oracle meant that he should deface the political currency rather than actual coins. He traveled to Athens and made it his life's goal to challenge established customs and values. He argued that instead of being troubled about the true nature of evil, people merely rely on customary interpretations. This distinction between nature (\"physis\") and custom (\"nomos\") is a favorite theme of ancient Greek philosophy, and one that Plato takes up in \"The Republic,\" in the legend of the Ring of Gyges. Diogenes arrived in Athens with a slave named Manes who escaped from him shortly thereafter. With characteristic humor, Diogenes dismissed his ill fortune by saying, \"If Manes can live without Diogenes, why not Diogenes without Manes?\" Diogenes would mock such a relation of extreme dependency. He found the figure of a master who could do nothing for himself contemptibly helpless. He was attracted by the ascetic teaching of Antisthenes, a student of Socrates. When Diogenes asked Antisthenes to mentor him, Antisthenes ignored him and reportedly \"eventually beat him off with his staff\". Diogenes responds, \"Strike, for you will find no wood hard enough to keep me away from you, so long as I think you've something to say.\" Diogenes became Antisthenes' pupil, despite the brutality with which he was initially received. Whether the two ever really met is still uncertain, but he surpassed his master in both reputation and the austerity of his life. He considered his avoidance of earthly pleasures a contrast to and commentary on contemporary Athenian behaviors. This attitude was grounded in a disdain for what he regarded as the folly, pretence, vanity, self-deception, and artificiality of human conduct. The stories told of Diogenes illustrate the logical consistency of his character. He inured himself to the weather by living in a clay wine jar belonging to the temple of Cybele. He destroyed the single wooden bowl he possessed on seeing a peasant boy drink from the hollow of his hands. He then exclaimed: \"Fool that I am, to have been carrying superfluous baggage all this time!\" It was contrary to Athenian customs to eat within the marketplace, and still he would eat there, for, as he explained when rebuked, it was during the time he was in the marketplace that he felt hungry. He used to stroll about in full daylight with a lamp; when asked what he was doing, he would answer, \"I am just looking for an honest man.\" Diogenes looked for a human being but reputedly found nothing but rascals and scoundrels. According to Diogenes Laërtius, when Plato gave the tongue-in-cheek definition of man as \"featherless bipeds,\" Diogenes plucked a chicken and brought it into Plato's Academy, saying, \"Behold! I've brought you a man,\" and so the Academy added \"with broad flat nails\" to the definition.",
"According to a story which seems to have originated with Menippus of Gadara, Diogenes was captured by pirates while on voyage to Aegina and sold as a slave in Crete to a Corinthian named Xeniades. Being asked his trade, he replied that he knew no trade but that of governing men, and that he wished to be sold to a man who needed a master. In fact, this was a pun. In Ancient Greek this would sound both as \"Governing men\" and \"Teaching values to people\". Xeniades liked his spirit and hired Diogenes to tutor his children. As tutor to Xeniades's two sons, it is said that he lived in Corinth for the rest of his life, which he devoted to preaching the doctrines of virtuous self-control. There are many stories about what actually happened to him after his time with Xeniades's two sons. There are stories stating he was set free after he became \"a cherished member of the household\", while one says he was set free almost immediately, and still another states that \"he grew old and died at Xeniades's house in Corinth.\" He is even said to have lectured to large audiences at the Isthmian Games. Although most of the stories about his living in a jar are located in Athens, there are some accounts of his living in a jar near the Craneum gymnasium in Corinth:",
"It was in Corinth that a meeting between Alexander the Great and Diogenes is supposed to have taken place. These stories may be apocryphal. The accounts of Plutarch and Diogenes Laërtius recount that they exchanged only a few words: while Diogenes was relaxing in the morning sunlight, Alexander, thrilled to meet the famous philosopher, asked if there was any favour he might do for him. Diogenes replied, \"Yes, stand out of my sunlight.\" Alexander then declared, \"If I were not Alexander, then I should wish to be Diogenes.\" \"If I were not Diogenes, I would still wish to be Diogenes,\" Diogenes replied. In another account of the conversation, Alexander found the philosopher looking attentively at a pile of human bones. Diogenes explained, \"I am searching for the bones of your father but cannot distinguish them from those of a slave.\"",
"There are conflicting accounts of Diogenes' death. His contemporaries alleged he had held his breath until he expired; although other accounts of his death say he had become ill from eating raw octopus; or to have suffered an infected dog bite. When asked how he wished to be buried, he left instructions to be thrown outside the city wall so wild animals could feast on his body. When asked if he minded this, he said, \"Not at all, as long as you provide me with a stick to chase the creatures away!\" When asked how he could use the stick since he would lack awareness, he replied: \"If I lack awareness, then why should I care what happens to me when I am dead?\" In the end, Diogenes made fun of people's excessive concern with the \"proper\" treatment of the dead. The Corinthians erected to his memory a pillar on which rested a dog of Parian marble.",
"",
"Along with Antisthenes and Crates of Thebes, Diogenes is considered one of the founders of Cynicism. The ideas of Diogenes, like those of most other Cynics, must be arrived at indirectly. No writings of Diogenes survive even though he is reported to have authored over ten books, a volume of letters and seven tragedies. Cynic ideas are inseparable from Cynic practice; therefore what we know about Diogenes is contained in anecdotes concerning his life and sayings attributed to him in a number of scattered classical sources. Diogenes maintained that all the artificial growths of society were incompatible with happiness and that morality implies a return to the simplicity of nature. So great was his austerity and simplicity that the Stoics would later claim him to be a wise man or \"sophos\". In his words, \"Humans have complicated every simple gift of the gods.\" Although Socrates had previously identified himself as belonging to the world, rather than a city, Diogenes is credited with the first known use of the word \"cosmopolitan\". When he was asked from where he came, he replied, \"I am a citizen of the world (\"cosmopolites\")\". This was a radical claim in a world where a man's identity was intimately tied to his citizenship of a particular city-state. An exile and an outcast, a man with no social identity, Diogenes made a mark on his contemporaries. Diogenes had nothing but disdain for Plato and his abstract philosophy. Diogenes viewed Antisthenes as the true heir to Socrates, and shared his love of virtue and indifference to wealth, together with a disdain for general opinion. Diogenes shared Socrates's belief that he could function as doctor to men's souls and improve them morally, while at the same time holding contempt for their obtuseness. Plato once described Diogenes as \"a Socrates gone mad.\"",
"Diogenes taught by living example. He tried to demonstrate that wisdom and happiness belong to the man who is independent of society and that civilization is regressive. He scorned not only family and socio-political organization, but also property rights and reputation. He even rejected normal ideas about human decency. Diogenes is said to have eaten in the marketplace, urinated on some people who insulted him, defecated in the theatre, and masturbated in public. When asked about his eating in public he said, \"If taking breakfast is nothing out of place, then it is nothing out of place in the marketplace. But taking breakfast is nothing out of place, therefore it is nothing out of place to take breakfast in the marketplace.\" On the indecency of his masturbating in public he would say, \"If only it were as easy to banish hunger by rubbing my belly.\"",
"Many anecdotes of Diogenes refer to his dog-like behavior, and his praise of a dog's virtues. It is not known whether Diogenes was insulted with the epithet \"doggish\" and made a virtue of it, or whether he first took up the dog theme himself. When asked why he was called a dog he replied, \"I fawn on those who give me anything, I yelp at those who refuse, and I set my teeth in rascals.\" Diogenes believed human beings live artificially and hypocritically and would do well to study the dog. Besides performing natural body functions in public with ease, a dog will eat anything, and make no fuss about where to sleep. Dogs live in the present without anxiety, and have no use for the pretensions of abstract philosophy. In addition to these virtues, dogs are thought to know instinctively who is friend and who is foe. Unlike human beings who either dupe others or are duped, dogs will give an honest bark at the truth. Diogenes stated that \"other dogs bite their enemies, I bite my friends to save them.\" The term \"cynic\" itself derives from the Greek word κυνικός, \"kynikos\", \"dog-like\" and that from κύων, \"kyôn\", \"dog\" (genitive: \"kynos\"). One explanation offered in ancient times for why the Cynics were called \"dogs\" was that Antisthenes taught in the Cynosarges gymnasium at Athens. The word \"Cynosarges\" means the place of the \"white dog\". Later Cynics also sought to turn the word to their advantage, as a later commentator explained: There are four reasons why the \"Cynics\" are so named. First because of the \"indifference\" of their way of life, for they make a cult of indifference and, like dogs, eat and make love in public, go barefoot, and sleep in tubs and at crossroads. The second reason is that the dog is a shameless animal, and they make a cult of shamelessness, not as being beneath modesty, but as superior to it. The third reason is that the dog is a good guard, and they guard the tenets of their philosophy. The fourth reason is that the dog is a discriminating animal which can distinguish between its friends and enemies. So do they recognize as friends those who are suited to philosophy, and receive them kindly, while those unfitted they drive away, like dogs, by barking at them. As noted (see Death), Diogenes' association with dogs was memorialized by the Corinthians, who erected to his memory a pillar on which rested a dog of Parian marble.",
"Diogenes is discussed in a 1983 book by German philosopher Peter Sloterdijk (English language publication in 1987). In Sloterdijk's \"Critique of Cynical Reason\", Diogenes is used as an example of Sloterdijk's idea of the \"kynical\" – in which personal degradation is used for purposes of community comment or censure. Calling the practice of this tactic \"kynismos\", Sloterdijk theorizes that the kynical actor actually embodies the message he is trying to convey and that the kynical actor's goal is typically a false regression that mocks authority – especially authority that the kynical actor considers corrupt, suspect or unworthy. There is another discussion of Diogenes and the Cynics in Michel Foucault's book \"Fearless Speech\". Here Foucault discusses Diogenes' antics in relation to the speaking of truth (\"parrhesia\") in the ancient world. Foucault expands this reading in his last course at the Collège de France, \"The Courage of Truth.\" In this course Foucault tries to establish an alternative conception of militancy and revolution through a reading of Diogenes and Cynicism.",
"Diogenes' name has been applied to a behavioural disorder characterised by apparently involuntary self-neglect and hoarding. The disorder afflicts the elderly and is quite inappropriately named, as Diogenes deliberately rejected common standards of material comfort, and was anything but a hoarder.",
"",
"Both in ancient and in modern times, Diogenes' personality has appealed strongly to sculptors and to painters. Ancient busts exist in the museums of the Vatican, the Louvre, and the Capitol. The interview between Diogenes and Alexander is represented in an ancient marble bas-relief found in the Villa Albani. Among artists who have painted the famous encounter of Diogenes with Alexander, there are works by de Crayer, de Vos, Assereto, Langetti, Sevin, Sebastiano Ricci, Gandolfi,, Abildgaard, Monsiau, Martin, and Daumier. The famous story of Diogenes searching for an \"honest man\" has been depicted by Jordaens, van Everdingen, van der Werff, Pannini, Steen and Corinth. Others who have painted him with his famous lantern include de Ribera, Castiglione, Petrini, Gérôme, Bastien-Lepage, and Waterhouse. The scene in which Diogenes discards his cup has been painted by Poussin, Rosa, and Martin; and the story of Diogenes begging from a statue has been depicted by Restout. In Raphael's fresco \"The School of Athens\", a lone reclining figure in the foreground represents Diogenes. Diogenes has also been the subject of sculptures, with famous bas-relief images by Puget and Pajou.",
"In \"The Adventures of Nero\" album \"Het Zeespook\" (1948) Nero meets a character who claims to be Diogenes. Two scenes in the comic depict famous anecdotes of Diogenes' life, namely the moment when he was looking for a human and the moment when he asked Alexander to get out of his sun. He is also portrayed living in a barrel. In the \"Suske en Wiske\" album \"De Mottenvanger\" Suske and Wiske travel back to ancient Greece, where they meet Diogenes.",
"Diogenes is referred to in Anton Chekhov's story \"Ward No. 6\"; William Blake's \"The Marriage of Heaven and Hell\"; François Rabelais' \"Gargantua and Pantagruel\"; Goethe's poem \"Genialisch Treiben\"; Denis Diderot's philosophical novella \"Rameau's Nephew\"; as well as in the first sentence of Søren Kierkegaard's novelistic treatise \"Repetition\". The story of Diogenes and the lamp is referenced by the character Foma Fomitch in Fyodor Dostoevsky's \"The Friend of the Family\" as well as \"The Idiot\". In Cervantes' short story \"The Man of Glass\" (\"El licenciado Vidriera\"), part of the \"Novelas Ejemplares\" collection, the (anti-)hero unaccountably begins to channel Diogenes in a string of tart \"chreiai\" once he becomes convinced that he is made of glass. Diogenes gives his own life and opinions in Christoph Martin Wieland's novel \"Socrates Mainomenos\" (1770; English translation \"Socrates Out of His Senses\", 1771). Diogenes is the primary model for the philosopher Didactylos in Terry Pratchett's \"Small Gods\". He is mimicked by a beggar-spy in Jacqueline Carey's \"Kushiel's Scion\" and paid tribute to with a costume in a party by the main character in its sequel, \"Kushiel's Justice\". The character Lucy Snowe in Charlotte Brontë's novel \"Villette\" is given the nickname Diogenes. Diogenes also features in Part Four of Elizabeth Smart's \"By Grand Central Station I Sat Down and Wept\". He is a figure in Seamus Heaney's \"The Haw Lantern\". In Christopher Moore's \"\", one of Jesus' apostles is a devotee of Diogenes, complete with his own pack of dogs which he refers to as his own disciples. His story opens the first chapter of Dolly Freed's 1978 book \"Possum Living\". The dog that Paul Dombey befriends in Charles Dickens' Dombey and Son is called Diogenes. Alexander's meeting with Diogenes is portrayed in Valerio Manfredi's \"(Alexander Trilogy) \"The Ends of the Earth\"\". William S. Burroughs has been described as \"Diogenes with a knife and gun.\" The many allusions to dogs in Shakespeare's \"Timon of Athens\" are references to the school of Cynicism that could be interpreted as suggesting a parallel between the misanthropic hermit, Timon, and Diogenes; but Shakespeare would have had access to Michel de Montaigne's essay, \"Of Democritus and Heraclitus\", which emphasised their differences: Timon actively wishes men ill and shuns them as dangerous, whereas Diogenes esteems them so little that contact with them could not disturb him. \"Timonism\" is in fact often contrasted with \"Cynicism\": \"Cynics saw what people could be and were angered by what they had become; Timonists felt humans were hopelessly stupid & uncaring by nature and so saw no hope for change.\" The philosopher's name was adopted by the fictional Diogenes Club, an organization that Sherlock Holmes' brother Mycroft Holmes belongs to in the story \"The Greek Interpreter\" by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle. It is called such as its members are educated, yet untalkative and have a dislike of socialising, much like the philosopher himself. The group is the focus of a number of Holmes pastiches by Kim Newman. In the Rodgers and Hart musical \"The Boys From Syracuse\" (1938), the song \"Oh Diogenes!\"—which extols the philosopher's virtues—contains the lyrics \"there was an old zany/ who lived in a tub;/ he had so many flea-bites / he didn't know where to rub.\""
]
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] | null | null | en-train-2484104 | en-train-2484104 | 2484104 | {
"title": [
"Characteristics.",
"Geography.",
"Supercell anatomy.",
"Supercell variations.",
"Low Precipitation (LP).",
"High Precipitation (HP).",
"Mini-supercell or low-topped supercell.",
"Effects.",
"Examples worldwide.",
"Asia.",
"Australia.",
"South America.",
"Europe.",
"North America.",
"South Africa."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
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"2"
],
"content": [
"Supercells are usually found isolated from other thunderstorms, although they can sometimes be embedded in a squall line. Typically, supercells are found in the warm sector of a low pressure system propagating generally in a north easterly direction in line with the cold front of the low pressure system. Because they can last for hours, they are known as quasi-steady-state storms. Supercells have the capability to deviate from",
"Supercells can occur anywhere in the world under the right weather conditions. The first storm to be identified as the supercell type was the Wokingham storm over England, which was studied by Keith Browning and Frank Ludlam in 1962. Browning did the initial work that was followed up by Lemon and Doswell to develop the modern conceptual model of",
"The current conceptual model of a supercell was described in \"Severe Thunderstorm Evolution and Mesocyclone Structure as Related to Tornadogenesis\" by Leslie R. Lemon and Charles A. Doswell III. (See Lemon technique). Moisture streams in from the side of the precipitation-free base and merges into a line of warm uplift region where the tower of the thundercloud is tipped by high-altitude shear winds. The high shear causes horizontal vorticity which is tilted within the updraft to become vertical vorticity, and the mass of clouds spins as it gains altitude up to the cap, which can be up to – above ground for the largest storms, and trailing anvil. Supercells derive their rotation through tilting of horizontal vorticity (an invisible horizontal vortex) caused by wind shear. Strong updrafts lift the air turning about a horizontal axis and cause this air to turn about a vertical axis. This forms the \"deep rotating updraft\", the mesocyclone. A \"cap\" or capping inversion is usually required to form an updraft of sufficient strength. The moisture-laden air is then cooled enough to precipitate as it is rotated toward the cooler region, represented by the turbulent air of the mammatus clouds where the warm air is spilling over top of the cooler, invading air. The cap is formed where shear winds block further uplift for a time, until a relative weakness allows a breakthrough of the cap (an overshooting top); cooler air to the right in the image may or may not form a shelf cloud, but the precipitation zone will occur where the heat engine of the uplift intermingles with the invading, colder air. The cap puts an inverted (warm-above-cold) layer above a normal (cold-above-warm) boundary layer, and by preventing warm surface air from rising, allows one or both of the following: As the cooler but drier air circulates into the warm, moisture laden inflow, the cloud base will frequently form a wall, and the cloud base often experiences a lowering, which, in extreme cases, are where tornadoes are formed. This creates a warmer, moister layer below a cooler layer, which is increasingly unstable (because warm air is less dense and tends to rise). When the cap weakens or moves, explosive development follows. In North America, supercells usually show up on Doppler radar as starting at a point or hook shape on the southwestern side, fanning out to the northeast. The heaviest precipitation is usually on the southwest side, ending abruptly short of the \"rain-free updraft base\" or \"main updraft\" (not visible to radar). The \"rear flank downdraft\", or RFD, carries precipitation counterclockwise around the north and northwest side of the updraft base, producing a \"hook echo\" that indicates the presence of a mesocyclone.",
"Supercell thunderstorms are sometimes classified by meteorologists and storm spotters into three categories; however, not all supercells, being hybrid storms, fit neatly into any one category, and many supercells may fall into different categories during different periods of their lifetimes. The standard definition given above is referred to as the Classic supercell. All types of supercells typically produce severe weather.",
"LP supercells contain a small and relatively light precipitation (rain/hail) core that is well separated from the updraft. The updraft is intense, and LPs are inflow dominant storms. The updraft tower is typically more strongly tilted and the deviant rightward motion less than for other supercell types. The forward flank downdraft (FFD) is noticeably weaker than for other supercell types, and the rear-flank downdraft (RFD) is much weaker—even visually absent in many cases. Like classic supercells, LP supercells tend to form within stronger mid-to-upper level storm-relative wind shear; however, the atmospheric environment leading to their formation is not well understood. The moisture profile of the atmosphere, particularly the depth",
"The HP supercell has a much heavier precipitation core that can wrap all the way around the mesocyclone. These are especially dangerous storms, since the mesocyclone is wrapped with rain and can hide a tornado (if present) from view. These storms also cause flooding due to heavy rain, damaging downbursts, and weak tornadoes, although they are also known to produce strong to violent tornadoes.",
"Whereas classic, HP, and LP refer to different precipitation regimes and mesoscale frontal structures, another variation was identified in the",
"Supercells can produce 2-inch hail, winds over 70 mph, EF3 or EF4 or EF5 tornadoes, flooding, frequent-to-continuous lightning, and very heavy rain. Many tornado outbreaks come from clusters of supercells. Large supercells may spawn multiple long-tracked and deadly",
"",
"Some reports suggest that the deluge on 26 July 2005 in Mumbai, India was caused by a supercell when there was a cloud formation high over the city. On this day of rain fell over the city, of which fell in just four hours. The rainfall coincided with",
"On New Year's Day 1947 a supercell hit Sydney. The HP type Supercell formed over the Blue Mountains, mid-morning hitting the lower CBD and eastern suburbs by mid-afternoon with the hail similar in size to a cricket ball. At the time, it was the most severe storm to strike the city since recorded observations began in 1792. On April 14, 1999, a severe storm later classified as a supercell hit the east coast of New South Wales. It is estimated that the storm dropped worth of hailstones during its course. At the time it was the most costly disaster in Australia's insurance history, causing an approximated A$2.3 billion worth of damage, of which A$1.7 billion was covered by insurance. On February 27, 2007, a supercell hit Canberra, dumping nearly of ice in Civic. The ice was so heavy that a newly built shopping center's roof collapsed, birds were killed",
"An area in South America known as the is considered to be the second most frequent location for severe weather, after Tornado Alley in the United States. The region, which covers portions of Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay, and Brazil during the spring and summer, often experiences strong thunderstorms which may include tornadoes. One of the first known South American supercell thunderstorms to include tornadoes occurred on September 16, 1816 and destroyed the town of Rojas ( west of the city of Buenos Aires). On September 20, 1926, an EF4 tornado struck the city of Encarnación (Paraguay), killing over 300 people and making it the second deadliest tornado in South America. On 21 April 1970, the town of Fray Marcos in the Department of Florida, Uruguay experienced an F4 tornado that killed 11, the strongest in the history of the nation. January 10, 1973 saw the most severe tornado in the history of South America: The San Justo tornado, 105 km north of the city of (Argentina), was rated EF5, making it the strongest tornado ever recorded in the southern hemisphere, with winds exceeding 400 km/h. On April 13, 1993, in less than 24 hours in the province of Buenos Aires was given the largest tornado outbreak in the history of South America. There were more than 300 tornadoes recorded, with intensities between F1 and F3. The most affected towns were",
"In 2009, on the night of Monday May 25, a supercell formed over Belgium. It was described by Belgian meteorologist Frank Deboosere as \"one of the worst storms in recent years\" and caused much damage in Belgium - mainly in the provinces of East Flanders (around Ghent), Flemish Brabant (around Brussels) and Antwerp. The storm occurred between about 1:00am and 4:00am local time. An incredible 30,000 lightning flashes were recorded in 2 hours - including 10,000 cloud-to-ground strikes. Hailstones up to across were observed in some places and wind gusts over ; in Melle near Ghent a gust of was reported. Trees were uprooted and blown onto several motorways. In Lillo (east of Antwerp) a loaded goods train was blown from the rail tracks. On August 18, 2011, the rock festival Pukkelpop in Kiewit, Hasselt (Belgium) may have been seized by a supercell with mesocyclone around 18:15. Tornado-like winds were reported, trees of over diameter were felled and tents came down. Severe hail scourged the campus. Five people reportedly died and over 140 people",
"The Tornado Alley is a region of the central United States where severe weather is common, particularly tornadoes. Supercell thunderstorms can affect this region at any time of the year, but they are most common in the spring. Tornado watches and warnings are frequently necessary in the spring and summer. Most places from the Great Plains to the East Coast of the United States and north as far as the Canadian Prairies, the Great Lakes region, and the St. Lawrence River will experience one or more supercells each year. Gainesville, Georgia was the site of the fifth deadliest tornado in U.S. history in 1936, where Gainesville was devastated and 203 people were killed. The 1980 Grand Island tornado outbreak affected the city of Grand Island, Nebraska on June 3, 1980. Seven tornadoes touched down in or near the city that night, killing 5 and injuring 200. The Elie, Manitoba tornado was an F5 that struck the",
"South Africa witnesses several supercell thunderstorms each year with the inclusion of isolated tornadoes. On most occasions these tornadoes occur in open farmlands and rarely cause damage to property, as such many of the tornadoes which do occur in South Africa are not reported. The majority of supercells develop in the central, northern, and north eastern parts of the country. The Free State, Gauteng, and Kwazulu Natal are typically the provinces where these storms are most commonly experienced, though supercell activity is not limited to these provinces. On occasion, hail reaches sizes in excess of golf"
]
} |
Invention for Destruction | null | Invention for Destruction () is a 1958 Czechoslovak black-and-white science fiction adventure film, directed by Karel Zeman, produced by Zdeněk Novák, and starring Lubor Tokoš, Arnošt Navrátil, and Miloslav Holub. Based on several works by Jules Verne, primarily his 1896 novel "Facing the Flag" (with which the film shares its Czech title), the film evokes the original illustrations for Verne's works by combining live actors with various forms of animation. | null | [
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"title": [
"Plot.",
"Production.",
"Sources.",
"Style.",
"Music.",
"Themes.",
"Release and reception."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"A gang of pirates kidnap a scientist and two others in order to get the secret of the scientist's futuristic weapon in order to give them a huge advantage with their acts of piracy.",
"",
"Karel Zeman, a Czech film director and animator, was deeply influenced by the novels of Jules Verne, making four feature films between 1955 and 1970, and drawing extensively on Verne's \"Voyages Extraordinaires\" series. The first of these, \"Journey to the Beginning of Time\", was inspired by \"Journey to the Center of the Earth\" and featured a scene in which its heroes directly acknowledged their fondness for reading Verne. The second of Zeman's Verne-based films was \"Vynález zkázy\"; the later ones were \"The Stolen Airship\", based on \"Two Years' Vacation\", and \"On the Comet\", based on \"Hector Servadac\". The main literary source material for \"Vynález zkázy\" was Verne's 1896 novel \"Facing the Flag\". However, rather than a straightforward literal adaptation of the novel, Zeman conceived the film as if the story were being retold by one of its characters, the young engineer Simon Hart. Moreover, since \"Facing the Flag\" included many memorable Vernian motifs, including submarines, volcanoes, mysterious figures in possession of powerful technologies, and other ideas, Zeman also opted to include themes and elements from other Verne novels. For example, the undersea sequences include references to \"Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea\" and the aircraft \"Albatross\" from \"Robur the Conqueror\". Another Verne novel, \"The Mysterious Island\", may also have supplied some details. The film also pays tribute to the style of the pioneering early filmmaker Georges Méliès. Zeman likely saw Méliès's work at the Czech National Film Archive in Prague, where hand-colored prints were available of \"The Impossible Voyage\" (1904), \"The Witch\" (1906), and \"The Diabolic Tenant\" (1909). Zeman freely used details from Méliès's style as inspiration; for example, \"Vynález zkázy\"s piston-powered steam engine and submarine are creatively adapted variants of those in \"The Impossible Voyage\". Other possible cinematic sources include Fritz Lang's 1927 film \"Metropolis\", Sergei Eisenstein's 1925 film \"Battleship Potemkin\", and possibly even Stuart Paton's 1916 version of \"20,000 Leagues Under the Sea\".",
"The film has long been noted for its unique visual style, which faithfully recreates that of the Victorian line engravings (by Édouard Riou, Léon Benett, and others) featured in the original editions of Verne's novels. According to Karel Zeman's daughter Ludmila Zeman: \"As a child, I remember I had all the books with those beautiful engravings. I really can't visualize the story any other way. And my father felt, because he adored Verne [...] it can only be a good [re]telling to use the same techniques\". Karel Zeman, in explaining his process, elaborated on the same point: Much of this impression was created in-camera, thanks to the film's production design. Zeman's crew made and used hard rubber paint rollers to add engraving-like hatching to scenery and costumes. (In a review of the film, Pauline Kael noted that \"there are more stripes, more patterns on the clothing, the decor, and on the image itself than a sane person can easily imagine\".) To complete the effect, Zeman and his crew composited the film with various forms of animation, including traditional, cut-out, and stop-motion, along with miniature effects and matte paintings, all designed to keep the engraving style seamlessly consistent. Even stock footage clips of birds, sea waves, and other details were adapted for the effect by printing the film with lined filters and matted-in sky backgrounds. To match the visuals, Zeman directed his actors to move in a decorously stylized fashion, commenting: \"My heroes were not allowed even to sneeze or scratch their heads; they had to adapt themselves completely to their unreal surroundings\".",
"The film's score was written by Zdeněk Liška, a highly regarded film composer known for his skill with musical characterizations and humor, as well as for his innovative use of electronic music techniques. In the mid-20th century, he was the foremost Czech composer of fantasy film scores. The score is written in an old-fashioned style complementing the quaintness of the visuals, and often redolent of the film's imaginary machinery. The main theme, reminiscent of a music box, is scored for harpsichord, accompanied by a chamber ensemble of string instruments and woodwinds. The love theme, apparently based on the song \"Tit-willow\" from the Gilbert and Sullivan comic opera \"The Mikado\", is likewise played by woodwinds and a muted harpsichord. Liška's score also includes various shorter cues, such as a short pathos-filled theme for the sinking of the ship \"Amelie\", keyboard strikes matching the attacks on the giant octopus, and a serene finale for string orchestra. The film's score remains one of Liška's most notable works.",
"\"Vynález zkázy\" treats the scientific themes of Jules Verne's novels with gently satiric affection, implicitly praising Verne's style while deliberately pointing up the quaintness of the science involved. In an interview, Ludmila Zeman summed up the film's themes, saying that Verne \"always warned that even if the future is technologically perfect with all these mod cons, it needs love, it needs poetry, it needs magic. He believed only these can make people feel happy and loved\".",
"\"Vynález zkázy\" premiered in Czechoslovakia on 22 August 1958, and was featured at Expo 58 in Brussels, where it won the Grand Prix at the International Film Festival. Over the following year, the film also garnered a Silver Sombrero at the First International Film Festival in Guadalajara, a Czechoslovak Film Critics Award, a Crystal Star from the French Academy of Film, and other awards. In France, André Bazin praised the film in \"Cahiers du cinéma\", and Paul Louis Thirard reviewed it warmly in \"Positif\". The director Alain Resnais named it as one of the ten best films of the year. In 2010, a publication of the Czech Ministry of Foreign Affairs estimated \"Vynález zkázy\" as the most successful film in the history of Czech cinema. The film was brought to the United States in 1961 by American entrepreneur Joseph E. Levine. He had it dubbed into English and changed the title to \"The Fabulous World of Jules Verne\". Warner Bros. Pictures released it as a double feature for children with \"Bimbo the Great\". For this release, many of the cast and crew were billed with anglicized names: Lubor Tokoš, Arnošt Navrátil, and Miloslav Holub were credited as Louis Tock, Ernest Navara, and Milo Holl, respectively. The American release also replaced the original introductory segment with one by American television star Hugh Downs. Following the American release, the film won several additional high-profile admirers. \"The New York Times\" critic Howard Thompson found it \"fresh, funny and highly imaginative,\" with \"a marvelous eyeful of trick effects\". Pauline Kael was similarly glowing, calling the film a \"wonderful giddy science fantasy\" and adding that Zeman \"sustains the Victorian tone, with its delight in the magic of science, that makes Verne seem so playfully archaic\". Charles Stinson of the \"Los Angeles Times\" began his highly positive film review by saying: \"\"The Fabulous World of Jules Verne\" is precisely that. For once the title writers and the press agents have been found failing to exaggerate. They'd better watch it\". Thanks to the American release, the film was nominated for science fiction's 1962 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation. The film, however, was not a box-office success in America, where the well-established Hollywood science fiction film tradition had led audiences to expect heightened realism rather than Zeman's deliberately stylized visuals. Bill Warren, in his 1982 encyclopedia of 1950s science fiction films, \"Keep Watching the Skies\", wrote that \"Vynález zkázy\" was \"the best film covered in this book\", as well as \"the best movie ever adapted from a work by Verne\". In 2010, a commentator for \"Experimental Conversations\" said that the film \"must stand alongside [\"The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari\"] as one of the great visual and stylistic triumphs of the cinematic medium\" and that Zeman's process \"really does need to be seen to be believed\". In 2011, the science fiction writer John C. Wright identified \"Vynález zkázy\" as the first steampunk work and Zeman as the inventor of that genre, commenting that if the film \"is not the steam-powered Holy Grail of Steampunkishness, it surely ought to be\". The film was screened by the Museum of Modern Art in December 2012 as part of the exhibition \"An Auteurist History of Film\". MoMA's film curator Charles Silver called the film \"a bubbling over [...] of unprecedented imagination\" with \"an undeniably poetic fairy-tale quality\". It was screened again in New York City in August 2014 by the Film Society of Lincoln Center, as part of the series \"Strange Lands: International Sci-Fi\". In \"The Village Voice\", Alan Scherstuhl commented that \"The handmade dazzlements still dazzle today... Could it be that old special effects, dependent upon camera tricks and theatrical invention, stir something sympathetic in us that glossy pixels do not, inviting us not just to dream along with the fantasy but also the painstaking creation thereof\"? In 2014, the Karel Zeman Museum in Prague announced that they, in collaboration with České bijáky and Czech TV, had begun a complete digital restoration of the film, planned to be premiered in Italy at Expo 2015. This restored version was released in 2015 on DVD and Blu-ray for the first time by Bontonfilm in the Czech Republic. Also in 2015, the film was released in the United Kingdom on Blu-ray by Second Run. Both releases carried the English title \"Invention for Destruction\". Both are region free and include the original Czech version, with English subtitles and the English-dubbed version, and both have different supplementary features."
]
} |
Curonian Lagoon | null | The Curonian Lagoon (or Bay, Gulf;,,,, ) is separated from the Baltic Sea by the Curonian Spit. Its surface area is. The Neman River () supplies about 90% of its inflows; its watershed consists of about 100,450 square kilometres in Lithuania and Russia's Kaliningrad Oblast. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-144778 | en-train-144778 | 144778 | {
"title": [
"Human history.",
"Kursenieki.",
"Natural history and ecology."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"In the 13th century, the area around the lagoon was part of the ancestral lands of the Curonians and Old Prussians. Later it bordered the historical region of Lithuania Minor. At the northern end of the Spit, there is a passage to the Baltic Sea, and the place was chosen by the Teutonic Knights in 1252 to found \"Memelburg\" castle and the city of Memel — officially called Klaipėda in 1923-39, when the Memel Territory was separated from Germany, and again after 1945, when it became part of the Lithuanian SSR. As the new interwar border, the river that flows into the Curonian Lagoon near Rusnė () was chosen. The river's lower 120 km in Germany were called \"die Memel\" by Germans, while the upper part located in Lithuania was known as Nemunas River. The border also separated the peninsula near the small holiday resort of Nida, Lithuania (); the southern part of the Spit and the Lagoon remained in Germany until 1945. This border is now the border between Lithuania and Russia, as after World War II, the southern end of the Spit and the German area south of the river — the part of East Prussia with the city Königsberg in Sambia — became part an exclave of Russia called Kaliningrad Oblast.",
"While today the Kursenieki, also known as Kuršininkai, are a nearly extinct Baltic ethnic group living along the Curonian Spit, in 1649 Kuršininkai settlement spanned from Memel (Klaipėda) to Danzig (Gdańsk). The Kuršininkai were eventually assimilated by the Germans, except along the Curonian Spit where some still live. The Kuršininkai were considered Latvians until after World War I, when Latvia gained independence from the Russian Empire, a consideration based on linguistic arguments. This was the rationale for Latvian claims over the Curonian Spit, Memel, and other territories of East Prussia which would be later dropped.",
"The Lagoon, formed about 7,000 years BCE, is a freshwater lagoon. Water depths average 3.8 meters. It is highly biodiverse, although troubled by water pollution. The presence of algal blooms was confirmed in the 2000s."
]
} |
Bass Rock | null | The Bass Rock, or simply the Bass (), is an island in the outer part of the Firth of Forth in the east of Scotland. Approximately offshore, and north-east of North Berwick, it is a steep-sided volcanic rock, at its highest point, and is home to a large colony of gannets. The rock is uninhabited, but historically has been settled by an early Christian hermit, and later was the site of an important castle, which after the Commonwealth period was used as a prison. The island belongs to Sir Hew Hamilton-Dalrymple, whose family acquired it in 1706, and before to the Lauder family for almost six centuries. The Bass Rock Lighthouse was constructed on the rock in 1902, and the remains of an ancient chapel survive. | null | [
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"title": [
"Geography and geology.",
"Surrounding islands.",
"History.",
"Lauder family.",
"Hector Boece.",
"Royal visits.",
"Political prison.",
"Covenanting Prison.",
"Description.",
"Castle.",
"Well and chapel.",
"Wildlife.",
"Plants.",
"Cultural references.",
"Robert Louis Stevenson and \"Catriona\".",
"Bruce Marshall and \"Father Malachy's Miracle\".",
"James Robertson and \"The Fanatic\".",
"Music.",
"Cinema.",
"Proverb."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The island is a volcanic plug of phonolitic trachyte rock of Carboniferous (Dinantian) age. The rock was first recognised as an igneous intrusion by James Hutton, while Hugh Miller visited in 1847 and wrote about the rock's geology in his book \"Edinburgh and its Neighbourhood, Geological and Historical: with The Geology of the Bass Rock\". The Bass Rock stands more than high in the Firth of Forth Islands Special Protection Area which covers some, but not all of the islands in the inner and outer Firth. The Bass Rock is a Site of Special Scientific Interest in its own right, due to its gannet colony. It is sometimes called \"the Ailsa Craig of the East\". It is of a similar geological form to nearby North Berwick Law, a hill on the mainland. There are related volcanic formations within nearby Edinburgh, namely Arthur's Seat, Calton Hill and Castle Rock. Much of the island is surrounded by steep cliffs and rocks, with a slope facing south south-west which inclines at a steep angle. The Bass does not occupy the skyline of the Firth quite as much as its equivalent in the Clyde, Ailsa Craig, but it can be seen from much of southern and eastern Fife, most of East Lothian, and high points in the Lothians and Borders, such as Arthur's Seat, and the Lammermuir.",
"The Bass is one of a small string of islands off part of the East Lothian coast, which are some of the Islands of the Forth. To the west are Craigleith, and the Lamb, Fidra and finally to the west of Fidra, the low-lying island of Eyebroughy. These are also mainly the result of volcanic activity. To the north-east can be seen the Isle of May off the coast of the East Neuk of Fife.",
"The island was a retreat for early Christian hermits; St Baldred is said to have lived there in 600 AD.",
"The earliest recorded proprietors are the Lauder of the Bass family, from whom Sir Harry Lauder is descended. According to legend, the island is said to have been a gift from King Malcolm III of Scotland. The crest on their heraldic arms is, appropriately, a gannet sitting upon a rock. The family had a castle on the island from an early date. Sir Robert de Lawedre is mentioned by Blind Harry in \"The Actes and Deidis of the Illustre and Vallyeant Campioun Schir William Wallace\" as a compatriot of William Wallace, and Alexander Nisbet recorded his tombstone in 1718, in the floor of the old kirk in North Berwick: \"here lies Sir Robert de Lawedre, great laird of the Bass, who died May 1311\". Five years later his son received that part of the island which until then had been retained by The Church because it contained the holy cell of Saint Baldred. A century on Wyntown's \"Cronykil\" relates: \"In 1406 King Robert III, apprehensive of danger to his son James (afterwards James I) from the Duke of Albany, placed the youthful prince in the safe-custody of Sir Robert Lauder in his secure castle on the Bass prior to an embarkation for safer parts on the continent.\" Subsequently, says Tytler, \"Sir Robert Lauder of the Bass was one of the few people whom King James I admitted to his confidence.\" In 1424 Sir Robert Lauder of the Bass, with 18 men, had a safe conduct with a host of other noblemen, as a hostage for James I at Durham. J J Reid also mentions that \"in 1424 when King James I returned from his long captivity in England, he at once consigned to the castle of the Bass, Walter Stewart, the eldest son of Murdoch Stewart, Duke of Albany, his cousin. The person who received the payments for the prisoner's support was Sir Robert Lauder\", whom Tytler further describes as \"a firm friend of the King\". The second-last Lauder laird, George Lauder of the Bass died in his castle on the Bass in 1611.",
"Hector Boece offers the following description (original spelling):",
"In 1497 King James IV visited the Bass and stayed in the castle with a later Sir Robert Lauder of the Bass (d.bef Feb 1508). The boatmen who conveyed the King from Dunbar were paid 14 shillings. George Lauder of the Bass entertained King James VI of Scotland when he visited the Bass in 1581; the king was so enamoured that he offered to buy the island, a proposition which did not commend itself to George Lauder. The King appears to have accepted the situation with good grace. George was a Privy Counsellor – described as the King's \"familiar councillor\" – and tutor to the young Prince Henry.",
"During the 15th century James I consigned several of his political enemies, including Walter Stewart, to the Bass. In this period, many members of the Clan MacKay ended up there, including Neil Bhass MacKay (Niall \"Bhas\" MacAoidh), who gained his epithet from being imprisoned there as a fourteen-year-old in 1428. He was kept there as a hostage after his father, Aonghas Dubh (Angus Dhu) of Strathnaver in Sutherland, was released, as security. According to one website",
"After almost 600 years, the Lauders lost the Bass during Cromwell's invasion, and the castle subsequently (in 1671) became a notorious gaol to which for many decades religious and political prisoners, especially Covenanters were sent. The island has been called the Patmos of Scotland. Alexander Shields the Covenanting preacher, imprisoned on the island, later described the Bass as \"a dry and cold rock in the sea, where they had no fresh water nor any provision but what they had brought many miles from the country, and when they got it, it would not keep unspoiled\". He is reported to have escaped by dressing in women's clothing but this occurred from the Edinburgh Tolbooth rather than from the island's gaol. James Fraser of Brea gave a fuller description including eating fruit from the island's cherry trees. John Blackadder, and John Rae, died on the Bass and were buried at North Berwick. Blackadder had a Free Church named after him there. James Anderson lists 39 Covenanting \"martyrs\" who were imprisoned on the Bass: Patrick Anderson, William Bell, Robert Bennet of Chesters, John Blackadder, Sir Hugh Campbell, Sir George Campbell, John Campbell, Robert Dick, John Dickson, James Drummond, Alexander Dunbar, James Fithie, Alexander Forrester, James Fraser, Robert Gillespie, Alexander Gordon, John Greig, Thomas Hog, Peter Kid, John Law, Joseph Learmont, William Lin, James Macaulay, John M'Gilligen, James Mitchell, Alexander Peden, Michael Potter, John Rae, Archibald Riddell, Robert Ross, Thomas Ross, Gilbert Rule, George Scot, Alexander Shields, William Spence, John Spreul (apothecary), John Spreul (town clerk), John Stewart, and Robert Traill. Charles Maitland held the Bass for James VII for a brief period after the Scottish parliament declared his abdication. The fortress was abandoned by the government in 1701, and on 31 July 1706 the President of the Court of Session, Hew Dalrymple, Lord North Berwick, acquired the Bass by charter (ratified by Parliament in March 1707), for a purely nominal sum, and the island has been ever since in the uninterrupted possession of the Dalrymple family.",
"",
"Not far above the landing-place the slope is crossed by a curtain wall, which naturally follows the lie of the ground, having sundry projections and round bastions where a rocky projection offers a suitable foundation. The parapets are battlemented, with the usual walk along the top of the walls. Another curtain wall at right-angles runs down to the sea close to the landing-place, ending in a ruined round tower, whose vaulted base has poorly splayed and apparently rather unskillfully constructed embrasures. The entrance passes through this outwork wall close to where it joins the other. The main defences are entered a little farther on in the same line, through a projecting two-story building which has some fireplaces with very simple and late mouldings. The buildings are of the local basalt, and the masonry is rough rubble; there are, as is so frequently the case, no very clear indications for dating the different parts, which were in all probability erected at different times. A little beyond the entrance there was a tower that formed a simple keep/bastion and to which had been added a gabled chamber in the 17th century, which, though of restricted dimensions, must have been comfortable enough, with blue Dutch tiles round its moulded fireplace, later very much decayed. The keep and the living quarters within the walls were taken down to provide stone for the lighthouse in 1902.",
"During the 16th and 17th centuries there was sufficient grass present for 100 sheep to graze. The freshwater well was right at the top of the island, where today the foghorn is situated. Halfway up the island stands the ruin of St Baldred's Chapel, which is sited upon a cell or cave in which this Scottish Saint spent some time. Although the Lauders held most of the Bass Rock, this part of it had remained in the ownership of the Church until 1316, when it was granted to the family. The chapel appears to have been rebuilt by the Lauder family several times. A papal bull dated 6 May 1493, refers to the parish church of the Bass, or the Chapel of St Baldred, being \"noviter erecta\" (newly established) at that time. On 5 January 1542 John Lauder, son of Sir Robert Lauder of the Bass, Knt., was recorded as \"the Cardinal's Secretary\" representing Cardinal David Beaton at a reconsecration of the restored and ancient St Baldred's chapel on the Bass. In 1576 it was recorded that the church on the Bass, and that at Auldhame on the mainland, required no readers, doubtless something to do with the Reformation.",
"The island plays host to more than 150,000 northern gannets and is the world's largest colony of the species. Described famously by naturalists as \"one of the wildlife wonders of the world\" (often credited to Sir David Attenborough), it was also awarded BBC Countryfile Magazine's Nature Reserve of the Year, following a nomination by Chris Packham, in 2014/15. When viewed from the mainland, large regions of the surface appear white owing to the sheer number of birds (and their droppings, which give off 152,000 kg of ammonia per year, equivalent to the achievements of 10 million broilers). In fact the scientific name for the northern gannet, \"Morus bassanus\", derives from the rock. It was known traditionally in Scots as a \"solan goose\". As on other gannetries, such as St Kilda, the birds were harvested for their eggs and the flesh of their young chicks, which were considered delicacies. It is estimated that in 1850 almost 2,000 birds were harvested from the rock. Other bird species that frequent the rock include guillemot, razorbill, shag, puffin, eider and numerous gulls. The natural history of the rock was written about almost five hundred years ago in John Mair's \"De Gestis Scotorum\" (\"The deeds of the Scots\"), published in 1521. Today, the Scottish Seabird Centre at North Berwick has solar-powered cameras located on the island which beam back live close-up images of the seabirds to large screens on the mainland, just over a mile away. The images are sharp enough for visitors at the Seabird Centre to read the ID rings on birds' feet. The Seabird Centre has a range of cameras located on the islands of the Forth and also broadcasts the images live on the internet. The Centre also has exclusive landing rights to the island from the owner Sir Hew Hamilton-Dalrymple and operates a range of boat trips going around, and landing on, the island throughout the year, weather permitting.",
"The soil is fertile and supports a wide variety of plants. These include the Bass mallow which is otherwise only found on a few other islands, including Ailsa Craig and Steep Holm.",
"Due to its imposing nature, prison and connection with Scottish history, the Bass has been featured in several fictional works.",
"Robert Louis Stevenson had at least one strong connection with the Bass, as his cousin, David Stevenson, designed the lighthouse there. Amongst his earliest memories were holidays in North Berwick. He often stayed at Scoughall Farm, whence the Bass can be seen, and local lore is credited as the inspiration for his short story \"The Wreckers\". \"Catriona\" is Stevenson's 1893 sequel to \"Kidnapped\". Both novels are set in the aftermath of the Jacobite risings, in the mid-18th century. The first part of \"Catriona\" recounts the attempts of the hero – David Balfour – to gain justice for James Stewart – James of the Glens – who has been arrested and charged with complicity in the Appin Murder. David makes a statement to a lawyer, and goes on to meet Lord Prestongrange – the Lord Advocate – to press the case for James' innocence. However his attempts fail as he is once again kidnapped and confined on the Bass Rock, until the trial is over, and James condemned to death. The book begins with a dedication to Charles Baxter, a friend of Stevenson, written in his home in Western Samoa and says: Chapter XIV is entitled simply \"The Bass\", and gives a long description of the island, which is described as \"just the one crag of rock, as everybody knows, but great enough to carve a city from\".",
"Scottish writer Bruce Marshall used Bass Rock as the miraculous destination of the \"Garden of Eden\", a dance hall of dubious reputation in \"Father Malachy's Miracle\" a 1938 novel. During an argument with a Protestant minister, Father Malachy claims that God could miraculously remove the \"Garden of Eden\". The Protestant scoffs and Father Malachy inadvertently predicts that God will indeed remove the \"Garden of Eden\" on a specific date. The date comes and the building and all people inside vanish and reappear on Bass Rock. This apparent miracle draws the attention of the media, politicians and scientists, all trying to find rational explanations. The Catholic Church is reluctant to officially recognize this occurrence as a miracle, both fearing a loss of control in matters of faith, or a loss of face if the disappearance of the \"Garden of Eden\" would turn out to be a fabrication. The novel was the basis for the German film \"Das Wunder des Malachias\" a 1961 black-and-white film directed by Bernhard Wicki and starring Horst Bollmann. The film did not specify Bass Rock as the destination of the offending dance hall.",
"The Bass Rock is a key location in \"The Fanatic\" by Scottish author James Robertson. The novel tells the story of a tourist guide in modern-day Edinburgh who becomes obsessed with two characters from Edinburgh's past: Major Thomas Weir, a presbyterian who was eventually executed for incest, bestiality and witchcraft; and James Mitchell, a Covenanter who attempted to assassinate the Archbishop of St Andrews. Mitchell was tortured, imprisoned on the Bass Rock and eventually also executed.",
"A pibroch was written by Iain Dall MacAoidh (MacKay), commemorating Neil Bhass' imprisonment and escape from the island, entitled \"The Unjust Incarceration\".",
"The Bass Rock appears as background in the title song sequence of the 1998 Bollywood movie \"Kuch Kuch Hota Hai\".",
"An old saying has the following: This meant to do something impossible."
]
} |
Messier 82 | null | Messier 82 (also known as NGC 3034, Cigar Galaxy or M82) is a starburst galaxy approximately 12 million light-years away in the constellation Ursa Major. A member of the M81 Group, it is about five times more luminous than the whole Milky Way and has a center one hundred times more luminous than our galaxy's center. The starburst activity is thought to have been triggered by interaction with neighboring galaxy M81. As the closest starburst galaxy to Earth, M82 is the prototypical example of this galaxy type. SN 2014J, a type Ia supernova, was discovered in the galaxy on 21 January 2014. In 2014, in studying M82, scientists discovered the brightest pulsar yet known, designated M82 X-2. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-943167 | en-train-943167 | 943167 | {
"title": [
"Discovery.",
"Structure.",
"Starburst region.",
"Unknown object.",
"Starbursts.",
"2014 supernova."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"M82 was first discovered by Johann Elert Bode on 31 December 1774 together with M81; he described it as a \"nebulous patch\", about 0.75 deg away from M81, \"very pale and of elongated shape\". In 1779, Pierre Méchain independently rediscovered both galaxies and reported them to Charles Messier, who added them to his catalog.",
"M82 was previously believed to be an irregular galaxy. In 2005, however, two symmetric spiral arms were discovered in near-infrared (NIR) images of M82. The arms were detected by subtracting an axisymmetric exponential disk from the NIR images. Even though the arms were detected in NIR images, they are bluer than the disk. The arms were previously missed due to M82's high disk surface brightness, the nearly edge-on view of this galaxy (~80°), and obscuration by a complex network of dusty filaments in its optical images. These arms emanate from the ends of the NIR bar and can be followed for the length of 3 disc scales. Assuming that the northern part of M82 is nearer to us, as most of the literature does, the observed sense of rotation implies trailing arms.",
"In 2005, the Hubble Space Telescope revealed 197 young massive clusters in the starburst core. The average mass of these clusters is around 200,000 solar masses, hence the starburst core is a very energetic and high-density environment. Throughout the galaxy's center, young stars are being born 10 times faster than they are inside the entire Milky Way Galaxy. In the core of M82, the active starburst region spans a diameter of 500 pc. Four high surface brightness regions or clumps (designated A, C, D, and E) are detectable in this region at visible wavelengths. These clumps correspond to known sources at X-ray, infrared, and radio frequencies. Consequently, they are thought to be the least obscured starburst clusters from our vantage point. M82's unique bipolar outflow (or'superwind') appears to be concentrated on clumps A and C and is fueled by energy released by supernovae within the clumps which occur at a rate of about one every ten years. The Chandra X-ray Observatory detected fluctuating X-ray emissions from a location approximately 600 light-years away from the center of M82. Astronomers have postulated that this fluctuating emission comes from the first known intermediate-mass black hole, of roughly 200 to 5000 solar masses. M82, like most galaxies, hosts a supermassive black hole at its center with a mass of approximately 3 x 10 solar masses as measured from stellar dynamics.",
"In April 2010, radio astronomers working at the Jodrell Bank Observatory of the University of Manchester in the UK reported an object in M82 that had started sending out radio waves, and whose emission did not look like anything seen anywhere in the universe before. There have been several theories about the nature of this object, but currently no theory entirely fits the observed data. It has been suggested that the object could be an unusual \"micro quasar\", having very high radio luminosity yet low X-ray luminosity, and being fairly stable, it could be an analogue of the low X-ray luminosity galactic microquasar SS 433. However, all known microquasars produce large quantities of X-rays, whereas the object's X-ray flux is below the measurement threshold. The object is located at several arcseconds from the center of M82 which makes it unlikely to be associated with a supermassive black hole. It has an apparent superluminal motion of four times the speed of light relative to the galaxy center. Apparent superluminal motion is consistent with relativistic jets in massive black holes and does not indicate that the source itself is moving above lightspeed.",
"M82 is being physically affected by its larger neighbor, the spiral M81. Tidal forces caused by gravity have deformed M82, a process that started about 100 million years ago. This interaction has caused star formation to increase tenfold compared to \"normal\" galaxies. M82 has undergone at least one tidal encounter with M81 resulting in a large amount of gas being funneled into the galaxy's core over the last 200 Myr. The most recent such encounter is thought to have happened around 2–5 years ago and resulted in a concentrated starburst together with a corresponding marked peak in the cluster age distribution. This starburst ran for up to ~50 Myr at a rate of ~10 \"M\" per year. Two subsequent starbursts followed, the last (~4–6 Myr ago) of which may have formed the core clusters, both super star clusters (SSCs) and their lighter counterparts. Stars in M82's disk seem to have been formed in a burst 500 million years ago, leaving its disk littered with hundreds of clusters with properties similar to globular clusters (but younger), and stopped 100 million years ago with no star formation taking place in this galaxy outside the central starburst and, at low levels since 1 billion years ago, on its halo. A suggestion to explain those features is that M82 was previously a low surface brightness galaxy where star formation was triggered due to interactions with its giant neighbor. Ignoring any difference in their respective distances from the Earth, the centers of M81 and M82 are visually separated by about 130,000 light-years. The actual separation is.",
"On 21 January 2014 at 19.20 UT, a previously unseen star was observed in M82 at magnitude +11.7 by Dr. Steve J. Fossey, along with a team of 4 of his students, at University College London's training observatory, the University of London Observatory. It had brightened to magnitude +10.9 by 23 January. Examination of earlier observations of M82 found the supernova to be present on 15, 16, 17, 19, 20 and 22 January, brightening from magnitude +14.4 to +11.3; there was no sign of it, to limiting magnitude +17, on 14 January. It was initially suggested that it could become as bright as magnitude +8.5, well within the visual range of small telescopes and large binoculars, but it actually peaked at a rather fainter +10.5 on 31 January 2014. Preliminary analysis classified it as \"a young, reddened type Ia supernova\". The International Astronomical Union (IAU) has designated it SN 2014J. SN 2014J is one of the closest supernovae to Earth observed in recent decades. SN 1993J was at a very similar distance, in M82's larger companion galaxy M81, and SN 1987A in the Large Magellanic Cloud was much closer. 2014J is the closest type Ia supernova since SN 1972E."
]
} |
Messier 81 | null | Messier 81 (also known as NGC 3031 or Bode's Galaxy) is a grand design spiral galaxy about 12 million light-years away, with a diameter of 90,000 light years, about half the size of the Milky Way, in the constellation Ursa Major. Due to its proximity to Earth, large size, and active galactic nucleus (which harbors a 70 million supermassive black hole), Messier 81 has been studied extensively by professional astronomers. The galaxy's large size and relatively high brightness also makes it a popular target for amateur astronomers. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-1720712 | en-train-1720712 | 1720712 | {
"title": [
"Discovery.",
"Visibility.",
"Interstellar dust.",
"Globular clusters.",
"Supernovae.",
"Environment."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Messier 81 was first discovered by Johann Elert Bode on 31 December 1774. Consequently, the galaxy is sometimes referred to as \"Bode's Galaxy\". In 1779, Pierre Méchain and Charles Messier reidentified Bode's object, which was subsequently listed in the Messier Catalogue. Messier 81 is located approximately 10° northwest of Alpha Ursae Majoris along with several other galaxies in the Messier 81 Group.",
"Messier 81 and Messier 82 can both be viewed easily using binoculars and small telescopes. The two objects are generally not observable to the unaided eye, although highly experienced amateur astronomers may be able to see Messier 81 under exceptional observing conditions with a very dark sky. Telescopes with apertures of or larger are needed to distinguish structures in the galaxy. Its far northern declination makes it generally visible for observers in the northern hemisphere. It is not visible to most observers in the southern hemisphere, except those in a narrow latitude range immediately south of the equator.",
"Most of the emission at infrared wavelengths originates from interstellar dust. This interstellar dust is found primarily within the galaxy's spiral arms, and it has been shown to be associated with star formation regions. The general explanation is that the hot, short-lived blue stars that are found within star formation regions are very effective at heating the dust and thus enhancing the infrared dust emission from these regions.",
"It is estimated M81 has 210 ± 30 globular clusters.",
"Only one supernova has been detected in Messier 81. The supernova, named SN 1993J, was discovered on 28 March 1993 by F. García in Spain. At the time, it was the second brightest supernova observed in the 20th century. The spectral characteristics of the supernova changed over time. Initially, it looked more like a type II supernova (a supernova formed by the explosion of a giant star) with strong hydrogen spectral line emission, but later the hydrogen lines faded and strong helium spectral lines appeared, making the supernova look more like a type Ib. Moreover, the variations in SN 1993J's luminosity over time were not like the variations observed in other type II supernovae, but did resemble the variations observed in type Ib supernovae. Hence, the supernova has been classified as a type IIb, a transitory class between type II and type Ib. The scientific results from this supernova suggested that type Ib and Ic supernovae were formed through the explosions of giant stars through processes similar to those taking place in type II supernovae. Despite the uncertainties in modeling the unusual supernova, it was also used to estimate a very approximate distance of 8.5 ± 1.3 Mly (2.6 ± 0.4 Mpc) to Messier 81. As a local galaxy, the Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams (CBAT) tracks novae in M81 along with M31 and M33.",
"Messier 81 is the largest galaxy in the M81 Group, a group of 34 galaxies located in the constellation Ursa Major. At approximately 11.7 Mly (3.6 Mpc) from the Earth, it makes this group and the Local Group, containing the Milky Way, relative neighbors in the Virgo Supercluster. Gravitational interactions of M81 with M82 and NGC 3077 have stripped hydrogen gas away from all three galaxies, forming gaseous filamentary structures in the group. Moreover, these interactions have allowed interstellar gas to fall into the centers of M82 and NGC 3077, leading to vigorous star formation or starburst activity there."
]
} |
Glacial erratic | null | A glacial erratic is glacially-deposited rock differing from the size and type of rock native to the area in which it rests. "Erratics" take their name from the Latin word "errare" (to wander), and are carried by glacial ice, often over distances of hundreds of kilometres. Erratics can range in size from pebbles to large boulders such as Big Rock () in Alberta. | null | [
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"title": [
"Formation of erratics.",
"Glacier-borne erratic.",
"Ice-rafted erratic.",
"Large erratics.",
"Nonglacial erratics.",
"History.",
"Examples.",
"Glacier-borne erratics.",
"Flood-borne erratics."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
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"1",
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],
"content": [
"The term \"erratic\" is commonly used to refer to erratic blocks, which Geikie describes as: \"large masses of rock, often as big as a house, that have been transported by glacier-ice, and have been lodged in a prominent position in the glacier valleys or have been scattered over hills and plains. And examination of their mineralogical character leads the identification of their sources...\". In geology, an erratic is material moved by geologic forces from one location to another, usually by a glacier. Erratics are formed by glacial ice erosion resulting from the movement of ice. Glaciers erode by multiple processes: abrasion/scouring, plucking, ice thrusting and glacially-induced spalling. Glaciers crack pieces of bedrock off in the process of plucking, producing the larger erratics. In an abrasion process, debris in the basal ice scrapes along the bed, polishing and gouging the underlying rocks, similar to sandpaper on wood, producing smaller glacial till. In ice thrusting, the glacier freezes to its bed, then as it surges forward, it moves large sheets of frozen sediment at the base along with the glacier. Glacially-induced spalling occurs when ice lens formation with the rocks below the glacier spall off layers of rock, providing smaller debris which is ground into the glacial basal material to become till. Evidence supports another option for creation of erratics as well, rock avalanches onto the upper surface of the glacier (supraglacial). Rock avalanche–supraglacial transport occurs when the glacier undercuts a rock face, which fails by avalanche onto the upper surface of the glacier. The characteristics of rock avalanche–supraglacial transport includes:",
"Erratics provide an important tool in characterizing the directions of glacier flows, which are routinely reconstructed used on a combination of moraines, eskers, drumlins, meltwater channels, and similar data. Erratic distributions and glacial till properties allow for identification of the source rock from which they derive, which confirms the flow direction, particularly when the erratic source outcrop is unique to a limited locality. Erratic materials may be transported by multiple glacier flows prior to their deposition, which can complicate the reconstruction of the glacial flow.",
"Glacial ice entrains debris of varying sizes from small particles to extremely large masses of rock. This debris is transported to the coast by glacier ice and released during the production, drift and melting of icebergs. The rate of debris release by ice depends upon the size of the ice mass in which it is carried as well as the temperature of the ocean through which the ice floe passes. Sediments from the late Pleistocene period lying on the floor of the North Atlantic show a series of layers (referred to at Heinrich layers) which contain ice-rafted debris. They were formed between 14,000 & 70,000 years before the present. The deposited debris can be traced back to the origin by both the nature of the materials released and the continuous path of debris release. Some paths extend more than distant from the point at which the ice floes originally broke free. The location and altitude of ice-rafted boulders relative to the modern landscape has been used to identify the highest level of water in proglacial lakes (e.g., Lake Musselshell in central Montana) and temporary lakes (e.g., Lake Lewis in Washington state. Ice-rafted debris is deposited when the iceberg strands on the shore and subsequently melts, or drops out of the ice floe as it melts. Hence all erratic deposits are deposited below the actual high water level of the lake; however the measured altitude of ice-rafted debris can be used to estimate the lake surface elevation. This is accomplished by recognizing that on a fresh-water lake, the iceberg floats until the volume of its ice-rafted debris exceeds 5% of the volume of the iceberg. Therefore, a correlation between the iceberg size and the boulder size can be established. For example, diameter boulder can be carried by a high iceberg and could be found stranded at higher elevations than a boulder which requires a high iceberg.",
"Large erratics consisting of slabs of bedrock that have been lifted and transported by glacier ice to subsequently be stranded above thin glacial or fluvioglacial deposits are referred to as glacial floes, rafts (schollen) or erratic megablocks. Erratic megablocks have typical length to thickness ratios on the order of 100 to 1. These megablocks may be found partially exposed or completely buried by till and are clearly allochthonus, since they overlay glacial till. Megablocks can be so large that they are mistaken for bedrock until underlying glacial or fluvial sediments are identified by drilling or excavation. Such erratic megablocks greater than in area and in thickness can be found on the Canadian Prairies, Poland, England, Denmark and Sweden. One erratic megablock located in Saskatchewan is (and up to thick). Their sources can be identified by locating the bedrock from which they were separated; several rafts from Poland and Alberta were determined to have been transported over from their source.",
"In geology an erratic is any material which is not native to the immediate locale but has been transported from elsewhere. The most common examples of erratics are associated with glacial transport, either by direct glacier-borne transport or by ice rafting. However, other erratics have been identified as the result of kelp holdfasts, which have been documented to transport rocks up to in diameter, rocks entangled in the roots of drifting logs, and even in transport of stones accumulated in the stomachs of pinnipeds during foraging.",
"During the 18th century, erratics were deemed a major geological paradox. Erratics were once considered evidence of a vast flood approximately 10,000 years ago, similar to the legendary floods described in the texts of ancient civilizations throughout the world. Ancient legends of an epic flood come from many cultures including Mesoamerican, Sumerian (Epic of Gilgamesh), Hebrew (Old Testament) and Indian culture. Among others, the Swiss politician, jurist and theologian saw glaciers as a possible solution as early as 1788. However the idea of ice ages and glaciation as a geological force took a while to be accepted. Ignaz Venetz (1788 — 1859), a Swiss engineer, naturalist, and glaciologist was one of the first scientists to recognize glaciers as a major force in shaping the earth. In the 19th century, many scientists came to favor erratics as evidence for the end of the Last Glacial Maximum (ice age) 10,000 years ago, rather than a flood. Geologists have suggested that landslides or rockfalls initially dropped the rocks on top of glacial ice. The glaciers continued to move, carrying the rocks with them. When the ice melted, the erratics were left in their present locations. Charles Lyell's \"Principles of Geology\" (v. 1, 1830) provided an early description of the erratic which is consistent with the modern understanding. Louis Agassiz was the first to scientifically propose that the Earth had been subject to a past ice age. In the same year, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Prior to this proposal, Goethe, de Saussure, Venetz, Jean de Charpentier, Karl Friedrich Schimper and others had made the glaciers of the Alps the subjects of special study, and Goethe, Charpentier as well as Schimper had even arrived at the conclusion that the erratic blocks of alpine rocks scattered over the slopes and summits of the Jura Mountains had been moved there by glaciers. Charles Darwin published extensively on geologic phenomena including the distribution of erratic boulders. In his accounts written during the voyage of, Darwin observed a number of large erratic boulders of notable size south of the Strait of Magellan, Tierra del Fuego and attributed them to ice rafting from Antarctica. Recent research suggests that they are more likely the result of glacial ice flows carrying the boulders to their current locations.",
"",
"Examples of erratics include:",
"In the event that glacial ice is \"rafted\" by a flood such as that created when the ice dam broke during the Missoula Floods, the erratics are deposited where the ice finally releases its debris load. One of the more unusual examples is found far from its origin in Idaho at Erratic Rock State Natural Site just outside McMinnville, Oregon. The park includes a specimen, the largest erratic found in the Willamette Valley."
