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StivenLancheros

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Vocal range.", "In choral music.", "Subtypes and roles in opera.", "Basso cantante/lyric high bass/lyric bass-baritone.", "Hoher Bass/dramatic high bass/dramatic bass-baritone.", "Jugendlicher Bass.", "Basso buffo/bel canto/lyric buffo.", "/dramatic buffo.", "Lyric basso profondo.", "Dramatic basso profondo.", "In Gilbert and Sullivan." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Cultural influence and individual variation create a wide variation in range and quality of bass singers. Parts for basses have included notes as low as the B-flat two octaves and a tone below middle C (B), for example in Gustav Mahler's Symphony No. 2 and the Rachmaninov's All-Night Vigil, A below that in Frederik Magle's symphonic suite \"Cantabile\", G below that (e.g. Measure 76 of \"Ne otverzhi mene\" by Pavel Chesnokov) or F below those in \"Kheruvimskaya pesn (Song of Cherubim)\" by Krzysztof Penderecki. Many basso profondos have trouble reaching those notes, and the use of them in works by Slavic composers has led to the colloquial term \"Russian bass\" for an exceptionally deep-ranged basso profondo who can easily sing these notes. Some traditional Russian religious music calls for A (110 Hz) drone singing, which is doubled by A (55 Hz) in the rare occasion that a choir includes exceptionally gifted singers who can produce this very low human voice pitch. Many British composers such as Benjamin Britten have written parts for bass (such as the first movement of his choral work \"Rejoice in the Lamb\") that center far higher than the bass tessitura as implied by the clef. The \"Harvard Dictionary of Music\" defines the range as being from the E below low C to middle C (i.e. E–C).", "The bass has the lowest vocal range of all voice types, with the lowest tessitura. The low extreme for basses is generally C (two Cs below middle C). However, some extreme bass singers, referred to as basso profondos and oktavists, are able to reach much lower than this.", "In SATB four-part mixed chorus, the bass is the lowest vocal range, below the tenor, alto, and soprano. Voices are subdivided into first bass and second bass with no distinction being made between bass and baritone voices, in contrast to the three-fold (tenor–baritone–bass) categorization of solo voices. The exception is in arrangements for male choir (TTBB) and barbershop quartets (TLBB), which sometimes label the lowest two parts baritone and bass.", "Within opera, the lowest note in the standard bass repertoire is D, sung by the character Osmin in Mozart's \"Die Entführung aus dem Serail\", but few roles fall below F. Although Osmin's note is the lowest 'demanded' in the operatic repertoire, lower notes are heard, both written and unwritten: for example, it is traditional for basses to interpolate a low C in the duet \"Ich gehe doch rathe ich dir\" in the same opera; in Richard Strauss' \"Der Rosenkavalier\", Baron Ochs has an optional C (\"Mein lieber Hippolyte\"). The high extreme: a few bass roles in the standard repertoire call for a high F, the one above middle C), but few roles go over F. In the operatic bass repertoire, the highest notes are a G (The Barber in \"The Nose\" by Shostakovich) and, in the aria \"Fra l'ombre e gl'orrori\" in Handel's serenata \"Aci, Galatea e Polifemo\", Polifemo reaches an A. Within the bass voice type category are seven generally recognized subcategories: \"basso cantante\" (singing bass), \"hoher\" bass (high bass), \"jugendlicher\" bass (juvenile bass), \"basso buffo\" (\"funny\" bass), \"Schwerer Spielbass\" (dramatic bass), lyric bass, and dramatic \"basso profondo\" (low bass).", "\"Basso cantante\" means \"singing bass\". \"Basso cantante\" is a higher, more lyrical voice. It is produced using a more Italianate vocal production, and possesses a faster vibrato, than its closest Germanic/Anglo-Saxon equivalent, the bass-baritone.", "\"\" or \"high bass\" or often a dramatic bass-baritone.", "\"\" (juvenile bass) denotes the role of a young man sung by a bass, regardless of the age of the singer.", "\"Buffo\", literally \"funny\", basses are lyrical roles that demand from their practitioners a solid coloratura technique, a capacity for patter singing and ripe tonal qualities if they are to be brought off to maximum effect. They are usually the blustering antagonist of the hero/heroine or the comic-relief fool in bel canto operas.", "English equivalent: dramatic bass", "\"Basso profondo\" (lyric low bass) is the lowest bass voice type. According to J. B. Steane in \"Voices, Singers & Critics\", the basso profondo voice \"derives from a method of tone-production that eliminates the more Italian quick vibrato. In its place is a kind of tonal solidity, a wall-like front, which may nevertheless prove susceptible to the other kind of vibrato, the slow beat or dreaded wobble.\"", "English equivalent: dramatic low bass. Dramatic basso profondo is a powerful basso profondo voice.", "All of the Gilbert and Sullivan Savoy operas, except \"Patience\" and \"The Yeomen of the Guard\" have at least one lead bass. Notable roles include:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Demography.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "As to ethnicity, Hrádek was traditionally a Czech settlement. In 1890 population of Hrádek was 448, village of Nová Huť had population of 215 then. In 20th century population steadily grew. After World War II massive housing project of completely new town of Hrádek was started and population reached more than 3,000. Since reaching its peak in 1980 town's population has been dropping slightly. As of Jan. 1st 2007 Hrádek had 2,999 inhabitants.", "There are two historical village communities in the territory of what is now Hrádek. Village of Hrádek was mentioned as early as 1325. The king Jan Lucemburský (John I of Bohemia) donated Hrádek to Petr z Rožmberka then. Village of Nová Huť was located ca. 1 km to the east of Hrádek. Since Middle Ages the Klabava Valley region specialized in iron ore mining and iron production. This industrial aspect was further strengthened in the 20th century when both communities (Hrádek and Nová Huť) formed functionally one settlement with their economy centered around the Hrádecké železárny steelworks. Later both villages merged into one under name of Hrádek. After World War II, local steelworks have expanded filling most of the area along the Klabava River. These investments were accompanied by massive residential construction that completely transformed Hrádek. New housing project grew in area between old Hrádek and Nová Huť villages covering the plateau south of Klabava river. Architecture of earlier stages of this new tenement houses district was inspired by Socialist realism. Main axis of new Hrádek is a wide avenue (ulice 1.máje Street) leading from Nová Huť to the southeast where it ends in central square (Náměstí 9.května Square) with community center, department store and other public facilities. Rapid population growth followed and Hrádek acquired urban character. In 1975 Hrádek was officially declared a town. After 1989 Hrádecké železárny went through uneasy transformation which resulted in rising unemployment but in 1998 Borgers CS new factory opened in area between the town and the steelworks." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Coins.", "Banknotes.", "Popular denominations and usage." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Idrissid dirham, a silver coin, was minted in Morocco under the Idrisid dynasty from the 8th to 10th centuries. Before the introduction of a modern coinage in 1882, Morocco issued copper coins denominated in \"falus\", silver coins denominated in \"dirham\", and gold coins denominated in \"benduqi\". From 1882, the dirham became a subdivision of the Moroccan rial, with 500 Mazunas = 10 dirham = 1 rial. When most of Morocco became a French protectorate in 1912 it switched to the Moroccan franc. The dirham was reintroduced on 16 October 1960. It replaced the franc as the major unit of currency but, until 1974, the franc continued to circulate, with 1 dirham = 100 francs. In 1974, the santim replaced the franc.", "In 1960, silver 1 dirham coins were introduced. These were followed by nickel 1 dirham and silver 5 dirham coins in 1965. In 1974, with the introduction of the santim, a new coinage was introduced in denominations of 1, 5, 10, 20 and 50 santimat and the 1 and 5 dirham coins. The 1 santim coins were aluminium, the 5 up to 20 santimat were minted in brass, with the highest three denominations in cupro-nickel. New cupro-nickel 5 dirham coins were added in 1980 and changed to a bi-metal coin in 1987. The bi-metal coins bear two year designations for the issue date—1987 in the Gregorian calendar and the 1407 in the Islamic calendar. The 1 santim was only minted until 1987 when new designs were introduced, with a dirham replacing the 50 santimat without changing the size or composition. The new 5 dirham coin was bimetallic, as was the 10 dirham coin introduced in 1995. Cupro-nickel 2 dirham coins were introduced in 2002. In 2012, a new series of coins has been issued, with the 5 and 10 dirham coin utilizing a latent image as a security feature.", "The first notes denominated in dirham were overprints on earlier franc notes, in denominations of 50 dirhams (on 5,000 francs) and 100 dirhams (on 10,000 francs). In 1965, new notes were issued for 5, 10 and 50 dirhams. 100 dirham notes were introduced in 1970, followed by 200 dirham notes in 1991 and 20 dirham notes in 1996. 5 dirham notes were replaced by coins in 1980, with the same happening to 10 dirham notes in 1995. In mid-October 2009, Bank Al-Maghrib issued four million 50-dirham banknotes to commemorate the bank's 50th anniversary. The commemorative note measures 147 × 70 mm and features the portraits of Kings Mohammed VI, Hassan II, and Mohammed V. The back of the notes features the headquarters of Bank Al-Maghrib in Rabat. The speech delivered in 1959 by Mohammed V at the opening of Bank Al-Maghrib is microprinted on the back. In December 2012, Bank Al-Maghrib issued a 25-dirham banknote to commemorate the 25th anniversary of banknote production at the Moroccan State Printing Works, Dar As-Sikkah. It is the first banknote in the world to be printed on Durasafe, a paper-polymer-paper composite substrate produced by Fortress Paper. The front of the commemorative note features an intaglio vignette and a watermark of King Mohammed VI, and a magenta-green color shift security thread. The thread, like the watermark, is embedded inside the banknote yet visible behind a one-sided Viewsafe polymer window. It also has a fully transparent polymer window embossed with the King's royal crest. The back of the note carries a print vignette commemorating 25 years of banknote printing at the Moroccan State Printing Works, Dar As-Sikkah. The windows in Durasafe are formed by die cutting each side of the three layer composite substrate separately. One-sided Viewsafe windows give a clear view inside the substrate where the thread and the watermark of King Mohammed VI are protected, but fully visible behind the polymer core. The transparent Thrusafe window is created by die-cutting both the outer paperlayers to reveal only the transparent polymer core. On August 15, 2013, Bank Al-Maghrib has announced a new series of banknotes. The notes feature a portrait of King Mohammed VI and the royal crown. Each of the notes show a Moroccan door to the left of the portrait, demonstrating the richness of the country's architectural heritage, and symbolizing the openness of the country. In 2019, Bank Al-Maghrib issued a 20-dirham banknote produced on polymer substrate to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the accession of Mohammed VI to the Moroccan throne.", "Popular denominations are words widely used in Morocco to refer to different values of the currency; they are not considered official by the state, though. Those include the \"rial\" (), equivalent to 5 santimat, and the \"franc\", equivalent to 1 santim. Usually, when dealing with goods with a value lower than a dirham, it is common to use the rial or santim. For very high priced goods, such as cars, it is normative to refer to the price in santimat. However, rial is used when speaking in Arabic and \"centime\" when speaking in French. Though not used by the young generation, the denomination 1,000, 2,000, up to 100,000 francs will be used by people who lived during the French colonial period when referring to 10, 20 and 1,000 dirham. Likewise, rial is also used for higher value than portions of the dirham, reaching 5,000 dhs (100,000 rial). This denomination is used in Moroccan Arabic speaking context, especially in popular milieu such as old medina souks or vegetable markets. The Moroccan dirham is also accepted in trade markets in Ceuta, despite the prices being displayed in euros." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Band name.", "History.", "Formation and beginning (2001–2002).", "\"De-Loused in the Comatorium\" (2003–2004).", "\"Frances the Mute\" (2005).", "\"Amputechture\" (2006–2007).", "\"The Bedlam in Goliath\" (2008).", "\"Octahedron\" (2009–2010).", "\"Noctourniquet\" (2011–2012).", "Hiatus, breakup, and possible reunion (2012–).", "Musical style and influences.", "Influence.", "Band members." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Cedric Bixler-Zavala stated in an interview: The Volta is taken from a Federico Fellini book about his films, what he characterizes as a changing of scene, or a turnaround; a new scene to him is called Volta. Y'know, changing of time and the changeover. And Mars, we're just fascinated by science fiction so and it's something that ultimately looked as in anything I write, its meaning is always up to the listener. As the way we write songs and words, if it looks great on paper then to us it's like painting, so if it looks good meaning the second then people usually have a better interpretation than we ever would.", "", "The roots of the Mars Volta are found in the band At the Drive-In. ATDI imploded on the verge of a commercial breakthrough, partly due to boredom, partly to musical differences. Members Cedric Bixler-Zavala and Omar Rodríguez-López began to further explore their experimental, dub-influenced side project called De Facto, which featured Bixler-Zavala on drums, Rodríguez-López on bass, Isaiah \"Ikey\" Owens on keyboards, and Jeremy Michael Ward on vocals, loops and sound effects. Due to creative differences and discomfort with mainstream success and drug abuse, Rodríguez-López and Bixler-Zavala quit At the Drive-In in 2001. The remaining members of the band formed Sparta. During 2001 Eva Gardner joined the members of De Facto on bass, and they recorded two songs with drummer Blake Fleming and producer Alex Newport, which became the first demo by the Mars Volta. The lineup for their first public show at Chain Reaction in Anaheim, California was Rodríguez-López, Bixler-Zavala, Owens, Gardner, Ward, and drummer Jon Theodore. This lineup recorded three more tracks with Alex Newport, which became the EP \"Tremulant\", released in early 2002 by Gold Standard Laboratories. After the demise of At the Drive-In, Rodríguez-López and Bixler-Zavala found themselves once again starting from the ground up, touring and performing in smaller venues. In their early years the Mars Volta were characterized by chaotic live shows and heavy drug use.", "Following \"Tremulant\", the Mars Volta continued touring with a fluid line-up while preparing to record their debut full-length album \"De-Loused in the Comatorium\", produced with Rick Rubin and released on June 24, 2003. Whereas \"Tremulant\" had no general theme (except the prophetic mentioning) \"De-Loused\" was a unified work of speculative fiction telling the first-person story of someone in a drug-induced coma, battling the evil side of his mind. Though lyrically obscure, the Mars Volta stated in interviews that the album's protagonist is based on their late friend Julio Venegas, or \"\"Cerpin Taxt\"\", an El Paso poet and artist who went into a coma for several years after a deliberate drug overdose, recovered and later committed suicide. He died jumping from the Mesa Street overpass onto Interstate-10 in El Paso during afternoon rush-hour traffic. (Venegas' death was also referenced in the At the Drive-In song \"Embroglio\" from their album \"Acrobatic Tenement\".) In an interview with \"The Aquarian Weekly\" in 2008, Cedric Bixler-Zavala said about working with Rubin, \"Rick really over-simplified some of the parts that we thought were unique, and just made them very digestible. He's got this thing about representing the common man's ears—I'd rather jab the common man's ears. If we don't, we'll never get to a place where future music exists.