]
} |
Euro NCAP | null | The European New Car Assessment Programme (Euro NCAP) is a European voluntary car safety performance assessment programme (i.e. a New Car Assessment Program) based in Leuven (Belgium) formed in 1996, with the first results released in February 1997. It was originally started by the Transport Research Laboratory for the UK Department for Transport, but later backed by several European governments, as well as by the European Union. Their slogan is "For Safer Cars". | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-2388747 | en-train-2388747 | 2388747 | {
"title": [
"History and Activities.",
"2020 Test Procedures.",
"Mobile Progressive Deformable Barrier.",
"Full Width Rigid Barrier.",
"Mobile Side Impact Barrier.",
"Side Pole.",
"Far Side Impact.",
"Whiplash.",
"Vulnerable Road Users (Pedestrians & Cyclists).",
"Safety Assist.",
"Rescue and Extrication.",
"Ratings.",
"Euro NCAP Advanced.",
"Rating History."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Euro NCAP is a voluntary vehicle safety rating system created by the Swedish Road Administration, the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile and International Consumer Research & Testing, and backed by the European Commission, seven European governments, and motoring and consumer organisations in every EU country.They provide European consumers with information regarding the safety of passenger vehicles. In 1998, operations moved from London to Brussels. The programme is modelled after the New Car Assessment Program, introduced 1979 by the US National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Other areas with similar (but not identical) programmes include Australia and New Zealand with ANCAP, Latin America with Latin NCAP and China with C-NCAP. They publish safety reports on new cars, and awards'star ratings' based on the performance of the vehicles in a variety of crash tests, including front, side and pole impacts, and impacts with pedestrians. Testing is not mandatory, with vehicle models either being independently chosen by Euro NCAP or sponsored by the manufacturers. In Europe, new cars are certified as legal for sale under the Whole Vehicle Type Approval regimen that differs from Euro NCAP. According to Euro NCAP, \"The frontal and side impact crash tests used by Euro NCAP are based on those used in European legislation. However, much higher performance requirements are used by Euro NCAP. Euro NCAP also states that \"Legislation sets a minimum compulsory standard whilst Euro NCAP is concerned with best possible current practice. Progress with vehicle safety legislation can be slow, particularly as all EU Member States’ views have to be taken into account. Also, once in place, legislation provides no further incentive to improve, whereas Euro NCAP provides a continuing incentive by regularly enhancing its assessment procedures to stimulate further improvements in vehicle safety.\" Before Euro NCAP was introduced car buyers had little information if one car was safer than the other, and the regulation at the time was only a 48kph/30mph frontal crash test until the first ratings of a group of best selling vehicles were released in 1997, since then Euro NCAP has tested more than 1,800 new cars, published over 600 ratings and has helped save upwards of 78,000 lives in Europe and encouraged manufacturers to build safer cars. The result of Euro NCAP is that over the years, European automakers' cars have become much safer. Test results are commonly presented by motor press, and in turn, greatly influence consumer demand for a vehicle. One notable example of this is the Rover 100 (an update of a 1980 design, first marketed as an Austin ), which after receiving a one-star Adult Occupant Rating in the tests in 1997, suffered from poor sales and was withdrawn from production soon afterwards: it was the 'What Car' car of the year, for 1980. BMW's 2007 MINI, for example, had its bonnet and headlamp fixture changed to meet the latest pedestrian safety requirements. In 2017, to celebrate Euro NCAP's 20th anniversary, they tested a 1997 Rover 100 and 2017 Honda Jazz under the same frontal offset conditions to demonstrate how far safety has come in Europe.",
"",
"The test car is propelled at 50kph/31mph into a moving deformable barrier mounted on an oncoming 1400 kg trolley, also travelling at 50 km/h at a 50% overlap. This represents hitting a mid-size family car. Two adult male THOR-50M dummies are seated in the front and two child dummies are placed in the back. The aim is to assess the crumple zones and the compatibility of the test car.",
"The test car is driven into a rigid barrier with full overlap at a speed of 50kph/31mph. A small female dummy is seated in the driving position and in the rear seat. The aim is to test the car's restraint system, such as airbags and seat belts.",
"A deformable barrier is mounted on a trolley and is driven at 50kph/31mph into the side of the stationary test vehicle at a right angle. This is meant to represent another vehicle colliding with the side of a car.",
"The car is propelled sideways at 32kph/20mph against a rigid, narrow pole at a small angle away from perpendicular to simulate a vehicle travelling sideways into roadside objects such as a tree or pole.",
"The body in white (frame) of the vehicle is attached to a sled is propelled sideways to provide accelerations experienced by the vehicle in the side and pole tests, but on the far side of the vehicle. The far side testing was implemented in 2020 to help combat far side injuries (where the driver is struck from the opposite side). The ‘excursion’ of the dummy - the extent to which the dummy moves towards the impacted side of the vehicle - is measured. If the vehicle is equipped with centre airbags then a co-driver (front passenger) is added in either the mobile side impact or the pole test to evaluate its effectiveness.",
"The vehicle seat is propelled forwards rapidly at both 16 and 24kph (9 and 15mph) to test the seat and head restraint's capabilities to protect the head and neck against whiplash during a rear impact.",
"Head Impact Upper Leg Impact Lower Leg Impact AEB Pedestrian AEB Cyclist",
"AEB car-to-car Occupant status monitoring Speed assistance Lane Support",
"How easy it is for first responders to extricate the occupant and how well eCall performs after a collision.",
"Euro NCAP's ratings consist of percentage scores for Adult Occupant, Child Occupant, Vulnerable Road Users and Safety Assist and are delivered in the overall rating of stars, 5 being the best and 0 being the worst. 5 star safety: Overall excellent performance in crash protection and well equipped with comprehensive and robust crash avoidance technology 4 star safety: Overall good performance in crash protection and all round; additional crash avoidance technology may be present 3 star safety: At least average occupant protection but not always equipped with the latest crash avoidance features 2 star safety: Nominal crash protection but lacking crash avoidance technology 1 star safety: Marginal crash protection and little in the way of crash avoidance technology 0 star safety: Meeting type-approval standards so can legally be sold but lacking critical modern safety technology Some cars have dual ratings as the lower is for the vehicle with standard equipment, while the higher is for the vehicle when equipped with certain options, often in the form of a safety pack.",
"Euro NCAP Advanced is a reward system launched in 2010 for advanced safety technologies, complementing Euro NCAP's existing star rating scheme. Euro NCAP rewards and recognises car manufacturers that make available new safety technologies which demonstrate a scientifically proven safety benefit for consumers and society, but are not yet considered in the star rating By rewarding technologies, Euro NCAP provides an incentive to manufacturers to accelerate the standard fitment of important safety equipment across their model ranges.",
"1997 - first crash tests of offset deformable barrier test and side impact 2003 - New child protection rating 2008 - Whiplash tests introduced 2010 - Euro NCAP Advance Award introduced 2011 - ESC included in vehicle rating 2014 - AEB included into the rating 2015 2016 2018 - AEB included cyclists 2020"
]
} |
Fictional universe | null | A fictional universe, or fictional world, is a self-consistent setting with events, and often other elements, that differ from the real world. It may also be called an imagined, constructed, or fictional realm (or world). Fictional universes may appear in novels, comics, films, television shows, video games, and other creative works. | null | [
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"title": [
"Definition.",
"Universe vs setting.",
"Scope.",
"Format.",
"Collaboration.",
"Lists of fictional universes."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
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],
"content": [
"The term was first defined by comics historian Don Markstein, in a 1970 article in \"CAPA-alpha\".",
"What distinguishes a fictional universe from a simple setting is the level of detail and internal consistency. A fictional universe has an established continuity and internal logic that must be adhered to throughout the work and even across separate works. So, for instance, many books may be set in conflicting fictional versions of Victorian London, but all the stories of Sherlock Holmes are set in \"the same\" Victorian London. However, the various film series based on Sherlock Holmes follow their own separate continuities, thus not taking place in the same fictional universe. The history and geography of a fictional universe are well defined, and maps and timelines are often included in works set within them. Even new languages may be constructed. When subsequent works are written within the same universe, care is usually taken to ensure that established facts of the canon are not violated. Even if the fictional universe involves concepts such as elements of magic that don't exist in the real world, these must adhere to a set of rules established by the author. A famous example of a detailed fictional universe is Arda (more popularly known as Middle-earth), of J. R. R. Tolkien's books \"The Lord of the Rings\", \"The Hobbit\", and \"The Silmarillion\". He created first its languages and then the world itself, which he states was \"primarily linguistic in inspiration and was begun in order to provide the necessary 'history' for the Elvish tongues.\" A modern example of a fictional universe is that of the \"Avatar\" film series, as James Cameron has invented an entire ecosystem, with a team of scientists to test whether it was viable. Additionally, he commissioned a linguistics expert to invent the Na'vi language. Virtually every successful fictional TV series or comic book develops its own \"universe\" to keep track of the various episodes or issues. Writers for that series must follow its story bible, which often becomes the series canon. Frequently, when a series is perceived by its creators as too complicated or too self-inconsistent (because of, for example, too many writers), the producers or publishers may introduce retroactive continuity (retcon) to make future editions easier to write and more consistent. This creates an alternate universe that future authors can write about. These stories about the universe or universes that existed before the retcon are usually not canonical, unless the franchise-holder gives permission. \"Crisis on Infinite Earths\" was an especially sweeping example. Some writers choose to introduce elements or characters from one work into another, to present the idea that both works are set in the same universe. For example, the character of Ursula Buffay from American sitcom \"Mad About You\" was also a recurring guest star in \"Friends\", despite the two series having little else in common. Fellow NBC series \"Seinfeld\" also contained crossover references to \"Mad About You\". L. Frank Baum introduced the characters of Cap'n Bill and Trot (from \"The Sea Fairies\") into the Oz series in \"The Scarecrow of Oz\", and they made a number of appearances in later Oz books. In science fiction, A. Bertram Chandler introduced into his future Galactic civilization the character Dominic Flandry from Poul Anderson's quite different Galactic future (he had Anderson's consent) – on the assumption that these were two alternate history timelines and that people could on some occasions cross from one to the other.",
"Sir Thomas More's \"Utopia\" is one of the earliest examples of a cohesive fictional world with its own rules and functional concepts, but it comprises only one small island. Later fictional universes, like Robert E. Howard's \"Conan the Cimmerian\" stories or Lev Grossman's Fillory, are global in scope and some, like \"Star Wars\", \"Honorverse\", \"BattleTech\", or the Lensman series, are galactic or even intergalactic. A fictional universe may even concern itself with more than one interconnected universe through fictional devices such as dreams, \"time travel\" or \"parallel worlds\". Such a series of interconnected universes is often called a multiverse. Such multiverses have been featured prominently in science fiction since at least the mid-20th century. The classic \"\" episode \"\" introduced the Mirror Universe, in which the crew members of the Starship \"Enterprise\" were brutal rather than compassionate. The 2009 movie \"Star Trek\" created an \"alternate reality\" and freed the \"Star Trek\" franchise from continuity issues. In the mid-1980s, DC Comics \"Crisis on Infinite Earths\" streamlined its fictional continuity by destroying most of its alternate universes.",
"A fictional universe can be contained in a single work, as in George Orwell's \"Nineteen Eighty-Four\" or Aldous Huxley's \"Brave New World\", or in serialized, series-based, open-ended or round robin-style fiction. In most small-scale fictional universes, general properties and timeline events fit into a consistently organized continuity. However, in the case of universes that are rewritten or revised by different writers, editors, or producers, this continuity may be violated, by accident or by design. The occasional publishing use of retroactive continuity (retcon) often occurs due to this kind of revision or oversight. Members of fandom often create a kind of fan-made canon (fanon) to patch up such errors; \"fanon\" that becomes generally accepted sometimes becomes actual canon. Other fan-made additions to a universe (fan fiction, alternate universe, pastiche, parody) are usually not considered canonical unless they get authorized.",
"Shared universes often come about when a fictional universe achieves great commercial success and attracts other media. For example, a successful movie may catch the attention of various book authors, who wish to write stories based on that movie. Under U.S. law, the copyright-holder retains control of all other derivative works, including those written by other authors, but they might not feel comfortable in those other mediums or may feel that other individuals will do a better job; therefore, they may open up the copyright on a shared-universe basis. The degree to which the copyright-holder or franchise retains control is often one of the points in the license agreement. For example, the comic book \"Superman\" was so popular that it spawned over 30 different radio, television, and movie series and a similar number of video games, as well as theme park rides, books, and songs. In the other direction, both \"Star Trek\" and \"Star Wars\" are responsible for hundreds of books and games of varying levels of canonicity. Fictional universes are sometimes shared by multiple prose authors, with each author's works in that universe being granted approximately equal canonical status. For example, Larry Niven's fictional universe Known Space has an approximately 135-year period in which Niven allows other authors to write stories about the Man-Kzin Wars. Other fictional universes, like the \"Ring of Fire\" series, actively court canonical stimulus from fans, but gate and control the changes through a formalized process and the final say of the editor and universe creator. Other universes are created by one or several authors but are intended to be used non-canonically by others, such as the fictional settings for games, particularly role-playing games and video games. Settings for the role-playing game \"Dungeons & Dragons\" are called campaign settings; other games have also incorporated this term on occasion. Virtual worlds are fictional worlds in which online computer games, notably MMORPGs and MUDs, take place. A fictional crossover occurs when two or more fictional characters, series or universes cross over with one another, usually in the context of a character created by one author or owned by one company meeting a character created or owned by another. In the case where two fictional universes covering entire \"actual\" universes cross over, physical travel from one universe to another may actually occur in the course of the story. Such crossovers are usually, but not always, considered non-canonical by their creators or by those in charge of the properties involved.",
"For lists of fictional universes see:"
]
} |
Messenger RNA | null | Messenger RNA (mRNA) is a single-stranded RNA molecule that corresponds to the genetic sequence of a gene and is read by the ribosome in the process of producing a protein. mRNA is created during the process of transcription, where the enzyme RNA polymerase converts genes into primary transcript mRNA (also known as pre-mRNA). This pre-mRNA usually still contains introns, regions that will not go on to code for the final amino acid sequence. These are removed in the process of RNA splicing, leaving only exons, regions that will encode the protein. This exon sequence constitutes mature mRNA. Mature mRNA is then read by the ribosome, and, utilising amino acids carried by transfer RNA (tRNA), the ribosome creates the protein. This process is known as translation. All of these processes form part of the central dogma of molecular biology, which describes the flow of genetic information in a biological system. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-1948655 | en-train-1948655 | 1948655 | {
"title": [
"Synthesis, processing and function.",
"Transcription.",
"Eukaryotic pre-mRNA processing.",
"Splicing.",
"5' cap addition.",
"Editing.",
"Polyadenylation.",
"Transport.",
"Translation.",
"Structure.",
"Coding regions.",
"Untranslated regions.",
"Poly(A) tail.",
"Monocistronic versus polycistronic mRNA.",
"mRNA circularization.",
"Degradation.",
"Prokaryotic mRNA degradation.",
"Eukaryotic mRNA turnover.",
"AU-rich element decay.",
"Nonsense mediated decay.",
"Small interfering RNA (siRNA).",
"MicroRNA (miRNA).",
"Other decay mechanisms.",
"mRNA-based therapeutics."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The brief existence of an mRNA molecule begins with transcription, and ultimately ends in degradation. During its life, an mRNA molecule may also be processed, edited, and transported prior to translation. Eukaryotic mRNA molecules often require extensive processing and transport, while prokaryotic mRNA molecules do not. A molecule of eukaryotic mRNA and the proteins surrounding it are together called a messenger RNP.",
"Transcription is when RNA is made from DNA. During transcription, RNA polymerase makes a copy of a gene from the DNA to mRNA as needed. This process is similar in eukaryotes and prokaryotes. One notable difference, however, is that eukaryotic RNA polymerase associates with mRNA-processing enzymes during transcription so that processing can proceed quickly after the start of transcription. The short-lived, unprocessed or partially processed product is termed \"precursor mRNA\", or \"pre-mRNA\"; once completely processed, it is termed \"mature mRNA\".",
"Processing of mRNA differs greatly among eukaryotes, bacteria, and archaea. Non-eukaryotic mRNA is, in essence, mature upon transcription and requires no processing, except in rare cases. Eukaryotic pre-mRNA, however, requires several processing steps before its transport to the cytoplasm and its translation by the ribosome.",
"The extensive processing of eukaryotic pre-mRNA that leads to the mature mRNA is the RNA splicing, a mechanism by which introns or outrons (non-coding regions) are removed and exons (coding regions) are joined together.",
"A \"5' cap\" (also termed an RNA cap, an RNA 7-methylguanosine cap, or an RNA mG cap) is a modified guanine nucleotide that has been added to the \"front\" or 5' end of a eukaryotic messenger RNA shortly after the start of transcription. The 5' cap consists of a terminal 7-methylguanosine residue that is linked through a 5'-5'-triphosphate bond to the first transcribed nucleotide. Its presence is critical for recognition by the ribosome and protection from RNases. Cap addition is coupled to transcription, and occurs co-transcriptionally, such that each influences the other. Shortly after the start of transcription, the 5' end of the mRNA being synthesized is bound by a cap-synthesizing complex associated with RNA polymerase. This enzymatic complex catalyzes the chemical reactions that are required for mRNA capping. Synthesis proceeds as a multi-step biochemical reaction.",
"In some instances, an mRNA will be edited, changing the nucleotide composition of that mRNA. An example in humans is the apolipoprotein B mRNA, which is edited in some tissues, but not others. The editing creates an early stop codon, which, upon translation, produces a shorter protein.",
"Polyadenylation is the covalent linkage of a polyadenylyl moiety to a messenger RNA molecule. In eukaryotic organisms most messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules are polyadenylated at the 3' end, but recent studies have shown that short stretches of uridine (oligouridylation) are also common. The poly(A) tail and the protein bound to it aid in protecting mRNA from degradation by exonucleases. Polyadenylation is also important for transcription termination, export of the mRNA from the nucleus, and translation. mRNA can also be polyadenylated in prokaryotic organisms, where poly(A) tails act to facilitate, rather than impede, exonucleolytic degradation. Polyadenylation occurs during and/or immediately after transcription of DNA into RNA. After transcription has been terminated, the mRNA chain is cleaved through the action of an endonuclease complex associated with RNA polymerase. After the mRNA has been cleaved, around 250 adenosine residues are added to the free 3' end at the cleavage site. This reaction is catalyzed by polyadenylate polymerase. Just as in alternative splicing, there can be more than one polyadenylation variant of an mRNA. Polyadenylation site mutations also occur. The primary RNA transcript of a gene is cleaved at the poly-A addition site, and 100–200 A's are added to the 3’ end of the RNA. If this site is altered, an abnormally long and unstable mRNA construct will be formed.",
"Another difference between eukaryotes and prokaryotes is mRNA transport. Because eukaryotic transcription and translation is compartmentally separated, eukaryotic mRNAs must be exported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm—a process that may be regulated by different signaling pathways. Mature mRNAs are recognized by their processed modifications and then exported through the nuclear pore by binding to the cap-binding proteins CBP20 and CBP80, as well as the transcription/export complex (TREX). Multiple mRNA export pathways have been identified in eukaryotes. In spatially complex cells, some mRNAs are transported to particular subcellular destinations. In mature neurons, certain mRNA are transported from the soma to dendrites. One site of mRNA translation is at polyribosomes selectively localized beneath synapses. The mRNA for Arc/Arg3.1 is induced by synaptic activity and localizes selectively near active synapses based on signals generated by NMDA receptors. Other mRNAs also move into dendrites in response to external stimuli, such as β-actin mRNA. Upon export from the nucleus, actin mRNA associates with ZBP1 and the 40S subunit. The complex is bound by a motor protein and is transported to the target location (neurite extension) along the cytoskeleton. Eventually ZBP1 is phosphorylated by Src in order for translation to be initiated. In developing neurons, mRNAs are also transported into growing axons and especially growth cones. Many mRNAs are marked with so-called \"zip codes,\" which target their transport to a specific location.",
"Because prokaryotic mRNA does not need to be processed or transported, translation by the ribosome can begin immediately after the end of transcription. Therefore, it can be said that prokaryotic translation is \"coupled\" to transcription and occurs \"co-transcriptionally\". Eukaryotic mRNA that has been processed and transported to the cytoplasm (i.e., mature mRNA) can then be translated by the ribosome. Translation may occur at ribosomes free-floating in the cytoplasm, or directed to the endoplasmic reticulum by the signal recognition particle. Therefore, unlike in prokaryotes, eukaryotic translation \"is not\" directly coupled to transcription. It is even possible in some contexts that reduced mRNA levels are accompanied by increased protein levels, as has been observed for mRNA/protein levels of EEF1A1 in breast cancer.",
"",
"Coding regions are composed of codons, which are decoded and translated (in eukaryotes usually into one and in prokaryotes usually into several) into proteins by the ribosome. Coding regions begin with the start codon and end with a stop codon. In general, the start codon is an AUG triplet and the stop codon is UAG (\"amber\"), UAA (\"ochre\"), or UGA (\"opal\"). The coding regions tend to be stabilised by internal base pairs, this impedes degradation. In addition to being protein-coding, portions of coding regions may serve as regulatory sequences in the pre-mRNA as exonic splicing enhancers or exonic splicing silencers.",
"Untranslated regions (UTRs) are sections of the mRNA before the start codon and after the stop codon that are not translated, termed the five prime untranslated region (5' UTR) and three prime untranslated region (3' UTR), respectively. These regions are transcribed with the coding region and thus are exonic as they are present in the mature mRNA. Several roles in gene expression have been attributed to the untranslated regions, including mRNA stability, mRNA localization, and translational efficiency. The ability of a UTR to perform these functions depends on the sequence of the UTR and can differ between mRNAs. Genetic variants in 3' UTR have also been implicated in disease susceptibility because of the change in RNA structure and protein translation. The stability of mRNAs may be controlled by the 5' UTR and/or 3' UTR due to varying affinity for RNA degrading enzymes called ribonucleases and for ancillary proteins that can promote or inhibit RNA degradation. (See also, C-rich stability element.) Translational efficiency, including sometimes the complete inhibition of translation, can be controlled by UTRs. Proteins that bind to either the 3' or 5' UTR may affect translation by influencing the ribosome's ability to bind to the mRNA. MicroRNAs bound to the 3' UTR also may affect translational efficiency or mRNA stability. Cytoplasmic localization of mRNA is thought to be a function of the 3' UTR. Proteins that are needed in a particular region of the cell can also be translated there; in such a case, the 3' UTR may contain sequences that allow the transcript to be localized to this region for translation. Some of the elements contained in untranslated regions form a characteristic secondary structure when transcribed into RNA. These structural mRNA elements are involved in regulating the mRNA. Some, such as the SECIS element, are targets for proteins to bind. One class of mRNA element, the riboswitches, directly bind small molecules, changing their fold to modify levels of transcription or translation. In these cases, the mRNA regulates itself.",
"The 3' poly(A) tail is a long sequence of adenine nucleotides (often several hundred) added to the 3' end of the pre-mRNA. This tail promotes export from the nucleus and translation, and protects the mRNA from degradation.",
"An mRNA molecule is said to be monocistronic when it contains the genetic information to translate only a single protein chain (polypeptide). This is the case for most of the eukaryotic mRNAs. On the other hand, polycistronic mRNA carries several open reading frames (ORFs), each of which is translated into a polypeptide. These polypeptides usually have a related function (they often are the subunits composing a final complex protein) and their coding sequence is grouped and regulated together in a regulatory region, containing a promoter and an operator. Most of the mRNA found in bacteria and archaea is polycistronic, as is the human mitochondrial genome. Dicistronic or bicistronic mRNA encodes only two proteins.",
"In eukaryotes mRNA molecules form circular structures due to an interaction between the eIF4E and poly(A)-binding protein, which both bind to eIF4G, forming an mRNA-protein-mRNA bridge. Circularization is thought to promote cycling of ribosomes on the mRNA leading to time-efficient translation, and may also function to ensure only intact mRNA are translated (partially degraded mRNA characteristically have no m7G cap, or no poly-A tail). Other mechanisms for circularization exist, particularly in virus mRNA. Poliovirus mRNA uses a cloverleaf section towards its 5' end to bind PCBP2, which binds poly(A)-binding protein, forming the familiar mRNA-protein-mRNA circle. Barley yellow dwarf virus has binding between mRNA segments on its 5' end and 3' end (called kissing stem loops), circularizing the mRNA without any proteins involved. RNA virus genomes (the + strands of which are translated as mRNA) are also commonly circularized. During genome replication the circularization acts to enhance genome replication speeds, cycling viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase much the same as the ribosome is hypothesized to cycle.",
"Different mRNAs within the same cell have distinct lifetimes (stabilities). In bacterial cells, individual mRNAs can survive from seconds to more than an hour. However, the lifetime averages between 1 and 3 minutes, making bacterial mRNA much less stable than eukaryotic mRNA. In mammalian cells, mRNA lifetimes range from several minutes to days. The greater the stability of an mRNA the more protein may be produced from that mRNA. The limited lifetime of mRNA enables a cell to alter protein synthesis rapidly in response to its changing needs. There are many mechanisms that lead to the destruction of an mRNA, some of which are described below.",
"In general, in prokaryotes the lifetime of mRNA is much shorter than in eukaryotes. Prokaryotes degrade messages by using a combination of ribonucleases, including endonucleases, 3' exonucleases, and 5' exonucleases. In some instances, small RNA molecules (sRNA) tens to hundreds of nucleotides long can stimulate the degradation of specific mRNAs by base-pairing with complementary sequences and facilitating ribonuclease cleavage by RNase III. It was recently shown that bacteria also have a sort of 5' cap consisting of a triphosphate on the 5' end. Removal of two of the phosphates leaves a 5' monophosphate, causing the message to be destroyed by the exonuclease RNase J, which degrades 5' to 3'.",
"Inside eukaryotic cells, there is a balance between the processes of translation and mRNA decay. Messages that are being actively translated are bound by ribosomes, the eukaryotic initiation factors eIF-4E and eIF-4G, and poly(A)-binding protein. eIF-4E and eIF-4G block the decapping enzyme (DCP2), and poly(A)-binding protein blocks the exosome complex, protecting the ends of the message. The balance between translation and decay is reflected in the size and abundance of cytoplasmic structures known as P-bodies The poly(A) tail of the mRNA is shortened by specialized exonucleases that are targeted to specific messenger RNAs by a combination of cis-regulatory sequences on the RNA and trans-acting RNA-binding proteins. Poly(A) tail removal is thought to disrupt the circular structure of the message and destabilize the cap binding complex. The message is then subject to degradation by either the exosome complex or the decapping complex. In this way, translationally inactive messages can be destroyed quickly, while active messages remain intact. The mechanism by which translation stops and the message is handed-off to decay complexes is not understood in detail.",
"The presence of AU-rich elements in some mammalian mRNAs tends to destabilize those transcripts through the action of cellular proteins that bind these sequences and stimulate poly(A) tail removal. Loss of the poly(A) tail is thought to promote mRNA degradation by facilitating attack by both the exosome complex and the decapping complex. Rapid mRNA degradation via AU-rich elements is a critical mechanism for preventing the overproduction of potent cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF). AU-rich elements also regulate the biosynthesis of proto-oncogenic transcription factors like c-Jun and c-Fos.",
"Eukaryotic messages are subject to surveillance by nonsense mediated decay (NMD), which checks for the presence of premature stop codons (nonsense codons) in the message. These can arise via incomplete splicing, V(D)J recombination in the adaptive immune system, mutations in DNA, transcription errors, leaky scanning by the ribosome causing a frame shift, and other causes. Detection of a premature stop codon triggers mRNA degradation by 5' decapping, 3' poly(A) tail removal, or endonucleolytic cleavage.",
"In metazoans, small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) processed by Dicer are incorporated into a complex known as the RNA-induced silencing complex or RISC. This complex contains an endonuclease that cleaves perfectly complementary messages to which the siRNA binds. The resulting mRNA fragments are then destroyed by exonucleases. siRNA is commonly used in laboratories to block the function of genes in cell culture. It is thought to be part of the innate immune system as a defense against double-stranded RNA viruses.",
"MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small RNAs that typically are partially complementary to sequences in metazoan messenger RNAs. Binding of a miRNA to a message can repress translation of that message and accelerate poly(A) tail removal, thereby hastening mRNA degradation. The mechanism of action of miRNAs is the subject of active research.",
"There are other ways by which messages can be degraded, including non-stop decay and silencing by Piwi-interacting RNA (piRNA), among others.",
"Full length mRNA molecules have been proposed as therapeutics since the beginning of the biotech era but there was little traction until the 2010s, when Moderna Therapeutics was founded and managed to raise almost a billion dollars in venture funding in its first three years. Theoretically, the administered mRNA sequence can cause a cell to make a protein, which in turn could directly treat a disease or could function as a vaccine; more indirectly the protein could drive an endogenous stem cell to differentiate in a desired way. The primary challenges of RNA therapy center on delivering the RNA to directed cells, more even than determining what sequence to deliver. Naked RNA sequences will naturally degrade after preparation; they may trigger the body's immune system to attack them as an invader; and they are impermeable to the cell membrane. Once within the cell, they must then leave the cell's transport mechanism to take action within the cytoplasm, which houses the ribosomes that direct manufacture of proteins."
]
} |
Disney's Adventures of the Gummi Bears | null | Adventures of the Gummi Bears is an American animated television series that first aired in the United States from 1985 to 1991. The series was the first animated production by Walt Disney Animation Television, and loosely inspired by the gummy bear candies; Disney CEO Michael Eisner was struck with inspiration for the show when his son requested the candies one day. The series premiered on NBC on September 14, 1985, and aired there for four seasons. The series moved to ABC for one season from 1989 to 1990 (airing alongside "The New Adventures of Winnie the Pooh" as the "Gummi Bears-Winnie the Pooh Hour"), and concluded on September 6, 1991 as part of the Disney Afternoon television syndication package. | null | [
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"title": [
"Characters.",
"Gummi-Glen.",
"Ursalia.",
"Home media.",
"VHS.",
"International releases.",
"DVD releases.",
"Video on demand.",
"Media adaptations.",
"Comic strip.",
"Legacy."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"3",
"2",
"2",
"3",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Gummi Bears are anthropomorphic bears who have a long and rich history, and are relatively unknown to the humans of the world who believe that they are legends and fairy tales. In series continuity, it is said that in ancient times (about 500 years before the events of the series), the Great Gummis and humans lived peacefully together side by side, but for reasons left undetailed (it is suggested in the episodes \"Light Makes Right\" and \"The Knights of Gummadoon\" that the more malevolent humans craved the magical and mechanical advancements of the Gummi Bears, and threatened them with war), the Great Gummis were forced to flee and sail across the sea to find a new home. The ancient Great Gummis left behind small, scattered populations of bears to watch over the Gummi cities and warrens, such as the main group of the series, the Gummi-Glen Gummis, to await the time when humans and Gummis could peacefully co-exist so they could then summon the Great Gummis to return home.",
"The Gummi-Glen Gummis are a group of Gummis who live in a hollow tree known as Gummi Glen that is the base for a vast complex of tunnels and rooms. They harvest the Gummiberries that grow wild around them in the forest, and produce a powerful juice known as Gummiberry Juice. They hide from humans, with the exception of friends Cavin, a page, and Princess Calla. It is never explained how they are related to each other, although the episode \"Up, Up, and Away\" suggests that they are the last remaining ones in Gummi-Glen, and at risk of extinction.",
"Later in the series, the Gummi-Glen Gummis discover the Great Gummies' abandoned city of Ursalia, largely unoccupied until the Barbics, a tribe of rough-and-tough Gummis from Barbic Woods, move there after their home has been destroyed by hostile humans.",
"",
"",
"Several VHS cassettes of the series were released internationally. Of those, eight cassettes containing 32 episodes are listed below. The first four cassettes (\"Welcome to Gummiglen!\", \"Creature Feature\", \"Hot Little Tot!\", and \"A Sky Full of Gummies!\"), which contain 20 episodes, were released in English in the United Kingdom, Australia, and New Zealand. These four cassettes were also released in some non-English-speaking countries (including Poland, the Netherlands and Germany). The other four cassettes, as well as the ones not listed below, were released exclusively in non-English-speaking countries (including the Netherlands, Poland, Finland, and Italy.",
"On November 14, 2006, Walt Disney Home Entertainment released \"Disney's Adventures of the Gummi Bears: Volume 1\" on DVD in Region 1. The 3-disc set features seasons 1 to 3 and does not contain any bonus features, save for subtitles for the hearing impaired. To date, the series has never officially been released on DVD in the UK. However, since November 2016 the show has been available on the UK Disney streaming site DisneyLife. In Australia, Disney released nine volumes, which have now long been discontinued. They are all in complete storyline production order, but the first volume starts from episode 19 in series 2. Episodes 1-18 have not been released on DVD in Australia and are only available on the USA Region 1 collection. However, the Region 4 Australian DVDs do finish off the series and go right up to episode 65 of the series' final two-part double episode adventure. \"Disney's Adventures of the Gummi Bears\" was one of the few Disney Afternoon shows that did not get a Capcom-created Nintendo game based on it (\"Ducktales\", \"Chip n Dale's Rescue Rangers\", \"Darkwing Duck\", \"Talespin\" all did).",
"On November 12, 2019, the series became available to stream on Disney+.",
"",
"\"Gummi Bears\" was adapted into a daily newspaper comic, which ran from September 1, 1986 to April 1, 1989. The strip was written by Lee Nordling and illustrated by Rick Hoover.",
"\"Disney's Adventures of the Gummi Bears\" was Disney's first major serialized animated television series (it was released back to back with another show, \"The Wuzzles\", which lasted only 13 episodes), and is often credited by animators and animation historians as having helped jump start the television animation boom of the late 1980s and 1990s. Consequently, it also became the forerunner to Disney's famous Disney Afternoon timeslot, which gave way to other famous serialized Disney television series, such as \"Chip 'n Dale Rescue Rangers\" and \"Gargoyles\". Although many of these subsequently-created shows exceeded \"Gummi Bears\" in budget and length, the show is often credited as a sort of prototype for all of the animation which followed it. The show was so successful in the United Kingdom that the episodes \"A New Beginning\" and \"Faster Than a Speeding Tummi\" were released as theatrical featurettes there in 1986 and 1987, alongside \"The Great Mouse Detective\" and a re-release of Disney's \"Pinocchio\". Other appearances of Gummi Bears in other media included one appearance of Gruffi Gummi starring in a D-TV music video of the Elvis Presley song \"Teddy Bear\" in 1986. The show's popularity also led to a re-theming of Disneyland's Motor Boat Cruise, along with a small part of Disneyland that became known as \"Disney Afternoon Avenue.\" The Motor Boat Cruise became the \"Motor Boat Cruise to Gummi Glen\" and plywood characters from the show made Gummiberry Juice along the waterway. The Gummi Bears have also been featured as meetable characters who greet guests in Disney theme parks."
]
} |
Øresund Bridge | null | The Öresund or Øresund Bridge ( ; ; hybrid name: "") is a combined railway and motorway bridge across the Öresund strait between Sweden and Denmark. The bridge runs nearly from the Swedish coast to the artificial island Peberholm in the middle of the strait. The crossing is completed by the Drogden Tunnel from Peberholm to the Danish island of Amager. | null | [
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"title": [
"History.",
"Link features.",
"Bridge.",
"Peberholm.",
"Drogden Tunnel.",
"Rail transport.",
"Border checks.",
"Costs and benefits.",
"Environmental effects."
],
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"content": [
"Ideas for a fixed link across the Öresund were advanced as early as the first decade of the 20th century. In 1910, proposals were put to the Swedish Parliament for a railway tunnel across the strait, which would have comprised two tunnelled sections linked by a surface road across the island of Saltholm. The concept of a bridge over the Öresund was first formally proposed in 1936 by a consortium of engineering firms who proposed a national motorway network for Denmark. The idea was dropped during World War II, but picked up again thereafter and studied in significant detail in various Danish-Swedish government commissions through the 1950s and 1960s. However, disagreement existed regarding the placement and exact form of the link, with some arguing for a link at the narrowest point of the sound at Helsingør–Helsingborg, further north of Copenhagen, and some arguing for a more direct link from Copenhagen to Malmö. Additionally, some regional and local interests argued that other bridge and road projects, notably the then-unbuilt Great Belt Fixed Link, should take priority. The governments of Denmark and Sweden eventually signed an agreement to build a fixed link in 1973. It would have comprised a bridge between Malmö and Saltholm, with a tunnel linking Saltholm to Copenhagen, and would have been accompanied by a second rail tunnel across the Öresund between Helsingør and Helsingborg. However, that project was cancelled in 1978 due to the economic situation, and growing environmental concerns. As the economic situation improved in the 1980s, interest continued and the governments signed a new agreement in 1991. An OMEGA centre report identified the following as primary motivations for construction of the bridge: A joint venture of Hochtief, Skanska, Højgaard & Schultz and Monberg & Thorsen (the same of the previous Great Belt Fixed Link), began construction of the bridge in 1995 and completed it 14 August 1999. Crown Prince Frederik of Denmark and Crown Princess Victoria of Sweden met midway across the bridge-tunnel on 14 August 1999 to celebrate its completion. The official dedication took place on 1 July 2000, with Queen Margrethe II, and King Carl XVI Gustaf as the host and hostess of the ceremony. Because of the death of nine people, including three Danes and three Swedes, at the Roskilde Festival the evening before, the ceremony opened with a minute of silence. The bridge-tunnel opened for public traffic later that day. On 12 June 2000, two weeks before the dedication, 79,871 runners competed in Broloppet, a half marathon from Amager, Denmark, to Skåne, Sweden. Despite two schedule setbacks – the discovery of 16 unexploded World War II bombs on the seafloor and an inadvertently skewed tunnel segment – the bridge-tunnel was finished three months ahead of schedule. Although traffic between Denmark and Sweden increased by 61 percent in the first year after the bridge opened, traffic levels were not as high as expected, perhaps due to high tolls. However, since 2005, traffic levels have increased rapidly. This may be due to Danes buying homes in Sweden to take advantage of lower housing prices in Malmö and commuting to work in Denmark. In 2012, to cross by car cost DKK 310, SEK 375 or €43, with discounts of up to 75% available to regular users. In 2007, almost 25 million people travelled over the Øresund Bridge: 15.2 million by car and bus and 9.6 million by train. By 2009, the figure had risen to 35.6 million by car, coach or train.",
"",
"At, the bridge covers half the distance between Sweden and the Danish island of Amager, the border between the two countries being from the Swedish end. The structure has a mass of 82,000 tonnes and supports two railway tracks beneath four road lanes in a horizontal girder extending along the entire length of the bridge. On both approaches to the three cable-stayed bridge sections, the girder is supported every by concrete piers. The two pairs of free-standing cable-supporting towers are high allowing shipping of head room under the main span, but most ships' captains prefer to pass through the unobstructed Drogden Strait above the Drogden Tunnel. The cable-stayed main span is long. A girder and cable-stayed design was chosen to provide the specific rigidity necessary to carry heavy rail traffic, and also to resist large accumulations of ice. The bridge experiences occasional brief closures during very severe weather, such as the St. Jude storm of October 2013. Due to high longitudinal and transverse loads acting over the bridge and to accommodate movements between the superstructure and substructure, it has bearings weighing up to 20 t each, capable of bearing vertical loads up to 96,000 kN in a longitudinal direction and up to 40,000 kN in transverse direction. The design, manufacturing and installation of the bearings were carried out by the Swiss civil engineering firm Mageba. Vibration issues, caused by several cables in the bridge moving under certain wind and temperature conditions, were combatted with the installation of compression spring dampers installed in pairs at the centre of the cables. Two of these dampers were equipped with laser gauges for ongoing monitoring. Testing, development and installation of these spring dampers was carried out by specialists European Springs.",
"The bridge joins Drogden tunnel on the artificial island of Peberholm (Pepper Islet). The Danes chose the name to complement the natural island of Saltholm (Salt Islet) just to the north. Peberholm is a designated nature reserve built from Swedish rock and the soil dredged up during the bridge and tunnel construction, approximately long with an average width of. It is high.",
"The connection between Peberholm and the artificial peninsula at Kastrup on Amager island, the nearest populated part of Denmark, is through the long Drogden Tunnel (\"Drogdentunnelen\"). It comprises a immersed tube plus entry tunnels at each end. The tube tunnel is made from 20 prefabricated reinforced concrete segments – the largest in the world at 55,000 tonnes each – interconnected in a trench dug in the seabed. Two tubes in the tunnel carry railway tracks, two carry roads and a small fifth tube is provided for emergencies. The tubes are arranged side-by-side.",
"The rail link is operated jointly by the Swedish Transport Administration and Danish railways. Passenger train service is commissioned by Skånetrafiken and the Danish transport agency under the Øresundståg brand, with Transdev and DSB being the current operators. A series of new dual-voltage trains was developed, linking the Copenhagen area with Malmö and southern Sweden as far as Gothenburg and Kalmar. SJ operates X2000 trains over the bridge, with connections to Gothenburg and Stockholm. Copenhagen Airport at Kastrup has its own railway station close to the western bridgehead. Trains operate every 20 minutes, once an hour during the night, in both directions. An additional couple of Øresundstrains are operated at rush hour. Freight trains also use the crossing. The rail section is double track and capable of speeds of up to, slower in Denmark, especially in the tunnel section. There were challenges related to the difference in electrification and signalling between the Danish and Swedish railway networks. The solution chosen is to switch the electrical system from Swedish 15 kV, 16.7 Hz to Danish 25 kV, 50 Hz before the eastern bridgehead at Lernacken in Sweden. The line is signalled according to the standard Swedish system across the length of the bridge. On Peberholm the line switches to Danish signalling, which continues into the tunnel. Trains run on the left in Sweden, and on the right in Denmark. Initially the switch was made at Malmö Central Station, a terminus at that time. After the 2010 inauguration of the Malmö City Tunnel connection, a flyover was built at Burlöv, north of Malmö, where the two southbound tracks cross over the northbound pair. The railway in Malmö thus uses the Danish standard.",
"Both Sweden and Denmark are signatories to the Schengen Agreement, which removes border and passport controls between two participant countries. However, in January 2016, during the European migrant crisis, Sweden was granted a temporary exemption under the terms of the Schengen Agreement in order to mandate that all travellers across the bridge had photographic proof of identity. As such, travellers into Sweden from Denmark (but not the reverse) must show a valid passport or national ID card (citizens of EU/EEA countries) or passport and entry visa (if required) for nationals of other non-EU/EEA countries. The move marked a break with 60 years of passport-free travel between the Nordic countries. For the rail connection, these checks were initially enforced by legally requiring the train companies to verify the identities of travellers into Sweden, with a fine of SEK 50,000 as punishment for serving those without such identity documents. This led to the enforcement of checks by private security guards at the rail station in Kastrup airport in Denmark - an unpopular move with passengers, due to the delays imposed From 2017, Sweden removed this requirement and instead replaced it with more extensive direct checks by the Swedish police on entry into the country. This now takes place on board the train at Hyllie station on trains arriving from Denmark, with the checks at Kastrup fully removed. The border controls were renewed on 12 May 2019, and will remain in place until 12 November 2019, with likely further temporary renewal after.",
"The cost for the Øresund Connection, including motorway and railway connections on land, was DKK 30.1 billion (~€4.0 billion) according to the 2000 year price index, with the cost of the bridge expected in 2003 to be recouped by 2037. In 2006, Sweden began work on the Malmö City Tunnel, a SEK 9.45 billion connection with the bridge that was completed in December 2010. The connection will be entirely user-financed. The owner company is owned half by the Danish state and half by the Swedish state. This owner company has taken loans guaranteed by the governments to finance the connection and the user fees are its only income. After the increase in traffic, these fees are enough to pay the interest and begin repaying the loans, which is expected to take about 30 years. Taxpayers have paid for neither the bridge nor the tunnel, but tax money has been used for the land connections. On the Danish side, the land connection has domestic benefits, mainly to connect the airport to the railway network. The Malmö City Tunnel has the benefit of connecting the southern part of the inner city to the rail network and allowing many more trains to and from Malmö. According to The Öresund Committee, the bridge has made a national economic gain of DKK 57 billion, or SEK 78 billion SEK (~€8.41 billion) on both sides of the strait by increased commuting and lower commuting expense. The gain is estimated to be SEK 6.5 billion per year but this could be increased to 7.7 billion by removing the three biggest obstacles to integration and mobility, the two largest being that non-EU nationals in Sweden are not allowed to work in Denmark and that many professional qualifications and merits are not mutually recognised.",
"The underwater parts of the bridge have become covered in marine organisms and act as an artificial reef."
]
} |
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] | null | null | en-train-1835476 | en-train-1835476 | 1835476 | {
"title": [
"WML history.",
"WML markup.",
"WML capability in desktop browsers."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1"
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"content": [
"Building on Openwave's HDML, Nokia's \"Tagged Text Markup Language\" (TTML) and Ericsson's proprietary markup language for mobile content, the WAP Forum created the WML 1.1 standard in 1998. WML 2.0 was specified in 2001, but has not been widely adopted. It was an attempt at bridging WML and XHTML Basic before the WAP 2.0 spec was finalized. In the end, XHTML Mobile Profile became the markup language used in WAP 2.0. The newest WML version in active use is 1.3. The first company to launch a public WML site was Dutch mobile phone network operator Telfort in October 1999 and the first company in the world to launch the Nokia 7110. The Telfort WML site was created and developed as side project to test the device's capabilities by a billing engineer called Christopher Bee and National Deployment Manager, Euan McLeod. The WML site consists of four pages in both Dutch and English that contained many grammatical errors in Dutch as the two developers were unaware the WML was configured on the Nokia 7110 as the home page and neither were native Dutch speakers.",
"WML documents are XML documents that validate against the WML DTD (Document Type Definition). The W3C Markup Validation service (http://validator.w3.org/) can be used to validate WML documents (they are validated against their declared document type). For example, the following WML page could be saved as \"example.wml\": <?xml version=\"1.0\"?> <!DOCTYPE wml PUBLIC \"-//WAPFORUM//DTD WML 1.1//EN\" <wml> </wml> A WML document is known as a “deck”. Data in the deck is structured into one or more “cards” (pages) – each of which represents a single interaction with the user. WML decks are stored on an ordinary web server configured to serve the text/vnd.wap.wml MIME type in addition to plain HTML and variants. The WML cards when requested by a device are accessed by a bridge (WAP gateway), which sits between mobile devices and the World Wide Web, passing pages from one to the other much like a proxy. The gateways send the WML pages on in a form suitable for mobile device reception (WAP Binary XML). This process is hidden from the phone, so it may access the page in the same way as a browser accesses HTML, using a URL (for example, <nowiki>http://example.com/foo.wml</nowiki>). (Provided the mobile phone operator has not specifically locked the phone to prevent access of user-specified URLs.) WML has a scaled-down set of procedural elements which can be used by the author to control navigation to other cards. Consider a service that lets you enter a zip code, and obtain a list of clickable phone numbers of pizza parlors and taxicabs in your immediate location: <card id=\"cM\" title=\"MY_DOMAIN.com\"> </card> Mobile devices are moving towards allowing more XHTML and even standard HTML as processing power in handsets increases. These standards are concerned with formatting and presentation. They do not however address cell-phone or mobile device hardware interfacing in the same way as WML.",
"The Presto layout engine (used by Opera before its switch to Blink) understands WML natively. Mozilla based browsers (Firefox (before its update to version 57), SeaMonkey, MicroB) can interpret WML by WMLBrowser addon. Google Chrome can also interpret WML by two extensions: WML and FireMobileSimulator."
]
} |
Franz Bopp | null | Franz Bopp (; 14 September 1791 – 23 October 1867) was a German linguist known for extensive and pioneering comparative work on Indo-European languages. | null | [
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"title": [
"Early life.",
"Career.",
"Criticism.",
"Sources."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
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"content": [
"Bopp was born in Mainz, but the political disarray in the Republic of Mainz caused his parents' move to Aschaffenburg, the second seat of the Archbishop of Mainz. There he received a liberal education at the Lyceum and Karl Joseph Hieronymus Windischmann drew his attention to the languages and literature of the East. (Windischmann, along with Georg Friedrich Creuzer, Joseph Görres, and the brothers Schlegel, expressed great enthusiasm for Indian wisdom and philosophy.) Moreover, Karl Wilhelm Friedrich von Schlegel's book, \"Über die Sprache und Weisheit der Indier\" (\"On the Speech and Wisdom of the Indians\", Heidelberg, 1808), had just begun to exert a powerful influence on the minds of German philosophers and historians, and stimulated Bopp's interest in the sacred language of the Hindus.",
"In 1812, he went to Paris at the expense of the Bavarian government, with a view to devoting himself vigorously to the study of Sanskrit. There he enjoyed the society of such eminent men as Antoine-Léonard de Chézy (his primary instructor), Silvestre de Sacy, Louis Mathieu Langlès, and, above all Alexander Hamilton (1762–1824), cousin of the American statesman of the same name, who had acquired an acquaintance with Sanskrit when in India and had brought out, along with Langlès, a descriptive catalogue of the Sanskrit manuscripts of the Imperial Library. In the library, Bopp had access not only to the rich collection of Sanskrit manuscripts (mostly brought from India by Jean François Pons in the early 18th century), but also to the Sanskrit books that had been issued from the Calcutta and Serampore presses. He spent five years of laborious study, almost living in the libraries of Paris and unmoved by the turmoils that agitated the world around him, including Napoleon's escape, the Waterloo campaign and the Restoration. The first paper from his years of study in Paris appeared in Frankfurt am Main in 1816, under the title of \"Über das Konjugationssystem der Sanskritsprache in Vergleichung mit jenem der griechischen, lateinischen, persischen und germanischen Sprache (On the Conjugation System of Sanskrit in comparison with that of Greek, Latin, Persian and Germanic)\", to which Windischmann contributed a preface. In this first book, Bopp entered at once the path on which he would focus the philological researches of his whole subsequent life. His task was not to point out the similarity of Sanskrit with Persian, Greek, Latin or German, for previous scholars had long established that, but he aimed to trace the postulated common origin of the languages' grammatical forms, of their inflections from composition. This was something no predecessor had attempted. By a historical analysis of those forms, as applied to the verb, he furnished the first trustworthy materials for a history of the languages compared. After a brief sojourn in Germany, Bopp travelled to London where he made the acquaintance of Sir Charles Wilkins and Henry Thomas Colebrooke. He also became friends with Wilhelm von Humboldt, the Prussian ambassador at the Court of St. James's, to whom he taught Sanskrit. He brought out, in the \"Annals of Oriental Literature\" (London, 1820), an essay entitled \"Analytical Comparison of the Sanskrit, Greek, Latin and Teutonic Languages\" in which he extended to all parts of grammar what he had done in his first book for the verb alone. He had previously published a critical edition, with a Latin translation and notes, of the story of Nala and Damayanti (London, 1819), the most beautiful episode of the \"Mahabharata\". Other episodes of the \"Mahabharata\", \"Indralokâgama\", and three others (Berlin, 1824); \"Diluvium\", and three others (Berlin, 1829); a new edition of Nala (Berlin, 1832) followed in due course, all of which, with August Wilhelm von Schlegel's edition of the \"Bhagavad Gita\" (1823), proved excellent aids in initiating the early student into the reading of Sanskrit texts. On the publication, in Calcutta, of the whole \"Mahabharata\", Bopp discontinued editing Sanskrit texts and confined himself thenceforth exclusively to grammatical investigations. After a short residence at Göttingen, Bopp gained, on the recommendation of Humboldt, appointment to the chair of Sanskrit and comparative grammar at Berlin in 1821, which he occupied for the rest of his life. He also became a member of the Royal Prussian Academy the following year. In 1827, he published his \"Ausführliches Lehrgebäude der Sanskritsprache\" (\"Detailed System of the Sanskrit Language\"), on which he had worked since 1821. Bopp started work on a new edition in Latin, for the following year, completed in 1832; a shorter grammar appeared in 1834. At the same time he compiled a \"Sanskrit and Latin Glossary\" (1830), in which, more especially in the second and third editions (1847 and 1868–71), he also took account of the cognate languages. His chief activity, however, centered on the elaboration of his \"Comparative Grammar\", which appeared in six parts at considerable intervals (Berlin, 1833, 1835, 1842, 1847, 1849, 1852), under the title \"Vergleichende Grammatik des Sanskrit, Zend, Griechischen, Lateinischen, Litthauischen, Altslawischen, Gotischen und Deutschen\" (\"Comparative Grammar of Sanskrit, Zend [Avestan], Greek, Latin, Lithuanian, Old Slavonic, Gothic and German\"). How carefully Bopp matured this work emerges from the series of monographs printed in the \"Transactions of the Berlin Academy\" (1824–1831), which preceded it. They bear the general title \"Vergleichende Zergliederung des Sanskrits und der mit ihm verwandten Sprachen (Comparative Analysis of Sanskrit and its related Languages)\". Two other essays (on the \"Numerals\", 1835) followed the publication of the first part of the \"Comparative Grammar\". Old Slavonian began to take its stand among the languages compared from the second part onwards. E. B. Eastwick translated the work into English in 1845. A second German edition, thoroughly revised (1856–1861), also covered Old Armenian. In his \"Comparative Grammar\" Bopp set himself a threefold task: The first and second points remained dependent upon the third. As Bopp based his research on the best available sources and incorporated every new item of information that came to light, his work continued to widen and deepen in the making, as can be witnessed from his monographs on the vowel system in the Teutonic languages (1836), on the Celtic languages (1839), on the Old Prussian (1853) and Albanian languages (\"Über das Albanesische in seinen verwandtschaftlichen Beziehungen\", Vienna, 1854), on the accent in Sanskrit and Greek (1854), on the relationship of the Malayo-Polynesian to the Indo-European languages (1840), and on the Caucasian languages (1846). In the last two, the impetus of his genius led him on a wrong track. He is the first philologist to prove Albanian as a separate branch of Indo-European. Bopp was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1855.",
"Critics have charged Bopp with neglecting the study of the native Sanskrit grammars, but in those early days of Sanskrit studies, the great libraries of Europe did not hold the requisite materials; if they had, those materials would have demanded his full attention for years, and such grammars as those of Charles Wilkins and Henry Thomas Colebrooke, from which Bopp derived his grammatical knowledge, had all used native grammars as a basis. The further charge that Bopp, in his \"Comparative Grammar\", gave undue prominence to Sanskrit is disproved by his own words; for, as early as 1820, he gave it as his opinion that frequently, the cognate languages serve to elucidate grammatical forms lost in Sanskrit (\"Annals of Or. Lit.\" i. 3), which he further developed in all his subsequent writings. The \"Encyclopædia Britannica\" (11th edition of 1911) assesses Bopp and his work as follows: English scholar Russell Martineau, who had studied under Bopp, gave the following tribute: Martineau also wrote:",
"Attribution"
]
} |
August Schleicher | null | August Schleicher (; 19 February 1821 – 6 December 1868) was a German linguist. His great work was "A Compendium of the Comparative Grammar of the Indo-European Languages" in which he attempted to reconstruct the Proto-Indo-European language. To show how Indo-European might have looked, he created a short tale, Schleicher's fable, to exemplify the reconstructed vocabulary and aspects of Indo-European society inferred from it. | null | [
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"title": [
"Life.",
"Career."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1"
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"content": [
"Schleicher was born in Meiningen, in the Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen, southwest of Weimar in the Thuringian Forest. He died from tuberculosis at the age of 47 in Jena, in the Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, in present-day Thuringia.",
"Schleicher was educated at the University of Tübingen and Bonn and taught at the Charles University in Prague and the University of Jena. He began his career studying theology and Oriental languages, especially Arabic, Hebrew, Sanskrit and Persian. Influenced by Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, he formed the theory that a language is an organism, with periods of development, maturity and decline. In 1850, Schleicher completed a monograph systematically describing European languages, \"Die Sprachen Europas in systematischer Uebersicht (The Languages of Europe in Systematic Perspective)\". He explicitly represented languages as perfectly natural organisms that could most conveniently be described using terms drawn from biology: genus, species, and variety. Schleicher claimed that he himself had been convinced of the natural descent and competition of languages before he had read Darwin's \"Origin of Species\". He invented a system of language classification that resembled a botanical taxonomy, tracing groups of related languages and arranging them in a genealogical tree. His model, the \"Stammbaumtheorie\" (family-tree theory), was a major development in the study of Indo-European languages. He first introduced a graphic representation of a \"Stammbaum\" in an article published in 1853 entitled \"Die ersten Spaltungen des indogermanischen Urvolkes\". By the time of the publication of his \"Deutsche Sprache (German language)\" (1860) he had begun to use trees to illustrate language descent. Schleicher is commonly recognized as the first linguist to portray language evolution using the figure of a \"tree\". Largely in reaction, Johannes Schmidt later proposed his 'Wave Theory' as an alternative model. For the most part, however, Darwin's ideas simply overlaid the fundamental features of Schleicher's prior evolutionary project, which derived from the work of those individuals immersed in German romanticism and idealism, especially Wilhelm von Humboldt and Hegel. Schleicher believed that languages pass through a life cycle, similar to that of living beings. They start out simpler than they will become. The state of primitive simplicity is followed by a period of growth, which eventually slows and gives way to a period of decay (1874:4): Schleicher was an advocate of the polygenesis of languages. He reasoned as follows (1876:2): Schleicher's ideas on polygenesis had long-lasting influence, both directly and via their adoption by the biologist Ernst Haeckel. Ernst Haeckel was a German evolutionist and zoologist known for proposing the gastraea hypothesis. In 1866, August Leskien, a pioneer of research into sound laws, began studying comparative linguistics under August Schleicher at the University of Jena."
]
} |
Ernst-Happel-Stadion | null | The Ernst-Happel-Stadion "()", known as Praterstadion until 1992, sometimes also called Wiener-Stadion, is a football stadium in Leopoldstadt, the 2nd district of Austria's capital Vienna. With 50,865 seats, it is the largest stadium in Austria. It was built between 1929 and 1931 for the second Workers' Olympiad to the design of German architect Otto Ernst Schweizer. The stadium was renamed in honour of Austrian footballer Ernst Happel following his death in 1992. The stadium hosted seven games in UEFA Euro 2008, including the final which saw Spain triumph over Germany. | null | [
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"title": [
"History.",
"1928–1945.",
"1945–2000.",
"UEFA Euro 2008.",
"Football.",
"Other sports."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"",
"The foundation stone was laid in November 1928 in honor of the 10-year celebration of the Republic of Austria. The stadium was constructed in 23 months, from 1929 to 1931. It was built according to a design by the Tübingen architect Otto Ernst Schweizer and the second Workers' Olympiad. Schweizer also designed the adjacent Stadionbad (with 400,000 sq m, Europe's largest swimming pool). According to its location in Vienna's Prater, it was initially named Prater Stadium. It was a modern stadium at the time, particularly in Europe, because of its short discharge time of only 7 to 8 minutes. Initially the stadium had a capacity of approximately 60,000 people. During the National Socialist Era following Anschluss, (1938–1945) the stadium was used as a military barracks and staging area and as a temporary prison for the deportation of Jewish citizens. Between September 11 and 13, 1939, after the attack on Poland, over a thousand Polish-born Viennese Jews were detained on the orders Reinhard Heydrich. They were imprisoned beneath the grandstands in the corridors of Section B. On September 30, 1,038 prisoners were deported to the Buchenwald concentration camp. The next day, the stadium was back to being used for a football match. 44 men were released in early 1940, 26 were freed in 1945, the rest were murdered in the camps. In 1988, one of the surviving victims, Fritz Klein, was awarded a compensation by the Austrian government equivalent to 62,50 euros for being detained in the stadium. In 2003 a memorial plaque, commemorating these events, was unveiled in the VIP area by a private initiative. In 1944, the stadium was severely damaged during a bomb attack on the Wehrmarcht Staff offices.",
"After the war and the reconstruction of the stadium, it was again sporting its original use. In 1956, the stadium's capacity was expanded to 92,708 people by Theodor Schull, but in 1965 the capacity was reduced. The attendance record was 91,000 spectators set on October 30, 1960 at the football match between Spain and Austria (0–3). In the mid-1980s, the stands were covered and fully equipped with seats. At its reopening a friendly match against archrivals Germany was organised. Austria won the match 4–1. After the death of former Austrian top player and coach Ernst Happel, the Prater Stadium was renamed after him in 1992. In 1964, 1987, 1990, and 1995, the Ernst Happel Stadium was the venue of the European Cup/UEFA Champions League final. In 1970, the stadium was the venue of the 1970 European Cup Winners' Cup Final which saw Manchester City F.C. beat Górnik Zabrze by 2 goals to 1 in an entertaining match. Neil Young and a Francis Lee penalty sealed the win for City. This final was played under torrential rain in what was then an uncovered stadium. This along with the fact no Polish supporters were allowed to travel to the match restricted the attendance, which is variously reported at between 7,900 and 15,000 spectators. Even so, City's travelling support numbered over 4,000 which was a then record for an English club playing on the continent.",
"During the UEFA Euro 2008 tournament, the Ernst Happel Stadium was the venue for the Final match. Previously, the three group matches of the Austrian National Team, two quarter finals and a semifinal match took place in the stadium. In preparation for the tournament, the first and second place additional rows of seats increased the stadium's capacity to 53,000 seats. Leading up to the tournament, it was fitted with a heated pitch in the summer of 2005. In May 2008, a connection to the Vienna U-Bahn was established, easing access from all over the city. The cost of the rebuilding was €39,600,000. The following games were played at the stadium during the UEFA Euro 2008:",
"The Ernst Happel Stadium is the largest football stadium in Austria. It is the home of the Austrian national football team. Club football matches are generally limited to the domestic cup final and international competitions featuring one of Vienna's top clubs, FK Austria Wien and SK Rapid Wien, as their regular stadiums are too small to host UEFA Champions League and UEFA Cup matches. Vienna derby matches between FK Austria and SK Rapid have also been played in the stadium. The stadium is rated one of UEFA's Five Star Stadiums permitting it to host the UEFA Champions League final. The seating capacity was temporarily expanded to 53,008 for the UEFA Euro 2008 championship, with the final played in the stadium. The stadium also hosted 3 group games, 2 quarter-final matches, a semi-final and final. The attendance record of 92,706 for the match against the Soviet Union was in 1960. The capacity has since been reduced.",
"Other sporting events are held in the stadium, including athletics, cycling and tennis. In 1950, 35,000 watched Austrian Josef Weidinger win the European Heavyweight crown against Stefan Olek (of France), and a temporary pool in the stadium was the venue for the 1995 European LC Championships. On July 16, 2011, the American Football World Championship final took place where USA defeated rivals Canada with a score of 50–7 in front of 20,000 spectators. In June 6 and 7, 2014, the three game of the final stage of the 13th European Championship of American Football took place in this stadium."
]
} |
Hiiu County | null | Hiiumaa is one of 15 counties of Estonia, being the smallest county both in terms of area and population. It consists of Hiiumaa (German, ), the second largest island of Estonia, and several smaller islands near it. The county borders Lääne County to the east and Saare County to the south. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-1085892 | en-train-1085892 | 1085892 | {
"title": [
"History.",
"Sights.",
"County government.",
"Municipalities.",
"Geography."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Human habitation of Hiiumaa can be traced back to the 5th millennium BC. Mesolithic sites in Kõpu peninsula are exemplified by the seal-hunters' settlements. There are several well-preserved grave fields of the Iron Age. In 1228, the island was first mentioned in written annals under the name \"Dageida\". In 1254, Hiiumaa was divided between the Livonian Order and the Bishopric of Ösel-Wiek. In 1563 Hiiumaa was annexed into Sweden. In 1710, as a result of the Great Northern War the island went under the control of the Russian Empire. During World War I, the German military forces occupied Hiiumaa in 1917. In 1918–1940 Hiiumaa was part of the Republic of Estonia, then until 1991 occupied by the Soviet Union. On demands of the Hanseatic League a lighthouse was built in Kõpu (previously known as \"Dagerort\") at the beginning of the 16th century. It is considered the third-oldest continuously operating lighthouse in the world, still showing its light to of the sea. Most of the farm architecture comes from the 19th century. Examples are Mihkli farming complex and Soera farm-museum with historical national artefacts.",
"Most important sights:",
"The County Government () is led by Governor (), who is appointed by the Government of Estonia for a term of five years. Since March 2012, the Governor position is held by Riho Rahuoja.",
"The county is subdivided into 1 rural municipalities ( – parishes). The only urban settlement Kärdla is part of Hiiumaa Parish since 2017. Rural municipalities:",
"The county includes the islands of Hiiumaa (980 km2) and Kassari (19 km2) and a number of surrounding islets. The highest point is Tornimägi hill (68 m), the longest river is Luguse (21 km), and the biggest lake is Tihu Suurjärv (850,000 m2). In the landscapes there can be found pine forests, mixed spruce and deciduous forests, swampy thickets and juniper shrubs, coastal meadows and bogs. The most frequent tree is pine which makes about a half of forests. Pine is followed by birch, spruce and alder. In total, there are about 1,000 species of vascular plants, of which about 100 are under protection. The wildlife of Hiiumaa is remarkable. Out of 30 species of mammals, big game as elk, deer, fox, wild boar and lynx roam the island. There are about 250 species of birds on the island, 195 of them nesting. Among the Estonian counties Hiiumaa is the richest in forest – nearly 60% of the island are wooded areas. There are large marsh areas in the middle of the island. The marshes cover about 7% of its area. Cultivated land and settlements take about 23% of the area of the county."
]
} |
Pirovac | null | Pirovac is a coastal municipality and village in Croatia, formerly called Zloselo (Evil Village), 26 km from the city of Šibenik with a total of 1,846 inhabitants, 97% of which are Croats. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-1198153 | en-train-1198153 | 1198153 | {
"title": [
"History."
],
"section_level": [
"1"
],
"content": [
"The first historical mention of Pirovac was in 1298, under the name \"Zlosela\". At that time, the village belonged to noblemen from Bribir — the Šubić family, and later it became the property of the Šibenik Diocese and noblemen from Šibenik. The settlement itself was founded in the 15th century by refugees who fled from the Turks. Nevertheless, this area was inhabited many centuries earlier, as shown by remnants of Roman settlements found on the islet of Sveti Stjepan (St. Stephen). Many other historical monuments tell us about the gradual settlement and development of this place. The remnants of a Roman villa in Ivinj date back to the 1st AD. The site was proclaimed a cultural good in 2012 and awarded the status of a protected cultural monument. The defence wall, erected around 1505 by Petar Draganić, has been partly preserved in the village. The 1506 parish church of St. George was restored in Baroque style in the 18th century. The graveyard chapel of the Draganić-Vrančić family features a Gothic sarcophagus with a relief made in 1447 by Andrija Budčić from Šibenik and Lorenzo Pincino from Venice, according to the sketches by Giorgio da Sebenico (George the Dalmatian). Roman artefacts have been found on the islet of Sveti Stjepan in front of the village; here also are the ruins of a Franciscan monastery (from 1511), which was abandoned in 1807. The village of Kašić Banjevački in the municipality was home to a Partisan monument, which was destroyed during the Croatian War of Independence. In 2008, the village replaced the previous monument with a memorial chapel to the dead from both the Second World War and the War of Independence."
]
} |
Harju County | null | Harju County () or ), (, ) is one of the fifteen counties of Estonia. It is situated in Northern Estonia, on the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland, and borders Lääne-Viru County to the east, Järva County to the southeast, Rapla County to the south, and Lääne County to the southwest. The capital and largest city of Estonia, Tallinn, is situated in Harju County. | null | [
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"title": [
"History.",
"Ancient history.",
"Conquest.",
"Russian rule.",
"Republic of Estonia.",
"Occupation era.",
"Soviet occupation.",
"Summer War.",
"German occupation.",
"Second Soviet occupation.",
"Administrative history.",
"Formation of the county.",
"Municipal history.",
"Urban municipalities.",
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"Islands.",
"Lakes and rivers.",
"Protected areas.",
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"Ports and harbours.",
"Media.",
"County Government.",
"Settlements.",
"Municipalities."
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"",
"The territory of modern Harju County consists mostly of two ancient Estonian counties: Revala, around what is now Tallinn, and Harjumaa, which was situated south of Revala and presently rests mostly in Rapla County. Lindanise, then a small trading post at the Gulf of Finland, served as the capital of Revala. It eventually grew into the mostly German-populated Hanseatic town of \"Reval\" and later into the Estonian capital, Tallinn.",
"In 1219, the Danish King, Valdemar II, landed in Lindanise (Danish: \"Lyndanisse\") and conquered both Revala and Harju counties, while the inhabitants were forced into Christianity. At the end of the Livonian Crusade (1208–1227 in Estonia), both counties were captured by the Order of the Sword Brothers until given back to Denmark with the Treaty of Stensby in 1238. The Danes built the Toompea Castle (\"Castrum Danorum\") on Toompea Hill in Tallinn, which quickly became the biggest settlement in Estonia. In 1248, it was the first settlement in Estonia to receive its town rights, and in 1285 it became the northernmost member of the Hanseatic League. German dominance led to the St. George's Night Uprising, which broke out in 1343 with the burning of Padise Abbey in modern Padise Parish. The uprising led Denmark to sell its possessions in Northern Estonia to the Livonian Order. In 1561, after the outbreak of the Livonian War, the nobility of North Estonia and the Tallinn Town Council declared loyalty to Sweden. Tallinn and other Swedish-occupied territories gained during warfare were secured by the Treaty of Plyussa. During the Great Northern War, Harju was one of the few regions in Estonia untouched by warfare for a long time. Nonetheless, Harju County was greatly affected by the 1710-1713 Plague that killed more than eighty percent of the county's population. Russian forces finally arrived in 1710 and laid siege to Tallinn for a month until the Swedish garrison surrendered, thus ending the Great Northern War in Estonia. Russian rule was secured with the Treaty of Nystad in 1721. The plague raged on for several years, eventually leaving several parts of the county completely empty of human habitation.",
"Imperial Russian rule started with the construction of naval harbours in Tallinn and Paldiski (Swedish: \"Rogerwiek\"). Russian Tsar Peter I visited Tallinn at least nine times between 1711 and1723. He personally opened the construction for Tallinn Naval Harbour in 1714 and Paldiski Naval Harbour in 1718. In 1870, the Paldiski-Tallinn-St. Petersburg Railway was opened, after which several smaller settlements along the line - Paldiski, Keila, Saue, Nõmme, Aruküla, Raasiku, Kehra and Aegviidu (then in Viru County) - started to grow. Several elements of Peter the Great's Naval Fortress were built in Harju County and its headquarters were in Tallinn. During World War I in 1914, the native population of Naissaar island was expelled from the island and it was turned into a military base. A narrow-gauge railway network was built on the island. Tallinn was the site for the very beginning of the October Revolution when the Estonian Bolshevik Jaan Anvelt took power in Tallinn on 5 November 1917, two days before the Revolution started in Petrograd. On 9 November 1917, the Bolsheviks took power from Governor Jaan Poska. After the coup, refusing to cooperate with the Estonian Soviet Executive Committee, the Estonian Provincial Assembly (Estonian: \"Maanõukogu\") in Tallinn declared sovereignty from the Russian Empire on 28 November 1917. In December 1917, Russian sailors under the leadership of Stepan Maximovich Petrichenko declared the \"Soviet Republic of Soldiers and Fortress-Builders of Naissaar\". They were ousted by German forces on 26 February 1918.",
"The Republic of Estonia was proclaimed in Tallinn on 24 February 1918 while German occupation followed on the next day. German rule ended with the November Revolution in Germany. During the Estonian War of Independence, Soviet troops were halted only 40 km east of Tallinn by the end of 1918. Tallinn was the site of a failed Communist coup d'état attempt of 1924.",
"",
"On 18 September 1939, after both Germany and the Soviet Union had invaded Poland, the Polish submarine ORP Orzeł escaped from internment in Tallinn Harbor during the Orzeł incident. The submarine eventually made her way to the United Kingdom, which led both the Soviet Union and Germany to question Estonia's neutrality. On 24 September 1939, Soviet Navy warships appeared in North Estonian waters and Soviet Air Force bombers patrolled above Tallinn and the nearby countryside. The Soviet Union demanded that Estonia allow the Soviet military bases and stationed 25,000 troops on Estonian soil for the duration of the European war. On 28 September 1939, the government of Estonia accepted the ultimatum and signed the mutual assistance treaty. Paldiski was made a Soviet Naval Base and its population was expelled from the town. With its new military bases in Northern Estonia, the Soviet Union invaded Finland on 30 November 1939, starting the Winter War. During 1939–1940, most of the Baltic German population from Tallinn and the Harju County countryside fled to Germany (\"Umsiedlung\"). On 14 June 1940, the Soviet Navy set up a naval blockade in the Gulf of Finland and the Baltic Sea and stationed a navy squadron west of Naissaar island near Tallinn. Soviet bombers shot down the passenger airplane \"Kaleva\" near Keri island, killing all nine on board, which had included foreign diplomats. On 16 June 1940, the Red Army invaded Estonia and organised a Soviet \"coup d'état\" in Tallinn. On 21 June 1940, the Independent Signal Battalion in Tallinn showed resistance to the Red Army, until it surrendered and was disarmed on the same day. The Soviet powers organised rigged parliamentary elections and the new parliament declared the Estonian SSR on 21 July 1940, which was annexed by the Soviet Union on 6 August 1940. Most county and municipal leaders were replaced and local assemblies were replaced with Soviets. The native population of Naissaar island was expelled from the island (as in 1914) as the island was turned into a military base. During the 1940–41 Soviet Occupation, thousands were executed, imprisoned, mobilised into the Red Army labour battalions or deported to Siberia on 14 June 1941 (June deportation).",
"Germany invaded the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941 and Finland declared the Continuation War with the Soviet Union on 25 June 1941. As the Soviet Union retreated, its destruction battalions carried out the scorched-earth tactics. The Erna long-range reconnaissance group was sent from Finland to Northern Estonia on 10 July 1941 to perform reconnaissance of the retreating Red Army, but it eventually engaged the destruction battalions near Kautla forest (Battle of Kautla) on 31 July to 1 August 1941, allowing 2,000 civilians to flee. German forces started its Tallinn Offensive on 19 August 1941, capturing Rapla on 21 August 1941. They reached Tallinn outskirts in Pirita on 24 August 1941 and Harku and Lasnamäe on 26 August 1941. Ordinary citizens were ordered to build defenses around Tallinn. Soviet forces started evacuating by sea on 24 August 1941. Of the 195 ships, that left Tallinn and Paldiski, 55 were sunk by mines near Juminda Peninsula, killing around 15,000 evacuees. Evacuating Soviet forces destroyed much of the infrastructure and industry around Tallinn. German forces captured Paldiski and Tallinn on 28 August 1941, shooting down the Soviet Flag on Tallinn Pikk Hermann Tower. Estonians replaced it with the Flag of Estonia, but it was replaced with the Flag of Germany the next day. German forces were greeted as liberators in Tallinn. It was also the first time since 1219 that Tallinn had been captured following a military engagement.",
"Northern Estonia was the site of several concentration camps and massacres. In September 1942, up to three thousand foreign Jews and Gypsies were executed at Kalevi-Liiva in Jõelähtme Parish, while the rest were sent to the small Jägala concentration camp nearby, that never had more than 200 prisoners as their lifespan was short. Klooga concentration camp in Keila Parish was mostly evacuated before the Soviet takeover, however, 2,000 prisoners were executed before the German retreat. The Red Army liberated the few survivors on 22 September 1944. Tallinn was bombed by the Soviet Air Force on 9 and 10 March 1944, killing 757 people and destroying 8,000 buildings (about one-third of the capital). Among others, Harju Street, St. Nicholas' Church, and Estonia Theatre were hit. 36-38 Soviet bombers were shot down during the bombardment. After the Red Army broke through the Tannenberg Line in Eastern Estonia and crossed the Emajõgi river near Tartu, it launched the Tallinn Offensive on 17 September 1944 when Adolf Hitler had agreed to start abandoning Estonia on 16 September 1944. The National Committee of the Republic of Estonia was formed in Tallinn in March 1944 and the last Prime Minister of Estonia Jüri Uluots organized a new government under Otto Tief on 18 September 1944, captured government offices in Tallinn on 20 September 1944, and put the Estonian flag on top of the Pikk Hermann Tower. German forces started Operation Aster to evacuate its 50,000 soldiers and 20,000 civilians through Tallinn and Paldiski. On the way, the hospital ship \"Moero\" was attacked and sunk by the Soviet Air Force, killing 637 of its passengers. The retreating German forces avoided conflict with the Red Army in Tallinn and the invading army saw only little resistance by Estonian units led by Rear Admiral Johan Pitka. The Red Army entered Tallinn on 22 September and Paldiski on 24 September 1944. Before the Soviet reoccupation in 1944, thousands fled to Sweden across the Baltic Sea, including the entire Estonian Swedish population, who had been settling also on Pakri islands in Harju County.",
"The Forest Brothers resistance movement was considered to be the weakest in Harju County, due to dense population, fewer forests and more Soviet military activity. New deportations followed in 1949. The Soviet era brought development of heavy industry, a massive influx of foreign workers from throughout the Soviet Union and construction of new districts (Maardu, Mustamäe, Väike-Õismäe and Lasnamäe) for Tallinn. Hotel Viru in Tallinn was built in 1972 as the first modern highrise in Estonia. The 1980 Summer Olympics Sailing events were held in Tallinn. The event also brought major construction, such as the seaside road from Central Tallinn to Pirita, renovation projects in Tallinn Old Town and the iconic highrise Hotel Olümpia and Tallinn TV Tower. In 1962, Paldiski became a Soviet Navy nuclear submarine training centre and had two land-based nuclear reactors with 16,000 employees. It was a closed town until the last Russian warship left in August 1994. Until then it was the last Russian military base in Estonia. Russia relinquished control of the nuclear reactor facilities in September 1995.",
"",
"The ancient counties of Harjumaa and Revala were merged into Harju County in 1266. It remained within most of its borders until 1949 (with the exclusion of 1783–1796, when Paldiski County was separated). Loksa was transferred to Viru County in 1949. The rest of Harju County was replaced with four raions in 1950. Harju Raion around Tallinn gradually absorbed the former areas of Harju County as Loksa Raion was abolished in 1957, Kose Raion in 1959 and Keila Raion in 1962 and most of their territories transferred to Harju Raion. Aegviidu, Aegviidu Village Council and Kohila Village Council were transferred to Harju Raion in 1962. Harju Raion and the remaining Rapla Raion became Harju County and Rapla County in 1990.",
"",
"Tallinn was the first settlement in Harju County to receive town rights in 1248. Municipally, it consisted of the \"upper town\" of Toompea and the \"lower town\". The two municipalities were merged in 1877. The naval harbour town of Paldiski received its town rights in 1783. Nõmme was given a town status in 1926 and Keila in 1938. Soviet powers merged Nõmme with Tallinn already in 1940. They also separated Tallinn from Harju County and it became a centrally administered town. The same was applied to Paldiski in 1941. The German occupation of 1941-1944 left only Tallinn separated from Harju County. The Soviet reoccupation brought Paldiski back to central administration. Tallinn was divided into four urban raions in 1945 and it gained several new territories from its surrounding parishes. Aegviidu (then in Järva County), Järvakandi and Kohila (both now in Rapla County) and Kehra were named boroughs. The central administration of Paldiski was abolished in 1950 when Paldiski was merged with Keila Raion. Tallinn absorbed Saue in 1960 and Maardu in 1962 and the latter became a town within the municipality of Tallinn in 1980. Maardu and Saue were separated from Tallinn in 1991 and Kehra, Loksa and Saue were given town status in 1993. The central administration of Tallinn was abolished and the town was re-transferred into Harju County. Its urban raions were abolished in 1993 and replaced with eight modern districts.",
"Ancient Estonian counties were divided into parishes (Estonian language: \"kihelkond\"), that became centered on local churches from the 13th century. Modern municipal parishes (Estonian: \"vald\") were created in the 19th century. They were created within the old parishes, that were still centered on the local church. Soviet rule brought major changes in rural municipalities as local village councils were created throughout 1945. The parishes were abolished with the creation of raions in 1950. Naissaar Parish had been abolished and given to the Red Army already in 1940 and Pakri Parish had been abolished and merged with Paldiski in 1947. Village councils were renamed \"parishes\" in 1990–1993. Kehra merged into Anija Parish in 2002, Loksa Parish merged into Kuusalu Parish in 2005 and Kõue Parish merged into Kose Parish in 2013.",
"Harju County lies on the southern coast of the Gulf of Finland. Its shores are dominated by the North-Estonian coastal plain and the North-Estonian Klint separates the plain from Harju plateau in central and southern Harju County. The forested Kõrvemaa area is situated in eastern Harju County and the West-Estonian plain in western Harju County.",
"The shoreline is mostly low, but is at some places close to the high North-Estonian Klint. The coastal cliff is the highest in Rannamõisa () and Türisalu () in Harku Parish, and in three points in Paldiski: Pakri Peninsula (), Leetse () and Väike-Pakri island (). There are also several long sand beaches, for example Kakumäe, Stroomi in Pelguranna, Pikakari in Paljassaare and Pirita along the shoreline and Lake Harku in Pikaliiva, all within Tallinn, and Kloogaranna and Kaberneeme in the countryside. The shoreline is also characterized by many peninsulas, such as Pakri, Lohusalu, Suurupi, Kakumäe, Kopli, Paljassaare, Viimsi, Ihasalu, Kaberneeme, Juminda and Pärispea.",
"The shoreline is dotted with several islands, with the largest ones being Naissaar (), Väike-Pakri (), Suur-Pakri (), Prangli (), Aegna () and Rammu (). All of the larger islands and several of the smaller islands have had a considerable historical population. Pakri Islands, Naissaar and Prangli even formed separate municipalities. Their population diminished during Soviet occupation, either gradually or by force. Today, Prangli (73 inhabitants) and Naissaar (three inhabitants) both consist of three villages within Viimsi Parish. Aegna (eight inhabitants) is a subdistrict in Kesklinn (central) district of Tallinn. Pakri islands (six inhabitants) are part of Paldiski. Koipsi and Rammu form uninhabited villages within Jõelähtme Parish.",
"The largest lakes in Harju County are Lake Ülemiste () and Lake Harku () in Tallinn and Lake Kahala () in Kuusalu Parish. The largest artificial lake is Paunküla Reservoir () in Kose Parish. The longest rivers are the Keila River ( in total), Pirita River (), Jägala River () and Valgejõgi River (). The two largest permanently active waterfalls in Estonia, Jägala Waterfall () and Keila Waterfall (), are situated on these rivers.",
"There are a number of protected areas in Harju County. Lahemaa National Park was the first national park in the Soviet Union, when it was created in 1971. The park was intended for the protection of the natural and cultural heritage of the coastal landscapes of Northern Estonia. There are 21 nature reserves and 25 landscape protection areas, that are at least partly situated in Harju County. The largest is the Põhja-Kõrvemaa Nature Reserve in Kuusalu Parish and Anija Parish.",
"",
"The Harju County highway system is determined by roads leading out from Tallinn.",
"Paldiski-Tallinn-St Petersburg line was opened as the first line in Estonia in 1870. Today, Elron operates both commuter rail in Harju County and inter-city rail from Tallinn. Important lines include Tallinn-Narva/Tartu through Kehra and Aegviidu, Tallinn-Pärnu/Viljandi through Saku and Tallinn-Paldiski through Saue and Keila. Tallinn-Riisipere line used to be extended to Haapsalu. The Rail Baltic Tallinn-Riga-Warsaw line is estimated to be operational in 2024.",
"Harju County and Estonia are serviced by Lennart Meri Tallinn Airport, which is open to both domestic and international flights. The Tallinn Linnahall Heliport offers international flights to Helsinki, Finland.",
"Tallinn Passenger Port or the Old City Harbour served 8.84 million passengers in 2012 on lines to Helsinki, Stockholm and St. Petersburg. Transport to Kelnase Harbour on Prangli Island is provided from Leppneeme Harbour in Viimsi Parish and to Naissaar Island from Tallinn Lennusadam Harbour. Seasonal transport to Aegna Island is provided from Tallinn Kalasadam Harbour. The biggest cargo port is Muuga Harbour in Maardu and Viimsi Parish. Other large ports include Paldiski North Harbour and Paldiski South Harbour, Miiduranna Harbour in Viimsi Parish and Bekkeri-Meeruse Port, Hundipea Harbour, Lennusadama Harbour, Paljassaare Harbour, Patarei Harbour, Peetri Harbour and Vene-Balti Port in Tallinn.",
"The official newspaper of Harju County is \"Harju Elu\".",
"The County Government () is led by a governor (), who is appointed by the Government of Estonia for a term of five years. Since 2009 the Governor position has been held by Ülle Rajasalu. Harju County received municipal functions on 30 March 1917. Members of the Harju County Council were elected by the delegates of county municipalities and the first meeting was held on 1 July 1917 in Tallinn's Toompea Castle. Johannes Reinthal won the election for the Chair of the Council. The language of the proceedings was decided to be Estonian. Harju County Government became the Executive Committee of Harju County Soviet in January 1941. The County Government was restored during the German occupation from autumn 1941 until autumn 1944. In 1950, the Executive Committee of Harju County Soviet became the Executive Committee of Harju District Labour Soviet. The Harju County Government was re-formed in 1990. The Chairs of Harju County Councils, the Heads of County Governments and the County Governors:",
"Harju County has seven settlements with town status: Tallinn, Maardu, Keila, Saue, Paldiski, Kehra and Loksa. All but Kehra are municipal towns, the latter being part of the parish of Anija Parish since 2002. There are also two boroughs: Kiili and Aegviidu, of which Aegviidu (Aegviidu Parish) is one of the five municipal boroughs of Estonia. There are also 31 small boroughs in Harju County. There are plans to give a town status to Haabneeme in Viimsi Parish and Peetri in Rae Parish.",
"Harju County is subdivided into 16 municipalities, of which 4 are urban ( — cities or towns) and 12 are rural ( — parishes)."
]
} |
Biskupija | null | Biskupija () is a village and municipality in Šibenik-Knin County, Croatia. The seat of the municipality is the village of Orlić. | null | [
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"title": [
"Etymology.",
"Geography.",
"Languages.",
"History and culture.",
"Demographics.",
"Settlements."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
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"content": [
"The word \"Biskupija\" in Croatian means diocese, referring to the former estate and seat of Croatian bishops in this area. The place was also known as \"Kosovo\" from 11th til 18th century, after the Kosovo field. \"Kosovo\" is still used as name for the train station located in the municipality.",
"The municipality covers a karst field called Kosovo field (, ) located between the mountains of Promina and Veliki Kozjak. The village of Biskupija itself is located in the north of the municipality, just south of Knin. The D33 and D1 state roads and the Zagreb-Split railway pass through the municipality.",
"Along with Croatian which is official in the whole country, Serbian language and Serbian Cyrillic alphabet are co-official on the territory of municipality.",
"The shrine of Our Lady of Biskupija, or St. Mary of Croatia, is situated in the village of Biskupija, 5 km southeast of Knin, the former church and cultural centre of the Croatian state in the Middle Ages. Archaeologists have discovered the foundations of five churches in that village, dating from the period of Croatian rulers from the 9th to the 11th century. St. Mary's church was the residence of the Bishop of Knin, who was Bishop of Croatia from 1040 to 1522. The earliest known figure of Our Lady in Croatian art was discovered by archaeologists in that same church on a part of the stone partition wall, which separated the shrine from the church nave. It is still venerated as \"Our Lady of the Great Croatian Vow\". Today, on the foundations of the old Croatian church of the same name there stands a memorial church, decorated between 1937 and 1938 according to the designs of Croatia’s most famous sculptor, Ivan Meštrović. The church is a single-nave building (16 x 8.4 m) with a square niche for the altar, and a 12.5 metre-tall steeple before it. Ivan Meštrović also created the statue of Our Lady, depicting a Mother wearing a folk costume from Dalmatian Hinterland, with a child on her lap, and who is writing the book of life. Regrettably, however, the statue was destroyed by Serbian extremists. Above the niche containing the main altar the renowned Croatian artist, Jozo Kljaković, painted the fresco \"King Zvonimir holding Court\", which was also riddled by bullets fired by Serbian extremists. The church was thoroughly refurbished in 1966, when Meštrović's statue was restored. Since then, the main pilgrimage occurs on the last Sunday in September, when the Holy Virgin’s name is honoured. The church was once again destroyed during the Croatian War of Independence, and now awaits rebuilding.",
"There are a total of 1,699 inhabitants in the municipality: 1,452 Serbs, 231 Croats and 16 others. By mother tongue, there are 589 Croatian speakers, 417 Serbian speakers, 687 speakers of Serbo-Croatian and 6 speakers of other languages.",
"The municipality consists of following settlements:"
]
} |
Umba (White Sea) | null | The Umba () is a river on the Kola Peninsula, Murmansk Oblast, Russia. It discharges into the Kandalaksha Gulf of the White Sea. It is long, and has a drainage basin of. | null | [
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"title": [
"Geography.",
"Fishing.",
"Other."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The river's source is Lake Umbozero, 100 km northeast of Kandalaksha, located between the mountains of the Khibiny Massif and the Lovozero Tundras on the Kola Peninsula. From there it flows south, through a landscape of forests and hills. The river alternates between rapids and more quiet sections, and it flows through several lakes, the largest of which is Lake Kanozero. The river exits from Lake Kanozero through two separate outlet channels, about five kilometers apart. The outlets are called the Kitsa and the Rodvinga, and the latter again divides forming yet another channel called the Nizma. The Kitsa and Rodvinga rejoins in Lake Ponchozero, below which the river is again called the Umba, and it is rejoined by the Nizma a few kilometers further downstream. The river empties into the Kandalaksha Gulf at the urban-type settlement of Umba. Its biggest tributary is the Vyala, which comes from Lake Vyalozero and joins the Umba 15 km before the outlet to the sea.",
"The Umba is known as a very good river for salmon fishing. Along with the Varzuga, it was the first river on the Kola Peninsula to be made available for fishing tourism for foreign customers in the early 1990s, and infrastructure such as fishing lodges has been built along the river to accommodate this. However, in recent years the number of salmon has dropped, as a result of poaching by the local population, caused by an unemployment rate of a staggering 90% in the municipal centre of Umba, and made worse by the fact that drivable roads go along the banks of the entire length of the river, making it easily accessible.",
"The Umba is also used for timber floating. Semi-precious stones found in the Umba river are used for high quality, very rare jewelry."
]
} |
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] | null | null | en-train-1385315 | en-train-1385315 | 1385315 | {
"title": [
"Administration.",
"Geography.",
"History.",
"Subdivisions.",
"Language.",
"Dukes.",
"Sports."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The historical provinces of Sweden serve no administrative function. However, Blekinge is the only province, besides Gotland, which covers exactly the same area as the administrative county, which is Blekinge County. Blekinge was granted its current arms in 1660 at the time of the funeral of King Charles X Gustav of Sweden (1622–1660) based on a seal from the 15th century. Symbolically the three crowns from the Coat of arms of Sweden had been placed on the trunk of the tree to mark the change in status of the former Danish province, that now belonged to Sweden. The arms is represented with a ducal coronet. Blazon: \"Azure, an Oak Tree eradicated Or ensigned with three Crowns palewise of the same.\"",
"Relative to the rest of Sweden Blekinge has warm summers and mild winters. Blekinge has a scenic archipelago and is sometimes called \"Sweden's garden\" (). The nature of Blekinge is characterized by its oak forests with occasional hazel and common hornbeam. The relief is an uneven joint valley terrain with straight and narrow valley bottoms that widen towards the coast. Bedrock in Blekinge is mostly granite and gneiss of the Blekinge-Bornholm rock province.",
"Blekinge became part of the kingdom of Denmark at some point in the early 11th century – most likely 1026. Its status before then is unknown. It then remained a Danish province for over 600 years, and together with the provinces of Skåne and Halland, it made up Skåneland. The eastern part of the Danish kingdom where Scanian Law (\"Skånske Lov\") prevailed. As a border province, Blekinge was often raided and looted by Swedish troops during Danish–Swedish wars. In 1658, it was ceded to Sweden according to the Treaty of Roskilde and has remained Swedish ever since. During the Danish era, the port town of Sölvesborg was the seat of the administration in the western part of the province and Kristianopel in the eastern part. Notable fortifications during this period included sites at Elleholm, Sölvesborg, Lyckeby and Avaskär. Towns in Blekinge with city privileges were: Ronneby (1387), Sölvesborg (1445), Elleholm and Kristianopel. After the Swedish takeover two new towns, Karlshamn (chartered in 1664) and Karlskrona (1680), were built, and the populations of Ronneby and Kristianopel were forcibly relocated to them. Karlskrona has for more than 300 years been the principal naval base in Sweden.",
"Hundreds (in Götaland incl. Blekinge called \"härad\" in Swedish, in Svealand called \"hundare\") were the historical subdivisions of a Swedish province. Blekinge's hundreds were Bräkne Hundred, Eastern Hundred, Lister Hundred, and Medelstad Hundred.",
"In Blekinge the dialect was historically closely related to Danish and eastern Scanian, which is most likely an effect of the former administrative links to Scania. Today, the dialect is not as significant as before, with the exception of Listerlandet with its special language. The eastern dialect of Danish can also be found on the Danish island of Bornholm.",
"Until 2018, Blekinge was one of the six Swedish provinces which had never been a ducal province. On March 12, 2018, King Carl XVI Gustaf gave his newborn granddaughter, Princess Adrienne the title of Duchess of Blekinge.",
"Football in the province is administered by Blekinge Fotbollförbund."
]
} |
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"title": [
"Construction and formula of the ternary set.",
"Composition.",
"Properties.",
"Cardinality.",
"Self-similarity.",
"Conservation law.",
"Topological and analytical properties.",
"Measure and probability.",
"Cantor numbers.",
"Descriptive set theory.",
"Variants.",
"Smith–Volterra–Cantor set.",
"Stochastic Cantor set.",
"Cantor dust.",
"Historical remarks."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The Cantor ternary set formula_1 is created by iteratively deleting the \"open\" middle third from a set of line segments. One starts by deleting the open middle third (, ) from the interval [0, 1], leaving two line segments: [0, ] ∪ [, 1]. Next, the open middle third of each of these remaining segments is deleted, leaving four line segments: [0, ] ∪ [, ] ∪ [, ] ∪ [, 1]. This process is continued ad infinitum, where the \"n\"th set is The Cantor ternary set contains all points in the interval [0, 1] that are not deleted at any step in this infinite process: The first six steps of this process are illustrated below. Using the idea of self-similar transformations, formula_4 and formula_5 the explicit closed formulas for the Cantor set are where every middle third is removed as the open interval formula_7 from the closed interval formula_8 surrounding it, or where the middle third formula_10 of the foregoing closed interval formula_11 is removed by intersecting with formula_12 This process of removing middle thirds is a simple example of a finite subdivision rule. The Cantor ternary set is an example of a fractal string. In arithmetical terms, the Cantor set consists of all real numbers of the unit interval formula_13 that do not require the digit 1 in order to be expressed as a ternary (base 3) fraction. As the above diagram illustrates, each point in the Cantor set is uniquely located by a path through an infinitely deep binary tree, where the path turns left or right at each level according to which side of a deleted segment the point lies on. Representing each left turn with 0 and each right turn with 2 yields the ternary fraction for a point. Replacing the \"2\" digits in these fractions with \"1\" digits produces a surjective (and not injective) mapping between the Cantor set and the set of infinite binary sequences.",
"Since the Cantor set is defined as the set of points not excluded, the proportion (i.e., measure) of the unit interval remaining can be found by total length removed. This total is the geometric progression So that the proportion left is 1 – 1 = 0. This calculation suggests that the Cantor set cannot contain any interval of non-zero length. It may seem surprising that there should be anything left—after all, the sum of the lengths of the removed intervals is equal to the length of the original interval. However, a closer look at the process reveals that there must be something left, since removing the \"middle third\" of each interval involved removing open sets (sets that do not include their endpoints). So removing the line segment (⁄, ⁄) from the original interval [0, 1] leaves behind the points ⁄ and ⁄. Subsequent steps do not remove these (or other) endpoints, since the intervals removed are always internal to the intervals remaining. So the Cantor set is not empty, and in fact contains an uncountably infinite number of points (as follows from the above description in terms of paths in an infinite binary tree). It may appear that \"only\" the endpoints of the construction segments are left, but that is not the case either. The number ⁄, for example, has the unique ternary form 0.020202... =. It is in the bottom third, and the top third of that third, and the bottom third of that top third, and so on. Since it is never in one of the middle segments, it is never removed. Yet it is also not an endpoint of any middle segment, because it is not a multiple of any power of 1/3. All endpoints of segments are \"terminating\" ternary fractions and are contained in the set which is a countably infinite set. As to cardinality, almost all elements of the Cantor set are not endpoints of intervals, and the whole Cantor set is not countable.",
"",
"It can be shown that there are as many points left behind in this process as there were to begin with, and that therefore, the Cantor set is uncountable. To see this, we show that there is a function \"f\" from the Cantor set formula_1 to the closed interval [0,1] that is surjective (i.e. \"f\" maps from formula_1 onto [0,1]) so that the cardinality of formula_1 is no less than that of [0,1]. Since formula_1 is a subset of [0,1], its cardinality is also no greater, so the two cardinalities must in fact be equal, by the Cantor–Bernstein–Schröder theorem. To construct this function, consider the points in the [0, 1] interval in terms of base 3 (or ternary) notation. Recall that the proper ternary fractions, more precisely: the elements of formula_20, admit more than one representation in this notation, as for example ⁄, that can be written as 0.1 =, but also as 0.0222... =, and ⁄, that can be written as 0.2 = but also as 0.1222... =. When we remove the middle third, this contains the numbers with ternary numerals of the form 0.1xxxxx... where xxxxx... is strictly between 00000... and 22222... So the numbers remaining after the first step consist of This can be summarized by saying that those numbers with a ternary representation such that the first digit after the radix point is not 1 are the ones remaining after the first step. The second step removes numbers of the form 0.01xxxx... and 0.21xxxx..., and (with appropriate care for the endpoints) it can be concluded that the remaining numbers are those with a ternary numeral where neither of the first \"two\" digits is 1. Continuing in this way, for a number not to be excluded at step \"n\", it must have a ternary representation whose \"n\"th digit is not 1. For a number to be in the Cantor set, it must not be excluded at any step, it must admit a numeral representation consisting entirely of 0s and 2s. It is worth emphasizing that numbers like 1, ⁄ = 0.1 and ⁄ = 0.21 are in the Cantor set, as they have ternary numerals consisting entirely of 0s and 2s: 1 = 0.222... =, ⁄ = 0.0222... = and ⁄ = 0.20222... =. All the latter numbers are “endpoints”, and these examples are right limit points of formula_1. The same is true for the left limit points of formula_1, e. g. ⁄ = 0.1222... = = and ⁄ = 0.21222... = =. All these endpoints are \"proper ternary\" fractions (elements of formula_23) of the form ⁄, where denominator \"q\" is a power of 3 when the fraction is in its irreducible form. The ternary representation of these fractions terminates (i. e. is finite) or — recall from above that proper ternary fractions each have 2 representations — is infinite and “ends” in either infinitely many recurring 0s or infinitely many recurring 2s. Such a fraction is a left limit point of formula_1 if its ternary representation contains no 1's and “ends” in infinitely many recurring 0s. Similarly, a proper ternary fraction is a right limit point of formula_1 if it again its ternary expansion contains no 1's and “ends” in infinitely many recurring 2s. This set of endpoints is dense in formula_1 (but not dense in [0, 1]) and makes up a countably infinite set. The numbers in formula_1 which are \"not\" endpoints also have only 0s and 2s in their ternary representation, but they cannot end in an infinite repetition of the digit 0, nor of the digit 2, because then it would be an endpoint. The function from formula_1 to [0,1] is defined by taking the ternary numerals that do consist entirely of 0s and 2s, replacing all the 2s by 1s, and interpreting the sequence as a binary representation of a real number. In a formula, For any number \"y\" in [0,1], its binary representation can be translated into a ternary representation of a number \"x\" in formula_1 by replacing all the 1s by 2s. With this, \"f\"(\"x\") = \"y\" so that \"y\" is in the range of \"f\". For instance if \"y\" = ⁄ = 0.100110011001... =, we write \"x\" = = 0.200220022002... = ⁄. Consequently, \"f\" is surjective. However, \"f\" is \"not\" injective — the values for which \"f\"(\"x\") coincides are those at opposing ends of one of the \"middle thirds\" removed. For instance, take so Thus there are as many points in the Cantor set as there are in the interval [0, 1] (which has the uncountable cardinality However, the set of endpoints of the removed intervals is countable, so there must be uncountably many numbers in the Cantor set which are not interval endpoints. As noted above, one example of such a number is ⁄, which can be written as 0.020202... = in ternary notation. In fact, given any formula_35, there exist formula_36 such that formula_37. This was first demonstrated by Steinhaus in 1917, who proved, via a geometric argument, the equivalent assertion that formula_38 for every formula_35. Since this construction provides an injection from formula_40 to formula_41, we have formula_42 as an immediate corollary. Assuming that formula_43 for any infinite set formula_44 (a statement shown to be equivalent to the axiom of choice by Tarski), this provides another demonstration that formula_45. The Cantor set contains as many points as the interval from which it is taken, yet itself contains no interval of nonzero length. The irrational numbers have the same property, but the Cantor set has the additional property of being closed, so it is not even dense in any interval, unlike the irrational numbers which are dense in every interval. It has been conjectured that all algebraic irrational numbers are normal. Since members of the Cantor set are not normal, this would imply that all members of the Cantor set are either rational or transcendental.",
"The Cantor set is the prototype of a fractal. It is self-similar, because it is equal to two copies of itself, if each copy is shrunk by a factor of 3 and translated. More precisely, the Cantor set is equal to the union of two functions, the left and right self-similarity transformations of itself, formula_46 and formula_47, which leave the Cantor set invariant up to homeomorphism: formula_48 Repeated iteration of formula_49 and formula_50 can be visualized as an infinite binary tree. That is, at each node of the tree, one may consider the subtree to the left or to the right. Taking the set formula_51 together with function composition forms a monoid, the dyadic monoid. The automorphisms of the binary tree are its hyperbolic rotations, and are given by the modular group. Thus, the Cantor set is a homogeneous space in the sense that for any two points formula_52 and formula_53 in the Cantor set formula_1, there exists a homeomorphism formula_55 with formula_56. An explicit construction of formula_57 can be described more easily if we see the Cantor set as a product space of countably many copies of the discrete space formula_58. Then the map formula_59 defined by formula_60 is an involutive homeomorphism exchanging formula_52 and formula_53.",
"It has been found that some form of conservation law is always responsible behind scaling and self-similarity. In the case of Cantor set it can be seen that the formula_63th moment (where formula_64 is the fractal dimension) of all the surviving intervals at any stage of the construction process is equal to constant which is equal to one in the case of Cantor set. We know that there are formula_65 intervals of size formula_66 present in the system at the formula_67th step of its construction. Then if we label the surviving intervals as formula_68 then the formula_63th moment is formula_70 since formula_71. The Hausdorff dimension of the Cantor set is equal to ln(2)/ln(3) ≈ 0.631.",
"Although \"the\" Cantor set typically refers to the original, middle-thirds Cantor described above, topologists often talk about \"a\" Cantor set, which means any topological space that is homeomorphic (topologically equivalent) to it. As the above summation argument shows, the Cantor set is uncountable but has Lebesgue measure 0. Since the Cantor set is the complement of a union of open sets, it itself is a closed subset of the reals, and therefore a complete metric space. Since it is also totally bounded, the Heine–Borel theorem says that it must be compact. For any point in the Cantor set and any arbitrarily small neighborhood of the point, there is some other number with a ternary numeral of only 0s and 2s, as well as numbers whose ternary numerals contain 1s. Hence, every point in the Cantor set is an accumulation point (also called a cluster point or limit point) of the Cantor set, but none is an interior point. A closed set in which every point is an accumulation point is also called a perfect set in topology, while a closed subset of the interval with no interior points is nowhere dense in the interval. Every point of the Cantor set is also an accumulation point of the complement of the Cantor set. For any two points in the Cantor set, there will be some ternary digit where they differ — one will have 0 and the other 2. By splitting the Cantor set into \"halves\" depending on the value of this digit, one obtains a partition of the Cantor set into two closed sets that separate the original two points. In the relative topology on the Cantor set, the points have been separated by a clopen set. Consequently, the Cantor set is totally disconnected. As a compact totally disconnected Hausdorff space, the Cantor set is an example of a Stone space. As a topological space, the Cantor set is naturally homeomorphic to the product of countably many copies of the space formula_72, where each copy carries the discrete topology. This is the space of all sequences in two digits which can also be identified with the set of 2-adic integers. The basis for the open sets of the product topology are cylinder sets; the homeomorphism maps these to the subspace topology that the Cantor set inherits from the natural topology on the real number line. This characterization of the Cantor space as a product of compact spaces gives a second proof that Cantor space is compact, via Tychonoff's theorem. From the above characterization, the Cantor set is homeomorphic to the p-adic integers, and, if one point is removed from it, to the p-adic numbers. The Cantor set is a subset of the reals, which are a metric space with respect to the ordinary distance metric; therefore the Cantor set itself is a metric space, by using that same metric. Alternatively, one can use the p-adic metric on formula_74: given two sequences formula_75, the distance between them is formula_76, where formula_77 is the smallest index such that formula_78; if there is no such index, then the two sequences are the same, and one defines the distance to be zero. These two metrics generate the same topology on the Cantor set. We have seen above that the Cantor set is a totally disconnected perfect compact metric space. Indeed, in a sense it is the only one: every nonempty totally disconnected perfect compact metric space is homeomorphic to the Cantor set. See Cantor space for more on spaces homeomorphic to the Cantor set. The Cantor set is sometimes regarded as \"universal\" in the category of compact metric spaces, since any compact metric space is a continuous image of the Cantor set; however this construction is not unique and so the Cantor set is not universal in the precise categorical sense. The \"universal\" property has important applications in functional analysis, where it is sometimes known as the \"representation theorem for compact metric spaces\". For any integer \"q\" ≥ 2, the topology on the group G=Z (the countable direct sum) is discrete. Although the Pontrjagin dual Γ is also Z, the topology of Γ is compact. One can see that Γ is totally disconnected and perfect - thus it is homeomorphic to the Cantor set. It is easiest to write out the homeomorphism explicitly in the case \"q\"=2. (See Rudin 1962 p 40.) The geometric mean of the Cantor set is approximately 0.274974.",
"The Cantor set can be seen as the compact group of binary sequences, and as such, it is endowed with a natural Haar measure. When normalized so that the measure of the set is 1, it is a model of an infinite sequence of coin tosses. Furthermore, one can show that the usual Lebesgue measure on the interval is an image of the Haar measure on the Cantor set, while the natural injection into the ternary set is a canonical example of a singular measure. It can also be shown that the Haar measure is an image of any probability, making the Cantor set a universal probability space in some ways. In Lebesgue measure theory, the Cantor set is an example of a set which is uncountable and has zero measure.",
"If we define a Cantor number as a member of the Cantor set, then",
"The Cantor set is a meager set (or a set of first category) as a subset of [0,1] (although not as a subset of itself, since it is a Baire space). The Cantor set thus demonstrates that notions of \"size\" in terms of cardinality, measure, and (Baire) category need not coincide. Like the set formula_79, the Cantor set formula_1 is \"small\" in the sense that it is a null set (a set of measure zero) and it is a meager subset of [0,1]. However, unlike formula_79, which is countable and has a \"small\" cardinality, formula_82, the cardinality of formula_1 is the same as that of [0,1], the continuum formula_84, and is \"large\" in the sense of cardinality. In fact, it is also possible to construct a subset of [0,1] that is meager but of positive measure and a subset that is non-meager but of measure zero: By taking the countable union of \"fat\" Cantor sets formula_85 of measure formula_86 (see Smith–Volterra–Cantor set below for the construction), we obtain a set formula_87which has a positive measure (equal to 1) but is meager in [0,1], since each formula_85 is nowhere dense. Then consider the set formula_89. Since formula_90, formula_91 cannot be meager, but since formula_92, formula_91 must have measure zero.",
"",
"Instead of repeatedly removing the middle third of every piece as in the Cantor set, we could also keep removing any other fixed percentage (other than 0% and 100%) from the middle. In the case where the middle ⁄ of the interval is removed, we get a remarkably accessible case — the set consists of all numbers in [0,1] that can be written as a decimal consisting entirely of 0s and 9s. If a fixed percentage is removed at each stage, then the limiting set will have measure zero, since the length of the remainder formula_94 as formula_95 for any \"f\" such that formula_96. On the other hand, \"fat Cantor sets\" of positive measure can be generated by removal of smaller fractions of the middle of the segment in each iteration. Thus, one can construct sets homeomorphic to the Cantor set that have positive Lebesgue measure while still being nowhere dense. If an interval of length formula_97 (formula_98) is removed from the middle of each segment at the \"n\"th iteration, then the total length removed is formula_99, and the limiting set will have a Lebesgue measure of formula_100. Thus, in a sense, the middle-thirds Cantor set is a limiting case with formula_101. If formula_102, then the remainder will have positive measure with formula_103. The case formula_104 is known as the Smith–Volterra–Cantor set, which has a Lebesgue measure of formula_105.",
"One can modify the construction of the Cantor set by dividing randomly instead of equally. Besides, to incorporate time we can divide only one of the available intervals at each step instead of dividing all the available intervals. In the case of stochastic triadic Cantor set the resulting process can be described by the following rate equation and for the stochastic dyadic Cantor set where formula_108 is the number of intervals of size between formula_52 and formula_110. In the case of triadic Cantor set the fractal dimension is formula_111 which is less than its deterministic counterpart formula_112. In the case of stochastic dyadic Cantor set the fractal dimension is formula_113 which is again less than that of its deterministic counterpart formula_114. In the case of stochastic dyadic Cantor set the solution for formula_115 exhibits dynamic scaling as its solution in the long-time limit is formula_116 where the fractal dimension of the stochastic dyadic Cantor set formula_117. In either case, like triadic Cantor set, the formula_63th moment (formula_119) of stochastic triadic and dyadic Cantor set too are conserved quantities.",
"Cantor dust is a multi-dimensional version of the Cantor set. It can be formed by taking a finite Cartesian product of the Cantor set with itself, making it a Cantor space. Like the Cantor set, Cantor dust has zero measure. A different 2D analogue of the Cantor set is the Sierpinski carpet, where a square is divided up into nine smaller squares, and the middle one removed. The remaining squares are then further divided into nine each and the middle removed, and so on ad infinitum. One 3D analogue of this is the Menger sponge.",
"Cantor himself defined the set in a general, abstract way, and mentioned the ternary construction only in passing, as an example of a more general idea, that of a perfect set that is nowhere dense. The original paper provides several different constructions of the abstract concept. This set would have been considered abstract at the time when Cantor devised it. Cantor himself was led to it by practical concerns about the set of points where a trigonometric series might fail to converge. The discovery did much to set him on the course for developing an abstract, general theory of infinite sets."
]
} |
Messier 65 | null | Messier 65 (also known as NGC 3623) is an intermediate spiral galaxy about 35 million light-years away in the constellation Leo. It was discovered by Charles Messier in 1780. Along with M66 and NGC 3628, M65 forms the Leo Triplet, a small group of galaxies. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-674039 | en-train-674039 | 674039 | {
"title": [
"Discovery.",
"Star formation.",
"Interaction with other galaxies."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"M65 was discovered by Charles Messier and included in his Messier Objects list. However, William Henry Smyth accidentally attributed the discovery to Pierre Méchain in his popular 19th-century astronomical work \"A Cycle of Celestial Objects\" (stating \"They [M65 and M66] were pointed out by Méchain to Messier in 1780\"). This error was in turn picked up by Kenneth Glyn Jones in \"Messier's Nebulae and Star Clusters\". This has since ramified into a number of other books by a variety of authors.",
"The galaxy is low in dust and gas, and there is little star formation in it, although there has been some relatively recently in the arms. The ratio of old stars to new stars is correspondingly quite high. In most wavelengths it is quite uninteresting, though there is a radio source visible in the NVSS, offset from the core by about two arc-minutes. The identity of the source is uncertain, as it has not been identified visually, or formally studied in any published papers.",
"To the eye, M65's disk appears slightly warped, and its relatively recent burst of star formation is also suggestive of some external disturbance. Rots (1978) suggests that the two other galaxies in the Leo Triplet interacted with each other about 800 million years ago. Recent research by Zhiyu Duan suggests that M65 may also have interacted, though much less strongly. He also notes that M65 may have a central bar—it is difficult to tell because the galaxy is seen from an oblique angle—a feature which is suggestive of tidal disruption."
]
} |
UEFA Euro 2008 | null | The 2008 UEFA European Football Championship, commonly referred to as UEFA Euro 2008 or simply Euro 2008, was the 13th UEFA European Football Championship, a quadrennial football tournament contested by European nations. It took place in Austria and Switzerland (both hosting the tournament for the first time) from 7 to 29 June 2008. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-238565 | en-train-238565 | 238565 | {
"title": [
"Bid process.",
"Summary.",
"Qualification.",
"Final draw.",
"Venues.",
"Team base camps.",
"Squads.",
"Match officials.",
"Group stage.",
"Tiebreakers.",
"Knockout phase.",
"Statistics.",
"Prize money.",
"Discipline.",
"Marketing.",
"New trophy.",
"Match ball.",
"Music.",
"Mascots.",
"Slogan.",
"Sponsorship."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2"
],
"content": [
"Austria and Switzerland jointly bid to host the games, and facing competition from six other bids: Bosnia and Herzegovina–Croatia, Greece–Turkey, a 4-way Nordic bid (from Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden), Hungary, Russia and Scotland–Republic of Ireland. Austria and Hungary had previously bid together to host Euro 2004, losing out to Portugal, while Sweden had hosted Euro 1992. Austria–Switzerland, Hungary, Greece–Turkey and the Nordic bid were recommended, in that order, before the final vote by UEFA's National Teams Committee. The final vote by the UEFA executive committee was: The Austria–Switzerland bid became the second successful joint bid in the competition's history, following the UEFA Euro 2000 hosted by Belgium and the Netherlands. The following tournament, held in Poland and Ukraine, became the third jointly hosted tournament.",
"Qualification for Euro 2008 started in August 2006, just over a month after the end of the 2006 FIFA World Cup. The qualifying tournament was contested by national teams from each of UEFA's member associations, with the exceptions of Austria and Switzerland, who had automatically qualified for the finals tournament as hosts and Montenegro, who came into existence too late to be admitted to UEFA. England was the only seeded team not to qualify for the tournament proper, whereas Russia was the only unseeded one to qualify. The draw for the finals tournament took place on 2 December 2007, and saw Group C immediately labelled as the \"group of death\", with Italy, France, Romania and the Netherlands competing for the two qualifying places. In contrast, Germany and Portugal were deemed to have an easy draw, as the tournament structure meant they could not meet Italy, France, the Netherlands or Spain until the final. In the group stage, Croatia, Spain and the Netherlands all qualified with maximum points. Austria and Switzerland were not expected to progress, despite the advantage of being the hosts. In Group A, the Swiss lost their captain, Alexander Frei, to injury in their first game and became the first team to be eliminated from the tournament, after losing their first two matches. Switzerland managed to beat the group winner Portugal in their last game. In Group B, Austria managed to set up a decisive final game against Germany, dubbed \"Austria's final\". However, they lost by one goal, making Euro 2008 the first European Championship not to have one of the host nations present in the knockout phase. In an exciting final game in Group A, an injury- and suspension-hit Turkey came back from 2–0 down to beat the Czech Republic 3–2, after an uncharacteristic handling mistake by Petr Čech, in the last few minutes, left Nihat Kahveci with the simplest of finishes. In the same game, goalkeeper Volkan Demirel was shown a red card for pushing Czech striker Jan Koller to the ground. The Turks joined Portugal as the qualifiers from Group A. France were the high-profile victims of Group C, recording just one point from a goalless draw against Romania in their opening game. Italy beat the French, on the final day, to finish on four points and join the Netherlands in the quarter-finals. Finally, in Group D, Greece failed to reproduce the form of their shock 2004 win, and ended the tournament with no points. Russia qualified at the expense of Sweden, after beating them in a final game decider, joining Spain in the knockout phase. Torrential rain during the Group A match between Switzerland and Turkey on 11 June resulted in the pitch at St. Jakob-Park in Basel requiring to be re-laid. The new pitch was installed in advance of the quarter-final match between Portugal and Germany on 19 June. In the quarter-finals, the Portuguese team was unable to give their coach, Luiz Felipe Scolari, a fitting send-off – following the mid-tournament announcement that Scolari would be leaving to join English club Chelsea – losing in an exciting game against Germany. Turkey continued their streak of last-gasp wins, equalising at the end of extra-time against Croatia and advancing on penalties. Coached by Dutchman Guus Hiddink, Russia eliminated the Netherlands with two extra-time goals. The last quarter-final match saw Spain defeat Italy on penalties, after a goalless draw in regular time. Turkey's progress was halted by Germany in the semi-finals. Turkey entered the game with nine of their squad members missing due to injury or suspension, but still scored the first goal. Later, they leveled the score at 2–2, before Germany scored the winning goal in the final minute. The world television feed of the match was intermittently lost during the match, which prevented the broadcast of Germany's second goal. This was due to a thunderstorm at the broadcasting relay station in Austria, despite the game being played in Switzerland. Swiss Television SRG SSR still had a feed, because of their own broadcasting facilities at the venue. During the lost world feed German and Austrian television ZDF and ORF started to broadcast the feed of German speaking Swiss channel SF 1. This act ensured that the German goal was actually broadcast in Germany although not in Turkey. Spain won the second semi-final against Russia by three goals to nil, through second-half goals from Xavi, Daniel Güiza and David Silva, earning Spain their first appearance in a major final for 24 years. In the final, held at Vienna's Ernst-Happel-Stadion, Spain became European champions for the second time after Fernando Torres' first-half goal proved enough to defeat Germany. Though Germany had a strong start, Spain started to look more dangerous after they had settled. After half an hour, Xavi played a pass in behind the Germany back line towards Torres, who outmuscled a hesitant Philipp Lahm and clipped the ball over the diving Jens Lehmann and just inside the far post. That goal proved to be the only goal of the game, which Spain dominated despite Germany having the majority of the possession, and Spain were crowned UEFA Euro 2008 champions.",
"The draw for the qualifying round took place in Montreux, Switzerland on 27 January 2006 at 12:00 CET. The qualifying process commenced a month after the 2006 World Cup. Austria and Switzerland automatically qualified for the tournament finals as host nations. The qualifying format was changed compared to previous tournaments. The winners and runners-up from seven groups automatically qualified for the Championship, with the hosts filling the other two slots in the 16-team tournament. The change means there were no play-offs between teams finishing in second place in the groups – they qualified directly for the finals. Teams that finished in third place had no opportunity to qualify. Six of the qualifying groups contained seven teams, and the other, Group A, contained eight.",
"The draw for the final tournament took place on 2 December 2007 at the \"Culture and Convention Centre\" in Lucerne. In a return to the format used at Euro 1992 and Euro 1996 the games in each group were held at just two stadia, with the seeded team remaining in the same city for all three matches. As was the case at the 2000 and 2004 finals, the finalists were divided into four seeding pots, based on the UEFA national team coefficients which measured performance of teams in the 2006 FIFA World Cup qualifying and Euro 2008 qualifying, with each group having one team from each pot. Switzerland and Austria, as co-hosts, were automatically assigned to positions A1 and B1, respectively. The remaining 14 teams were split into four pots, with title-holders Greece seeded alongside the Netherlands in Pot 1. UEFA came under heavy criticism from Raymond Domenech, manager of France, who was not satisfied with his team's position in the draw, and was also in favour of having 2006 FIFA World Cup winners Italy as top seed. On 22 November 2007, Giorgio Marchetti, UEFA's professional football director, announced that a review of the coefficient ranking system was under way for future European Championships. Teams were drawn consecutively into Group A to D. First, the Pot 1 teams were assigned to the first positions of their groups, while next the positions of all other teams were drawn separately from Pot 4 to 2 (for the purposes of determining the match schedules in each group). Coincidentally, all teams from Pots 2, 3, and 4 were placed into positions 2, 3, and 4 in each group, respectively. The draw resulted in the following groups:",
"The tournament was played at eight venues throughout the two host nations; four in Austria and four in Switzerland. Each venue had a capacity of at least 30,000 for the tournament; the largest stadium was Ernst-Happel-Stadion in Vienna with a capacity of 53,295. It was for this reason that Ernst-Happel-Stadion hosted the final. Switzerland played all of their group stage matches at St. Jakob Park in Basel, which also hosted the opening match of the tournament as a compromise for the final being held in Vienna. Austria played all of their group stage matches at Ernst-Happel-Stadion. In 2004, the Zurich venue became a problem for the organisers. Originally, the Hardturm stadium was to be renovated and used as the city's venue, but legal challenges delayed the plan to a point that would not have allowed the ground to be used in 2008. This created a problem, as the agreement between UEFA and the organisers stipulated that four venues would be used in each country. The problem was solved when the organisers proposed renovating Letzigrund instead.; UEFA approved the revised plan in January 2005. The Letzigrund stadium hosted its first football match on 23 September 2007.",
"Each team had access to a \"team base camp\" for its stay between the matches. The teams trained and resided in these locations during the tournament, and travelled to games that took place away from their bases. The 16 teams validated their option with UEFA on 18 December 2007.",
"Teams were required to select a squad of 23 players, three of whom had to be goalkeepers, with the final squad to be submitted to UEFA by 28 May 2008. If a member of the final squad suffered an injury prior to his team's first game that would keep him out of the entire tournament, another player could be called up to replace him.",
"On 19 December 2007, UEFA announced twelve referees and twenty-four assistants were selected for the tournament. In April 2008, after failing a physical fitness test, Norwegian assistant referee Erik Ræstad was replaced by fellow countryman Jan Petter Randen.",
"The teams finishing in the top two positions in each of the four groups progressed to the quarter-finals, while the bottom two teams were eliminated from the tournament. \"All times are local, CEST ().\"",
"For the three-game group stage of this tournament, where two or more teams in a group tied on an equal number of points, the finishing positions were determined by the following tie-breaking criteria in the following order: However, these criteria would not apply if two teams tied on points and goals scored played against each other in their final group match and no other team in group finishes with same points; in that case, the tie would be broken by a penalty shootout.",
"The knockout phase was different from that of past tournaments. Teams in groups A and B were separated from teams in groups C and D until the final. This increased the chance of a group fixture being replayed in the knockout phase, and rendered impossible a final between two teams drawn in the same half of the tournament. Also, in another major change, for the first time in a European Championship, only two venues (St. Jakob-Park, Basel and Ernst-Happel-Stadion, Vienna—the two largest of the eight stadiums used) were used for the seven matches in the knockout phase of the tournament. As with every tournament since UEFA Euro 1984, there was no third place play-off. \"All times are local, CEST ().\" The UEFA Technical Team was charged with naming a squad composed of the 23 best players over the course of the tournament. The group of nine analysts watched every game at the tournament before making their decision after the final. Nine players from the winning Spanish team were named in the team of the tournament, while no players knocked out in the group stage were included. The UEFA Technical Team also had to pick a Player of the Tournament, taking fans' votes into account. The player chosen was Spain midfielder Xavi. The Golden Boot was awarded to yet another Spaniard, David Villa, who scored four goals, three of which came in his side's 4–1 win over Russia (the only hat-trick scored in the tournament).",
"",
"UEFA announced that total of €184 million has been offered to the 16 teams competing in this tournament, increasing from €129 million in the previous tournament. The distributions as below: Extra payment based on teams performances: Spain, as winners of the tournament and winners of all three of their group stage matches, received a total prize of €23 million, the maximum possible prize money. Greece on the other hand, being the only team to lose all three of their group matches, were the only team to receive nothing more than the €7.5 million participation prize.",
"At UEFA Euro 2008, players may be suspended from playing in subsequent matches upon the collection of a certain number of yellow or red cards. If a player is shown a red card – whether as a result of two bookable offences or a straight red – that player is suspended from playing in his team's next match. If his team is eliminated from the competition before the end of his suspension, the games carry over to the 2010 FIFA World Cup qualification matches. A player is also suspended for one match for picking up two yellow cards in separate matches. However, any yellow cards accumulated are annulled once a team is eliminated from the tournament or reaches the semi-finals. In extreme cases of ill-discipline, UEFA may choose to have a disciplinary panel examine the incident in order to determine whether or not further suspension is required. One case of this at Euro 2008 was the suspension of Turkey goalkeeper Volkan Demirel for two matches for pushing Czech striker Jan Koller. The following players were suspended for one or more games as a result of red cards or yellow card accumulation:",
"",
"A new trophy was awarded to the winners of the Euro 2008 tournament. The new version of the Henri Delaunay Trophy, created by Asprey London, is almost an exact replica of the original designed by Arthus-Bertrand. A small figure juggling a ball on the back of the original has been removed, as has the marble plinth. The silver base of the trophy also had to be enlarged to make it stable. The names of the winning countries that had appeared on the plinth have now been engraved on the back of the trophy, which is made of sterling silver, weighs and is tall.",
"The match ball for the finals was unveiled at the draw ceremony. Produced by Adidas and named the \"Europass\", it is a 14-panel ball in the same construction as the Teamgeist, but with a modified surface design. A version named the \"Europass Gloria\" was used in the final. There were concerns raised about the match ball, which was claimed to deviate unpredictably in flight, making it difficult to judge for goalkeepers. Notable players to criticise were Germany's Jens Lehmann and the Czech Republic's Petr Čech. These claims were disputed by the ball's designer, Oliver Kahn.",
"The official melody was composed by Rollo Armstrong of Faithless on behalf of UEFA. The official Euro 2008 song was \"Can You Hear Me\" by Enrique Iglesias, which was performed live during the official closing ceremony prior to the final in Ernst Happel Stadion in Vienna on 29 June. Two soundtracks, \"Like a Superstar\" and \"Feel the Rush,\" were recorded by Jamaican reggae artist Shaggy as mascot songs for Euro 2008. They formed a musical background to video clips featuring the twin mascots Trix and Flix. The official Swiss song for the tournament was a new version of \"Bring en hei\" (\"Bring him Home\") by Baschi. Christina Stürmer sang the official tournament song of Austrian ÖFB, \"Fieber\" (\"Fever\"). Croatia manager Slaven Bilić recorded his country's official Euro 2008 song, \"Vatreno ludilo\" (\"Fiery Madness\"), with his rock group, Rawbau. \"Seven Nation Army\" by The White Stripes was played when players walked out before kick-off, and a remix of \"Samba de Janeiro\" by German dance group Bellini was played after each goal scored in the competition.",
"The two official mascots for UEFA Euro 2008, were named after a vote from the public of the two host nations from the following options: In April 2007, after receiving 36.3% of the vote, Trix and Flix were chosen. \"I am sure the mascots and their names will become a vital part of the understanding of the whole event,\" said Christian Mutschler, the tournament director for Switzerland. The mascots were unveiled on 27 September 2006, in Vienna, Austria. Their official début was on 11 October 2006, at the Austria vs. Switzerland friendly, which ended 2–1.",
"The slogan for UEFA Euro 2008 was chosen on 24 January 2007: \"Expect Emotions.\" The UEFA President Michel Platini stated \"It describes in a nutshell what the UEFA Euro 2008 has to offer: all kinds of emotions – joy, disappointment, relief or high tension – right up to the final whistle.\"",
"The following companies were global sponsors for the tournament:"
]
} |
Nicholas Royle | null | Nicholas Royle (born 20 March 1963 in Manchester) is an English novelist, editor, publisher, literary reviewer and creative writing lecturer. | null | [
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"title": [
"Literary career.",
"Author.",
"Awards.",
"Editor.",
"Publisher.",
"Academic career.",
"Personal life."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"3",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"",
"Royle has written seven novels: \"Counterparts\", \"Saxophone Dreams\", \"The Matter of the Heart\", \"The Director’s Cut\", \"Antwerp\", \"Regicide\" and \"First Novel\". He also claims to have written more than 100 short stories, which have appeared in a variety of anthologies and magazines, including \"Bad Idea\", with his short story \"Confessions of a Serial Coat Snatcher\" appearing in the 2008 \"Bad Idea Anthology\". He has written two short-story collections: \"Mortality\" and \"Ornithology\".",
"Royle has won a British Fantasy Award three times: Best Anthology in 1992 and 1993 and Best Short Story in 1993. He has been nominated for Best Short Story three further times. \"The Matter of the Heart\" won the Bad Sex in Fiction Award in 1997.",
"As an editor, Royle is best known for having edited \"The Lighthouse\", by Alison Moore, which was shortlisted for the 2012 Man Booker Prize, and \"The Many\" by Wyl Menmuir, which was longlisted for the 2016 Man Booker Prize. He has also edited 12 anthologies including \"A Book of Two Halves\", \"The Tiger Garden: A Book of Writers’ Dreams\", \"The Time Out Book of New York Short Stories\", and \"Dreams Never End\" (Tindal Street Press) and several other novels.",
"Royle owns and manages Nightjar Press, which publishes short stories as signed, limited edition, chapbooks. Nightjar Press has published authors including M. John Harrison, Christopher Kenworthy, Joel Lane, Alison Moore and Michael Marshall Smith",
"Royle is a Senior Lecturer in Creative Writing in the Manchester Writing School at Manchester Metropolitan University and has been Chair of Judges for the Manchester Fiction Prize since it was launched in 2009.",
"Royle is married with two children and lives in Manchester. Royle shares his name with a Professor of English at the University of Sussex (born 1957) who is an authority on Jacques Derrida, and the author of textbooks, including \"The Uncanny\", and a novel, \"Quilt\". The two writers are often confused with each other."
]
} |
International Finance Corporation | null | The International Finance Corporation (IFC) is an international financial institution that offers investment, advisory, and asset-management services to encourage private-sector development in less developed countries. The IFC is a member of the World Bank Group and is headquartered in Washington, D.C. in the United States. | null | [
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"title": [
"History.",
"Governance.",
"Functions.",
"Investment services.",
"Advisory services.",
"Asset management company.",
"Financial performance.",
"Sustainability.",
"Green buildings in less developed countries."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
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"content": [
"The World Bank and International Monetary Fund were designed by delegates at the Bretton Woods conference in 1944. The World Bank, then consisting of only the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, became operational in 1946. Robert L. Garner joined the World Bank in 1947 as a senior executive and expressed his view that private business could play an important role in international development. In 1950, Garner and his colleagues proposed establishing a new institution for the purpose of making private investments in the less developed countries served by the World Bank. The U.S. government encouraged the idea of an international corporation working in tandem with the World Bank to invest in private enterprises without accepting guarantees from governments, without managing those enterprises, and by collaborating with third party investors. When describing the IFC in 1955, World Bank President Eugene R. Black said that the IFC would only invest in private firms, rather than make loans to governments, and it would not manage the projects in which it invests. The concept was nonetheless controversial in the US, where some business interests were uncomfortable with the public ownership of private firms. Nonetheless, in 1956, the International Finance Corporation became operational under the leadership of Garner. It initially had 12 staff members and $100 million (equivalent to $ million in ) in capital. The corporation made its inaugural investment in 1957 by making a $2 million (equivalent to $ million in ) loan to a Brazil-based affiliate of Siemens & Halske (now Siemens AG). In 2007, IFC bought 18% stake in the Indian Financial firm, Angel Broking. In December 2015, IFC supported Greek banks with 150 million euros by buying shares in four of them: Alpha Bank (60 million), Eurobank (50 million), Piraeus Bank (20 million) and National Bank of Greece (20 million).",
"The IFC is governed by its Board of Governors which meets annually and consists of one governor per member country (most often the country's finance minister or treasury secretary). Each member typically appoints one governor and also one alternate. Although corporate authority rests with the Board of Governors, the governors delegate most of their corporate powers and their authority over daily matters such as lending and business operations to the Board of Directors. The IFC's Board of Directors consists of 25 executive directors who meet regularly and work at the IFC's headquarters, and is chaired by the President of the World Bank Group. The executive directors collectively represent all 184 member countries. When the IFC's Board of Directors votes on matters brought before it, each executive director's vote is weighted according to the total share capital of the member countries represented by that director. IFC's Chief Executive Officer oversees its overall direction and daily operations. Philippe Le Houérou is Chief Executive Officer of IFC. Since his appointment by World Bank Group President Jim Yong Kim in March 2016, Mr. Le Houérou has led the organization's new strategy to create markets in less developed countries and redefine development finance by promoting initiatives and reforms that unlock billions of dollars in additional private sector investment. Although the IFC coordinates its activities in many areas with the other World Bank Group institutions, it generally operates independently as it is a separate entity with legal and financial autonomy, established by its own Articles of Agreement. The corporation operates with a staff of over 3,400 employees, of which half are stationed in field offices across its member nations.",
"",
"The IFC's investment services consist of loans, equity, trade finance, syndicated loans, structured and securitized finance, client risk management services, treasury services, and liquidity management. In its fiscal year 2010, the IFC invested $12.7 billion in 528 projects across 103 countries. Of that total investment commitment, approximately 39% ($4.9 billion) was invested into 255 projects across 58 member nations of the World Bank's International Development Association (IDA). The IFC makes loans to businesses and private projects generally with maturities of seven to twelve years. It determines a suitable repayment schedule and grace period for each loan individually to meet borrowers' currency and cash flow requirements. The IFC may provide longer-term loans or extend grace periods if a project is deemed to warrant it. Leasing companies and financial intermediaries may also receive loans from the IFC. Though loans have traditionally been denominated in hard currencies, the IFC has endeavored to structure loan products in local currencies. Its disbursement portfolio included loans denominated in 25 local currencies in 2010, and 45 local currencies in 2011, funded largely through swap markets. Local financial markets development is one of IFC's strategic focus areas. In line with its AAA rating, it has strict concentration, liquidity, asset-liability and other policies. The IFC committed to approximately $5.7 billion in new loans in 2010, and $5 billion in 2011. Although the IFC's shareholders initially only allowed it to make loans, the IFC was authorized in 1961 to make equity investments, the first of which was made in 1962 by taking a stake in FEMSA, a former manufacturer of auto parts in Spain that is now part of Bosch Spain. The IFC invests in businesses' equity either directly or via private equity funds, generally from five up to twenty percent of a company's total equity. IFC's private equity portfolio currently stands at roughly $3.0 billion committed to about 180 funds. The portfolio is widely distributed across all regions including Africa, East Asia, South Asia, Eastern Europe, Latin America and the Middle East, and recently has invested in Small Enterprise Assistance Funds' (SEAF) Caucasus Growth Fund, Aureos Capital's Kula Fund II (Papua New Guinea, Fiji, Pacific Islands) and Leopard Capital’s Haiti Fund. Other equity investments made by the IFC include preferred equity, convertible loans, and participation loans. The IFC prefers to invest for the long-term, usually for a period of eight to fifteen years, before exiting through the sale of shares on a domestic stock exchange, usually as part of an initial public offering. When the IFC invests in a company, it does not assume an active role in management of the company. Through its Global Trade Finance Program, the IFC guarantees trade payment obligations of more than 200 approved banks in over 80 countries to mitigate risk for international transactions. The Global Trade Finance Program provides guarantees to cover payment risks for emerging market banks regarding promissory notes, bills of exchange, letters of credit, bid and performance bonds, supplier credit for capital goods imports, and advance payments. The IFC issued $3.46 billion in more than 2,800 guarantees in 2010, of which over 51% targeted IDA member nations. In its fiscal year 2011, the IFC issued $4.6 billion in more than 3,100 guarantees. In 2009, the IFC launched a separate program for crisis response, known as its Global Trade Liquidity Program, which provides liquidity for international trade among less developed countries. Since its establishment in 2009, the Global Trade Liquidity Program assisted with over $15 billion in trade in 2011. The IFC operates a Syndicated Loan Program in an effort to mobilize capital for development goals. The program was created in 1957 and has channeled approximately $38 billion from over 550 financial institutions toward development projects in over 100 different emerging markets. The IFC syndicated a total of $4.7 billion in loans in 2011, twice that of its $2 billion worth of syndications in 2010. Due to banks retrenching from lending across borders in emerging markets, in 2009 the IFC started to syndicate parallel loans to the international financial institutions and other participants. To service clients without ready access to low-cost financing, the IFC relies on structured or securitized financial products such as partial credit guarantees, portfolio risk transfers, and Islamic finance. The IFC committed $797 million in the form of structured and securitized financing in 2010. For companies that face difficulty in obtaining financing due to a perception of high credit risk, the IFC securitizes assets with predictable cash flows, such as mortgages, credit cards, loans, corporate debt instruments, and revenue streams, in an effort to enhance those companies' credit. Financial derivative products are made available to the IFC's clients strictly for hedging interest rate risk, exchange rate risk, and commodity risk exposure. It serves as an intermediary between emerging market businesses and international derivatives market makers to increase access to risk management instruments. The IFC fulfills a treasury role by borrowing international capital to fund lending activities. It is usually one of the first institutions to issue bonds or to do swaps in emerging markets denominated in those markets' local currencies. The IFC's new international borrowings amounted to $8.8 billion in 2010 and $9.8 billion in 2011. The IFC Treasury actively engages in liquidity management in an effort to maximize returns and assure that funding for its investments is readily available while managing risks to the IFC.",
"In addition to its investment activities the IFC provides a range of advisory services to support corporate decisionmaking regarding business, environment, social impact, and sustainability. The IFC's corporate advice targets governance, managerial capacity, scalability, and corporate responsibility. It prioritizes the encouragement of reforms that improve the trade friendliness and ease of doing business in an effort to advise countries on fostering a suitable investment climate. It also offers advice to governments on infrastructure development and public-private partnerships. The IFC attempts to guide businesses toward more sustainable practices particularly with regards to having good governance, supporting women in business, and proactively combating climate change.",
"The IFC established IFC Asset Management Company LLC (IFC AMC) in 2009 as a wholly owned subsidiary to manage all capital funds to be invested in emerging markets. The AMC manages capital mobilized by the IFC as well as by third parties such as sovereign or pension funds, and other development financing organizations. Despite being owned by the IFC, the AMC has investment decision autonomy and is charged with a fiduciary responsibility to the four individual funds under its management. It also aims to mobilize additional capital for IFC investments as it can make certain types of investments which the IFC cannot., the AMC managed the IFC Capitalization Fund (Equity) Fund, L.P., the IFC Capitalization (Subordinated Debt) Fund, L.P., the IFC African, Latin American, and Caribbean Fund, L.P., and the Africa Capitalization Fund, Ltd. The IFC Capitalization (Equity) Fund holds $1.3 billion in equity, while the IFC Capitalization (Subordinated Debt) Fund is valued at $1.7 billion. The IFC African, Latin American, and Caribbean Fund (referred to as the IFC ALAC Fund) was created in 2010 and is worth $1 billion., the ALAC Fund has invested a total of $349.1 million into twelve businesses. The Africa Capitalization Fund was set up in 2011 to invest in commercial banks in both Northern and Sub-Saharan Africa and its commitments totaled $181.8 million in March 2012., Marcos Brujis serves as CEO of the AMC.",
"The IFC prepares consolidated financial statements in accordance with United States GAAP which are audited by KPMG. It reported income before grants to IDA members of $2.18 billion in fiscal year 2011, up from $1.95 billion in fiscal 2010 and $299 million in fiscal 2009. The increase in income before grants is ascribed to higher earnings from the IFC's investments and also from higher service fees. The IFC reported a partial offset from lower liquid asset trading income, higher administrative costs, and higher advisory service expenses. The IFC made $600 million in grants to IDA countries in fiscal 2011, up from $200 million in fiscal 2010 and $450 million in fiscal 2009. The IFC reported a net income of $1.58 billion in fiscal year 2011. In previous years, the IFC had reported a net loss of $151 million in fiscal 2009 and $1.75 billion in fiscal 2010. The IFC's total capital amounted to $20.3 billion in 2011, of which $2.4 billion was paid-in capital from member countries, $16.4 billion was retained earnings, and $1.5 billion was accumulated other comprehensive income. The IFC held $68.49 billion in total assets in 2011. The IFC's return on average assets (GAAP basis) decreased from 3.1% in 2010 to 2.4% in 2011. Its return on average capital (GAAP basis) decreased from 10.1% in 2010 to 8.2% in 2011. The IFC's cash and liquid investments accounted for 83% of its estimated net cash requirements for fiscal years 2012 through 2014. Its external funding liquidity level grew from 190% in 2010 to 266% in 2011. It has a 2.6:1 debt-to-equity ratio and holds 6.6% in reserves against losses on loans to its disbursement portfolio. The IFC's deployable strategic capital decreased from 14% in 2010 to 10% in 2011 as a share of its total resources available, which grew from $16.8 billion in 2010 to $17.9 billion in 2011. In 2011, the IFC reported total funding commitments (consisting of loans, equity, guarantees, and client risk management) of $12.18 billion, slightly lower than its $12.66 billion in commitments in 2010. Its core mobilization, which consists of participation and parallel loans, structured finance, its Asset Management Company funds, and other initiatives, grew from $5.38 billion in 2010 to $6.47 billion in 2011. The IFC's total investment program was reported at a value of $18.66 billion for fiscal year 2011. Its advisory services portfolio included 642 projects valued at $820 million in 2011, compared to 736 projects at $859 million in 2010. The IFC held $24.5 billion in liquid assets in 2011, up from $21 billion in 2010. The IFC received credit ratings of AAA from Standard & Poor's in December 2012 and Aaa from Moody's Investors Service in November 2012. S&P rated the IFC as having a strong financial standing with adequate capital and liquidity, cautious management policies, a high level of geographic diversification, and anticipated treatment as a preferred creditor given its membership in the World Bank Group. It noted that the IFC faces a weakness relative to other multilateral institutions of having higher risks due to its mandated emphasis on private sector investing and its income heavily affected by equity markets.",
"IFC Sustainability Framework articulates IFC's commitment to sustainable development and is part of its approach to risk management. IFC's Environmental and social policies, guidelines, and tools are widely adopted as market standards and embedded in operational policies by corporations, investors, financial intermediaries, stock exchanges, regulators, and countries. In particular, the EHS Guidelines contain the performance levels and measures that are normally acceptable to the World Bank Group, and that are generally considered to be achievable in new facilities at reasonable costs by existing technology.",
"The IFC has created a mass-market certification system for fast growing emerging markets called EDGE (\"Excellence in Design for Greater Efficiencies\"). IFC and the World Green Building Council have partnered to accelerate green building growth in less developed counties. The target is to scale up green buildings over a seven-year period until 20% of the property market is saturated. Certification occurs when the EDGE standard is met, which requires 20% less energy, water, and materials than conventional homes."
]
} |
Sebayt | null | Sebayt (Egyptian "sbꜣyt", Coptic ⲥⲃⲱ "instruction, teaching") is the ancient Egyptian term for a genre of pharaonic literature. "sbꜣyt" literally means "teachings" or "instructions" and refers to formally written ethical teachings focused on the "way of living truly". Sebayt is considered an Egyptian form of wisdom literature. | null | [
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"title": [
"Examples."
],
"section_level": [
"1"
],
"content": [
"In \"Eulogy of Dead Writers\", written during the Twentieth Dynasty of the New Kingdom, a stanza lists the names of writers famous for their great works, most of whom are authors of noted \"sebayt\" from the Middle Kingdom. Each of these authors (excepting Imhotep, none of whose works survive) including Ptahemdjehuty, can be attested as authors of various works from the Middle Kingdom. Many of the earliest \"Sebayt\" claim to have been written in the third millennium BCE, during the Old Kingdom, but it is now generally agreed that they were actually composed later, beginning in the Middle Kingdom (c.1991-1786 BCE). This fictitious attribution to authors of a more distant past was perhaps intended to give the texts greater authority. Perhaps the best-known \"sebayt\" is the one which claims to have been written by Ptahhotep, the vizier to the Fifth Dynasty pharaoh Djedkare Isesi, who ruled from 2388-2356 BCE. Ptahhotep's \"sebayt\" is often called \"The Maxims of Ptahhotep\" or the \"Maxims of Good Discourse\" (the latter being a phrase used as a self-description in the \"sebayt\" itself). The teaching appears on the Twelfth Dynasty Prisse Papyrus along with the ending of the \"Instructions of Kagemni\". Another well known \"sebayt\" was attributed to the Fourth Dynasty ethicist named Hardjedef. Only a few fragments survive of his \"Instruction\". Two \"sebayt\" are attributed to Egyptian rulers themselves. The first of these is entitled the \"Teaching for King Merykara\", who lived during the troubled First Intermediate Period (2150-2040 BCE). The document claims to be written by Merykara's father, the preceding monarch. However, since Merykara and his father were kings of the unstable periods of the Ninth through Tenth Dynasties, almost nothing else is known of them, and it is quite likely that the text was composed at a later period. The other royal teaching is the \"Instructions of Amenemhat\". This \"sebayt\" was reputedly authored by Amenemhat I, the founder of the Twelfth Dynasty, who ruled from 1991-1962 BCE, but was probably composed after his death. It should be mentioned that Amenemhat I was the first pharaoh to rule after the First Intermediate Period, and thus the instructions of Amenemhat are connected to his attempt to consolidate power typified by the \"Prophecy of Neferti\", as alluded to in the \"Eulogy.\" Thus both regnal \"sebayt\" are directly connected to the Intermediate Period and its aftermath. Although not attributed to a pharaoh, the \"Loyalist Teaching\" stress the virtues of remaining obedient and respectful to the ruler of Egypt. \"Sebayt\" were a long lived genre, with new compositions continuously appearing well into the Roman era. Some individual teachings, such as the \"Teaching of Amenemhat I\" (written c. 1950 BCE) were continuously copied and transmitted for over 1500 years. Most \"Sebayt\" are preserved on papyrus scrolls that are copies of earlier works. Four important examples of \"sebayt\" are preserved in the Prisse Papyrus, two papyrus scrolls in the British Museum, the Insinger Papyrus and the Carnarvon Tablet 1 in Cairo. This genre has much in common with sapiential literature in other cultures, and is for example comparable with the Old Testament Book of Proverbs which has in part been connected to the \"Instruction of Amenemope\"."
]
} |
Alfa Romeo | null | Alfa Romeo Automobiles S.p.A. () is an Italian premium car manufacturer, was founded on 24 June 1910, as "Anonima Lombarda Fabbrica Automobili", and so the acronym for it is "A.L.F.A", in Milano, Italy. "Anonima" means "anonymous", and it was a legal form of company at the time, as it was founded by anonymous investors. In the initial set-up phase, in order to have a building to produce cars, the company bought the factory building of Darraq french company in Milan, which was closing up and selling all assets because it was going to fail. The brand is known for sporty vehicles and has been involved in car racing since 1911. | null | [
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"title": [
"History.",
"Name.",
"Foundation and early years.",
"Post war.",
"Fiat takeover.",
"Recent developments.",
"Return to North America.",
"Design and technology.",
"Technological development.",
"Body design.",
"Concept cars.",
"Logos.",
"Original logo.",
"Origin.",
"Post-war evolution.",
"2015 redesign.",
"The Quadrifoglio logo.",
"History of the emblem.",
"Modern usage.",
"Motorsport.",
"Production.",
"Automobiles.",
"Historic models.",
"Carabinieri and Italian government.",
"Trucks and light commercial vehicles.",
"Other production.",
"Aircraft engines.",
"Marine engines.",
"Marketing and sponsorship."
],
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"2",
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"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
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"content": [
"",
"The company's name is a combination of the original name, \"A.L.F.A.\" (\"Anonima",
"The company that became Alfa Romeo was founded as Società Anonima Italiana Darracq (SAID) in 1906 by the French automobile firm of Alexandre Darracq, with some Italian investors. One of them, Cavaliere Ugo Stella, an aristocrat from Milan, became chairman of the SAID in 1909. The firm's initial location was in Naples, but even before the construction of the planned factory had started, Darracq decided late in 1906 that Milan would be more suitable and accordingly a tract of land was acquired in the Milan suburb of Portello, where a new factory of was constructed. In late 1909, the Italian Darracq cars were selling slowly and Stella, with the other Italian co-investors, founded a new company named A.L.F.A. (Anonima Lombarda Fabbrica Automobili), initially",
"Once motorsports resumed after the Second World War, Alfa Romeo proved to be the car to beat in Grand Prix events. The introduction of the new formula (Formula One) for single-seat racing cars provided an ideal setting for Alfa Romeo's Tipo 158 Alfetta, adapted from a pre-war voiturette, and Giuseppe Farina won the first Formula One World Championship in 1950 in the 158. Juan Manuel Fangio secured Alfa's second consecutive championship in 1951. In 1952, Alfa Romeo experimented with its first front-wheel drive compact car, \"Project 13–61\". It had the same transverse-mounted, forward-motor layout as the modern front-wheel drive automobile. Alfa",
"Fiat withdrew its plan for a joint venture with Alfa Romeo when Ford put in an offer to acquire part of Alfa Romeo and restructure the company, while increasing its stake over time. However, Fiat chose to put in a bid to acquire the entirety of Alfa Romeo and offer job guarantees to Italian workers, an offer that Ford was unwilling to match. It also did not hurt any of the parties involved that an acquisition by Fiat would keep Alfa Romeo in Italian hands. In 1986, the deal was concluded with Alfa Romeo merged with traditional rival Lancia into Fiat's Alfa Lancia Industriale S.p.A. Already in 1981, Alfa Romeo's then-President Ettore Massacesi had stated that Alfa would never use Fiat engines, the engines being,",
"Alfa Romeo has been suffering from falling sales. In 2010, it sold a total of about 112,000 units, which was significantly lower than Fiat CEO Marchionne's global sales target of 300,000. The company set about to achieve a",
"Alfa Romeo was imported to the United States by Max Hoffman from the mid-1950s. The Giulietta Spider was developed on the request of Max Hoffman, who proposed an open top version of the Giulietta. In 1961 Alfa Romeo started exporting cars to the United States through its own dealer network. In 1995, Alfa Romeo ceased exporting cars to the United States, the last model sold in that market being the 164 sedan. On 5 May 2006, Alfa Romeo made its return to the US Market as announced by Fiat CEO Sergio Marchionne after a series of rumours. North American sales resumed in October 2008, with the launch of the limited production 8C Competizione coupe with Alfa Romeo models being imported by Fiat's US subsidiary Chrysler. Also in 2008,",
"",
"Alfa Romeo has introduced many technological innovations over the years, and the company has often been among the first users of new technologies. Its trademark double overhead cam engine was used for the first time in the 1914 Grand Prix car, the first road car with such an engine, the 6C 1500 Sport, appeared in 1928. Alfa Romeo tested one of the very first electronic fuel injection systems (Caproni-Fuscaldo) in the Alfa Romeo 6C 2500 with \"Ala spessa\" body in 1940 Mille Miglia. The engine had six electrically operated injectors, fed by a semi-high pressure circulating fuel pump system. 1969 models for the North American market had SPICA (Società Pompe Iniezione Cassani & Affini, a subsidiary of Alfa Romeo) mechanical fuel injection. According to Alfa Romeo, the",
"Many famous automotive design houses in Italy have accepted commissions to produce concepts and production vehicle shapes for Alfa Romeo. These include: Construction techniques used by",
"Several concept cars have been made by Alfa Romeo: The \"Berlina Aerodinamica Tecnica\" prototype cars were designed by Bertone as an exercise in determining whether streamlining and wind-tunnel driven designs would result in high performance on a standard chassis, and whether the resulting vehicles would be palatable to public. Alfa 1900 Sprint were the basis of the B.A.T. 5, 7 and 9.<ref name=\"conceptcarz.com/vehicle\"></ref> The later B.A.T. 11 was based",
"",
"Alfa Romeo's logo incorporates two heraldic devices traditionally associated with its birthplace, the city of Milan: a red cross, from the emblem of Milan, and the \"biscione\", a big grass snake swallowing a child—emblem of the House of Visconti, rulers of the city in the 14th century. The logo was originally designed in 1910 by a young Italian draughtsman from the A.L.F.A technical office, Romano Cattaneo.",
"In June 1910 the Società Anonima Darracq became Anonima Lombarda Fabbrica Automobili, and was readying its first model, the 24 HP. The board asked chief engineer Giuseppe Merosi to devise a badge for the radiator shell of the new car; Merosi turned to his collaborators. One of them, Cattaneo, was inspired by the coat of arms he had seen on the gates of Castello Sforzesco to include the \"biscione\" in the logo. Merosi liked the idea, and together with Cattaneo came up with a sketch, then approved by managing director Ugo Stella; Cattaneo was entrusted with doing the final design. The original badge was round, of enamelled brass, measuring",
"In 1946, after the abolition of the monarchy and proclamation of the Italian Republic, the figure-eight knots of the Savoy were replaced with two curvy lines. Concurrently the badge was completely redesigned, and further reduced in size to, a diameter unchanged ever since. Made of stamped steel, the new badge bore the traditional elements—the scripts, the cross, a newly stylized \"biscione\" and a thin laurel wreath—embossed in antique silver, over a uniform Alfa Red background, which had replaced the blue, white and light blue fields. This red-and-metal badge",
"On 24 June 2015, 105th anniversary of the company, a new logo was unveiled at a press event at the Alfa Romeo Museum; together with the Alfa Romeo Giulia as part of the brand's relaunch plan. The redesign was carried out by Robilant Associati, who had previously reworked several other Fiat Group logos—including Fiat Automobiles' and Lancia's. The logo colors have been reduced from four to three: the green of the \"biscione\", the red of the cross, and the dark blue of the surrounding ring. Other changes are a new serif type face, and the absence of the split white and light blue fields, replaced by a single silver textured background.",
"Since 1923, the \"quadrifoglio\" logo (also called the 'cloverleaf') has been the symbol of Alfa Romeo racing cars and since WWII, it has also been used to designate the higher trim models of the range. The \"quadrifoglio\" is usually placed on the side panels of the car, above or behind the front wheels—on the front wings in the case of modern vehicles. The logo consists of a green cloverleaf with four leaves, contained with a white triangle.",
"The \"quadrifoglio\" has been used on Alfa Romeo cars since the death of Ugo Sivocci in 1923. As a friend of Enzo Ferrari, Sivocci was hired by Alfa Romeo in 1920 to drive in the four-man works team—Alfa Corse—with Antonio Ascari, Giuseppe Campari, and Enzo Ferrari. Sivocci was thought to have enormous experience, but often hampered by bad luck and considered the eternal second-placer. To banish his bad luck, when the Targa Florio came around, the driver painted a white square with",
"The first road car to bear the \"quadrifoglio\" was the 1963 Alfa Romeo Giulia TI Super, a variant of the Giulia saloon car devised for competition but put regularly on sale; it had green four-leaf clovers on its front wings, without the triangle. In the 1970s \"Quadrifoglio Verde\" or \"Green Cloverleaf\" became the trim level for each model's sportiest variant, equipped with the most powerful engine. The Alfasud, Sprint, 33, 75, 164 and 145 all had Quadrifoglio Verde versions. Also in the 1970s and",
"Alfa Romeo has been involved with motor racing since 1911, when it entered two 24 HP models in Targa Florio competition. Alfa Romeo won the first World Manufacturers' Championship in 1925 and the first AIACR European Championship in 1931 and it scored wins at many races and motoring events such as Targa Florio, Mille Miglia and Le Mans. Great success continued with Formula One, when Alfa Romeo won the first World Formula One Championship in 1950 and won the second Formula One Championship in 1951. The company also won international championships in Prototypes, Touring and Fast Touring categories",
"In the 1960s, the main Alfa Romeo factory was moved from inside Milan to a very large and nearby area extending over the municipalities of Arese, Lainate and Garbagnate Milanese. However, since then the fatory was moved to Arese, as the offices and the main entrance of the area were located there. In the late 1960s, a number of European automobile manufacturers established facilities in South Africa to assemble right hand drive vehicles. Fiat and other Italian manufacturers established factories along with these other manufacturers, Alfa-Romeos were assembled in Brits, outside Pretoria in the Transvaal Province of South Africa. With the imposition of sanctions by Western powers in the 1970s and 1980s, South Africa became self-sufficient, and in car production came to rely more and more on the products from local factories. This led to a remarkable set of circumstances where between 1972 and 1989, South Africa had the greatest number of Alfa Romeos on the road outside of Italy. Another astonishing fact is that the Alfa Romeos Brits plant was used from March 1983 until 1985 to build Daihatsu Charades for local consumption, but also for export to Italy in order to skirt Italian limits on Japanese imports. In late 1985, with the impending Fiat takeover and an international boycott of the South African Apartheid government, Alfa",
"",
"",
"In the 1960s, Alfa Romeo became famous for its small cars and models specifically designed for the Italian police and Carabinieri (arm of the Italian armed forces seconded only partly for civilian policing purposes); among them the \"Giulia Super\" and the 2600 Sprint GT. The colours of the Alfa Romeos used by the Polizia were/are green/blue with white stripes and writing, known as \"Pantera\" (Panther), enhancing the aggressive look of the cars (particularly the Giulia series), while the Carabinieri Alfas are dark blue with white roofs",
"In 1930 Alfa Romeo presented a light truck in addition to heavy LCVs based on Büssing constructions. In the Second World War Alfa Romeo also built trucks for the Italian army (\"35 tons anywhere\") and later also for the German Wehrmacht. After the war, commercial motor vehicle production was resumed. In co-operation with FIAT and Saviem starting from the",
"Although Alfa Romeo is best known as automobile manufacturer it has also produced commercial vehicles of various size, railway locomotives, tractors, buses, trams, compressors, generators, an electric cooker, marine and aircraft engines.",
"An Alfa engine was first used on an aircraft in 1910 on the Santoni-Franchini biplane. In 1932 Alfa Romeo built its first real aircraft engine, the D2 (240 bhp), fitted to Caproni 101 D2. In the 1930s when Alfa Romeo engines were used for aircraft on a larger scale; the Savoia Marchetti SM.74, Savoia-Marchetti SM.75, Savoia-Marchetti SM.79, Savoia Marchetti SM.81 and Cant Z506B Airone all used Alfa Romeo manufactured engines. In 1931, a competition was arranged where Tazio Nuvolari drove his Alfa Romeo 8C 3000 Monza against a Caproni",
"Alfa Romeo also produced marine engines. The first marine engine was produced in 1929. Later,",
"During the years Alfa Romeo has been marketed with different slogans like: \"The family car that wins races\" used in the 1950s in Alfa Romeo 1900 marketing campaign, \"racing since 1911\" used on most 1960s Alfa advertisements, In the 1970s the Alfa Romeo 1750 GTV was marketed as \"if this kind of handling is good enough for our racing cars, it's good enough for you.\" The Giulia Sprint GTA was marketed as \"The car you drive to work is a champion\". More recent slogans used are \"Mediocrity is a sin\", \"Driven by Passion\", \"Cuore Sportivo\", \"Beauty is not enough\" and present day \"Without heart we would be mere machines\". Also other more recent ones are: \"It's not a car, it's an Alfa Romeo.\", one of them after a couple argue in Italian. As part of its marketing policy, Alfa Romeo sponsors a number of sporting events, such as the Mille Miglia rally. It has sponsored the SBK Superbike World Championship and Ducati Corse since 2007, and the Goodwood Festival of Speed for many years, and was one of the featured brands in 2010 when Alfa Romeo celebrated its 100th anniversary.<ref name=\"www.italiaspeed.com/2009/cars/alfa_romeo\"></ref> The Alfa Romeo Giulietta has been used since Monza 2010 race as the safety car in Superbike World Championship events. Alfa Romeo has been also shirt sponsor of Eintracht Frankfurt football club in period between 2013 and 2016. In 2002, \"Alfa Romeo I\", the first Alfa Romeo super maxi yacht was launched. It finished first in at least 74 races including the 2002 Sydney—Hobart Race. \"Alfa Romeo II\", commissioned in 2005, measures LOA. It set a new elapsed-time record for monohulls in the 2009 Transpac race, of 5 days, 14 hours, 36 minutes, 20 seconds It finished first in at least 140 races. In mid-2008 \"Alfa Romeo III\" was launched for competitive fleet racing under the IRC rule. \"Alfa Romeo III\" measures LOA and features interior design styled after the Alfa Romeo 8C Competizione. The BBC motoring show \"Top Gear\" repeatedly argued the significance of owning an Alfa Romeo car as a car enthusiast, stating that \"You can't be a true petrolhead if you have never owned/or wanted to own an Alfa Romeo\". Presenters Jeremy Clarkson, Richard Hammond and James May continuously praised Alfas for their beauty and driving characteristics even though Italian cars had a long-term bad reputation for unreliability. They argued that you (the owner) build a personal relationship with the car despite all of its mechanical faults. Both Clarkson and May have previously owned Alfas (a GTV6 for Clarkson and an Alfa 164 for May) and both have stated that they regretted selling their Alfas the most. As part of its U.S. relaunch, Alfa Romeo ran three commercials during Super Bowl LI; the brand was the sole marque advertised by FCA during the game, after exclusively focusing on its Jeep brand at Super Bowl 50. In February 2013, Alfa Romeo sponsored University of St Andrews FS fashion show which saw luxury fashion designer Luke Archer and milliner George Jenkins win with their Alfa Romeo inspired garments."
]
} |
Stairway to Heaven | null | "Stairway to Heaven" is a song by the English rock band Led Zeppelin, released in late 1971. It was composed by the band's guitarist Jimmy Page and vocalist Robert Plant for their untitled fourth studio album (often called "Led Zeppelin IV"). The song is sometimes regarded as the most popular rock tune of all time. | null | [
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"title": [
"Writing and recording.",
"Composition.",
"Live performances.",
"Success and legacy.",
"Spirit copyright infringement lawsuit.",
"Claims of backmasking.",
"Other versions.",
"Far Corporation cover."