\" The Mars Volta had no official bassist during the recording session, but Flea (of the Red Hot Chili Peppers) played bass on nine of the album's ten songs, with Justin Meldal-Johnsen playing double bass on \"Televators.\" Flea's bandmate John Frusciante also contributed additional guitar, synthesizer and backing vocals to \"Cicatriz ESP\". After several temporary replacements, a permanent bassist for the band was found in Juan Alderete (formerly of Racer X). Despite limited promotion, \"De-Loused\" earned strong reviews, and appeared on several 'year-end best-of' lists. The album remains the Mars Volta's best-seller, with over 500,000 copies sold. Rolling Stone ranked a track from \"De-Loused\", \"Drunkship of Lanterns\", the 91st Best Guitar Song Ever. The band later released a limited-edition storybook version of the album, available by download from the Gold Standard Laboratories website. The book speaks of Cerpin Taxt (Julio Venegas) and his suicide. While on tour with the Red Hot Chili Peppers in support of the album, founding member Jeremy Michael Ward died of a heroin overdose. The band had canceled the tour's second leg, and the first single from \"De-Loused\" was later dedicated to Ward. It was this event which finally convinced band leaders Rodríguez-López and Bixler-Zavala to purportedly quit using opioids. Bixler-Zavala recalled: \"One day, we were all getting high, and Jeremy asked me if I could see he had worms in his head. I never touched the stuff again. His passing was the final nail in the coffin. We never went back.\"", "As the band resumed touring to support \"De-Loused\", they added Marcel Rodríguez-López (Omar's brother) on percussion. Work on their second album began in 2004. That year the band received the American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers Vanguard Award. In 2005, the band released \"Frances the Mute\". The story given by the band on the album's concept concerns a diary that had been found in a repossessed car by late sound technician Jeremy Ward, while working as a repo-man. The author of the diary is unknown but appeared to be someone who was adopted and was searching for their birth parents, and who may have suffered from mental illness caused by the death of a loved one. The lyrics for each track on the album are loosely based on characters and life events described in this person's diary. \"Frances the Mute\" started as a bigger commercial hit than \"De-Loused\", moving 123,000 copies in its first week, and debuting at No. 4 on the Billboard album charts. Reviews of \"Frances\" were generally positive (with a 75 on Metacritic) if somewhat polarized; \"Rolling Stone\" called it \"a feverish and baroque search for self that conjures up the same majesty and gravity as Led Zeppelin three decades before\", and even the detractors of \"Frances the Mute\" generally praised the band's musical abilities. \"L'Via L'Viaquez\" was later released as a single, stripped down from its original 12-minute length to five minutes. \"Frances the Mute\" has sold nearly 465,000 copies in the United States, according to Nielsen SoundScan ratings. Rodríguez-López wrote all of the instrumental parts as well as arranging and producing the recording sessions himself. He used a method that Miles Davis used to evoke great performances from bandmates: refusing to let the other members hear each other's parts, or the context of their own part, thereby forcing them to play each part as if it were a self-sufficient song. In order to accomplish this, the musicians recorded to the pulse of a metronome. While in the studio, Rodríguez-López recruited Adrián Terrazas-González to play saxophone, flute, and additional wind instruments for the album. Terrazas-González was added as a permanent member to the Mars Volta while touring in support of \"Frances the Mute\". Several songs written during the original recording sessions for the album never made the final cut. Notably, the self-titled 14-minute epic \"Frances the Mute\", which was originally to open the album and was ultimately supposed to decode the album's concept, was not included due to time constraints. Instead the track was featured as a b-side to the single release for \"The Widow\". On May 20, 2005, instead of playing a traditional set at KROQ's Weenie Roast Festival, the band played a 50-minute improvisation jam that was jokingly named on-the-spot as \"Abortion, The Other White Meat\" by Rodríguez-López. In keeping with the Mars Volta's tradition of testing and developing new work live, parts of \"Abortion\" later appeared on \"Population Council's Wet Dream\" from Rodríguez-López's 2009 album \"Old Money\". Midway through their headlining U.S. tour, former At the Drive-In member Paul Hinojos left the band Sparta to join the Mars Volta, claiming, \"My time with Sparta has run its course, and simply wasn't fun anymore.\" Hinojos joined as rhythm guitarist and became the band's sound manipulator, the position previously held by the late Ward. Hinojos had previously toured with the Mars Volta in 2003 and 2004. During mid-2005, the band toured in support of the album with System of a Down and curated the All Tomorrow's Parties festival at Camber Sands in England. In addition, a full-length live album named \"Scabdates\" was released on November 8, 2005.", "Upon finishing the majority of touring for \"Frances the Mute\" in fall 2005, Rodríguez-López traveled to Amsterdam and wrote what became \"Amputechture\", which was released on September 8, 2006 in Europe, on September 9, 2006 in Australia and on September 12, 2006 in the U.S. Rodríguez-López spent much of his time in Amsterdam working on and performing various solo projects most notably under the name \"Omar Rodriguez Quintet.\" During this time Rodríguez-López also composed the score to the film \"El Búfalo de la Noche\", which was written and directed by Guillermo Arriaga and Jorge Hernandez Aldana respectively. The Mars Volta as a whole performed the score. \"Amputechture\" was produced by Rodríguez-López and mixed by Rich Costey. Jeff Jordan provided the artwork, making it their first album not to feature the work of Storm Thorgerson. It was once again a concept album, but rather than telling a story, the album was a series of vignettes, with each song telling a different story. It became the last album with drummer Jon Theodore, whom Rodríguez-López fired before touring in support of the album. Rodríguez-López said in an interview with an Italian fan site that Theodore was the only member in the band who wasn't happy playing live and brought down the moods of the rest. John Frusciante was featured on every track on \"Amputechture\", except for \"Asilos Magdalena.\" Rodríguez-López contributed the solos and riffs where the guitar work needed to be doubled. Bixler-Zavala said in an interview, \"...he taught Frusciante all the new songs and Frusciante tracked guitars for us so Omar could sit back and listen to the songs objectively. It's great that he wants to help us and do that.\" On July 28, 2006, the drummer's spot was filled by Blake Fleming, formerly of Laddio Bolocko, Dazzling Killmen, and the very first Mars Volta demos. A new song titled \"Rapid Fire Tollbooth\" was debuted live on September 22, 2006 in Chicago, Illinois, as reported by fans and attendees of the show who had received set lists from the stage. The song originally appears on Rodríguez-López's solo album \"Se Dice Bisonte, No Búfalo\". The song eventually evolved into the track \"Goliath\" from the band's fourth studio album. On September 25, 2006, the Mars Volta played a unique set on the opening night of a double-header in Toronto, Ontario. Cedric Bixler-Zavala fell ill and could not perform, so the Mars Volta played with John Frusciante on third guitar. The set consisted of over 47 minutes of instrumental material, including a lengthy cover of the Pink Floyd composition \"Interstellar Overdrive.\" On October 17, 2006, while opening for the Red Hot Chili Peppers in East Rutherford, New Jersey, the band played with drummer Deantoni Parks as Rodríguez-López had fired Fleming because of complications within the band. Parks remained with the band only until the conclusion of the Japanese tour because of his prior commitments with other bands. On October 31, 2006 in Cleveland, Ohio, as Parks couldn't perform, the Mars Volta played an approximately 40-minute improvisation set as a rehearsal for another drummer, Thomas Pridgen. On a 2006 episode of The Henry Rollins Show, the Mars Volta performed \"Tetragrammaton\" and \"Day of the Baphomets\" in a rare television performance. Afterwards, they did an interview with Rollins about the creation of \"Amputechture\".", "In 2007, Thomas Pridgen became the new permanent drummer for the band. Pridgen's first full-time appearance was at the March 12 show in New Zealand, where the band debuted the song \"Idle Tooth\" which was later renamed \"Wax Simulacra\" for the forthcoming album. After shows in New Zealand and Australia, the Mars Volta toured a few West Coast venues as the headliner, then entered the studio to record their fourth LP, \"The Bedlam in Goliath\". One of these performances was captured in a live concert DVD (which remains unreleased) shot by director Jorge Hernandez Aldana. Despite finding a permanent drummer and getting the band back on track, the recording and production of the album was reportedly plagued by difficulties related to a bad experience with a Ouija board purchased in a curio shop in Jerusalem. According to Rodríguez-López, their original engineer experienced a nervous breakdown, his studio flooded twice, and both he and mixer Rich Costey claimed that various tracks would disappear at random. On November 5, 2007, the Mars Volta released a document by Jeremy Robert Johnson titled, \"The Mars Volta's Descent into Bedlam: A Rhapsody in Three Parts.\" The document includes a history of the band and describes the obstacles and inspirations they encountered in the creation of \"The Bedlam in Goliath\". On November 20, 2007 \"Wax Simulacra\", the first single from the forthcoming album, was released with a cover of \"Pulled to Bits\" by Siouxsie and the Banshees as the b-side. The band kicked off their supporting tour with a December 29, 2007 \"secret show\" at the Echoplex in Los Angeles, California, followed by a special New Year's Eve performance at San Francisco's Bill Graham Civic Auditorium. That night they played their first ever acoustic set, which included six songs and a live performance of \"Miranda, That Ghost Just Isn't Holy Anymore\". The band then departed on a club tour of the U.S. east coast throughout January, with an album release show at San Diego's Soma, followed by another month's worth of European dates from mid-February to mid-March. On January 2, 2008, the Mars Volta released an online game called \"Goliath: The Soothsayer\", based on a true story that inspired their forthcoming album \"The Bedlam In Goliath\". The album chronicles the band's purported experience with the \"Soothsayer\", a Ouija board owned by vocalist Cedric Bixler-Zavala and its transition from a source of fun on tour to a psycho-spiritual force that almost tore the band apart. The game was available for a limited time exclusively via Amazon.com. On January 17, 2008, the band made their U.S. network television debut, performing \"Wax Simulacra\" on the Late Show with David Letterman (Rodríguez-López, Bixler-Zavala and Hinojos had appeared on the show with At the Drive-In in 2000). On January 22, they made a surprise appearance at Toronto, Ontario, Canada's MTV Live studios, where they performed \"Wax Simulacra\" and an extended version of \"Goliath.\" In late January, the new album debuted at a career-best No. 3 on the Billboard 200. The song \"Wax Simulacra\" won the 2009 Grammy Award for Best Hard Rock Performance. It was the band's first nomination and win. The band members thanked their families and Bixler urged people not to forget the memories of the recently departed Lux Interior and Ron Asheton.", "Omar Rodríguez-López had discussed the band's next album as early as January 2008, the month that \"The Bedlam in Goliath\" was released, claiming \"I consider it to be our acoustic album.\" Cedric Bixler-Zavala had expressed an urge for the album to not be released on a major label. In February 2009, Rodríguez-López claimed \"the next two Mars Volta records are already recorded and waiting for a release date.\" On April 14, 2009, the Mars Volta announced their fifth studio album, entitled \"Octahedron\". It was released June 23 in the United States and June 22 in the rest of the world. A vinyl version was released on July 21 in a limited edition of 500 LPs. In the spirit of distillation of the band's sound, Rodríguez-López asked saxophonist Adrián Terrazas-González and guitarist/sound manipulator Paul Hinojos to leave. Regarding their departure, percussionist Marcel Rodríguez-López noted that: \"it's like we got a whole new band. It's two less members – we got to play differently.\" The first single released in North America was \"Since We've Been Wrong\". The first European single was \"Cotopaxi\". An excerpt from the Mars Volta's performance at the All Tomorrow's Parties, UK 2005 A Nightmare Before Christmas festival was featured in the All Tomorrow's Parties film, which was released in cinemas during October 2009. During the Octahedron tour, the show on October 23 in Raleigh, NC was unexpectedly cancelled. It was supposed to be the final show of the North American leg of the tour, but was cancelled due to an argument between Bixler-Zavala and Thomas Pridgen, the drummer at the time, which ended with Pridgen abruptly leaving the venue. A month later, Pridgen confirmed his departure from the Mars Volta via Facebook stating he was \"not in TMV anymore\". In a February 2011 interview, Pridgen said he left the group \"because the singer had a jealous ego trip. There's nothing more to elaborate on\"; however, Juan Alderete stated in 2013 that \"Thomas got really drunk, did some bad things and did some real damage to the trust we all had with him.