],
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"content": [
"\"Stairway to Heaven\" was recorded beginning in December 1970 at Island Records' new Basing Street Studios in London. The song was completed by the addition of lyrics by Plant during the sessions for \"Led Zeppelin IV\" at Headley Grange, Hampshire, in 1971. Page then returned to Island Studios to record his guitar solo. The song originated in 1970 when Jimmy Page and Robert Plant were spending time at Bron-Yr-Aur, a remote cottage in Wales, following Led Zeppelin's fifth American concert tour. According to Page, he wrote the music \"over a long period, the first part coming at Bron-Yr-Aur one night\". Page always kept a cassette recorder around, and the idea for \"Stairway to Heaven\" came together from bits of taped music. The first attempts at lyrics, written by Robert Plant next to an evening log fire at Headley Grange, were partly spontaneously improvised and Page claimed, \"a huge percentage of the lyrics were written there and then\". Jimmy Page was strumming the chords, and Robert Plant had a pencil and paper. The complete studio recording was released on \"Led Zeppelin IV\" in November 1971. The band's record label, Atlantic Records, wanted to issue it as a single, but the band's manager Peter Grant refused requests to do so in both 1972 and 1973. This led many people to buy the fourth album as if it were the single. In the US, Atlantic issued \"Stairway to Heaven\" as a 7\" promotional single in 1972.",
"\"Stairway to Heaven\" is described as progressive rock, folk rock and hard rock. The song consists of several distinct sections, beginning with a quiet introduction on a finger-picked six-string guitar and four recorders in a Renaissance music style (ending at 2:15) and gradually moving into a slow electric middle section (2:16–5:33), then a long guitar solo (5:34–6:44), before the faster hard rock final section (6:45–7:45), ending with a short vocals-only epilogue. Plant sings the opening, middle and epilogue sections in his mid vocal range, but sings the hard rock section in his higher range which borders on falsetto. Written in the key of A minor, the song opens with an arpeggiated, finger-picked guitar chord progression with a chromatic descending bassline A-G♯-G-F♯-F. John Paul Jones contributed overdubbed wooden bass recorders in the opening section (he used a Mellotron and, later, a Yamaha CP70B Grand Piano and Yamaha GX1 to synthesise this arrangement in live performances) and a Hohner Electra-Piano electric piano in the middle section. The sections build with more guitar layers, each complementary to the intro, with the drums entering at 4:18. The extended Jimmy Page guitar solo in the song's final section was played for the recording on a 1959 Fender Telecaster given to him by Jeff Beck (an instrument he used extensively with the Yardbirds) plugged into a Supro amplifier, although in an interview he gave to \"Guitar World\" magazine, Page also claimed, \"It could have been a Marshall, but I can't remember\". Three different improvised solos were recorded, with Page agonising about which to keep. Page later revealed, \"I did have the first phrase worked out, and then there was the link phrase. I did check them out beforehand before the tape ran.\" The other guitar parts were played using a Harmony Sovereign H1260 acoustic guitar and a Fender Electric XII guitar (a 12-string guitar that was plugged directly to the soundboard); these can be heard on the left and right recording channels respectively. For live versions, Page switched to a Heritage Cherry Gibson EDS-1275 6/12 Doubleneck guitar. The final progression is a i-VII-VI (natural minor) progression (Am-G-F), a mainstay of rock music. Another interesting aspect of the song is the timing of the lead-up to the famous guitar solo. While staying in 4/4 throughout this section, most of the accents shift to the eighth notes. This makes the rhythm figure challenging for some musicians, but adds a feeling of anticipation to the approaching guitar solo. Jimmy Page has likened the song to an orgasm.",
"The inaugural public performance of the song took place at Belfast's Ulster Hall on 5 March 1971. Bassist John Paul Jones recalls that the crowd was unimpressed: \"They were all bored to tears waiting to hear something they knew.\" The world radio premiere of \"Stairway to Heaven\" was recorded at the Paris Cinema on 1 April 1971, in front of a live studio audience, and broadcast three days later on the BBC. The song was performed at almost every subsequent Led Zeppelin concert, only being omitted on rare occasions when shows were cut short for curfews or technical issues. The band's final performance of the song was in Berlin on 7 July 1980, which was also their last full-length concert until 10 December 2007 at London's O2 Arena; the version was the longest, lasting almost 15 minutes, including a seven-minute guitar solo. When playing the song live, the band would often extend it to over 10 minutes, with Page playing an extended guitar solo and Plant adding a number of lyrical ad-libs, such as \"Does anybody remember laughter?\", \"And I think you can see that\" (as seen in the film \"The Song Remains the Same\"), \"Does anybody remember forests?\" (As seen on the live performance in Seattle 1977), \"wait a minute!\" and \"I hope so\". For performing this song live, Page used a Gibson EDS-1275 double neck guitar so he would not have to pause when switching from a six to a 12-string guitar. By 1975, the song had a regular place as the finale of every Led Zeppelin concert. However, after their concert tour of the United States in 1977, Plant began to tire of \"Stairway to Heaven\": \"There's only so many times you can sing it and mean it... It just became sanctimonious.\" The song was played again by the surviving members of Led Zeppelin at the Live Aid concert in 1985; at the Atlantic Records 40th Anniversary concert in 1988, with Jason Bonham on drums; and by Jimmy Page as an instrumental version on his solo tours. The first few bars were played alone during Page and Plant tours in lieu of the final notes of \"Babe I'm Gonna Leave You\", and in November 1994 Page and Plant performed an acoustic version of the song at a Tokyo news station for Japanese television. \"Stairway to Heaven\" was also performed at Ahmet Ertegun Tribute Concert at the O2 Arena, London on 10 December 2007. Plant cites the most unusual performance of the song ever as being that performed at Live Aid: \"with two drummers (Phil Collins and Tony Thompson) while Duran Duran cried at the side of the stage – there was something quite surreal about that.\" Footage of the song being played live is preserved on the band's concert film \"The Song Remains the Same\", featuring a performance from Madison Square Garden in 1973, and on the \"Led Zeppelin DVD\", featuring a performance from Earls Court Arena in 1975. Official audio versions are also available on \"The Song Remains the Same's\" accompanying soundtrack, on \"Led Zeppelin BBC Sessions\" (a performance from London's Paris Theatre in 1971) and on \"How the West Was Won\" (a performance from the Long Beach Arena in 1972). There are also hundreds of audio versions which can be found on unofficial Led Zeppelin bootleg recordings.",
"\"Stairway to Heaven\" is often rated among the greatest rock songs of all time. According to music journalist Stephen Davis, although the song was released in 1971, it took until 1973 before the song's popularity ascended to truly \"anthemic\" status. As Page himself recalled, \"I knew it was good, but I didn't know it was going to be almost like an anthem... But I knew it was the gem of the album, sure.\" \"Stairway to Heaven\" continues to top radio lists of the greatest rock songs, including a 2006 \"Guitar World\" readers poll of greatest guitar solos. On the 20th anniversary of the original release of the song, it was announced via U.S. radio sources that the song had logged up an estimated 2,874,000 radio plays. As of 2000, the song had been broadcast on radio over three million times. In 1990, a St. Petersburg, Florida station kicked off its all-Led Zeppelin format by playing \"Stairway to Heaven\" for 24 hours straight. It is also the biggest-selling single piece of sheet music in rock history, clocking up an average of 15,000 copies yearly. In total, over one million copies have been sold. Jimmy Page told \"Rolling Stone\" in 1975, \"We were careful to never release it as a single,\" which forced buyers to buy the entire album. Despite pressure from Atlantic Records, the band would not authorise the editing of the song for single release, making \"Stairway to Heaven\" one of the most well-known and popular rock songs never to have been released as a single. It did, however, appear on two promotional discs in the United States, one of them featuring the 7:55 track on each side, and the other as a 7-inch 33 record produced for jukebox operators with \"Stairway to Heaven\" on one side and both \"Black Dog\" and \"Rock and Roll\" on the other. Other \"single\" appearances were on an Australian EP, and in 1991 as an added bonus with a 20th anniversary promo book. The group's recording of this song also appeared as the sole Led Zeppelin track in the 1977 Atlantic Records two-LP promotional sampler album \"We've Got Your Music\", marking the first time that Led Zeppelin's \"Stairway to Heaven\" made its official debut appearance in an American-released various artists compilation collection. In 2004, \"Rolling Stone\" magazine put it at number 31 on their list of \"The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time\". An article from 29 January 2009 \"Guitar World\" magazine rated Jimmy Page's guitar solo at number one in the publication's 100 Greatest Guitar Solos in Rock and Roll History. Since 2001, the New York City-based classic rock radio station Q104.3 has ranked \"Stairway to Heaven\" No. 1 on their annual \"Top 1,043 Classic Rock Songs of All Time\". The song is quoted in The Comic Strip episode \"Bad News Tour\" (1983) by Vim Fuego (played by Ade Edmondson) \"I could play \"Stairway To Heaven\" when I was twelve. Jimmy Page didn't actually write it until he was twenty-two. I think that says quite a lot.\" Plant once gave $10,000 to listener-supported radio station KBOO in Portland, Oregon during a pledge drive after the disc jockey solicited donations by promising the station would never play \"Stairway to Heaven\". Plant was station-surfing in a rental car he was driving to the Oregon Coast after a solo performance in Portland and was impressed with the non-mainstream music the station presented. Later asked \"why?\", Plant replied that it wasn't that he didn't like the song, but he'd heard it before.",
"Over the years, some people have considered that the song's opening guitar arpeggios bear a close resemblance to the 1968 instrumental \"Taurus\" by the Los Angeles-based rock band Spirit, written by Spirit guitarist Randy California. In the liner notes to the 1996 reissue of Spirit's self-titled debut album, California wrote: \"People always ask me why 'Stairway to Heaven' sounds exactly like 'Taurus,' which was released two years earlier. I know Led Zeppelin also played 'Fresh Garbage' in their live set. They opened up for us on their first American tour.\" In May 2014, Spirit bassist Mark Andes and a trust acting on behalf of California filed a copyright infringement suit against Led Zeppelin and injunction against the \"release of the album containing the song\" in an attempt to obtain a writing credit for California, who died in 1997. A lack of resources was cited as one of the reasons that Spirit did not file the suit earlier; according to a friend of California's mother, \"Nobody had any money, and they thought the statute of limitations was done... It will be nice if Randy got the credit.\" If the Spirit lawsuit had been successful, past earnings due to the song—estimated at more than US$550 million—would not have been part of the settlement, but the publisher and composers may have been entitled to a share of future profits. On 11 April 2016, Los Angeles district judge Gary Klausner ruled that there were enough similarities between the song and the instrumental for a jury to decide the claim, and a trial was scheduled for 10 May. The copyright infringement action was brought by Michael Skidmore, a trustee for the late guitarist, whose legal name was Randy Wolfe. On 23 June, the jury ruled that the similarities between the songs did not amount to copyright infringement. In July, Skidmore's attorney filed a notice of appeal against the court's decision. In March 2017, the verdict was appealed, with a main argument being that the jury should have been able to hear a recorded version of \"Taurus\". On 28 September 2018, a three-judge panel of the Ninth Circuit allowed the appeal, vacating in part and remanding to the U.S. District Court for the Central District of California for a new trial on several evidentiary and procedural issues. On 10 June 2019, the Ninth Circuit granted rehearing \"en banc\", meaning the case will be reheard by a larger panel of eleven judges. A \"Bloomberg Businessweek\" article shortly after that decision noted that a Ninth Circuit judge's interpretation of the laws implied that key elements of many classic rock songs, including \"Stairway to Heaven\", that were recorded prior to 1978 were not protected by copyright to begin with. The panel declared that the scope of copyright for those songs is limited to what was included in the deposit copy of the song's sheet music provided to the Copyright Office; at trial Page had testified that the deposit copy included neither the intro that was under dispute nor his guitar solo. \"Bloomberg\" reporter Vernon Silver found that the deposit copies of other classic rock songs from that era, such as \"Hotel California\", \"Born to Run\" and \"Free Bird\", include only the song's basic chords, lyrics and melody, without any solos or other distinctive musical touches. Copyright law experts could not say whether those elements are copyrighted or not; Led Zeppelin's lawyers have argued they are even if not included in the deposit copy. Silver made an electronic mashup of several of these elements from different songs and included it with the article. On 9 March 2020, the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit ruled in favor of Led Zeppelin, in that \"Stairway to Heaven\" does not infringe on the copyright of \"Taurus\". Among its point, the full Ninth Circuit used their decision to overturn the controversial \"inverse ratio rule\" which it had relied over the past several decades in past copyright rulings, stating \"Because the inverse ratio rule, which is not part of the copyright statute, defies logic, and creates uncertainty for the courts and the parties, we take this opportunity to abrogate the rule in the Ninth Circuit and overrule our prior cases to the contrary.\" This verdict immediately applied to pending cases within the Ninth: a long battle over Katy Perry's \"Dark Horse\" in which a jury had found against her for was overturned a week after the Ninth's verdict in \"Stairway to Heaven\", in part of the Ninth's new finding and that in the case of \"Dark Horse\", the similarity argument weighed heavily on the inverse ratio rule.",
"In a January 1982 television program on the Trinity Broadcasting Network hosted by Paul Crouch, it was claimed that hidden messages were contained in many popular rock songs through a technique called backmasking. One example of such hidden messages that was prominently cited was in \"Stairway to Heaven\". The alleged message, which occurs during the middle section of the song (\"If there's a bustle in your hedgerow, don't be alarmed now...\") when played backward, was purported to contain the Satanic references \"Here's to my sweet Satan / The one whose little path would make me sad whose power is Satan / He'll give, he'll give you 666 / There was a little tool shed where he made us suffer, sad Satan.\" Following the claims made in the television program, California assemblyman Phil Wyman proposed a state law that would require warning labels on records containing backward masking. In April 1982, the Consumer Protection and Toxic Materials Committee of the California State Assembly held a hearing on backward masking in popular music, during which \"Stairway to Heaven\" was played backward. During the hearing, William Yarroll, a self-described \"neuroscientific researcher\", claimed that backward messages could be deciphered by the human brain. The band itself has for the most part ignored such claims. In response to the allegations, Swan Song Records issued the statement: \"Our turntables only play in one direction—forwards.\" Led Zeppelin audio engineer Eddie Kramer called the allegations \"totally and utterly ridiculous. Why would they want to spend so much studio time doing something so dumb?\" Robert Plant expressed frustration with the accusations in a 1983 interview in \"Musician\" magazine: \"To me it's very sad, because 'Stairway to Heaven' was written with every best intention, and as far as reversing tapes and putting messages on the end, that's not my idea of making music.\"",
"A different version of this song by Led Zeppelin is featured on the remastered deluxe 2CD version of \"Led Zeppelin IV\". Titled \"Stairway to Heaven \", it was recorded on 5 December 1970, at Island Studio, No. 1, in London with engineer Andy Johns and assistant engineer Diggs. This version runs 8:04, while the original version runs 8:02.",
"The British band Far Corporation released a version of \"Stairway to Heaven\" in late 1985. It was the first single from their debut album, \"Division One.\" Their rendition became an international Top 20 hit, reaching number eight in the United Kingdom and number nine in Ireland. The following year it charted at number 16 in South Africa and number 89 in the United States. The song became their greatest hit."
]
} |
2006 Turkish Grand Prix | null | The 2006 Turkish Grand Prix was a Formula One motor race, held on 27 August 2006. The 58-lap race, which was the fourteenth round of the 2006 Formula One season, and the second Turkish Grand Prix, was held at Istanbul Park in Istanbul, Turkey. Felipe Massa, driving for the Ferrari team, took his first pole position, and then his first race victory. Fernando Alonso, who drove for Renault finished the race in second position and Massa's teammate Michael Schumacher occupied the final position on the podium. The race was also the first Grand Prix meeting for future quadruple world champion Sebastian Vettel, who was assigned a Friday test driver role for the BMW Sauber team. Vettel received a $1,000 fine for speeding in the pit-lane only 6 seconds after he got out onto the track. | null | [
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"title": [
"Report.",
"Background.",
"Friday drivers.",
"Practice and qualifying.",
"Race.",
"Post-race."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2"
],
"content": [
"",
"Prior to the Grand Prix weekend, Renault's Fernando Alonso led the Formula One World Drivers' Championship on 100 points. He held a ten-point lead over his main rival Michael Schumacher, despite retiring from the preceding race in Hungary. Ferrari teammates, Schumacher and Felipe Massa lay second and third in the standings on 90 and 52 points respectively, ahead of the second Renault of Giancarlo Fisichella and the McLaren of Kimi Räikkönen, both on 49 points. Renault led the Constructors' Championship with 149 points, seven clear of Ferrari, while McLaren were in third position with 89 points. They were ahead of Honda F1, who sat in fourth with 52 after picking up their first and to be only victory since their return, three weeks before in Hungary. BMW Sauber completed the top five with 26 points.",
"The bottom 6 teams in the 2005 Constructors' Championship and Super Aguri were entitled to run a third car in free practice on Friday. These drivers drove on Friday but did not compete in qualifying or the race.",
"Kimi Räikkönen set the fastest time in the first free practice session, despite only completing five laps; ahead of Michael Schumacher and Jenson Button, who were both just within half a second of Räikkönen's time. In the bottom half of the order, Felipe Massa finished the session 17th and Fernando Alonso 23rd. Neither of the Williams left the garage during the session. Sebastian Vettel impressed many as he set the fastest time in the second free practice session, on his first Grand Prix weekend appearance. The following day in qualifying, however, it was Felipe Massa who set the fastest time, taking the first pole position of his career, ahead of Schumacher by one tenth of a second. The two Renaults occupied the next row with Alonso in front of Fisichella again. Fifth spot was initially taken up by Ralf Schumacher's Toyota, before he was demoted to fifteenth for a gearbox change. This was also true for Christijan Albers, who was taken from a good sixteenth place qualifying for the Midland team, to the back of the grid. Only four hundredths of a second separated Nick Heidfeld, Button and Räikkönen qualified from sixth to eighth before all moving up a place after Ralf Schumacher's penalty. Robert Kubica and Mark Webber completed the top ten fastest times, with Christian Klien completing the top ten on the starting grid.",
"The start of the race was affected by a multi-car accident entering the first corner. Massa, Michael Schumacher, Alonso and Fisichella all battled for position entering the first corner, with Fisichella spinning, causing a chain reaction behind him. During the chain reaction, Scott Speed collided with the McLaren of Räikkönen, causing one of Räikkönen's rear tyres to puncture. Räikkönen pitted for a new set of tyres, but soon faced a similar problem due to damaged bodywork; because of this he went straight off the outside of turn 4 and into a barrier, on the next lap. Nick Heidfeld, Fisichella, Speed and Ralf Schumacher all needed repairs from the incident, and the Midland of Tiago Monteiro was forced to retire. On lap 13, Vitantonio Liuzzi, who had climbed to seventh place, lost control entering the first turn and spun, stalling the engine. The car was left stranded on the racing line at the exit of the corner, and the Safety Car was deployed. Massa, Schumacher, Alonso, Button, Kubica and Webber all came in to make pit stops whilst the Safety Car circulated. The first four drivers stayed at the front, but Webber and Kubica dropped to near the back of the pack. Alonso, however, was able to jump Schumacher, as his title rival was forced to'stack' behind Massa before the mechanics could set to work on his car. The final 15 laps of the race were focused on Alonso and Michael Schumacher, who fought for second place behind Massa as part of their championship battle. Schumacher pursued Alonso for the last laps, but was unable to catch Alonso until the final corners of the final lap. Schumacher was right on the gearbox of Alonso exiting the last corner, but did not get past. Thus, Massa took his first career Formula One victory, making it the second Grand Prix in a row with a first-time winner, following Button's win in Hungary three weeks earlier. It was the first time this had happened since 2003, when Räikkönen and Fisichella won their first victories at the consecutive Malaysian and Brazilian Grands Prix. Drivers' Championship rivals Alonso and Schumacher completed the podium. Button, de la Rosa, Fisichella, Ralf Schumacher and Rubens Barrichello completed the points-scorers and the cars on the lead lap.",
"The podium display after the race caused controversy when winner Felipe Massa received the trophy from Mehmet Ali Talat, who was referred to as the \"President of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus\". This breakaway area of the island of Cyprus is only recognized by Turkey. The government of the Republic of Cyprus filed an official complaint with the FIA, the body governing the Formula One world championship. After investigating the incident, the FIA fined the organizers of the Grand Prix $5 million on September 19, 2006."
]
} |
Karel Zeman | null | Karel Zeman (3 November 1910 – 5 April 1989) was a Czech film director, artist, production designer and animator, best known for directing fantasy films combining live-action footage with animation. Because of his creative use of special effects and animation in his films, he has often been called the "Czech Méliès". | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-2286032 | en-train-2286032 | 2286032 | {
"title": [
"Life.",
"Legacy."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Zeman was born on 3 November 1910 in Ostroměř (near Nová Paka) in what was then Austria-Hungary. At his parents' insistence, he studied business at high school in Kolín. In the 1920s, he studied at a French advertising school, and worked at an advertising studio in Marseilles until 1936. It was in France that he first worked with animation, filming an ad for soap. He then returned to his home country (by now the First Czechoslovak Republic, known as Czechoslovakia), after visiting Egypt, Yugoslavia, and Greece. Back in Czechoslovakia, Zeman advertised for Czech firms like Baťa and Tatra. In 1939 he attempted to make an extended stay in Casablanca, but was barred by the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia established by Nazi Germany; unable to get the necessary papers in time, Zeman was required to remain in his home country during the German occupation of Czechoslovakia. During the war he worked as a head of advertisement at Dům služeb in Brno. Film director Elmar Klos came to Brno to film a newsreel about window-dressing competition, which Zeman won. Klos offered Zeman a job at Zlín's animation studio. After some consideration (his wife and children were already established in Brno), Zeman accepted the job in 1943. At the studio, Zeman worked as an assistant to the pioneering animator Hermína Týrlová, and in 1945 he became the director of the stop-motion animation production group. The same year, in collaboration with, he made his first short film, \"Vánoční sen\" (\"A Christmas Dream\"). The short, which combined animated puppets with live-action footage, marked the beginning of Zeman's experiments with new techniques and genres. Zeman then went on to solo work, including a series of satirical cartoon shorts starring a puppet called Mr. Prokouk; the series was a wide success and the character became a Czech favorite. A bet Zeman accepted, challenging him to discover a method of working with glass in animation, led to the unusual short \"Inspirace\" (\"Inspiration,\" 1948), which tells a wordless, poetic love story using animated glass figurines. Zeman then went on to the half-hour film \"Král Lávra\" (1950), based on the satirical poem by Karel Havlíček Borovský; the film won a National Award. In 1952, Zeman completed his first feature film, \"Poklad ptačího ostrova\" (\"The Treasure of Bird Island,\" 1952). It was based on a Persian fairy tale and took its visual inspiration from Persian paintings, combining multiple animation techniques in two- and three-dimensional space. It was in 1955, however, that Zeman began the work for which he is most well-known: six feature films designed artistically to combine live-action and animation techniques. These were: He was a member of the jury at the 2nd Moscow International Film Festival in 1961 and at the 7th Moscow International Film Festival in 1971. The Czechoslovakian government awarded him the title of National Artist in 1970. After his live-action films, Zeman experimented with more classical forms of animation, beginning with seven shorts about Sinbad the Sailor which were then expanded into the feature film \"Pohádky tisíce a jedné noci\" (1974). His final films were \"Čarodějův učeň\" (1977), from the novel \"The Satanic Mill\" by Otfried Preußler, and \"Pohádka o Honzíkovi a Mařence\" (1980). On 3 November 1980, in celebration of Zeman's seventieth birthday, President Gustáv Husák awarded him the Order of the Republic. Zeman died in Gottwaldov (present-day Zlín) on 5 April 1989, a few months before the Velvet Revolution.",
"Zeman's works were influential to the Czech animator Jan Švankmajer, as well as to the American filmmaker Terry Gilliam, who said of Zeman: \"He did what I'm still trying to do, which is to try and combine live action with animation. His Doré-esque backgrounds were wonderful.\" The American filmmaker Tim Burton described Zeman's creative process as \"extremely inspirational\" to his own work, and identified Zeman and the American animator Ray Harryhausen as his influences \"in terms of doing stop motion and a more handmade quality... Karel Zeman did that amazingly.\" Harryhausen himself also spoke in interviews of his admiration for Zeman, and the films of the American director Wes Anderson have included homages to Zeman's works. The film historian Georges Sadoul identified Zeman as having \"widened the horizons of the eighth art, animation,\" adding: On the occasion of an animation exhibition in 2010, curators at the Barbican Centre said of Zeman: \"although his influence outweighs his global fame, he is unarguably one of the greatest animators of all time.\" In 2012 a museum dedicated to Zeman and his work, the Muzeum Karla Zemana, opened near the Charles Bridge in Prague."
]
} |
Structure | null | A structure is an arrangement and organization of interrelated elements in a material object or system, or the object or system so organized. Material structures include man-made objects such as buildings and machines and natural objects such as biological organisms, minerals and chemicals. Abstract structures include data structures in computer science and musical form. Types of structure include a hierarchy (a cascade of one-to-many relationships), a network featuring many-to-many links, or a lattice featuring connections between components that are neighbors in space. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-1182311 | en-train-1182311 | 1182311 | {
"title": [
"Load-bearing.",
"Biological.",
"Chemical.",
"Musical.",
"Social.",
"Data.",
"Software.",
"Logical."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
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"1"
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"content": [
"Buildings, aircraft, skeletons, anthills, beaver dams, bridges and salt domes are all examples of load-bearing structures. The results of construction are divided into buildings and non-building structures, and make up the infrastructure of a human society. Built structures are broadly divided by their varying design approaches and standards, into categories including building structures, architectural structures, civil engineering structures and mechanical structures. The effects of loads on physical structures are determined through structural analysis, which is one of the tasks of structural engineering. The structural elements can be classified as one-dimensional (ropes, struts, beams, arches), two-dimensional (membranes, plates, slab, shells, vaults), or three-dimensional (solid masses). The latter was the main option available to early structures such as Chichen Itza. A one-dimensional element has one dimension much larger than the other two, so the other dimensions can be neglected in calculations; however, the ratio of the smaller dimensions and the composition can determine the flexural and compressive stiffness of the element. Two-dimensional elements with a thin third dimension have little of either but can resist biaxial traction. The structure elements are combined in \"structural systems\". The majority of everyday load-bearing structures are \"section-active\" structures like frames, which are primarily composed of one-dimensional (bending) structures. Other types are \"Vector-active\" structures such as trusses, \"surface-active\" structures such as shells and folded plates, \"form-active\" structures such as cable or membrane structures, and hybrid structures. Load-bearing biological structures such as bones, teeth, shells, and tendons derive their strength from a multilevel hierarchy of structures employing biominerals and proteins, at the bottom of which are collagen fibrils.",
"In biology, structures exist at all levels of organization, ranging hierarchically from the atomic and molecular to the cellular, tissue, organ, organismic, population and ecosystem level. Usually, a higher-level structure is composed of multiple copies of a lower-level structure. Structural biology is concerned with the biomolecular structure of macromolecules, particularly proteins and nucleic acids. The function of these molecules is determined by their shape as well as their composition, and their structure has multiple levels. Protein structure has a four-level hierarchy. The \"primary structure\" is the sequence of amino acids that make it up. It has a peptide backbone made up of a repeated sequence of a nitrogen and two carbon atoms. The \"secondary structure\" consists of repeated patterns determined by hydrogen bonding. The two basic types are the α-helix and the β-pleated sheet. The \"tertiary structure\" is a back and forth bending of the polypeptide chain, and the \"quaternary structure\" is the way that tertiary units come together and interact.",
"Chemical structure refers to both molecular geometry and electronic structure. The structure can be represented by a variety of diagrams called structural formulas. Lewis structures use a dot notation to represent the valence electrons for an atom; these are the electrons that determine the role of the atom in chemical reactions. Bonds between atoms can be represented by lines with one line for each pair of electrons that is shared. In a simplified version of such a diagram, called a skeletal formula, only carbon-carbon bonds and functional groups are shown. Atoms in a crystal have a structure that involves repetition of a basic unit called a \"unit cell\". The atoms can be modeled as points on a lattice, and one can explore the effect of symmetry operations that include rotations about a point, reflections about a symmetry planes, and \"translations\" (movements of all the points by the same amount). Each crystal has a finite group, called the space group, of such operations that map it onto itself; there are 230 possible space groups. By Neumann's law, the symmetry of a crystal determines what physical properties, including piezoelectricity and ferromagnetism, the crystal can have.",
"A large part of numerical analysis involves identifying and interpreting the structure of musical works. Structure can be found at the level of part of a work, the entire work, or a group of works. Elements of music such as pitch, duration and timbre combine into small elements like motifs and phrases, and these in turn combine in larger structures. Not all music (for example, that of John Cage) has a hierarchical organization, but hierarchy makes it easier for a listener to understand and remember the music. In analogy to linguistic terminology, motifs and phrases can be combined to make complete musical ideas such as sentences and phrases. A larger form is known as the period. One such form that was widely used between 1600 and 1900 has two phrases, an \"antecedent\" and a \"consequent\", with a half cadence in the middle and a full cadence at the end providing punctuation. On a larger scale are single-movement forms such as the sonata form and the contrapuntal form, and multi-movement forms such as the symphony.",
"A social structure is a pattern of relationships. They are social organizations of individuals in various life situations. Structures are applicable to people in how a society is as a system organized by a characteristic pattern of relationships. This is known as the social organization of the group. Sociologists have studied the changing structure of these groups. Structure and agency are two confronted theories about human behaviour. The debate surrounding the influence of structure and agency on human thought is one of the central issues in sociology. In this context, \"agency\" refers to the individual human capacity to act independently and make free choices. \"Structure\" here refers to factors such as social class, religion, gender, ethnicity, customs, etc. that seem to limit or influence individual opportunities.",
"In computer science, a data structure is a way of organizing information in a computer so that it can be used efficiently. Data structures are built out of two basic types: An array has an index that can be used for immediate access to any data item, but depending on the programming language used, its size must be specified when it is initialized. A linked list can be reorganized, grown or shrunk, but its elements must be accessed with a pointer that links them together in a particular order. Out of these any number of other data structures can be created such as stacks, queues, trees and hash tables. In solving a problem, a data structure is generally an integral part of the algorithm. In modern programming style, algorithms and data structures are encapsulated together in an abstract data type.",
"In software architecture, the structure of software is the way in which it is partitioned into interrelated components. A key structural issue is minimizing dependencies between these components. This makes it possible to change one component without requiring changes in others. The structure can be represented in diagrams such as the Control Structure Diagram and the Nassi–Shneiderman diagram. Structural elements reflect the requirements of the application: for example, if the system requires a high fault tolerance, then a redundant structure is needed so that if a component fails it has backups. A high redundancy is an essential part of the design of several systems in the Space Shuttle.",
"As a branch of philosophy, logic is concerned with distinguishing good arguments from poor ones. A chief concern is with the structure of arguments. An argument consists of one or more premises from which a conclusion is inferred. The steps in this inference can be expressed in a formal way and their structure analyzed. Two basic types of inference are deduction and induction. In a valid deduction, the conclusion necessarily follows from the premises, regardless of whether they are true or not. An invalid deduction contains some error in the analysis. An inductive argument claims that if the premises are true, the conclusion is likely."
]
} |
Ergotism | null | Ergotism (pron. ) is the effect of long-term ergot poisoning, traditionally due to the ingestion of the alkaloids produced by the "Claviceps purpurea" fungus—from the Latin noun "clava" meaning club, and the suffix "-ceps" meaning head, i.e. the purple club-headed fungus—that infects rye and other cereals, and more recently by the action of a number of ergoline-based drugs. It is also known as ergotoxicosis, ergot poisoning, and Saint Anthony's Fire. | null | [
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"title": [
"Signs and symptoms.",
"Convulsive.",
"Gangrenous.",
"Causes.",
"Identification of agent.",
"Prevention.",
"History.",
"Salem witchcraft accusations."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"2"
],
"content": [
"The symptoms can be roughly divided into convulsive symptoms and gangrenous symptoms.",
"Convulsive symptoms include painful seizures and spasms, diarrhea, paresthesias, itching, mental effects including mania or psychosis, headaches, nausea and vomiting. Usually the gastrointestinal effects precede central nervous system effects.",
"The dry gangrene is a result of vasoconstriction induced by the ergotamine-ergocristine alkaloids of the fungus. It affects the more poorly vascularized distal structures, such as the fingers and toes. Symptoms include desquamation or peeling, weak peripheral pulses, loss of peripheral sensation, edema and ultimately the death and loss of affected tissues. Vasoconstriction is treated with vasodilators.",
"Historically, eating grain products, particularly rye, contaminated with the fungus \"Claviceps purpurea\" was the cause of ergotism. The toxic ergoline derivatives are found in ergot-based drugs (such as methylergometrine, ergotamine or, previously, ergotoxine). The deleterious side-effects occur either under high dose or when moderate doses interact with potentiators such as erythromycin. The alkaloids can pass through lactation from mother to child, causing ergotism in infants.",
"Dark-purple or black grain kernels, known as ergot bodies, can be identifiable in the heads of cereal or grass just before harvest. In most plants the ergot bodies are larger than normal grain kernels, but can be smaller if the grain is a type of wheat. A larger separation between the bodies and the grain kernels show the removal of ergot bodies during grain cleaning.",
"Removal of ergot bodies is done by placing the yield in a brine solution; the ergot bodies float while the healthy grains sink. Infested fields need to be deep plowed; ergot cannot germinate if buried more than one inch in soil and therefore will not release its spores into the air. Rotating crops using non-susceptible plants helps reduce infestations since ergot spores only live one year. Crop rotation and deep tillage, such as deep moldboard ploughing, are important components in managing ergot, as many cereal crops in the 21st century are sown with a \"no-till\" practice (new crops are seeded directly into the stubble from the previous crop to reduce soil erosion). Wild and escaped grasses and pastures can be mowed before they flower to help limit the spread of ergot. Chemical controls can also be used, but are not considered economical especially in commercial operations, and germination of ergot spores can still occur under favorable conditions even with the use of such controls.",
"Epidemics of the disease were identified throughout history, though the references in classical writings are inconclusive. Rye, the main vector (route) for transmitting ergotism, was not grown much around the Mediterranean. When Fuchs in 1834 separated references to ergotism from erysipelas and other afflictions, he found the earliest reference to ergotism in the \"Annales Xantenses\" for the year 857: \"a great plague of swollen blisters consumed the people by a loathsome rot, so that their limbs were loosened and fell off before death.\" In the Middle Ages, the gangrenous poisoning was known as \"holy fire\" or \"Saint Anthony's fire\", named after monks of the Order of St. Anthony who were particularly successful at treating this ailment. According to Snorri Sturluson, in his \"Heimskringla\", King Magnus II of Norway, son of King Harald Sigurtharson, who was the half-brother of Saint King Olaf Haraldsson, died from ergotism shortly after the Battle of Hastings. The 12th century chronicler Geoffroy du Breuil of Vigeois recorded the mysterious outbreaks in the Limousin region of France, where the gangrenous form of ergotism was associated with the local Saint Martial. Likewise, an outbreak in Paris ca. 1129 was reported to be cured by the relics of Saint Genevieve, a miracle commemorated in the November 26 \"Feast of the Burning Ones\". The blight, named cockspur due to the appearance of infected grains, was identified and named by Denis Dodart, who reported the relation between ergotized rye and bread poisoning in a letter to the French Royal Academy of Sciences in 1676 (John Ray mentioned ergot for the first time in English the next year). \"Ergotism\", in this modern sense, was first recorded in 1853. Notable epidemics of ergotism occurred up into the 19th century. Fewer outbreaks have occurred since then due to rye being carefully monitored in developed countries. However, a severe outbreak of something akin to ergot poisoning occurred in the French village of Pont-Saint-Esprit in 1951, resulting in five deaths. The outbreak, and the diagnostic confusion surrounding it, are vividly described in John Grant Fuller's book \"The Day of St Anthony's Fire\". There is evidence of ergot poisoning serving a ritual purpose in the ritual killing of certain bog bodies. When milled, the ergot is reduced to a red powder, obvious in lighter grasses but easy to miss in dark rye flour. In less wealthy countries, ergotism still occurs; an outbreak in Ethiopia occurred in mid-2001 from contaminated barley. Whenever there is a combination of moist weather, cool temperatures, delayed harvest in lowland crops and rye consumption, an outbreak is possible. Poisonings due to consumption of seeds treated with mercury compounds are sometimes misidentified as ergotism. Simon Cotton of the Chemistry Department of Uppingham School, UK said that there have been numerous cases of mass-poisoning due to consumption of mercury-treated seeds.",
"The convulsive symptoms from ergot-tainted rye may have been the source of accusations of bewitchment that spurred the Salem witch trials. This medical explanation for the theory of \"bewitchment\" was first propounded by Linnda R. Caporael in 1976 in an article in \"Science\". In her article, Caporael argues that the convulsive symptoms, such as crawling sensations in the skin, tingling in the fingers, vertigo, \"tinnitus aurium\", headaches, disturbances in sensation, hallucination, painful muscular contractions, vomiting, and diarrhea, as well as psychological symptoms, such as mania, melancholia, psychosis, and delirium, were all symptoms reported in the Salem witchcraft records. Caporael also states there was an abundance of rye in the region as well as climate conditions that could support the tainting of rye. In 1982, historian Mary Matossian raised Caporael’s theory in an article in \"American Scientist\" in which she argued that symptoms of \"bewitchment\" resemble the ones exhibited in those afflicted with ergot poisoning. The hypothesis that ergotism could explain cases of bewitchment has been subject to debate and has been criticized by several scholars. Within a year of Caporael's article, historians Spanos and Gottlieb argued against the idea in the same journal. In Spanos and Gottlieb's rebuttal to Caporael's article, they concluded that there are several flaws in the explanation. For example, they argued that, if the food supply was contaminated, the symptoms would have occurred by household, not individual. However, historian Leon Harrier said that even if supplies were properly cooked, residents suffering stomach ulcers had a risk of absorbing the toxin through the stomach lining, offering a direct route to the bloodstream. Being similar to Lysergic acid diethylamide (L.S.D.), ergot would not survive in the acidic environment of a typical human's stomach, especially in properly cooked food. But if some but not all residents were malnourished and suffering bleeding stomach ulcers, only they could be affected by ingesting contaminated grains, leaving the majority unaffected, explaining why ergotism was not previously recognized. Harrier argued that the numbers could have been larger, possibly including the entire town, but due to the trials on bewitchment and heresy, and the fear of being accused and subsequently executed, few could come forward while suffering legitimate medical conditions. Spanos and Gottlieb also state that ergot poisoning has additional symptoms not associated with the events in Salem, and that the proportion of children afflicted was less than in a typical ergotism epidemic. Anthropologist H. Sidky noted that ergotism had been known for centuries before the Salem witch trials, and argued that its symptoms would have been recognizable during the time of the Salem witch trials. In 2003 it was pointed out that ergots produced by different strains of \"Claviceps purpurea\", and those growing in different soils, may produce different ergot alkaloid compositions. This may explain the different manifestations of ergotism in different outbreaks. For example, an alkaloid present in high concentrations in ergots from Europe east of the Rhine may have caused convulsive ergotism, while ergot from the west caused epidemics of gangrenous ergotism."
]
} |
Värmland | null | Värmland () is a "landskap" (historical province) in west-central Sweden. It borders Västergötland, Dalsland, Dalarna, Västmanland, and Närke, and is bounded by Norway in the west. Latin name versions are "Varmelandia", "Vermelandia", "Wermelandia", "Værmalandia", "Værmolandia", "Virmolandia" and "Vermillandia". Some of the Latinised forms show the origin of the name to come from the large local lake by the name of (from older "*Virmil"); others from the river name "*Værma", the main outlet of said lake. The province was originally part of Götaland, and became part of Svealand in 1815. | null | [
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"title": [
"Geography.",
"Western Värmland.",
"Eastern Värmland.",
"Population.",
"History.",
"Culture and literature.",
"Dukes and Duchesses.",
"Sub-divisions.",
"Sports."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The largest lake is Vänern. Most streams of importance lead to Vänern. However, the province is rich in small lakes, ponds and streams. The scenery, with mountains and lakes, is usually regarded as picturesque and has inspired painters and writers.",
"There are several mountain plateaus in the western part of Värmland, which is in the Scandinavian Mountains. The highest elevations are found in the northern parts, with plateaus of. The highest peak is also located here, Granberget at Höljes,.",
"The eastern part of Värmland is counted as part of the Bergslagen, the \"Central Swedish Mining District\". Its terrain is rather hilly, with a few high hills: \"Hvitklinten\" (414 m.), \"Dalkarlsberget\" (450 m.) and \"Vålbergsrös\" (476 m.). This part of Värmland is rich in minerals, most notably iron ore which exists in large quantities. Some notable sites in this area are around Långban and Nordmark Hundred. In the southeast, the ridge of Kilsbergen marks the border with Närke. <br><br> <br>",
"The population of Värmland is 318,341 as of 31 December 2016. It is distributed over three counties as follows:",
"The province was sparsely populated in the pre-historic age compared to Sweden's southern half. Its 5,500 registered ancient remains are few, compared to other areas. The province was considered to be of minor importance in the Swedish Realm. There are, however, interesting histories told by Snorri Sturlasson about Värmland in the 13th century. It extends back to Ingjald Illråde a legendary king in the 7th century. The early history strongly influenced was not only by the proximity to Västergötland, but also by its western neighbour Norway. Sweden's war with Norway had a strong effect on Värmland too. In 1225, Haakon IV of Norway (\"Haakon the Old\") invaded Sweden and burnt down all villages if they did not pay a ransom. This feud was eventually settled in 1249. Värmland was originally considered a part of Götaland, and had a strong connection to its southern neighbour Västergötland. Eastern Värmland traditionally belongs to the Bergslagen area, Sweden's central mining district. In 1582, Värmland was granted its first city privileges, Kristinehamn, but those were revoked. The second city, Karlstad, on the north shore of lake Vänern, was granted by \"Duke Charles\", later king Charles IX of Sweden, in 1584. It became the capital of the province and its name is derived from the King, and literally means \"Charles' City\". The third city was Filipstad in 1611; however, its privilege was revoked in 1694 after a devastating fire. King Charles IX took great personal interest in expanding mining in the province and the industry developed significantly during his reign. The early 17th century marked the beginning of substantial immigration from Finland. The areas where they centred were known as \"Finnskog\". They kept their Finnish customs and language until the late 19th century. The last native resident to speak Finnish here died in the 1980s. The most significant coup d'état of modern Swedish history had its beginning in Karlstad. The man behind the uprising was a liberal nobleman and a prominent man of the opposition, major general Georg Adlersparre. He was backed up by the radical guards captain Carl Henrik Anckarsvärd and used the part of the western army that was stationed in Värmland to occupy Karlstad on the night of 7 March 1809. From there he officially proclaimed a revolution, a proclamation which held the view that wars and oppression had ruined the country and the government therefore had to be overthrown. On 9 March, Adlersparre and his enthusiastic soldiers (many of Finnish origin) finally began their march towards Stockholm, and in the events that followed, the king Gustav IV Adolf abdicated under pressure. Under the Continental system (1806–1814), the timber industry flourished in Värmland and continuing into the modern era, forestry became industrialized and is still the economic backbone of the province. Bordering on Norway, Värmland was affected by Sweden's last war, Crown Prince Jean Baptiste Bernadottes military campaign against Norway in 1814. The province saw large troop movement and many soldiers originating from the province were involved in battles. The Värmland Regiment had three battalions attached to the 9th Brigade under Colonel Klingspor and one battalion attached to the 10th Brigade under Colonel Gahn af Colqhoun. Both brigades were part of the 5th Army Division under Major General Rosenblad. The 9th Brigade crossed the border to Norway on 30 July 1814 and participated in the siege of Fredrikstad Fortress, which capitulated on 4 August, while other parts of the regiment a few days later followed later Lieutenant General Vegesacks department north and participated in battles at Rakkestad and Langenäs on 6 August 1814 and Askim on 9 August 1814. A battalion of the regiment, commanded by Major Lagerlöv, managed to fight back a Norwegian attack from the bridgehead at Langenäs. The 10th Brigade crossed the border on 1 August 1814 and went in the direction of Morast. It participated in the battle of Lier south of Kongsvinger on 2 August 1814 and then retreated to the border, where the battalion participated in the battle of Midskog on 5 August 1814 and suffered heavy losses. During World War II, western Värmland was again an area of heavy military deployment. A major part of the Swedish Armed Forces was concentrated to Värmland following the German invasion of Norway. Approximately 150,000 military personnel were mobilised to Värmland in June 1941, by the time of German demands to transport the fully armed Division Engelbrecht through the country and before the launch of Operation Barbarossa, and with several large military exercises being conducted in the province during the period. Even more military personnel, possibly as many as 250,000, were mobilised to Värmland in the fall of 1943, due to the pending Swedish announcement to end German military transits and fear of a German attack. An agreement from the dissolution of the union with Norway in 1905 stated that no fortification was allowed on the border between the two nations, but after the German occupation of Norway, old fortifications were renovated and many new constructed. Notably is the fortification \"Skansen Hultet\" (Skans 153 Hultet) in Eda Municipality, constructed 1940-1941 (although improvements continued until 1945), and equipped with a network of machine gun emplacements, casemates and other concrete bunkers, surrounded by barbed wire, walls and several lines of tank traps. The fortifications have been renovated by locals and are now open to the public. Formerly classified Swedish military documents shows that the Swedish Armed Forces spent approximately SEK 30 million on fortifications in Värmland during the 1940s. There are around 12,000 military objects, including 123 fortificated sites, in Värmland dating from World War II. The film \"Gränsen\" (Eng. \"Beyond the Border\") from 2011, telling the story about the life of the young soldiers guarding the border between Sweden and German-occupied Norway in 1942, takes place in northern Värmland and was filmed near Torsby. <br><br> <br>",
"The province has powerful literary and musical traditions and has spawned some of the most well-known and loved authors of Sweden. In the 19th century several leading authors had their origin here, and retained links to Värmland, among them Erik Gustaf Geijer, Esaias Tegnér, Gustaf Fröding and Nobel Prize winner Selma Lagerlöf. Lagerlöf's novel, Gösta Berlings Saga, is a neo-romantic saga that takes place in Värmland in the 1820s and 1830s. It was also made into a film starring Greta Garbo. It was also made into an opera, I cavalieri di Ekebù, by Italian composer Riccardo Zandonai in 1925. Education, theatre and a somewhat glamorous lifestyle were buoyed by the landed gentry and the wealth being generated through a lively local iron trade, and also by the position of the landscape on the edge between civilization and wilderness, which inspired art, literature and folklore. During the second half of the 19th century, the iron processing industry was largely put out of business by the revolution in the steel industry which made Central Europe and the United States vastly superior in this field, and the overall economic crisis throughout Europe of the 1870s and 1880s, and the subsequent emigration to North America, shook the landscape. The consequence, however, was to make authors like Lagerlöf and Fröding more aware of the heritage of their province, and they both drew on what they felt to be an oral tradition of story-telling and local legends. This emphasis on richly textured, often romantic or burlesque tales which nonetheless transcend the local has remained a focus of later writers, such as Göran Tunström (1937–2000) and Lars Andersson (b. 1954). The musical traditions have inspired a number of prominent musicians, such as singers Zarah Leander, Monica Zetterlund and Rigmor Gustafsson.",
"Since 1772, Sweden's Princes have been created Dukes of various provinces in Sweden. This is solely a nominal title.",
"Sweden's provinces were sub-divided into hundreds or districts. Värmland was historically divided into chartered cities and districts. One district formed part of Bergslagen and was a mountain district, and all the other districts were hundreds.",
"Football in the province is administered by Värmlands Fotbollförbund. Ice hockey is also popular, with Färjestads BK. The area hosts the Rally Sweden and is the site of the Höljesbanan rallycross circuit."
]
} |
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] | null | null | en-train-1472955 | en-train-1472955 | 1472955 | {
"title": [
"Definitions of words.",
"History.",
"Areas affected.",
"Effects.",
"Sand and dust storms.",
"Food security.",
"Vegetation patterning.",
"Causes.",
"Poverty.",
"Countermeasures.",
"Managed grazing.",
"See also."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
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"1"
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"content": [
"As recently as 2005, considerable controversy existed over the proper definition of the term \"desertification.\" Helmut Geist (2005) identified more than 100 formal definitions. The most widely accepted of these was that of the Princeton University Dictionary which defined it as \"the process of fertile land \"transforming into desert\" typically as a result of deforestation, drought or improper/inappropriate agriculture\".However, this original understanding that desertification involved the physical expansion of deserts has been rejected as the concept has evolved. Desertification has been neatly defined in the text of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) as \"land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid regions resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities.\" There exists also controversy around the sub-grouping of types of desertification, including, for example, the validity and usefulness of such terms as \"man-made desert\" and \"non-pattern desert\".",
"The world's most noted deserts have been formed by natural processes interacting over long intervals of time. During most of these times, deserts have grown and shrunk independent of human activities. Paleodeserts are large sand seas now inactive because they are stabilized by vegetation, some extending beyond the present margins of core deserts, such as the Sahara, the largest hot desert. Historical evidence shows that the serious and extensive land deterioration occurring several centuries ago in arid regions had three epicenters: the Mediterranean, the Mesopotamian Valley, and the Loess Plateau of China, where population was dense. The earliest known discussion of the topic arose soon after the French colonization of West Africa, when the Comité d'Etudes commissioned a study on \"desséchement progressif\" to explore the prehistoric expansion of the Sahara Desert.",
"Drylands occupy approximately 40–41% of Earth's land area and are home to more than 2 billion people. It has been estimated that some 10–20% of drylands are already degraded, the total area affected by desertification being between 6 and 12 million square kilometres, that about 1–6% of the inhabitants of drylands live in desertified areas, and that a billion people are under threat from further desertification. As of 1998, the then-current degree of southward expansion of the Sahara was not well known, due to a lack of recent, measurable expansion of the desert into the Sahel at the time. The impact of global warming and human activities are presented in the Sahel. In this area the level of desertification is very high compared to other areas in the world. All areas situated in the eastern part of Africa (i.e. in the Sahel region) are characterized by a dry climate, hot temperatures, and low rainfall (300–750 mm rainfall per year). So, droughts are the rule in the Sahel region. Some studies have shown that Africa has lost approximately 650,000 km2 of its productive agricultural land over the past 50 years. The propagation of desertification in this area is considerable. Some statistics have shown that since 1900 the Sahara has expanded by 250 km to the south over a stretch of land from west to east 6,000 km long. The survey, done by the Research Institute for Development, had demonstrated that this means dryness is spreading fast in the Sahelian countries. 70% of the arid area has deteriorated and water resources have disappeared, leading to soil degradation. The loss of topsoil means that plants cannot take root firmly and can be uprooted by torrential water or strong winds. The United Nations Convention (UNC) says that about six million Sahelian citizens would have to give up the desertified zones of sub-Saharan Africa for North Africa and Europe between 1997 and 2020. Lake Chad, located in the Sahel region, has been hit particularly hard by this phenomenon. The cause of the lake drying up is due to irrigation withdrawal and the annual rainfall dropping. The lake has shrunk by over 90% since the 1987, displacing millions of inhabitants. Recent efforts have managed to make some progress toward its restoration, but it is still considered to be at risk of disappearing entirely. Another major area that is being impacted by desertification is the Gobi Desert. Currently, the Gobi desert is the fastest moving desert on Earth; according to some researchers, the Gobi Desert swallows up over 1,300 square miles (3,370 km2) of land annually. This has destroyed many villages in its path. Currently, photos show that the Gobi Desert has expanded to the point the entire nation of Croatia (about 4 million) could fit inside its area. This is causing a major problem for the people of China. They will soon have to deal with the desert as it creeps closer. Although the Gobi Desert itself is still a distance away from Beijing, reports from field studies state there are large sand dunes forming only 70 km (43.5 mi) outside the city. South America is another area affected by desertification, as 25% of the land is classified as drylands. In Argentina specifically, drylands represent more than half of the total land area, and desertification has the potential to disrupt the nation's food supply. In Mongolia, around 90% of grassland is considered vulnerable to desertification by the UN. An estimated 13% of desertification in Mongolia is caused by natural factors, the rest is due to human influence particularly overgrazing and increased erosion of soils in cultivated areas. The area of Mongolian land covered by sand has increased by 8.7% over the last 40 years. These changes have accompanied the degradation of 70% of Mongolian pasture land. As well as overgrazing and climate change, the Mongolia government listed forest fires, blights, unsustainable forestry and mining activities as leading causes of desertification in the country. A more recent study also reports overgrazing as a leading cause of desertification as well as the transition from sheep to goat farming in order to meet export demands for cashmere wool. Compared to sheep goats do more damage to grazing lands by eating roots and flowers.",
"",
"There has been a 25% increase in global annual dust emissions between the late nineteenth century to present day. The increase of desertification has also increased the amount of loose sand and dust that the wind can pick up ultimately resulting in a storm. For example, dust storms in the Middle East “are becoming more frequent and intense in recent years” because “long-term reductions in rainfall promot[ing] lower soil moisture and vegetative cover”. Dust storms can contribute to certain respiratory disorders such as pneumonia, skin irritations, asthma and many more. They can pollute open water, reduce the effectiveness of clean energy efforts, and halt most forms of transportation. Dust and sand storms can have a negative effect on the climate which can make desertification worse. Dust particles in the air scatter incoming radiation from the sun. The dust can provide momentary coverage for the ground temperature but the atmospheric temperature will increase. This can disform and shorten the life time of clouds which can result in less rainfall.",
"Global food security is being threatened by desertification and overpopulation. The more the population grows, the more food that has to be grown. The agricultural business is being displaced from one country to another. For example, Europe on average imports over 50% of its food. Meanwhile, 44% of agricultural land is located in dry lands and it supplies 60% of the world's food production. Desertification is decreasing the amount of sustainable land for agricultural uses but demands are continuously growing. In the near future, the demands will overcome the supply.",
"As the desertification takes place, the landscape may progress through different stages and continuously transform in appearance. On gradually sloped terrain, desertification can create increasingly larger empty spaces over a large strip of land, a phenomenon known as \"brousse tigrée\". A mathematical model of this phenomenon proposed by C. Klausmeier attributes this patterning to dynamics in plant-water interaction. One outcome of this observation suggests an optimal planting strategy for agriculture in arid environments.",
"The immediate cause is the loss of most vegetation. This is driven by a number of factors, alone or in combination, such as drought, climatic shifts, tillage for agriculture, overgrazing and deforestation for fuel or construction materials. Vegetation plays a major role in determining the biological composition of the soil. Studies have shown that, in many environments, the rate of erosion and runoff decreases exponentially with increased vegetation cover. Unprotected, dry soil surfaces blow away with the wind or are washed away by flash floods, leaving infertile lower soil layers that bake in the sun and become an unproductive hardpan. Many scientists think that one of the most common causes is overgrazing, too much consumption of vegetation by cattle or other livestock. Scientists agree that the existence of a desert in the place where the Sahara desert is now located is due to a natural climate cycle; this cycle often causes a lack of water in the area from time to time. There is a suggestion that the last time that the Sahara was converted from savanna to desert it was partially due to overgrazing by the cattle of the local population. Researchers from Hacettepe University have reported that Saharan soil may have bio-available iron and also some essential macro and micro nutrient elements suitable for use as fertilizer for growing wheat. It has been shown that Saharan soil may have the potential of producing bioavailable iron when illuminated with visible light and also it has some essential macro and micro nutrient elements. In this study the impact of various growth media on development of some bread wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and durum wheat (Triticum durum L.) cultivars have been investigated. As a four different nutrient media, Hewitt nutrient solution [1], illuminated and non-illuminated Saharan desert soil solutions and distilled water have been utilized. Shoot length (cm.seedling-1), leaf area (cm2 seedling-1) and photosynthetic pigments [chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and carotenoids, mg ml-1 g fresh weight (g fw)-1] have been determined. The results of this study indicate that, wheat varieties fed by irradiated Saharan soil solution gave comparable results to Hewitt nutrient solution. Overpopulation is one of the most dangerous factors contributing to desertification. Human populations are increasing at exponential rates, which leads to overgrazing, over-farming and deforestation, as previously acceptable techniques are becoming less sustainable. Climate change is likely a major contributing factor in the desertification process, as simulations suggest the greenhouse effect may increase the spread of deserts by as much as 20%. There are multiple reasons farmers use intensive farming as opposed to extensive farming but the main reason is to maximize yields. By increasing productivity, they require a lot more fertilizer, pesticides, and labor to upkeep machinery. This continuous use of the land rapidly depletes the nutrients of the soil causing desertification to spread.",
"At least 90% of the inhabitants of drylands live in developing countries, where they also suffer from poor economic and social conditions. This situation is exacerbated by land degradation because of the reduction in productivity, the precariousness of living conditions and the difficulty of access to resources and opportunities. A downward spiral is created in many underdeveloped countries by overgrazing, land exhaustion and overdrafting of groundwater in many of the marginally productive world regions due to overpopulation pressures to exploit marginal drylands for farming. Decision-makers are understandably averse to invest in arid zones with low potential. This absence of investment contributes to the marginalisation of these zones. When unfavourable agro-climatic conditions are combined with an absence of infrastructure and access to markets, as well as poorly adapted production techniques and an underfed and undereducated population, most such zones are excluded from development. Desertification often causes rural lands to become unable to support the same sized populations that previously lived there. This results in mass migrations out of rural areas and into urban areas (urbanisation), particularly in Africa. These migrations into the cities often cause large numbers of unemployed people, who end up living in slums. In Mongolia the land is 90% fragile dry land, which causes many herders to migrate to the city for work. With very limited resources the herders that stay in the dry land graze very carefully in order to preserve the land. With the increasing population of Mongolia it is very difficult to stay a herder for long. The number of these environmental refugees grows every year, with projections for sub-Saharan Africa showing a probable increase from 14 million in 2010 to nearly 200 million by 2050. This presents a future crisis for the region, as neighboring nations do not always have the ability to support large populations of refugees. Agriculture is a main source of income for many desert communities. The increase in desertification in these regions has degraded the land to such an extent where people can no longer productively farm and make a profit. This has negatively impacted the economy and increased poverty rates.",
"Techniques and countermeasures exist for mitigating or reversing the effects of desertification, and some possess varying levels of difficulty. For some, there are numerous barriers to their implementation. Yet for others, the solution simply requires the exercise of human reason. One proposed barrier is that the costs of adopting sustainable agricultural practices sometimes exceed the benefits for individual farmers, even while they are socially and environmentally beneficial. Another issue is a lack of political will, and lack of funding to support land reclamation and anti-desertification programs. Desertification is recognized as a major threat to biodiversity. Some countries have developed biodiversity action plans to counter its effects, particularly in relation to the protection of endangered flora and fauna. Reforestation gets at one of the root causes of desertification and is not just a treatment of the symptoms. Environmental organizations work in places where deforestation and desertification are contributing to extreme poverty. There they focus primarily on educating the local population about the dangers of deforestation and sometimes employ them to grow seedlings, which they transfer to severely deforested areas during the rainy season. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations launched the FAO Drylands Restoration Initiative in 2012 to draw together knowledge and experience on dryland restoration. In 2015, FAO published global guidelines for the restoration of degraded forests and landscapes in drylands, in collaboration with the Turkish Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs and the Turkish Cooperation and Coordination Agency. The \"Green Wall of China\" is a high-profile example of one method that has been finding success in this battle with desertification.. This wall is a much larger-scale version of what American farmers did in the 1930s to stop the great Midwest dust bowl. This plan was proposed in the late 1970s, and has become a major ecological engineering project that is not predicted to end until the year 2055. According to Chinese reports, there have been nearly 66 billion trees planted in China's great green wall. The green wall of China has decreased desert land in China by an annual average of 1,980 square km. The frequency of sandstorms nationwide have fallen 20% due to the green wall. Due to the success that China has been finding in stopping the spread of desertification, plans are currently be made in Africa to start a \"wall\" along the borders of the Sahara desert as well to be financed by the United Nations Global Environment Facility trust. in 2007 the African Union started the great green wall of Africa project in order to combat desertification in 20 countries. the wall is 8000 km wide stretching across the entire width of the continent and has 8 billion dollars in support of the project. The great green wall of Africa has restored 36 million hectares of land to the countries and has created many job opportunities for those who dwell near it. The great green wall has created over 20,000 jobs in Nigeria alone. Techniques focus on two aspects: provisioning of water, and fixation and hyper-fertilizing soil. Fixating the soil is often done through the use of shelter belts, woodlots and windbreaks. Windbreaks are made from trees and bushes and are used to reduce soil erosion and evapotranspiration. They were widely encouraged by development agencies from the middle of the 1980s in the Sahel area of Africa. Some soils (for example, clay), due to lack of water can become consolidated rather than porous (as in the case of sandy soils). Some techniques as zaï or tillage are then used to still allow the planting of crops. Waffle gardens can also help as they can provide protection of the plants against wind/sandblasting, and increase the hours of shade falling on the plant. Another technique that is useful is contour trenching. This involves the digging of 150 m long, 1 m deep trenches in the soil. The trenches are made parallel to the height lines of the landscape, preventing the water from flowing within the trenches and causing erosion. Stone walls are placed around the trenches to prevent the trenches from closing up again. The method was invented by Peter Westerveld. Enriching of the soil and restoration of its fertility is often achieved by plants. Of these, leguminous plants which extract nitrogen from the air and fix it in the soil, succulents (such as Opuntia), and food crops/trees as grains, barley, beans and dates are the most important. Sand fences can also be used to control drifting of soil and sand erosion. Another way to restore soil fertility is through the use of nitrogen-rich fertilizer. Due to the higher cost of this fertilizer, many smallholder farmers are reluctant to use it, especially in areas where subsistence farming is common. Several nations, including India, Zambia, and Malawi have responded to this by implementing subsidies to help encourage adoption of this technique. Some research centres (such as Bel-Air Research Center IRD/ISRA/UCAD) are also experimenting with the inoculation of tree species with mycorrhiza in arid zones. The mycorrhiza are basically fungi attaching themselves to the roots of the plants. They hereby create a symbiotic relation with the trees, increasing the surface area of the tree's roots greatly (allowing the tree to gather much more nutrient from the soil). As there are many different types of deserts, there are also different types of desert reclamation methodologies. An example for this is the salt flats in the Rub' al Khali desert in Saudi Arabia. These salt flats are one of the most promising desert areas for seawater agriculture and could be revitalized without the use of freshwater or much energy. Farmer-managed natural regeneration (FMNR) is another technique that has produced successful results for desert reclamation. Since 1980, this method to reforest degraded landscape has been applied with some success in Niger. This simple and low-cost method has enabled farmers to regenerate some 30,000 square kilometers in Niger. The process involves enabling native sprouting tree growth through selective pruning of shrub shoots. The residue from pruned trees can be used to provide mulching for fields thus increasing soil water retention and reducing evaporation. Additionally, properly spaced and pruned trees can increase crop yields. The Humbo Assisted Regeneration Project which uses FMNR techniques in Ethiopia has received money from The World Bank's BioCarbon Fund, which supports projects that sequester or conserve carbon in forests or agricultural ecosystems.",
"Restoring grasslands store CO from the air as plant material. Grazing livestock, usually not left to wander, eat the grass and minimize grass growth. A method proposed to restore grasslands uses fences with many small paddocks and moving herds from one paddock to another after a day or two in order to mimic natural grazers and allowing the grass to grow optimally. Proponents of managed grazing methods estimate that increasing this method could increase carbon content of the soils in the world's 3.5 billion hectares of agricultural grassland and offset nearly 12 years of CO emissions. One proponent of managed grazing, Allan Savory, as part of holistic management, claims that keeping livestock tightly packed on smaller plots of land, meanwhile rotating them to other small plots of land will reverse desertification; range scientists have however not been able to experimentally confirm his claims.",
"Mitigation: Other related portals:"
]
} |
Västra Götaland County | null | Västra Götaland County () is a county or "län" on the western coast of Sweden. The county is the second largest (in terms of population) of Sweden's counties and it is subdivided into 49 municipalities ("kommuner"). Its population of 1,616,000 amounts to 17% of Sweden's population. The formal capital and seat of the governor of Västra Götaland County is Gothenburg. The political capital and seat of the Västra Götaland Regional Council is Vänersborg. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-1452063 | en-train-1452063 | 1452063 | {
"title": [
"Provinces.",
"Neighbours.",
"Administration.",
"Politics.",
"Heraldry."
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"1",
"1",
"1",
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"Sweden's counties are generally of greater importance than its provinces. The counties are the main administrative units for politics and population counts. Due to its size and young age, the Västra Götaland County has no common inheritance. Of cultural and historical significance are the provinces that Västra Götaland County consists of: Västergötland, Bohuslän and Dalsland. There is also an insignificant part of the province Halland within the county. In addition, the previous counties that were abolished in 1998 had been in use since the 17th century, and therefore have some cultural and historical significance.",
"Västra Götaland County borders to the counties of Värmland, Örebro, Östergötland, Jönköping and Halland. It is also bounded by the Norwegian county of Østfold, lakes Vättern and Vänern, as well as the strait of Skagerrak.",
"Västra Götaland was created in 1998 by a merger of the three former counties of Gothenburg and Bohus County, Älvsborg County and Skaraborg County. The seat of residence for the Governors or \"Landshövding\" is Gothenburg, while the seat of political administration and power is Vänersborg. The Governor is the head of the County Administrative Board or \"Länsstyrelse\".",
"The Västra Götaland Regional Council or \"Västra Götalandsregionen\" is an evolved County Council that for a trial period has assumed certain tasks from the County Administrative Board. Similar trial councils are applied for Skåne County and Gotland County.",
"The arms for the County of Västra Götaland were granted in 1998 when the county was formed. They are a combination of the provincial arms of Västergötland, Bohuslän and Dalsland and the arms of the city of Gothenburg. When the arms are shown with a royal crown they represent the County Administrative Board, which is the regional presence of (royal) government authority. Blazon: \"Quartered, I. the arms of Gothenburg, II. the arms of Bohuslän, III. the arms of Dalsland turned in courtoisie, IV. the arms of Västergötland.\""
]
} |
Estádio da Luz | null | The Estádio da Luz (), officially named Estádio do Sport Lisboa e Benfica, is a multi-purpose stadium located in Lisbon, Portugal. It is used mostly for association football matches, hosting the home games of Portuguese club S.L. Benfica, its owner. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-1021728 | en-train-1021728 | 1021728 | {
"title": [
"Naming.",
"Characteristics.",
"Notable matches.",
"Opening game.",
"UEFA Euro 2004.",
"Portugal national football team matches."
],
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"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1"
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"While the previous Benfica stadium was also officially named \"Estádio do Sport Lisboa e Benfica\", both the old and the new stadia are invariably referred to by their unofficial name, Estádio da Luz. \"Luz\" is the name of the neighborhood the stadium was built on, on the border between the parishes of Benfica and Carnide, which itself derives its name from the nearby Igreja de Nossa Senhora da Luz (Church of Our Lady of Light). This unofficial name caught on soon after the original stadium's construction; the people of Lisbon used to simply call it \"a Luz\" (\"the Light\"). Therefore, the stadium's common name became \"Estádio da Luz\", which is usually anglicised to \"Stadium of Light\". This translation, however, could be argued to be inaccurate, since \"Luz\" refers not to \"light\" but to the original address of the stadium: \"Estrada da Luz\" (\"Road/Street of Light\"). Like its predecessor, the current stadium is also referred to as (the Cathedral) or as.",
"Architect Damon Lavelle, from HOK Sport Venue Event (now Populous), designed the stadium to focus on light and transparency. Its polycarbonate roof allows the sunlight to penetrate the stadium in order to illuminate it. The roof, which is supported by tie-beams of four steel arches, seems to float on the underlying tribunes. The arches are 43 metres high and help define the look of the stadium, after having been shaped to be similar to the wavy profile of its three tiers.",
"",
"In the opening match, Benfica beat Uruguayan side Nacional 2–1 with goals from Nuno Gomes, who became the first scorer in the history of Estádio da Luz.",
"UEFA Euro 2004 - Quarter-finals In the first quarter-final ever between England and Portugal, the English side opened the scoring after only two minutes through Michael Owen. Portugal's constant attacking pressure from then on resulted in Hélder Postiga's 83rd-minute equaliser. A controversial incident came in the dying minutes when Michael Owen hit the Portuguese crossbar, resulting in a Sol Campbell header, which appeared to have given England the lead again, but the header was ruled out for what referee Urs Meier deemed a foul on the Portuguese goalkeeper Ricardo. The sides exchanged goals in extra-time, sending the match to penalty kicks, which Portugal eventually won 6–5. Ricardo saved the penalty from Darius Vassell and then scored the winning goal. UEFA Euro 2004 - Final",
"The following national team matches were held in the stadium."
]
} |
Newfoundland and Labrador | null | Newfoundland and Labrador () is the easternmost province of Canada. Situated in the country's Atlantic region, it is composed of the insular region of Newfoundland and the continental region of Labrador to the northwest, with a combined area of. In 2018, the province's population was estimated at 525,073. About 92% of the province's population lives on the island of Newfoundland (and its neighbouring smaller islands), of whom more than half live on the Avalon Peninsula. | null | [
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"title": [
"Etymology.",
"Geography.",
"Climate.",
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"Colony of Newfoundland.",
"Dominion of Newfoundland.",
"Commission of Government and Canadian Confederation.",
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"content": [
"The name \"New founde lande\" was uttered by King Henry VII about the land explored by the Cabots. In Portuguese it is, which literally means \"new land\" which is also the French name for the Province's island region (). The name \"Terra Nova\" is",
"Newfoundland and Labrador is the most easterly province in Canada, and is at the north-eastern corner of North America. The Strait of Belle Isle separates the province into two geographical parts: Labrador, which is a large area of mainland Canada, and Newfoundland, an island in the Atlantic Ocean. The province also includes over 7,000 tiny islands. Newfoundland is roughly triangular. Each side is about long, and its area is. Newfoundland and its neighbouring small islands (excluding French possessions) have an area of. Newfoundland extends between latitudes 46°36′N and 51°38′N. Labrador is roughly triangular in shape: the western part of its border with Quebec is the drainage divide of the Labrador Peninsula. Lands drained by rivers that flow into the Atlantic Ocean are part of Labrador, and the rest belongs to Quebec. Most of Labrador's southern boundary with Quebec follows the 52nd parallel of latitude. Labrador's extreme northern tip, at 60°22′N, shares a short border with Nunavut. Labrador's area (including associated small islands) is. Together, Newfoundland and Labrador make up 4.06% of Canada's area, with a total area of. Labrador is the easternmost part of the Canadian Shield, a vast area of ancient metamorphic rock comprising much of northeastern North America. Colliding tectonic plates have shaped much of the geology of Newfoundland. Gros Morne National Park has a reputation as an outstanding example of tectonics at work, and as such has been designated a World Heritage Site. The Long Range Mountains on Newfoundland's west coast are the northeasternmost extension of the Appalachian Mountains. The north-south extent of the province (46°36′N to 60°22′N), prevalent westerly winds, cold ocean currents and local factors such as mountains and coastline combine to create the various climates of the province.",
"Most of Newfoundland has a humid continental climate (Dfb under the Köppen climate classification system): cool summer subtype. Newfoundland and Labrador has a wide range of climates and weather, due to its geography. The island of Newfoundland spans 5 degrees of latitude, comparable to the Great Lakes. The province has been divided into six climate types, but broadly Newfoundland has a cool summer subtype of a humid continental climate, which is greatly influenced by the sea since no part of the island is more than 100 km (62 mi) from the ocean. Northern Labrador is classified as a polar tundra climate, southern Labrador has a subarctic climate. Monthly average temperatures, rainfall and snowfall for four places are shown in the attached graphs. St. John's represents the east",
"",
"Human habitation in Newfoundland and Labrador can be traced back about 9,000 years. The Maritime Archaic peoples were groups of Archaic cultures of sea-mammal hunters in the subarctic. They prospered along the Atlantic Coast of North America from about 7000 BC to 1500 BC. Their settlements included longhouses and boat-topped temporary or seasonal houses. They engaged in long-distance trade, using as currency white chert, a rock quarried from northern Labrador to Maine. The southern branch of these people was established on the north peninsula of Newfoundland by 5,000 years ago. The Maritime Archaic period is best known from a mortuary site in Newfoundland at Port au Choix. The Maritime Archaic peoples were gradually displaced by people of the Dorset culture (Late Paleo-Eskimo) who also occupied Port au Choix. The number of their sites discovered on Newfoundland indicates they may have been the most numerous group of Aboriginal people to live there. They thrived from about 2000 BC to AD 800. Many of their sites were on exposed headlands and outer islands. They were more oriented to the sea than earlier peoples, and had developed sleds and boats similar to kayaks. They burned seal blubber in soapstone lamps. Many of these sites, such as Port au Choix, recently excavated by Memorial archaeologist, Priscilla Renouf, are quite large and show evidence of a long-term commitment to place. Renouf has excavated huge amounts of harp seal",
"Sometime before 1563 Basque fishermen, who had been fishing cod shoals off Newfoundland's coasts since the beginning of the sixteenth century, founded Plaisance (today Placentia), a seasonal haven which French fishermen later used. In the Newfoundland will of the Basque seaman Domingo de Luca, dated 1563 and now in an archive in Spain, he asks \"that my body be buried in this port of Plazençia in the place where those who die here are usually buried\". This will is the oldest known civil document written in Canada. Twenty years later, in 1583, Newfoundland became England's first possession in North America and one of the earliest permanent English colonies in the New World when Sir Humphrey Gilbert claimed it for Elizabeth I. European fishing boats had visited Newfoundland continuously since Cabot's second voyage in 1498 and seasonal fishing camps had existed for a century prior. Fishing boats originated from Basque, England, France, and Portugal.",
"Newfoundland remained a colony until acquiring Dominion status in 1907. A dominion constituted a self-governing state of the British Empire or British Commonwealth and the Dominion of Newfoundland was relatively autonomous from British rule. Newfoundland's own regiment, the 1st Newfoundland Regiment, fought in the First World War. On July 1, 1916, nearly the entire regiment was wiped out at Beaumont-Hamel on the first day on",
"Due to Newfoundland's high debt load arising from World War I and construction of the Newfoundland Railway, and decreasing revenue due to the collapse of fish prices, the dominion legislature voted itself out of existence in 1933 in exchange for loan guarantees by the Crown and a promise it would be re-established. On February 16, 1934, the Commission of Government was sworn in, ending 79 years of responsible government. The Commission consisted of seven persons appointed by the British government. For 15 years, no elections took place, and no legislature was convened. When prosperity returned with World War II, agitation began to end the Commission and reinstate responsible government. Instead,",
"Newfoundland and Labrador has a population of 519,716, more than half of whom live on the Avalon Peninsula of Newfoundland, site of the capital and historical early settlement. Since 2006, the population of the province has started to increase for the first time since the early 1990s. In the 2006 census the population of the province decreased by 1.5% compared to 2001, and stood at 505,469. But, by the 2011 census, the population had risen by 1.8%. The largest single religious denomination by number of adherents according to the 2011 National Household Survey was the Roman Catholic Church, at 35.8% of the province's population (181,590 members). The major Protestant denominations made up 57.3% of the population, with the largest groups being the Anglican Church of Canada at 25.1% of the total population (127,255 members), the United Church of Canada at 15.5% (78,380 members), and the Pentecostal churches at 6.5% (33,195 members), with other Protestant denominations in much smaller numbers. Non-Christians constituted only 6.8% of the population, with the majority of those respondents indicating \"no religious affiliation\" (6.2% of the population). According to the 2001 Canadian census, the largest ethnic group in Newfoundland and Labrador is English (39.4%), followed by Irish (19.7%), Scots (6.0%), French (5.5%), and First Nations (3.2%). While half of all respondents also identified their ethnicity as \"Canadian,\" 38% report their ethnicity as \"Newfoundlander\" in a 2003 Statistics Canada Ethnic Diversity Survey. More than 100,000 Newfoundlanders have applied for membership in the Qalipu Mi'kmaq First Nation Band, equivalent to one-fifth of the total population.",
"Newfoundland English is any of several accents and dialects of English found in the province of Newfoundland and Labrador. Most of these differ substantially from the English commonly spoken elsewhere in neighbouring Canada and the North Atlantic. Many Newfoundland dialects are similar to the West Country dialects of the West Country in England, particularly the city of Bristol and counties Cornwall, Devon, Dorset, Hampshire and Somerset, while others resemble dialects of Ireland's southeast, particularly Waterford, Wexford, Kilkenny and Cork. Still others blend elements of both, and there is also a Scottish influence on the dialects. While the Scots came in smaller",
"For many years, Newfoundland and Labrador had experienced a depressed economy. Following the collapse of the cod fishery during the early 1990s, the province suffered record unemployment rates and the population decreased by roughly 60,000. Due to a major energy and resources boom, the provincial economy has had a major turnaround since the turn of the 21st century. Unemployment rates decreased, the population stabilized and had moderate growth. The province has gained record surpluses, which has rid it of its status as a \"have not\" province. Economic growth, gross domestic product (GDP), exports and employment resumed in 2010, after suffering the impacts of the late-2000s recession. In 2010, total capital investment in the province grew to C$6.2 billion, an increase of 23.0% compared to 2009. 2010 GDP reached $28.1 billion, compared to $25.0 billion in 2009. Service industries accounted for the largest share of GDP, especially financial services, health care and public administration. Other significant industries are mining, oil production and manufacturing. The total labour force in 2018 was 261,400 people. Per capita GDP in 2017 was $62,573, higher than the national average and third only to Alberta and Saskatchewan out of Canadian provinces. Mines in Labrador, the iron ore mine at Wabush/Labrador City, and the nickel mine in Voisey's Bay produced a total of $3.3 billion worth of ore in 2010. A mine at Duck Pond (30 km (18 mi) south of the now-closed mine at Buchans), started producing copper, zinc, silver and gold in 2007, and prospecting for new ore bodies continues. Mining accounted for 3.5% of the provincial GDP in 2006. The province produces 55% of Canada's total iron ore. Quarries producing dimension stone such as slate and granite, account for less than $10 million",
"Newfoundland and Labrador is governed by a parliamentary government within the construct of constitutional monarchy; the monarchy in Newfoundland and Labrador is the foundation of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The sovereign is Queen Elizabeth II, who also serves as head of state of 15 other Commonwealth countries, each of Canada's nine other provinces and the Canadian federal realm; she resides in the United Kingdom. The Queen's representative in Newfoundland and Labrador is the Lieutenant Governor of Newfoundland and Labrador, presently Judy Foote. The direct participation of the royal and viceroyal figures in governance is limited; in practice, their use of the executive powers is directed by the Executive Council, a committee of ministers of the Crown responsible to the unicameral, elected House of Assembly. The",
"",
"Before 1950, the visual arts were a minor aspect of Newfoundland cultural life, compared to the performing arts such as music or theatre. Until about 1900, most art was the work of visiting artists, who included members of the Group of Seven, Rockwell Kent, and Eliot O'Hara. Artists such as Newfoundland-born Maurice Cullen and Robert Pilot travelled to Europe to study art in prominent ateliers. By the turn of the 20th century, amateur art was made by people living and working in the province. These artists included J.W. Hayward and his",
"Newfoundland and Labrador has a folk musical heritage based on the Irish, English and Scottish traditions that were brought to its shores centuries ago. Though similar in its Celtic influence to neighbouring Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island, Newfoundland and Labrador are more Irish than Scottish, and have more elements imported from English and French music than those provinces. Much of the region's music focuses on the strong seafaring tradition in the area, and includes sea shanties and other sailing songs. Some modern traditional musicians include Great Big Sea, The Ennis Sisters, The Dardanelles, Ron Hynes,",
"The pre-confederation and current provincial anthem is the \"Ode to Newfoundland\", written by British colonial governor Sir Charles Cavendish Boyle in 1902 during his administration of Newfoundland (1901 to 1904). It was adopted as the official Newfoundland anthem on May 20, 1904. In 1980, the province re-adopted the song as an official provincial anthem, making this the only province in Canada to officially adopt an anthem. \"The Ode to Newfoundland\" is still sung at public events in Newfoundland and Labrador.",
"",
"Margaret Duley (1894–1968) was Newfoundland's first novelist to gain an international audience. Her works include \"The Eyes of the Gull\" (1936), \"Cold Pastoral\" (1939) and \"Highway to Valour\" (1941). Subsequent novelists include Harold Horwood, author of \"Tomorrow Will Be Sunday\" (1966) and \"White Eskimo\" (1972), and Percy Janes, author of \"House of Hate\" (1970).",
"The earliest works of poetry in British North America, mainly written by visitors and targeted at a European audience, described the new territories in optimistic terms. One of the first works was Robert Hayman's \"Quodlibets\", a collection of verses composed in Newfoundland and published in 1628. After World War II, Newfoundland poet E. J. Pratt described the struggle to make a living from the sea in poems about maritime life and the history of Canada. In 1923, his first commercial poetry collection, \"Newfoundland Verse\", was released. It is frequently archaic in diction, and reflects a pietistic and late-Romantic lyrical sensibility. The collection has humorous and sympathetic portraits of Newfoundland characters, and creates an",
"\"1967 marked the opening of the St. John's Arts and Culture Centre and the first all-Canadian Dominion Drama Festival. Playwrights across Canada began writing, and this explosion was also felt in Newfoundland and Labrador. Subregional festivals saw Newfoundland plays compete - \"Wreaker\"s by Cassie Brown, \"Tomorrow Will Be Sunday\" by Tom Cahill, and \"Holdin' Ground\" by Ted Russell. Cahill's play went on to receive top honours and a performance at Expo 67 in Montreal. Joining Brown and Cahill in the seventies were Michael Cook and Al Pittman, both prolific writers\".",
"",
"Newfoundland and Labrador's present provincial flag, designed by Newfoundland artist Christopher Pratt, was officially adopted by the legislature on May 28, 1980, and first flown on \"Discovery Day\" that year. The blue is meant to represent the sea, the white represents snow and ice, the red represents the efforts and struggles of the people, and the gold represents the confidence of Newfoundlanders and Labradorians. The blue triangles are a tribute to the Union Flag, and represent the British heritage of the province. The two red triangles represent Labrador (the mainland portion of the province) and the island. In Pratt's words, the golden arrow points towards a \"brighter future\". What has commonly but mistakenly been called the Newfoundland tricolour \"Pink, White and Green\"(sic) is the flag of the Catholic Church affiliated Star of the Sea Association (SOSA). It originated in the late nineteenth century and enjoyed popularity among people who were under the impression that it was the Native Flag of Newfoundland which was created before 1852 by the Newfoundland Natives'Society. The true Native Flag (red-white-green tricolour) was widely flown into the late nineteenth century. Neither tricolour",
"Newfoundland and Labrador has a somewhat different sports culture from the rest of Canada, owing in part to its long history separate from the rest of Canada and under British rule. Ice hockey, however, remains popular; a minor league professional team called the Newfoundland Growlers of the ECHL plays at the Mile One Centre in St. John's since the 2018–19 season. The area had an intermittent American Hockey League presence with the St. John's Maple Leafs then St. John's IceCaps until 2017, and the Newfoundland Senior Hockey League has teams around the island. Since the departure of the St. John's Fog Devils in 2008, Newfoundland and Labrador is the only province in Canada to not have a team in the major junior Canadian Hockey League (should one ever join it would be placed in the QMJHL, which hosted the Fog Devils and has jurisdiction over Atlantic Canada). Association football (soccer) and rugby union are both more popular in Newfoundland and Labrador than the rest of Canada in general. Soccer is hosted at King George V",
"",
"Within the province, the Newfoundland and Labrador Department of Transportation and Works operates or sponsors 15 automobile, passenger and freight ferry routes which connect various communities along the province's significant coastline. A regular passenger and car ferry service, lasting about 90 minutes, crosses the Strait of Belle Isle, connecting the province's island of Newfoundland with the region of Labrador on the mainland. The ferry \"MV Apollo\" travels from St. Barbe, Newfoundland on the Great Northern Peninsula to the port town of Blanc-Sablon, Quebec,",
"The St. John's International Airport YYT and the Gander International Airport YQX are the only airports in the province that are part of the National Airports System. The St. John's International Airport handles nearly",
"The Newfoundland Railway operated on the island of Newfoundland from 1898 to"
]
} |
Estádio do Dragão | null | The Estádio do Dragão (; Dragon Stadium) is an all-seater football stadium located in Porto, Portugal. It is the current home stadium of FC Porto with a capacity of 50,033, making it the third largest football stadium in Portugal. | null | [
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"title": [
"Construction and inauguration.",
"Naming.",
"International matches.",
"Portugal national team matches.",
"UEFA Euro 2004.",
"2019 UEFA Nations League Finals.",
"Concerts and other uses.",
"Access and transportation."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Construction works began in late 2001, and were completed in November 2003, some months after what was expected, since in February 2002, Porto mayor Rui Rio changed the estate distribution, criticizing the plan for including high-scale housing and shopping for the area. These actions forced the chairman of FC Porto, Jorge Nuno Pinto da Costa, to halt all building operations, which were only resumed after a consensus was reached. Designed by Portuguese architect Manuel Salgado and built by Portuguese contractor Somague, it cost €97,755,318, of which €18,430,956 was subsidized by the government. To help underwrite costs, each stand carries one or two sponsor names: Super Bock (south), tmn (east), meo (west), and Coca-Cola (north stand). Away fans are placed in the right corner of the upper tier of the east stand, while home Ultra groups, Super Dragões and Colectivo Ultras 95, occupy the south stand and the north stand, respectively, like on the old stadium. The stadium was inaugurated on November 16, 2003, with a match against FC Barcelona, which featured the debut of a 16-year-old Lionel Messi in the Spanish side. Porto won 2–0 with goals by Derlei and Hugo Almeida. Due to severe turf problems, however, Porto was forced to return and play in the old \"Estádio das Antas\", until the turf was replanted by mid-February 2004. The stadium is characterized by a frame of 21 000 meters squared of azulejos.",
"Prior to the inauguration, the stadium's name was debated internally between elements of Porto's administration, with various alternatives in consideration, such as retaining the old name, Estádio das Antas (officially, unlike the former stadium), or name it after some of the club's biggest historical figures like former player Artur de Sousa Pinga, manager José Maria Pedroto or president Jorge Nuno Pinto da Costa, the latter being, the one with most gathered consensus but ended dismissed by the president himself. After a deliberation period, the name Estádio do Dragão was revealed to the general public.",
"",
"The following national team matches were held in the stadium.",
"Constructed to become one of the venues of the UEFA Euro 2004 tournament, it staged the inaugural match between hosts Portugal and eventual winners Greece, as well as three group stage, one quarterfinal, and one semifinal fixtures.",
"One of the venues of the 2019 UEFA Nations League Finals.",
"A major source of income granted by the infrastructure is the planned capability to monetize on organizing events outside of regular football matches. Those extend from business meetings, congresses, summits, festivals, expos and other sports competitions. For example, the ROC committee picked the stadium to host the 2009 Race of Champions South Europe Regional Final, therefore, the grass pitch was converted into an asphalt course in order to accommodate the race. The 2019 ESSMA Summit is also noteworthy by having joined several clubs, leagues and federations representatives together at the venue to discuss matters on the developments and trends of the football industry. In addition, through different music promoters and specialized event management companies, the stadium already served as a concert venue to four international tour schedules from recognized musical artists along with selected opening acts.",
"Access by vehicle is possible through the VCI (\"Via de Cintura Interna\"), a roadway that passes right next to the stadium, granting a direct connection. In the event of coming from the city center, driving down the main Alameda da Antas is another viable route towards the destination. In spite of this, the recommendation is the use of the public transports, which results in a better flux of public movement around the perimeter. Having its own station combined with the infrastructure, the metro functions as the main way of reaching the stadium, with different lines linking the various city areas and a direct connection to the international Francisco Sá Carneiro Airport. Alternatively, the STCP bus service also grants routes for the purpose and there are 150 bicycle parking spots available."