\" The band later completed the tour with drummer Dave Elitch. They played throughout Europe and Australia until the end of January 2010. In October 2010, the Mars Volta played two shows in Brazil and Chile. Long-time keyboardist, Ikey Owens, was absent during these dates due to touring commitments with his own project, Free Moral Agents.", "Shortly after \"Octahedron\"'s release, Rodríguez-López claimed to have put the supposed follow-up \"on hold\" and was starting work on a completely new album. In an April 2010 interview with Rolling Stone, Rodríguez-López talked about trying to loosen his grip in the studio. He claimed to have finished writing the album, and was awaiting lyrics and vocals from Bixler-Zavala. Rodríguez-López spent most of 2010 focusing on his solo career, and little information regarding the sixth Mars Volta album was released. During this year drummer Deantoni Parks began touring with Rodríguez-López as well as appearing on several solo records, and Cathy Pellow of Sargent House Records confirmed that Parks was in talks to become the next drummer for the Mars Volta. In 2011 Rodríguez-López spoke about the band's new album in several interviews, saying that it would feature thirteen songs which, \"[are] a simplified version of what we've done before\", and would be released \"Whenever the record label decides to put it out\". Bixler-Zavala took the opportunity to make a few remarks on the sound of the album, indicating a drastic change in sound for the band, referring to the new sound as \"future punk\". On March 19, 2011 the Omar Rodriguez-Lopez Group performed at SXSW. Bixler-Zavala joined the group as a vocalist, performing entirely new material with the band, which led to speculations of the show being a secret Mars Volta show under the Omar Rodríguez-López Group moniker. The Group continued to tour throughout April with the same lineup of Bixler-Zavala, Omar and Marcel Rodríguez-López, Juan Alderete, Deantoni Parks and (previously offstage) keyboardist/sound manipulator Lars Stalfors. An official Mars Volta tour began in summer of 2011, consisting of them opening for Soundgarden on select dates. This was in addition to their opening slot for the Red Hot Chili Peppers in their one-off gig in Hong Kong on August 9, 2011. During these shows the band (featuring the same six members) continued to play the new material premiered during the Omar Rodríguez-López Group tour earlier in the year, with Bixler-Zavala telling the crowd at one show that he was \"inviting them to a private rehearsal for their new album,\" confirming the material was off the band's upcoming album. Keyboardist Ikey Owens, who had played with the band since its inception, was noticeably absent from all 2011 dates. When asked in an interview, Owens stated that he knew \"Absolutely nothing [of the upcoming album]. I haven't heard one note of it; I haven't played on it. I don't know if I am going to play on it; I have no idea\". Bassist Juan Alderete later revealed via his Twitter page that Owens was no longer playing with the Mars Volta as he was busy \"producing bands\". Marcel Rodríguez-López and Lars Stalfors took over keyboard and synth duties with the band in lieu of Owens. On January 5, 2012, a new song titled \"Zed and Two Naughts\", a song revealed to be from the band's upcoming album, was confirmed to be included on the Soundtrack. On January 12, it was revealed that the upcoming album would be called \"Noctourniquet\". Later that week, an official page went up confirming \"Noctourniquet\" as the album title along with unveiling the album art and a full track listing and announcing March 27, 2012 as the release date. The album's first single, \"The Malkin Jewel,\" was first broadcast on February 13 and subsequently released on February 14.", "After the conclusion of the \"Noctourniquet\" tour, Omar Rodríguez-López decided to put the Mars Volta on hold to fully concentrate on his new project, Bosnian Rainbows, which also features Deantoni Parks. When asked in an interview if the band will reunite, he stated: I don't know, and I'm not insecure enough to have to ask myself that. It's like, we've done that for ten years, eleven years. Now we're all doing different things, and everything that we're doing informs how we express ourselves, and so if that happens then it happens and if it doesn't it doesn't. It's not something to be worried about. It shouldn't occupy a space in the mind. There's way too many things that are much too important to occupy space in the mind. On January 23, 2013, Cedric Bixler-Zavala revealed that he was no longer a part of the Mars Volta on Twitter and that the band had broken up. Bixler-Zavala subsequently focused on his solo music and eventually formed a new band, Zavalaz, which also includes Juan Alderete. He stated shortly after that he was \"currently not on speaking terms\" with Rodríguez-López and that \"the falling out had been four years in the making, so the final announcement on my part was really just to let the children know that Mom and Dad were splitting up\". Rodríguez-López, meanwhile, didn't rule out the possibility of the Mars Volta reuniting in the future: \"Because of all my anger and how I dealt with people, I spent so much of my life just closing doors left and right. At this point, I refuse to close any, only to open new ones. Whatever comes my way - as long as it's filled with joy and positivity - I want to give my talents to it. [...] I'm not interested in throwing tantrums any more.\" He elaborated further on an article with Billboard, acknowledging Bixler-Zavala's decision to depart TMV, effectively ending the over 20 year musical partnership between Rodríguez-López and Bixler-Zavala for the foreseeable future. Rodríguez-López stated, \"I was making a film and heard about it hours later; people were like, 'Are you OK?' I understand where he's coming from; I've known the guy for 22 years. I'll always respect and support any decision he makes. If that's how he wants it, I totally get it and I support it.\" In August 2013, a collection of unreleased songs, demos, alternate versions, and in-studio jams roughly spanning from 2005 until the \"Noctourniquet\" sessions was leaked online. The source of these recordings still remains unknown. In February 2014, several posts on the Comatorium message board by sources close to the band revealed that Bixler-Zavala and Rodríguez-López have been meeting and speaking again, hinting at a possible Mars Volta reunion. The rumours were further fueled when Bixler-Zavala's wife Chrissie posted a picture on Instagram of her husband and Rodríguez-López holding Bixler's twin boys at a California beach. On April 9, a new project featuring Rodríguez-López and Bixler-Zavala, Antemasque was announced; Antemasque also featured Flea on bass and Dave Elitch on drums. On October 14, 2014, founding member Isaiah \"Ikey\" Owens was found dead in his hotel room while on tour in Mexico with Jack White. According to a representative, Owens died of a heart attack. In a July 11, 2016 interview with Rolling Stone, when asked about a potential return of The Mars Volta, Rodriguez-Lopez stated, \"At some point, we’d love to do [Mars Volta] again too, you know what I mean? There’s so much to do there as well.\" In February 2018, Bixler-Zavala confirmed on Twitter that the Mars Volta will \"be back soon\", but later clarified that At the Drive-In activity will take precedence for the immediate future. In May 2019, further tweeting from Bixler-Zavala suggested he and Rodríguez-López had been experimenting with new material.", "The band's music has been described as progressive rock and experimental rock. The band's music includes elements from a wide variety of genres, including hardcore, psychedelic rock, and free jazz. Omar Rodríguez-López commented, \"Progressive is not a dirty word for people to use about us. If you're not moving forward, you're stagnant. And that's no way to live.\" Almost the entire band's output was composed solely by Rodríguez-López, with lyrics and vocal melodies written by Cedric Bixler-Zavala. They cited artists/bands such as King Crimson, Led Zeppelin, Pink Floyd, Can, Captain Beefheart, Frank Zappa, Larry Harlow, Miles Davis, Fela Kuti, Ennio Morricone, Throbbing Gristle, Talk Talk, Black Flag, Brainiac, Björk, Roni Size, Jaga Jazzist and Aphex Twin as their influences. According to Rodríguez-López, cinema also largely influences his songwriting: \"Creating tension, creating flow, creating scenes, creating fast-paced scenes, creating minimal dialogue – it's one of our biggest influences\".", "Many artists and bands have cited The Mars Volta as an influence, including Mastodon, Protest the Hero, Nick Hipa of As I Lay Dying, The Fall of Troy, Danny Marino of The Agonist, Tor Oddmund Suhrke of Leprous, Jonathan Nido of The Ocean, Mutiny on the Bounty, The Old Dead Tree, Canvas Solaris and Syriak of Unexpect. In addition, other artists have been quoted expressing admiration for their work such as Neil Peart of Rush, Tool, Steven Wilson of Porcupine Tree, James Hetfield of Metallica, Holger Czukay of Can and Mike Portnoy of Dream Theater.", "According to the liner notes for \"Amputechture\", \"The Bedlam in Goliath\", \"Octahedron\" and \"Noctourniquet\": \"The partnership between Omar Rodríguez-López & Cedric Bixler-Zavala is the Mars Volta. These compositions are then performed by the Mars Volta Group.\" Final lineup Former contributors Timeline" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Properties.", "History.", "Syntheses.", "Biosynthesis.", "Other occurrences and biological uses." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Guanine, along with adenine and cytosine, is present in both DNA and RNA, whereas thymine is usually seen only in DNA, and uracil only in RNA. Guanine has two tautomeric forms, the major keto form (see figures) and rare enol form. It binds to cytosine through three hydrogen bonds. In cytosine, the amino group acts as the hydrogen bond donor and the C-2 carbonyl and the N-3 amine as the hydrogen-bond acceptors. Guanine has the C-6 carbonyl group that acts as the hydrogen bond acceptor, while a group at N-1 and the amino group at C-2 act as the hydrogen bond donors. Guanine can be hydrolyzed with strong acid to glycine, ammonia, carbon dioxide, and carbon monoxide. First, guanine gets deaminated to become xanthine. Guanine oxidizes more readily than adenine, the other purine-derivative base in DNA. Its high melting point of 350 °C reflects the intermolecular hydrogen bonding between the oxo and amino groups in the molecules in the crystal. Because of this intermolecular bonding, guanine is relatively insoluble in water, but it is soluble in dilute acids and bases.", "The first isolation of guanine was reported in 1844 by the German chemist (1819–1885), who obtained it as a mineral formed from the excreta of sea birds, which is known as guano and which was used as a source of fertilizer; guanine was named in 1846. Between 1882 and 1906, Fischer determined the structure and also showed that uric acid can be converted to guanine.", "Trace amounts of guanine form by the polymerization of ammonium cyanide (). Two experiments conducted by Levy et al. showed that heating 10 mol·L at 80 °C for 24 hours gave a yield of 0.0007%, while using 0.1 mol·L frozen at −20 °C for 25 years gave a 0.0035% yield. These results indicate guanine could arise in frozen regions of the primitive earth. In 1984, Yuasa reported a 0.00017% yield of guanine after the electrical discharge of,,, and 50 mL of water, followed by a subsequent acid hydrolysis. However, it is unknown whether the presence of guanine was not simply a resultant contaminant of the reaction. A Fischer-Tropsch synthesis can also be used to form guanine, along with adenine, uracil, and thymine. Heating an equimolar gas mixture of CO, H, and NH to 700 °C for 15 to 24 minutes, followed by quick cooling and then sustained reheating to 100 to 200 °C for 16 to 44 hours with an alumina catalyst, yielded guanine and uracil: Another possible abiotic route was explored by quenching a 90% N–10%CO–HO gas mixture high-temperature plasma. Traube's synthesis involves heating 2,4,5-triamino-1,6-dihydro-6-oxypyrimidine (as the sulfate) with formic acid for several hours.", "Guanine is not synthesized de novo, instead it's split from more complex molecule, guanosine, by the enzyme guanosine phosphorylase:", "The word guanine derives from the Spanish loanword \"guano\" (\"bird/bat droppings\"), which itself is from the Quechua word \"wanu\", meaning \"dung\". As the Oxford English Dictionary notes, guanine is \"A white amorphous substance obtained abundantly from guano, forming a constituent of the excrement of birds\". In 1656 in Paris, a Mr. Jaquin extracted from the scales of the fish \"Alburnus alburnus\" so-called \"pearl essence\", which is crystalline guanine. In the cosmetics industry, crystalline guanine is used as an additive to various products (e.g., shampoos), where it provides a pearly iridescent effect. It is also used in metallic paints and simulated pearls and plastics. It provides shimmering luster to eye shadow and nail polish. Facial treatments using the droppings, or guano, from Japanese nightingales have been used in Japan and elsewhere, reportedly because the guanine in the droppings produces a clear, \"bright\" skin tone that users desire. Guanine crystals are rhombic platelets composed of multiple transparent layers, but they have a high index of refraction that partially reflects and transmits light from layer to layer, thus producing a pearly luster. It can be applied by spray, painting, or dipping. It may irritate the eyes. Its alternatives are mica, faux pearl (from ground shells), and aluminium and bronze particles. Guanine has a very wide variety of biological uses that include a range of functions ranging in both complexity and versatility. These include camouflage, display, and vision among other purposes. Spiders, scorpions, and some amphibians convert ammonia, as a product of protein metabolism in the cells, to guanine, as it can be excreted with minimal water loss. Guanine is also found in specialized skin cells of fish called iridocytes (e.g., the sturgeon), as well as being present in the reflective deposits of the eyes of deep-sea fish and some reptiles, such as crocodiles. On 8 August 2011, a report, based on NASA studies with meteorites found on Earth, was published suggesting building blocks of DNA and RNA (guanine, adenine and related organic molecules) may have been formed extra-terrestrially in outer space." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Chemical reactions.", "Biological function.", "Theoretical aspects." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Cytosine was discovered and named by Albrecht Kossel and Albert Neumann in 1894 when it was hydrolyzed from calf thymus tissues. A structure was proposed in 1903, and was synthesized (and thus confirmed) in the laboratory in the same year. In 1998 cytosine was used in an early demonstration of quantum information processing when Oxford University researchers implemented the Deutsch-Jozsa algorithm on a two qubit nuclear magnetic resonance quantum computer (NMRQC). In March 2015, NASA scientists reported the formation of cytosine, along with uracil and thymine, from pyrimidine under the space-like laboratory conditions, which is of interest because pyrimidine has been found in meteorites although its origin is unknown.", "Cytosine can be found as part of DNA, as part of RNA, or as a part of a nucleotide. As cytidine triphosphate (CTP), it can act as a co-factor to enzymes, and can transfer a phosphate to convert adenosine diphosphate (ADP) to adenosine triphosphate (ATP). In DNA and RNA, cytosine is paired with guanine. However, it is inherently unstable, and can change into uracil (spontaneous deamination). This can lead to a point mutation if not repaired by the DNA repair enzymes such as uracil glycosylase, which cleaves a uracil in DNA. Cytosine can also be methylated into 5-methylcytosine by an enzyme called DNA methyltransferase or be methylated and hydroxylated to make 5-hydroxymethylcytosine. The difference in rates of deamination of cytosine and 5-methylcytosine (to uracil and thymine) forms the basis of bisulfite sequencing.", "When found third in a codon of RNA, cytosine is synonymous with uracil, as they are interchangeable as the third base. When found as the second base in a codon, the third is always interchangeable. For example, UCU, UCC, UCA and UCG are all serine, regardless of the third base. Active enzymatic deamination of cytosine or 5-methylcytosine by the APOBEC family of cytosine deaminases could have both beneficial and detrimental implications on various cellular processes as well as on organismal evolution. The implications of deamination on 5-hydroxymethylcytosine, on the other hand, remains less understood.", "Cytosine has not been found in meteorites, which suggests the first strands of RNA and DNA had to look elsewhere to obtain this building block. Cytosine likely formed within some meteorite parent bodies, however did not persist within these bodies due to an effective deamination reaction into uracil." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Mythology.", "In early mythology.", "In modern mythology and religion.", "Astrological age.", "In the arts.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "While the astrological sign Pisces per definition runs from ecliptic longitude 330° to 0°, this position is now mostly covered by the constellation of Aquarius due to the precession from when the constellation and the sign coincided. Today, the First Point of Aries, or the vernal equinox, is in the Pisces constellation. There are no prominent stars in the constellation, with the brightest stars being of only fourth magnitude. One star in the constellation, Alpha Piscium, is also known as Alrescha, which comes from the Arabic الرشآء \"al-rišā’\", meaning \"the well rope,\" or \"the cord.\" The constellation, however, is different from the astronomical location in where the sign occupies space. The constellations in earlier times were primarily used as markers to help determine what influence was in the sky. Nevertheless, the sign of Pisces remain in the 30 degree span of 330°-0°. Ptolemy described Alpha Piscium as the point where the cords joining the two fish are knotted together. The astrological symbol shows the two fishes captured by a string, typically by the mouth or the tails. The fish are usually portrayed swimming in opposite directions; this represents the duality within the Piscean nature. They are ruled by the planet Neptune. Although they appear as a pair, the name of the sign in all languages originally referred to only one fish with the exception of Greek, Romanian, Bulgarian, Dutch, Latvian and Italian. Pisces are the mutable water sign of the zodiac.", "Divine associations with Pisces include Poseidon/Neptune, Christ, Aphrodite, Eros, Typhon, Vishnu and the Sumerian goddess Inanna.", "\"Pisces\" is the Latin word for \"Fish.\" It is one of the earliest zodiac signs on record, with the two fish appearing as far back as 2300 BC on an Egyptian coffin lid. According to one Greek myth, Pisces represents the fish, sometimes represented by koi fish, into which Aphrodite (also considered Venus) and her son Eros (also considered Cupid) transformed in order to escape the monster Typhon. Typhon, the \"father of all monsters,\" had been sent by Gaia to attack the gods, which led Pan to warn the others before himself changing into a goat-fish and jumping into the Euphrates. A similar myth, one in which the fish \"Pisces\" carry Aphrodite and her son out of danger, is resounded in Manilius' five volume poetic work \"Astronomica\": \"Venus ow'd her safety to their Shape.\" Another myth is that an egg fell into the Euphrates river. It was then rolled to the shore by fish. Doves sat on the egg until it hatched, out from which came Aphrodite. As a sign of gratitude towards the fish, Aphrodite put the fish into the night sky. Because of these myths, the Pisces constellation was also known as \"Venus et Cupido,\" \"Venus Syria cum Cupidine,\" \"Venus cum Adone,\" \"Dione\" and \"Veneris Mater,\" the latter being the formal Latin term for mother. The Greek myth on the origin of the sign of Pisces has been cited by English astrologer Richard James Morrison as an example of the fables that arose from the original astrological doctrine, and that the \"original intent of [it] was afterwards corrupted both by poets and priests.\"", "Purim, a Jewish holiday, falls at the full moon preceding the Passover, which was set by the full moon in Aries, which follows Pisces. The story of the birth of Christ is said to be a result of the spring equinox entering into the Pisces, as the Savior of the World appeared as the Fisher of Men. This parallels the entering into the Age of Pisces.", "An astrological age is a time period in astrology that parallels major changes in the development of Earth's inhabitants, particularly relating to culture, society and politics, and there are twelve astrological ages corresponding to the twelve zodiacal signs. Astrological ages occur because of a phenomenon known as the precession of the equinoxes, and one complete period of this precession is called a Great Year or Platonic Year of about 25,920 years. The age of Pisces began AD 1 and will end AD 2150. With the story of the birth of Christ coinciding with this date, many Christian symbols for Christ use the astrological symbol for Pisces, the fishes. The figure Christ himself bears many of the temperaments and personality traits of a Pisces, and is thus considered an archetype of the Piscean. Moreover, the twelve apostles were called the \"fishers of men,\" early Christians called themselves \"little fishes,\" and a code word for Jesus was the Greek word for fish, \"Ikhthus.\" With this, the start of the age, or the \"Great Month of Pisces,\" is regarded as the beginning of the Christian religion. Saint Peter is recognized as the apostle of the Piscean sign. Pisces has been called the \"dying god,\" where its sign opposite in the night sky is Virgo, or the Virgin Mary.", "Venus exalted in Pisces is representative of divine love in the first canto of Dante's \"Purgatorio\". Pisces is the subject of Luca Della Robbia's 15th century \"Plate with the Month of February\". They are also the subject of one of Elizabeth Barrett Browning's poetic works:", "In the January 1970 edition of the \"Avengers\" (No. 72), the supervillain group Zodiac introduced the member \"Pisces\" whose abilities allowed him to live underwater, which included fins, scales and gills. In the 1979 sports fantasy film \"The Fish That Saved Pittsburgh\", the fictitious basketball team the \"Pittsburgh Pythons\" turn to astrology after a continuous losing streak, and fill the roster with players born under the astrological sign of Pisces. They are reborn as the \"Pittsburgh Pisces\" and enter into a championship. Nirvana's song \"Heart-Shaped Box\" from their 1993 album \"In Utero\" begins with lead singer Kurt Cobain singing \"She eyes me like a Pisces when I am weak...\" as Cobain himself was a Pisces. In 1994 Smashing Pumpkins released Pisces Iscariot, an album of b-sides. The album has gone platinum and contained Landslide, which reached #30 on the billboard charts. The Ukrainian metal band Jinjer released a song named \"\"Pisces\"\" on their 2016 album \"\"King Of Everything\"\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Language family.", "Speakers.", "Status of Alsatian in France.", "Orthography.", "Phonology.", "Consonants.", "Vowels.", "Grammar." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Alsatian is closely related to other nearby Alemannic dialects, such as Swiss German, Swabian, and Markgräflerisch as well as Kaiserstühlerisch. It is often confused with Lorraine Franconian, a more distantly related Franconian dialect spoken in the northwest corner of Alsace and in neighbouring Lorraine. Like other dialects and languages, Alsatian has also been influenced by outside sources. Words of Yiddish origin can be found in Alsatian, and modern conversational Alsatian includes adaptations of French words and English words, especially concerning new technologies. Many speakers of Alsatian could, if necessary, write in reasonable standard German. For most this would be rare and confined to those who have learned German at school or through work. As with other dialects, various factors determine when, where, and with whom one might converse in Alsatian. Some dialect speakers are unwilling to speak standard German, at times, to certain outsiders and prefer to use French. In contrast, many people living near the border with Basel, Switzerland, will speak their dialect with a Swiss person from that area, as they are mutually intelligible for the most part; similar habits may apply to conversations with people of the nearby German Markgräflerland. Some street names in Alsace may use Alsatian spellings (they were formerly displayed only in French but are now bilingual in some places, especially Strasbourg and Mulhouse).", "", "Since 1992, the constitution of the Fifth Republic states that French is the official language of the Republic. However, Alsatian, along with other regional languages, is recognized by the French government in the official list of languages of France. France is a signatory to the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages but has never ratified the law and has not given regional languages the support that would be required by the charter. The policies of the Paris government have had the deliberate effect of greatly weakening the prevalence of native languages in France that are not \"French.\" As a result, the Alsatian dialect of German has gone from being the prevalent language of the region to one in decline. A 1999 INSEE survey counted 548,000 adult speakers of Alsatian in France, making it the second most-spoken regional language in the country (after Occitan). Like all regional languages in France, however, the transmission of Alsatian is declining. While 43% of the adult population of Alsace speaks Alsatian, its use has been largely declining amongst the youngest generations. A dialect of Alsatian German is spoken in the United States by a group known as the Swiss Amish, whose ancestors emigrated there in the middle of the 19th century. The approximately 7,000 speakers are located mainly in Allen County, Indiana, with \"daughter settlements\" elsewhere.", "\"C\", \"Q\", and \"X\" are only used in loanwords. Y is also used in native words, but is more common in loanwords.", "", "Alsatian has a set of 19 consonants: Three consonants are restricted in their distribution: and only occur at the beginning of a word or morpheme, and then only if followed immediately by a vowel; never occurs at the beginning of a word or morpheme. Alsatian, like some German dialects, has lenited all obstruents but. Its lenes are, however, voiceless as in all Southern German varieties. Therefore, they are here transcribed,,. Speakers of French tend to hear them as their, which also are voiceless and unaspirated. The phoneme has a velar allophone after back vowels (,,, and in those speakers who do not pronounce this as ), and palatal elsewhere. In southern dialects, there is a tendency to pronounce it in all positions, and in Strasbourg the palatal allophone tends to conflate with the phoneme. A labiodental voiced fricative sound is also present as well as an approximant sound. // may have phonetic realizations as,, and.", "Short vowels: ( in Strasbourg),. Long vowels:", "Alsatian nouns inflect by case, gender and number:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Derivation.", "Theoretical aspects." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "As its alternate name (5-methyluracil) suggests, thymine may be derived by methylation of uracil at the 5th carbon. In RNA, thymine is replaced with uracil in most cases. In DNA, thymine (T) binds to adenine (A) via two hydrogen bonds, thereby stabilizing the nucleic acid structures. Thymine combined with deoxyribose creates the nucleoside deoxythymidine, which is synonymous with the term thymidine. Thymidine can be phosphorylated with up to three phosphoric acid groups, producing dTMP (deoxythymidine monophosphate), dTDP, or dTTP (for the di- and tri- phosphates, respectively). One of the common mutations of DNA involves two adjacent thymines or cytosine, which, in presence of ultraviolet light, may form thymine dimers, causing \"kinks\" in the DNA molecule that inhibit normal function. Thymine could also be a target for actions of 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) in cancer treatment. 5-FU can be a metabolic analog of thymine (in DNA synthesis) or uracil (in RNA synthesis). Substitution of this analog inhibits DNA synthesis in actively dividing cells. Thymine bases are frequently oxidized to hydantoins over time after the death of an organism.", "In March 2015, NASA scientists reported that, for the first time, complex DNA and RNA organic compounds of life, including uracil, cytosine and thymine, have been formed in the laboratory under outer space conditions, using starting chemicals, such as pyrimidine, found in meteorites. Pyrimidine, like polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), the most carbon-rich chemical found in the Universe, may have been formed in red giants or in interstellar dust and gas clouds, according to the scientists. Thymine has not been found in meteorites, which suggests the first strands of DNA had to look elsewhere to obtain this building block. Thymine likely formed within some meteorite parent bodies, however may not have persisted within these bodies due to an oxidation reaction with hydrogen peroxide." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology and background.", "History and evolution.", "Azerbaijani literature.", "Lingua franca.", "North vs. South Azerbaijani.", "North Azerbaijani.", "South Azerbaijani.", "Azerbaijani vs. Turkish.", "Phonology.", "Phonotactics.", "Consonants.", "Dialect consonants.", "Vowels.", "Writing systems.", "Vocabulary.", "Interjections.", "Formal and informal.", "Numbers." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Historically the language was referred by its native speakers as'meaning \"Turkic\" or'meaning \"Azerbaijani Turkic\". Prior to the establishment of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, who adopted the name of \"Azerbaijan\" for political reasons in 1918, the name of \"Azerbaijan\" was exclusively used to identify the adjacent region of contemporary northwestern Iran. After the establishment of the Azerbaijan SSR, on the order of Soviet leader Stalin, the \"name of the formal language\" of the Azerbaijan SSR was \"changed from Turkic to Azerbaijani\".", "Azerbaijani evolved from the Eastern branch of Oghuz Turkic (\"Western Turkic\") which spread to the Caucasus, in Eastern Europe, and northern Iran, in Western Asia, during the medieval Turkic migrations. Persian and Arabic influenced the language, but Arabic words were mainly transmitted through the intermediary of literary Persian. Azerbaijani is, perhaps after Uzbek, the Turkic language upon which Persian and other Iranian languages have exerted the strongest impact—mainly in phonology, syntax, and vocabulary, less in morphology. The Turkic language of Azerbaijan gradually supplanted the Iranian languages in what is now northern Iran, and a variety of languages of the Caucasus and Iranian languages spoken in the Caucasus, particularly Udi and Old Azeri. By the beginning of the 16th century, it had become the dominant language of the region, and was a spoken language in the court of the Safavids and Afsharids. The historical development of Azerbaijani can be divided into two major periods: early (c. 16th to 18th century) and modern (18th century to present). Early Azerbaijani differs from its descendant in that it contained a much larger number of Persian, and Arabic loanwords, phrases and syntactic elements. Early writings in Azerbaijani also demonstrate linguistic interchangeability between Oghuz and Kypchak elements in many aspects (such as pronouns, case endings, participles, etc.). As Azerbaijani gradually moved from being merely a language of epic and lyric poetry to being also a language of journalism and scientific research, its literary version has become more or less unified and simplified with the loss of many archaic Turkic elements, stilted Iranisms and Ottomanisms, and other words, expressions, and rules that failed to gain popularity among the Azerbaijani masses. Between c. 1900 and 1930, there were several competing approaches to the unification of the national language in what is now the Azerbaijan Republic, popularized by the scholars such as Hasan bey Zardabi and Mammad agha Shahtakhtinski. Despite major differences, they all aimed