]
} |
Estádio José Alvalade | null | Estádio José Alvalade is a football stadium in Lisbon, Portugal, home of Sporting Clube de Portugal. It was built adjacent to the site of the older stadium. The stadium is named after José Alvalade, the founder and first club member of Sporting CP in the early twentieth century. | null | [
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"title": [
"Origin.",
"History.",
"Transport."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The previous José Alvalade Stadium was opened on June 10, 1956. With Portugal achieving the rights to host the UEFA Euro 2004, the Portugal stadiums needed to be improved, so the old Stadium was demolished in 2003 to make way for the new stadium.",
"The stadium is the center of a complex called Alvalade XXI, designed by Portuguese architect Tomás Taveira, which includes a mall called Alvaláxia with a 12-screen movie theater, a health club, the club's museum, a sports pavilion, a clinic, and an office building. The complex cost a total of €162 million, with the stadium accounting with almost €121 million. On the exterior, the stadium features multi-coloured tiles. Seats are also arranged in a random-looking colour mix. It was classified by UEFA as a 4-star stadium, enabling it to host finals of major UEFA events. The stadium – originally projected to hold only 40,000 spectators at any given time – has a capacity of 50,095 and was acoustically engineered as a venue for major concerts. The stadium has also a total of 1,315 underground parking spaces, including 30 for disabled spectators. The new stadium official opening was on 6 August 2003 when Sporting played and beat Manchester United 3–1. The stadium hosted five matches of UEFA Euro 2004, one of them being the semi-final between Portugal and the Netherlands, which Portugal won 2–1. It also hosted the 2005 UEFA Cup Final between Sporting and CSKA Moscow, which CSKA Moscow won 3–1. After years of coping with a poor playing surface, the Sporting board initially decided to install synthetic turf for the 2011-12 season, but this decision was later abandoned for the use of artificial lighting.",
"The Stadium is served by the Campo Grande station of the Lisbon Metro and a bus terminal served by several companies. The \"Segunda Circular\", a major ring road of Lisbon, runs close by and the stadium can be reached via the exit Estádio de Alvalade. There are several car parks around the stadium. It is a relatively short distance (3 km) from Lisbon's biggest stadium, the Estádio da Luz, homeground of rivals S.L. Benfica."
]
} |
Lis pendens | null | In United States law, a lis pendens is a written notice that a lawsuit has been filed concerning real estate, involving either the title to the property or a claimed ownership interest in it. The notice is usually filed in the county land records office. Recording a "lis pendens" against a piece of property alerts a potential purchaser or lender that the property’s title is in question, which makes the property less attractive to a buyer or lender. Once the notice is filed, the legal title of anyone who nevertheless purchases the land or property described in the notice is subject to the ultimate decision of the lawsuit. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-227875 | en-train-227875 | 227875 | {
"title": [
"History.",
"Effect."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Under the common law, the mere existence of a lawsuit potentially affecting the title to real property had the legal effect of putting the entire world on constructive notice of the suit; anyone acquiring an interest in real property which was the subject of a pending suit took that interest subject to the litigants' rights as they might be eventually determined, no matter how much later. In effect, nothing relating to the ownership of the subject matter of the suit could be definitively changed while the suit was pending. Without publication of the existence of a lawsuit, innocent buyers might discover the existence of a lawsuit too late. The harsh effect of this rule, and its effect on innocent purchasers, led many jurisdictions to enact \"lis pendens\" statutes requiring a written notice, usually recorded in the land records where the real estate is located, for the notice provisions of the rule to be effective. Typically, a separate recorded instrument is required by statute if the lawsuit in question affects title to real property. If the statutory requirements are met, the world is put on \"constructive notice\" of the existence of the suit, and any person acquiring an interest later does so subject to the outcome of the suit.",
"\"Lis pendens\" is taken as constructive notice of the pending lawsuit, and it serves to place a cloud on the title of the property in question until the suit is resolved and the notice released or the \"lis pendens\" is expunged. Careful buyers will be unwilling to purchase land subject to a \"lis pendens\" or will only purchase the land at a discount, prudent lenders will not lend money against the security of the land, and title insurance companies will not insure the title to such land: title is taken subject to the outcome of the lawsuit. Because so much real property is purchased with borrowed money, this usually keeps the owner from selling the property. It also may keep the owner from borrowing money secured by the property (such as to pay the costs of defending the suit). It is important to note that the presence of a \"lis pendens\" does \"not\" prevent or necessarily invalidate a transfer of the property, although it makes such a transfer subject to the outcome of the litigation. Thus, the owner is not prevented from selling the land for (non-borrowed) cash, pledging it as security for a speculative loan, or giving it away, all subject to the outcome of the lawsuit. However, once the \"lis pendens\" is recorded, the recipient (a \"purchaser\" or \"grantee \"pendente lite\"\") would be deemed to have notice of the litigation and might lose their title to the property if the plaintiff's suit prevails. While it is generally thought of in connection with real property (land, buildings, and the like), the doctrine of \"lis pendens\" also applies to personal property. Frequently, \"lis pendens\" statutes only apply to real property, so the common-law doctrine probably still applies to personal property."
]
} |
Jeannette Thurber | null | Jeannette Thurber (also known as Jeannette Meyers Thurber; January 29, 1850 in Delhi, New York – January 2, 1946 in Bronxville, New York) was amongst the first major patrons of classical music in the United States. Thurber established the National Conservatory of Music of America in 1885—the first of its kind and an endeavor that some say ushered in the first orchestral music with a distinctively American sound. But in a very radical stance for the day, Thurber championed the rights of women, people of color and the handicapped to attend her school, sometimes on full scholarship. This was 1885—not too long after the Civil War—and her school was racially integrated, promoted women, and had an inclusive stance toward the handicapped. | null | [
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"title": [
"Life."
],
"section_level": [
"1"
],
"content": [
"Jeannette Meyers was the daughter of Henry Meyers, an immigrant violinist from Copenhagen, Denmark, and Annamarie Coffin Price. She was educated at the Paris Conservatory, which inspired her to advocate for government funding of her school, as was done in France. On September 15, 1869, at the age of 19, she married Francis Beatty Thurber (Delhi, November 13, 1842 – Manhattan, July 4, 1907), who would later become a millionaire grocery wholesaler. The couple had two daughters, Marianne and Jeannette. The family had a summer home at Onteora Park in the Catskill Mountains. In 1884 Thurber sponsored New York City's first Wagner festival. In 1885 she founded the National Conservatory of Music of America and its adjunct American Opera Company, both in New York. In 1888/89 she sponsored the New York debut of the Boston Symphony. But the Conservatory seemed to be her real love, and she grew it from 84 students when it opened to 3,000 students in 1900. Her success was due, in part, to her conviction that her school required an outstanding and publicly-celebrated faculty: its first director was Jacques Bouhy, a world-renowned baritone. In 1892, she was responsible for bringing the Czech composer Antonín Dvořák to the United States to head her conservatory, where he remained until 1895. Dvořák, who refused her offer several times, was ultimately persuaded by his wife, Anna Dvorak, when she learned of the staggering annual salary of $15,000, which was 25 times his current income. He was to receive four months' summer leave in exchange for three hours of daily teaching and six annual concerts. It was there that he met 26-year-old African-American student Harry Burleigh. Burleigh, who mopped floors to pay for his tuition, sang spirituals as he worked and drew the interest of Dvorak. Burleigh's rendering of African-American spirituals had a profound effect on Dvorak’s compositions and served as the basis for one of his best-known symphonies, (with a title suggested by Thurber, it’s said), “From the New World.” Dvorak said \"In the Negro melodies of America I discover all that is needed for a great and noble school of music. Burleigh went on to assist Dvorak in copying sections of his work as his amanuensis, and ultimately became a well-known baritone and composer in his own right, as well as a faculty member at the Conservatory. In addition to race and gender issues, Thurber championed the idea of a federally-funded Conservatory and was very pointed about the fact that the United States was the only industrialized nation that did not provide government monies for the arts. Thurber “precipitated public debate over the appropriateness of a federally funded Conservatory of music in a capitalist society.” In fact, the Institute of Musical Art of the City of New York, chartered in 1904 with the backing of Andrew Carnegie, was a privately funded institution and became her chief competition, and there’s no indication in the public record that they accepted blacks, the handicapped or even women. The school ultimately morphed into the Juilliard School. (Carnegie also was a founding patron of Thurber’s Conservatory though some research suggests that other than a small amount from L. Horton and Andrew Carnegie, Thurber is the only one who contributed financial backing.) Thurber’s continuing difficulties in securing funding for her school—either public or private—and her flagging energy as she grew older, contributed to the demise of the school, but her success did as well: music schools started springing up, competing for faculty and students. On the other hand, her school was written out of the record of musical history well before the doors had even closed. “It is conspicuously absent from Elson’s \"National Music of America\", written in 1899, nor is there any reference to it in Waldo Selden Pratt’s 1909 \"History of Music\", yet the school was still advertising nationally and enrolling hundreds of students.” Scholars suggest it could be because the school had been pigeon-holed as being “specifically successful in helping students of foreign birth and certain special classes, like the blind and those of Negro blood.\" Or because the orchestra had a “a sprinkling of girls”, as the New York Evening Post reported in 1899. Thurber lived to be 96, passing away in 1946 as a woman who “combined her love of music with an entrepreneurial imagination, the management skills of the labor negotiator, and a profound dedication to music education—qualities that mark her, even to this day, as one of the most intelligent, effective patrons ever to take a stand for American music.”"
]
} |
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] | null | null | en-train-1020084 | en-train-1020084 | 1020084 | {
"title": [
"Geography.",
"Extent.",
"Islands.",
"Cities.",
"Salinity.",
"Winter."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"",
"The International Hydrographic Organization defines the Gulf of Riga's western limit as \"A line running from Lyser Ort (57°34'N), in Latvia, to the South extreme of Œsel Island, through this island to Pammerort (22°34'E), thence to Enmast Point, the S extreme of Dagö, through Dagö to Takhkona Point, the North extreme thereof, and on to Spithamn Point in Estonia\".",
"Major islands in the gulf include Saaremaa, Kihnu, and Ruhnu, which are all controlled by Estonia. Kihnu covers an area of. Saaremaa island is responsible for the brackish water of the Gulf of Riga, as it is partially \"shielded\" from the Baltic Sea.",
"Notable cities around the gulf include Riga, Pärnu, Jūrmala, and Kuressaare. The main rivers flowing into the gulf are Daugava, Pärnu, Lielupe, Gauja, and Salaca.",
"The freshwater runoff entering the Baltic sea accounts for two percent of its volume. A narrow connection to the North Sea means that water stays in the Baltic for an average of 30 years. These two characteristics work to make the Baltic Sea one of the largest brackish bodies of water in the world. The Gulf of Riga has an average salt concentration for the Baltic Sea, which is around six to ten parts per thousand. Freshwater has a concentration of 0.5 parts per thousand, and seawater is about 30 parts per thousand. A saline stratification layer is found at a depth of approximately.",
"In winter, most or all of the Bay usually freezes. This is due to low salinity and the calming effect of the partial closure of the entrance of the gulf. During the winter, many people walk over the bay. The thickest recorded ice was thick in the winter of 1941–42. Ice hole fishing has been a traditional source of winter food, and remains a common activity. The ice usually melts between March and April. In late March 2013, when the ice started to melt, 200 people had to be rescued from ice floes."
]
} |
Prince Edward Island | null | Prince Edward Island (PEI) is a province of Canada and one of the three Maritime provinces. It is the smallest province of Canada in both land area and population, but the most densely populated. Part of the traditional lands of the Mi'kmaq, it became a British colony in the 1700s and was federated into Canada as a province in 1873. Its capital is Charlottetown. According to Statistics Canada, the province of PEI has 158,158 residents. | null | [
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"title": [
"Etymology.",
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"content": [
"In 1798, the British named the island colony for Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn (1767–1820), the fourth son of King George III and the father of Queen Victoria. Prince Edward has been called \"Father of the Canadian Crown\". The following island landmarks are also named after the Duke of Kent: In French, the island is today",
"Prince Edward Island is located in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, west of Cape Breton Island, north of the Nova Scotia peninsula, and east of New Brunswick. Its southern shore bounds the Northumberland Strait. The island has two urban areas. The larger surrounds Charlottetown Harbour, situated centrally on the island's southern shore, and consists of the capital city Charlottetown, and suburban towns Cornwall and Stratford and a developing urban fringe. A much smaller urban area surrounds Summerside Harbour, situated on the southern shore west of Charlottetown Harbour, and consists primarily of the city of Summerside. As with all natural harbours on the island, Charlottetown and Summerside harbours are created by rias. The island's landscape is pastoral. Rolling hills, woods, reddish white sand beaches, ocean coves and the famous red soil have given Prince Edward Island a reputation as a province of outstanding natural beauty. The provincial government has enacted laws to preserve the landscape through regulation, although there is a lack of consistent enforcement, and an absence of province-wide zoning and land-use planning. Under the Planning Act of the province, municipalities have the option to assume responsibility for land-use planning through the development and adoption of official plans and land use bylaws. Thirty-one municipalities have taken responsibility for planning. In areas where municipalities have not assumed responsibility for planning, the Province remains responsible for development control. The island's lush landscape has a strong bearing on its economy and culture. The author Lucy Maud Montgomery drew inspiration from the land during the late Victorian Era for the setting of her classic novel \"Anne of Green Gables\" (1908). Today, many of the same qualities that Montgomery and others found in the island are enjoyed by tourists who visit year-round. They enjoy a variety of leisure activities, including beaches, various golf courses, eco-tourism adventures, touring the countryside, and enjoying cultural events in local communities around the island. The smaller, rural communities as well as the towns and villages throughout the province retain a slower-pace. Prince Edward Island has become popular as a tourist destination for relaxation. The economy of most rural communities on the island is based on small-scale agriculture. Industrial farming has increased as businesses buy and consolidate older farm properties. The coastline has a combination of long beaches, dunes, red sandstone cliffs, salt water marshes, and numerous bays and harbours. The beaches, dunes and sandstone cliffs consist of sedimentary rock and other material with a high iron concentration, which oxidises upon exposure to the air. The geological properties of a white silica sand found at Basin Head are unique in the province; the sand grains cause a scrubbing noise as they rub against each other when walked on, and have been called the \"singing sands\". Large dune fields on the north shore can be found on barrier islands at the entrances to various bays and harbours. The magnificent sand dunes at Greenwich are of particular significance. The shifting, parabolic dune system is home to a variety of birds and rare plants; it is also a site of significant archeological interest. Despite Prince Edward Island's small size and reputation as a largely rural province, it is the most densely populated province in Canada.",
"Since before the influx of Europeans, the Mi'kmaq First Nations have inhabited Prince Edward Island as part of the region of Mi'kma'ki. They named the Island \"Epekwitk\", meaning 'cradled on the waves'; Europeans represented the pronunciation as \"Abegweit\". Another name is \"Minegoo\". The Mi'kmaq's legend is that the island was formed by the Great Spirit placing on the Blue Waters some dark red crescent-shaped clay. There are two Mi'kmaq First Nation communities on Epekwitk today.",
"In 1534, Jacques Cartier was the first European to see the island. In 1604, the Kingdom of France laid claim to the lands of the Maritimes, including Prince Edward Island, establishing the French colony of Acadia. The island was named \"Île Saint-Jean\" by the French. The Mi'kmaq never recognized the claim but welcomed the French as trading partners and allies. During the 18th century, the French were engaged in a series of conflicts with the Kingdom of Great Britain and its colonies. Several battles between the two belligerents occurred on Prince Edward Island during this",
"Initially named St. John's Island by the British, the island was administered as part of the colony of Nova Scotia, until it was split into a separate colony in 1769. In the mid-1760s, a survey team divided the Island into 67 lots. On July 1, 1767, these properties were allocated to supporters of King George III by means of a lottery. Ownership of the land remained in the hands of landlords in England, angering Island settlers who were unable to gain title to land on which they worked and lived. Significant rent charges (to absentee landlords) created further anger. The land had been given",
"In September 1864, Prince Edward Island hosted the Charlottetown Conference, which was the first meeting in the process leading to the Quebec Resolutions and the creation of Canada in 1867. Prince Edward Island did not find the terms of union favourable and balked at joining in 1867, choosing to remain a colony of the United Kingdom. In the late 1860s, the colony examined various options, including the possibility of becoming a discrete dominion unto itself, as well as entertaining delegations from the United States, who were interested in Prince Edward Island joining the United States. In 1871, the colony began construction of a railway and, frustrated by Great Britain's Colonial Office, began negotiations with the United States. In 1873, Canadian Prime Minister Sir John A. Macdonald, anxious to",
"According to the 2011 National Household Survey, the largest ethnic group consists of people of Scottish descent (39.2%), followed by English (31.1%), Irish (30.4%), French (21.1%), German (5.2%), and Dutch (3.1%) descent. Prince Edward Island's population is largely white; there are few visible minorities. Chinese Canadians are the largest visible minority group of Prince Edward Island, comprising 1.3% of the province's population. Almost half of respondents identified their ethnicity as \"Canadian\". \"Source: Statistics Canada\"",
"The Canada 2016 Census showed a population of 142,910. Of the 140,020 singular responses to the census question concerning mother tongue, the most commonly reported languages were as follows: In addition, there",
"Traditionally the population has been evenly divided between Catholic and Protestant affiliations. The 2001 census indicated number of adherents for the Roman Catholic Church with 63,240 (47%) and various Protestant churches with 57,805 (43%). This included the United Church of Canada with 26,570 (20%); the Presbyterian Church with 7,885",
"The provincial economy is dominated by the seasonal industries of agriculture, tourism, and the fishery. The province is limited in terms of heavy industry and manufacturing, though Cavendish Farms runs extensive food manufacturing operations on PEI. Agriculture remains the dominant industry in the provincial economy, as it has since colonial times. In 2015, agriculture and agri-food manufacturing was responsible for 7.6% of the province's GDP. The Island has a total land area of with approximately cleared for agricultural use. In 2016, the Census of Agriculture counted 1,353 farms on the Island, which is a 9.5% decrease from the previous census (2011). During the 20th century, potatoes replaced mixed farming as the leading cash crop, accounting for one-third of provincial farm income. The number of acres under potato production in 2010 was 88,000, while soy accounted for 55,000. There are approximately 330 potato growers on PEI, with the grand majority of these being family farms, often with multiple generations working together. The province currently accounts for a third of Canada's total potato production, producing approximately annually. Comparatively, the state of Idaho produces approximately annually, with a population approximately 9.5 times greater. The province is a major producer of seed potatoes, exporting to more than twenty countries around the world. An estimated total of 70% of the land is cultivated and 25% of all potatoes grown in Canada originate from P.E.I. The processing of frozen fried potatoes, green vegetables, and berries is a leading business activity. As a legacy of the island's colonial history, the provincial government enforces extremely strict rules for non-resident land ownership, especially since the PEI \"Lands Protection Act\" of 1982. Residents and corporations are limited to maximum holdings of 400 and 1,200 hectares respectively. There are also restrictions on non-resident ownership of shorelines. Many of the province's coastal communities rely upon shellfish harvesting, particularly lobster fishing as well as oyster fishing and mussel farming. The island's economy has grown significantly over the last decade in key areas of innovation. Aerospace, bioscience, information and communications technology, and renewable energy have been a focus for growth and diversification. Aerospace alone now accounts for over 25% of the province's international exports and is the island's fourth largest industry at $355 million in annual sales. The bioscience industry employs over 1,300 people and generates over $150 million in sales. The sale of carbonated beverages such as beer and soft drinks in non-refillable containers, such as aluminum cans or plastic bottles, was banned in 1976 as an environmental measure in response to public concerns over litter. Beer and soft drink companies opted to use refillable glass bottles for their products which were redeemable at stores and bottle depots. Though often environmental and economic agendas may be at odds, the ‘ban the can’ legislation, along with being environmentally driven, was also economically motivated as it protected jobs. Seaman's Beverages, a bottling company and carbonated beverage manufacturer, was established in 1939 and a major employer in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island. Making it illegal to retail cans led to a bigger share of the carbonated beverage market for Seamans. Seamans Beverages was eventually acquired by Pepsi Bottling Group Inc in 2002 prior to the lifting of the legislation. The introduction of recycling programs for cans and plastic bottles in neighbouring provinces in recent years (also using a redemption system) has seen the provincial government introduce legislation to reverse this ban with the restriction lifted on May 3, 2008. Prior to harmonization in 2013, Prince Edward Island had one of Canada's highest provincial retail sales tax rates at 10%. On April 1, 2013, the provincial tax was harmonized with the federal Goods and Services Tax, and became known as the \"Harmonized Sales Tax\". The 15% tax is applied to almost all goods and services except some clothing, food and home heating fuel. This rate is the same as the neighbouring Atlantic provinces. The provincial government provides consumer protection in the form of regulation for certain items, ranging from apartment rent increases to petroleum products including gas, diesel, propane and heating oil. These are regulated through the Prince Edward Island Regulatory and Appeals Commission (IRAC). IRAC is authorized to limit the number of companies who are permitted to sell petroleum products. , the median family income on Prince Edward Island is $76,607/year. The minimum wage is $12.25/hour.",
"Prince Edward Island's public school system has an English school district named the Public Schools Branch (previously the English Language School Board), as well as a Francophone district, the Commission scolaire de langue française. The English language districts have a total of 10 secondary schools and 54 intermediate and elementary schools while the Francophone district has 6 schools covering all grades. 22 per cent of the student population is enrolled in French immersion. This is one of the highest levels in the country. Three public post-secondary institutions operate in the province, including one university, and two colleges. The University of Prince Edward Island is the province's only public university, and is located in",
"The provincial government is responsible for such areas as health and social services, education, economic development, labour legislation and civil law. These matters of government are overseen in the provincial capital, Charlottetown. Prince Edward Island is governed by a parliamentary government within the construct of constitutional monarchy; the monarchy in Prince Edward Island is the foundation of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The sovereign is Queen Elizabeth II, who also serves as head of state of 15 other Commonwealth countries, each of Canada's nine other provinces, and the Canadian federal realm, and resides predominantly in the United Kingdom. As such, the Queen's representative, the Lieutenant Governor of Prince Edward Island (presently Antoinette Perry), carries out most of the royal duties in Prince Edward Island. The direct participation of the royal and viceroyal figures in any of these areas of governance is limited; in practice, their use of the executive powers is directed by the Executive",
"The province has a single health administrative region (or district health authority) called Health PEI. Health PEI receives funding for its operations and is regulated by the Department of Health and Wellness. Many PEI homes and businesses are served by central sewage collection and/or treatment systems. These are operated either by a municipality or a private utility. Many industrial operations have their own wastewater treatment facilities. Staff members with the Department of Environment, Water and Climate Change provide advice to operators, as needed, on proper system maintenance. The IRAC regulates municipal water and sewer in the province, now under the \"Environmental Protection Act\". Since around 1900, the residents of the City of Charlottetown have benefited from a central sanitary sewer service. Early disposal practices, while advanced for their time, eventually were found to compromise the ecological integrity of the nearby Hillsborough River and the Charlottetown Harbour. By 1974, the Commission had spearheaded the development of a primary wastewater treatment plant, known as the Charlottetown Pollution Control Plant, together with the construction of several pumping stations along the City's waterfront, and outfall piping deep into the Hillsborough River. There are eight hospitals in the province. Prince Edward Island offers programs and services in areas such as acute care, primary care, home care, palliative care, public health, chronic disease prevention, and mental health and addictions, to name a few. The provincial government has opened several family health centres in recent years in various rural and urban communities. A provincial cancer treatment centre at the Queen Elizabeth Hospital provides support to those dealing with various types of cancer-related illnesses. A family medicine residency program was established in 2009 with the Dalhousie University Faculty of Medicine as a means to encourage new physicians to work in Prince Edward Island. Long-term-care services are also available with several programs in place to support seniors wishing to remain independent in their communities. Many medications for seniors",
"Prince Edward Island's transportation network has traditionally revolved around its seaports of Charlottetown, Summerside, Borden, Georgetown, and Souris —linked to its railway system, and the two main airports in Charlottetown and Summerside, for communication with mainland North America. The railway system was abandoned by CN in 1989 in favour of an agreement with the federal government to improve major highways. Until May 1997, the province was linked by two passenger-vehicle ferry services to the mainland: one, provided by Marine Atlantic, operated year-round between Borden and Cape Tormentine, New Brunswick; the other, provided by Northumberland Ferries Limited, operates seasonally between Wood Islands and Caribou, Nova Scotia. A third ferry service provided by CTMA operates all year round with seasonal times between Souris and Cap-aux-Meules, Quebec, in the Magdalen Islands. In",
"",
"The island's cultural traditions of art, music and creative writing are supported through the public education system. There is an annual arts festival, the Charlottetown Festival, hosted at the Confederation Centre of the Arts. Lucy Maud Montgomery, who was born in Clifton (now New London) in 1874, wrote some 20 novels and numerous short stories that have been collected into anthologies. Her first \"Anne\" book \"Anne of Green Gables\" was published in 1908. The musical play \"Anne of Green Gables\" has run every year at the Charlottetown festival for more than four decades. The sequel, \"Anne & Gilbert\", premiered in the Playhouse in Victoria in 2005. The actual location of Green Gables, the house featured in Montgomery's \"Anne\" books, is in Cavendish, on the north",
"There is an annual arts festival, the Charlottetown Festival, hosted at the Confederation Centre of the Arts as well as the Island Fringe Festival that takes place around Charlottetown. An annual jazz festival, the P.E.I. Jazz and Blues Festival. is a one-week-long series of concerts taking place at several venues including Murphy's Community Centre, outdoor stages, and churches in Charlottetown.",
"The most common sports played on the Island are hockey, curling, golf, horse racing, baseball, soccer, rugby, football and basketball. Water sports are also popular on Prince Edward Island during the summer. The province is home to two professional sports teams, a major junior ice hockey team, the Charlottetown Islanders of the Quebec Major Junior",
"Hainan Province, China, has been the sister province of Prince Edward Island since 2001. This came about after Vice-Governor Lin Fanglue stayed for two days to hold discussions about partnership opportunities and trade."
]
} |
What's the 411? | null | What's the 411? is the debut album by American R&B singer Mary J. Blige. It was released on July 28, 1992, by Uptown Records and MCA Records. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-1204151 | en-train-1204151 | 1204151 | {
"title": [
"Background.",
"Recording.",
"Release and promotion.",
"Critical reception."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
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"content": [
"At the age of 17, Blige recorded a cover version of Anita Baker's \"Caught Up in the Rapture\" in a recording booth at a local mall. Her mother's boyfriend at the time later played the cassette to recording artist and A&R runner for Uptown Records, Jeff Redd. Redd then sent it to the president and chief executive officer of the label, Andre Harrell. Blige met with Harrell in 1990 and performed the song for him. She was signed to Uptown and became the label's youngest and third female recording artist (after Finesse N' Synquis).",
"After being signed to Uptown Records, Blige began working with record producer Puff Daddy. He became the executive producer and produced a majority of the album. The title, \"What's the 411?\", derived from Blige's past occupation as a 4-1-1 operator; it was also an indication by Blige of being the \"real deal\". The music was described as \"revelatory on a frequent basis\". Blige was noted for having a \"tough girl persona and streetwise lyrics\". The album begins with \"Leave a Message\", a collection of Blige's answering machine messages over a drum beat. The following two tracks, \"Reminisce\" and \"You Remind Me\", are melancholy songs that are overlaid with hip hop beats. A cover of Chaka Khan's \"Sweet Thing\" followed.",
"\"What's the 411?\" was released on July 28, 1992. It peaked at number six on the \"Billboard\" 200 and topped the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums chart. It also peaked at number 53 on the UK Albums Chart. The first single released to promote the album was \"You Remind Me\", originally from 1991 film \"Strictly Business\". It reached the number 29 position on the pop charts and number 1 on the R&B charts in 1992. The next single, \"Real Love\" (#7 pop, #1 R&B, 1992), made Blige one of the year's biggest crossover successes. With the album, Blige became the most successful new female R&B artist of 1992 in the United States, according to music scholar Dave McAleer. Reporting on the album's commercial success for \"Entertainment Weekly\" that year, Dave DiMartino said Blige's \"powerful, soulful voice and hip-hop attitude\" made her \"solidly connected with an audience that has never seen a woman do new jack swing but loves it just the same\". The following year, a remix album was released to further market \"What's the 411?\", while \"Sweet Thing\" reached number 28 on the pop charts as a single. In 2000, \"What's the 411?\" was certified three times Platinum by the RIAA. By August 2010, it had sold 3,318,000 copies in the US.",
"\"What's the 411?\" received positive reviews from contemporary critics. Reviewing the album for \"Entertainment Weekly\" in 1992, Havelock Nelson hailed it as \"one of the most accomplished fusions of soul values and hip-hop to date\" while comparing Blige's \"powerful voice\" to Khan, Anita Baker, and Caron Wheeler. Connie Johnson from the \"Los Angeles Times\" was particularly impressed by her rendition of \"Sweet Thing\" and \"You Remind Me\", calling the latter track \"one of those perfect singer-to-song matches\". \"People\" magazine said the album succeeded because of Blige's \"fly-girl attitude\" and singing ability, even though \"she may not be Chaka Khan or Gladys Knight\". Mitchell May was more critical in the \"Chicago Tribune\", writing that aside from the title track and \"Sweet Thing\", \"What's the 411?\" was marred by dull production and \"silly lyrics\" depriving the singer of self-esteem. \"Village Voice\" critic Robert Christgau was largely unimpressed, grading the album a \"dud\" in his consumer guide. He later upgraded his score to a one-star honorable mention—indicating \"a worthy effort that consumers attuned to its overriding aesthetic or individual vision may well like\"; he named \"Sweet Thing\" and \"Real Love\" as highlights while writing that \"real is not enough, but attached to the right voice it's something to build on\". The album was voted the year's 30th best in the Pazz & Jop—an annual poll of American critics nationwide, published by \"The Village Voice\". It also earned Blige two Soul Train Music Awards in 1993: Best New R&B Artist and Best R&B Album, Female. \"What's the 411?\" has since been viewed by critics as one of the 1990s' most important records. Blige's combination of vocals over a hip hop beat proved influential in contemporary R&B. With the album, she was dubbed the reigning \"Queen of Hip Hop Soul\", Stanton Swihart wrote in a retrospective review for AllMusic. He called it \"the decade's most explosive, coming-out displays of pure singing prowess\". According to David O'Donnell from BBC Music, \"What's the 411?\" was groundbreaking in its fusion of R&B hooks and hip hop beats, creating the formula for the contemporary R&B of the following decade. He complimented Blige's \"sweet, soulful vocals\", in line with Puff Daddy's \"rough, jagged, hip-hop beats made for a winning combination that remains one of Blige's finest albums\". In \"The Rolling Stone Album Guide\" (2004), Tom Moon wrote that with the album, Blige offered \"a gritty undertone and a realism missing from much of the devotional love songs ruling the charts at that time.\""
]
} |
Vojislav Koštunica | null | Vojislav Koštunica (; born 24 March 1944) is a former Serbian politician. He was the last president of FR Yugoslavia from 2000 to 2003, and the prime minister of Serbia in two terms (from 2004 to 2007, and from 2007 to 2008). | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-2483481 | en-train-2483481 | 2483481 | {
"title": [
"Early life and education.",
"Political career.",
"President of Yugoslavia (2000–03).",
"Prime Minister of Serbia (2004–08).",
"Policy.",
"On Kosovo.",
"On the European Union."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2"
],
"content": [
"Koštunica was born on 24 March 1944 in his family home in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. As a youth he went by the nickname 'Voja'. He was educated in Belgrade, where he finished elementary school, and graduated from the Second Belgrade High School in 1962. Koštunica enrolled in the University of Belgrade's Faculty of Law the same year, graduating in 1966. He earned his master's degree in 1970 and his Ph.D. in 1974 with his thesis \"\"Institutionalized Opposition in the Political System of Capitalism\"\". Koštunica was an assistant at the faculty from 1970 until 1974, when he left due to a political purge at the university for criticising the communist regime of Josip Broz Tito. After his expulsion, Koštunica worked at the Institute of Social Sciences, and from 1981 at the Institute for Philosophy and Social Theory, where he engaged in the protection of human rights, specifically in the defence of freedom of thought and expression.",
"Koštunica was a founding member of the Democratic Party (DS) in 1989. He left the Democratic Party in 1992 over opposing views in leadership and formed the Democratic Party of Serbia.",
"Supported by both nationalists and liberals, the Democratic Opposition of Serbia backed him in the 2000 presidential election against incumbent Slobodan Milošević. Koštunica received 50.26 percent of the vote in the first round of voting, just a few thousand votes over the threshold needed to win outright. Milošević disputed the results of the first round, claiming that Koštunica had only received 49 percent of the vote and a runoff was required. The Otpor movement, a student-led movement to oust Milosevic and install free and fair elections, organized a protest where thousands of Serbians participated in strikes and took over the Belgrade capital and forced Milošević to accept the results and step down as president. Koštunica then assumed the presidency. He was the last president of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. Koštunica opposed the extradition of his predecessor, to the Hague Tribunal, and voiced opposition to the court several times.",
"Following the parliamentary elections in December 2003, in which the DSS emerged as the largest of the reformist parties, Koštunica became prime minister in March 2004 at the head of the new minority government, albeit with the support of the Socialist Party of Serbia. However, as a result of the bad showing of the presidential candidate Dragan Maršićanin in the 2004 presidential election, Koštunica announced that parliamentary elections should be expected by the end of the year just following the adoption of a new Constitution. On 15 May 2007, after a brief crisis in his coalition, he was sworn in for his second term as prime minister.",
"Koštunica is a conservative politician with strong anti-communist views but also critical of the West, namely the United States and the European Union. In an interview with German weekly news magazine Der Spiegel, Koštunica stated he is \"\"fairly close to de Gaulle\"\", in his views.",
"On 21 February 2008, following Kosovo's declaration of independence, Koštunica made an emotional speech in Belgrade, which included the following: Buses took thousands of supporters to the rally; some protestors then attacked embassies and looted shops. On 25 February 2008, Koštunica demanded that the United States rescind its recognition of Kosovo, warning that \"there will be no stability until the fake state\" is annulled. On 8 March 2008, Koštunica, as Prime Minister of Serbia, called for new elections on 11 May after the collapse of his party's coalition with the Democratic Party over relations with the European Union and Kosovo's unilateral declaration of independence.",
"On 4 April 2008, Koštunica stated that EU membership was no longer on the agenda for Serbia. He stated that before EU integration could continue, Serbia and the EU must discuss the matter of Serbia’s territorial integrity. He stated that Serbia must not by any means sign the Stabilisation and Association Agreement, which he referred to the agreement as \"«Solana's agreement»\". On 21 April 2008 Koštunica said that the SAA was in the interests of Olli Rehn and Javier Solana and not in Serbia's national interests. He also said that \"the NATO pact cannot claim that Serbia recognised Kosovo’s independence with that signature.\" and that \"the only thing the NATO pact will be able to claim is that individual parties signed Solana’s agreement.\" On 27 April 2008 he said that anyone who signed the SAA on behalf of Serbia would become an accomplice to tearing Serbia apart. He also implied there is a cover-up of something in the agreement by saying: \"I am convinced every Serbian sees that things are being covered up, and that there is something seriously amiss with the Solana agreement.\" and he asked \"who in Serbia dares to ignore these facts and conceal the real goal of Solana's agreement.\" On 28 April 2008 he said that \"the signature will not be valid for Serbia and whoever signs the SAA will have to assume responsibility for such an act\". On 1 May 2008 Koštunica said that Russian Foreign Minister Sergey Lavrov was right when he said that the SAA should have been signed before Kosovo's unilateral declaration of independence and its recognition by 18 EU member states at the time. One day later on 2 May 2008 he vowed to annul the agreement after the election, calling it \"a trick\", \"Solana's agreement\" and \"the Tadić-Đelić SAA signature\". He said he refers to the act of signing of the SAA as anti-Constitutional and anti-state that leads to the breakup of Serbia. A spokesperson of Koštunica's Democratic Party of Serbia stated that Tadić was putting a seal of Judas of his party coalition to the Solana Agreement by signing it. On 4 May he called the document \"a forgery and a trick\"."
]
} |
Eutrophication | null | Eutrophication (from Greek "eutrophos", "well-nourished"), distrophication or hypertrophication, is when a body of water becomes overly enriched with minerals and nutrients which induce excessive growth of algae. This process may result in oxygen depletion of the water body. One example is an "algal bloom" or great increase of phytoplankton in a sandy body as a response to increased levels of nutrients. Eutrophication is often induced by the discharge of nitrate or phosphate-containing detergents, fertilizers, or sewage into an aquatic system. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-1779168 | en-train-1779168 | 1779168 | {
"title": [
"Mechanism of eutrophication.",
"Cultural eutrophication.",
"Lakes and rivers.",
"Natural eutrophication.",
"Coastal waters.",
"Terrestrial ecosystems.",
"Ecological effects.",
"Decreased biodiversity.",
"New species invasion.",
"Toxicity.",
"Sources of high nutrient runoff.",
"Point sources.",
"Nonpoint sources.",
"Soil retention.",
"Runoff to surface water.",
"Atmospheric deposition.",
"Other causes.",
"Prevention and reversal.",
"Shellfish in estuaries: unique solutions.",
"Seaweed farming.",
"Minimizing nonpoint pollution: future work.",
"Riparian buffer zones.",
"Prevention policy.",
"Nitrogen testing and modeling.",
"Organic farming.",
"Geo-engineering in lakes."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"3",
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"3",
"3",
"2"
],
"content": [
"Eutrophication most commonly arises from the oversupply of nutrients, most commonly as nitrogen or phosphorus, which leads to overgrowth of plants and algae in aquatic ecosystems. After such organisms die, bacterial degradation of their biomass results in oxygen consumption, thereby creating the state of hypoxia. According to Ullmann's Encyclopedia, \"the primary limiting factor for eutrophication is phosphate.\" The availability of phosphorus generally promotes excessive plant growth and decay, favouring simple algae and plankton over other more complicated plants, and causes a severe reduction in water quality. Phosphorus is a necessary nutrient for plants to live, and is the limiting factor for plant growth in many freshwater ecosystems. Phosphate adheres tightly to soil, so it is mainly transported by erosion. Once translocated to lakes, the extraction of phosphate into water is slow, hence the difficulty of reversing the effects of eutrophication. However, numerous literature reports that nitrogen is the primary limiting nutrient for the accumulation of algal biomass. The sources of these excess phosphates are phosphates in detergent, industrial/domestic run-offs, and fertilizers. With the phasing out of phosphate-containing detergents in the 1970s, industrial/domestic run-off and agriculture have emerged as the dominant contributors to eutrophication.",
"Cultural or anthropogenic eutrophication is the process that speeds up natural eutrophication because of human activity. Due to clearing of land and building of towns and cities, land runoff is accelerated and more nutrients such as phosphates and nitrate are supplied to lakes and rivers, and then to coastal estuaries and bays. Extra nutrients are also supplied by treatment plants, golf courses, fertilizers, farms (including fish farms), as well as untreated sewage in many countries.",
"When algae die, they decompose and the nutrients contained in that organic matter are converted into inorganic form by microorganisms. This decomposition process consumes oxygen, which reduces the concentration of dissolved oxygen. The depleted oxygen levels in turn may lead to fish kills and a range of other effects reducing biodiversity. Nutrients may become concentrated in an anoxic zone and may only be made available again during autumn turn-over or in conditions of turbulent flow. The dead algae and the organic load carried by the water inflows in to the lake settle at its bottom and undergoes anaerobic digestion releasing greenhouse gases like methane and CO. Some part of methane gas is consumed by the anaerobic methane oxidation bacteria which in turn works as food source to the zooplankton. In case the lake is not deficit of dissolved oxygen at all depths the aerobic methane oxidation bacteria like Methylococcus capsulatus can consume most of the methane by releasing CO which in turn aid the production of algae. Thus a self-sustaining biological process can take place to generate primary food source for the phytoplankton and zooplankton depending on availability of adequate dissolved oxygen in the water bodies which are subjected to higher organic pollution loads. As algae enhances the dissolved oxygen by releasing oxygen from photosynthesis during the sunshine and consume oxygen by emitting CO from its respiration during the absence of sunlight, adequate dissolved oxygen availability in water bodies is very crucial for fisheries production and elimination of green house gas emissions especially during the absence of sunlight in eutrophic water bodies. The CO released by the algae during the absence of sunlight is stored in the water by reducing the water alkalinity and pH for its use during the sunshine. Enhanced growth of aquatic vegetation or phytoplankton and algal blooms disrupts normal functioning of the ecosystem, causing a variety of problems such as a lack of oxygen needed for fish and shellfish to survive. The water becomes cloudy, typically coloured a shade of green, yellow, brown, or red. Eutrophication also decreases the value of rivers, lakes and aesthetic enjoyment. Health problems can occur where eutrophic conditions interfere with drinking water treatment. Human activities can accelerate the rate at which nutrients enter ecosystems. Runoff from agriculture and development, pollution from septic systems and sewers, sewage sludge spreading, and other human-related activities increase the flow of both inorganic nutrients and organic substances into ecosystems. Elevated levels of atmospheric compounds of nitrogen can increase nitrogen availability. Phosphorus is often regarded as the main culprit in cases of eutrophication in lakes subjected to \"point source\" pollution from sewage pipes. The concentration of algae and the trophic state of lakes correspond well to phosphorus levels in water. Studies conducted in the Experimental Lakes Area in Ontario have shown a relationship between the addition of phosphorus and the rate of eutrophication. Humankind has increased the rate of phosphorus cycling on Earth by four times, mainly due to agricultural fertilizer production and application. Between 1950 and 1995, an estimated 600,000,000 tonnes of phosphorus was applied to Earth's surface, primarily on croplands.",
"Although eutrophication is commonly caused by human activities, it can also be a natural process, particularly in lakes. Eutrophy occurs in many lakes in temperate grasslands, for instance. Paleolimnologists now recognise that climate change, geology, and other external influences are critical in regulating the natural productivity of lakes. Some lakes also demonstrate the reverse process (meiotrophication), becoming less nutrient rich with time. The main difference between natural and anthropogenic eutrophication is that the natural process is very slow, occurring on geological time scales.",
"Eutrophication is a common phenomenon in coastal waters. In contrast to freshwater systems where phosphorus is often the limiting nutrient, nitrogen is more commonly the key limiting nutrient of marine waters; thus, nitrogen levels have greater importance to understanding eutrophication problems in salt water. Estuaries, as the interface between freshwater and saltwater, can be both phosphorus and nitrogen limited and commonly exhibit symptoms of eutrophication. Eutrophication in estuaries often results in bottom water hypoxia/anoxia, leading to fish kills and habitat degradation. Upwelling in coastal systems also promotes increased productivity by conveying deep, nutrient-rich waters to the surface, where the nutrients can be assimilated by algae. Examples of anthropogenic sources of nitrogen-rich pollution to coastal waters include seacage fish farming and discharges of ammonia from the production of coke from coal. The World Resources Institute has identified 375 hypoxic coastal zones in the world, concentrated in coastal areas in Western Europe, the Eastern and Southern coasts of the US, and East Asia, particularly Japan. In addition to runoff from land, fish farming wastes and industrial ammonia discharges, atmospheric fixed nitrogen can be an important nutrient source in the open ocean. A study in 2008 found that this could account for around one third of the ocean's external (non-recycled) nitrogen supply, and up to 3% of the annual new marine biological production. It has been suggested that accumulating reactive nitrogen in the environment may prove as serious as putting carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.",
"Terrestrial ecosystems are subject to similarly adverse impacts from eutrophication. Increased nitrates in soil are frequently undesirable for plants. Many terrestrial plant species are endangered as a result of soil eutrophication, such as the majority of orchid species in Europe. Meadows, forests, and bogs are characterized by low nutrient content and slowly growing species adapted to those levels, so they can be overgrown by faster growing and more competitive species. In meadows, tall grasses that can take advantage of higher nitrogen levels may change the area so that natural species may be lost. Species-rich fens can be overtaken by reed or reedgrass species. Forest undergrowth affected by run-off from a nearby fertilized field can be turned into a nettle and bramble thicket. Chemical forms of nitrogen are most often of concern with regard to eutrophication, because plants have high nitrogen requirements so that additions of nitrogen compounds will stimulate plant growth. Nitrogen is not readily available in soil because N, a gaseous form of nitrogen, is very stable and unavailable directly to higher plants. Terrestrial ecosystems rely on microbial nitrogen fixation to convert N into other forms such as nitrates. However, there is a limit to how much nitrogen can be utilized. Ecosystems receiving more nitrogen than the plants require are called nitrogen-saturated. Saturated terrestrial ecosystems then can contribute both inorganic and organic nitrogen to freshwater, coastal, and marine eutrophication, where nitrogen is also typically a limiting nutrient. This is also the case with increased levels of phosphorus. However, because phosphorus is generally much less soluble than nitrogen, it is leached from the soil at a much slower rate than nitrogen. Consequently, phosphorus is much more important as a limiting nutrient in aquatic systems.",
"Eutrophication was recognized as a water pollution problem in European and North American lakes and reservoirs in the mid-20th century. Since then, it has become more widespread. Surveys showed that 54% of lakes in Asia are eutrophic; in Europe, 53%; in North America, 48%; in South America, 41%; and in Africa, 28%. In South Africa, a study by the CSIR using remote sensing has shown more than 60% of the dams surveyed were eutrophic. Some South African scientists believe that this figure might be higher with the main source being dysfunctional sewage works that produce more than 4 billion liters a day of untreated, or at best partially treated, sewage effluent that discharges into rivers and dams. Many ecological effects can arise from stimulating primary production, but there are three particularly troubling ecological impacts: decreased biodiversity, changes in species composition and dominance, and toxicity effects.",
"When an ecosystem experiences an increase in nutrients, primary producers reap the benefits first. In aquatic ecosystems, species such as algae experience a population increase (called an algal bloom). Algal blooms limit the sunlight available to bottom-dwelling organisms and cause wide swings in the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water. Oxygen is required by all aerobically respiring plants and animals and it is replenished in daylight by photosynthesizing plants and algae. Under eutrophic conditions, dissolved oxygen greatly increases during the day, but is greatly reduced after dark by the respiring algae and by microorganisms that feed on the increasing mass of dead algae. When dissolved oxygen levels decline to hypoxic levels, fish and other marine animals suffocate. As a result, creatures such as fish, shrimp, and especially immobile bottom dwellers die off. In extreme cases, anaerobic conditions ensue, promoting growth of bacteria. Zones where this occurs are known as dead zones.",
"Eutrophication may cause competitive release by making abundant a normally limiting nutrient. This process causes shifts in the species composition of ecosystems. For instance, an increase in nitrogen might allow new, competitive species to invade and out-compete original inhabitant species. This has been shown to occur in New England salt marshes. In Europe and Asia, the common carp frequently lives in naturally Eutrophic or Hypereutrophic areas, and is adapted to living in such conditions. The eutrophication of areas outside its natural range partially explain the fish's success in colonising these areas after being introduced.",
"Some algal blooms resulting from eutrophication, otherwise called \"harmful algal blooms\", are toxic to plants and animals. Toxic compounds can make their way up the food chain, resulting in animal mortality. Freshwater algal blooms can pose a threat to livestock. When the algae die or are eaten, neuro- and hepatotoxins are released which can kill animals and may pose a threat to humans. An example of algal toxins working their way into humans is the case of shellfish poisoning. Biotoxins created during algal blooms are taken up by shellfish (mussels, oysters), leading to these human foods acquiring the toxicity and poisoning humans. Examples include paralytic, neurotoxic, and diarrhoetic shellfish poisoning. Other marine animals can be vectors for such toxins, as in the case of ciguatera, where it is typically a predator fish that accumulates the toxin and then poisons humans.",
"In order to gauge how to best prevent eutrophication from occurring, specific sources that contribute to nutrient loading must be identified. There are two common sources of nutrients and organic matter: point and nonpoint sources.",
"Point sources are directly attributable to one influence. In point sources the nutrient waste travels directly from source to water. Point sources are relatively easy to regulate.",
"Nonpoint source pollution (also known as 'diffuse' or 'runoff' pollution) is that which comes from ill-defined and diffuse sources. Nonpoint sources are difficult to regulate and usually vary spatially and temporally (with season, precipitation, and other irregular events). It has been shown that nitrogen transport is correlated with various indices of human activity in watersheds, including the amount of development. Ploughing in agriculture and development are activities that contribute most to nutrient loading. There are three reasons that nonpoint sources are especially troublesome:",
"Nutrients from human activities tend to accumulate in soils and remain there for years. It has been shown that the amount of phosphorus lost to surface waters increases linearly with the amount of phosphorus in the soil. Thus much of the nutrient loading in soil eventually makes its way to water. Nitrogen, similarly, has a turnover time of decades.",
"Nutrients from human activities tend to travel from land to either surface or ground water. Nitrogen in particular is removed through storm drains, sewage pipes, and other forms of surface runoff. Nutrient losses in runoff and leachate are often associated with agriculture. Modern agriculture often involves the application of nutrients onto fields in order to maximise production. However, farmers frequently apply more nutrients than are taken up by crops or pastures. Regulations aimed at minimising nutrient exports from agriculture are typically far less stringent than those placed on sewage treatment plants and other point source polluters. It should be also noted that lakes within forested land are also under surface runoff influences. Runoff can wash out the mineral nitrogen and phosphorus from detritus and in consequence supply the water bodies leading to slow, natural eutrophication.",
"Nitrogen is released into the air because of ammonia volatilization and nitrous oxide production. The combustion of fossil fuels is a large human-initiated contributor to atmospheric nitrogen pollution. Atmospheric nitrogen reaches the ground by two different processes, the first being wet deposition such as rain or snow, and the second being dry deposition which is particles and gases found in the air. Atmospheric deposition (e.g., in the form of acid rain) can also affect nutrient concentration in water, especially in highly industrialized regions.",
"Any factor that causes increased nutrient concentrations can potentially lead to eutrophication. In modeling eutrophication, the rate of water renewal plays a critical role; stagnant water is allowed to collect more nutrients than bodies with replenished water supplies. It has also been shown that the drying of wetlands causes an increase in nutrient concentration and subsequent eutrophication blooms.",
"Eutrophication poses a problem not only to ecosystems, but to humans as well. Reducing eutrophication should be a key concern when considering future policy, and a sustainable solution for everyone, including farmers and ranchers, seems feasible. While eutrophication does pose problems, humans should be aware that natural runoff (which causes algal blooms in the wild) is common in ecosystems and should thus not reverse nutrient concentrations beyond normal levels. Cleanup measures have been mostly, but not completely, successful. Finnish phosphorus removal measures started in the mid-1970s and have targeted rivers and lakes polluted by industrial and municipal discharges. These efforts have had a 90% removal efficiency. Still, some targeted point sources did not show a decrease in runoff despite reduction efforts.",
"One proposed solution to stop and reverse eutrophication in estuaries is to restore shellfish populations, such as oysters and mussels. Oyster reefs remove nitrogen from the water column and filter out suspended solids, subsequently reducing the likelihood or extent of harmful algal blooms or anoxic conditions. Filter feeding activity is considered beneficial to water quality by controlling phytoplankton density and sequestering nutrients, which can be removed from the system through shellfish harvest, buried in the sediments, or lost through denitrification. Foundational work toward the idea of improving marine water quality through shellfish cultivation was conducted by Odd Lindahl et al., using mussels in Sweden. In the United States, shellfish restoration projects have been conducted on the East, West and Gulf coasts. See nutrient pollution for an extended explanation of nutrient remediation using shellfish.",
"Seaweed aquaculture offers an opportunities to mitigate, and adapt to climate change. Seaweed, such as kelp, also absorbs phosphorus and nitrogen and is thus useful to remove excessive nutrients from polluted parts of the sea. Some cultivated seaweeds have a very high productivity and could absorb large quantities of N, P, CO2, producing large amount of O2 have an excellent effect on decreasing eutrophication. It is believed that seaweed cultivation in large scale should be a good solution to the eutrophication problem in costal waters.",
"Nonpoint pollution is the most difficult source of nutrients to manage. The literature suggests, though, that when these sources are controlled, eutrophication decreases. The following steps are recommended to minimize the amount of pollution that can enter aquatic ecosystems from ambiguous sources.",
"Studies show that intercepting non-point pollution between the source and the water is a successful means of prevention. Riparian buffer zones are interfaces between a flowing body of water and land, and have been created near waterways in an attempt to filter pollutants; sediment and nutrients are deposited here instead of in water. Creating buffer zones near farms and roads is another possible way to prevent nutrients from traveling too far. Still, studies have shown that the effects of atmospheric nitrogen pollution can reach far past the buffer zone. This suggests that the most effective means of prevention is from the primary source.",
"Laws regulating the discharge and treatment of sewage have led to dramatic nutrient reductions to surrounding ecosystems, but it is generally agreed that a policy regulating agricultural use of fertilizer and animal waste must be imposed. In Japan the amount of nitrogen produced by livestock is adequate to serve the fertilizer needs for the agriculture industry. Thus, it is not unreasonable to command livestock owners to clean up animal waste—which when left stagnant will leach into ground water. Policy concerning the prevention and reduction of eutrophication can be broken down into four sectors: Technologies, public participation, economic instruments, and cooperation. The term technology is used loosely, referring to a more widespread use of existing methods rather than an appropriation of new technologies. As mentioned before, nonpoint sources of pollution are the primary contributors to eutrophication, and their effects can be easily minimized through common agricultural practices. Reducing the amount of pollutants that reach a watershed can be achieved through the protection of its forest cover, reducing the amount of erosion leeching into a watershed. Also, through the efficient, controlled use of land using sustainable agricultural practices to minimize land degradation, the amount of soil runoff and nitrogen-based fertilizers reaching a watershed can be reduced. Waste disposal technology constitutes another factor in eutrophication prevention. Because a major contributor to the nonpoint source nutrient loading of water bodies is untreated domestic sewage, it is necessary to provide treatment facilities to highly urbanized areas, particularly those in underdeveloped nations, in which treatment of domestic waste water is a scarcity. The technology to safely and efficiently reuse waste water, both from domestic and industrial sources, should be a primary concern for policy regarding eutrophication. The role of the public is a major factor for the effective prevention of eutrophication. In order for a policy to have any effect, the public must be aware of their contribution to the problem, and ways in which they can reduce their effects. Programs instituted to promote participation in the recycling and elimination of wastes, as well as education on the issue of rational water use are necessary to protect water quality within urbanized areas and adjacent water bodies. Economic instruments, \"which include, among others, property rights, water markets, fiscal and financial instruments, charge systems and liability systems, are gradually becoming a substantive component of the management tool set used for pollution control and water allocation decisions.\" Incentives for those who practice clean, renewable, water management technologies are an effective means of encouraging pollution prevention. By internalizing the costs associated with the negative effects on the environment, governments are able to encourage a cleaner water management. Because a body of water can have an effect on a range of people reaching far beyond that of the watershed, cooperation between different organizations is necessary to prevent the intrusion of contaminants that can lead to eutrophication. Agencies ranging from state governments to those of water resource management and non-governmental organizations, going as low as the local population, are responsible for preventing eutrophication of water bodies. In the United States, the most well known inter-state effort to prevent eutrophication is the Chesapeake Bay.",
"Soil Nitrogen Testing (N-Testing) is a technique that helps farmers optimize the amount of fertilizer applied to crops. By testing fields with this method, farmers saw a decrease in fertilizer application costs, a decrease in nitrogen lost to surrounding sources, or both. By testing the soil and modeling the bare minimum amount of fertilizer are needed, farmers reap economic benefits while reducing pollution.",
"There has been a study that found that organically fertilized fields \"significantly reduce harmful nitrate leaching\" compared to conventionally fertilized fields. However, a more recent study found that eutrophication impacts are in some cases higher from organic production than they are from conventional production.",
"Geo-engineering is the manipulation of biogeochemical processes, usually the phosphorus cycle, to achieve a desired ecological response in the ecosystem. Geo-engineering techniques typically uses materials able to chemically inactivate the phosphorus available for organisms (i.e. phosphate) in the water column and also block the phosphate release from the sediment (internal loading). Phosphate is one of the main contributing factors to algal growth, mainly cyanobacteria, so once phosphate is reduced the algal is not able to overgrow. Thus, geo-engineering materials is used to speed-up the recovery of eutrophic water bodies and manage algal bloom. There are several phosphate sorbents in the literature, from metal salts (e.g. alum, aluminium sulfate,) minerals, natural clays and local soils, industrial waste products, modified clays (e.g. lanthanum modified bentonite) and others. The phosphate sorbent is commonly applied in the surface of the water body and it sinks to the bottom of the lake reducing phosphate, such sorbents have been applied worldwide to manage eutrophication and algal bloom."
]
} |
Renault R26 | null | The Renault R26 is a Formula One racing car, used by the Renault F1 team in the 2006 Formula One season. The chassis was designed by Bob Bell, Tim Densham and Dino Toso with Pat Symonds overseeing the design and production of the car as Executive Director of Engineering and Rob White leading the engine design. The car was driven by Fernando Alonso and Giancarlo Fisichella. Over the course of the season it scored 8 wins out of 18 races, and was the most complete package in most of the year, followed closely by the rival Ferrari 248 F1. The R26 helped Renault in claiming the Constructors' Championship with a 5-point advantage over rival Ferrari, and also taking Fernando Alonso to his second Drivers' Championship in succession, 13 points ahead of rival Michael Schumacher. It brought the last Constructors' Championship in recent history to tyre manufacturer Michelin. Renault used 'Mild Seven' logos in Bahrain, Malaysia, Australia, Spain, Monaco, United States, Hungary, China and Japan. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-1333680 | en-train-1333680 | 1333680 | {
"title": [
"Mass Damper."
],
"section_level": [
"1"
],
"content": [
"A tuned mass damper, also known as a harmonic absorber, is a device that is attached to structures in order to reduce the strength of vibrations passing through them. Tuned mass dampers are used in buildings across the world to reduce the effects of earthquakes and strong gusts of wind. In the Renault R26, this technology was used for a more benign purpose. It was used to keep the front of car stable over kerbs and through slow and fast corners. Keeping the front of the car stable is crucial to the aerodynamic efficiency of the car because changes in ride height - caused by bumps on the road or changes in downforce levels due to speed - can alter the way that air passes over the front wing of the car and therefore the rest of the car's aerodynamic efficiency also suffers. The Tuned mass damper in the Renault R26 was invented by Renault engineer Rob Marshall. The mass damper itself was a cylinder, standing upright, with the mechanical components inside. Inside the cylinder sat a 9 kilogram disc which rested in between two springs. The disc was free to move on the Y-axis with its only hindrance, the springs that it was attached to and the damper fluid within the cylinder. The whole assembly was attached to the chassis inside the nosecone of the car. The device was then 'tuned' to the needs of each track by either changing the clearance between the disc and the cylinder bore or by adjusting the size of two-way valve within the disc itself. The Tuned mass damper on the Renault R26 vibrated in the opposite direction from the chassis due to inertia, with its magnitude calculated by the 'tuning' variables mentioned above. This counteracting force stabilized the front end of the car over kerbs and through slow and fast corners. Renault first introduced the technology in its 2005 challenger, Renault R25. The technology was raced in the last few races of the 2005 season and had been deemed to be legal by the stewards. During the first half of the 2006 season, Renault had built up a comfortable points lead over their main rivals Ferrari. However, at the time of the German Grand Prix at the Hockenheimring the FIA decided to ban all the teams from using Tuned mass dampers in their car. Even though the system was deemed legal for over half a year, the FIA decided that it broke the rule that no moving part can influence the aerodynamics of the car. Renault claimed that the loss of the system cost them 0.3 seconds a lap. The ban hurt the Renault team more than their competitors because Renault had designed their whole car around the technology, meanwhile, their competitors had just included the technology as an after-thought after seeing Renault's implementation. This was clearly visible because Ferrari won 5 of the 7 remaining races in the season. However, the French team managed to defend both championship titles successfully."
]
} |
Arkhangelsk Oblast | null | Arkhangelsk Oblast (, "Arkhangelskaya oblast") is a federal subject of Russia (an oblast). It includes the Arctic archipelagos of Franz Josef Land and Novaya Zemlya, as well as the Solovetsky Islands in the White Sea. Arkhangelsk Oblast also has administrative jurisdiction over the Nenets Autonomous Okrug (NAO). Including the NAO, Arkhangelsk Oblast has an area of 587,400 km. Its population (including the NAO) was 1,227,626 as of the 2010 Census. | null | [
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"title": [
"Geography.",
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"Governors.",
"Administrative divisions.",
"Restricted access.",
"Economy.",
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"Agriculture.",
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"Demographics.",
"Religion.",
"Arts and culture.",
"Architecture.",
"Arts.",
"Literature.",
"Sports.",
"Emergency handling."
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"Arkhangelsk Oblast, which includes the Nenets Autonomous Okrug, borders Kirov Oblast, Vologda Oblast, the Republic of Karelia, the Komi Republic, and the White, Pechora, Barents and Kara seas. Cape Fligely in Franz Josef Land (the northernmost point of Russia, Europe and Eurasia) and Cape Zhelaniya in Novaya Zemlya (the easternmost point of Europe) are both located within Arkhangelsk Oblast. Arkhangelsk Oblast is located on the East European Plain, and most of it represents forested hilly landscape. The north-eastern part belongs to the Timan Ridge, a highland mostly situated east from the oblast. The Nenets Autonomous Okrug is essentially a flat tundra (Bolshezemelskaya Tundra) with several hill chains like Pay-Khoy Ridge. The Arctic islands including Novaya Zemlya and Franz Joseph Land are mountainous with glaciers and eternally snow-covered. This region has a genetically distinct population of polar bears associated with the Barents Sea area. Almost all of the area of the Oblast belongs to the basin of the Arctic Ocean, with the major rivers being (west to east) Onega River, Northern Dvina River (with the major tributaries the Vychegda, the Vaga, and the Pinega), Kuloy River, Mezen River, and Pechora River (Shapkina River being a major tributary). A minor area in the west of the Oblast, most notably the basin of the Ileksa River, drains into the Lake Onega and eventually to the Baltic Sea. A very minor area in Kargopolsky District in the south-west of the Oblast drains into the Kema River which belongs to the basin of the Caspian Sea. The area in the Onega River basin containing the biggest lakes in the oblast, such as Lake Lacha, Lake Kenozero, Lake Undozero, and Lake Kozhozero. The tundra of the Nenets Autonomous Okrug also contains a number of bigger lakes. The river basin of the Pinega is characteristic of the karst, with a number of caves in the region. The White Sea coast within the Oblast is split into the Onega Bay (where the Onega is the major tributary), the Dvina Bay (the Northern Dvina), and the Mezen Bay (the Mezen and the Kuloy). Solovetsky Islands, as well as a number of smaller islands, are located in Onega Bay. Onega Bay and the Dvina Bay are separated by the Onega Peninsula. The Mezen Bay is separated from the main body of the White Sea by Morzhovets Island. Other major islands in the oblast include Shogly Island, Zhizgin Island, Yagry Island, Lyasomin Island, Layda Island, Nikolskiy Island, and Mudyugskiy Island. Almost all of the oblast is covered by taiga, the coniferous forest dominated by pine, spruce, and larch. Large areas in the middle of taiga are devoid of trees and covered by swamps. In the floodplains of the rivers, there are meadows. A number of areas in Arkhangelsk Oblast have been designated as protected natural areas. These are subdivided into national parks, nature reserves (zapovedniks), and zakazniks of the federal level. The following protected areas have been designated, Kenozersky and Vodlozersky National Parks have the status of UNESCO Biosphere Reserve. In addition, there are two protected areas in the Nenets Autonomous Okrug, adjacent to each other: Nenetsky Nature Reserve and Nenetsky Zakaznik.",
"The area of Arkhangelsk Oblast has been settled by Finno-Ugric peoples since prehistoric times, and most of the toponyms in the region are in fact Finno-Ugric. It was subsequently colonized by the Novgorod Republic. Kargopol was first mentioned in the chronicles in 1146, Shenkursk was mentioned in 1315, and Solvychegodsk was founded in the 14th century. By the 13th century the Novgorodian merchants had already reached the White Sea, attracted to the area for fur trading. The Novgorodians penetrated the area using the waterways, and this is why most of the ancient (as well as the modern) settlements were located into the main river valleys. The main historical areas of the Arkhangelsk region were Poonezhye () along the Onega, the Dvina Land along the Northern Dvina, Pinezhye () along the Pinega, Mezen Lands along the Mezen, and Pomorye () on the White Sea coast. The main waterway was the Northern Dvina, and Novgorod merchants used the Volga and its tributary, the Sheksna, along the Slavyanka River into Lake Nikolskoye, then the boats were taken by land to Lake Blagoveshchenskoye, from there downstream along the Porozovitsa River into Lake Kubenskoye and further to the Sukhona and the Northern Dvina. Portages from the Northern Dvina Basin led further to the Mezen and the Pechora. After the fall of Novgorod in 1478, all these lands became a part of the Great Duchy of Moscow. Until 1703, the Northern Dvina served as the main export trading route of Muscovy. The local centers were Veliky Ustyug and Kholmogory; however, during the 17th century, Kholmogory lost its significance, and its role was gradually replaced by Arkhangelsk. In 1708, when the governorates were established by Tsar Peter the Great, Arkhangelsk became the seat of one of the seven governorates of the Russian Empire. At the same time, Arkhangelsk lands were one of the most remote areas in Russia. This fact was attractive for monks fleeing the crowds. In 1436, Solovetsky Monastery was founded, and it quickly became one of the richest and most influential Russian monasteries. Other monasteries followed. For instance, Kozheozersky Monastery, founded in 1552, still remains one of the most remote Russian Orthodox monasteries. After the great schism in the Russian Orthodox Church in 1653, the area attracted many Old Believers, who were persecuted by the state. Most would later flee to even more remote locations such as Siberia. In 1703, with the construction of St. Petersburg, Arkhangelsk, which lacked St. Petersburg's geographical proximity to Europe and the non-freezing harbour of Murmansk, lost its significance as the main trading harbour of the Russian Empire. However, in the early 20th century Arkhangelsk was an important starting point for Russian Arctic expeditions. For instance, in the 1830s Pyotr Pakhtusov sailed twice from Arkhangelsk to investigate and map Novaya Zemlya. In 1932 the icebreaker \"Sibiryakov\" under the command of Vladimir Voronin, sailing from Arkhangelsk, crossed the Northern Sea Route in a single navigation. In 1918 and 1919, Arkhangelsk Governorate became one of the most active battlegrounds of the Civil War in Russia. On August 2, 1918, Arkhangelsk was occupied by British and American troops, allied with the White movement. Administratively, they established the Northern Oblast with the center in Arkhangelsk. This episode of the Civil War is known as the North Russia Intervention. The troops advanced to the south, occupied the station of Obozerskaya in September 1918, and moving along the Northern Dvina and the Vaga Rivers. The southernmost points occupied by the allies were Shenkursk and Verkhnyaya Toyma. The allies were hoping that the Aleksandr Kolchak's forces would move in the direction of Kotlas, however, the White Army was unable to advance in this direction. In January 1919, after the Battle of Shenkursk, the allied forces were driven out of the Shenkursk area. Battles around the station of Plesetskaya followed. On February 20, 1920, the Red Army entered Arkhangelsk. By that time, all allied troops were already evacuated. In the 1930s, the Soviets carried out the same experiments in economics as elsewhere in Soviet Union. The peasants and fishermen were forcibly organized into collective farms. These were heavily subsidized, which eventually brought the agriculture to the collapse in the 1990s, when the subsidies stopped. Arkhangelsk Oblast was and remains attractive as an area for exile, forcible resettlement, and prison camps. Actually, the first prison camp, Solovki Prison Camp, was created in 1920 on the premises of the former Solovetsky Monastery. Novaya Zemlya from the 1950s, when its population (mostly the Nenets) was strongly recommended to leave, became the military ground for nuclear bomb testing. Arkhangelsk Oblast proper was established in 1937. Before 1991, the high authority in the oblast was shared between three persons: the first secretary of the Arkhangelsk Oblast CPSU Committee (who in reality had the biggest authority), the chairman of the oblast Soviet (legislative power), and the Chairman of the oblast Executive Committee (executive power). In 1991 the CPSU lost all power. The head of the Oblast administration, and eventually the governor, came to be elected or appointed. The economic crisis of 1990s, after the fall of the Soviet Union, struck Arkhangelsk Oblast very badly. Although there remains a strong demand for timber, the basis of the oblast's economy, the population of Arkhangelsk Oblast has steadily declined, especially in rural areas. Many villages either have been deserted, or are on the verge of disappearing.",
"During the Soviet period, the high authority in the oblast was shared between three persons: The first secretary of the Arkhangelsk CPSU Committee (who in reality had the highest authority), the chairman of the oblast Soviet (legislative power), and the Chairman of the oblast Executive Committee (executive power). Since 1991, CPSU lost all the power, and the head of the Oblast administration, and eventually the governor was appointed/elected alongside elected regional parliament. The Charter of Arkhangelsk Oblast is the fundamental law of the region. The Legislative Assembly of Arkhangelsk Oblast is the province's standing legislative (representative) body. The Legislative Assembly exercises its authority by passing laws, resolutions, and other legal acts and by supervising the implementation and observance of the laws and other legal acts passed by it. The highest executive body is the Oblast Government, which includes territorial executive bodies such as district administrations, committees, and commissions that facilitate development and run the day to day matters of the province. The Oblast administration supports the activities of the Governor who is the highest official and acts as guarantor of the observance of the oblast Charter in accordance with the Constitution of Russia.",
"In the period when they were the most important authority in the oblast (1937 to 1991), the following first secretaries were appointed",
"Since 1991, governors were sometimes appointed, and sometimes elected,",
"The oblast is administratively divided into six cities and towns under the oblast's jurisdiction (Arkhangelsk, Koryazhma, Kotlas, Novodvinsk, Onega, and Severodvinsk), one city under the federal jurisdiction (Mirny), twenty-one districts (one of which is Novaya Zemlya), and two island territories (Franz Josef Land and Victoria Island). Another six towns (Kargopol, Mezen, Nyandoma, Shenkursk, Solvychegodsk, and Velsk) have the status of the towns of district significance. Nenets Autonomous Okrug, which is administratively subordinated to the oblast, is administratively divided into one district (Zapolyarny District) and one town of okrug significance (Naryan-Mar).",
"Huge areas within the limits of the oblast are included in the border security zone, intended to protect the borders of the Russian Federation from unwanted activity. These restricted areas include all islands in the Arctic Ocean and in Barents Sea, Morzhovets Island, and most of the White Sea coast in Mezensky District. In particular, the area includes the town of Mezen and the urban type settlement of Kamenka. In order to visit the zone, a permit issued by the local FSB department is required.",
"",
"Arkhangelsk Oblast is one of the industrial regions of Russia. The region has a developed fishery, forestry, woodworking, cellulose, and paper industry. There are large reserves of natural resources: Lumber, oil, bauxite, titanium, gold, manganese, and basalt. In 2011, the paper production and related industries were responsible for 55% of all industrial production of the Oblast, food production – 11%, timber processing (excluding paper production) and furniture production – 12%. The principal industrial enterprises in Arkhangelsk Oblast are shipyards in Arkhangelsk and Severodvinsk (including Sevmash), pulp and paper mills in Koryazhma and Novodvinsk, and bauxite extraction plant in Severoonezhsk. Almost any town has some timber works.",
"Fishery traditionally was the main means of subsistence in the Pomor villages at the White Sea coast. During the Soviet times, the fishermen were organized into collective and state farms (Sovkhoz's) and the fishery was heavily subsidized. In the 1990s the subsidies were stopped, and the fishery went into a serious crisis, some of the villages were deserted. In the valleys of the main rivers, there is some cattle breeding and crop and potato growing, which is, however, difficult because of the cold climate. Ustyansky District is notable for bee-keeping. Two notable breeds originate from Arkhangelsk Oblast. The Kholmogory cattle, from Kholmogory and Arkhangelsk countryside, mostly black and white, was particularly stable against cold climate in Northern Russia and eventually spread well beyond the Arkhangelsk Region. The Mezen horses, bred in the Mezen River valley, are rather small but suitable for difficult work and easily survive cold winters.",
"The area of current Arkhangelsk Oblast has always been located on the trading routes connecting central Russia to the White Sea, and, in fact, in the 17th century the White Sea was the main sea export route for Russia. The whole course of the Northern Dvina is navigable, as well as the lower course of some of its tributaries, most notably the Vychegda, the Vaga, and the Pinega. The Mezen is also navigable in the lower course. The Onega is not navigable except for the two relatively short stretches because of the rapids. However, except for the lower course of the Vychegda and some parts of the Northern Dvina, there is currently very little or no regular passenger navigation on these rivers. They are used for cargo traffic though. In 1765, a road was built between Saint-Petersburg and Arkhangelsk, mainly for postal service. The road still exists and passes Kargopol and Plesetsk, and it has been paved in 2011. One of the principal highways in Russia, M8, connects Moscow and Arkhangelsk, and passes Velsk. This highway is paved and heavily used. In general, the road network is grossly underdeveloped. Only several all-season highways, in addition to M8, cross the oblast boundaries: the one (partially unpaved) connecting Kotlas with Syktyvkar; the one (paved) connecting Kotlas to Veliky Ustyug and eventually with Vologda and Nikolsk, the one (paved) from Konosha southwards, and two (unpaved) from Kargopol to Pudozh and to Solza and Belozersk. Most of the local roads are unpaved. Until 2008, there were no all-season roads connecting the main road network with the north-east of the oblast, including the town of Mezen and the selo of Leshukonskoye, and there are still no roads into the Nenets Autonomous Okrug, on the left bank of the Onega downstream from Severoonezhsk, and very few roads on the right bank of the Northern Dvina. Many rivers can only be crossed by ferry boats, which means they cannot be crossed during the ice melting period. There is regular bus service on the main roads. The principal railway line in the oblast is the railroad connecting Moscow and Arkhangelsk. The piece between Vologda and Arkhangelsk was constructed in 1890s and passed through previously uninhabited areas between the valleys of the Northern Dvina and the Onega. The railroad construction gave the momentum to the population and exploitation of these areas. A branch from Konosha eastwards to Kotlas and further to Vorkuta was constructed in the 1940s to facilitate the transport of coal from the Komi Republic. From Kotlas, another branch continues south to Kirov. A branch from Obozersky to the west, to Onega and further to Belomorsk, was built during World War II to secure the transport of goods from the harbour of Murmansk to central Russia. A piece of railroad between Arkhangelsk and Karpogory was also built in the 1970s and is expected to become part of the Belkomur project — a railway line connecting Arkhangelsk via the Komi Republic with the Perm Krai and the Ural mountains. Almost the entire rail network belongs to the Northern Railway, which west of Onega connects to the Oktyabrskaya Railway. There is also a railway line from Severoonezhsk west to Yangory (an extension of the line from Puksa to Navolok), which belongs to the Department of Corrections. A big number of narrow gauge railways have been built in the 1950s and 1960s to facilitate the transport of timber, but since then most of these became unprofitable and have been destroyed. In the 1970s and 1980s the aviation was active, with all district centers connected to Arkhangelsk with regular flights, Kotlas being the second important hub. Currently, it has almost disappeared. There are two airports in Arkhangelsk, but regular local flights are only carried out to the destinations which do not have rail or road connections, such as Novaya Zemlya, Solovetsky Islands, the Nenets Autonomous Okrug, the Onega Peninsula, and the north of the oblast. The exceptions with functioning airports are Mezen, Leshukonskoye, and Onega. The oil transport system, Baltic Pipeline System, runs through the oblast, with two oil-pumping station located at Urdoma and Privodino. The Kudemskaya narrow-gauge railway in 2010 has appeared in Forbes ranking, of 10 most beautiful railway routes of the world.",
"Population: Ethnic composition (2010): Vital statistics for 2007 (see Total fertility rates by federal subjects of Russia#Natural Growth by Federal Subjects in 2007): A notable subgroup of Russian population are the Pomors, who reside along the White Sea coast and in the valleys of major rivers, speak Pomor dialects and are in fact the descendants of the Novgorod population who colonized the Russian North in 12th–13th centuries. In 2002 Census, approximately 6,500 residents of Arkhangelsk Oblast indicated their ethnicity as Pomors.",
"According to a 2012 survey 29.1% of the population of Arkhangelsk Oblast adheres to the Russian Orthodox Church, 6% are unaffiliated generic Christians, 1% are Orthodox Christian believers without belonging to any church or members of other Orthodox churches, 1% adheres to the Slavic native faith (Rodnovery). In addition, 32% of the population declared to be \"spiritual but not religious\", 16% is atheist, and 17.9% follows other religions or did not give an answer to the question.",
"",
"Arkhangelsk Oblast is famous for its wooden buildings which include churches, chapels, peasant houses and farms, and city houses. The choice of wood as the construction material is natural for a region almost exclusively covered by taiga and still being one of the biggest timber producers. Some of these buildings date from the 17th century. Churches and chapels are considered particularly fine, and almost all of these constructed prior to 1920s have been declared the cultural heritage at the federal or local levels. More than 600 buildings (both of timber and stone) are protected on the federal level. An open-air ethnographic museum was open in the village of Malye Korely close to Arkhangelsk, with the purpose of preserving this heritage. The most notable wooden churches are triple church ensembles, which consist of two churches (a bigger, not heated, church used in the summer, a smaller, heated church used in the winter, and a bell-tower). Not more than a dozen of these triple wooden ensembles survived, the best known being the one located in the Kizhi Pogost in the Republic of Karelia and is classified as World Heritage. Most of these ensembles are located in the Arkhangelsk Oblast, in particular, in the villages of Varzogory and Abramovskaya (Onezhsky District). Other notable wooden churches are located in Kargopolsky (Oshevenskoye, Krasnaya Lyaga, Saunino and others), Verkhnetoyemsky (Soyezerskaya Pustyn), Onezhsky, Primorsky, and Plesetsky (Porzhensky Pogost) districts. Despite being listed as cultural heritage, most of these buildings are neglected and regularly burn down. As a matter of fact, the majority of the churches considered as masterpieces has been lost. For instance, Verkhnemudyugsky Pogost in Onezhsky District, a triple church ensemble, burned down in 1997. A church and the bell-tower of the triple ensemble in Lyadiny (Kargopolsky District) burned down on May 6, 2013. The oblast preserves some of the best stone architectural ensembles in Russia. The ensemble of the Solovetsky Monastery (founded 1436, the earliest surviving buildings stem from the 16th century) has been designated as the World Heritage. The town of Kargopol contains a number of white-stone churches, the earliest of which, the Cathedral of the Nativity of Christ, originates from 1552. The Presentation Church (1688–1712) in Solvychegodsk is an acclaimed baroque masterpiece and one of the five surviving Stroganov baroque churches. Two of the towns in the oblast – Kargopol and Solvychegodsk – are classified as historical towns by the Ministry of Culture of Russian Federation, which implies certain restrictions on construction in their historical centers.",
"The monasteries facilitated the development of icon painting which existed in the area well until the 19th century. No single unified icon style arose, and icons produced in current Arkhangelsk and Vologda Oblasts are commonly known as Northern icon painting (\"Северные письма\"). Icons were produced in Solovetsky, Antoniev Siysky, Kozheozersky and other monasteries, as well as in the towns of Kholmogory and Solvychegodsk. Solvychegodsk icon painting was sponsored by Stroganovs and generated the Stroganov icon painting school, which in the end of the 17th century was principally active in Moscow. The icon-painting techniques were transferred to the traditional wood painting known since the 17th century in the valleys of the Northern Dvina (Nizhnyaya Toyma, Borok, Puchuga, Permogorye), the Pinega, and the Mezen. It was used to decorate all kinds of wooden surfaces such as, for example, spinning distaffs or chests, and employed geometrical figures as well as images of plants, animals, and humans. The Arkhangelsk traditional wooden painting is special since the surface was prepared in a particular way before the painting started, similar to icons. Despite the fact that several notable Russian artists including Vasily Vereshchagin traveled into the region in the 19th century, professional (non-icon) painting did not develop in Arkhangelsk until the 1890s. Aleksandr Borisov, Stepan Pisakhov, and Tyko Vylka, all of them landscape painters interested in Northern and Arctic landscapes, are considered as the founders of Arkhangelsk painting. Various handicrafts were developed in the area. The most notable ones are the Kholmogory bone carving, existing since the 17th century, and Kargopol toys, moulded painted clay figures of people and animals.",
"Like other areas of Northern Russia, Arkhangelsk Oblast is notable for its folklore. Until the mid-20th century, fairy tales and bylinas were still performed on a daily basis by professional performers, some of whom, like Mariya Krivopolenova, achieved prominence in Moscow and St. Petersburg. One of the first Arkhangelsk folklore collectors was Alexander Hilferding, who actually died in Kargopol during his journey. Starting from the 1890s, folkloric expeditions were organized to the White Sea area, and later to other areas of the Arkhangelsk Governorate, in order to write down the tales and the bylinas, in particular, in Pomor dialects. In the 1920s, mostly due to the efforts of Anna Astakhova, these expeditions became systematic. The results have been published. By the 1960s, the performing art was basically extinct. However, these folkloric motives and fairy tales inspired the literary works of Stepan Pisakhov and Boris Shergin, who were both natives of Arkhangelsk. Protopope Avvakum, a 17th-century monk, who led the opposition (\"raskol\") against the reforms of the Russian Orthodox Church, was exiled to Mezen for two years in 1664, and in 1667 was imprisoned in Pustozyorsk, currently in Nenets Autonomous Okrug, for 14 years before being burned alive. Avvakum is an author of about sixty literary works, including the \"Life of Avvakum\", most of which were written in Pustozyorsk and are considered among the most notable Russian literary pieces of the 17th century. Mikhail Lomonosov, a polymath and poet who created the basis of the modern Russian literary language, was born in 1711 in the village of Denisovka, close to Kholmogory, though he left the area to pursue his studies at the age of 18 and spent most of his career in Moscow and Saint-Petersburg. Denisovka was later renamed into Lomonosovo in his honour. Aleksey Chapygin, a historical novelist, was born in what is now Kargopol District. His first novels describe the peasant life of the Arkhangelsk Governorate. In the 20th century, two of the authors of the Village prose movement in Soviet literature, which predominantly described rural life, were tightly connected with Arkhangelsk Region: Fyodor Abramov was born in the peasant family in the village of Verkola in Pinezhsky Uyezd, and Aleksander Yashin lived in Arkhangelsk for some time. In their literary works, as well as in the works of Yury Kazakov, a short story writer who traveled extensively in the Russian North, the life of Arkhangelsk peasants features prominently. The name of one of the Kazakov's books of short stories is \"Poedemte v Lopshengu\" — Let us go to Lopshenga; Lopshenga is a selo on the White Sea coast. Some of the Nenets authors lived in Nenets Autonomous Okrug. In particular, Tyko Vylka was born in Novaya Zemlya and was even the chairman of the Novaya Zemlya Island Soviet. Vasily Ledkov lived in Naryan Mar.",
"One sport in which the oblast achieved prominence is bandy. The Vodnik Bandy Club from Arkhangelsk has become the Russian champion nine times (1996–2000 and 2002–2005) and won the Bandy World Cup in 2003 and 2004. Arkhangelsk hosted the 1999 Bandy World Championship and the same in 2003.",
"In 1998, the Arkhangelsk Regional Rescue Service was established by the governor. The responsibility of the Rescue Service is to handle emergency situations, such as forest fires. Polar bears are entering into human-occupied areas more frequently than in the past due to climate change effects. Global warming reduces sea-ice, forcing bears to come in to land to find food. An invasion of polar bears took place in February 2019 in northeastern Novaya Zemlya, with dozens of polar bears seen entering homes, public buildings, and inhabited areas. Arkhangelsk regional authorities declared a state of emergency."
]
} |
Bruno Bettelheim | null | Bruno Bettelheim (August 28, 1903 – March 13, 1990) was an Austrian-born psychologist, scholar, public intellectual and author who spent most of his academic and clinical career in the United States. An early writer on autism, Bettelheim's work focused on the education of emotionally disturbed children, as well as Freudian psychology more generally. In the U.S., he later gained a position as professor at the University of Chicago and director of the Sonia Shankman Orthogenic School for Disturbed Children, and after 1973 taught at Stanford University. | null | [
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"title": [
"Background in Austria.",
"Life and career in the United States.",
"Psychology.",
"\"The Uses of Enchantment\".",
"Death.",
"In popular culture.",
"Controversies.",
"Misrepresented credentials.",
"Plagiarism in Bettelheim's \"Uses of Enchantment\".",
"Abusive treatment of students.",
"Institutional and professional responses.",
"Autism controversy.",
"Remarks about Jews and the Holocaust."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
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],
"content": [
"Bruno Bettelheim was born in Vienna, Austria-Hungary, on August 28, 1903. When his father died, Bettelheim left his studies at the University of Vienna to look after his family's sawmill. Having discharged his obligations to his family's business, Bettelheim returned as a mature student in his thirties to the University of Vienna. Sources disagree about his education (see section Misrepresented credentials). Bettelheim's first wife, Gina, took care of a troubled American child, Patsy, who lived in their home in Vienna for seven years, and who may or may not have been on the autism spectrum. In the Austrian academic culture of Bettelheim's time, one could not study the history of art without mastering aspects of psychology. Candidates for the doctoral dissertation in the History of Art in 1938 at Vienna University had to fulfill prerequisites in the formal study of the role of Jungian archetypes in art, and in art as an expression of the unconscious. Though Jewish by birth, Bettelheim grew up in a secular family. After the Nazi invasion and \"Anschluss\" (political annexation) of Austria on March 12, 1938, the Nazi authorities sent Bettelheim, other Austrian Jews and political opponents to the Dachau and Buchenwald concentration camps where they were brutally treated, and tortured or killed. Bettelheim was arrested on May 28, 1938 and was imprisoned in both these camps for ten and half months before being released on April 14, 1939.<ref name=\"NeuroTribes, Silberman, pages 202-03, Bettelheim's 10 and a 1/2 months in Dachau and Buchenwald\">\"NeuroTribes: The Legacy of Autism and the Future of Neurodiversity\", Steve Silberman, Foreword by Oliver Sacks, Penguin Random House, 2015, pages 202-203.</ref> While at the Buchenwald camp, he met and befriended the social psychologist Ernst Federn. As a result of an amnesty declared for Adolf Hitler's birthday (which occurred slightly later on April 20, 1939), Bettelheim and hundreds of other prisoners were released. Bettelheim drew on the experience of the concentration camps for some of his later work.",
"Bettelheim arrived by ship as a refugee in New York City in late 1939 to join his wife Gina, who had already emigrated. They divorced because she had become involved with someone else during their separation. He soon moved to Chicago, became a naturalized U.S. citizen in 1944, and married an Austrian woman, Gertrude ('Trudi') Weinfeld, also an emigrant from Vienna.",
"The Rockefeller Foundation sponsored a wartime project to help resettle European scholars by circulating their resumes to American universities. Through this process, Ralph Tyler hired Bettelheim to be his research assistant at the University of Chicago from 1939-1941 with funding from the Progressive Education Association to evaluate how high schools taught art. Once this funding ran out, Bettelheim found a job at Rockford College, Illinois, where he taught from 1942-1944. In 1943, he published the paper \"Individual and Mass Behavior in Extreme Situations\" about his experiences in the concentration camps, a paper which was highly regarded by Dwight Eisenhower among others. Bettelheim claimed he had interviewed 1,500 fellow prisoners, although this was unlikely. He stated that the Viennese psychoanalyst Richard Sterba had analyzed him, as well as implying in several of his writings that he had written a PhD dissertation in the philosophy of education. His actual PhD was in art history, and he had only taken three introductory courses in psychology. Through Ralph Tyler's recommendation, the University of Chicago appointed Bettelheim as a professor of psychology, as well as director of the Sonia Shankman Orthogenic School for emotionally disturbed children. He held both positions from 1944 until his retirement in 1973. He wrote a number of books on psychology and, for a time, had an international reputation for his work on Sigmund Freud, psychoanalysis, and emotionally disturbed children. At the Orthogenic School, Bettelheim made changes and set up an environment for milieu therapy, in which children could form strong attachments with adults within a structured but caring environment. He claimed considerable success in treating some of the emotionally disturbed children. He wrote books on both normal and abnormal child psychology, and became a major influence in the field, widely respected during his lifetime. He was noted for his study of feral children, who revert to the animal stage without experiencing the benefits of belonging to a community. He discussed this phenomenon in the book \"The Informed Heart\". Even critics agree that, in his practice, Bettelheim was dedicated to helping these children using methods and practices that would enable them to lead happy lives. It is based on his position that psychotherapy could change humans and that they can adapt to their environment provided they are given proper care and attention. Bettelheim was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1971. After retiring in 1973, he and his wife moved to Portola Valley, California, where he continued to write and taught at Stanford University. His wife died in 1984.",
"Bettelheim analyzed fairy tales in terms of Freudian psychology in \"The Uses of Enchantment\" (1976). He discussed the emotional and symbolic importance of fairy tales for children, including traditional tales at one time considered too dark, such as those collected and published by the Brothers Grimm. Bettelheim suggested that traditional fairy tales, with the darkness of abandonment, death, witches, and injuries, allowed children to grapple with their fears in remote, symbolic terms. If they could read and interpret these fairy tales in their own way, he believed, they would get a greater sense of meaning and purpose. Bettelheim thought that by engaging with these socially evolved stories, children would go through emotional growth that would better prepare them for their own futures. In the United States, Bettelheim won two major awards for \"The Uses of Enchantment\": the National Book Critics Circle Award for Criticism and the National Book Award in the category of Contemporary Thought.",
"At the end of his life, Bettelheim suffered from depression. He appeared to have had difficulties with depression for much of his life. In 1990, widowed, in failing physical health, and suffering from the effects of a stroke which impaired his mental abilities and paralyzed part of his body, he committed suicide as a result of self-induced asphyxiation by placing a plastic bag over his head. He died on March 13, 1990, in Maryland.",
"Bettelheim was a public intellectual, whose writing and many public appearances in popular media paralleled a growing post WWII interest in psychoanalysis. For instance, he appeared multiple times on The Dick Cavett Show in the 70s to discuss theories of autism and psychoanalysis. Pollak's biography argues that such popular appearances shielded Bettelheim's unethical behavior from scrutiny. In 1974, a four-part series featuring Bruno Bettelheim and directed by Daniel Carlin appeared on French television — \"Portrait de Bruno Bettelheim\". Woody Allen included Bettelheim as himself in a cameo in the film \"Zelig\" (1983). A BBC \"Horizon\" documentary about Bettelheim was televised in 1987.",
"Bettelheim's life and work have come under increasing scrutiny since his death.",
"Though he spent most of his life working in psychology and psychiatry, Bettelheim's educational background in those fields is murky at best. Sources disagree whether Bettelheim's PhD was in art history or in philosophy (aesthetics). When he was hired at the University of Chicago, Ralph Tyler assumed that he had two PhDs, one in art history and the other in psychology. He also believed, falsely, that Bettelheim was certified to conduct Psychoanalysis though Bettelheim never received such certification. A posthumous review of his transcript showed that Bettelheim had only taken three introductory classes in psychology. Bertram Cohler and Jacquelyn Sanders at the Orthogenic School believed Bettelheim had a PhD in art history. In some of his own writings, Bettelheim implied that he had written a dissertation on the philosophy of education. Determining Bettelheim's education is complicated by the fact that he routinely embellished or inflated aspects of his own biography. As an example, Bettelheim's first wife, Gina, took care of a troubled American child, Patsy, who lived in their home in Vienna for seven years. Although Bettelheim later claimed he himself had taken care of the child, there is general agreement that his wife actually provided most of the child care. There is disagreement, however, among sources regarding whether or not Patsy was autistic. Bettelheim later claimed that it was Patsy who inspired him to study autism and embellished her into two or even several autistic children in his home. Additionally, when he applied for a position at Rockford College in Illinois, he claimed in a résumé that he had earned summa cum laude doctorates in philosophy, art history, and psychology, and he made such claims that he had run the art department at Lower Austria's library, that he had published two books on art, that he had excavated Roman antiquities, and that he had engaged in music studies with Arnold Schoenberg. When he applied at the University of Chicago for a professorship and as director of the Orthogenic School, he further claimed that he had training in psychology, experience raising autistic children, and personal encouragement from Sigmund Freud. Posthumous biographies of Bettelheim have investigated these claims and came to no clear conclusions about his credentials A review in \"The Independent\" (UK) of Sutton's book stated that Bettelheim \"despite claims to the contrary, possessed no psychology qualifications of any sort.\" A review of Pollak's book in \"The New York Times\" stated \"when all is said and done, Bettelheim seems to have re-enacted the archetypal American success story of inventing a false past, concocting a new formula for snake oil and selling it to the public with flummery. Under Mr. Pollak's magnifying glass, Bettelheim is seen in a new, harsh light, and stands exposed as a brilliant charlatan.\" Another review in \"The New York Times\" by a different reviewer stated that Bettelheim \"began inventing degrees he never earned.\" A review in the \"Chicago Tribune\" stated \"as Pollak demonstrates, Bettelheim was a snake-oil salesman of the first magnitude.\" In a 1997 \"Weekly Standard\" article Peter Kramer, clinical professor of psychiatry at Brown University, summarized: \"There were snatches of truth in the tall tale, but not many. Bettelheim had earned a non-honors degree in philosophy, he had made acquaintances in the psychoanalytic community, and his first wife had helped raise a troubled child. But, from 1926 to 1938, -- the bulk of the '14 years' at university -- Bettelheim had worked as a lumber dealer in the family business.\" In his 1997 review of Pollak's book in the \"Baltimore Sun\", Paul R. McHugh, then director of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences at Johns Hopkins, stated \"Bettelheim – with boldness, energy and luck – exploited American deference to Freudo-Nietzschean mind-sets and interpretation, especially when intoned in accents Viennese.\"",
"Within a year of Bettelheim's death, an article by Alan Dundes about The Uses of Enchantment appeared in the winter 1991 edition of \"The Journal of American Folklore\" which presented a case that Bettelheim had engaged in plagiarism. Dundes argued that Bettelheim had borrowed without acknowledgement from a number of sources, including Dundes' own 1967 paper on Cinderella and from Dr. Julius E. Heuscher's book \"A Psychiatric Study of Fairy Tales\" published in 1963. In part because of the widespread popularity of \"The Uses of Enchantment\" and Bettelheim's prominence, this academic controversy was discussed in print media and both Dundes and Heuscher spoke publicly about it. On the other hand, Jacquelyn Sanders, who worked with Bettelheim and later became director of the Orthogenic School, stated that she had read Dundes' article but didn't believe many people would agree with his conclusions. She said, \"I would not call that plagiarism. I think the article is a reasonable scholarly endeavor, and calling it scholarly etiquette is appropriate. It is appropriate that this man deserved to be acknowledged and Bettelheim didn't... But I would not fail a student for doing that, and I don`t know anybody who would\".",
"There is some disagreement as to whether Bettelheim's use of corporal punishment rose to the level of abuse or was in keeping with the standards of his time. Some staff who worked at the Orthogenic School have spoken out that they saw Bettelheim's behavior as being corporal punishment, but not abuse. As an example, David Zwerdling, who was a counselor at the school for one year in 1969-70, wrote a Sept. 1990 response to \"The Washington Post\" in which he stated, \"I witnessed one occasion when an adolescent boy cursed at a female counselor. Incensed upon learning of this, Dr. Bettelheim proceeded to slap the boy two or three times across the face, while telling him sternly never to speak that way to a woman again. This was the only such incident I observed or heard of during my year at the school...until fairly recently, the near-consensus against corporal punishment in schools did not obtain.\" However, Zwerdling also noted, \"He also was a man who, for whatever reasons, was capable of intense anger on occasion.\" Conversely, many students and staff at the school have argued that Bettelheim was abusive, violent, and cruel to them and to others. There are multiple newspaper accounts of abuse, in letters, editorialsarticles, and memoirs. A November 1990 \"Chicago Tribune\" article states: \"Of the 19 alumni of the Orthogenic School interviewed for this story, some are still bitterly angry at Bettelheim, 20 or 30 years after leaving the institution due to the trauma they had suffered under him. Others say their stays did them good, and they express gratitude for having had the opportunity to be at the school. All agree that Bettelheim frequently struck his young and vulnerable patients.\" A particularly evocative example came from Alida Jatich, who lived at the school from 1966 to 1972 from ages twelve to eighteen. She wrote an initially anonymous April 1990 letter to the \"Chicago Reader\" in which she stated that she \"lived in fear of Bettelheim's unpredictable temper tantrums, public beatings, hair pulling, wild accusations and threats and abuse in front of classmates and staff. One minute he could be smiling and joking, the next minute he could be exploding.\" She added, “In person, he was an evil man who set up his school as a private empire and himself as a demi-god or cultleader.” Jatich said Bettelheim had “bullied, awed, and terrorized” the children at his school, their parents, school staff members, his graduate students, and anyone else who came into contact with him. Published books, memoirs, and biographies of Bettelheim have also taken up the question of his treatment of students. Richard Pollak's biography of Bettelheim was inspired by his brother's experience at the school, and Bettelheim's callous response to inquiries about that experience. Pollak's biography also states that two separate women reported that Bettelheim fondled their breasts and those of other female students at the school while he was ostensibly apologizing to each for beating her.",
"Perhaps in part because of Bettelheim's professional and public stature, there was little effort during his lifetime to curtail his behavior or intervene on behalf of his victims. His work at the University of Chicago seems to have been given less formal oversight by the University than other research entities under their purview. Professionals in the psychiatric and psychological communities likely knew there were allegations of abuse and maltreatment at the Orthogenic School.. Howard Gardner a professor at the Harvard Graduate School of Education wrote that many professionals knew of Bettelheim's behavior but did not confront him for various reasons including \"fear about Bettelheim's legendary capacity for retribution to the solidarity needed among the guild of healers to a feeling that, on balance, Bettelheim's positive attributes predominated and an unmasking would fuel more malevolent forces.\"",
"Behavioral psychology and conditions in children and adolescents was little understood in the mid-twentieth century. The concept of \"autism\" was first used as a term for schizophrenia. In the 1950s into the 1960s what may be understood as autism in children was regularly also referred to as \"childhood psychosis and childhood schizophrenia\". \"Psychogenesis\", the theory that childhood disorders had origins in early childhood events or trauma acting on the child from the outside was a prominent theory, and Bettelheim was a prominent proponent of a psychogenic basis for autism. For Bettelheim, the idea that outside forces cause individual behavior issues can be traced back to his earliest prominent article on the psychology of imprisoned persons. Beginning in the 1960s and into the 1970s, \"biogensis\", the idea that such conditions had an inner-organic or biological basis overtook psychogenesis. Currently, many of Bettelheim's theories in which he attributes autism spectrum conditions to parenting style are considered to be discredited, not least because of the controversies relating to his academic and professional qualifications. Autism spectrum conditions are now currently regarded as perhaps having multiple forms with a variety of genetic, epigenetic, and brain development causes influenced by such environmental factors as complications during pregnancy, viral infections, and perhaps even air pollution. The two biographies by Sutton (1995) and Pollak (1997) awakened interest and focus on Bettelheim's actual methods as distinct from his public persona. Bettelheim's theories on the causes of autism have been largely discredited, and his reporting rates of cure have been questioned, with critics stating that his patients were not actually autistic. In a favorable review of Pollak's biography, Christopher Lehmann-Haupt of \"The New York Times\" wrote, \"What scanty evidence remains suggests that his patients were not even autistic in the first place.\" In 1997 the psychiatrist Peter Kramer wrote, \"The Ford Foundation was willing to underwrite innovative treatments for autistic children, so Bettelheim labeled his children autistic. Few actually met the definition of the newly minted syndrome.\" Bettelheim believed that autism did not have an organic basis, but resulted when mothers withheld appropriate affection from their children and failed to make a good connection with them. Bettelheim also blamed absent or weak fathers. One of his most famous books, \"The Empty Fortress\" (1967), contains a complex and detailed explanation of this dynamic in psychoanalytical and psychological terms. These views were disputed at the time by mothers of autistic children and by researchers. He derived his thinking from the qualitative investigation of clinical cases. He also related the world of autistic children to conditions in concentration camps. It appears that Leo Kanner first came up with the term \"refrigerator mother,\" although Bettelheim did a lot to popularize the term. \"Although it now seems beyond comprehension that anyone would believe that autism is caused by deep-seated issues arising in early childhood relationships, virtually every psychiatric condition was attributed to parent-child relationships in the 1940s and 1950s, when Freudian psychoanalytic theory was in its heyday.\" In \"A Good Enough Parent\", published in 1987, he had come to the view that children had considerable resilience and that most parents could be \"good enough\" to help their children make a good start. Prior to this, Bettelheim subscribed to and became an early prominent proponent of the \"refrigerator mother\" theory of autism: the theory that autistic behaviors stem from the emotional frigidity of the children's mothers. He adapted and transformed the Orthogenic School at the University of Chicago as a residential treatment milieu for such children, who he felt would benefit from a \"parentectomy\". This marked the apex of autism viewed as a disorder of parenting. A 2002 book on autism spectrum stated, \"At the time, few people knew that Bettelheim had faked his credentials and was using fictional data to support his research.\" Michael Rutter has observed, \"Many people made a mistake in going from a statement which is undoubtedly true—that there is no evidence that autism has been caused by poor parenting—to the statement that it has been disproven. It has not actually been disproven. It has faded away simply because, on the one hand, of a lack of convincing evidence and on the other hand, an awareness that autism was a neurodevelopmental disorder of some kind.\" In a 1997 review of two books on Bettelheim, Molly Finn wrote \"I am the mother of an autistic daughter, and have considered Bettelheim a charlatan since \"The Empty Fortress\", his celebrated study of autism, came out in 1967. I have nothing personal against Bettelheim, if it is not personal to resent being compared to a devouring witch, an infanticidal king, and an SS guard in a concentration camp, or to wonder what could be the basis of Bettelheim's statement that 'the precipitating factor in infantile autism is the parent's wish that his child should not exist.'\" Although Bettelheim foreshadowed the modern interest in the causal influence of genetics in the section \"Parental Background,\" he consistently emphasised nurture over nature. For example: \"When at last the once totally frozen affects begin to emerge, and a much richer human personality to evolve, then convictions about the psychogenic nature of the disturbance become stronger still.\"; \"On Treatability,\" p. 412. The rates of recovery claimed for the Orthogenic School are set out in \"Follow-up Data,\" with a recovery good enough to be considered a 'cure' of 43%., ps. 414–415. Subsequently, medical research has provided greater understanding of the biological basis of autism and other illnesses. Scientists such as Bernard Rimland challenged Bettelheim's view of autism by arguing that autism is a neurodevelopmental issue. As late as 2009, the \"refrigerator mother\" theory retained some prominent supporters, including the prominent Irish psychologist Tony Humphreys. His theory still enjoys widespread support in France. In his book \"Unstrange Minds\" (2007), Roy Richard Grinker wrote: Jordynn Jack writes that Bettelheim's ideas gained currency and became popular in large part because society already tended to blame a mother first and foremost for her child's difficulties.",
"Bettelheim's experiences during the Holocaust shaped his personal and professional life for years after. His first publication was \"Individual and Mass Behavior in Extreme Situations\" derived from his experiences at Dachau and Buchenwald. His later work frequently compared emotionally disturbed childhood to prison or confinement, and according to Sutton, his professional work attempted to operationalize the lessons about human nature he learned during his confinement. Bettelheim became one of the most prominent defenders of Hannah Arendt's book \"Eichmann in Jerusalem\". He wrote a positive review for \"The New Republic\". This review prompted a letter from a writer, Harry Golden, who alleged that both Bettelheim and Arendt suffered from \"an essentially Jewish phenomenon... self-hatred\". Bettelheim would later speak critically of Jewish people who were killed during the Holocaust. He has been criticized for promoting the myth that Jews went \"like sheep to the slaughter\" and for blaming Anne Frank and her family for their own deaths due to not owning firearms, fleeing, or hiding more effectively. In an introduction he wrote to an account by Miklos Nyiszli, Bettelheim stated, discussing Frank that \"Everybody who recognized the obvious knew that the hardest way to go underground was to do it as a family; that to hide as a family made detection by the SS most likely. The Franks, with their excellent connections among gentile Dutch families should have had an easy time hiding out singly, each with a different family. But instead of planning for this, the main principle of their planning was to continue as much as possible with the kind of family life they were accustomed to.\" Richard Pollak's biography, \"The Creation of Dr. B\", portrays Bettelheim as an anti-Semite even though he was raised in a secular Jewish household, and asserts that Bettelheim criticized in others the same cowardice he himself had displayed in the concentration camps."
]
} |
Bouzov Castle | null | Bouzov Castle () is an early 14th-century fortress which was first mentioned in 1317. It was built on a hill between the village of Hvozdek and the town of Bouzov, west of Litovel and northwest of Olomouc, in Moravia, Czech Republic. The castle has been used in a number of film productions lately, including "Arabela", "Fantaghirò", and "Before the Fall". | null | [
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"title": [
"History.",
"Owners.",
"Vildenberks period.",
"From the 15th to 19th century.",
"Habsburgs period.",
"Description."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"",
"Bouzov was established at the turn of the 14th century with the purpose to watch over the trade route from Olomouc to Loštice. The minor aristocratic Bůz of Bludovec family were its first recorded owners from 1317 to 1339. The castle also takes its name from the family. Ownership of the castles was then changed, and the Lords of Kunštát were among the most important medieval owners. According to tradition, the Bouzov castle is often connected with name of the most famous member of this noble dynasty, Jiří z Poděbrady was born in Bouzov in 1420 and was crowned Czech King in 1458. His original title was Jiří of Kunštát and Bouzov. In 1558 the castle burned down, and lost much of its majestic quality. In the course of centuries there were several changes of proprietors; the castle was owned by the lords of Vildenberk, margrave Jošt, the Haugvic and the Pod Štatský families, and in 1696 the barony was bought by the grand master of the Teutonic Order, the Rhenish palsgrave Fanciscus Ludovicus.",
"As various noble families changed possession of Bouzov, in a similar way also its appearance was changed from an early gothic castle to a Renaissance style. In the time of the lords of Bouzov, the castle played mostly a defensive and guarding role. It probably consisted of a tower and rampart and wooden dwelling houses. The Vildenberks built a stony manor on the western side which was taller than the rampart. Already in the 14th century the castle was significantly widened - a settlement with outhouses was constructed with a ditch and circumvallation, rampart with a 200-foot-high (61 m tall) watchtower and a moat wall built around the castle. During the rule of the Kunštát family, the manor was fortified with a new connected rampart with two bastions, and the moat wall was rebuilt with five round bastions. Later a round gun-bastion was erected and the tallest watchtower was repaired.",
"In 1408 the castle passed into the hands of Viktorin of Bouzov. In 1499 the Haugvics started the construction of a palace on the eastern side and connected the northern and southern dwelling building. In the first half of the 15th century it was converted into a Hussite stronghold, serving as a prison for captured Swedes during the Thirty Years war. In the second half of the 16th century the castle burned out and remained uninhabited. About a hundred years later, the reconstruction of the castle began again with the remodeling of the southern wing. At that time the castle had already lost its defensive function and became an utterly dwelling object. With the arrival of the Teutonic Order, during the 18th century the castle also lost this function. Only the building in the outer settlement remained inhabited, and by the end of the 19th century the ruin of the castle became a tourist goal.",
"The castle gained today's appearance after massive Neo-gothic reconstruction between 1895 and 1910. The Grand Master of the Order of the Teutonic Knights from 1799 to 1939, archduke Eugen Habsburg, decided to rebuild it in the Romantic, predominantly Neo-Gothic style, according to the plans of the prominent architects of its time Georg von Hauberisser (1841–1922) of the Munich Polytechnic University; he was the author of Munich and Saarbrücken's town-halls, and also very influential as builder of churches like the St. Paul's church in Munich. The alterations were carried out with the intention of making part of the castle open to the public. Bouzov was fitted with modern furnishings and equipment, including running water and central heating. The order was abolished in 1939 and the castle was confiscated by the fascists, occupied and looted by the Nazis during the WW II. The castle was acquired by the Chief of the Gestapo R. Himmler, who forced the Strahov Monastery to sell it to him for one million crowns, as a present to A. Hitler. After 1989 the Order of Teutonic Knights expressed an interest in the castle, but their request to have it returned to them has so far been rejected.",
"An eight-storey watchtower, high, dominates the complex. The buildings are grouped around it in the form of a horseshoe, and the castle is enhanced by a number of towers, and among other things, bastions, battlements, oriel windows and loopholes. The two long bridges, ending with a short drawbridge, span the deep dry moat around the castle. The knights' hall, armoury, which is in one of the few original rooms with preserved Gothic vaulting, bedrooms of the knights and a neo-gothic chapel with its Gothic altar and tombs occupy the central part of the castle. The valuable furniture comes from the private collection of Eugen von Habsburg and the collection of the Order of the Teutonic Knights. Since 1999 the castle has been a national monument."
]
} |
Ľudovít Štúr | null | Ľudovít Velislav Štúr (; ; 28 October 1815, Uhrovec (Zayugróc), near Bánovce nad Bebravou (Bán) – 12 January 1856, Modra (Modor)), known in his era as Ludevít Štúr, was the leader of the Slovak national revival in the 19th century, and the author of the Slovak language standard, eventually leading to the contemporary Slovak literary language. Štúr was an organizer of the Slovak volunteer campaigns during the Hungarian Revolution of 1848. He was also a politician, poet, journalist, publisher, teacher, philosopher, linguist and member of the Hungarian Parliament. | null | [
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"title": [
"Background.",
"Language dispute.",
"Slovak language.",
"March 1848 – August 1849.",
"Biography.",
"Early life.",
"Slovak national movement.",
"Travels in Germany and early political works.",
"Codification of Slovak.",
"Career in the Hungarian Diet.",
"1848/49 Revolution.",
"Later life.",
"Legacy."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
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],
"content": [
"",
"At the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries, Slovaks were divided concerning the literary language to be used: This situation did not change until the 1840s, when Ľudovít Štúr became the chief figure of the Slovak national movement. At the same time, modern nations started to develop in Europe and in the Kingdom of Hungary. The Hungarians favoured the idea of a centralized state, although the Magyar population was only some 40% of the population of the Hungarian Kingdom in the 1780s. This was unacceptable to other national groups, including the Slovaks, and they expressed their disapproval.",
"In the 1830s, a new generation of Slovaks began to make themselves heard. They had grown up under the influence of the national movement at the prestigious Lutheran \"Lýceum\" (preparatory high school and college) in Bratislava, where the Czech-Slav Society (also called the \"Society for the Czechoslovak Language and Literature\") had been founded in 1829. Initially, the society operated in accordance with the ideas of Ján Kollár, a Protestant minister, poet, and academic, supporter of Czech-Slovak unity, and of the users of the language of Bible of Kralice. In the latter part of the decade, when Ľudovít Štúr came to the fore, its activities intensified. The most prominent representatives of the new generation were, along with Ľudovít Štúr, Jozef Miloslav Hurban (1817–1888) and Michal Miloslav Hodža (1811–1870). Ľudovít Štúr expressed his philosophy in one sentence: \"My country is my being, and every hour of my life shall be devoted to it\". Štúr, a Lutheran, was aware of the fact that Czech, the language of educated Lutherans, was not enough to carry out a national campaign, and that Slovaks, if they were ever to become autonomous and be an effective force against Magyarization, needed a language they could call their own. The central Slovak dialect was chosen as the basis of a literary language. Štúr's codification work was disapproved of by Ján Kollár and the Czechs, who saw it as an act of Slovak withdrawal from the idea of a common Czecho-Slovak nation and a weakening of solidarity. But the majority of Slovak scholars, including the Catholics (using Bernolák's codification until then), welcomed the notion of codification. The standard language thus became an important political tool.",
"Štúr's notions (an autonomous Slovak area, a Slovak Diet (assembly), Slovak schools, etc.) came to fruition simultaneously with the 1848 Revolution in Hungary, which dealt with the liberation of peasants from serfdom and other national and ethnic issues. Hungarian revolutionaries called for Hungary’s separation from Vienna, but at the same time, they wanted to see Hungary as one nation with one language and one educational system. But the desires of the Magyars for a centralized Hungarian state ran contrary to the wishes of other national groups, including the Slovaks. Slovak and Hungarian revolutionary claims ran counter to each other. In the spring of 1848, Slovak leaders spread their ideas throughout Upper Hungary. Slovak nationalists, mainly in the progressive western and central Upper Hungary, joined them. In May 1848, a huge public meeting took place in Liptovský Svätý Mikuláš (Liptószentmiklós; present Liptovský Mikuláš), where a pan-Slovak program, known as the \"Requirements of the Slovak Nation\" was proclaimed and accepted. Ethnic Slovaks sought to back this revolutionary manifesto by force of arms. The provisional Hungarian revolutionary government was not willing to accept the Requirements of the Slovak Nation and the situation developed into open hostility between Hungarian and Slovak revolutionaries. In September 1848, the Slovak National Council was established in Vienna and it forthwith proclaimed the secession of the Slovak territory from Hungary. The so-called September campaign (consisting of 6000 volunteers) took place in western Upper Hungary. Slovak demands remained unfulfilled. Between November 1848 and April 1849, the armed Slovaks helped the Habsburg king – along with imperial troops in present-day Hungary – to defeat Hungarians and their revolutionary government on present-day Slovak territory (the so-called Winter Campaign or Volunteer Campaigns). In March 1849, Slovaks even temporarily managed to start to administer Slovakia themselves and they sent a petition (the March Petition) to the emperor. However, in the summer of 1849, the Russians helped the Habsburg monarchy defeat the revolutionary Hungarians, and in November, when the Slovaks were not needed anymore, the Slovak corps was dissolved in Vienna. Then in December 1851, Emperor Franz Joseph abolished the last vestiges of constitutionalism and began to rule as an absolute emperor. Francis Joseph continued his centralization policies. This came to be known as the period of neo-absolutism. Certain Slovak demands were met, however. In the northern counties of the Kingdom of Hungary, the Slovak language was allowed for official communication and was introduced in lower schools (see in resp. ). But in higher courts, the Slovaks faced the same Germanization as all the other ethnicities. Ján Kollár, who became a professor at Vienna University, obtained permission to print Slovak newspapers and was appointed a court adviser.",
"",
"Ľudovít Štúr was born on 28 October 1815 in Uhrovec, in the Austrian Empire (in the same house where Alexander Dubček was later born) as the second child of Samuel and Anna Štúr. He was baptized in the Evangelical Lutheran church in Uhrovec. He acquired his basic education, including the study of Latin, from his father Samuel, who was a teacher. From 1827–1829, he studied in Győr where he attended a lower grammar school. There, he improved his knowledge of history, and the German Greek and Hungarian languages. These studies inspired his admiration of Pavel Jozef Šafárik, Ján Kollár and Jiří Dobrovsky. In 1829, he decided to change schools. From 1829 to 1836, Ľudovít Štúr studied at the prestigious Lutheran \"Lýceum\" (preparatory high school and college) in Pressburg and became a member of the Czech-Slav Society, which stimulated his interest in all Slav nations. At the Lýceum was a famous professor, Juraj Palkovič, in the Department of the Czechoslovak Language and Ancient Literature, the only such department at a Protestant school of higher education in 19th century Hungary. In 1831, Ľudovít Štúr wrote his first poems. From January to September 1834, he temporarily interrupted his studies due to a lack of finances, and returned to Zayugróc, where he worked as a scribe for Count Károly Zay. Later that year, he resumed his studies, was active in the historical and literary circle of the Czech-Slav Society, was responsible for correspondence with members of the Society, gave private lessons in the house of a merchant in Pressburg (today: Bratislava), taught younger students at the Lýceum, and established contacts with important foreign and Czech scholars. On 17 December 1834, he was elected secretary of the Czech-Slav Society at the Lýceum.",
"In May 1835, Ľudovít Štúr persuaded Jozef Hurban to become involved in the Slovak national movement. Also that year, he was co-editor of the \"Plody\" (\"Fruits\") almanac, a compilation of the best works of the members of the Czech-Slav Society, including poems of Štúr's. He became vice-president of the Czech-Slav Society, teaching older students at the Lýceum the history of the Slavs and their literatures. In 1836, Štúr wrote a letter to Czech historian František Palacký, in which he stated that the Czech language used by the Protestants in Upper Hungary had become incomprehensible for ordinary Slovaks, and proposed the creation of a unified Czechoslovak language, provided that the Czechs would be willing to use some Slovak words – just like Slovaks would officially accept some Czech words. But the Czechs were unwilling to accept this, and so Štúr and his friends decided to introduce a completely new Slovak language standard instead. On 24 April 1836, a trip to Devín Castle (Dévény, now part of Bratislava) by the members of the Slovak national movement took place, led by Štúr as the vice-president of the Czech-Slav Society. The beginning of his group's extensive efforts on behalf of national awareness are linked to this visit to the ruins of Devín Castle, woven together with legends and reminders of Great Moravia. The members of the Czech-Slav Society swore here to be true to the national cause, deciding to travel around Upper Hungary to drum up support for their ideas. At the castle, they also adopted additional Slavic names (e.g., Jozef Hurban became Jozef Miloslav Hurban, etc.). From 1836 to 1838, as deputy (non-stipendiary assistant) for Professor Palkovič, Chair of the Czechoslovak Language and Literature Department at the Lýceum where he was previously a student, he taught History of Slavic Literature. He continued to write poetry and under his leadership, the number of members of the Czech-Slav Society continuously increased. In this year, a poem of Štúr's was published in printed form for the first time: \"Óda na Hronku\" (\"An ode to Hronka\"). In April 1837, the Czech-Slav Society was banned due to a commotion between students at the Lýceum. One week later, Štúr founded the Institute of the Czechoslovak Language and Literature, within which the activities of the Czech-Slav Society continued. In that year, he continued to write articles for newspapers and journals, including \"Tatranka\", \"Hronka\", \"Květy\" (Czech), \"Časopis českého musea\", \"Danica\" (Croatian) and \"Tygodnik literacki\" (Polish).",
"From 1838 to 1840, he attended the (Protestant) University of Halle in Germany, where he studied linguistics, history, and philosophy. He was influenced by the works of the German philosophers Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and Johann Gottfried Herder. Also during this period, his poetic cycle \"Dumky večerní\" (\"Evening Thoughts\", written in Czech) was published in the Czech journal \"Květy\". He left Pressburg for Halle in September 1838. On his way to Halle, he spent more than a month in Prague, in the company of Czech patriots. In the spring of 1839, Štúr made a long journey to the Upper and Lower Lusatia in Germany (inhabited by Slavs) and got in touch with the Slavs there. He wrote the short travelogue \"Cesta do Lužic vykonaná na jar 1839\" (\"A journey to Lusatia made in the spring of 1839\"), written in Czech and published in the Czech journal \"Časopis českého musea\". In 1840, he returned to Bratislava via Prague and Hradec Králové (Königgrätz), where he spent some time in the house of publisher Jan Pospíšil. From October, he was once again working as deputy for Professor Palkovič at the Department of the Czecho-Slav Language and Literature at the Evangelical Lutheran Lýceum, teaching courses of grammar and Slav history, and continuing his activities at the Institute of the Czechoslovak Language. During 1841–1844, Štúr was co-editor of Palkovič's literary magazine, \"Tatranka\". In 1841, he started activities aimed at publishing a Slovak political newspaper. He wrote defenses and polemic texts, as well as his \"Starý a nový věk Slovákov\" (\"The old and the new age of the Slovaks\"), written in Old Czech and published in 1935 (not in Slovak until 1994). On 16 August 1841, Štúr and his friends ascended Kriváň (a symbolic mountain in Slovak culture), an event that is now commemorated by annual excursions to its summit. In 1842, he initiated the first \"Slovenský prestolný prosbopis\", a Slovak petition to the Royal Court in Vienna requiring the government to stop national persecutions by the Hungarians in Upper Hungary. His application for a licence to publish a newspaper was turned down in the same year.",
"On 2 February 1843, in Pressburg, Štúr and his friends decided to create a new Slovak language standard (later used as a basis for contemporary literary Slovak), based on central Slovak dialects – a common language that would unify all Slovaks speaking many different dialects. From 26 to 29 June 1843, a special committee met to investigate the Institute of Czechoslovak Language at the Lýceum, also interrogating Štúr. Štúr was forced to leave his position at the Institute. Twenty-two students also left the institution in support of Štúr and transferred their studies to the Evangelical Lýceum in Levoča (Lőcse). In July 1843, his defense, \"Die Beschwerden und Klagen der Slaven in Ungarn über die gesetzwidrigen Übergriffe der Magyaren\" (\"The complaints and grievances of the Slavs in Hungary about the illegal malfeasances of the Hungarians\"), which editorial offices throughout 19th century Hungary had refused to publish, was published in Leipzig, Germany. From 11 to 16 July 1843, at the parish house of J. M. Hurban in Hlboké, the leaders of the Slovak national movement – Štúr, J. M. Hurban, and M.M. Hodža – agreed on how to codify the new Slovak language standard and how to introduce it to the public. On 17 July 1843, they visited Ján Hollý, an important writer and representative of the older Bernolák Slovak language standard, in Dobrá Voda and informed him about their plans. On 11 October 1843, although the committee did not find anything illegal about Štúr's activities, Štúr was ordered to stop lecturing and was removed from the function of deputy for Prof. Palkovič. However, Štúr continued to give lectures. On 31 December 1843, he was definitively deprived of the function of deputy for Prof. Palkovič. As a result, in March 1844, 22 students left Pressburg in protest; 13 of them went to study at the Evangelical Lýceum in the town of Levoča. One of the supporting students was Janko Matuška, who took the opportunity to write a hymn, \"Nad Tatrou sa blýska\", which later became the official anthem of the Slovak Republic. From 1843 to 1847, Štúr worked as a private linguist. In 1844, he wrote \"Nárečja slovenskuo alebo potreba písaňja v tomto nárečí\" (\"The Slovak dialect or, the necessity of writing in this dialect\"). On 19 May 1844, a second \"Slovenský prestolný prosbopis\" was sent to Vienna, but had little influence. But in 1844, other Slovak authors (often Štúr’s students) started to use the new Slovak language standard. On 27 August, he participated in the founding convention of the Slovak association Tatrín, the first nationwide association. On 1 August 1845, the first issue of \"Slovenskje národňje novini\" (\"Slovak National Newspaper\", published until 9 June 1848) was published. One week later, its literary supplement, \"Orol Tatranský\" (\"The Tatra Eagle\", published until 6 June 1848) was also published. In this newspaper, written in the new Slovak language, he gradually shaped a Slovak political program. He based this on the precept that the Slovaks were one nation, and that they therefore had a right to their own language, culture, schools - and particularly to political autonomy within Hungary. The projected expression of this autonomy was to be a Slovak Diet. Also that year, his brochure \"Das neunzehnte Jahrhundert und der Magyarismus\" (\"The 19th century and Magyarism\"), written in German, was published in Vienna.",
"In 1846, Štúr got to know the well-situated noble family Ostrolúcky in Zemianske Podhradie (Nemesváralja), who later helped him to become a deputy in the Diet of Hungary in Pressburg. He also fell in love with. In addition, his books \"Nárečja Slovenskuo alebo potreba písaňja v tomto nárečí\" (1844) and \"Nauka reči Slovenskej\" (\"The Theory of the Slovak language\") were published in Pressburg. In \"Nárečia Slovenskuo\", he rebutted Kollár's concept of only four Slavic tribes (Russians, Poles, Czechoslovaks and Southern Slavs), and listed reasons for the introduction of the new language, which was based on central Slovak dialects and used phonetic spelling. In \"Nauka reči Slovenskej\", he explained the grammar of the new language standard. In the same year, the upset Kollár and his followers published the compilation work „\"Hlasové o potřebě jednoty spisovného jazyka pro Čechy, Moravany a Slováky\"“ (\"Voices in favour of the necessity of a unified literary language of the Czechs, Moravians and Slovaks\"), written in Czech. In August 1847, at the 4th convention of the Tatrín association in Čachtice, Catholics and Protestants proclaimed that they \"definitively agree to use only the newly codified Štúr language standard\". On 30 October 1847, he became an ablegate for the town of Zvolen (Zólyom) in the \"Parlamentum Publicum\" (Diet) in Pressburg. From 17 November 1847 to 13 March 1848, he gave five important speeches at the Diet, in which he demanded the abolition of serfdom in Hungary, the introduction of civil rights, and the use of the Slovak language in elementary schools. The Diet met only until 11 April 1848 due to the 1848 Revolution.",
"On 1 April 1848 in Vienna, Štúr and his colleagues prepared the Slavic Congress of Prague. On 20 April 1848, he arrived in Prague on the invitation of the Czech J. V. Frič, where he won the support of Czech student members of the association Slávie, regarding his attempts to enforce the Slovak language. On 30 April 1848, he initiated the establishment of \"Slovanská lipa\" (Slavic lime tree) in Prague – an association aimed at promoting the mutual cooperation of Slavs. In May 1848, he was a co-author of the official petition, \"Žiadosti slovenského národa\" (\"Requirements of the Slovak Nation\"). The \"Žiadosti slovenského národa\" were publicly declared in Liptovský Svätý Mikuláš, with Ján Francisci-Rimavský as the reader. In it, the Slovaks demanded autonomy within Hungary, proportional representation in the Hungarian Assembly, the creation of a Slovak Diet to administer their own region, for Slovak to become the official language, and for educational institutions at all levels to use Slovak. They also called for universal suffrage and democratic rights – e.g., freedom of the press and public assembly. They requested that peasants be released from serfdom, and that their lands be returned to them. But on 12 May 1848, the Hungarian government issued a warrant for the leaders of the Slovak movement: Štúr, Hurban, and Hodža. The persecuted Štúr arrived in Prague on 31 May 1848. On 2 June 1848, he participated in the Slavic Congress there. On 19 June 1848, he went to Zagreb, Croatia, because the Slavic Congress was interrupted by fighting in Prague, and became an editor of the Croatian magazine \"Slavenski Jug\". With financial support from some Serbs, he and J. M. Hurban started to prepare an uprising against the Hungarian government. The \"Slovak Uprising\" occurred between September 1848 and November 1849. In September 1848, Štúr travelled to Vienna and participated in preparations for the Slovak armed uprising. On 15–16 September 1848, the Slovak National Council, the supreme Slovak political and military organisation, consisting of Štúr, Hurban, and Hodža (as politicians), and the Czechs B. Bloudek, F. Zach, and B. Janeček (as military experts), was created in Vienna. On 19 September 1848 in Myjava, the Slovak National Council declared independence from the Hungarian government and called on the Slovak nation to start an armed uprising. However, the Council only managed to control their local region. Štúr, Hurban, and others met in Prague on 7 October 1848 to discuss how to proceed with the uprising. Upon his return to Vienna in November, Štúr (with a group of Slovak volunteers, on one of the so-called Volunteer Campaigns) traversed northern Hungary from Čadca (Csaca), arriving in Prešov (Eperjes) in March 1849. On 20 March 1849, he led a delegation to meet with the Austrian king in the Czech town of Olomouc and presented the demands of the Slovak nation. From March until June, Štúr – along with Hurban, Hodža, Bórik, Chalúpka, and others – negotiated in Vienna for a solution to the Slovak demands. But on 21 November 1849, the Slovak volunteer corps was officially demobilized in Pressburg, and the disappointed Štúr retreated to his parents' home in Uhrovec.",
"The later years of Štúr's life saw him engage in further linguistic and literary work. In the autumn of 1850, he attempted but failed to receive a license to publish a Slovak national newspaper. In December of that year, he participated in a delegation to Vienna concerning Slovak schools and the Tatrín association. Several personal tragedies also occurred during his later life. His brother Karol died on 13 January 1851. Štúr moved into the house of Karol's family in Modra (near Pressburg) to care for his seven children. He lived there under police supervision. On 27 July 1851, his father died, and his mother moved to Trenčín (Trencsén). In October 1851, he participated in meetings in Pressburg concerning reforms of the codified Slovak language standard. The reforms, involving mainly a transition from the phonetic spelling to an etymological one, were later introduced by M. M. Hodža and Martin Hattala in 1851–1852, but Štúr, among others, also participated in the preparations. The result of these reforms was the Slovak language standard still in use today, with only some minor changes since then. In Modra in 1852, Štúr finished his essay \"O národních písních a pověstech plemen slovanských\" (\"On national songs and myths of Slavic kin\"), written in Czech and published in Bohemia the next year. In addition, he wrote his important philosophical book, \"Das Slawenthum und die Welt der Zukunft\" (\"Slavdom and the world of the future\"), written in German, and published in Russian in 1867 and 1909 (subsequently published in German in 1931, and in Slovak in 1993). Among other things, he recapitulated the events that brought the Slovaks to the desperate situation of that time, and suggested cooperation with Russia as a solution, thus moving away from Slovak nationalism toward pan-Slavism. In 1853, his platonic female friend, Adela, died in Vienna on 18 March. He also went to Trenčín to help care for his ill mother, until she died on 28 August. The only compilation of his poetry, \"Spevy a piesne\" (\"Singings and songs\"), was published in Pressburg that year. On 11 May 1854, he gave a speech at the unveiling of the Ján Hollý monument in Dobrá Voda (Ján Hollý having died in 1849). Štúr had also written a poem in his honour. On 22 December 1855, Štúr accidentally shot and wounded himself during a hunt near Modra. In the last days of his life, he was mainly supported by his friend Ján Kalinčiak. On 12 January 1856, Ľudovít Štúr died in Modra. A national funeral was held there in his honour.",
"Štúr has been featured on Czechoslovak and Slovak banknotes throughout the 20th century. He has appeared on the 50 Czechoslovak Koruna of 1987 and the 500 Slovak Koruna note since 1993. The town of Parkan (Párkány in Hungarian) on the Hungarian border was renamed without agreement of people living there Štúrovo in 1948. He was known for opposing Jewish emancipation and promoting the belief that Slovak Jews cannot belong to the Slovak nation."
]
} |
Vilnius TV Tower | null | The Vilnius TV Tower () is a high tower in the Karoliniškės microdistrict of Vilnius, Lithuania. It is the tallest structure in Lithuania, and is occupied by the SC Lithuanian Radio and Television Centre (). | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-333403 | en-train-333403 | 333403 | {
"title": [
"Design and construction.",
"Museum.",
"Decoration."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The tower was designed by V. Obydovas and the engineering section by K. Balėnas. The construction of the tower started on 31 May 1974 and finished on December 30, 1980. The construction was funded by the 11th Five Year Plan of the Soviet Union, which had earmarked funds for strategic investment in the then Lithuanian SSR. The weight of the whole structure is estimated at. The structure is composed of a concrete base, a long hollow reinforced concrete pipe, a reinforced concrete saucer, and a long steel spike. Radio transmitters are housed in the lower part of the concrete tower with antennas attached to the steel spike. The observation deck from the ground houses the cafe \"Paukščių takas\" (), offers a picturesque view of the city and its surroundings, and sports a rotating platform that revolves once every 45 minutes. High-speed elevators reach the cafe from ground level in 40 seconds. On clear days, visibility can extend as far as Elektrėnai, a city approximately west, where power plants produced much of the electricity for Vilnius in Soviet times.",
"The TV tower played a major role in the events of 13 January 1991, when 14 unarmed civilians lost their lives and 700 were injured opposing the Soviet military seizure of the tower. A small museum dedicated to the January 1991 battle is housed on the ground floor, and various markers in the surrounding area indicate places where Lithuanian citizens died while trying to maintain the blockade against Soviet troops.",
"Since 2000, the tower has been decorated to look like a Christmas tree each Christmas season. During the 2006 World Basketball Championship it was decorated with a large basketball net. Vilnius TV Tower became the biggest basketball hoop in the world during the 2011 FIBA European Basketball Championship. The hoop was 35 metres in diameter with a 40 metre-high net, assembled at a height of 170 metres. The lighting of the giant hoop took 2,560 metres of lighting cable and 545 bulbs. Bungee jumps are available to the public from the roof of the observation deck."
]
} |
Agatha Christie's Poirot | null | Poirot (also known as Agatha Christie's Poirot) is a British mystery drama television programme that aired on ITV from 8 January 1989 to 13 November 2013. David Suchet stars as the eponymous detective, Agatha Christie's fictional Hercule Poirot. Initially produced by LWT, the series was later produced by ITV Studios. The series also aired on VisionTV in Canada and on PBS and A&E in the United States. | null | [
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"title": [
"Production.",
"Casting.",
"Development.",
"Actors.",
"Reception.",
"Critical response.",
"Home media.",
"\"Being Poirot\".",
"Novels or stories not displayed in the series."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
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"2",
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"content": [
"Clive Exton in partnership with producer Brian Eastman adapted the pilot. Together, they wrote and produced the first eight series. Exton and Eastman left \"Poirot\" after 2001, when they began work on \"Rosemary & Thyme\". Michele Buck and Damien Timmer, who both went on to form Mammoth Screen, were behind the revamping of the series. The episodes aired from 2003 featured a radical shift in tone from the previous series. The humour of the earlier series was downplayed with each episode being presented as serious drama, and saw the introduction of gritty elements not present in the Christie stories being adapted. Recurrent motifs in the additions included drug use, sex, abortion, homosexuality, and a tendency toward more visceral imagery. Story changes were often made to present female characters in a more sympathetic or heroic light, at odds with Christie's characteristic gender neutrality. The visual style of later episodes was correspondingly different: particularly, an overall darker tone; and austere modernist or Art Deco locations and decor, widely used earlier in the series, being largely dropped in favour of more lavish settings (epitomised by the re-imagining of Poirot's home as a larger, more lavish apartment). The series logo was redesigned (the full opening title sequence had not been used since series 6 in 1996), and the main theme motif, though used often, was usually featured subtly and in sombre arrangements; this has been described as a consequence of the novels adapted being darker and more psychologically driven. However, a more upbeat string arrangement of the theme music is used for the end credits of \"Hallowe'en Party\", \"The Clocks\" and \"Dead Man's Folly\". In flashback scenes, later episodes also made extensive use of fisheye lens, distorted colours, and other visual effects. Series 9–12 lack Hugh Fraser, Phillip Jackson and Pauline Moran, who had appeared in the previous series (excepting series 4, where Moran is absent). Series 10 (2006) introduced Zoë Wanamaker as the eccentric crime novelist Ariadne Oliver and David Yelland as Poirot's dependable valet, George — a character that had been introduced in the early \"Poirot\" novels, but was left out of the early adaptations in order to develop the character of Miss Lemon. The introduction of Wanamaker and Yelland's characters and the absence of the other characters is generally consistent with the stories on which the scripts were based. Hugh Fraser and David Yelland returned for two episodes of the final series: (\"The Big Four\" and \"Curtain\"), with Phillip Jackson and Pauline Moran returning for the adaptation of \"The Big Four\". Zoe Wanamaker also returned for the adaptations of \"Elephants Can Remember\" and \"Dead Man's Folly\". Clive Exton adapted seven novels and fourteen short stories for the series, including \"The ABC Murders\" and \"The Murder of Roger Ackroyd\", which received mixed reviews from critics. Anthony Horowitz was another prolific writer for the series, adapting three novels and nine short stories, while Nick Dear adapted six novels. Comedian and novelist Mark Gatiss has written three episodes and also guest-starred in the series, as have Peter Flannery and Kevin Elyot. Ian Hallard, who co-wrote the screenplay for \"The Big Four\" with Mark Gatiss, appears in the episode and also \"Hallowe'en Party\", which was scripted by Gatiss alone. Florin Court in Charterhouse Square, London, was used as Poirot's fictional London residence, \"Whitehaven Mansions\". The final episode to be filmed was \"Dead Man's Folly\" in June 2013 on the Greenway Estate (which was Agatha Christie's home) broadcast on 30 October 2013. Most of the locations and buildings where the episodes were shot were given fictional names.",
"Suchet was recommended for the part by Christie's family, who had seen him appear as Blott in the TV adaptation of Tom Sharpe's \"Blott on the Landscape\". Suchet, a method actor, said that he prepared for the part by reading all the \"Poirot\" novels and every short story, and copying out every piece of description about the character. Suchet told \"Strand Magazine\": \"What I did was, I had my file on one side of me and a pile of stories on the other side and day after day, week after week, I ploughed through most of Agatha Christie's novels about Hercule Poirot and wrote down characteristics until I had a file full of documentation of the character. And then it was my business not only to know what he was like, but to gradually become him. I had to become him before we started shooting.\" During the filming of the first series, Suchet almost left the production during an argument with a director, insisting that Poirot's odd mannerisms (in this case, putting a handkerchief down before sitting on a park bench) be featured; he later said \"there's no question [Poirot's] obsessive-compulsive\". According to many critics and enthusiasts, Suchet's characterisation is considered to be the most accurate interpretation of all the actors who have played Poirot, and the closest to the character in the books. In 2013, Suchet revealed that Christie's daughter Rosalind Hicks had told him she was sure Christie would have approved of his performance. In 2007, Suchet spoke of his desire to film the remaining stories in the canon and hoped to achieve this before his 65th birthday in May 2011. Despite speculation of cancellation early in 2011, it was announced on 14 November 2011 that the remaining books would be adapted into a thirteenth series to be filmed in 2012. The remaining books were finally adapted in 2013 into 5 episodes, from which \"Curtain\" aired last on 13 November 2013. A 2013 television special, \"Being Poirot\", centred on Suchet's characterisation and his emotional final episode.",
"",
"Alongside recurring characters, the early series featured actors who later achieved greater fame, including Sean Pertwee (\"The King of Clubs\", 1989; \"Dead Man's Folly\", 2013), Joely Richardson (\"The Dream\", 1989), Polly Walker (\"Peril at End House\", 1990), Samantha Bond (\"The Adventure of the Cheap Flat\", 1990), Christopher Eccleston (\"One, Two, Buckle My Shoe\", 1992), Hermione Norris (\"Jewel Robbery at The Grand Metropolitan\", 1993), Damian Lewis (\"Hickory Dickory Dock\", 1995), Jamie Bamber (\"The Murder of Roger Ackroyd\", 2000), Russell Tovey (\"Evil Under the Sun\", 2001), Emily Blunt (\"Death on the Nile\", 2004), Alice Eve (\"The Mystery of the Blue Train\", 2005), Michael Fassbender (\"After the Funeral\", 2006), Aiden Gillen (\"Five Little Pigs\", 2003), Toby Jones and Jessica Chastain (\"Murder on the Orient Express\", 2010). Four Academy Award nominees have appeared in the series: Sarah Miles, Barbara Hershey, Elizabeth McGovern and Elliott Gould. Peter Capaldi, Jessica Chastain, Michael Fassbender, and Lesley Manville went on to receive Academy Award nominations after appearing on the show. Several members of British thespian families appeared in episodes throughout the course of the series. James Fox appeared as Colonel Race in \"Death on the Nile\", and his older brother Edward Fox appeared as Gudgeon in \"The Hollow\". Three of the Cusack sisters each appeared in an episode: Niamh Cusack in \"The King of Clubs\", Sorcha Cusack in \"Jewel Robbery at The Grand Metropolitan\", and Sinéad Cusack in \"Dead Man's Folly\". Phyllida Law and her daughter Sophie Thompson appeared in \"Hallowe'en Party\". David Yelland appeared as Charles Laverton West in \"Murder in the Mews\" and as George for the remainder of the series from Series 10 onward, and his daughter Hannah Yelland appeared as Geraldine Marsh in \"Lord Edgware Dies\".",
"",
"Agatha Christie's grandson Mathew Prichard has commented: \"Personally, I regret very much that she [Agatha Christie] never saw David Suchet. I think that visually he is much the most convincing and perhaps he manages to convey to the viewer just enough of the irritation that we always associate with the perfectionist, to be convincing!\" In 2008, the series was described by some critics as going \"off piste\", though not negatively, from its old format. It was praised for its new writers, more lavish productions and a greater emphasis on the darker psychology of the novels. Significantly, it was noted for \"Five Little Pigs\" (adapted by Kevin Elyot) bringing out a homosexual subtext of the novel. Nominations for twenty BAFTAs were received between 1989 and 1991 for series 1–3.",
"In the UK, ITV Studios Home Entertainment owns the home media rights. In Region 1, Acorn Media has the rights to series 1–6 and 11–12. Series 7–10 are distributed by A&E, a co-producer on several of them. In North America, series 1–11 are available on Netflix and Amazon Prime Instant Streaming service. In Region 4, Acorn Media (distributed by \"Reel DVD\") has begun releasing the series on DVD in Australia in complete season sets. To date, they have released the first 8 series of the show. Series 1–9 and 12 are available in Spain (Region 2) on Blu-ray with Spanish and English audio tracks. Dutch FilmWorks were reported to be the first company to release series 12, in 2010. Beginning in 2011, Acorn began issuing the series on Blu-ray discs. As of 4 November 2014, series 1 through 13 have all been issued on DVD and Blu-ray by Acorn. The A&E DVD releases of series 7 through 10 corresponded to the A&E versions broadcast in America which were missing sections of the original video as originally broadcast in the United Kingdom. The Acorn releases of series 7 through 10 restore the missing video.",
"Being Poirot is a 50-minute ITV television documentary (2013) in which David Suchet attempts to unravel the mysterious appeal of Hercule Poirot and how he portrayed him. It was broadcast in the United Kingdom on the same evening as the final episode \"Curtain\". Suchet visited Greenway, Agatha Christie's summer home, recollecting how he met her daughter Rosalind and her husband Anthony Hicks for their approval before he began filming. He now meets Christie's grandson Matthew Pritchard who recounts how his grandmother found the character amongst Belgian refugees in Torquay. A visit to the permanent Poirot exhibition at Torquay Museum to which he presented the cane he used in the television series. Suchet acknowledged the first stage and film adaptations of the books with actors such as Charles Laughton on the London stage in \"Alibi\", an adaptation of \"The Murder of Roger Ackroyd\", in 1928. \"Alibi\" was filmed in 1931 with Austin Trevor but is now lost. The oldest surviving film portrayal from 1934 was \"Lord Edgware Dies\" again with Austin Trevor portraying Poirot. Suchet notes a conscious decision was made by the film company to portray Poirot without a moustache. Films featuring Albert Finney and Peter Ustinov were also featured. Suchet reveals that he read the books and wrote down 93 notes about the character that he went on to use in his portrayal. The descriptions in the books helped him discover the voice he would use, and the rapid mincing gait. Suchet also goes to Florin Court, a place that the production company choose to represent his home Whitehaven Mansions. There he meets first producer Brian Eastman, with whom he discusses the set that was built based on the flats, and Eastman's decision to fix the stories in 1936. Suchet also visits composer Christopher Gunning who had composed four themes for Eastman, the first being Gunning's favourite. Eastman chose the fourth after having Gunning darken the tone. Suchet travels to Brussels, where he is feted by the police chief and mayor. He then goes to Ellezelles, which claims to be the birthplace of Poirot, and he is shown a birth certificate as proof. It says the date was 1 April, \"April Fools' Day\" (no year mentioned). Finally, Suchet travels on the Orient Express and recounts filming the episode \"Dead Man's Folly\" last at Greenway to finish on a high note.",
"Suchet was proud to have completed the entire Poirot canon by the time of the broadcast of the final episode, only slightly short of the target he had set himself (in a 2007 interview) of completing the entire canon before his 65th birthday. The short stories and novellas \"The Submarine Plans\", \"The Market Basing Mystery\", \"Christmas Adventure,\" \"The Mystery of the Baghdad Chest,\" \"The Second Gong,\" \"The Incident of the Dog's Ball,\" and \"Hercule Poirot and the Greenshore Folly\" were not filmed in their original short story format, as Agatha Christie later rewrote these stories as novellas or novels (\"The Incredible Theft\", \"Murder in the Mews\", \"The Adventure of the Christmas Pudding\", \"The Mystery of the Spanish Chest\", \"Dead Man's Mirror\", \"Dumb Witness\", and \"Dead Man's Folly\" respectively) which were made into episodes. Unlike the other Poirot short story collections, which were adapted into 1-hour episodes, the collection entitled \"The Labours of Hercules\" (consisting of twelve short stories linked by an initial scene-setting story and a broad running theme) was adapted into a single 2-hour film. The end result drew heavily on some of the stories; other stories contributed only minor details. The original version of \"The Capture of Cerberus\", unpublished until 2009, was not used at all. Also incorporated into this single film was a character with the surname Lemesurier, as a nod to the short story \"The Lemesurier Inheritance\", which has otherwise not been included in the Poirot series. One other short story, \"The Regatta Mystery\", is not included in the Suchet series, as it is not generally considered part of the Poirot canon. First published in issue 546 of the \"Strand Magazine\" in June 1936 under the title \"Poirot and the Regatta Mystery\" (and illustrated by Jack M. Faulks), the story was later rewritten by Christie to change the detective from Hercule Poirot to Parker Pyne. It was as a Parker Pyne mystery that the story was first published in book format in \"The Regatta Mystery and Other Stories\" (published in the United States in 1939). Although the story is now associated with Parker Pyne, it was included in the 2008 omnibus volume \"Hercule Poirot: the Complete Short Stories\", which was the first public association of the story with Hercule Poirot since the original Strand Magazine publication of 1936. Aside from \"Poirot and the Regatta Mystery\", the one authentic Hercule Poirot story not included in any form, whole or partial, in the \"Agatha Christie's Poirot\" series is the 1930 play \"Black Coffee\". Although it was adapted into a novel in 1998, with the permission of the Christie Estate, it was not previously available in novel format. David Suchet did give a live reading of the original play version for the Agatha Christie Theatre Company, and therefore felt that he had done justice to the entire authentic canon."
]
} |
Edmond Halley | null | Edmond (or Edmund) Halley, FRS (; – ) was an English astronomer, geophysicist, mathematician, meteorologist, and physicist. He was the second Astronomer Royal in Britain, succeeding John Flamsteed in 1720. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-1159637 | en-train-1159637 | 1159637 | {
"title": [
"Early life.",
"Career.",
"Publications and inventions.",
"Exploration years.",
"Personal life.",
"Pronunciation and spelling."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Halley was born in Haggerston in Middlesex. His father, Edmond Halley Sr., came from a Derbyshire family and was a wealthy soap-maker in London. As a child, Halley was very interested in mathematics. He studied at St Paul's School where he developed his initial interest in astronomy, and from 1673 at The Queen's College, Oxford. While still an undergraduate, Halley published papers on the Solar System and sunspots.",
"",
"While at the University of Oxford, Halley was introduced to John Flamsteed, the Astronomer Royal. Influenced by Flamsteed's project to compile a catalogue of northern stars, Halley proposed to do the same for the Southern Hemisphere. In 1676, Halley visited the south Atlantic island of Saint Helena and set up an observatory with a large sextant with telescopic sights to catalogue the stars of the Southern Hemisphere. While there he observed a transit of Mercury across the Sun, and realised that a similar transit of Venus could be used to determine the absolute size of the Solar System. He returned to England in May 1678. In the following year he went to Danzig (Gdańsk) on behalf of the Royal Society to help resolve a dispute. Because astronomer Johannes Hevelius did not use a telescope, his observations had been questioned by Robert Hooke. Halley stayed with Hevelius and he observed and verified the quality of Hevelius' observations. In 1679, Halley published the results from his observations on St. Helena as \"Catalogus Stellarum Australium\" which included details of 341 southern stars. These additions to contemporary star maps earned him comparison with Tycho Brahe: e.g. \"the southern Tycho\" as described by Flamsteed. Halley was awarded his M.A. degree at Oxford and elected as a Fellow of the Royal Society at the age of 22. In September 1682 he carried out a series of observations of what became known as Halley's Comet, though his name became associated with it because of his work on its orbit and predicting its return in 1758 (which he did not live to see). In 1686, Halley published the second part of the results from his Helenian expedition, being a paper and chart on trade winds and monsoons. The symbols he used to represent trailing winds still exist in most modern day weather chart representations. In this article he identified solar heating as the cause of atmospheric motions. He also established the relationship between barometric pressure and height above sea level. His charts were an important contribution to the emerging field of information visualisation. Halley spent most of his time on lunar observations, but was also interested in the problems of gravity. One problem that attracted his attention was the proof of Kepler's laws of planetary motion. In August 1684, he went to Cambridge to discuss this with Isaac Newton, much as John Flamsteed had done four years earlier, only to find that Newton had solved the problem, at the instigation of Flamsteed with regard to the orbit of comet Kirch, without publishing the solution. Halley asked to see the calculations and was told by Newton that he could not find them, but promised to redo them and send them on later, which he eventually did, in a short treatise entitled, \"On the motion of bodies in an orbit\". Halley recognised the importance of the work and returned to Cambridge to arrange its publication with Newton, who instead went on to expand it into his \"Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica\" published at Halley's expense in 1687. Halley's first calculations with comets were thereby for the orbit of comet Kirch, based on Flamsteed's observations in 1680-1. Although he was to accurately calculate the orbit of the comet of 1682, he was inaccurate in his calculations of the orbit of comet Kirch. They indicated a periodicity of 575 years, thus appearing in the years 531 and 1106, and presumably heralding the death of Julius Caesar in a like fashion in −44 (45 BCE). It is now known to have an orbital period of circa 10,000 years. In 1691, Halley built a diving bell, a device in which the atmosphere was replenished by way of weighted barrels of air sent down from the surface. In a demonstration, Halley and five companions dived to in the River Thames, and remained there for over an hour and a half. Halley's bell was of little use for practical salvage work, as it was very heavy, but he made improvements to it over time, later extending his underwater exposure time to over 4 hours. Halley suffered one of the earliest recorded cases of middle ear barotrauma. In 1691, Halley sought the post of Savilian Professor of Astronomy at Oxford. While a candidate for the position, Halley faced the animosity of the Astronomer Royal, John Flamsteed, and his religious views were questioned. His candidacy was opposed by both the Archbishop of Canterbury, John Tillotson, and Bishop Stillingfleet, and the post went instead to David Gregory, who had the support of Isaac Newton. In 1692, Halley put forth the idea of a hollow Earth consisting of a shell about 500 miles (800 km) thick, two inner concentric shells and an innermost core. He suggested that atmospheres separated these shells, and that each shell had its own magnetic poles, with each sphere rotating at a different speed. Halley proposed this scheme to explain anomalous compass readings. He envisaged each inner region as having an atmosphere and being luminous (and possibly inhabited), and speculated that escaping gas caused the aurora borealis. He suggested, \"Auroral rays are due to particles, which are affected by the magnetic field, the rays parallel to Earth’s magnetic field.\" In 1693 Halley published an article on life annuities, which featured an analysis of age-at-death on the basis of the Breslau statistics Caspar Neumann had been able to provide. This article allowed the British government to sell life annuities at an appropriate price based on the age of the purchaser. Halley's work strongly influenced the development of actuarial science. The construction of the life-table for Breslau, which followed more primitive work by John Graunt, is now seen as a major event in the history of demography. The Royal Society censured Halley for suggesting in 1694 that the story of Noah's flood might be an account of a cometary impact. This theory was independently suggested by modern researchers as Tollmann's bolide hypothesis (1992), but is generally rejected by geologists.",
"In 1698, Halley was given command of the, a pink, so that he could carry out investigations in the South Atlantic into the laws governing the variation of the compass. On 19 August 1698, he took command of the ship and, in November 1698, sailed on what was the first purely scientific voyage by an English naval vessel. Unfortunately problems of insubordination arose over questions of Halley's competence to command a vessel. Halley returned the ship to England to proceed against officers in July 1699. The result was a mild rebuke for his men, and dissatisfaction for Halley, who felt the court had been too lenient. Halley thereafter received a temporary commission as a Captain in the Royal Navy, recommissioned the \"Paramour\" on 24 August 1699 and sailed again in September 1699 to make extensive observations on the conditions of terrestrial magnetism. This task he accomplished in a second Atlantic voyage which lasted until 6 September 1700, and extended from 52 degrees north to 52 degrees south. The results were published in \"General Chart of the Variation of the Compass\" (1701). This was the first such chart to be published and the first on which isogonic, or Halleyan, lines appeared. The preface to Awnsham and John Churchill's collection of voyages and travels (1704), supposedly written by John Locke or by Halley, made the link. In November 1703, Halley was appointed Savilian Professor of Geometry at the University of Oxford, his theological enemies, John Tillotson and Bishop Stillingfleet having died, and received an honorary degree of doctor of laws in 1710. In 1705, applying historical astronomy methods, he published \"\", which stated his belief that the comet sightings of 1456, 1531, 1607, and 1682 were of the same comet, which he predicted would return in 1758. Halley did not live to witness the comet's return, but when it did, the comet became generally known as Halley's Comet. By 1706 Halley had learned Arabic and completed the translation started by Edward Bernard of Books V-VII of Apollonius's \"Conics\" from copies found at Leiden and the Bodleian Library at Oxford. He also completed a new translation of the first four books from the original Greek that had been started by the late David Gregory. He published these along with his own reconstruction of Book VIII in the first complete Latin edition in 1710. In 1716, Halley suggested a high-precision measurement of the distance between the Earth and the Sun by timing the transit of Venus. In doing so, he was following the method described by James Gregory in \"Optica Promota\" (in which the design of the Gregorian telescope is also described). It is reasonable to assume Halley possessed and had read this book given that the Gregorian design was the principal telescope design used in astronomy in Halley's day. It is not to Halley's credit that he failed to acknowledge Gregory's priority in this matter. In 1718 he discovered the proper motion of the \"fixed\" stars by comparing his astrometric measurements with those given in Ptolemy's \"Almagest\". Arcturus and Sirius were two noted to have moved significantly, the latter having progressed 30 arc minutes (about the diameter of the moon) southwards in 1800 years. In 1720, together with his friend the antiquarian William Stukeley, Halley participated in the first attempt to scientifically date Stonehenge. Assuming that the monument had been laid out using a magnetic compass, Stukeley and Halley attempted to calculate the perceived deviation introducing corrections from existing magnetic records, and suggested three dates (460 BC, AD 220 and AD 920), the earliest being the one accepted. These dates were wrong by thousands of years, but the idea that scientific methods could be used to date ancient monuments was revolutionary in its day. Halley succeeded John Flamsteed in 1720 as Astronomer Royal, a position Halley held until his death. Halley died in 1742 at the age of 85. He was buried in the graveyard of the old church of St Margaret's, Lee (since rebuilt), at Lee Terrace, Blackheath. He was interred in the same vault as the Astronomer Royal John Pond; the unmarked grave of the Astronomer Royal Nathaniel Bliss is nearby. His original tombstone was transferred by the Admiralty when the original Lee church was demolished and rebuilt – it can be seen today on the southern wall of the Camera Obscura at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. His marked grave can be seen at St Margaret's Church, Lee Terrace.",
"Halley married Mary Tooke in 1682 and settled in Islington. The couple had three children.",
"There are three pronunciations of the surname \"Halley\". The most common, both in Great Britain and in the United States, is (rhymes with \"valley\"). This is the personal pronunciation used by most Halleys living in London today. The alternative is often preferred for the man and the comet by those who grew up with rock and roll singer Bill Haley, who called his backing band his \"Comets\" after the common pronunciation of Halley's Comet in the United States at the time. Colin Ronan, one of Halley's biographers, preferred. Contemporary accounts spell his name \"Hailey, Hayley, Haley, Haly, Halley, Hawley\" and \"Hawly\", and presumably pronunciations varied similarly. As for his given name, although the spelling \"Edmund\" is quite common, \"Edmond\" is what Halley himself used, according to a 1902 article, though a 2007 \"International Comet Quarterly\" article disputes this, commenting that in his published works, he used \"Edmund\" 22 times and \"Edmond\" only 3 times, with several other variations used as well, such as the Latinised \"Edmundus\". Much of the debate stems from the fact that, in Halley's own time, English spelling conventions were not yet standardised, and so he himself used multiple spellings."
]
} |
St Andrews | null | St Andrews (; ; ) is a town on the east coast of Fife in Scotland, 10 miles (16 km) southeast of Dundee and 30 miles (50 km) northeast of Edinburgh. St Andrews has a recorded population of 16,800 in 2011, making it Fife's fourth largest settlement and 45th most populous settlement in Scotland. | null | [
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"title": [
"Name and etymology.",
"History.",
"Governance.",
"Demography.",
"Weather and climate.",
"Transport.",
"Landmarks.",
"Education.",
"Sport and recreation.",
"Golf.",
"West Sands Beach.",
"Places of interest.",
"Lade Braes Walk.",
"Museum of the University of St Andrews.",
"St Andrews Botanic Garden.",
"St Andrews Museum.",
"St Andrews Aquarium.",
"International relations."
],
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"The earliest recorded name of the area is \"Cennrígmonaid\". This is Old Gaelic and composed of the elements \"cenn\" (head, peninsula), \"ríg\" (king) and \"monaid\" (moor). This became \"Cell Rígmonaid\" (\"cell\" meaning church) and was Scoticised to \"Kilrymont\". The modern Gaelic spelling is \"Cill Rìmhinn\". It is likely that the Gaelic name represents an adaptation of a Pictish form \"*Penrimond\". The name \"St Andrews\" derives from the town's claim to be the resting place of bones of the apostle Andrew. According to legend, St Regulus (or Rule) brought the relics to Kilrymont, where a shrine was established for their safekeeping and veneration while Kilrymont was renamed in honour of the saint. This is the origin of a third name for the town \"Kilrule\".",
"The first inhabitants who settled on the estuary fringes of the rivers Tay and Eden during the mesolithic (middle Stone Age) came from the plains in Northern Europe between 10,000 and 5,000 BCE. This was followed by the nomadic people who settled around the modern town around 4,500 BCE as farmers clearing the area of woodland and building monuments. In the mid-eighth century a monastery was established by the Pictish king Oengus I, traditionally associated with the relics of Saint Andrew, a number of bones supposed to be the saint's arm, kneecap, three fingers and a tooth believed to have been brought to the town by St Regulus. In AD 877, king Causantín mac Cináeda (Constantine I or II) built a new church for the Culdees at St Andrews and later the same year was captured and executed (or perhaps killed in battle) after defending against Viking raiders. In AD 906, the town became the seat of the bishop of Alba, with the boundaries of the see being extended to include land between the River Forth and River Tweed. In 940 Constantine III abdicated and took the position of abbot of the monastery of St Andrews. The establishment of the present town began around 1140 by Bishop Robert on an L-shaped vill, possibly on the site of the ruined St Andrews Castle. According to a charter of 1170, the new burgh was built to the west of the Cathedral precinct, along Castle Street and possibly as far as what is now known as North Street. This means that the lay-out may have led to the creation of two new streets (North Street and South Street) from the foundations of the new St Andrews Cathedral filling the area inside a two-sided triangle at its apex. The northern boundary of the burgh was the southern side of the Scores (the street between North Street and the sea) with the southern by the Kinness Burn and the western by the West Port. The burgh of St Andrews was first represented at the great council at Scone Palace in 1357. St Andrews, in particular the large cathedral built in 1160, was the most important centre of pilgrimage in medieval Scotland and one of the most important in Europe. Pilgrims from all over Scotland came in large numbers hoping to be blessed, and in many cases to be cured, at the shrine of Saint Andrew. The presence of the pilgrims brought about increased trade and development. Recognised as the ecclesiastical capital of Scotland, the town now had vast economic and political influence within Europe as a cosmopolitan town. In 1559, the town fell into decay after the violent Scottish Reformation and the Wars of the Three Kingdoms losing the status of ecclesiastical capital of Scotland. Even the University of St Andrews was considering relocating to Perth around 1697 and 1698. Under the authorisation of the bishop of St Andrews, the town was made a burgh of barony in 1614. Royal Burgh was then granted as a charter by King James VI in 1620. In the 18th century, the town was still in decline, but despite this the town was becoming known for having links 'well known to golfers'. By the 19th century, the town began to expand beyond the original medieval boundaries with streets of new houses and town villas being built. Today, St Andrews is served by education, golf and the tourist and conference industry.",
"St Andrews is represented by several tiers of elected government. The Royal Burgh of St Andrews Community Council, meeting on the first Monday of the month in the Council Chamber of the Town Hall, forms the lowest tier of governance whose statutory role is to communicate local opinion to local and central government. The current Chairman is Mr Callum MacLeod. The chairman uses the title of Provost of St Andrews on official and ceremonial occasions, however Fife has only one official Provost since 1975, currently Jim Leishman MBE. Fife Council, the unitary local authority for St Andrews, based in Glenrothes is the executive, deliberative and legislative body responsible for local governance. The Scottish Parliament is responsible for devolved matters such as education, health and justice while reserved matters are dealt with by the Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. The first parliament to take place in the town was in 1304, when King Edward I came to be received by Bishop William de Lamberton as overlordship of Scotland. As many as 130 landowners turned up to witness the event ranging from Sir John of Combo to Sir William Murray of Fort. In the early days of the union of 1707, St Andrews elected one member of parliament along with Cupar, Perth, Dundee and Forfar. The first elected parliament was introduced on 17 November 1713 as St Andrews Burgh, which merged with Anstruther, the result of a reform bill in 1832. The act of reformation seats in 1855, would find one MP sitting for St Andrews Burgh (which would include Anstruther Easter, Anstruther Wester, Crail, Cupar, Kilrenny and Pittenweem). Prior to 1975 the town was governed by a council, provost and baillies. In 1975, St Andrews came under Fife Regional Council and North East Fife District Council. The latter was abolished when a single-tier authority was introduced in 1996 as Fife Council based in Glenrothes. St Andrews forms part of the North East Fife constituency, electing one Member of Parliament (MP) to the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom by the first past the post system. The constituency is represented by Wendy Chamberlain, MP of the Scottish Liberal Democrats. For the purposes of the Scottish Parliament, St Andrews forms part of the North East Fife constituency. The North East Fife Scottish Parliament (or \"Holyrood\") constituency created in 1999 is one of nine within the Mid Scotland and Fife electoral region. Each constituency elects one Member of the Scottish Parliament (MSP) by the first past the post system of election, and the region elects seven additional members to produce a form of proportional representation. The seat was won at the 2016 Scottish Parliament Election by Willie Rennie, for the Scottish Liberal Democrats.",
"According to the 2001 census, St Andrews had a total population of 14,209. The population increased to around 16,680 in 2008 and 16,800 in 2012 The demographic make-up of the population is much in line with the rest of Scotland. The age group from 16 to 29 forms the largest portion of the population (37%). The median age of males and females living in St Andrews was 29 and 34 years respectively, compared to 37 and 39 years for those in the whole of Scotland. The place of birth of the town's residents was 87.78% United Kingdom (including 61.80% from Scotland), 0.63% Republic of Ireland, 4.18% from other European Union countries, and 7.42% from elsewhere in the world. The economic activity of residents aged 16–74 was 23.94% in full-time employment, 8.52% in part-time employment, 4.73% self-employed, 1.94% unemployed, 31.14% students with jobs, 9.08% students without jobs, 13.24% retired, 2.91% looking after home or family, 2.84% permanently sick or disabled, and 1.67% economically inactive for other reasons. In 2016, St Andrews was reported to be home to the \"Most Expensive Street in Scotland\", with average house prices in The Scores in excess of 2 million pounds.",
"St Andrews has a temperate maritime climate, which is relatively mild despite its northerly latitude. Winters are not as cold as one might expect, considering that Moscow and Labrador in Newfoundland lie on the same latitude. Daytime temperatures can fall below freezing and average around 4 °C. However, the town is subject to strong winds. Night-time frosts are common; however, snowfall is more rare. The nearest official Met Office weather station for which data are available is at Leuchars, about northwest of St Andrews town centre. The absolute maximum temperature is, recorded in August 1990. In a typical year, the warmest day should reach and a total of 2 days should record a temperature of or above. The warmest calendar month (since 1960) was July 2006, with a mean temperature of (mean maximum of, mean minimum of ) The absolute minimum temperature (since 1960) stands at recorded during February 1972, although in an 'average' year, the coldest night should only fall to. Typically, just short of 60 nights a year will experience an air frost. The coldest calendar month (since 1960) was December 2010, with a mean temperature of (mean maximum, mean minimum ) Rainfall, at little more than 650 mm per year makes St Andrews one of the driest parts of Scotland, shielded from Atlantic weather systems by several mountain ranges. Over 1 mm of rain is recorded on just under 117 days of the year. Sunshine, averaging in excess of 1,500 hours a year is amongst the highest for Scotland, and comparable to inland parts of Southern England. St Andrews is about the furthest north annual levels of above 1500 hours are encountered. All averages refer to the 1971–2000 observation period.",
"The St Andrews Railway provided a connection to the main Edinburgh to Aberdeen Line at Leuchars railway station. This service was ended in 1969. The St Andrews Rail Link project aims at realising a new high-speed twin-cord mainline rail link via Cupar to the south and west and via Leuchars to the north. Nowadays, the only public transport to reach trains at Leuchars or to connect other towns in Fife is the Stagecoach bus station located near the town centre. Route 99 (and its alternate routes 99A, 99B, 99C, 99D) connects St Andrews to Dundee via Leuchars with buses up to every ten minutes.",
"St Andrews was once bounded by several \"ports\" (the Lowland Scots word for a town gate). Two are still extant: So'gait port (South Street, now called West Port) and the Sea Yett (as The Pends terminates to the harbour). The West Port is one of few surviving town \"Ports\" in Scotland and is a scheduled monument. The towers were influenced by those seen at the base of the Netherbow Port in Edinburgh. The central archway which displays semi-octagonal \"rownds\" and \"battling\" is supported by corbelling and neatly moulded passageways. Side arches and relief panels were added to the port, during the reconstruction between 1843–1845. The ruins of St Andrews Castle are situated on a cliff-top to the north of the town. The castle was first erected around 1200 as the residence, prison and fortress of the bishops of the diocese. Several reconstructions occurred in subsequent centuries, most notably due to damage incurred in the Wars of Scottish Independence. The castle was occupied, besieged and stormed during The Rough Wooing and was severely damaged in the process. The majority of the castle seen today dates to between 1549 and 1571. The work was commissioned by John Hamilton (archbishop of St Andrews) in a renaissance style which made the building a comfortable, palatial residence while still remaining well-fortified. After the Reformation, the castle passed to several owners, who could not maintain its structure and the building deteriorated into a ruin. The castle is now a scheduled monument administered by Historic Environment Scotland. The apse of the Dominican friary, Blackfriars, can still be seen on South Street (between Madras College and Bell Street). Other defunct religious houses that existed in the medieval town, though less visible, have left traces, as for instance the leper hospital at St Nicholas farmhouse (The Steading) between Albany Park and the East Sands leisure centre.",
"Today, St Andrews is home to one secondary school, one private school and three primary schools. Canongate Primary School, which opened in 1972 is located off the Canongate, beside the St Andrews Botanic Garden. The school roll was recorded in February 2008 as 215. Lawhead Primary School, which opened in 1974 is on the western edge of the town. The school roll was recorded in September 2009 as 181. Greyfriars Primary School Madras College is the sole secondary school in the town. The school which opened to pupils in 1833 was based on a Madras system – founded and endowed by Dr Andrew Bell (1755–1832), a native of the town. Prior to the opening, Bell was interested in the demand for a school which was able to teach both poor and privileged children on one site. The high reputation of the school meant that many children came from throughout Britain to be taught there, often lodging with masters or residents in the town. The school is now located on two campuses – Kilrymont and South Street (incorporating the original 1833 building). Pupils in S1-S3 are served by Kilrymont and S4-S6 by South Street. Plans to build a replacement for Madras College on a single site have been ongoing since 2006. Originally, the school was in negotiations with the University of St Andrews for a joint new build at Lang Lands on land owned by the University. The plans, which were scrapped in August 2011, would have seen the school share the University's playing fields. In October 2011, a scoring exercise drawn up by the council to decide the best location for the new Madras College was put before parents, staff and the local community to ask for their views. A£40 million redevelopment of the Kilrymont building proved to be most popular and was officially given the go-ahead in November 2011. This decision was met with controversy from parents, staff and the local community. Work on the new school to date has yet to start, following a decision from a group of senior councillors to analyse the other potential sites than push ahead with the controversial redevelopment. This means that the new school, which was expected to be open for August 2015, has now been delayed until at least 2017 but plans to build this new school has been confirmed and is slated to be opened by 2021/22. The private school known as St Leonards School was initially established as the St Andrews School for girls company in 1877. The present name was taken in 1882 when a move to St Leonards House was made. The school is now spread across thirty acres between Pends Road and Kinnesburn. A private school for boys was also set up in 1933 as New Park. The operations of the school merged with the middle and junior sections of St Leonards to become St Leonards-New Park in 2005. The University of St Andrews which is the third oldest English-speaking university and the oldest university in Scotland was founded between 1410 and 1413. A charter for the university was issued by Bishop Henry Wardlaw between 1411 and 1412 and this was followed by Avignon Pope Benedict XIII granting university status to award degrees to students in 1413. The school initially started out as a society for learned men in the fields of canon law, the arts and divinity. The chapel and college of St John the Evangelist became the first building to have ties with the university in 1415. The two original colleges to be associated with the university were St Salvator in 1450 by Bishop James Kennedy and St Leonard in 1512 by archbishop Alexander Stewart and prior James Hepburn.",
"",
"St Andrews is known widely as the \"home of golf\". According to the earliest surviving document from 1552, the \"playing at golf\" on the links adjacent to the \"water of eden\" was granted permission by Archbishop Hamilton. The most famous golf course in the town is the Old Course, purchased by the town council in 1894. The course which dates back to medieval times, is an Open Championship course – which was first staged in 1873. Famous winners at St Andrews have included: Old Tom Morris (1861, 1862, 1867 and 1874), Bobby Jones (1927 and 1930 British Amateur), Jack Nicklaus (1970 and 1978) and Tiger Woods (2000 and 2005). According to Jack Nicklaus, \"if a golfer is going to be remembered, he must win at St Andrews\". There are seven golf courses in total – Old, New, Jubilee, Eden, Strathtyrum, Balgove and the Castle - surrounding the western approaches of the town. The seventh golf course (the Castle) was added in 2007 at Kinkell Braes, designed by David McLay Kidd. Other leisure facilities in the town include a canoe club; junior football team; rugby club (known as Madras Rugby Club); tennis club; university sports centre and a links golf driving range. The East Sands Leisure Centre, which opened in 1988, sits on the outskirts of the town as the town's swimming pool with gym facilities. The University of St Andrews have expressed plans to provide a new multimillion-pound leisure centre to replace East Sands.",
"West Sands Beach in St Andrews, Scotland, served as the set for the opening scene in the movie \"Chariots of Fire\". This scene was reenacted during the 2012 Olympics torch relay. The beach was also featured in the 2012 Summer Olympics Opening Ceremony The beach is adjacent to the famous St Andrews Links golf course. Sand dunes on the beach, which have long protected the golf course, are themselves in danger of eroding away, and are the subject of a restoration project.",
"",
"The Lade Braes Walk is a scenic public footpath of about that follows the route of a medieval mill lade through St Andrews. The walk starts in the town centre near Madras College and runs roughly westward, through Cockshaugh Park to Law Mill. The lade's function was to transport water from a higher upstream point on the Kinness Burn to the water mill in the grounds of St Andrews Cathedral Priory where it arrived at an elevated level simply by following the contours of the land. It may have been built before 1144. In the late 19th century, the lade was covered over and the area from Cockshaugh Park to Law Mill was landscaped and planted with trees. The remains of Law Mill, its grain drying kiln and water wheel are a category C listed building. A Brae is an old Scots word for the high ground adjoining a river bank.",
"The Museum of the University of St Andrews is a small museum dedicated to the history of the University of St Andrews. The museum, which is free to enter, looks at the University's foundation, student life at the University, and innovative ideas and inventions associated with staff, students, and alumni. The museum also shows a range of temporary exhibitions on different themes. Highlights of the displays include the University's three medieval maces, which are rare examples of ornate ceremonial University maces from the 15th century, and a large astrolabe dating from 1575.",
"The St Andrews Botanic Garden is an 18-acre botanical garden in the Canongate suburb to the south of the town. It contains more than 8000 species of native and exotic plants. These are laid out in zones of woodland, meadow, shrubbery, herbaceous bedding, a large rockery and a series of ponds. There are also vegetable and herb gardens, and several large greenhouses, one of which contains a butterfly house.",
"The St Andrews Museum is a municipal museum focusing on the history of the town of St Andrews in St Andrews established in 1991 it is located in Kinburn Park. It holds a collection of objects of historical value that are related to the town from the earliest times up to the twentieth century. It is located in the historic Kinburn house named after the Battle of Kindurn during the Crimean war.",
"The St Andrews Aquarium is located on the cliff foot of the Scores overlooking West Sands. As well as over 100 fish species on display there are also penguins and meerkats.",
"As of St. Andrew's Day 2015, the town is formally twinned with the French medieval town of Loches, with which it had previously shared a cultural exchange for over two decades."
]
} |
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] | null | null | en-train-901674 | en-train-901674 | 901674 | {
"title": [
"Finland.",
"History and related ranks.",
"Germany, Austria & Switzerland.",
"Greece.",
"Russia and the USSR.",
"Russian Empire.",
"Russian Federation.",
"Rank insignia."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2"
],
"content": [
"\"Yliluutnantti\" (\"premiärlöjtnant\" in Swedish) is a Finnish military rank above \"luutnantti\" (\"löjtnant\") and below \"kapteeni\" (\"kapten\"), equivalent to a senior lieutenant. It is used in the Finnish Defence Forces (army, navy and air force) and the Finnish Border Guard. The prescribed duty is a company vice-commander. Officers who have graduated as Bachelors of Military Science from the National Defence College with the rank of \"luutnantti\" usually re-enter the college after four years' tour of duty. After a study of two additional years, they are promoted \"yliluutnantti\" and return to more challenging duties. \"Yliluutnantti\" is also the highest rank available to those educated in the now-decommissioned school Maanpuolustusopisto (comparable to a military junior college). The rank of \"yliluutnantti\" may be placed in the NATO rank class OF-1, although it is not a part of the NATO system.",
"The Army of the Finnish Grand Duchy of the Russian Empire had a rank of \"alikapteeni\", similar in use as Prussian and Russian \"Stabskapitän\". The rank of \"yliluutnantti\" came to Finland from Germany with Finnish Jäger troops in 1918, but General Mannerheim considered it too German and encouraged holders of the rank to use more the general rank of lieutenant instead. In some regiments officers with rank of \"yliluutnantti\" were considered to have been promoted to captain, and the rank fell in disuse until 1952 when it was taken into regular use, and ever since it has been in use in all three branches; air force, navy and the army. Prior to the Second World War, graduates of the Defence College served with the rank of \"luutnantti\". The rank of \"yliluutnantti\" was established in 1952, when it was felt that cadets graduating from the Defence College would be denied promotion avenues due to the large number of field-promoted company-grade officers in active service. As most of such officers held the rank of \"vänrikki\" or \"luutnantti\", and were unlikely to advance to field grade (due to their background as NCOs and lack of academic studies), the rank of \"yliluutnantti\" circumvented the seniority issue. Due to this revision, reservists who held the wartime rank of \"luutnantti\" did not receive a promotion to captain, as would have been expected, but rather to \"yliluutnantti\"; promotions were not grandfathered.",
"A senior lieutenant is known as an \"Oberleutnant\" in Austria, Germany and Switzerland.",
"In the Hellenic Army, the rank of \"prothypolochagos\" () was briefly in use between 1829–1833.",
"Senior lieutenant () is used in the army, air force or navy of Russia and the former USSR.",
"In the Russian Empire senior lieutenant first appeared in the Table of Ranks (1909–1911) exclusively as naval rank IX class, and from 1912 as VIII class. Corresponding ranks were captain in the infantry, \"Rotmister\" (derived from the German \"Rittmeister\") in the cavalry, and \"yesaul\" in the cossacks corps. In the civil administration it was almost equivalent to the \"council assessor\" (Russian коллежский асессор; \"kolleshsky assessor\"). As result of the October Revolution this rank was abolished along with all other Russian ranks and rank insignia. It was reintroduced to the armed forces of the Soviet Union by disposal of the Central Executive Committee of the Soviet Union and the Council of People's Commissars in 1935. A senior lieutenant was junior to a captain or captain-lieutenant and senior to a lieutenant.",
"The Russian Federation inherited the rank structure of the armed forces of the Soviet Union. If military personnel serve in a guards formation, or on a guards warship, the word \"guards\" is placed before the rank (e.g. \"guards senior lieutenant\"). For civilian or military personnel with a specific level of expertise or knowledge in the medical or judicial professions, the words \"medical\" or \"legal\" are placed before the rank (e.g. \"legal senior lieutenant\"). The word \"retired\" is added after the rank for retired officers. Police, internal troops and tax office personnel have their branch added after the rank (e.g. \"senior lieutenant of police\")",
"Some examples of rank insignia (shoulder, collar, and sleeve), used by Russia and the USSR, are shown below:"
]
} |
Hamming code | null | In computer science and telecommunication, Hamming codes are a family of linear error-correcting codes. Hamming codes can detect up to two-bit errors or correct one-bit errors without detection of uncorrected errors. By contrast, the simple parity code cannot correct errors, and can detect only an odd number of bits in error. Hamming codes are perfect codes, that is, they achieve the highest possible rate for codes with their block length and minimum distance of three. Richard W. Hamming invented Hamming codes in 1950 as a way of automatically correcting errors introduced by punched card readers. In his original paper, Hamming elaborated his general idea, but specifically focused on the Hamming(7,4) code which adds three parity bits to four bits of data. | null | [
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"title": [
"History.",
"Codes predating Hamming.",
"Parity.",
"Two-out-of-five code.",
"Repetition.",
"Hamming codes.",
"General algorithm.",
"Hamming codes with additional parity (SECDED).",
"[7,4] Hamming code.",
"Construction of G and H.",
"Encoding.",
"[7,4] Hamming code with an additional parity bit."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2"
],
"content": [
"Richard Hamming, the inventor of Hamming codes, worked at Bell Labs in the late 1940s on the Bell Model V computer, an electromechanical relay-based machine with cycle times in seconds. Input was fed in on punched paper tape, seven-eighths of an inch wide, which had up to six holes per row. During weekdays, when errors in the relays were detected, the machine would stop and flash lights so that the operators could correct the problem. During after-hours periods and on weekends, when there were no operators, the machine simply moved on to the next job. Hamming worked on weekends, and grew increasingly frustrated with having to restart his programs from scratch due to detected errors. In a taped interview, Hamming said, \"And so I said, 'Damn it, if the machine can detect an error, why can't it locate the position of the error and correct it?'\". Over the next few years, he worked on the problem of error-correction, developing an increasingly powerful array of algorithms. In 1950, he published what is now known as Hamming Code, which remains in use today in applications such as ECC memory.",
"A number of simple error-detecting codes were used before Hamming codes, but none were as effective as Hamming codes in the same overhead of space.",
"Parity adds a single bit that indicates whether the number of ones (bit-positions with values of one) in the preceding data was even or odd. If an odd number of bits is changed in transmission, the message will change parity and the error can be detected at this point; however, the bit that changed may have been the parity bit itself. The most common convention is that a parity value of one indicates that there is an odd number of ones in the data, and a parity value of zero indicates that there is an even number of ones. If the number of bits changed is even, the check bit will be valid and the error will not be detected. Moreover, parity does not indicate which bit contained the error, even when it can detect it. The data must be discarded entirely and re-transmitted from scratch. On a noisy transmission medium, a successful transmission could take a long time or may never occur. However, while the quality of parity checking is poor, since it uses only a single bit, this method results in the least overhead.",
"A two-out-of-five code is an encoding scheme which uses five bits consisting of exactly three 0s and two 1s. This provides ten possible combinations, enough to represent the digits 0–9. This scheme can detect all single bit-errors, all odd numbered bit-errors and some even numbered bit-errors (for example the flipping of both 1-bits). However it still cannot correct any of these errors.",
"Another code in use at the time repeated every data bit multiple times in order to ensure that it was sent correctly. For instance, if the data bit to be sent is a 1, an \"repetition code\" will send 111. If the three bits received are not identical, an error occurred during transmission. If the channel is clean enough, most of the time only one bit will change in each triple. Therefore, 001, 010, and 100 each correspond to a 0 bit, while 110, 101, and 011 correspond to a 1 bit, with the greater quantity of digits that are the same ('0' or a '1') indicating what the data bit should be. A code with this ability to reconstruct the original message in the presence of errors is known as an \"error-correcting\" code. This triple repetition code is a Hamming code with since there are two parity bits, and data bit. Such codes cannot correctly repair all errors, however. In our example, if the channel flips two bits and the receiver gets 001, the system will detect the error, but conclude that the original bit is 0, which is incorrect. If we increase the size of the bit string to four, we can detect all two-bit errors but cannot correct them (the quantity of parity bits is even); at five bits, we can both detect and correct all two-bit errors, but not all three-bit errors. Moreover, increasing the size of the parity bit string is inefficient, reducing throughput by three times in our original case, and the efficiency drops drastically as we increase the number of times each bit is duplicated in order to detect and correct more errors.",
"If more error-correcting bits are included with a message, and if those bits can be arranged such that different incorrect bits produce different error results, then bad bits could be identified. In a seven-bit message, there are seven possible single bit errors, so three error control bits could potentially specify not only that an error occurred but also which bit caused the error. Hamming studied the existing coding schemes, including two-of-five, and generalized their concepts. To start with, he developed a nomenclature to describe the system, including the number of data bits and error-correction bits in a block. For instance, parity includes a single bit for any data word, so assuming ASCII words with seven bits, Hamming described this as an \"(8,7)\" code, with eight bits in total, of which seven are data. The repetition example would be \"(3,1)\", following the same logic. The code rate is the second number divided by the first, for our repetition example, 1/3. Hamming also noticed the problems with flipping two or more bits, and described this as the \"distance\" (it is now called the \"Hamming distance\", after him). Parity has a distance of 2, so one bit flip can be detected, but not corrected and any two bit flips will be invisible. The (3,1) repetition has a distance of 3, as three bits need to be flipped in the same triple to obtain another code word with no visible errors. It can correct one-bit errors or detect but not correct two-bit errors. A (4,1) repetition (each bit is repeated four times) has a distance of 4, so flipping three bits can be detected, but not corrected. When three bits flip in the same group there can be situations where attempting to correct will produce the wrong code word. In general, a code with distance \"k\" can detect but not correct errors. Hamming was interested in two problems at once: increasing the distance as much as possible, while at the same time increasing the code rate as much as possible. During the 1940s he developed several encoding schemes that were dramatic improvements on existing codes. The key to all of his systems was to have the parity bits overlap, such that they managed to check each other as well as the data.",
"The following general algorithm generates a single-error correcting (SEC) code for any number of bits. The main idea is to choose the error-correcting bits such that the index-XOR (the XOR of all the bit positions containing a 1) is 0. We use positions 1, 10, 100, etc (in binary) as the error-correcting bits, which guarantees it is possible to set the error-correcting bits so that the index-XOR of the whole message is 0. If the receiver receives a string with index-XOR 0, they can conclude there were no corruptions, and otherwise, the index-XOR indicates the index of the corrupted bit. The following steps implement this algorithm: If a byte of data to be encoded is 10011010, then the data word (using _ to represent the parity bits) would be __1_001_1010, and the code word is 011100101010. The form of the parity is irrelevant, as far as it is consistent between encoding and decoding. Even parity is mathematically simpler. In digital logic implementations both forms of parity are equally simple, and even in software implementations the difference is not necessarily significant. This general rule can be shown visually: Shown are only 20 encoded bits (5 parity, 15 data) but the pattern continues indefinitely. The key thing about Hamming Codes that can be seen from visual inspection is that any given bit is included in a unique set of parity bits. To check for errors, check all of the parity bits. The pattern of errors, called the error syndrome, identifies the bit in error. If all parity bits are correct, there is no error. Otherwise, the sum of the positions of the erroneous parity bits identifies the erroneous bit. For example, if the parity bits in positions 1, 2 and 8 indicate an error, then bit 1+2+8=11 is in error. If only one parity bit indicates an error, the parity bit itself is in error. As you can see, if you have parity bits, it can cover bits from 1 up to formula_1. If we subtract out the parity bits, we are left with formula_2 bits we can use for the data. As varies, we get all the possible Hamming codes:",
"Hamming codes have a minimum distance of 3, which means that the decoder can detect and correct a single error, but it cannot distinguish a double bit error of some codeword from a single bit error of a different codeword. Thus, some double-bit errors will be incorrectly decoded as if they were single bit errors and therefore go undetected, unless no correction is attempted. To remedy this shortcoming, Hamming codes can be extended by an extra parity bit. This way, it is possible to increase the minimum distance of the Hamming code to 4, which allows the decoder to distinguish between single bit errors and two-bit errors. Thus the decoder can detect and correct a single error and at the same time detect (but not correct) a double error. If the decoder does not attempt to correct errors, it can reliably detect triple bit errors. If the decoder does correct errors, some triple errors will be mistaken for single errors and \"corrected\" to the wrong value. Error correction is therefore a trade-off between certainty (the ability to reliably detect triple bit errors) and resiliency (the ability to keep functioning in the face of single bit errors). This extended Hamming code is popular in computer memory systems, where it is known as \"SECDED\" (abbreviated from \"single error correction, double error detection\"). Particularly popular is the (72,64) code, a truncated (127,120) Hamming code plus an additional parity bit, which has the same space overhead as a (9,8) parity code.",
"In 1950, Hamming introduced the [7,4] Hamming code. It encodes four data bits into seven bits by adding three parity bits. It can detect and correct single-bit errors. With the addition of an overall parity bit, it can also detect (but not correct) double-bit errors.",
"The matrix formula_3 is called a (canonical) generator matrix of a linear (\"n\",\"k\") code, and formula_4 is called a parity-check matrix. This is the construction of G and H in standard (or systematic) form. Regardless of form, G and H for linear block codes must satisfy formula_5, an all-zeros matrix. Since [7, 4, 3] = [\"n\", \"k\", \"d\"] = [2 − 1, 2−1−\"m\", 3]. The parity-check matrix H of a Hamming code is constructed by listing all columns of length \"m\" that are pair-wise independent. Thus H is a matrix whose left side is all of the nonzero n-tuples where order of the n-tuples in the columns of matrix does not matter. The right hand side is just the (\"n\" − \"k\")-identity matrix. So G can be obtained from H by taking the transpose of the left hand side of H with the identity k-identity matrix on the left hand side of G. The code generator matrix formula_6 and the parity-check matrix formula_7 are: formula_8 and formula_9 Finally, these matrices can be mutated into equivalent non-systematic codes by the following operations:",
"From the above matrix we have 2 = 2 = 16 codewords. Let formula_10 be a row vector of binary data bits, formula_11. The codeword formula_12 for any of the 16 possible data vectors formula_13 is given by the standard matrix product formula_14 where the summing operation is done modulo-2. For example, let formula_15. Using the generator matrix formula_16 from above, we have (after applying modulo 2, to the sum), formula_17",
"The [7,4] Hamming code can easily be extended to an [8,4] code by adding an extra parity bit on top of the (7,4) encoded word (see Hamming(7,4)). This can be summed up with the revised matrices: and Note that H is not in standard form. To obtain G, elementary row operations can be used to obtain an equivalent matrix to H in systematic form: For example, the first row in this matrix is the sum of the second and third rows of H in non-systematic form. Using the systematic construction for Hamming codes from above, the matrix A is apparent and the systematic form of G is written as The non-systematic form of G can be row reduced (using elementary row operations) to match this matrix. The addition of the fourth row effectively computes the sum of all the codeword bits (data and parity) as the fourth parity bit. For example, 1011 is encoded (using the non-systematic form of G at the start of this section) into 01100110 where blue digits are data; red digits are parity bits from the [7,4] Hamming code; and the green digit is the parity bit added by the [8,4] code. The green digit makes the parity of the [7,4] codewords even. Finally, it can be shown that the minimum distance has increased from 3, in the [7,4] code, to 4 in the [8,4] code. Therefore, the code can be defined as [8,4] Hamming code. To decode the [8,4] Hamming code, first check the parity bit. If the parity bit indicates an error, single error correction (the [7,4] Hamming code) will indicate the error location, with \"no error\" indicating the parity bit. If the parity bit is correct, then single error correction will indicate the (bitwise) exclusive-or of two error locations. If the locations are equal (\"no error\") then a double bit error either has not occurred, or has cancelled itself out. Otherwise, a double bit error has occurred."
]
} |
Aydar Lake | null | The Aydar Lake (, Айдар кўли; Haydar ko‘li, Ҳайдар кўли; alternate spellings: Lake Aydarkul, Lake Aidarkul) is part of the man-made Aydar-Arnasay system of lakes, which covers an area of 4,000 square kilometres (1,500 mi). This system includes 3 brackish water lakes (Aydar Kul, Arnasay and Tuzkan) located in the saline depressions of the south-eastern Kyzyl Kum (now in Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan). The lakes are the unintentional byproduct of Soviet planning. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-829359 | en-train-829359 | 829359 | {
"title": [
"Contribution to the drying up of the Aral Sea.",
"History of creation."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"This and many other \"unintended\" lakes, such as Sarygamysh Lake with the immense capacity of 70 cubic kilometers of water) on the lower Amu Darya, created by the negligent Soviet planners, deny the Aral Sea about 150 cubic kilometers of annual inflow of water, directly contributing to, if not actually causing the latter's drying up.",
"Up to the middle of the last century, the Arnasay lowland remained a dry salt pan during most of the year. Only in Spring, in the lowlands, would the small, ephemeral Lake Tuzkan glisten briefly, disappearing in the hot weather. In the early sixties the Syr Darya was dammed up. Simultaneously the Chardara Dam was constructed. Floodgates were provided in the dam for flood control, and when in 1969 a raging flood occurred, these were opened as the dam's capacity was inadequate to cope with the flow. Between February 1969 and February 1970 almost 60% of the Syr Darya's average annual water flow (21 km) was drained from the Chardarya Reservoir into the Arnasay lowland. In such a way new lakes were unintentionally created. Since 1969 the Aydar Lake has regularly received the waters of the Syr Darya River when they overflow the capacity of the Chardarya Reservoir. This has gradually filled up the natural cavity of Arnasay lowland to create the second largest lake in the region (after the remains of the Aral Sea). In 2005 the Aydar Lake contained 44.3 cubic kilometers of water. Today the area of the Aydar Lake amounts. It is nearly long and up to wide. The mineralization of the water in the Aydar Lake averages only 2 grams per liter (2,000 ppm). Many sorts of fish including the Sazan (\"Cyprinus carpio\"), Pike perch (\"Stizostedion lucioperca\"), Bream (\"Abramis brama\"), Cat-fish (\"Silurus glanis\"), Asp (\"Aspius aspius\"), Chehon (\"Pelecus cultratus\"), Ophidian fish (\"Channa argus\") were introduced to the lake, which nowadays works as a source of industrial fishing. The lake system provides between 760 and 2,000 tonnes of fish annually (according to statistical data between 1994 and 2001). In addition to fauna common in the Kyzyl Kum, there are many kinds of water birds migrating from the Aral Sea that make their homes around the lake. The Aydar Lake is located away from inhabited localities. At the present time, 345 families (approx. 1,760 people) reside near the lake. The region of the Aydar Lake and adjoining Kyzylkum Desert is an area of great potential for fishing, yurting and camel-back riding tourist activities."
]
} |
Prometheus | null | In Greek mythology, Prometheus (;,, possibly meaning "forethought") is a Titan, culture hero, and trickster figure who is credited with the creation of humanity from clay, and who defies the gods by stealing fire and giving it to humanity as civilization. Prometheus is known for his intelligence and as a champion of humankind and also seen as the author of the human arts and sciences generally. He is sometimes presented as the father of Deucalion, the hero of the flood story. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-1094787 | en-train-1094787 | 1094787 | {
"title": [
"Etymology.",
"Myths and legends.",
"Possible sources.",
"Oldest legends.",
"Hesiod's \"Theogony\" and \"Works of the Days\".",
"The Lost Titanomachy.",
"Athenian tradition.",
"Aeschylus and the ancient literary tradition.",
"Plato and philosophy.",
"Athenian religious dedication and observance.",
"Aesthetic tradition in Athenian art.",
"Other authors.",
"Late Roman antiquity.",
"Middle Ages.",
"Renaissance.",
"Post-Renaissance.",
"Post-Renaissance literary arts.",
"Goethe's poems.",
"Percy Bysshe Shelley.",
"\"Frankenstein; or, the Modern Prometheus\".",
"Twentieth century.",
"Post-Renaissance aesthetic tradition.",
"Visual arts.",
"Classical music, opera, and ballet."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"3",
"3"
],
"content": [
"The etymology of the theonym \"prometheus\" is debated. The classical view is that it signifies \"forethought,\" as that of his brother Epimetheus denotes \"afterthought\". Hesychius of Alexandria gives Prometheus the variant name of Ithas, and adds \"whom others call Ithax\", and describes him as the Herald of the Titans. Kerényi remarks that these names are \"not transparent\", and may be different readings of the same name, while the name \"Prometheus\" is descriptive. It",
"",
"The oldest record of Prometheus is in Hesiod, but stories of theft of fire by a trickster figure are widespread around the world. Some other aspects of the story resemble the Sumerian myth",
"",
"",
"The Titanomachy is a lost epic of the cosmological struggle between the Greek gods and their parents, the Titans, and is a probable source of the Prometheus myth. along with the works of Hesiod. Its reputed author was anciently supposed to have lived in the 8th century BC, but M. L. West has argued that it can't be earlier than the late 7th century BC. Presumably included in the Titanomachy is the story of Prometheus, himself a Titan, who managed to avoid being in the direct confrontational cosmic battle between Zeus and the other Olympians against Cronus and the other Titans (although there is no direct evidence of Prometheus' inclusion in the epic). M. L. West notes that surviving references suggest that there may have been significant differences between the Titanomachy epic and the account of events in Hesiod; and that the Titanomachy may be the source of later variants of the Prometheus myth not found in Hesiod, notably the non-Hesiodic material found in the Prometheus Bound of Aeschylus.",
"The two major authors to have an influence on the development of the myths and legends surrounding the Titan Prometheus during the Socratic era of greater Athens were Aeschylus and Plato. The two men wrote in highly distinctive forms of expression which for Aeschylus centered on his mastery of the literary form of Greek tragedy, while for Plato this centered on the philosophical expression of his thought in the form of the various dialogues he wrote or recorded during his lifetime.",
"\"Prometheus Bound\", perhaps the most famous treatment of the myth to be found among the Greek tragedies, is traditionally attributed to the 5th-century BC Greek tragedian Aeschylus. At the centre of the drama are the results of Prometheus' theft of fire and his current punishment by Zeus. The playwright's dependence on the Hesiodic source material is clear, though \"Prometheus Bound\" also includes a number of changes to the received tradition. It has been suggested by M.L. West that these changes may derive from the now lost epic Titanomachy Before his theft of fire, Prometheus played a decisive role in the Titanomachy, securing victory for Zeus and the other Olympians. Zeus' torture of Prometheus thus becomes a particularly harsh betrayal. The scope and character of Prometheus' transgressions against Zeus are also widened. In addition to giving humanity fire, Prometheus claims to have",
"Olga Raggio, in her study \"The Myth of Prometheus\", attributes Plato in the \"Protagoras\" as an important contributor to the early development of the Prometheus myth. Raggio indicates that many of the more challenging and dramatic assertions which Aeschylean tragedy explores are absent from Plato's writings about Prometheus. As summarised by Raggio, Raggio then goes on to point out Plato's distinction of creative power (\"techne\"), which is presented as superior to merely natural instincts (\"physis\"). For Plato, only the virtues of",
"It is understandable that since Prometheus was considered a Titan and not one of the Olympian gods that there would be an absence of evidence, with the exception of Athens, for the direct religious devotion to his worship. Despite his importance to the myths and imaginative literature of ancient Greece, the religious cult of Prometheus during the Archaic and Classical periods seems to have been limited. Writing in the 2nd century AD, the satirist Lucian points out that while temples to the major Olympians were everywhere, none to Prometheus is to be seen. Athens was the exception, here Prometheus was worshipped alongside Athene and Hephaistos. The altar of Prometheus in the grove of the Academy was the point of origin for several significant processions and other events regularly observed on the Athenian calendar. For the Panathenaic festival, arguably the most important civic festival at Athens, a torch race began at the altar, which was located outside the sacred boundary of the city, and passed through the Kerameikos, the district inhabited by potters and other artisans who regarded Prometheus and Hephaestus as patrons. The race then travelled to the heart of the city, where",
"Prometheus' torment by the eagle and his rescue by Heracles were popular subjects in vase paintings of the 6th to 4th centuries BC. He also sometimes appears in depictions of Athena's birth from Zeus' forehead. There was a relief sculpture of Prometheus with Pandora on the base of Athena's cult statue in the Athenian Parthenon of the 5th century BC. A similar rendering is also found at the great altar of Zeus at Pergamon from the second century BC. The event of the release of Prometheus from captivity was frequently revisited on Attic and Etruscan vases between the sixth and fifth centuries BC. In the depiction on display at the Museum of Karlsruhe and in Berlin, the depiction is that of Prometheus confronted by a menacing large bird (assumed to be the eagle) with Hercules approaching from behind shooting his arrows at it. In the fourth century this imagery was modified to depicting Prometheus bound in a cruciform manner, possibly reflecting an Aeschylus-inspired manner of influence, again with an eagle and with Hercules approaching from the side.",
"Some two dozen other Greek and Roman authors retold and further embellished the Prometheus myth from as early as the 5th century BC (Diodorus, Herodorus) into the 4th century AD. The most significant detail added to the myth found in, e.g., Sappho, Aesop and Ovid was the central role of Prometheus in the creation of the human race. According to these sources, Prometheus fashioned humans out of clay. Although perhaps made explicit in the \"Prometheia\", later authors such as Hyginus, the \"Bibliotheca\", and Quintus of Smyrna would confirm that Prometheus warned Zeus not to marry the sea nymph Thetis. She is consequently married off to the mortal Peleus, and bears him a son greater than the father – Achilles, Greek hero of the Trojan War. Pseudo-Apollodorus moreover clarifies",
"The three most prominent aspects of the Prometheus myth have parallels within the beliefs of many cultures throughout the world (see creation of man from clay, theft of fire, and references for eternal punishment). It is the first of these three which has drawn attention to parallels with the biblical creation account related in the religious symbolism expressed in the book of Genesis. As stated by Olga Raggio, \"The Prometheus myth of creation as a visual symbol of the Neoplatonic concept of human nature, illustrated in (many) sarcophagi, was evidently a contradiction of the Christian teaching of the unique and simultaneous act of creation by the Trinity.\" This Neoplatonism of late Roman antiquity was especially stressed by Tertullian who recognised both difference and similarity of the biblical deity with the mythological figure of Prometheus. The imagery of Prometheus and the creation of man used for the purposes of the representation of the creation of Adam in biblical symbolism is also a recurrent theme in the artistic expression of late Roman antiquity. Of the relatively rare expressions found of the creation of Adam in those centuries of late Roman antiquity, one can single out the so-called \"Dogma sarcophagus\" of the Lateran Museum where three figures are seen (in representation of the theological trinity) in making a benediction to the new man. Another example is found where the prototype of Prometheus is also recognisable in the early Christian era of late Roman antiquity. This can be found upon a sarcophagus of the Church at Mas d'Aire as well, and in an even more direct comparison to what Raggio refers to as \"a coursely carved relief from Campli (Teramo) (where) the Lord sits on a throne and models the body of Adam, exactly like Prometheus.\" Still another such similarity is found in the example found on a Hellenistic relief presently in the Louvre in which the Lord gives life to Eve through the imposition of his two fingers on her eyes recalling the same gesture found in earlier representations of Prometheus. In Georgian mythology, Amirani is a cultural hero who challenged the chief god and, like Prometheus, was chained on the Caucasian mountains where birds would eat his organs. This aspect of the myth had a significant influence on the Greek imagination. It is recognisable from a Greek gem roughly dated to the time of the Hesiod poems, which show Prometheus with hands bound behind his body and crouching before a bird with long wings. This same image would also be used later in the Rome of the Augustan age as documented by Furtwangler. In the often cited and highly publicised interview between Joseph Campbell and Bill Moyers on Public Television, the author of \"The Hero with a",
"Perhaps the most influential book of the Middle Ages upon the reception of the Prometheus myth was the mythological handbook of Fulgentius Placiades. As stated by Raggio, \"The text of Fulgentius, as well as that of (Marcus) Servius [...] are the main sources of the mythological handbooks written in the ninth century by the anonymous \"Mythographus Primus\" and \"Mythographus Secundus\". Both were used for the more lengthy and elaborate compendium by the English scholar Alexander Neckman (1157–1217), the \"Scintillarium Poetarum\", or \"Poetarius\".\" The purpose of his books was to distinguish allegorical interpretation from the historical interpretation of the Prometheus myth. Continuing in this same tradition of the allegorical interpretation of the Prometheus myth, along with the historical interpretation of the Middle Ages, is the \"Genealogiae\" of Giovanni Boccaccio. Boccaccio follows these two levels of interpretation and distinguishes between two separate versions of the Prometheus myth. For Boccaccio, Prometheus",
"After the writings of both Boccaccio and Ficino in the late Middle Ages about Prometheus, interest in the Titan shifted considerably in the direction of becoming subject matter for painters and sculptors alike. Among the most famous examples is that of Piero di Cosimo from about 1510 presently on display at the museums of Munich and Strasburg (see Inset). Raggio summarises the Munich version as follows; \"The Munich panel represents the dispute between Epimetheus and Prometheus, the handsome triumphant statue of the new man, modelled by Prometheus, his ascension to the sky under the guidance of Minerva; the Strasburg panel shows in the distance Prometheus lighting his torch at the wheels of the Sun, and in the foreground on one side, Prometheus applying his torch to the heart of the statue and, on the other, Mercury fastening him to a tree.\" All the details",
"The myth of Prometheus has been a favourite theme of Western art and literature in the post-renaissance and post-Enlightenment tradition and, occasionally, in works produced outside the West.",
"For the Romantic era, Prometheus was the rebel who resisted all forms of institutional tyranny epitomised by Zeus – church, monarch, and patriarch. The Romantics drew comparisons between Prometheus and the spirit of the French Revolution, Christ, the Satan of John Milton's \"Paradise Lost\", and the divinely inspired poet or artist. Prometheus is the lyrical \"I\" who speaks in Goethe's \"Sturm und Drang\" poem \"Prometheus\" (written c. 1772–74, published 1789), addressing God (as Zeus) in misotheist accusation and defiance. In \"Prometheus Unbound\" (1820), a four-act lyrical drama, Percy Bysshe Shelley rewrites the lost play of Aeschylus so that Prometheus does not submit to Zeus (under the Latin name Jupiter), but instead supplants him in a triumph of the human heart and intellect over tyrannical religion. Lord Byron's poem \"Prometheus\" also portrays the Titan as unrepentant. As documented by Olga Raggio, other leading figures among the great Romantics included Byron, Longfellow and Nietzsche as well. Mary Shelley's 1818 novel \"Frankenstein\" is subtitled \"The Modern Prometheus\", in reference to the novel's themes of the over-reaching of modern humanity into dangerous areas of knowledge.",
"\"Prometheus\" is a poem by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, in which a character based on the mythic Prometheus addresses God (as Zeus) in a romantic and misotheist tone of accusation and defiance. The poem was written between 1772 and 1774. It was first published fifteen years later in 1789. It is an important work as it represents one of the first encounters of the Prometheus myth with the literary Romantic movement identified with Goethe and with the Sturm und Drang movement. The poem has appeared in Volume 6 of Goethe's poems (in his Collected Works) in a section of \"\" (assorted poems), shortly following the \"Harzreise im Winter\". It is immediately followed by \"Ganymed\", and the two poems are written as informing each other according to Goethe's plan in their actual writing. \"Prometheus\" (1774) was originally planned as a drama but never completed by Goethe, though the poem is inspired by it. Prometheus is the creative and rebellious spirit rejected by God and who angrily defies him and asserts himself. Ganymede, by direct",
"Percy Shelley published his four-act lyrical drama titled \"Prometheus Unbound\" in 1820. His version was written in response to the version of myth as presented by Aeschylus and is orientated to the high British Idealism and high British Romanticism prevailing in Shelley's own time. Shelley, as the author himself discusses, admits the debt of his version of the myth to Aeschylus and the Greek poetic tradition which he assumes is familiar to readers of his own lyrical drama. For example, it is necessary to understand and have knowledge of the reason for Prometheus' punishment if the reader",
"\"Frankenstein; or, the Modern Prometheus\", written by Mary Shelley when she was 18, was published in 1818, two years before Percy Shelley's above-mentioned play. It has endured as one of the most frequently revisited literary themes in twentieth century film and popular reception with few rivals for its sheer popularity among even established literary works of art. The primary theme",
"Franz Kafka wrote a short piece titled \"Prometheus,\" outlining what he saw as his perspective on four aspects of his myth: \"According to the first, he was clamped to a rock in the Caucasus for betraying the secrets of the gods to men, and the gods sent eagles to feed on his liver, which was perpetually renewed.<br> According to the second, Prometheus, goaded by the pain of the tearing beaks, pressed himself deeper and deeper into the rock until he became one with it.<br> According to the third, his treachery was forgotten in the course of thousands of years, forgotten by the gods, the eagles, forgotten by himself.<br> According to the fourth, everyone grew weary of the meaningless affair. The gods grew weary, the eagles grew weary, the wound closed wearily.<br>There remains the inexplicable mass of rock. The legend tried to explain the inexplicable. As it came out of a substratum of truth it had in turn to end in the inexplicable.\" This short piece by Kafka concerning his interest in Prometheus was supplemented by two other mythological pieces written by him. As stated",
"",
"Prometheus has been depicted in a number of well-known artworks, including Mexican muralist",
"Works of classical music, opera, and ballet directly or indirectly inspired by the myth of Prometheus have included renderings by some of the major composers of both the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. In this tradition, the orchestral representation of the myth has received the most sustained attention of composers. These have included the symphonic poem by Franz Liszt titled \"Prometheus\" from 1850, among his other Symphonic Poems (No. 5, S.99). Alexander Scriabin composed \"\", Opus 60 (1910), also for orchestra. In the same year Gabriel Fauré composed his three-act opera \"Prométhée\" (1910). Charles-Valentin Alkan composed his \"Grande sonate 'Les quatre âges'\" (1847), with the 4th movement entitled \"Prométhée enchaîné\" (Prometheus Bound). Beethoven composed the score to a ballet version of the myth titled \"The Creatures of Prometheus\" (1801). An adaptation of Goethe's poetic version of the myth was composed by Hugo Wolf, \"Prometheus\" (\"Bedecke deinen Himmel, Zeus\", 1889), as part of his Goethe-lieder for voice and piano, later transcribed for orchestra and voice. An opera of the myth was composed by Carl Orff titled \"Prometheus\" (1968), using Aeschylus' Greek language \"Prometheia\"."
]
} |
Iron Age | null | The Iron Age is the final epoch of the three-age division of the prehistory and protohistory of humanity. It was preceded by the Stone Age (Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, and Chalcolithic) and the Bronze Age. The concept has been mostly applied to Europe and the Ancient Near East, and, by analogy, also to other parts of the Old World. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-297661 | en-train-297661 | 297661 | {
"title": [
"History of the concept.",
"Chronology.",
"Early ferrous metallurgy.",
"Ancient Near East.",
"Western Asia.",
"Egypt.",
"Europe.",
"Asia.",
"Central Asia.",
"East Asia.",
"South Asia.",
"Southeast Asia.",
"Sub-Saharan Africa."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
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],
"content": [
"The three-age system was introduced in the first half of the 19th century for the archaeology of Europe in particular, and by the later 19th century expanded to the archaeology of the Ancient Near East. Its name harks back to the mythological \"Ages of Man\" of Hesiod. As an archaeological era, it was first introduced for Scandinavia by Christian Jürgensen Thomsen in the 1830s. By the 1860s, it was embraced as a useful division of the \"earliest history of mankind\" in general and began to be applied in Assyriology. The development of the now-conventional periodization in the archaeology of the Ancient Near East was developed in the 1920s to 1930s. As its name suggests, Iron Age technology is characterized by the production of tools and weaponry by ferrous metallurgy (ironworking), more specifically from carbon steel.",
"Increasingly the Iron Age in Europe is being seen as a part of the Bronze Age collapse in the ancient Near East, in ancient India (with the post-Rigvedic Vedic civilization), ancient Iran, and ancient Greece (with the Greek Dark Ages). In other regions of Europe the Iron Age began in the 8th century BC in Central Europe and the 6th century BC in Northern Europe. The Near Eastern Iron Age is divided into two subsections, Iron I and Iron II. Iron I (1200–1000 BC) illustrates both continuity and discontinuity with the previous Late Bronze Age. There is no definitive cultural break between the 13th and 12th centuries BC throughout the entire region, although certain new features in the hill country, Transjordan and coastal region may suggest the appearance of the Aramaean and Sea People groups. There is evidence, however, of strong continuity with Bronze Age culture, although as one moves later into Iron I the culture begins to diverge more significantly from that of the late 2nd millennium. The Iron Age as an archaeological period is roughly defined as that part of the prehistory of a culture or region during which ferrous metallurgy was the dominant technology of metalworking. The characteristic of an Iron Age culture is the mass production of tools and weapons made from steel, typically alloys with a carbon content between approximately 0.30% and 1.2% by weight. Only with the capability of the production of carbon steel does ferrous metallurgy result in tools or weapons that are equal or superior to bronze. The use of steel has been based as much on economics as on metallurgical advancements. Early steel was made by smelting iron. By convention, the Iron Age in the Ancient Near East is taken to last from c. 1200 BC (the Bronze Age collapse) to c. 550 BC (or 539 BC), roughly the beginning of historiography with Herodotus; the end of the proto-historical period. In Central and Western Europe, the Iron Age is taken to last from c. 800 BC to c. 1 BC, in Northern Europe from c. 500 BC to 800 AD. In China, there is no recognizable prehistoric period characterized by ironworking, as Bronze Age China transitions almost directly into the Qin dynasty of imperial China; \"Iron Age\" in the context of China is sometimes used for the transitional period of c. 500 BC to 100 BC during which ferrous metallurgy was present even if not dominant.",
"The earliest-known iron artifacts are nine small beads dated to 3200 BC, which were found in burials at Gerzeh, Lower Egypt. They have been identified as meteoric iron shaped by careful hammering. Meteoric iron, a characteristic iron–nickel alloy, was used by various ancient peoples thousands of years before the Iron Age. Such iron, being in its native metallic state, required no smelting of ores. Smelted iron appears sporadically in the archeological record from the middle Bronze Age. Whilst terrestrial iron is naturally abundant, its high melting point of placed it out of reach of common use until the end of the second millennium BC. Tin's low melting point of and copper's relatively moderate melting point of placed them within the capabilities of the Neolithic pottery kilns, which date back to 6000 BC and were able to produce temperatures greater than. In addition to specially designed furnaces, ancient iron production needed to develop complex procedures for the removal of impurities, the regulation of the admixture of carbon, and for hot-working to achieve a useful balance of hardness and strength in steel. The earliest tentative evidence for iron-making is a small number of iron fragments with the appropriate amounts of carbon admixture found in the Proto-Hittite layers at Kaman-Kalehöyük and dated to 2200–2000 BC. Akanuma (2008) concludes that \"The combination of carbon dating, archaeological context, and archaeometallurgical examination indicates that it is likely that the use of ironware made of steel had already begun in the third millennium BC in Central Anatolia\". Souckova-Siegolová (2001) shows that iron implements were made in Central Anatolia in very limited quantities around 1800 BC and were in general use by elites, though not by commoners, during the New Hittite Empire (∼1400–1200 BC). Similarly, recent archaeological remains of iron working in the Ganges Valley in India have been tentatively dated to 1800 BC. Tewari (2003) concludes that \"knowledge of iron smelting and manufacturing of iron artifacts was well known in the Eastern Vindhyas and iron had been in use in the Central Ganga Plain, at least from the early second millennium BC\". By the Middle Bronze Age increasing numbers of smelted iron objects (distinguishable from meteoric iron by the lack of nickel in the product) appeared in the Middle East, Southeast Asia and South Asia. African sites are turning up dates as early as 2000-1200 BC. Modern archaeological evidence identifies the start of large-scale iron production in around 1200 BC, marking the end of the Bronze Age. Between 1200 BC and 1000 BC diffusion in the understanding of iron metallurgy and the use of iron objects was fast and far-flung. Anthony Snodgrass suggests that a shortage of tin, as a part of the Bronze Age Collapse and trade disruptions in the Mediterranean around 1300 BC, forced metalworkers to seek an alternative to bronze. As evidence, many bronze implements were recycled into weapons during that time. More widespread use of iron led to improved steel-making technology at a lower cost. Thus, even when tin became available again, iron was cheaper, stronger and lighter, and forged iron implements superseded cast bronze tools permanently.",
"The Iron Age in the Ancient Near East is believed to have begun with the discovery of iron smelting and smithing techniques in Anatolia or the Caucasus and Balkans in the late 2nd millennium BC ( 1300 BC). The earliest bloomery smelting of iron is found at Tell Hammeh, Jordan around 930 BC (C dating). The Early Iron Age artefacts found in Kultepe site, Azerbaijan show that iron smelting was known and used in this region before the 2nd millennium BC (as early as the 3rd millennium BC).",
"In the Mesopotamian states of Sumer, Akkad and Assyria, the initial use of iron reaches far back, to perhaps 3000 BC. One of the earliest smelted iron artifacts known was a dagger with an iron blade found in a Hattic tomb in Anatolia, dating from 2500 BC. The widespread use of iron weapons which replaced bronze weapons rapidly disseminated throughout the Near East (North Africa, southwest Asia) by the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. The development of iron smelting was once attributed to the Hittites of Anatolia during the Late Bronze Age. As part of the Late Bronze Age-Early Iron Age, the Bronze Age collapse saw the slow, comparatively continuous spread of iron-working technology in the region. It was long held that the success of the Hittite Empire during the Late Bronze Age had been based on the advantages entailed by the \"monopoly\" on ironworking at the time. Accordingly, the invading Sea Peoples would have been responsible for spreading the knowledge through that region. The view of such a \"Hittite monopoly\" has come under scrutiny and no longer represents a scholarly consensus. While there are some iron objects from Bronze Age Anatolia, the number is comparable to iron objects found in Egypt and other places of the same time period; and only a small number of these objects are weapons.",
"The Iron Age in Egyptian archaeology essentially corresponds to the Third Intermediate Period of Egypt. Iron metal is singularly scarce in collections of Egyptian antiquities. Bronze remained the primary material there until the conquest by Neo-Assyrian Empire in 671 BC. The explanation of this would seem to lie in the fact that the relics are in most cases the paraphernalia of tombs, the funeral vessels and vases, and iron being considered an impure metal by the ancient Egyptians it was never used in their manufacture of these or for any religious purposes. It was attributed to Seth, the spirit of evil who according to Egyptian tradition governed the central deserts of Africa. In the Black Pyramid of Abusir, dating before 2000 BC, Gaston Maspero found some pieces of iron. In the funeral text of Pepi I, the metal is mentioned. A sword bearing the name of pharaoh Merneptah as well as a battle axe with an iron blade and gold-decorated bronze shaft were both found in the excavation of Ugarit. A dagger with an iron blade found in Tutankhamun's tomb, 13th century BC, was recently examined and found to be of meteoric origin.",
"In Europe, the Iron Age is the last stage of prehistoric Europe and the first of the protohistoric periods, which initially means descriptions of a particular area by Greek and Roman writers. For much of Europe, the period came to an abrupt local end after conquest by the Romans, though ironworking remained the dominant technology until recent times. Elsewhere it may last until the early centuries AD, and either Christianization or a new conquest in the Migration Period. Iron working was introduced to Europe in the late 11th century BC, probably from the Caucasus, and slowly spread northwards and westwards over the succeeding 500 years. The Iron Age did not start when iron first appeared in Europe but it began to replace bronze in the preparation of tools and weapons. It did not happen at the same time all around Europe; local cultural developments played a role in the transition to the Iron Age. For example, the Iron Age of Prehistoric Ireland begins around 500 BC (when the Greek Iron Age had already ended) and finishes around 400 AD. The widespread use of the technology of iron was implemented in Europe simultaneously with Asia. The prehistoric Iron Age in Central Europe divided into two periods based on historical events – Hallstatt culture (early Iron Age) and La Tène (late Iron Age) cultures. Material cultures of Hallstatt and La Tène consist of 4 phases (A, B, C, D phases). The Iron Age in Europe is characterized by an elaboration of designs in weapons, implements, and utensils. These are no longer cast but hammered into shape, and decoration is elaborate and curvilinear rather than simple rectilinear; the forms and character of the ornamentation of the northern European weapons resemble in some respects Roman arms, while in other respects they are peculiar and evidently representative of northern art. Citania de Briterios located in Guimaraes, Portugal is one of the examples of archaeological sites of the Iron Age. This settlement (fortified villages) covered an area of 3.8 hectares and served for Celtiberians as a stronghold against Roman invasions. İt dates more than 2500 years back. The site was researched by Francisco Martins Sarmento starting from 1874. A number of amphoras, coins, fragments of pottery, weapons, pieces of jewelry, as well as ruins of a bath and its Pedra Formosa (literally Beauty stones) revealed here.",
"",
"The Iron Age in Central Asia began when iron objects appear among the Indo-European Saka in present-day Xinjiang between the 10th century BC and the 7th century BC, such as those found at the cemetery site of Chawuhukou. The Pazyryk culture is an Iron Age archaeological culture (c. 6th to 3rd centuries BC) identified by excavated artifacts and mummified humans found in the Siberian permafrost in the Altay Mountains.",
"In China, Chinese bronze inscriptions are found around 1200 BC, preceding the development of iron metallurgy, which was known by the 9th century BC, Therefore, in China prehistory had given way to history periodized by ruling dynasties by the start of iron use, so \"Iron Age\" is not typically used as to describe a period in Chinese history. Iron metallurgy reached the Yangtse Valley toward the end of the 6th century BC. The few objects were found at Changsha and Nanjing. The mortuary evidence suggests that the initial use of iron in Lingnan belongs to the mid-to-late Warring States period (from about 350 BC). Important non-precious husi style metal finds include Iron tools found at the tomb at Guwei-cun of the 4th century BC. The techniques used in Lingnan are a combination of bivalve moulds of distinct southern tradition and the incorporation of piece mould technology from the \"Zhongyuan\". The products of the combination of these two periods are bells, vessels, weapons and ornaments, and the sophisticated cast. An Iron Age culture of the Tibetan Plateau has tentatively been associated with the Zhang Zhung culture described in early Tibetan writings. Iron objects were introduced to the Korean peninsula through trade with chiefdoms and state-level societies in the Yellow Sea area in the 4th century BC, just at the end of the Warring States Period but before the Western Han Dynasty began. Yoon proposes that iron was first introduced to chiefdoms located along North Korean river valleys that flow into the Yellow Sea such as the Cheongcheon and Taedong Rivers. Iron production quickly followed in the 2nd century BC, and iron implements came to be used by farmers by the 1st century in southern Korea. The earliest known cast-iron axes in southern Korea are found in the Geum River basin. The time that iron production begins is the same time that complex chiefdoms of Proto-historic Korea emerged. The complex chiefdoms were the precursors of early states such as Silla, Baekje, Goguryeo, and Gaya Iron ingots were an important mortuary item and indicated the wealth or prestige of the deceased in this period. In Japan, iron items, such as tools, weapons, and decorative objects, are postulated to have entered Japan during the late Yayoi period ( 300 BC–AD 300) or the succeeding Kofun period ( AD 250–538), most likely through contacts with the Korean Peninsula and China. Distinguishing characteristics of the Yayoi period include the appearance of new pottery styles and the start of intensive rice agriculture in paddy fields. Yayoi culture flourished in a geographic area from southern Kyūshū to northern Honshū. The Kofun and the subsequent Asuka periods are sometimes referred to collectively as the Yamato period; The word \"kofun\" is Japanese for the type of burial mounds dating from that era.",
"Iron was being used in Mundigak to manufacture some items in the 3rd millennium BC such as a small copper/bronze bell with an iron clapper, a copper/bronze rod with two iron decorative buttons. and a copper/bronze mirror handle with a decorative iron button. Artefacts including small knives and blades have been discovered in the Indian state of Telangana which have been dated between 2,400 BC and 1800 BC The history of metallurgy in the Indian subcontinent began prior to the 3rd millennium BC. Archaeological sites in India, such as Malhar, Dadupur, Raja Nala Ka Tila, Lahuradewa, Kosambi and Jhusi, Allahabad in present-day Uttar Pradesh show iron implements in the period 1800–1200 BC. As the evidence from the sites Raja Nala ka tila, Malhar suggest the use of Iron in c.1800/1700 BC. The extensive use of iron smelting is from Malhar and its surrounding area. This site is assumed as the center for smelted bloomer iron to this area due to its location in the Karamnasa River and Ganga River. This site shows agricultural technology as iron implements sickles, nails, clamps, spearheads, etc. by at least c.1500 BC Archaeological excavations in Hyderabad show an Iron Age burial site. The beginning of the 1st millennium BC saw extensive developments in iron metallurgy in India. Technological advancement and mastery of iron metallurgy were achieved during this period of peaceful settlements. One ironworking centre in east India has been dated to the first millennium BC. In Southern India (present-day Mysore) iron appeared as early as 12th to 11th centuries BC; these developments were too early for any significant close contact with the northwest of the country. The Indian Upanishads mention metallurgy. and the Indian Mauryan period saw advances in metallurgy. As early as 300 BC, certainly by AD 200, high-quality steel was produced in southern India, by what would later be called the crucible technique. In this system, high-purity wrought iron, charcoal, and glass were mixed in a crucible and heated until the iron melted and absorbed the carbon. The protohistoric Early Iron Age in Sri Lanka lasted from 1000 BC to 600 BC. however, evidence of Iron usage was found in Excavation of a Protohistoric Canoe burial Site in Haldummulla and has been dated to 2400 BC. Radiocarbon evidence has been collected from Anuradhapura and Aligala shelter in Sigiriya. The Anuradhapura settlement is recorded to extend by 800 BC and grew to by 700–600 BC to become a town. The skeletal remains of an Early Iron Age chief were excavated in Anaikoddai, Jaffna. The name 'Ko Veta' is engraved in Brahmi script on a seal buried with the skeleton and is assigned by the excavators to the 3rd century BC. Ko, meaning \"King\" in Tamil, is comparable to such names as Ko Atan and Ko Putivira occurring in contemporary Brahmi inscriptions in south India. It is also speculated that Early Iron Age sites may exist in Kandarodai, Matota, Pilapitiya and Tissamaharama.",
"Archaeology in Thailand at sites Ban Don Ta Phet and Khao Sam Kaeo yielding metallic, stone, and glass artifacts stylistically associated with the Indian subcontinent suggest Indianization of Southeast Asia beginning in the 4th to 2nd centuries BC during the late Iron Age. In Philippines and Vietnam, the Sa Huynh culture showed evidence of an extensive trade network. Sa Huynh beads were made from glass, carnelian, agate, olivine, zircon, gold and garnet; most of these materials were not local to the region and were most likely imported. Han-Dynasty-style bronze mirrors were also found in Sa Huynh sites. Conversely, Sa Huynh produced ear ornaments have been found in archaeological sites in Central Thailand, Taiwan (Orchid Island).",
"In Sub-Saharan Africa, where there was no continent-wide universal Bronze Age, the use of iron succeeded immediately the use of stone. Metallurgy was characterized by the absence of a Bronze Age, and the transition from stone to iron in tool substances. Early evidence for iron technology in Sub-Saharan Africa can be found at sites such as KM2 and KM3 in northwest Tanzania. Nubia was one of the relatively few places in Africa to have a sustained Bronze Age along with Egypt and much of the rest of North Africa. Very early copper and bronze working sites in Niger may date to as early as 1500 BC. There is also evidence of iron metallurgy in Termit, Niger from around this period. Nubia was a major manufacturer and exporter of iron after the expulsion of the Nubian dynasty from Egypt by the Assyrians in the 7th century BC. Though there is some uncertainty, some archaeologists believe that iron metallurgy was developed independently in sub-Saharan West Africa, separately from Eurasia and neighboring parts of North And Northeast Africa. Archaeological sites containing iron smelting furnaces and slag have also been excavated at sites in the Nsukka region of southeast Nigeria in what is now Igboland: dating to 2000 BC at the site of Lejja (Eze-Uzomaka 2009) and to 750 BC and at the site of Opi (Holl 2009). The site of Gbabiri (in the Central African Republic) has yielded evidence of iron metallurgy, from a reduction furnace and blacksmith workshop; with earliest dates of 896-773 BC and 907-796 BC respectively. Similarly, smelting in bloomery-type furnaces appear in the Nok culture of central Nigeria by about 550 BC and possibly a few centuries earlier. Iron and copper working in Sub-Saharan Africa spread south and east from Central Africa in conjunction with the Bantu expansion, from the Cameroon region to the African Great Lakes in the 3rd century BC, reaching the Cape around AD 400. However, iron working may have been practiced in Central Africa as early as the 3rd millennium BC. Instances of carbon steel based on complex preheating principles were found to be in production around the 1st century AD in northwest Tanzania."
]
} |
Q.E.D. | null | Q.E.D. or QED (sometimes italicized ()) is an initialism of the Latin phrase "", literally meaning "what was to be shown". Traditionally, the abbreviation is placed at the end of a mathematical proof or philosophical argument in print publications to indicate that the proof or the argument is complete, and hence is used with the meaning "thus it has been demonstrated". | null | [
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"title": [
"Etymology and early use.",
"Modern philosophy.",
"Difference from Q.E.F..",
"English equivalent.",
"Typographical forms used symbolically.",
"Modern humorous use."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The phrase \"quod erat demonstrandum\" is a translation into Latin from the Greek (; abbreviated as \"ΟΕΔ\"). Translating from the Latin phrase into English yields \"what was to be demonstrated\". However, translating the Greek phrase can produce a slightly different meaning. In particular, since the verb also means \"to show\" or \"to prove\", a different translation from the Greek phrase would read \"The very thing it was required to have shown.\" The Greek phrase was used by many early Greek mathematicians, including Euclid and Archimedes. The translated Latin phrase (and its associated acronym) was subsequently used by many post-Renaissance mathematicians and philosophers, including Galileo, Spinoza, Isaac Barrow and Isaac Newton.",
"During the European Renaissance, scholars often wrote in Latin, and phrases such as \"Q.E.D.\" were often used to conclude proofs. Perhaps the most famous use of \"Q.E.D.\" in a philosophical argument is found in the \"Ethics\" of Baruch Spinoza, published posthumously in 1677. Written in Latin, it is considered by many to be Spinoza's \"magnum opus\". The style and system of the book are, as Spinoza says, \"demonstrated in geometrical order\", with axioms and definitions followed by propositions. For Spinoza, this is a considerable improvement over René Descartes's writing style in the \"Meditations\", which follows the form of a diary.",
"There is another Latin phrase with a slightly different meaning, usually shortened similarly, but being less common in use., originating from the Greek geometers' closing (), meaning \"which had to be done\". Because of the difference in meaning, the two phrases should not be confused. Euclid used the Greek original of Quod Erat Faciendum (Q.E.F.) to close propositions that were not proofs of theorems, but constructions of geometric objects. For example, Euclid's first proposition showing how to construct an equilateral triangle, given one side, is concluded this way. Many times, mathematicians will only utilize () faciendia as a result of the results of previous definitions or demonstradums. An idea of this is expressed within Topics (Aristotle), where he goes over the difference between a proposition and a problem. \" For if it be put in this way, \"'An animal that walks on two feet\" is the definition of man, is it not?' or '\"Animal\" is the genus of man, is it not?' the result is a proposition: but if thus, 'Is \"an animal that walks on two feet\" a definition of man or no?' (or 'Is \"animal\" his genus or no?') the result is a problem.\" This is parallel to the idea of the difference between a Q.E.D. and a Q.E.F. A proposition (Q.E.D.) like this functions exactly the same way as it does for Euclid: the proposition is intended to prove a particular property, the problem (Q.E.F.) on the other hand requires multiple propositions in order to prove, or even construct an entirely new category. The problems are the dialectic's objective to solve. In a similar fashion, there are many different ways to construct a mathematical system to construct a triangle. There is only one triangle, however, and the triangle has definite properties. In this way, truth is sought within mathematics and philosophy in a congruous way. Euclid's Elements could be thought of as a document whose objective is to construct a dodecahedron and an icosahedron (Propositions 16 and 17 book XIII). Appollonius' On Conics Book I could be thought of as a document whose objective is to construct a pair of hyperbolas from two bisecting lines (Proposition 50 of book I). Propositions have historically been used in logic and mathematics to work towards solving a problem, and these fields both reflect that in their foundations through Euclid and Aristotle.",
"There is no common formal English equivalent, although the end of a proof may be announced with a simple statement such as \"this completes the proof\", \"as required\", \"as desired\", \"as expected\", \"hence proved\", \"ergo\", or other similar locutions. WWWWW or W – an abbreviation of \"Which Was What Was Wanted\" – has been used similarly. Often this is considered to be more tongue-in-cheek than \"Q.E.D.\" or the Halmos tombstone symbol \"(see below)\".",
"Due to the paramount importance of proofs in mathematics, mathematicians since the time of Euclid have developed conventions to demarcate the beginning and end of proofs. In printed English language texts, the formal statements of theorems, lemmas, and propositions are set in italics by tradition. The beginning of a proof usually follows immediately thereafter, and is indicated by the word \"proof\" in boldface or italics. On the other hand, several symbolic conventions exist to indicate the end of a proof. While some authors still use the classical abbreviation, Q.E.D., it is relatively uncommon in modern mathematical texts. Paul Halmos pioneered the use of a solid black square at the end of a proof as a Q.E.D symbol, a practice which has become standard, although not universal. Halmos adopted this use of a symbol from magazine typography customs in which simple geometric shapes had been used to indicate the end of an article. This symbol was later called the \"tombstone\", the \"Halmos symbol\", or even a \"halmos\" by mathematicians. Often the Halmos symbol is drawn on chalkboard to signal the end of a proof during a lecture, although this practice is not so common as its use in printed text. The tombstone symbol appears in TeX as the character formula_1 (filled square, \\blacksquare) and sometimes, as a formula_2 (hollow square, \\square or \\Box). In the AMS Theorem Environment for LaTeX, the hollow square is the default end-of-proof symbol. Unicode explicitly provides the \"end of proof\" character, U+220E (∎). Some authors use other Unicode symbols to note the end of a proof, including, ▮ (U+25AE, a black vertical rectangle), and ‣ (U+2023, a triangular bullet). Other authors have adopted two forward slashes (//) or four forward slashes (////). In other cases, authors have elected to segregate proofs typographically—by displaying them as indented blocks.",
"In Joseph Heller's book \"Catch-22\", the Chaplain, having been told to examine a forged letter allegedly signed by him (which he knew he didn't sign), verified that his \"name\" was in fact there. His investigator replied, \"Then you wrote it. Q.E.D.\" The chaplain said he didn't write it and that it wasn't his handwriting, to which the investigator replied, \"Then you signed your name in somebody else's handwriting again.\" In the 1978 science-fiction radio comedy, and later in the television, novel, and film adaptations of \"The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy\", \"Q.E.D.\" is referred to in the Guide's entry for the babel fish, when it is claimed that the babel fish – which serves the \"mind-bogglingly\" useful purpose of being able to translate any spoken language when inserted into a person's ear – is used as evidence for existence and non-existence of God. The exchange from the novel is as follows: \"'I refuse to prove I exist,' says God, 'for proof denies faith, and without faith I am nothing.' 'But,' says Man, 'The babel fish is a dead giveaway, isn't it? It could not have evolved by chance. It proves you exist, and so therefore, by your own arguments, you don't. QED.' 'Oh dear,' says God, 'I hadn't thought of that,' and promptly vanishes in a puff of logic.\" In Neal Stephenson's 1999 novel \"Cryptonomicon\", Q.E.D. is used as a punchline to several humorous anecdotes, in which characters go to great lengths to prove something non-mathematical. Singer-songwriter Thomas Dolby's 1988 song \"Airhead\" includes the lyric, \"Quod erat demonstrandum, baby,\" referring to the self-evident vacuousness of the eponymous subject; and in response, a female voice squeals, delightedly, \"Oooh... you speak French!\""
]
} |
Quasicrystal | null | A quasiperiodic crystal, or quasicrystal, is a structure that is ordered but not periodic. A quasicrystalline pattern can continuously fill all available space, but it lacks translational symmetry. While crystals, according to the classical crystallographic restriction theorem, can possess only two-, three-, four-, and six-fold rotational symmetries, the Bragg diffraction pattern of quasicrystals shows sharp peaks with other symmetry orders—for instance, five-fold. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-2265851 | en-train-2265851 | 2265851 | {
"title": [
"History.",
"Mathematics.",
"Materials science.",
"Applications."
],
"section_level": [
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"content": [
"In 1961, Hao Wang asked whether determining if a set of tiles admits a tiling of the plane is an algorithmically unsolvable problem or not. He conjectured that it is solvable, relying on the hypothesis that every set of tiles that can tile the plane can do it \"periodically\" (hence, it would suffice to try to tile bigger and bigger patterns until obtaining one that tiles periodically). Nevertheless, two years later, his student Robert Berger constructed a set of some 20,000 square tiles (now called \"Wang tiles\") that can tile the plane but not in a periodic fashion. As further aperiodic sets of tiles were discovered, sets with fewer and fewer shapes were found. In 1976 Roger Penrose discovered a set of just two tiles, now referred to as Penrose tiles, that produced only non-periodic tilings of the plane. These tilings displayed instances of fivefold symmetry. One year later Alan Mackay showed experimentally that the diffraction pattern from the Penrose tiling had a two-dimensional Fourier transform consisting of sharp 'delta' peaks arranged in a fivefold symmetric pattern. Around the same time, Robert Ammann created a set of aperiodic tiles that produced eightfold symmetry. Mathematically, quasicrystals have been shown to be derivable from a general method that treats them as projections of a higher-dimensional lattice. Just as circles, ellipses, and hyperbolic curves in the plane can be obtained as sections from a three-dimensional double cone, so too various (aperiodic or periodic) arrangements in two and three dimensions can be obtained from postulated hyperlattices with four or more dimensions. Icosahedral quasicrystals in three dimensions were projected from a six-dimensional hypercubic lattice by Peter Kramer and Roberto Neri in 1984. The tiling is formed by two tiles with rhombohedral shape. Shechtman first observed ten-fold electron diffraction patterns in 1982, as described in his notebook. The observation was made during a routine investigation, by electron microscopy, of a rapidly cooled alloy of aluminium and manganese prepared at the US National Bureau of Standards (later NIST). In the summer of the same year Shechtman visited Ilan Blech and related his observation to him. Blech responded that such diffractions had been seen before. Around that time, Shechtman also related his finding to John Cahn of NIST who did not offer any explanation and challenged him to solve the observation. Shechtman quoted Cahn as saying: \"Danny, this material is telling us something and I challenge you to find out what it is\". The observation of the ten-fold diffraction pattern lay unexplained for two years until the spring of 1984, when Blech asked Shechtman to show him his results again. A quick study of Shechtman's results showed that the common explanation for a ten-fold symmetrical diffraction pattern, the existence of twins, was ruled out by his experiments. Since periodicity and twins were ruled out, Blech, unaware of the two-dimensional tiling work, was looking for another possibility: a completely new structure containing cells connected to each other by defined angles and distances but without translational periodicity. Blech decided to use a computer simulation to calculate the diffraction intensity from a cluster of such a material without long-range translational order but still not random. He termed this new structure multiple polyhedral. The idea of a new structure was the necessary paradigm shift to break the impasse. The \"Eureka moment\" came when the computer simulation showed sharp ten-fold diffraction patterns, similar to the observed ones, emanating from the three-dimensional structure devoid of periodicity. The multiple polyhedral structure was termed later by many researchers as icosahedral glass but in effect it embraces \"any arrangement of polyhedra connected with definite angles and distances\" (this general definition includes tiling, for example). Shechtman accepted Blech's discovery of a new type of material and it gave him the courage to publish his experimental observation. Shechtman and Blech jointly wrote a paper entitled \"The Microstructure of Rapidly Solidified AlMn\" and sent it for publication around June 1984 to the \"Journal of Applied Physics\" (JAP). The JAP editor promptly rejected the paper as being better fit for a metallurgical readership. As a result, the same paper was re-submitted for publication to the \"Metallurgical Transactions A\", where it was accepted. Although not noted in the body of the published text, the published paper was slightly revised prior to publication. Meanwhile, on seeing the draft of the Shechtman–Blech paper in the summer of 1984, John Cahn suggested that Shechtman's experimental results merit a fast publication in a more appropriate scientific journal. Shechtman agreed and, in hindsight, called this fast publication \"a winning move”. This paper, published in the \"Physical Review Letters\" (PRL), repeated Shechtman's observation and used the same illustrations as the original Shechtman–Blech paper in the \"Metallurgical Transactions A\". The PRL paper, the first to appear in print, caused considerable excitement in the scientific community. Next year Ishimasa \"et al.\" reported twelvefold symmetry in Ni-Cr particles. Soon, eightfold diffraction patterns were recorded in V-Ni-Si and Cr-Ni-Si alloys. Over the years, hundreds of quasicrystals with various compositions and different symmetries have been discovered. The first quasicrystalline materials were thermodynamically unstable—when heated, they formed regular crystals. However, in 1987, the first of many stable quasicrystals were discovered, making it possible to produce large samples for study and opening the door to potential applications. Almost concurrently Paul Steinhardt (Princeton University) hypothesized the possibility to find a quasicrystal in nature, developing a method of recognition, published on Physical Review Letters in 2001, inviting all the mineralogical collections of the world to identify any badly cataloged crystals. In 2007 Steinhardt received a reply by Luca Bindi (University of Florence) that stated to have found an almost perfect match crystal in Florence Mineralogical Collection with quasicrystal characteristics, originally coming from Khatyrka. So in 2008 the crystal samples were sent to Princeton University for other tests and on 2009 New Year's Eve Steinhardt obtained the smoking gun, the final evidence, communicating the great discovery to Luca Bindi. After other studies was stated that the found quasicrystal was extraterrestrial and 4,57 mld old. In 2011 Bindi, Steinhardt and a team of specialists did an expedition in the desolate lands around the Kathyrka river, in Chukotka Autonomous Okrug managing to find other natural quasicrystal samples. This natural quasicrystal exhibits high crystalline quality, equalling the best artificial examples. The natural quasicrystal phase, with a composition of AlCuFe, was named icosahedrite and it was approved by the International Mineralogical Association in 2010. Furthermore, analysis indicates it may be meteoritic in origin, possibly delivered from a carbonaceous chondrite asteroid. A further study of Khatyrka meteorites revealed micron-sized grains of another natural quasicrystal, which has a ten-fold symmetry and a chemical formula of AlNiFe. This quasicrystal is stable in a narrow temperature range, from 1120 to 1200 K at ambient pressure, which suggests that natural quasicrystals are formed by rapid quenching of a meteorite heated during an impact-induced shock. In 1972 de Wolf and van Aalst reported that the diffraction pattern produced by a crystal of sodium carbonate cannot be labeled with three indices but needed one more, which implied that the underlying structure had four dimensions in reciprocal space. Other puzzling cases have been reported, but until the concept of quasicrystal came to be established, they were explained away or denied. However, at the end of the 1980s the idea became acceptable, and in 1992 the International Union of Crystallography altered its definition of a crystal, broadening it as a result of Shechtman's findings, reducing it to the ability to produce a clear-cut diffraction pattern and acknowledging the possibility of the ordering to be either periodic or aperiodic. Now, the symmetries compatible with translations are defined as \"crystallographic\", leaving room for other \"non-crystallographic\" symmetries. Therefore, aperiodic or quasiperiodic structures can be divided into two main classes: those with crystallographic point-group symmetry, to which the incommensurately modulated structures and composite structures belong, and those with non-crystallographic point-group symmetry, to which quasicrystal structures belong. Originally, the new form of matter was dubbed \"Shechtmanite\". The term \"quasicrystal\" was first used in print by Steinhardt and Levine shortly after Shechtman's paper was published. The adjective \"quasicrystalline\" had already been in use, but now it came to be applied to any pattern with unusual symmetry. 'Quasiperiodical' structures were claimed to be observed in some decorative tilings devised by medieval Islamic architects. For example, Girih tiles in a medieval Islamic mosque in Isfahan, Iran, are arranged in a two-dimensional quasicrystalline pattern. These claims have, however, been under some debate. Shechtman was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2011 for his work on quasicrystals. \"His discovery of quasicrystals revealed a new principle for packing of atoms and molecules,\" stated the Nobel Committee and pointed that \"this led to a paradigm shift within chemistry.\" In 2014, Post of Israel issued a stamp dedicated to quasicrystals and the 2011 Nobel Prize. Earlier in 2009, it was found that thin-film quasicrystals can be formed by self-assembly of uniformly shaped, nano-sized molecular units at an air-liquid interface. It was later demonstrated that those units can be not only inorganic, but also organic. In 2018, chemists from Brown University announced the successful creation of a self-constructing lattice structure based on a strangely shaped quantum dot. While single-component quasicrystal lattices have been previously predicted mathematically and in computer simulations, they had not been demonstrated prior to this.",
"There are several ways to mathematically define quasicrystalline patterns. One definition, the \"cut and project\" construction, is based on the work of Harald Bohr (mathematician brother of Niels Bohr). The concept of an almost periodic function (also called a quasiperiodic function) was studied by Bohr, including work of Bohl and Escanglon. He introduced the notion of a superspace. Bohr showed that quasiperiodic functions arise as restrictions of high-dimensional periodic functions to an irrational slice (an intersection with one or more hyperplanes), and discussed their Fourier point spectrum. These functions are not exactly periodic, but they are arbitrarily close in some sense, as well as being a projection of an exactly periodic function. In order that the quasicrystal itself be aperiodic, this slice must avoid any lattice plane of the higher-dimensional lattice. De Bruijn showed that Penrose tilings can be viewed as two-dimensional slices of five-dimensional hypercubic structures. Equivalently, the Fourier transform of such a quasicrystal is nonzero only at a dense set of points spanned by integer multiples of a finite set of basis vectors (the projections of the primitive reciprocal lattice vectors of the higher-dimensional lattice). The intuitive considerations obtained from simple model aperiodic tilings are formally expressed in the concepts of Meyer and Delone sets. The mathematical counterpart of physical diffraction is the Fourier transform and the qualitative description of a diffraction picture as 'clear cut' or'sharp' means that singularities are present in the Fourier spectrum. There are different methods to construct model quasicrystals. These are the same methods that produce aperiodic tilings with the additional constraint for the diffractive property. Thus, for a substitution tiling the eigenvalues of the substitution matrix should be Pisot numbers. The aperiodic structures obtained by the cut-and-project method are made diffractive by choosing a suitable orientation for the construction; this is a geometric approach that has also a great appeal for physicists. Classical theory of crystals reduces crystals to point lattices where each point is the center of mass of one of the identical units of the crystal. The structure of crystals can be analyzed by defining an associated group. Quasicrystals, on the other hand, are composed of more than one type of unit, so, instead of lattices, quasilattices must be used. Instead of groups, groupoids, the mathematical generalization of groups in category theory, is the appropriate tool for studying quasicrystals. Using mathematics for construction and analysis of quasicrystal structures is a difficult task for most experimentalists. Computer modeling, based on the existing theories of quasicrystals, however, greatly facilitated this task. Advanced programs have been developed allowing one to construct, visualize and analyze quasicrystal structures and their diffraction patterns. The aperiodic nature quasicrystals can also make theoretical studies of physical properties, such as electronic structure, difficult due to the absence of Bloch's theorem. However, spectra of quasicrystals can still be computed with error control. Study of quasicrystals may shed light on the most basic notions related to the quantum critical point observed in heavy fermion metals. Experimental measurements on the gold-aluminium-ytterbium quasicrystal have revealed a quantum critical point defining the divergence of the magnetic susceptibility as temperature tends to zero. It is suggested that the electronic system of some quasicrystals is located at a quantum critical point without tuning, while quasicrystals exhibit the typical scaling behaviour of their thermodynamic properties and belong to the well-known family of heavy fermion metals.",
"Since the original discovery by Dan Shechtman, hundreds of quasicrystals have been reported and confirmed. Undoubtedly, the quasicrystals are no longer a unique form of solid; they exist universally in many metallic alloys and some polymers. Quasicrystals are found most often in aluminium alloys (Al-Li-Cu, Al-Mn-Si, Al-Ni-Co, Al-Pd-Mn, Al-Cu-Fe, Al-Cu-V, etc.), but numerous other compositions are also known (Cd-Yb, Ti-Zr-Ni, Zn-Mg-Ho, Zn-Mg-Sc, In-Ag-Yb, Pd-U-Si, etc.). Two types of quasicrystals are known. The first type, polygonal (dihedral) quasicrystals, have an axis of 8, 10, or 12-fold local symmetry (octagonal, decagonal, or dodecagonal quasicrystals, respectively). They are periodic along this axis and quasiperiodic in planes normal to it. The second type, icosahedral quasicrystals, are aperiodic in all directions. Quasicrystals fall into three groups of different thermal stability: Except for the Al–Li–Cu system, all the stable quasicrystals are almost free of defects and disorder, as evidenced by X-ray and electron diffraction revealing peak widths as sharp as those of perfect crystals such as Si. Diffraction patterns exhibit fivefold, threefold, and twofold symmetries, and reflections are arranged quasiperiodically in three dimensions. The origin of the stabilization mechanism is different for the stable and metastable quasicrystals. Nevertheless, there is a common feature observed in most quasicrystal-forming liquid alloys or their undercooled liquids: a local icosahedral order. The icosahedral order is in equilibrium in the \"liquid state\" for the stable quasicrystals, whereas the icosahedral order prevails in the \"undercooled liquid state\" for the metastable quasicrystals. A nanoscale icosahedral phase was formed in Zr-, Cu- and Hf-based bulk metallic glasses alloyed with noble metals. Most quasicrystals have ceramic-like properties including high thermal and electrical resistance, hardness and brittleness, resistance to corrosion, and non-stick properties. Many metallic quasicrystalline substances are impractical for most applications due to their thermal instability; the Al-Cu-Fe ternary system and the Al-Cu-Fe-Cr and Al-Co-Fe-Cr quaternary systems, thermally stable up to 700 °C, are notable exceptions.",
"Quasicrystalline substances have potential applications in several forms. Metallic quasicrystalline coatings can be applied by plasma-coating or magnetron sputtering. A problem that must be resolved is the tendency for cracking due to the materials' extreme brittleness. The cracking could be suppressed by reducing sample dimensions or coating thickness. Recent studies show typically brittle quasicrystals can exhibit remarkable ductility of over 50% strains at room temperature and sub-micrometer scales (<500 nm). An application was the use of low-friction Al-Cu-Fe-Cr quasicrystals as a coating for frying pans. Food did not stick to it as much as to stainless steel making the pan moderately non-stick and easy to clean; heat transfer and durability were better than PTFE non-stick cookware and the pan was free from perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA); the surface was very hard, claimed to be ten times harder than stainless steel, and not harmed by metal utensils or cleaning in a dishwasher; and the pan could withstand temperatures of without harm. However, cooking with a lot of salt would etch the quasicrystalline coating used, and the pans were eventually withdrawn from production. Shechtman had one of these pans. The Nobel citation said that quasicrystals, while brittle, could reinforce steel \"like armor\". When Shechtman was asked about potential applications of quasicrystals he said that a precipitation-hardened stainless steel is produced that is strengthened by small quasicrystalline particles. It does not corrode and is extremely strong, suitable for razor blades and surgery instruments. The small quasicrystalline particles impede the motion of dislocation in the material. Quasicrystals were also being used to develop heat insulation, LEDs, diesel engines, and new materials that convert heat to electricity. Shechtman suggested new applications taking advantage of the low coefficient of friction and the hardness of some quasicrystalline materials, for example embedding particles in plastic to make strong, hard-wearing, low-friction plastic gears. The low heat conductivity of some quasicrystals makes them good for heat insulating coatings. Other potential applications include selective solar absorbers for power conversion, broad-wavelength reflectors, and bone repair and prostheses applications where biocompatibility, low friction and corrosion resistance are required. Magnetron sputtering can be readily applied to other stable quasicrystalline alloys such as Al-Pd-Mn. While saying that the discovery of icosahedrite, the first quasicrystal found in nature, was important, Shechtman saw no practical applications."
]
} |
Thaliacea | null | The Thaliacea comprise a class of marine animals within the subphylum Tunicata. Unlike their benthic relatives the ascidians, thaliaceans are free-floating (pelagic) for their entire lifespan. The group includes species with complex life cycles with both solitary and colonial forms. | null | [
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"title": [
"Anatomy.",
"The jell pump and the carbon cycle.",
"Taxonomy."
],
"section_level": [
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"content": [
"The three orders of thaliaceans are filter feeders. Pyrosomes are colonial animals, with multiple tiny ascidian-like zooids arranged in a cylinder closed at one end. All of the atrial siphons point inwards, emptying into a single, common cloaca in the centre of the cylinder. As the water exhaled by the zooids exits through a common opening, the water movement slowly propels the pyrosome through the sea. Salps and doliolids have a transparent barrel-shaped body through which they pump water, propelling them through the sea and from which they extract food. The bulk of the body consists of the large pharynx. Water enters the pharynx through the large buccal siphon at the front end of the animal, and is forced through a number of slits in the pharyngeal wall into an atrium lying just behind it. From here, the water is expelled through an atrial siphon at the posterior end. The pharynx is both a respiratory organ and a digestive one, filtering food from the water with the aid of a net of mucus slowly pulled across the slits by cilia. Doliolids and salps alternate between asexual and sexual life stages. Salp colonies can be several meters in length. Doliolids and salps rely on muscular action to propel themselves through surrounding sea water. Thaliaceans have complex lifecycles. Doliolid eggs hatch into swimming tadpole larvae, which are the common larval stage for other urochordates. Pyrosomes are ovoviviparous, the eggs develop inside the \"mother\" without the tadpole stage. Salps are viviparous, the embryos are linked to the \"mother\" by a placenta. This then develops into an oozoid, which reproduces asexually by budding to produce a number of blastozoids, which form long chains (see image). The individual blastozoids then reproduce sexually to produce the eggs and the next generation of oozoids. The dorsal, hollow nerve cord and notochord found in Chordata has been lost, except for a rudimentary one in some doliolid larvae.",
"Thaliaceans play an important role in the ecology of the sea. Their dense faecal pellets sink to the bottom of the oceans and this may be a major part of the worldwide carbon cycle.",
"The class is a relatively small one, and is divided into three orders: Class Thaliacea"
]
} |
Veselovsky Reservoir | null | Veselovsky Reservoir is a reservoir in Rostov-on-Don Rostov Oblast, Russia on Manych River (western Manych). It was founded in 1941. It provides a longstanding river flow. The normal retaining level (NRL) is more than 7 m. The full water storage is under NRL - 190 million quadratic meters, the water surface spreads under NRL in 238 quadratic kilometers, average depth is 4,3 m. | null | [
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"title": [
"General Physical and Geographical Characteristics.",
"Climate.",
"Communities.",
"Flora and Fauna."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The shoreline is nearly 500 km long. It is rugged, gulfs are formed by flooded gullies. There are “Russkij”, “Bolshoy”, “Sen’kina”, “Krolichij”, “Zherebkov”, and “Darzhinskij” other islands there. The northern bank is precipitous, the height reaches 19-24 m above the sea level and 9-14 above a water surface. The southern bank is sloping, covered with reed. A part of the shore is fortified with |white acacia plantations, rice systems are located in the Northern and Eastern parts of the reservoir. Hydrographic web is weakly developed. The reservoir is situated between the “Sal’sko-Manychevskoja” ridge and the “Stavropolskaja” Hill.",
"Climate is continental moderate. The continentality of the climate increases, and the amount of precipitation decreases. The average annual rainfall is 522 mm.",
"There are “Veselij” village, “Karkashev”, “Russkij”, “Dalnij”, “Stepnoy Kurgan” hamlets situated on the banks of the “Veselovskoe” reservoir. There is a “Proletarsk” city on the bank of the bay.",
"Flora of the reservoir and its floodplain is presented by different kinds of reed, tuberecamysh, cattail, rdest, hornwort, bosom, scab and other plants. Fauna is presented by 87 kinds of phytoplankton, 33 kinda of fish. The main fishing aim is bream, Rutilus lacustris, zander. There are 3 kinds of amphibians and 8 kinda of reptiles are registered on the territory of the reservoir and nearby areas. There are 19 kinds of rare and endangered birds and two kinds of mammals, which are recorded into the Red book. “Veselovsky” reservoir has a status of wetlands of international importance and is secured by Ramsar convention."
]
} |
Central nervous system | null | The central nervous system (CNS) is the part of the nervous system consisting primarily of the brain and spinal cord. The CNS is so named because it integrates the received information and coordinates and influences the activity of all parts of the bodies of bilaterally symmetric animals—i.e., all multicellular animals except sponges and radially symmetric animals such as jellyfish—and it contains the majority of the nervous system. The CNS also includes the retina and the optic nerve (cranial nerve II), as well as the olfactory nerves (cranial nerve I) and olfactory epithelium as parts of the CNS, synapsing directly on brain tissue without intermediate ganglia. As such, the olfactory epithelium is the only central nervous tissue in direct contact with the environment, which opens up for therapeutic treatments. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-2376249 | en-train-2376249 | 2376249 | {
"title": [
"Structure.",
"White and gray matter.",
"Spinal cord.",
"Cranial nerves.",
"Brain.",
"Brainstem.",
"Cerebellum.",
"Diencephalon.",
"Cerebrum.",
"Difference from the peripheral nervous system.",
"Development.",
"Evolution.",
"Planaria.",
"Arthropoda.",
"Chordata.",
"Mammals.",
"Clinical significance.",
"Diseases."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"3",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"4",
"3",
"2"
],
"content": [
"The CNS consists of the two major structures: the brain and spinal cord. The brain is encased in the skull, and protected by the cranium. The spinal cord is continuous with the brain and lies caudally to the brain. It is protected by the vertebrae. The spinal cord reaches from the base of the skull, continues through or starting below the foramen magnum, and terminates roughly level with the first or second lumbar vertebra, occupying the upper sections of the vertebral canal.",
"Microscopically, there are differences between the neurons and tissue of the CNS and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The CNS is composed of white and gray matter. This can also be seen macroscopically on brain tissue. The white matter consists of axons and oligodendrocytes, while the gray matter consists of neurons and unmyelinated fibers. Both tissues include a number of glial cells (although the white matter contains more), which are often referred to as supporting cells of the CNS. Different forms of glial cells have different functions, some acting almost as scaffolding for neuroblasts to climb during neurogenesis such as bergmann glia, while others such as microglia are a specialized form of macrophage, involved in the immune system of the brain as well as the clearance of various metabolites from the brain tissue. Astrocytes may be involved with both clearance of metabolites as well as transport of fuel and various beneficial substances to neurons from the capillaries of the brain. Upon CNS injury astrocytes will proliferate, causing gliosis, a form of neuronal scar tissue, lacking in functional neurons. The brain (cerebrum as well as midbrain and hindbrain) consists of a cortex, composed of neuron-bodies constituting gray matter, while internally there is more white matter that form tracts and commissures. Apart from cortical gray matter there is also subcortical gray matter making up a large number of different nuclei.",
"From and to the spinal cord are projections of the peripheral nervous system in the form of spinal nerves (sometimes segmental nerves). The nerves connect the spinal cord to skin, joints, muscles etc. and allow for the transmission of efferent motor as well as afferent sensory signals and stimuli. This allows for voluntary and involuntary motions of muscles, as well as the perception of senses. All in all 31 spinal nerves project from the brain stem, some forming plexa as they branch out, such as the brachial plexa, sacral plexa etc. Each spinal nerve will carry both sensory and motor signals, but the nerves synapse at different regions of the spinal cord, either from the periphery to sensory relay neurons that relay the information to the CNS or from the CNS to motor neurons, which relay the information out. The spinal cord relays information up to the brain through spinal tracts through the \"final common pathway\" to the thalamus and ultimately to the cortex.",
"Apart from the spinal cord, there are also peripheral nerves of the PNS that synapse through intermediaries or ganglia directly on the CNS. These 12 nerves exist in the head and neck region and are called cranial nerves. Cranial nerves bring information to the CNS to and from the face, as well as to certain muscles (such as the trapezius muscle, which is innervated by accessory nerves as well as certain cervical spinal nerves). Two pairs of cranial nerves; the olfactory nerves and the optic nerves are often considered structures of the CNS. This is because they do not synapse first on peripheral ganglia, but directly on CNS neurons. The olfactory epithelium is significant in that it consists of CNS tissue expressed in direct contact to the environment, allowing for administration of certain pharmaceuticals and drugs.",
"Rostrally to the spinal cord lies the brain. The brain makes up the largest portion of the CNS. It is often the main structure referred to when speaking of the nervous system in general. The brain is the major functional unit of the CNS. While the spinal cord has certain processing ability such as that of spinal locomotion and can process reflexes, the brain is the major processing unit of the nervous system.",
"The brainstem consists of the medulla, the pons and the midbrain. The medulla can be referred to as an extension of the spinal cord, which both have similar organization and functional properties. The tracts passing from the spinal cord to the brain pass through here. Regulatory functions of the medulla nuclei include control of blood pressure and breathing. Other nuclei are involved in balance, taste, hearing, and control of muscles of the face and neck. The next structure rostral to the medulla is the pons, which lies on the ventral anterior side of the brainstem. Nuclei in the pons include pontine nuclei which work with the cerebellum and transmit information between the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex. In the dorsal posterior pons lie nuclei that are involved in the functions of breathing, sleep, and taste. The midbrain, or mesencephalon, is situated above and rostral to the pons. It includes nuclei linking distinct parts of the motor system, including the cerebellum, the basal ganglia and both cerebral hemispheres, among others. Additionally, parts of the visual and auditory systems are located in the midbrain, including control of automatic eye movements. The brainstem at large provides entry and exit to the brain for a number of pathways for motor and autonomic control of the face and neck through cranial nerves, Autonomic control of the organs is mediated by the tenth cranial nerve. A large portion of the brainstem is involved in such autonomic control of the body. Such functions may engage the heart, blood vessels, and pupils, among others. The brainstem also holds the reticular formation, a group of nuclei involved in both arousal and alertness.",
"The cerebellum lies behind the pons. The cerebellum is composed of several dividing fissures and lobes. Its function includes the control of posture and the coordination of movements of parts of the body, including the eyes and head, as well as the limbs. Further, it is involved in motion that has been learned and perfected through practice, and it will adapt to new learned movements. Despite its previous classification as a motor structure, the cerebellum also displays connections to areas of the cerebral cortex involved in language and cognition. These connections have been shown by the use of medical imaging techniques, such as functional MRI and Positron emission tomography. The body of the cerebellum holds more neurons than any other structure of the brain, including that of the larger cerebrum, but is also more extensively understood than other structures of the brain, as it includes fewer types of different neurons. It handles and processes sensory stimuli, motor information, as well as balance information from the vestibular organ.",
"The two structures of the diencephalon worth noting are the thalamus and the hypothalamus. The thalamus acts as a linkage between incoming pathways from the peripheral nervous system as well as the optical nerve (though it does not receive input from the olfactory nerve) to the cerebral hemispheres. Previously it was considered only a \"relay station\", but it is engaged in the sorting of information that will reach cerebral hemispheres (neocortex). Apart from its function of sorting information from the periphery, the thalamus also connects the cerebellum and basal ganglia with the cerebrum. In common with the aforementioned reticular system the thalamus is involved in wakefullness and consciousness, such as though the SCN. The hypothalamus engages in functions of a number of primitive emotions or feelings such as hunger, thirst and maternal bonding. This is regulated partly through control of secretion of hormones from the pituitary gland. Additionally the hypothalamus plays a role in motivation and many other behaviors of the individual.",
"The cerebrum of cerebral hemispheres make up the largest visual portion of the human brain. Various structures combine to form the cerebral hemispheres, among others: the cortex, basal ganglia, amygdala and hippocampus. The hemispheres together control a large portion of the functions of the human brain such as emotion, memory, perception and motor functions. Apart from this the cerebral hemispheres stand for the cognitive capabilities of the brain. Connecting each of the hemispheres is the corpus callosum as well as several additional commissures. One of the most important parts of the cerebral hemispheres is the cortex, made up of gray matter covering the surface of the brain. Functionally, the cerebral cortex is involved in planning and carrying out of everyday tasks. The hippocampus is involved in storage of memories, the amygdala plays a role in perception and communication of emotion, while the basal ganglia play a major role in the coordination of voluntary movement.",
"This differentiates the CNS from the PNS, which consists of neurons, axons, and Schwann cells. Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells have similar functions in the CNS and PNS, respectively. Both act to add myelin sheaths to the axons, which acts as a form of insulation allowing for better and faster proliferation of electrical signals along the nerves. Axons in the CNS are often very short, barely a few millimeters, and do not need the same degree of isolation as peripheral nerves. Some peripheral nerves can be over 1 meter in length, such as the nerves to the big toe. To ensure signals move at sufficient speed, myelination is needed. The way in which the Schwann cells and oligodendrocytes myelinate nerves differ. A Schwann cell usually myelinates a single axon, completely surrounding it. Sometimes, they may myelinate many axons, especially when in areas of short axons. Oligodendrocytes usually myelinate several axons. They do this by sending out thin projections of their cell membrane, which envelop and enclose the axon.",
"During early development of the vertebrate embryo, a longitudinal groove on the neural plate gradually deepens and the ridges on either side of the groove (the neural folds) become elevated, and ultimately meet, transforming the groove into a closed tube called the neural tube. The formation of the neural tube is called neurulation. At this stage, the walls of the neural tube contain proliferating neural stem cells in a region called the ventricular zone. The neural stem cells, principally radial glial cells, multiply and generate neurons through the process of neurogenesis, forming the rudiment of the CNS. The neural tube gives rise to both brain and spinal cord. The anterior (or 'rostral') portion of the neural tube initially differentiates into three brain vesicles (pockets): the prosencephalon at the front, the mesencephalon, and, between the mesencephalon and the spinal cord, the rhombencephalon. (By six weeks in the human embryo) the prosencephalon then divides further into the telencephalon and diencephalon; and the rhombencephalon divides into the metencephalon and myelencephalon. The spinal cord is derived from the posterior or 'caudal' portion of the neural tube. As a vertebrate grows, these vesicles differentiate further still. The telencephalon differentiates into, among other things, the striatum, the hippocampus and the neocortex, and its cavity becomes the first and second ventricles. Diencephalon elaborations include the subthalamus, hypothalamus, thalamus and epithalamus, and its cavity forms the third ventricle. The tectum, pretectum, cerebral peduncle and other structures develop out of the mesencephalon, and its cavity grows into the mesencephalic duct (cerebral aqueduct). The metencephalon becomes, among other things, the pons and the cerebellum, the myelencephalon forms the medulla oblongata, and their cavities develop into the fourth ventricle.",
"",
"Planarians, members of the phylum Platyhelminthes (flatworms), have the simplest, clearly defined delineation of a nervous system into a CNS and a PNS. Their primitive brains, consisting of two fused anterior ganglia, and longitudinal nerve cords form the CNS; the laterally projecting nerves form the PNS. A molecular study found that more than 95% of the 116 genes involved in the nervous system of planarians, which includes genes related to the CNS, also exist in humans. Like planarians, vertebrates have a distinct CNS and PNS, though more complex than those of planarians.",
"In arthropods, the ventral nerve cord, the subesophageal ganglia and the supraesophageal ganglia are usually seen as making up the CNS.",
"The CNS of chordates differs from that of other animals in being placed dorsally in the body, above the gut and notochord/spine. The basic pattern of the CNS is highly conserved throughout the different species of vertebrates and during evolution. The major trend that can be observed is towards a progressive telencephalisation: the telencephalon of reptiles is only an appendix to the large olfactory bulb, while in mammals it makes up most of the volume of the CNS. In the human brain, the telencephalon covers most of the diencephalon and the mesencephalon. Indeed, the allometric study of brain size among different species shows a striking continuity from rats to whales, and allows us to complete the knowledge about the evolution of the CNS obtained through cranial endocasts.",
"Mammals – which appear in the fossil record after the first fishes, amphibians, and reptiles – are the only vertebrates to possess the evolutionarily recent, outermost part of the cerebral cortex known as the neocortex. The neocortex of monotremes (the duck-billed platypus and several species of spiny anteaters) and of marsupials (such as kangaroos, koalas, opossums, wombats, and Tasmanian devils) lack the convolutions – gyri and sulci – found in the neocortex of most placental mammals (eutherians). Within placental mammals, the size and complexity of the neocortex increased over time. The area of the neocortex of mice is only about 1/100 that of monkeys, and that of monkeys is only about 1/10 that of humans. In addition, rats lack convolutions in their neocortex (possibly also because rats are small mammals), whereas cats have a moderate degree of convolutions, and humans have quite extensive convolutions. Extreme convolution of the neocortex is found in dolphins, possibly related to their complex echolocation.",
"",
"There are many CNS diseases and conditions, including infections such as encephalitis and poliomyelitis, early-onset neurological disorders including ADHD and autism, late-onset neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and essential tremor, autoimmune and inflammatory diseases such as multiple sclerosis and acute disseminated encephalomyelitis, genetic disorders such as Krabbe's disease and Huntington's disease, as well as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and adrenoleukodystrophy. Lastly, cancers of the central nervous system can cause severe illness and, when malignant, can have very high mortality rates. Symptoms depend on the size, growth rate, location and malignancy of tumors and can include alterations in motor control, hearing loss, headaches and changes in cognitive ability and autonomic functioning. Specialty professional organizations recommend that neurological imaging of the brain be done only to answer a specific clinical question and not as routine screening."
]
} |
Valinor | null | Valinor ("Land of the Valar") is a fictional location in J. R. R. Tolkien's legendarium, the realm of the Valar on the continent of Aman, far to the west of Middle-earth; he used the name Aman mainly to mean Valinor. It included Eldamar, the land of the Elves, who as immortals had been permitted to live in Valinor. | null | [
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"title": [
"Geography.",
"Continent of Aman.",
"Eldamar.",
"Calacirya.",
"Tirion.",
"Alqualondë.",
"Coast.",
"Residents.",
"Access.",
"History.",
"Years of the Trees.",
"The Darkening of Valinor.",
"New light.",
"The Hiding of Valinor.",
"Later history.",
"Reception.",
"Paradise.",
"Good against evil.",
"Atlantis, Babel.",
"Celtic influence."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"3",
"4",
"4",
"4",
"3",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
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],
"content": [
"",
"Valinor lies in Aman, a continent on the west of Belegaer, the ocean to the west of Middle-earth. Ekkaia, the encircling sea, surrounds both Aman and Middle-earth. Tolkien wrote that the name \"Aman\" was \"chiefly used as the name of the land in which the Valar dwelt\" [i.e. Valinor]. Valinor is in the tropical and subtropical latitudes of Aman. The land has a warm climate generally, though snow falls on the peaks of the Pelóri, the massive mountains that stand on Valinor's northern, eastern and southern borders. Every animal and plant found elsewhere in Middle-earth exists in Valinor along with species endemic to Valinor. The size of Valinor is not specified in the text, and Tolkien created no detailed maps of Aman. The maps of Karen Wynn Fonstad, based on Tolkien's rough sketch of Arda's landmasses and seas, show Valinor about 800 miles wide, west to east (from the Great Sea to the Outer Sea), and about 3000 miles long north to south – similar in size to the United States. The entire continent of Aman runs from the Arctic latitudes of the Helcaraxë to the subarctic southern region of Middle-earth – about 7000 miles.",
"\"Eldamar\" is \"Elvenhome\", the \"coastal region of Aman, settled by the Elves\", wrote Tolkien. Eldamar was the true Eldarin name of Aman. In \"The Hobbit\" it is referred to as \"Faerie\". The land was well-wooded, as Finrod \"walk[ed] with his father under the trees in Eldamar\" and the Teleri had timber to build their ships. The city of the Teleri, on the north shore of the Bay is Alqualondë, or Haven of the Swans, whose halls and mansions are made of pearl. The harbour is entered through a natural arch of rock, and the beaches are strewn with gems given by the Noldor. In the bay, and part of Eldamar, is Tol Eressëa. This is a large island that was at one time adrift, until Ulmo (or with Uin the great right whale) ran it aground in the bay. South of Eldamar is Avathar; to the north is Araman.",
"\"Calacirya\" (meaning \"Light Cleft\" in Quenya) is the pass in the Pelóri mountains north of Taniquetil where the elven city Tirion was set on Túna hill. After the hiding of Valinor, this was the only gap through the mountains of Aman. The Valar would have closed the mountains entirely but, realizing that the Elves, even the Vanyar, needed to be able to breathe the outside air, they kept Calacirya open. They also did not want to wholly separate the Vanyar and Noldor from the Teleri on the coast. The name refers to the light of the Two Trees that streamed through the pass into the world beyond, the only source of light other than the stars before the coming of the sun and moon.",
"The city of the Noldor (and for a time the Vanyar also) is Tirion, which was built on the hill of Túna, raised inside the Calacirya mountain pass, just north of Taniquetil, facing both the Two Trees and the starlit seas. The city had a central square at the top of the hill and a tower called the Mindon Eldaliéva, a beacon visible from the seashore miles to the east.",
"\"Alqualondë\" (meaning \"Swanhaven\" in Quenya) is the chief city of the Teleri on the eastern shores of Valinor. It was the site of the first Kinslaying as recounted in \"The Silmarillion\". The city is said to be north and east of Tirion between the Calacirya and Araman in northern Eldamar. The city was walled and built in a natural harbour made of rock. Other than the great harbours where the Teleri ships were moored, it also housed the tower of Olwë, brother of Thingol. The city was covered with pearls which the Teleri found in the seas and jewels obtained from the Noldor.",
"While Valinor proper is the part of Aman inside (i.e. west of) the Pelóri, some Elves resided in a part of Aman outside the Pelóri and sometimes called the \"shore of Valinor\". On the mainland north-east of Tirion is the Telerin Elves' harbour-city of Alqualondë. Directly east of the shore of Valinor is the isle of Tol Eressëa, where the Elves later built the city of Avallónë and where the Teleri lived for centuries before moving to Valinor itself. The island was adrift until Ulmo (or with Uin the great right whale) ran it aground in the bay.",
"Valinor is the home of the Valar (singular Vala), spirits that often take humanoid form, sometimes called \"gods\" by the Men of Middle-earth. Other residents of Valinor include the related but less powerful spirits, the Maiar, and most of the Eldar. Each Vala has his or her own region of the land. The Mansions of Manwë and Varda, two of the most powerful spirits, stood upon Taniquetil, the highest mountain of the Pelóri. Yavanna, the Vala of Earth, Growth, and Harvest, resided in the Pastures of Yavanna in the south of the land, west of the Pelóri. Near-by were the mansions of Yavanna's spouse, Aulë the Smith, who made the Dwarves. Oromë, the Vala of the Hunt, lived in the Woods of Oromë to the north-east of the pastures. Nienna, the lonely Vala of Sorrow and Endurance, lived in the far west of the island where she spent her days crying about all the evil of the world, looking out to sea. Just south of Nienna's home, and to the north of the pastures, were the Halls of Mandos. Mandos was the Vala of the After-life. Also living in the Halls of Mandos was his spouse Vairë the weaver, who weaves the threads of time. To the east of the Halls of Mandos is the Isle of Estë, which is situated in the middle of the lake of Lórellin, which in turn lies to the north of the Gardens of Lórien. Estë and Lórien were married. In east-central Valinor at the Girdle of Arda (the Equator of Tolkien's world) is Valmar, the capital of Valinor (also called Valimar or the City of Bells), the residence of the Valar and the Maiar in the realm of Valinor. The first house of the Elves, the Vanyar, settled there as well. The mound of Ezellohar, on which stood the Two Trees, and Máhanaxar, the Ring of Doom, are outside Valmar. Farther east is the Calacirya, the only easy pass through the Pelóri, a huge mountain range fencing Valinor on three sides, created to keep Morgoth's forces out. In the pass is the city Tirion, built on a hill, the city of the Noldor Elves. In the northern inner foothills of the Pelóri, hundreds of miles north of Valmar was Fëanor's city of Formenos, built upon his banishment from Tirion.",
"In the extreme north-east, beyond the Pelóri, was the Helcaraxë, a vast ice sheet that joined the two continents of Aman and Middle-earth before the War of Wrath. To prevent anyone from reaching the main part of Valinor's east coast by sea, the Valar created the Shadowy Seas, and within these seas they set a long chain of islands called the Enchanted Isles or Magic Isles. After the destruction of Númenor, the Undying Lands were removed from Arda so that Men could not reach them. The Elves could go there only by the Straight Road and in ships capable of passing out of the spheres of the earth.",
"",
"Valinor was established on the western continent Aman when Melkor (a Vala later named Morgoth, \"the black foe\", by the Elves) destroyed the Valar's original home on the island Almaren in primeval Middle-earth. To defend their new home from attack, they raised the Pelóri Mountains. They also established Valimar, the radiant Two Trees, and their abiding places. Valinor was said to have surpassed Almaren in beauty. Later, the Valar heard of the awakening of the Elves in Middle-earth, where Melkor was unopposed. They proposed to bring the Elves to the safety of Valinor. However, to get Elves to Valinor, they needed to get Melkor out of the way. A war was fought, and Melkor's stronghold Utumno was destroyed. Then, many Elves came to Valinor, and established their cities Tirion and Alqualondë, beginning Valinor's age of glory. There was a problem, however. Melkor had come back to Valinor as a prisoner, and after three Ages was brought before the Valar and he sued for pardon, with a vow to assist the Valar and make amends for the hurts he had done. Manwë then granted him pardon, but confined him within Valmar to remain under watch. After his release, Melkor started planting seeds of dissent in the minds of the Elves (particularly, the Noldor – the Vanyar would not hear him and Melkor considered the Teleri weak) in Valinor, saying that the Valar had brought them here so that they would control them and claim their lands in Middle-earth as their own and that they were prisoners of the Valar. He also created dissent between Fëanor and his brothers Fingolfin and Finarfin.",
"Belatedly, the Valar learned what Melkor had done. Knowing that he was discovered, Melkor went to the home of the Noldorin elves' High King Finwë and stole the Noldorin elves' prized jewels, the Silmarils, killing the king in the process. Melkor then destroyed the Two Trees with the help of Ungoliant, seemingly bringing an endless darkness to Valinor, called the Long Night, relieved only by stars. Melkor and Ungoliant fled to Middle-earth. As a result of the killing of king Finwë, the majority of the Noldor, led by Fëanor son of Finwë, the maker of the Silmarils, declared their rebellion and decided to pursue Melkor, afterwards known as Morgoth, to Middle-earth to win back their jewels and avenge their king. The Noldor would not listen to Manwë, the lord of the Valar, telling them that they had themselves come to Valinor of their own free will and that the Valar had no desire to rule or control any of them. But Manwë's messenger said also that if they chose to leave and to fight Melkor on their own, the Valar would not help them and that they would suffer great pain and grief on their journey.",
"The Two Trees, which had been the primary source of light in Valinor, were dead. But the Valar managed to save one last luminous flower from Telperion, and one last luminous fruit from Laurelin. Each flower was set in a celestial ship steered by a Maia, and these ships began to sail over the world at different times of the day so that neither Valinor nor Middle-earth would be in darkness. One was called the Sun, and it shone a bright yellow. The other was called the Moon and it shone with a pale white light.",
"Following the creation of the Moon and the Sun, the Valar carried out various titanic labours to further improve the defences of Valinor. They raised the Pelóri mountains to even greater and sheerer heights. Off the coast, eastwards of Tol Eressëa, they created the Shadowy Seas and their Enchanted Isles; both the Seas and the Isles presented numerous perils to anyone attempting to get to Valinor by sea.",
"For centuries Valinor took no part in the struggles between the Noldor and Morgoth in Middle-earth. But near the end of the First Age, when the Noldor were in total defeat, the mariner Eärendil convinced the Valar to make a last attack on Morgoth. A mighty host of Maiar, Vanyar and the remaining Noldor in Valinor destroyed Morgoth's gigantic army and his stronghold Angband, and cast Morgoth into the void. During the Second Age, Valinor performed a single action: the building of the island of Númenor as a reward to the Edain (who had fought with the Noldor). Soon, the kingdom of Númenor grew powerful, and even invaded Valinor. Then Eru Ilúvatar was called upon by the Valar and the island was destroyed, Aman was lifted out of Arda, and the world was bereft of Valar. Arda then became spherical and was left for Men to govern. During the Third Age, recognizing that an outright confrontation with the dark Maia Sauron would be disastrous, the Valar sent the Istari, Wizards, to Middle-earth to give counsel to Men in their resistance to the growing power of the Dark Lord.",
"",
"Keith Kelly and Michael Livingston, writing in \"Mythlore\", note that Frodo's final destination is Aman, the Undying Lands. In Tolkien's mythology, they write, the islands of Aman were initially just the dwelling-places of the Valar (in the Ages of the Trees, while the rest of the world lay in darkness) who helped The One, Eru Iluvatar, to create the world, but gradually some of the immortal and ageless Elves were allowed to live there as well, sailing across the ocean to the West. After the fall of Númenor and the reshaping of the world, Aman becomes the place \"\"between\" (sic) Over-heaven and Middle-earth\", accessible only in special circumstances like Frodo's, allowed to come to Aman through the offices of the Valar and of Gandalf, one of the Valar's emissaries, the Maiar. However, Aman is not, they write, exactly paradise: firstly, being there does not confer immortality, contrary to what the Númenoreans supposed; and secondly, those mortals like Frodo who are allowed to go there will eventually choose to die. They note that in another of Tolkien's writings, \"Leaf by Niggle\", understood to be a journey through Purgatory (the Catholic precursor stage to paradise), Tolkien avoids describing paradise at all; they suggest that to Tolkien, it is impossible to describe Heaven, and it might be sacrilege to make the attempt. The Tolkien scholar Michael D. C. Drout comments that Tolkien's accounts of Eldamar \"give us a good idea of his conceptions of absolute beauty,\" and notes that these resemble the paradise described in the Middle English poem \"Pearl\". The Tolkien critic Tom Shippey adds that in 1927 Tolkien wrote a poem, \"The Nameless Land\", in the complex stanza-form of \"Pearl\" which spoke of a land further away than paradise, and more beautiful than the Irish Tir nan Og, the deathless otherworld. Kelly and Livingston similarly draw on \"Pearl\", noting that it states that \"fair as was the hither shore, far lovelier was the further land\" where the Dreamer could not pass. So, they write, each stage looks like paradise, until the traveller realises that beyond it lies something even more parasisiacal, glimpsed and beyond description. The Earthly Paradise can be described; Aman, the Undying Lands, can thus be compared to the Garden of Eden, the paradise that the Bible says once existed upon Earth before the Fall of Man, while the Celestial Paradise lies \"beyond (or above)\", as it does, they note, in Dante's \"Paradiso\".",
"The scholar of English literature Marjorie Burns writes that one of the female Vala, Varda (Elbereth to the Elves) is sung to by the Elf-queen of Middle-earth Galadriel. Burns notes that Varda \"sits far off in Valinor on Oiolossë\", looking from her mountain-peak tower in Aman towards Middle-earth and the Dark Tower of Sauron in Mordor: in her view, the white benevolent feminine symbol opposing the evil masculine symbol. Further, Burns suggests, Galadriel is an Elf from Valinor \"in the Blessed Realm\", bringing Varda's influence with her to Middle-earth. This is seen in the phial of light that she gives to Frodo, and that Sam uses to defeat the evil giant spider Shelob: Sam invokes Elbereth when he uses the phial. Burns comments that Sam's request to the \"Lady\" sounds distinctly Catholic, and that the \"female principle, embodied in Varda of Valinor and Galadriel of Middle-earth, most clearly represents the charitable Christian heart.\"",
"Kelly and Livingston state that while Aman could be home to Elves as well as Valar, the same was not true of mortal Men. The \"prideful\" Men of Númenor, imagining they could acquire immortality by capturing the physical lands of Aman, were punished by the destruction of their own island, which is engulfed by the sea, and the permanent removal of Aman \"from the circles of the world\". Kelly and Livingston note the similarity to the ancient Greek myth of Atlantis, the greatest human civilisation lost beneath the sea; and the resemblance to the biblical tale of the Tower of Babel, the hubristic and \"sacrilegious\" attempt by mortal men to climb up into God's realm.",
"The scholar of English literature Paul Kocher writes that the Undying Lands of the Uttermost West including Eldamar and Valinor, is \"so far outside our experience that Tolkien can only ask us to take it completely on faith.\" Kocher comments that these lands have an integral place both geographically and spiritually in Middle-earth, and that their closest literary equivalents are the \"imrama\" Celtic tales from the early Middle Ages. The \"imrama\" tales describe how Irish adventurers such as Saint Brendan sailed the seas looking for the \"Land of Promise\". He notes that it is certain that Tolkien knew these stories as in 1955 he wrote a poem, entitled \"Imram\", about Brendan's voyage."
]
} |
AMD K6-2 | null | The K6-2 is an x86 microprocessor introduced by AMD on May 28, 1998, and available in speeds ranging from 266 to 550 MHz. An enhancement of the original K6, the K6-2 introduced AMD's 3DNow! SIMD instruction set, featured a larger 64 KiB Level 1 cache (32 KiB instruction and 32 KiB data), and an upgraded system-bus interface called Super Socket 7, which was backward compatible with older Socket 7 motherboards. It was manufactured using a 0.25 micrometre process, ran at 2.2 volts, and had 9.3 million transistors. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-2206652 | en-train-2206652 | 2206652 | {
"title": [
"History.",
"K6-2+."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The K6-2 was designed as a competitor to Intel's flagship processor, the significantly more expensive Pentium II. Performance of the two chips was similar: the previous K6 tended to be faster for general-purpose computing, while the Intel part was faster in x87 floating-point applications. To battle the Pentium 2's dominance on floating point calculations the K6-2 was the first CPU to introduce a floating point SIMD instruction set (dubbed 3DNow! by AMD), which significantly boosted performance. However programs needed to be specifically tailored for the new instructions and despite beating Intel's SSE instruction set to market, 3DNow achieved only limited popularity. Super Socket 7, which increased the processor bus from 66 MHz to 100 MHz, allowed the K6-2 to withstand the effects of ever-increasing CPU multipliers fairly gracefully and in later life it remained surprisingly competitive. Nearly all K6-2s were designed to use 100 MHz Super Socket 7 mainboards, allowing the system-bus to keep pace with the K6-2's clock-frequency. The K6-2 was a very financially successful chip and enabled AMD to earn the revenue it would need to introduce the forthcoming Athlon. The introductory K6-2 300 was by far the best-selling variant. It rapidly established an excellent reputation in the marketplace and offered a favorable price/performance ratio versus Intel's Celeron 300A. While the K6-2 had mediocre floating-point performance compared to the Celeron, it offered faster system RAM access (courtesy of the Super 7 mainboard), as well as 3DNow graphics extensions. As the market moved on, AMD released a long series of faster K6-2 parts, the best-selling ones being the 350, 400, 450, and 500. By the time the 450 and the 500 were mainstream parts, the K6-2 family had already moved to the budget PC segment, where it still competed successfully against Intel's Celeron.",
"Despite the name, the little-known K6-2+ was based on the AMD K6-III+ design (model 13) with 128 KiB of integrated L2 cache and built on a 0.18 micrometre process (essentially a K6-III+ with half the L2 cache). The K6-2+ was specifically designed as a low-power mobile CPU. Some motherboard companies such as Gigabyte and FIC provided BIOS updates for their desktop motherboards to allow for usage of these processors; for other officially not supported mainboards, the community created unofficial BIOS updates on their own. Most K6-2+ motherboards did not support a clock multiplier setting greater than 5.5 since 550 MHz was the highest official speed of the K6-2+ (100*5.5 = 550) but a little known feature of the both the K6-2 and K6-2+ was that it interpreted the motherboard clock multiplier setting 2 as 6. This allowed many users to run their K6-2+ 550 MHz and often even a K6-2+ 500 MHz at a speed of 600 MHz simply by setting the motherboard clock multiplier to 2."
]
} |
Tone River | null | The is a river in the Kantō region of Japan. It is in length (the second longest in Japan after the Shinano) and has a drainage area of (the largest in Japan). It is nicknamed Bandō Tarō (); "Bandō" is an obsolete alias of the Kantō Region, and "Tarō" is a popular given name for an oldest son. It is regarded as one of the "Three Greatest Rivers" of Japan, the others being the Yoshino in Shikoku and the Chikugo in Kyūshū. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-1406964 | en-train-1406964 | 1406964 | {
"title": [
"Geography.",
"Tributaries.",
"History.",
"Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster.",
"Use.",
"Rafting and kayaking."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The source of the Tone River is at Mount Ōminakami () () in the Echigo Mountains, which straddle the border between Gunma and Niigata Prefectures in Jōshin'etsu Kōgen National Park. The Tone gathers tributaries and pours into the Pacific Ocean at Cape Inubō, Choshi in Chiba Prefecture.",
"Major tributaries of the Tone River include the Agatsuma, Watarase, Kinu, Omoi, and the Kokai. The Edo River branches away from the river and flows into Tokyo Bay.",
"The Tone River was once known for its uncontrollable nature, and its route changed whenever floods occurred. It is hard to trace its ancient route, but it originally flowed into Tokyo Bay along the route of the present-day Edo River, and tributaries like the Watarase and Kinu had independent river systems. For the sake of water transportation and flood control, extensive construction began in the 17th century during the Tokugawa shogunate, when the Kantō region became the political center of Japan. The course of the river was significantly changed, and the present route of the river was determined during the Meiji period, with the assistance of Dutch civil engineer Anthonie Rouwenhorst Mulder. Its vast watershed is thus largely artificial. Two ships of the Imperial Japanese Navy were named after the river, one of World War I vintage and another from World War II, the lead ship of its class.",
"As a result of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster radioactive cesium concentrations of 110 becquerels per kilogram were found in silver crucian carp fish caught in the Tone River in April 2012. The river is from the Fukushima Daiichi Plant. Six fishery cooperatives and 10 towns along the river were asked to stop all shipments of fish caught in the Tone.",
"The Tone River was an indispensable inland water link between the capitol at Edo, and later Tokyo, to the Pacific Ocean. It carried not only local products like soy sauce from Choshi, but also products from the Tōhoku region, in order to save time and to avoid risk in the open sea. With the advent of the railway in the 19th century major shipping on the Tone quickly declined, and inland ports such as Noda, Sekiyado, now part of Noda, Nagareyama, and Sawara, now part of Katori diminished in importance. Today the river has several dams that supply water for more than 30 million inhabitants of metropolitan Tokyo and large-scale industrial areas such as the Keiyō Industrial Zone.",
"The Minakami onsen area in Gunma Prefecture is near the source for the Tone River and during the Spring snow melt period, April - June, the river provides consistent grade 4 rapids (on the International Scale of River Difficulty) over a stretch. The river provides some of the best white water rafting and kayaking in Japan. The snow melt swells the river to grade 4 in spring; in the summer it is a gentle grade 2. The Momijikyo section has 7 grade 3-4 rapids for and is long in total."
]
} |
AMD K5 | null | The K5 is AMD's first x86 processor to be developed entirely in-house. Introduced in March 1996, its primary competition was Intel's Pentium microprocessor. The K5 was an ambitious design, closer to a Pentium Pro than a Pentium regarding technical solutions and internal architecture. However, the final product was closer to the Pentium regarding performance, although faster clock-for-clock compared to the Pentium. | null | [
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"title": [
"Technical details.",
"Performance.",
"Models."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The K5 was based upon an internal highly parallel 29k RISC processor architecture with an x86 decoding front-end. The K5 offered good x86 compatibility and the in-house-developed test suite proved invaluable on later projects. All models had 4.3 million transistors, with five integer units that could process instructions out of order and one floating-point unit. The branch target buffer was four times the size of the Pentium's and register renaming helped overcome register dependencies. The chip's speculative execution of instructions reduced pipeline stalls. It had a 16 KB four-way set-associative instruction cache and an 8 KB data cache. The floating-point divide and square-root microcode were mechanically proven. The floating-point transcendental instructions were implemented in hardware and were faithful to true mathematical results for all operands.",
"The K5 project represented an early chance for AMD to take technical leadership from Intel. Although the chip addressed the right design concepts, the actual engineering implementation had its issues. The low clock rates were, in part, due to AMD's limitations as a \"cutting edge\" manufacturing company at the time, and in part due to the design itself, which had many levels of logic for the process technology of the day, hampering clock scaling. Additionally, while the K5's floating-point performance was regarded as superior to that of the Cyrix 6x86, it was slower than that of the Pentium, although while offering more reliable transcendental function results. Because it was late to market and did not meet performance expectations, the K5 never gained the acceptance among large computer manufacturers that the Am486 and AMD K6 enjoyed.",
"There were two revisions of the K5 architecture, internally called the SSA/5 and the 5k86, both released with the K5 label. The original set of \"SSA/5\" CPUs had its branch prediction unit disabled and additional internal waitstates added; these issues were remedied with the \"5k86\", resulting in up to 30% better performance clock for clock. The \"SSA/5\" line ran from 75 to 100 MHz; the \"5k86\" line ran from 90 to 133 MHz. However, AMD used what it called a PR rating, or performance rating, to label the chips according to their suggested equivalence in integer performance to a Pentium of that clock speed. Thus, a 116 MHz chip from the second line was marketed as the \"K5 PR166\". Manufacturing delays caused the PR200's arrival to nearly align with the release of K6. Since AMD did not want the two chips competing, the K5-PR200 only arrived in small numbers."
]
} |
AMD K6 | null | The K6 microprocessor was launched by AMD in 1997. The main advantage of this particular microprocessor is that it was designed to fit into existing desktop designs for Pentium-branded CPUs. It was marketed as a product that could perform as well as its Intel Pentium II equivalent but at a significantly lower price. The K6 had a considerable impact on the PC market and presented Intel with serious competition. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-752659 | en-train-752659 | 752659 | {
"title": [
"Background."
],
"section_level": [
"1"
],
"content": [
"The AMD K6 is a superscalar P5 Pentium-class microprocessor, manufactured by AMD, which superseded the K5. The AMD K6 is based on the Nx686 microprocessor that NexGen was designing when it was acquired by AMD. Despite the name implying a design evolving from the K5, it is in fact a totally different design that was created by the NexGen team, including chief processor architect Greg Favor, and adapted after the AMD purchase. The K6 processor included a feedback dynamic instruction reordering mechanism, MMX instructions, and a floating-point unit (FPU). It was also made pin-compatible with Intel's Pentium, enabling it to be used in the widely available \"Socket 7\"-based motherboards. Like the AMD K5, Nx586, and Nx686 before it, the K6 translated x86 instructions on the fly into dynamic buffered sequences of micro-operations. A later variation of the K6 CPU, K6-2, added floating-point-based SIMD instructions, called 3DNow!. The K6 was originally launched in April 1997, running at speeds of 166 and 200 MHz. It was followed by a 233 MHz version later in 1997. Initially, the AMD K6 processors used a Pentium II-based performance rating (PR2) to designate their speed. The PR2 rating was dropped because the rated frequency of the processor was the same as the real frequency. The release of the 266 MHz version of this chip was not until the second quarter of 1998, when AMD was able to move to the 0.25-micrometre manufacturing process. The lower voltage and higher multiplier of the K6-266 meant that it was not fully compatible with some Socket 7 motherboards, similar to the later K6-2 processors. The final iteration of the K6 design was released in May 1998, running at 300 MHz."
]
} |
AMD K6-III | null | The K6-III (code name: "Sharptooth") was an x86 microprocessor line manufactured by AMD that launched on February 22, 1999 in 400 and 450 MHz models. The K6-III was heavily based on the preceding K6-2 - it essentially was a K6-2 core with a full speed 256KiB L2 cache integrated on the same die. This gave a very significant improvement in system performance over a K6-2 system. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-1448425 | en-train-1448425 | 1448425 | {
"title": [
"Architecture.",
"3DNow!",
"TriLevel Cache.",
"Market performance.",
"K6-III+ and K6-2+."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2"
],
"content": [
"In conception, the design is simple: it was a K6-2 with on-die 256KiB L2 cache. In execution, however, the design was not simple, with 21.4 million transistors. The pipeline was short compared to that of the Pentium III and thus the design did not scale well past 500 MHz. Nevertheless, the K6-III 400 sold well, and the AMD K6-III 450 was clearly the fastest x86 chip on the market on introduction, comfortably outperforming AMD K6-2s and Intel Pentium IIs.",
"3DNow! is an extension to the x86 instruction set developed by Advanced Micro Devices (AMD). It added single instruction multiple data (SIMD) instructions to the base x86 instruction set, enabling it to perform vector processing, which improves the performance of many graphic-intensive applications. The first microprocessor to implement 3DNow was the AMD K6-2, which was introduced in 1998. The K6-III+ had the \"Enhanced 3DNow!\"(Extended 3DNow! or 3DNow+) which added 5 new DSP instructions, but not the 19 new extended MMX instructions.",
"The original K6-2 had a 64 KB primary cache and a much larger amount of motherboard-mounted cache (usually 512 KB or 1024 KB but varying depending on the choice of motherboard). The K6-III, with its 256 KB on-die secondary cache, re-purposed the variable-size external cache on the motherboard as the L3 cache. This scheme was termed \"TriLevel Cache\" by AMD. The L3 cache has a capacity of up to 2 MB.",
"Intel's Pentium II replacement was not yet available but, as a stop-gap, Intel introduced a modestly revised version of the Pentium II and re-badged it as the \"Pentium III\". The base design was unchanged (the addition of SSE instructions was at that time of no performance significance) but Intel's new production process allowed clockspeed improvements, and it became difficult to determine which company's part was the faster. Both firms were keen to establish a clear lead, and both experienced manufacturing problems with their higher-frequency parts. AMD chose not to sell a 500 MHz or faster K6-III after the rare 500 MHz K6-III had been immediately recalled; it was found to be drawing enough current to damage some motherboards. AMD preferred to concentrate on their soon-to-be-released Athlon instead. Intel produced a 550 MHz Pentium III with some success but their 600 MHz version had reliability issues and was soon recalled. With the release of the Athlon, the K6-III became something of an orphan. No longer a competitive CPU in its intended market segment, it nevertheless required substantial manufacturing resources to produce: in spite of its 21.4 million transistors, its 118 mm2 die was considerably smaller than the 184 mm2 of the 22-million-transistor Athlon (cache RAM taking much less area per-transistor than logic), but the K6-III was still significantly more costly to produce than the 81 mm2 9.3 million-transistor K6-2 CPUs. (roughly 2/3 the size of the K6-III) For a time, the K6-III was a low priority part for AMD—something to be made only when all orders for high-priced Athlons and cheap-to-produce K6-2s had been filled—and it became difficult to obtain in significant quantities. The original K6-III went out of production when Intel released their \"Coppermine\" Pentium III (a much improved part that used an on-die cache) and, at the same time, switched to a new production process. The changeover was fraught with difficulties and Intel CPUs were in global short supply for 12 months or more. This, coupled with the better performance of the Athlon, resulted in even many former Intel-only manufacturers ordering Athlon parts, and stretched AMD's manufacturing facilities to the limit. In consequence, AMD stopped making the K6-III in order to leave more room to manufacture Athlons (and K6-2s).",
"By the time the x86 CPU shortage was over, AMD had developed and released revised members of the K6 family. These K6-2+ and K6-III+ variants were specifically designed as low-power mobile (laptop) CPUs, and significantly marked the transition of the K6 architecture (and foretold of AMD's future K7 project) to the new 180 nm production process. Functionally, both parts were die shrunk K6-IIIs (the 2+ disabled 128 KiB of cache, the III+ had the full 256 KiB) and introduced AMD's new PowerNow! power saving technology. PowerNow! offered processor power savings for mobile applications by measuring computational load, and reduced processor operational voltage and frequency during idle periods in order to reduce overall system power consumption. Although intended for notebook computers, both parts found an enthusiast following also in desktop systems as some motherboard companies (such as Gigabyte and FIC) provided BIOS updates for their desktop motherboards to allow usage of these processors. For other officially not supported mainboards, the enthusiast community created unofficial BIOS updates on their own. These boards became firm favorites within the overclocking community. Both the K6-III+ and K6-2+ 450 MHz CPUs were routinely overclocked to over 600 MHz (112*5.5=616). Unfortunately, even with the 180 nm process shrink, the K6 architecture's short 6-stage pipeline while efficient, was difficult to scale with regards to clock speed. K6 III+ and 2+ were never offered higher than 570 MHz officially, and overclocking efforts using air cooling achieved a maximum around 800 MHz (133x6) at best - however this constraint was also exacerbated by a lack of Socket 7 motherboards supporting stable speeds over 112 MHz FSB. As AMD's marketing resources at the time were focused on the launch of the upcoming Athlon K7 processor line, the 180 nm K6 series were relatively unknown outside of the industry."
]
} |
Pentium Pro | null | The Pentium Pro is a sixth-generation x86 microprocessor developed and manufactured by Intel and introduced on November 1, 1995. It introduced the P6 microarchitecture (sometimes referred to as i686) and was originally intended to replace the original Pentium in a full range of applications. While the Pentium and Pentium MMX had 3.1 and 4.5 million transistors, respectively, the Pentium Pro contained 5.5 million transistors. Later, it was reduced to a more narrow role as a server and high-end desktop processor and was used in supercomputers like ASCI Red, the first computer to reach the teraFLOPS performance mark. The Pentium Pro was capable of both dual- and quad-processor configurations. It only came in one form factor, the relatively large rectangular Socket 8. The Pentium Pro was succeeded by the Pentium II Xeon in 1998. | null | [
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] | null | null | en-train-1162917 | en-train-1162917 | 1162917 | {
"title": [
"Microarchitecture.",
"Summary.",
"Performance.",
"Caching.",
"Available models.",
"Fabrication.",
"Packaging.",
"Upgrade paths.",
"Bus and multiprocessor capabilities."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The lead architect of Pentium Pro was Fred Pollack who was specialized in superscalarity and had also worked as the lead engineer of the Intel iAPX 432.",
"The Pentium Pro incorporated a new microarchitecture, different from the Pentium's P5 microarchitecture. It has a decoupled, 14-stage superpipelined architecture which used an instruction pool. The Pentium Pro (P6) featured many advanced concepts not found in the Pentium, although it wasn't the first or only x86 processor to implement them (see NexGen Nx586 or Cyrix 6x86). The Pentium Pro pipeline had extra decode stages to dynamically translate IA-32 instructions into buffered micro-operation sequences which could then be analysed, reordered, and renamed in order to detect parallelizable operations that may be issued to more than one execution unit at once. The Pentium Pro thus featured out of order execution, including speculative execution via register renaming. It also had a wider 36-bit address bus (usable by PAE), allowing it to access up to 64 GB of memory. The Pentium Pro has an 8 KB instruction cache, from which up to 16 bytes are fetched on each cycle and sent to the instruction decoders. There are three instruction decoders. The decoders are not equal in capability: only one can decode any x86 instruction, while the other two can only decode simple x86 instructions. This restricts the Pentium Pro's ability to decode multiple instructions simultaneously, limiting superscalar execution. x86 instructions are decoded into 118-bit micro-operations (micro-ops). The micro-ops are RISC-like; that is, they encode an operation, two sources, and a destination. The general decoder can generate up to four micro-ops per cycle, whereas the simple decoders can generate one micro-op each per cycle. Thus, x86 instructions that operate on the memory (e.g., add this register to this location in the memory) can only be processed by the general decoder, as this operation requires a minimum of three micro-ops. Likewise, the simple decoders are limited to instructions that can be translated into one micro-op. Instructions that require more micro-ops than four are translated with the assistance of a sequencer, which generates the required micro-ops over multiple clock cycles. The Pentium Pro was the first processor in the x86-family to support upgradeable microcode under BIOS and/or operating system control. Micro-ops exit the re-order buffer (ROB) and enter a reserve station (RS), where they await dispatch to the execution units. In each clock cycle, up to five micro-ops can be dispatched to five execution units. The Pentium Pro has a total of six execution units: two integer units, one floating-point unit (FPU), a load unit, store address unit, and a store data unit. One of the integer units shares the same ports as the FPU, and therefore the Pentium Pro can only dispatch one integer micro-op and one floating-point micro-op, or two integer micro-ops per a cycle, in addition to micro-ops for the other three execution units. Of the two integer units, only the one that shares the path with the FPU on port 0 has the full complement of functions such as a barrel shifter, multiplier, divider, and support for LEA instructions. The second integer unit, which is connected to port 1, does not have these facilities and is limited to simple operations such as add, subtract, and the calculation of branch target addresses. The FPU executes floating-point operations. Addition and multiplication are pipelined and have a latency of three and five cycles, respectively. Division and square-root are not pipelined and are executed in separate units that share the FPU's ports. Division and square root have a latency of 18-36 and 29-69 cycles, respectively. The smallest number is for single precision (32-bit) floating-point numbers and the largest for extended precision (80-bit) numbers. Division and square root can operate simultaneously with adds and multiplies, preventing them from executing only when the result has to be stored in the ROB. After the microprocessor was released, a bug was discovered in the floating point unit, commonly called the \"Pentium Pro and Pentium II FPU bug\" and by Intel as the \"flag erratum\". The bug occurs under some circumstances during floating point-to-integer conversion when the floating point number won't fit into the smaller integer format, causing the FPU to deviate from its documented behaviour. The bug is considered to be minor and occurs under such special circumstances that very few, if any, software programs are affected. The Pentium Pro P6 microarchitecture was used in one form or another by Intel for more than a decade. The pipeline would scale from its initial 150 MHz start, all the way up to 1.4 GHz with the \"Tualatin\" Pentium III. The design's various traits would continue after that in the derivative core called \"Banias\" in Pentium M and Intel Core (Yonah), which itself would evolve into the Core microarchitecture (Core 2 processor) in 2006 and onward.",
"Despite being advanced for the time, the Pentium Pro's out-of-order register renaming architecture had trouble with running 16-bit code and mixed code (8/16-bit or 16/32-bit), as using partial registers cause frequent pipeline flushing. Specific use of partial registers was a common performance optimization in the day, as it incurred no performance penalty on pre-P6 Intel processors; also, the dominant operating systems at the time of the Pentium Pro's release were 16-bit DOS and the mixed 16/32-bit Windows 3.1x and Windows 95 (although the latter requires a 32-bit 80386 CPU, much of its code is still 16-bit for performance reasons, such as USER.exe). This, together with the high cost of Pentium Pro systems, caused rather lackluster reception among PC enthusiasts at the time. To take full advantage of the Pentium Pro's P6 microarchitecture, a fully 32-bit OS is needed, such as Windows NT, Linux, Unix, or OS/2. The performance issues on legacy code were later partially mitigated by Intel with the Pentium II. Compared to RISC microprocessors, the Pentium Pro, when introduced, slightly outperformed the fastest RISC microprocessors on integer performance when running the SPECint95 benchmark, but floating-point performance was significantly lower, half of some RISC microprocessors. The Pentium Pro's integer performance lead disappeared rapidly, first overtaken by the MIPS Technologies R10000 in January 1996, and then by Digital Equipment Corporation's EV56 variant of the Alpha 21164. Reviewers quickly noted the very slow writes to video memory as the weak spot of the P6 platform, with performance here being as low as 10% of an identically clocked Pentium system in benchmarks such as VIDSPEED. Methods to circumvent this included setting VESA drawing to system memory instead of video memory in games such as \"Quake\", and later on utilities such as FASTVID emerged, which could double performance in certain games by enabling the write combining features of the CPU. MTRRs are set automatically by Windows video drivers starting from ~1997, and there the improved cache/memory subsystem and FPU performance caused it to outclass the Pentium clock-for-clock in the emerging 3D games of the mid–to–late 1990s, particularly when using NT4. However, its lack of MMX implementation reduces performance in multimedia applications that made use of those instructions.",
"Likely Pentium Pro's most noticeable addition was its on-package L2 cache, which ranged from 256 KB at introduction to 1 MB in 1997. At the time, manufacturing technology did not feasibly allow a large L2 cache to be integrated into the processor core. Intel instead placed the L2 die(s) separately in the package which still allowed it to run at the same clock speed as the CPU core. Additionally, unlike most motherboard-based cache schemes that shared the main system bus with the CPU, the Pentium Pro's cache had its own back-side bus (called \"dual independent bus\" by Intel). Because of this, the CPU could read main memory and cache concurrently, greatly reducing a traditional bottleneck. The cache was also \"non-blocking\", meaning that the processor could issue more than one cache request at a time (up to 4), reducing cache-miss penalties. (This is an example of MLP, Memory Level Parallelism.) These properties combined to produce an L2 cache that was immensely faster than the motherboard-based caches of older processors. This cache alone gave the CPU an advantage in input/output performance over older x86 CPUs. In multiprocessor configurations, Pentium Pro's integrated cache skyrocketed performance in comparison to architectures which had each CPU sharing a central cache. However, this far faster L2 cache did come with some complications. The Pentium Pro's \"on-package cache\" arrangement was unique. The processor and the cache were on separate dies in the same package and connected closely by a full-speed bus. The two or three dies had to be bonded together early in the production process, before testing was possible. This meant that a single, tiny flaw in either die made it necessary to discard the entire assembly, which was one of the reasons for the Pentium Pro's relatively low production yield and high cost. All versions of the chip were expensive, those with 1024 KB being particularly so, since it required two 512 KB cache dies as well as the processor die.",
"Pentium Pro clock speeds were 150, 166, 180 or 200 MHz with a 60 or 66 MHz external bus clock. Some users chose to overclock their Pentium Pro chips, with the 200 MHz version often being run at 233 MHz, the 180 MHz version often being run at 200 MHz, and the 150 MHz version often being run at 166 MHz. The chip was popular in symmetric multiprocessing configurations, with dual and quad SMP server and workstation setups being commonplace. In Intel's \"Family/Model/Stepping\" scheme, the Pentium Pro is family 6, model 1, and its Intel Product code is 80521.",
"The process used to fabricate the Pentium Pro processor die and its separate cache memory die changed, leading to a combination of processes used in the same package:",
"The Pentium Pro (up to 512 KB cache) is packaged in a ceramic multi-chip module (MCM). The MCM contains two underside cavities in which the microprocessor die and its companion cache die reside. The dies are bonded to a heat slug, whose exposed top helps the heat from the dies to be transferred more directly to cooling apparatus such as a heat sink. The dies are connected to the package using conventional wire bonding. The cavities are capped with a ceramic plate. The Pentium Pro with 1 MB of cache uses a plastic MCM. Instead of two cavities, there is only one, in which the three dies reside, bonded to the package instead of a heat slug. The cavities are filled in with epoxy. The MCM has 387 pins, of which approximately half are arranged in a pin grid array (PGA) and half in an interstitial pin grid array (IPGA). The packaging was designed for Socket 8.",
"In 1998, the 300/333 MHz Pentium II Overdrive processor for Socket 8 was released. Featuring 512 KB of full-speed cache, it was produced by Intel as a drop-in upgrade option for owners of Pentium Pro systems. However, it only supported two-way glueless multiprocessing, not four-way or higher, which did not make it a usable upgrade for quad-processor systems. These specially packaged Pentium II Xeon processors were used to upgrade ASCI Red, which became the first computer to reach the teraFLOPS performance mark with the Pentium Pro processor and then the first to exceed 2 teraFLOPS after the upgrade to Pentium II Xeon processors. As Slot 1 motherboards became prevalent, several manufacturers released slocket adapters, such as the Tyan M2020, Asus C-P6S1, Tekram P6SL1, and the Abit KP6. The slockets allowed Pentium Pro processors to be used with Slot 1 motherboards. The Intel 440FX chipset explicitly supported both Pentium Pro and Pentium II processors, but the Intel 440BX and later Slot 1 chipsets did not explicitly support the Pentium Pro, so the Socket 8 slockets did not see wide use. Slockets—in the form of Socket 370 to Slot 1 adapters—saw renewed popularity when Intel introduced Socket 370 Celeron and Pentium III processors.",
"The Pentium Pro used GTL+ signaling in its front-side bus. The Pentium Pro could be used by itself on up to four-way designs. Eight-way Pentium Pro computers were also built, but these used multiple buses."
]
} |
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