primarily at making it easy for semi-literate masses to read and understand literature. They all criticized the overuse of Persian, Arabic, and European elements in both colloquial and literary language and called for a simpler and more popular style. The Russian conquest of Transcaucasia in the 19th century split the language community across two states; the Soviet Union promoted the development of the language, but set it back considerably with two successive script changes – from the Persian to Latin and then to the Cyrillic script – while Iranian Azerbaijanis continued to use the Persian script as they always had. Despite the wide use of Azerbaijani in the Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic, it became the official language of Azerbaijan only in 1956. After independence, the Azerbaijan Republic decided to switch back to a modified Latin script.", "The development of Azerbaijani literature is closely associated with Anatolian Turkish, written in Perso-Arabic script. Examples of its detachment date to the 14th century or earlier. Kadi Burhan al-Din, Hesenoghlu, and Imadaddin Nasimi helped to establish Azerbaiijani as a literary language in the 14th century through poetry and other works. The ruler and poet Ismail I wrote under the pen name \"Khatā'ī\" (which means \"sinner\" in Persian) during the fifteenth century During the 16th century, the poet, writer and thinker Fuzûlî wrote mainly in Azerbaijani but also translated his poems into Arabic and Persian. Starting in the 1830s, several newspapers were published in Iran during the reign of the Azerbaijani speaking Qajar dynasty but it is unknown whether any of these newspapers were written in Azerbaijani. In 1875 \"Akinchi (\"\" / )\" (\"The Ploughman\") became the first Azerbaijani newspaper to be published in the Russian Empire. It was started by Hasan bey Zardabi, a journalist and education advocate. Following the rule of the Qajar dynasty, Iran was ruled by Reza Shah who banned the publication of texts in Azerbaijani. Modern literature in the Republic of Azerbaijan is based on the Shirvani dialect mainly, while in Iranian Azerbaijan it is based on the Tabrizi dialect. Mohammad-Hossein Shahriar is an important figure in Azerbaijani poetry. His most important work is \"Heydar Babaya Salam\" and it is considered to be a pinnacle of Azerbaijani literature and gained popularity in the Turkic-speaking world. It was translated into more than 30 languages. In the mid-19th century, Azerbaijani literature was taught at schools in Baku, Ganja, Shaki, Tbilisi, and Yerevan. Since 1845, it has also been taught in the Saint Petersburg State University in Russia. In 2018, Azerbaijani language and literature programs are offered in the United States at several universities, including: Indiana University, UCLA, and University of Texas at Austin. The vast majority, if not all Azerbaijani language courses teach North Azerbaijani written in the Latin script and not South Azerbaijani written in the Perso-Arabic script. Modern literature in the Republic of Azerbaijan is primarily based on the Shirvani dialect, while in the Iranian Azerbaijan region (historic Azerbaijan) it is based on the Tabrizi one.", "Azerbaijani served as a \"lingua franca\" throughout most parts of Transcaucasia except the Black Sea coast, in southern Dagestan, the Eastern Anatolia Region and Iranian Azerbaijan from the 16th to the early 20th centuries, alongside the cultural, administrative, court literature, and most importantly official language of all these regions, namely Persian. From the early 16th century up to the course of the 19th century, these regions and territories were all ruled by the Iranian Safavids, Afsharids and Qajars until the cession of Transcaucasia proper and Dagestan by Qajar Iran to the Russian Empire per the 1813 Treaty of Gulistan and the 1828 Treaty of Turkmenchay. Per the 1829 Caucasus School Statute, Azerbaijani was to be taught in all district schools of Ganja, Shusha, Nukha (present-day Shaki), Shamakhi, Quba, Baku, Derbent, Yerevan, Nakhchivan, Akhaltsikhe, and Lankaran. Beginning in 1834, it was introduced as a language of study in Kutaisi instead of Armenian. In 1853, Azerbaijani became a compulsory language for students of all backgrounds in all of Transcaucasia with the exception of the Tiflis Governorate.", "Azerbaijani is one of the Oghuz languages within the Turkic language family. \"Ethnologue\" classifies North Azerbaijani (spoken mainly in the Republic of Azerbaijan and Russia) and South Azerbaijani (spoken in Iran, Iraq, and Syria) as separate languages with \"significant differences in phonology, lexicon, morphology, syntax, and loanwords.\" Svante Cornell wrote in his 2001 book \"Small Nations and Great Powers\" that \"it is certain that Russian and Iranian words (sic), respectively, have entered the vocabulary on either side of the Araxes river, but this has not occurred to an extent that it could pose difficulties for communication.\". There are numerous dialects, with 21 North Azerbaijani dialects and 11 South Azerbaijani dialects identified by Ethnologue. Four varieties have been accorded ISO 639-3 language codes: North Azerbaijani, South Azerbaijani, Salchuq, and Qashqai. The \"Glottolog\" 4.1 database classifies North Azerbaijani, with 20 dialects, and South Azerbaijani, with 13 dialects, under the Modern Azeric family, a branch of Central Oghuz. According to the Linguasphere Observatory, all Oghuz languages form part of a single \"outer language\" of which North and South Azerbaijani are \"inner languages\".", "North Azerbaijani, or Northern Azerbaijani, is the official language of the Republic of Azerbaijan. It is closely related to the modern-day Istanbul Turkish, the official language of Turkey. It is also spoken in southern Dagestan, along the Caspian coast in the southern Caucasus Mountains and in scattered regions throughout Central Asia. As of 2011, there are some 9.23 million speakers of North Azerbaijani including 4 million monolingual speakers (many North Azerbaijani speakers also speak Russian, as is common throughout former USSR countries). The Shirvan dialect as spoken in Baku is the basis of standard Azerbaijani. Since 1992, it has been officially written with a Latin script in the Republic of Azerbaijan, but the older Cyrillic script was still widely used in the late 1990s. \"Ethnologue\" lists 21 North Azerbaijani dialects: Quba, Derbend, Baku, Shamakhi, Salyan, Lenkaran, Qazakh, Airym, Borcala, Terekeme, Qyzylbash, Nukha, Zaqatala (Mugaly), Qabala, Yerevan, Nakhchivan, Ordubad, Ganja, Shusha (Karabakh), Karapapak.", "South Azerbaijani, is widely spoken in Iranian Azerbaijan (historic Azerbaijan) and, to a lesser extent, in neighboring regions of Turkey and Iraq, with smaller communities in Syria. In Iran, the Persian word for Azerbaijani is borrowed as \"\" \"Turkic\". In Iran, it is spoken mainly in East Azerbaijan, West Azerbaijan, Ardabil and Zanjan. It is also widely spoken in Tehran and across Tehran Province, as Azerbaijanis form by far the largest minority in the city and the wider province, comprising about 1/3, of its total population. The CIA World Factbook reports in 2010 the percentage of Iranian Azerbaijani speakers at around 16 percent of the Iranian population, or approximately 13 million people worldwide, and ethnic Azeris form by far the second largest ethnic group of Iran, thus making the language also the second most spoken language in the nation. Ethnologue reports 10.9 million Iranian Azerbaijani in Iran in 2016 and 13,823,350 worldwide. Dialects of South Azerbaijani include: Aynallu (Inallu, Inanlu), Qarapapaq, Tabrizi, Qashqai, Afshari (Afsar, Afshar), Shahsavani (Shahseven), Muqaddam, Baharlu (Kamesh), Nafar, Qaragözlü, Pishaqchi, Bayatlu, Qajar, Marandli.", "Historically, Azerbaijani and Turkish speakers have been able to communicate with relative ease. One example of this is when Reza Shah Pahlavi of Iran (who spoke Azerbaijani) met with Mustafa Kemal Atatürk of Turkey (who spoke Turkish) in 1934. Speakers of Turkish and Azerbaijani can, to an extent, communicate with each other as both languages have substantial variation and are to a degree mutually intelligible. Azerbaijani exhibits a similar stress pattern to Turkish but simpler in some respects. Azerbaijani is a strongly stressed and partially stress-timed language, unlike Turkish which is weakly stressed and syllable-timed. Here are some words with a different pronunciation in Azerbaijani and Turkish that mean the same in both languages:", "", "Azerbaijani phonotactics is similar to other Oghuz Turkic languages, except:", "", "Examples:", "The vowels of the Azerbaijani are, in alphabetical order, ', ', ', ', ', ', ', ', \"\". There are no diphthongs in standard Azerbaijani when two vowels come together; when that occurs in some Arabic loanwords, diphthong is removed by either syllable separation at V.V boundary or fixing the pair as VC/CV pair, depending on the word. The typical phonetic quality of South Azerbaijani vowels is as follows:", "Before 1929, Azerbaijani was written only in the Perso-Arabic alphabet. In 1929–1938 a Latin alphabet was in use for North Azerbaijani (although it was different from the one used now), from 1938 to 1991 the Cyrillic script was used, and in 1991 the current Latin alphabet was introduced, although the transition to it has been rather slow. For instance, until an Aliyev decree on the matter in 2001, newspapers would routinely write headlines in the Latin script, leaving the stories in Cyrillic; the transition also resulted in some misrendering of İ as \"Ì\". In Iran, Azerbaijani is still written in the Persian alphabet, and in Dagestan, in Cyrillic script. The Perso-Arabic Azerbaijani alphabet is an abjad; that is, it does not represent vowels. Also, some consonants can be represented by more than one letter. The Azerbaijani Latin alphabet is based on the Turkish Latin alphabet, which in turn was based on former Azerbaijani Latin alphabet because of their linguistic connections and mutual intelligibility. The letters ', ', and \" are available only in Azerbaijani for sounds which do not exist as separate phonemes in Turkish. Northern Azerbaijani, unlike Turkish, respells foreign names to conform with Latin Azerbaijani spelling, e.g. Bush is spelled'and Schröder becomes '. Hyphenation across lines directly corresponds to spoken syllables as in other Turkic languages.", "", "Some samples include: Secular: Invoking deity:", "Azerbaijani has informal and formal ways of saying things. This is because there is a strong tu-vous distinction in Turkic languages like Azerbaijani and Turkish (as well as in many other languages). The informal \"you\" is used when talking to close friends, relatives, animals or children. The formal \"you\" is used when talking to someone who is older than you or someone for whom you would like to show respect (a professor, for example). As in many Turkic languages, personal pronouns can be omitted, and they are only added for emphasis. Azerbaijani has a phonetic writing system, so pronunciation is easy: most words are pronounced exactly as they are spelled in the modern Azerbaijani alphabet.", "For numbers 11–19, the numbers literally mean \"10 one, 10 two\" and so on. Greater numbers are constructed by combining in tens and thousands larger to smaller in the same way, without using a conjunction in between." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Vlasatice is located at the creek Miroslavka and is surrounded by hills formerly known as the 'Roßweide' () and the 'Hochberge' () in the North and by the so-called Croat mountains ('Kroatenberge') () in the South. Neighboring villages are Pohořelice (\"Pohrlitz\") in the Northeast, Nová Ves (\"Mariahilf\") in the East, Pasohlávky (\"Weißstätten\") in the Southeast, Troskotovice (\"Treskowitz\") in the Southwest, Trnové Pole (\"Dornfeld\") in the West, and Branišovice (\"Frainspitz\") in the Northwest.", "From 1031 until 1305, Moravia was ruled by the Přemyslid dynasty. To improve the use of agricultural area and to gain higher yields, the Přemyslides were looking for colonists by offering them 10 years of tax free living. Up until the year 1150 German colonists from Lower Austria settled around the area of Mikulov (Nikolsburg) und Znojmo (Znaim). Vlasatice is an Angerdorf, a Germanic type of village characterized by the houses and farmsteads being laid out around a central grassed area, the anger (from the Old High German angar = pasture or grassy place), a village green which was common land, owned jointly by the village community. German was spoken in Vlasatice until 1946, derived from a Central Bavarian dialect with the ui-slang indicates, that the settlers originally came from areas in Bavaria, from around the bishopry of Regensburg und Passau. The settlers brought a new way of doing agriculture, the so-called three-field system with crop rotation and new agricultural tools. Since 1276 the town of Vlasatice was in possession of the monastery of Rosa Coeli. From 1342 until 1633 the village had a system of High justice, in German as Blutgerichtsbarkeit (lit. \"blood justice\", \"blood-court\"; sometimes also known as Halsgericht), which is the highest penal authority, including capital punishment. The name of the town changed from \"Wassatycz\" (1333) via \"Wasaticz\" (1370) to \"Bassatitz\" in the 17th century, and from the late 17th century was known as \"Wostitz\". During the Hussite Wars, the castle in the village was conquered and occupied by Taborites. Around 1428, Catholic troops regained the castle. In 1538, the town was granted a market by Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor. A parish existed since 1276. Around the year 1560, Protestantism got a hold in Vlasatice. In the year 1567 a farmstead was founded by of Bretheren Hutterites. The Hutterites were eventually driven away in 1617 by Count von Thurn. Most of the Hutterites moved to Siebenbürgen, also known as Transsylvania. During 1618, all possessions were taken away from Count Thurn Thirty Year War and given to Cardinal Dietrichstein. Since 1622 the region was re-catholicized. During the Thirty Year War, the village was devastated by troops of the Holy Roman Emperor. Parish registers are known since 1631. An Online search can be done at the State Archiv of Brno. A digital heritage book of Vlasatice was published in 2010. After the Austro–Turkish War (1663-1664) and the Great Turkish War (1683-1699) only 23 of 75 farmsteads were still occupied in Vlasatice. In the years 1831 and 1866 an outbreak of cholera killed 180 (73) people. As a result of the First World War the historical Austrian countries of Bohemia, Moravia and Czech Silesia were ceded to the newly formed state of Czechoslovakia. The Second World War ended on May 8, 1945. All territories, commonly known as the Sudetenland given to Germany in 1939 as a result of the Munich agreement were returned to the State of Czechoslovakia. During the war 154 inhabitants lost their lives. In 1946 the majority of the villagers were driven away to Germany during the Expulsion of Germans from Czechoslovakia as a result of the Beneš decrees. 160 ethnical Germans from Vlasatice/Wostitz, who fled to Austria at the end of the war, were granted citizenship there. Nine individuals emigrated to Canada, five to the USA, three to Australia und Switzerland, two to Sweden and one each to Argentina, France, Italy und England. Only a few of the original villagers remained in Vlasatice, mostly due to their bi-ethnic Czech and German background. Starting in 1946 Vlasatice was repopulated with ethnic Czechs by the new government." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Classification.", "Dialects.", "Irrawaddy River valley.", "Outside the Irrawaddy basin.", "History.", "Old Burmese.", "Middle Burmese.", "Modern Burmese.", "Registers.", "Vocabulary.", "Phonology.", "Consonants.", "Vowels.", "Tones.", "Syllable structure.", "Writing system.", "Grammar.", "Adjectives.", "Verbs.", "Nouns.", "Numerical classifiers.", "Particles.", "Pronouns.", "Kinship terms.", "Reduplication.", "Romanization and transcription.", "Computer fonts and standard keyboard layout." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Burmese belongs to the Southern Burmish branch of the Sino-Tibetan languages, of which Burmese is the most widely spoken of the non-Sinitic languages. Burmese was the fifth of the Sino-Tibetan languages to develop a writing system, after Chinese characters, the Pyu script, the Tibetan alphabet and the Tangut script.", "The majority of Burmese speakers, who live throughout the Irrawaddy River Valley, use a number of largely similar dialects, while a minority speak non-standard dialects found in the peripheral areas of the country. These dialects include: Arakanese (Rakhine) in Rakhine State and Marma in Bangladesh are also sometimes considered dialects of Burmese and sometimes as separate languages. Despite vocabulary and pronunciation differences, there is mutual intelligibility among Burmese dialects, as they share a common set of tones, consonant clusters, and written script. However, several Burmese dialects differ substantially from standard Burmese with respect to vocabulary, lexical particles, and rhymes.", "Spoken Burmese is remarkably uniform among Burmese speakers, particularly those living in the Irrawaddy valley, all of whom use variants of Standard Burmese. The standard dialect of Burmese (the Mandalay-Yangon dialect continuum) comes from the Irrawaddy River valley. Regional differences between speakers from Upper Burma (e.g., Mandalay dialect), called \"anya tha\" () and speakers from Lower Burma (e.g., Yangon dialect), called \"auk tha\" (), largely occur in vocabulary choice, not in pronunciation. Minor lexical and pronunciation differences exist throughout the Irrawaddy River valley. For instance, for the term, \"food offering [to a monk]\", Lower Burmese speakers use instead of, which is the pronunciation used in Upper", "More distinctive non-standard varieties emerge as one moves farther away from the Irrawaddy River valley toward peripheral areas of the country. These varieties include the Yaw, Palaw, Myeik (Merguese), Tavoyan and Intha dialects. Despite substantial vocabulary and pronunciation differences, there is mutual intelligibility among most Burmese dialects. Dialects in Tanintharyi Region, including Palaw, Merguese, and Tavoyan, are especially conservative in comparison to Standard Burmese. The Tavoyan and Intha dialects have preserved the medial, which is otherwise only found in Old Burmese inscriptions. They also often reduce the intensity of the glottal stop. Myeik has 250,000 speakers while Tavoyan has 400,000. The grammatical constructs of Burmese dialects in Southern Myanmar show greater Mon influence than Standard Burmese. The most pronounced feature of the Arakanese language of Rakhine State is its retention of the sound, which has become in standard Burmese. Moreover, Arakanese features a variety of vowel differences, including the merger of the and vowels. Hence, a word like \"blood\" is pronounced in standard Burmese and in Arakanese.", "The Burmese language's early forms include Old Burmese and Middle Burmese. Old Burmese dates from the 11th to the 16th century (Pagan to Ava dynasties); Middle Burmese from the 16th to the 18th century (Toungoo to early Konbaung dynasties); modern Burmese from the mid-18th century to the present. Word order, grammatical structure and vocabulary have remained markedly stable well into Modern Burmese, with the exception of lexical content (e.g., function words).", "The earliest attested form of the Burmese language is called Old Burmese, dating to the 11th and 12th century stone inscriptions of Pagan. The earliest evidence of the Burmese alphabet is dated to 1035, while a casting made in the 18th century of an old stone", "The transition to Middle Burmese occurred in the 16th century. The transition to Middle Burmese included phonological changes (e.g. mergers of sound pairs that were distinct in Old Burmese) as well as accompanying changes in the underlying orthography. From the 1500s onward, Burmese kingdoms saw substantial gains in the populace's literacy rate, which manifested", "Modern Burmese emerged in the mid-18th century. By this time, male literacy in Burma stood at nearly 50%, which enabled the wide circulation of legal texts, royal chronicles, and religious texts. A major reason for the uniformity of the Burmese language was the near-universal presence of Buddhist monasteries (called \"kyaung\") in Burmese villages. These \"kyaung\" served as the foundation of the pre-colonial monastic education system, which fostered uniformity of the language throughout the Upper Irrawaddy valley, the traditional homeland of Burmese speakers. The 1891 Census of India, conducted five years after the annexation of the entire Konbaung Kingdom, found that the former kingdom had an \"unusually high male literacy\" rate", "Burmese is a diglossic language with two distinguishable registers (or diglossic varieties): The literary form of Burmese retains archaic and conservative grammatical structures and modifiers (including particles, markers and pronouns) no longer used in the colloquial form. Literary Burmese, which has not changed significantly since the 13th century, is the register of Burmese taught in schools. In most cases, the corresponding grammatical markers in the literary and spoken forms are totally unrelated to each other. Examples of this phenomenon include the following lexical terms: Historically the literary register was preferred for written Burmese on the grounds that \"the spoken style lacks gravity, authority, dignity\". In the mid-1960s, some Burmese writers spearheaded efforts to abandon the literary form, asserting that the spoken vernacular form ought to be used. Some Burmese linguists such as", "Burmese primarily has a monosyllabic received Sino-Tibetan vocabulary. Nonetheless, many words, especially loanwords from Indo-European languages like English, are polysyllabic, and others, from Mon, an Austroasiatic language, are sesquisyllabic. Burmese loanwords are overwhelmingly in the form of nouns. Historically, Pali, the liturgical language of Theravada Buddhism, had a profound influence on Burmese vocabulary. Burmese has readily adopted words of Pali origin because of phonotactic similarities between two languages alongside the fact that the script used for Burmese can reproduce Pali spellings with complete accuracy. Pali loanwords are often related to religion, government, arts, and science. Burmese loanwords from Pali primarily take four forms: Burmese has also adapted plenty of words from Mon, traditionally spoken by the Mon people, who until recently formed the majority in Lower Burma. Most Mon loanwords are so well assimilated that they are not distinguished as loanwords as Burmese and Mon were used interchangeably for several centuries in pre-colonial Burma. Mon loans are often related to flora, fauna, administration, textiles, foods, boats,", "The transcriptions in this section use the International Phonetic Alphabet.", "The consonants of Burmese are as follows: According to, contrary to their use of", "The vowels of Burmese are: The monophthongs,, and occur only in open syllables (those without a syllable coda); the diphthongs,, and occur only in closed syllables (those with a syllable", "Burmese is a tonal language, which means phonemic contrasts can be made on the basis of the tone of a vowel. In Burmese, these contrasts involve not only pitch, but also phonation, intensity (loudness), duration, and vowel quality. However, some linguists consider Burmese a pitch-register language like Shanghainese. There are four contrastive tones in Burmese. In the following table, the tones are shown marked on the vowel as an example. For example, the following words", "The syllable structure of Burmese is C(G)V((V)C), which is to say the onset consists of a consonant optionally followed by a glide, and the rime consists of a monophthong", "The Burmese alphabet consists of 33 letters and 12 vowels and is written from left to right. It requires no spaces between words, although modern writing usually contains spaces after each clause to enhance readability. Characterized by its circular letters and diacritics, the script is an abugida, with all letters having an inherent vowel \"a.\" or. The consonants are arranged into six consonant groups (called based on articulation, like other Brahmi scripts. Tone markings and vowel modifications are written as diacritics placed to the left, right, top, and bottom of letters. Orthographic changes postceded shifts in phonology (such as the merging of the and medials) rather than transformations in Burmese grammatical structure and phonology, which by contrast, has remained stable between Old Burmese and modern Burmese. For example, during the Pagan era, the medial was transcribed", "The basic word order of the Burmese language is subject-object-verb. Pronouns in Burmese vary according to the gender and status of the audience. Burmese is monosyllabic (i.e., every word is a root to which a particle but not another word may be prefixed). Sentence structure determines syntactical relations and verbs are not conjugated. Instead they have particles suffixed to them. For example, the verb \"to eat,\" \"ca:\" is itself unchanged when modified.", "Burmese does not have adjectives per se. Rather, it has verbs that carry the meaning \"to be X\", where X is an English adjective. These verbs can modify a noun by means of the grammatical particle \"tai.\" in colloquial Burmese (literary form: \"sau:\", which is suffixed as follows: Adjectives may also form a", "The roots of Burmese verbs are almost always suffixed with at least one particle which conveys such information as tense, intention, politeness, mood, etc. Many of these particles also have formal/literary and colloquial equivalents. In fact, the only time in which no particle is attached to a verb is in imperative commands. The most commonly used verb particles and their usage are shown below with an example verb root \"ca:\" \"to eat\". Alone, the statement is imperative. The suffix \"tai\" (literary form: \"sany\" can be viewed as a particle marking the present tense and/or a factual statement: The suffix \"hkai.\" denotes that the action took place in the past. However, this particle is not always necessary to indicate the past tense such that it can convey the same information without it. But to emphasize that the action happened before another event", "Nouns in Burmese are pluralized by suffixing the particle \"twe\" (or if the word ends in a glottal stop) in colloquial Burmese or \"mya:\" in formal Burmese. The particle (tou., which indicates a group of persons or things, is also suffixed to the modified noun. An example is below: Plural suffixes are not used when the noun is quantified with a number. Although Burmese does not have grammatical gender (e.g. masculine or feminine nouns), a distinction is made between the sexes, especially in animals and plants, by means of suffix particles. Nouns are masculinized with the following particles: \"hti:\", \"hpa\", or \"hpui\", depending on the noun, and feminized with the particle \"ma.\". Examples of usage are below:", "Like its neighboring languages such as Thai, Bengali, and Chinese, Burmese uses numerical classifiers (also called measure words) when nouns are counted or quantified. This approximately equates to English expressions such as \"two slices of bread\" or \"a cup of coffee\". Classifiers are required when counting nouns, so \"hka.le: nga:\" (lit. \"child five\") is incorrect, since the measure word for people \"yauk\" is missng; it needs to suffix the numeral. The standard word order of quantified words is: quantified noun + numeral adjective + classifier, except in round numbers (numbers that end in zero), in which the word order is flipped, where the quantified noun precedes the classifier: quantified noun + classifier + numeral adjective. The only exception to this rule is the number 10, which follows the standard word order. Measurements of time, such as \"hour,\" \"day,\" or \"month,\" do not require classifiers. Below are some of the most commonly used classifiers in Burmese.", "The Burmese language makes prominent usage of particles (called in Burmese), which are untranslatable words that are suffixed or prefixed to words to indicate the level of respect, grammatical tense, or mood. According to the \"Myanmar–English Dictionary\" (1993), there are 449 particles in the Burmese language. For example, is a grammatical particle used to indicate the imperative mood. While (\"work\" + particle indicating politeness) does not indicate the", "Subject pronouns begin sentences, though the subject is generally omitted in the imperative forms and in conversation. Grammatically speaking, subject marker particles in colloquial, in formal) must be attached to the subject pronoun, although they are also generally omitted in conversation. Object pronouns must have an object marker particle in colloquial, in formal) attached immediately after the pronoun. Proper nouns are often substituted for pronouns. One's status in relation to the audience determines the pronouns used, with certain pronouns used for different audiences. Polite pronouns are used to address elders, teachers and strangers, through the use of feudal-era third person pronouns in lieu of first and second person pronouns. In such situations, one refers to oneself in third person: \"kya. nau\" for men and \"kya. ma.\" for women, both meaning \"your servant\", and refer to the addressee as \"min\" \"your highness\", \"khang bya:\" \"master, lord\" () or \"hrang\" \"ruler/master\".", "Minor pronunciation differences do exist within regions of Irrawaddy valley. For example, the pronunciation of \"food offering [to a monk]\" is preferred in Lower Burma, instead of, which is preferred in Upper Burma. However, the most obvious difference between Upper Burmese and Lower Burmese is that Upper Burmese speech still differentiates maternal and paternal sides of a family: In a testament to the power of media, the Yangon-based speech is gaining currency even in Upper", "Reduplication is prevalent in Burmese and is used to intensify or weaken adjectives' meanings. For example, if \"beautiful\" is reduplicated, then the intensity of the adjective's meaning increases. Many Burmese words, especially adjectives with two syllables, such as \"beautiful\", when reduplicated ( → ) become adverbs. This is", "There is no official romanization system for Burmese. There have been attempts to make one, but none have been successful. Replicating Burmese sounds in the Latin script is complicated. There is a Pali-based transcription system in existence, MLC Transcription System which was devised by the Myanmar Language Commission (MLC). However,", "The Burmese script can be entered from a standard QWERTY keyboard, and is supported within the Unicode standard, meaning it can be read and written from most modern computers and smartphones. Burmese has complex character rendering requirements, where tone markings and vowel modifications are noted using diacritics. These can be placed before consonants (as with ), above them (as with ) or even around them (as with ). These character clusters are built using multiple keystrokes. In particular, the inconsistent placement of diacritics as a feature of the language presents a conflict between an intuitive WYSIWYG typing approach, and a logical consonant-first storage approach. Since its introduction in 2007, the most popular Burmese font, Zawgyi, has been near-ubiquitous in Myanmar. Linguist Justin Watkins argues that the ubiquitous use of Zawgyi harms Myanmar languages, including Burmese, by preventing efficient sorting, searching, processing and analyzing Myanmar text through flexible diacritic ordering. Zawgyi is not Unicode-compliant, but occupies the same code space as Unicode Myanmar font. As it is not defined as a standard character encoding, Zawgyi is not built in to any major operating systems as standard. However, allow for its position as the \"de facto\" (but largely undocumented) standard within the country, telcos and major smartphone distributors (such as Huawei and Samsung) ship phones with Zawgyi font overwriting standard Unicode-compliant fonts, which are installed on most internationally distributed hardware. Facebook also supports Zawgyi as an additional language encoding for their app and website. As a result, almost all SMS alerts (including those from telcos to their customers), social media posts and other web resources may be incomprehensible on these devices without the custom Zawgyi font installed at the operating system level. These may include devices purchased overseas, or distributed by companies who do not customize software for the local market. Keyboards which have a Zawgyi keyboard layout printed on them are the most commonly available for purchase domestically. Until recently, Unicode compliant fonts have been more difficult to type than Zawgyi, as they have a stricter, less forgiving and arguably less intuitive method for ordering diacritics. However, intelligent input software such as Keymagic and recent versions of smartphone soft-keyboards including Gboard and ttKeyboard allow for more forgiving input sequences and Zawgyi keyboard layouts which produce Unicode-compliant text. A number of Unicode-compliant Burmese fonts exist. The national standard keyboard layout is known as the Myanmar3 layout, and it was published along with the Myanmar3 Unicode font. The layout, developed by the Myanmar Unicode and NLP Research Center, has a smart input system to cover the complex structures of Burmese and related scripts. In addition to the development of computer fonts and standard keyboard layout, there is still a lot of scope of research for the Burmese language, specifically for Natural Language Processing (NLP) areas like WordNet, Search Engine, development of parallel corpus for Burmese language as well as development of a formally standardized and dense domain-specific corpus of Burmese language. Myanmar government has designated Oct 1 2019 as \"U-Day\" to officially switch to Unicode. The full transition is estimated to take two years." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Formal definition.", "Overview.", "Derivatives and differential equations.", "Continued fractions for.", "Complex plane.", "Computation of where both and are complex.", "Matrices and Banach algebras.", "Lie algebras.", "Transcendency.", "Computation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The real exponential function formula_16 can be characterized in a variety of equivalent ways. It is commonly defined by the following power series: Since the radius of convergence of this power series is infinite, this definition is, in fact, applicable to all complex numbers formula_18 (see below for the extension of formula_19 to the complex plane). The constant can then be defined as formula_20 The term-by-term differentiation of this power series reveals that formula_21 for all real, leading to another common characterization of formula_19 as the unique solution of the differential equation satisfying the initial condition formula_24 Based on this characterization, the chain rule shows that its inverse function, the natural logarithm, satisfies formula_25 for formula_26 or formula_27 This relationship leads to a less common definition of the real exponential function formula_19 as the solution formula_29 to the equation By way of the binomial theorem and the power series definition, the exponential function can also be defined as the following limit:", "The exponential function arises whenever a quantity grows or decays at a rate proportional to its current value. One such situation is continuously compounded interest, and in fact it was this observation that led Jacob Bernoulli in 1683 to the number now known as. Later, in 1697, Johann Bernoulli studied the calculus of the exponential function. If a principal amount of 1 earns interest at an annual rate of compounded monthly, then the interest earned each month is times the current value, so each month the total value is multiplied by, and the value at the end of the year is. If instead interest is compounded daily, this becomes. Letting the number of time intervals per year grow without bound leads to the limit definition of the exponential function, first given by Leonhard Euler. This is one of a number of characterizations of the exponential function; others involve series or differential equations. From any of these definitions it can be shown that the exponential function obeys the basic exponentiation identity, which justifies the notation for. The derivative (rate of change) of the exponential function is the exponential function itself. More generally, a function with a rate of change \"proportional\" to the function itself (rather than equal to it) is expressible in terms of the exponential function. This function property leads to exponential growth or exponential decay. The exponential function extends to an entire function on the complex plane. Euler's formula relates its values at purely imaginary arguments to trigonometric functions. The exponential function also has analogues for which the argument is a matrix, or even an element of a Banach algebra or a Lie algebra.", "The importance of the exponential function in mathematics and the sciences stems mainly from its property as the unique function which is equal to its derivative and is equal to 1 when. That is, Functions of the form for constant are the only functions that are equal to their derivative (by the Picard–Lindelöf theorem). Other ways of saying the same thing include: If a variable's growth or decay rate is proportional to its size—as is the case in unlimited population growth (see Malthusian catastrophe), continuously compounded interest, or radioactive decay—then the variable can be written as a constant times an exponential function of time. Explicitly for any real constant, a function satisfies if and only if for some constant. The constant \"k\" is called the decay constant, disintegration constant, rate constant, or transformation constant. Furthermore, for any differentiable function, we find, by the chain rule:", "A continued fraction for can be obtained via an identity of Euler: The following generalized continued fraction for converges more quickly: or, by applying the substitution : with a special case for : This formula also converges, though more slowly, for. For example:", "As in the real case, the exponential function can be defined on the complex plane in several equivalent forms. The most common definition of the complex exponential function parallels the power series definition for real arguments, where the real variable is replaced by a complex one: Term-wise multiplication of two copies of these power series in the Cauchy sense, permitted by Mertens' theorem, shows that the defining multiplicative property of exponential functions continues to hold for all complex arguments: The definition of the complex exponential function in turn leads to the appropriate definitions extending the trigonometric functions to complex arguments. In particular, when formula_45 (formula_46 real), the series definition yields the expansion In this expansion, the rearrangement of the terms into real and imaginary parts is justified by the absolute convergence of the series. The real and imaginary parts of the above expression in fact correspond to the series expansions of and, respectively. This correspondence provides motivation for cosine and sine for all complex arguments in terms of formula_48 and the equivalent power series: for all formula_50 The functions,, and so defined have infinite radii of convergence by the ratio test and are therefore entire functions (\"i.e.\", holomorphic on formula_51). The range of the exponential function is formula_52, while the ranges of the complex sine and cosine functions are both formula_51 in its entirety, in accord with Picard's theorem, which asserts that the range of a nonconstant entire function is either all of formula_51, or formula_51 excluding one lacunary value. These definitions for the exponential and trigonometric functions lead trivially to Euler's formula: We could alternatively define the complex exponential function based on this relationship. If formula_58, where formula_59 and formula_29 are both real, then we could define its exponential as where,, and on the right-hand side of the definition sign are to be interpreted as functions of a real variable, previously defined by other means. For formula_62, the relationship formula_63 holds, so that formula_64 for real formula_46 and formula_66 maps the real line (mod formula_67) to the unit circle. Based on the relationship between formula_68 and the unit circle, it is easy to see that, restricted to real arguments, the definitions of sine and cosine given above coincide with their more elementary definitions based on geometric notions. The complex exponential function is periodic with period formula_69 and formula_70 holds for all formula_71. When its domain is extended from the real line to the complex plane, the exponential function retains the following properties: for all formula_44. Extending the natural logarithm to complex arguments yields the complex logarithm, which is a multivalued function. We can then define a more general exponentiation: for all complex numbers and. This is also a multivalued function, even when is real. This distinction is problematic, as the multivalued functions and are easily confused with their single-valued equivalents when substituting a real number for. The rule about multiplying exponents for the case of positive real numbers must be modified in a multivalued context: See failure of power and logarithm identities for more about problems with combining powers. The exponential function maps any line in the complex plane to a logarithmic spiral in the complex plane with the center at the origin. Two special cases exist: when the original line is parallel to the real axis, the resulting spiral never closes in on itself; when the original line is parallel to the imaginary axis, the resulting spiral is a circle of some radius. Considering the complex exponential function as a function involving four real variables: the graph of the exponential function is a two-dimensional surface curving through four dimensions. Starting with a color-coded portion of the formula_80 domain, the following are depictions of the graph as variously projected into two or three dimensions. The second image shows how the domain complex plane is mapped into the range complex plane: The third and fourth images show how the graph in the second image extends into one of the other two dimensions not shown in the second image. The third image shows the graph extended along the real formula_59 axis. It shows the graph is a surface of revolution about the formula_59 axis of the graph of the real exponential function, producing a horn or funnel shape. The fourth image shows the graph extended along the imaginary formula_29 axis. It shows that the graph's surface for positive and negative formula_29 values doesn't really meet along the negative real formula_82 axis, but instead forms a spiral surface about the formula_29 axis. Because its formula_29 values have been extended to ±2π, this image also better depicts the 2π periodicity in the imaginary formula_29 value.", "Complex exponentiation can be defined by converting to polar coordinates and using the identity : However, when is not an integer, this function is multivalued, because is not unique (see failure of power and logarithm identities).", "The power series definition of the exponential function makes sense for square matrices (for which the function is called the matrix exponential) and more generally in any unital Banach algebra. In this setting,, and is invertible with inverse for any in. If, then, but this identity can fail for noncommuting and. Some alternative definitions lead to the same function. For instance, can be defined as Or can be defined as, where is the solution to the differential equation, with initial condition ; it follows that for every in", "Given a Lie group and its associated Lie algebra formula_94, the exponential map is a map formula_94 satisfying similar properties. In fact, since is the Lie algebra of the Lie group of all positive real numbers under multiplication, the ordinary exponential function for real arguments is a special case of the Lie algebra situation. Similarly, since the Lie group of invertible matrices has as Lie algebra, the space of all matrices, the exponential function for square matrices is a special case of the Lie algebra exponential map. The identity can fail for Lie algebra elements and that do not commute; the Baker–Campbell–Hausdorff formula supplies the necessary correction terms.", "The function is not in (i.e., is not the quotient of two polynomials with complex coefficients). For distinct complex numbers }, the set } is linearly independent over. The function is transcendental over.", "When computing (an approximation of) the exponential function near the argument, the result will be close to 1, and computing the value of the difference formula_96 with floating-point arithmetic may lead to the loss of (possibly all) significant figures, producing a large calculation error, possibly even a meaningless result. Following a proposal by William Kahan, it may thus be useful to have a dedicated routine, often called codice_1, for computing directly, bypassing computation of. For example, if the exponential is computed by using its Taylor series one may use the Taylor series of formula_98 This was first implemented in 1979 in the Hewlett-Packard HP-41C calculator, and provided by several calculators, operating systems (for example Berkeley UNIX 4.3BSD), computer algebra systems, and programming languages (for example C99). In addition to base, the IEEE 754-2008 standard defines similar exponential functions near 0 for base 2 and 10: formula_100 and formula_101. A similar approach has been used for the logarithm (see lnp1). An identity in terms of the hyperbolic tangent, gives a high-precision value for small values of on systems that do not implement." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Origin.", "Ascent and expansion.", "Schwarzenberg/Sulz family unification.", "Two princely lines.", "Present Time.", "Frisian and Prussian line.", "Imperial immediate estates.", "Notable family members.", "Property and residences.", "Germany.", "Bohemia.", "Austria.", "Ecclesiastical buildings and places.", "Monuments and memorials.", "The Family.", "Dynasty.", "Titles.", "Titles of the members of the family.", "Coat of arms.", "Family coat of arms.", "Municipal coat of arms." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The family stems from the Lords of Seinsheim, who had established themselves in Franconia during the Middle Ages. A branch of the Seinsheim family (the non-Schwarzenberg portion died out in 1958) was created when Erkinger of Seinsheim acquired the Franconian territory of Schwarzenberg and the castle of Schwarzenberg in Scheinfeld during the early part of the 15th century. He was then granted the title of \"Freiherr\" (Baron) of Schwarzenberg in 1429. At that time, the family also possessed some fiefdoms in Bohemia.", "In 1599, the Schwarzenbergs were elevated to Imperial Counts, and the family was later raised to princely status in 1670. In 1623 came the Styrian Dominion of Murau into the Schwarzenberg family due to the marriage of Count Georg Ludwig of Schwarzenberg (1586 - 1646) with Anna Neumann von Wasserleonburg (1535 - 1623). Furthermore, the House of Schwarzenberg acquired extensive land holdings in Bohemia in 1661 through a marriage alliance with the House of Eggenberg. In the 1670s, the Schwarzenbergs established their primary seat in Bohemia and, until 1918, their main residence was in Český Krumlov, Bohemia (now in Czechia).", "Due to the absence of a male heir and his only daughter Maria Anna married to Prince Ferdinand of Schwarzenberg, Johann Ludwig II. Count of Sulz proposed a family unification between the Counts of Sulz and Princes of Schwarzenberg at the Imperial Court. His request was granted, which not only transferred all legal and property rights upon his death in 1687 from the Sulz family to the Schwarzenberg family, but assured that the Sulz family continues in the Schwarzenberg family. The visible affirmation of this bond was the merging of the coat of arms.", "At the beginning of the 19th century, the House of Schwarzenberg was divided into two princely-titled lines (\"majorats\"). This division was already foreseen in the will of Prince Ferdinand (*1652 - †1703). However, the absence of two male heirs until Joseph II. and Karl I. Philipp inhibited the execution. The senior branch,which held not only the Palais Schwarzenberg in Vienna, but also the Dominions of Scheinfeld, Krumlov, Frauenberg and Murau, died out in the male line in 1979 upon the death of Joseph III of Schwarzenberg, who was the 11th Prince of Schwarzenberg. The cadet branch, which was established by Karl Philipp, Prince of Schwarzenberg at Orlík Castle, continues to the present day. The two branches have now been re-united under the current head of the family, Karl VII of Schwarzenberg, who is the 12th Prince of Schwarzenberg. He is a Czech politician and served as Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Czech Republic.", "Due to the unification of the family-headship under Karl VII Schwarzenberg, the fidei commissa of both the primogeniture / Hluboka line and the secundogeniture / Orlik line came under the single ownership of the last-mentioned prince. Karl VII created in the 1980s the current structure of the family belongings. The German and Austrian properties from the primogeniture were embedded (with some exceptions) into the \"Fürstlich Schwarzenberg'sche Familienstiftung\" (Princely Schwarzenberg Family-Foundation) based in Vaduz. The art collection, which includes the painting \"The Abduction of Ganymede\" by Peter Paul Rubens or an important collection of works by Johann Georg de Hamilton, is held in the separate \"Fürstlich Schwarzenberg'sche Kunststiftung\" (Princely Schwarzenberg Art-Foundation). The Czech property of the secundogeniture is held privately. The members of the family follow careers in the private or military sector.", "Michael II. Baron zu Schwarzenberg (†1469), oldest son of Erkinger I. (*1362 - †1437), was married twice. First with Gertrud (Bätze) von Cronberg (†1438), from whom the princely line descends. His second marriage was with Ursula (\"Frankengrüner\") Grüner († ca.1484), from whom the Frisian and later the Prussian line originates. The children of Michael's and Ursula's alliance were never recognized by their half-siblings, as their first born son was born out of wedlock and the legitimisation only took place with the subsequent wedding. Johann Onuphrius (*1513–†1584), a great-grandson of Michael II. and Ursula, is considered to be the progenitor of the Frisian Line. His marriage with Maria von Grumbach (†1564) ensured \"Groot Terhorne Castle\" until 1879 as the family seat in the Netherlands. The Frisian line was made a member of the Dutch nobility by a Royal decree of King William I. of the Netherlands on August 28, 1814. Henceforth, the Dutch version thoe Schwartzenberg en Hohenlansberg was applied for this branch of the family. The Prussian Line was established as a cadet branch of the Frisian line with Georg Baron thoe Schwartzenberg en Hohenlansberg (1842-1918), who served as a Rittmeister in the Imperial German Army. He and his descendants were made members of the Prussian nobility by an Imperial decree, issued by Emperor Wilhelm II., and are entitled to carry the German title \"Freiherr\".", "The Schwarzenberg family held three Imperial Immediate Estates in the Holy Roman Empire. By coincidence the coat of arms of the \"Princely Landgraviate of Klettgau\" and the \"Earldom of Buchan\" in Scotland are the same. The Klettgau coat of arms can be found in the left heart shield of the Schwarzenberg coat of arms.", "The House of Schwarzenberg produced many military commanders, politicians, church dignitaries (including a Cardinal), innovators and patrons of the arts. They were related to a number of European aristocratic families, notably the Lobkowicz () family. Some of the most noteworthy members of the Schwarzenberg family are:", "", "The Schwarzenberg family holding included the following residences in Germany:", "The Schwarzenberg land holdings in Bohemia included the Duchy of Krumlov, the town of Prachatice and Orlík Castle. The family also acquired the property of the House of Rosenberg (). On their lands, the Schwarzenbergs created ponds, planted forests and introduced new technologies in agriculture. Upon the establishment of the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia in 1939, the possessions of Prince Adolph of Schwarzenberg were seized by the Nazi authorities. He managed to flee, but his cousin Heinrich, Duke of Krumlov, was arrested and deported. After World War II, the Czechoslovakian government stated, by law No. 143/1947 from August 13, 1947 \"(Lex Schwarzenberg)\", that the assets of the Schwarzenberg-Hluboká primogeniture passed to the Land of Bohemia. The Schwarzenberg family holding included the following residences in Bohemia:", "The Schwarzenberg family holdings included the following residences in Austria:", "The following religious places are linked to the Schwarzenberg family either as burial or memorial places:", "The following monuments are erected for the Schwarzenberg family and its members:", "", "The names hereby presented are those of all the direct successors of the Prince John I of Schwarzenberg (1742–1789). They have been respectively divided into the two branches of Krumlov and Orlik, including the contemporary generations. For the genealogy to be easier to consult, the male successors alone are listed, and they are accompanied with noteworthy information where necessary. In bold the names of the members of the eldest part of the family.", "", "The title of the head of the princely family is: The title of the wife of the head of the family would be: The title of the first born son and heir of the family is: The title of the wife of the first born son and heir of the family would be: The title of all other female members of the family is: The title of all other male members of the family is: Although the family is entitled to use the \"von und zu\", only the \"zu\" is applied. Moreover, all members of the family are allowed to use the title \"Fürst\" / \"Fürstin\". However, this is not anymore practiced since the late 19th century and the cognates refer to themselves as \"Prinz\" / \"Prinzessin\".", "", "The ancestral arms of the Lords of Seinsheim consisted of six vertical stripes in silver and blue. However, the Schwarzenberg family's original coat of arms has four silver and four blue vertical stripes. Moreover, it starts with silver on the heraldic right (mirror-inverted perspective). The family became \"Freiherren\" (Barons) of Schwarzenberg in 1429, and a silver tower on a black hill was added to their coat of arms to represent the city Scheinfeld and Schwarzenberg Castle. In 1599, Adolf von Schwarzenberg became an Imperial Count, and was given by the emperor a quarter with a canting arms showing the head of a Turk being pecked by a raven. This was to commemorate Adolf's conquest on 19 March 1598 of the Turkish-held fortress and city Győr. The German name of the Hungarian town is \"Raab\", which means raven. In 1670, the Schwarzenbergs were raised to princely status. However, only the marriage of Ferdinand, The 2nd Prince of Schwarzenberg (1652–1703) with Marie Anna Countess of Sulz (1653–1698), the daughter of Johann Ludwig II. Count of Sulz (1626–1687), led to the augmenting of their coat of arms, with quarters added for the domains of Sulz, Brandis (canting arms: a \"brand\") and the Landgraviate of Klettgau. Due to the absence of a male heir, Count Rudolf requested at the imperial court that the two families should be consolidated. This was granted, which meant for the Schwarzenberg family not only to assume all titles, rights and duties of the Counts of Sulz, but also to inherit all of Rudolf's properties. The last augmentation of the family coat of arms was granted by the Austrian Emperor Franz II. / I.. He rewarded Field Marshal Karl I. Philipp Prince of Schwarzenberg with the right to bear the three-part arms of the Habsburg family with the addition of an upright standing sword. This unique distinction was granted to commemorate the field marshal's victory in the Battle of the Nations, where he was the Generalissimo of the Sixth Coalition. The family motto is \"NIL NISI RECTUM\".", "Traces of the Schwarzenberg coat of arms can be found in various district and municipal coat of arms, which can be linked to the family:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Taxonomy.", "Phylogeny of \"Papaver\" and related genera.", "Species.", "History and uses." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The flowers have two sepals that fall off as the bud opens, and four (or up to six) petals in red, pink, orange, yellow, or lilac. There are many stamens in several whorls around a compound pistil, which results from the fusion of carpels. The stigmas are visible on top of the capsule, and the number of stigmas corresponds to the number of fused carpels. The ovary later develops into a dehiscing capsule, capped by the dried stigmas. The numerous, tiny seeds escape with the slightest breeze through the pores of the capsule. The typical \"Papaver\" gynoecium is superior (the flower is hypogynous) with a globular ovary. The style is characteristically absent for the type species opium poppy, and several others, although those with a style do exist. The sessile plate-like stigmata lies on top of the ovary. Pollen-receptive surfaces. The characteristic fruit type of \"Papaver\" is the unilocular capsule. The stigmatic disc rests on top of the capsule, and beneath it are dehiscent pores or valves.", "Divided into a number of sections by Kiger (1973, 1985), the following are lectotypified with their lectotype species. Subsequent cladistic classification by Carolan \"et al.\" (2006) suggested \"Papaver\" was not monophyletic. The following are lectotypified with their lectotype species:", "\"Papaver\" sect. \"Argemonidium\" includes four annual, half-rosette species, \"P. argemone\", \"P. pavonium\", \"P. apulum\", and \"P. hybridum\" (Kadereit 1986a). \"Papaver apulum,\" \"P. argemone\" and \"P. pavonium\" occur allopatrically from the Adriatic Sea to the Himalayan range. \"P. hybridum\" is distributed widely from the Himalayas to Macaronesian Islands. These species are easily distinguished in petal and capsule characters, but are clearly closely related according to molecular analysis. \"Argemonidium\" is a sister group to all other \"Papaver\" sections, with characteristic indels. Morphological characters also support this distinction, including the presence of an apical plug in the capsules, long internodes above the basal leaf rosette, bristly capsules and polyporate pollen grains. Carolan et al. (2006) supported Kadereit et al. (1997)’s suggestions that \"Argemonidium\" and \"Roemeria\" are in fact sister taxa. They share some morphological characters that distinguish them from \"Papaver\", including polyporate pollen grains, and long internodes superior the basal leaf rosette. Previous taxonomies of the Old World clade did include the close relationship between \"Argemonidium\" and \"Roemeria\", nor \"Argemonidium\"’s distinctness from \"Papaver\" s.s. Carolan suggest \"Argemonidium\" be elevated to genus status, with \"Roemeria\" a sub-genus. \"Papaver\" sect. \"Meconella\" is widely distributed, with populations spanning central, inner and eastern Asia, Siberia, Scandinavia, northern Greenland, Canada, the Rocky Mountains, and regions of Europe. It has been distinguished from other \"Papaver\" sections morphologically by its bristly, valvate capsules, pinnatisect leaves, pale stamen, and white, orange or yellow corolla. Older taxonomies divided \"Meconella\" into two groups based on degree of leaf dissection (finely dissected leaves vs. broad leaf lobes). Kadereit (1990) and Kadereit and Sytsma (1992) regarded finely dissected leaves as a derived character, and suggested that \"Meconella\" formed a group with \"Argemonidium\" as sister to other \"Papaver\" sects. Bittkau and Kadereit (2002) demonstrated that for \"P. alpinum\" s.l. broad leaf lobes were ancestral. Carolan et al. (2006) resolved \"Meconopsis\" as sister to sect. \"Meconella\", forming a sister clade to the rest of \"Papaver\", excluding \"Argemonidium\". \"Meconella\" possesses a sessile stigmatic disc, similar to the typical discs of \"Papaver\" sect. \"Papaver\"., yet differences in the disc and other morphological characters have led to suggestions that this feature may not be homologous. The results of the Carolan \"et al.\" (2006) analysis present a major problem to previous taxonomy of the genera \"Meconopsis\", and \"Papaver\". As several species of \"Meconopsis\" (excluding \"M. cambrica\") and \"P. Meconella\" resolved as a monophyletic group, sister to other \"Papaver\" sects., either \"Meconella\" must be elevated to genus status, or combined with the Asian species of \"Meconopsis\", as a subgenus of \"Papaver\". \"Papaver\" sects. \"Californicum\" and \"Horrida\" have unique geographic distributions in relation to the rest of the genus. \"Horrida\" is represented by a single species \"Papaver aculeatum\" of, an annual flower native to South Africa. The capsule is glabrous narrow, long and poricidal. The vegetative parts are covered with setae, and the growth form is a rosette with rarely branching axes, and narrowly elliptical incised leaves. P. sect. californicum, is also represented by a single annual species, of the same name. As the name implies, it is native to western North America, and is characterized by a slender, ribbed, glabrous capsule, a racemose inforescence, yellow anthers and filaments, and valvate capsule dehiscece. Previous morphological-based taxonomies of these species have led to unreliable groupings. \"Horrida\" and \"Pilosa\" have recemose inforescences, pale filiform filaments and long capsules with flat stigmatic discs, while \"P. californicum\" and sect. \"Meconidium\" share valvate capsule dehiscence and pale filaments, but geographically these species are distinct, and do not follow molecular evidence. Commonality among these features is therefore hypothesized to be a result of convergence. In Carolan et al.’s (2006) combined ITS, trnL-F trees, both \"Horrida\" and \"Californicum\" attach to basal nodes within the main clade \"Papaver\". Kadereit \"et al.\" (1997) postulated that \"Stylomecon heterophylla\" arose from within \"Papaver\" and should not be relegated as a separate genus. \"S. heterophylla\" and \"P. californicum\" are both native to southwestern North America, and share habitats. They are also morphologically similar, sharing glabrous buds, bright orange corollas, and yellow anthers. Their capsules are different, with \"S. heterophylla\" possessing a distinct style that is reminiscent of those in many \"Meconopsis\" species. However, Carolan et al.’s (2006) analysis strongly supports a monophyletic group for \"S. heterophylla\" and \"P. californicum\", sister to the core \"Papaver\" sects, with \"Horrida\", basal to that grouping. They recommended that both sects. \"Californicum\" and \"Horrida\" be elevated to “subgenera” within \"Papaver\". The authors reject the genus status of \"Stylomecon\". \"Meconopsis\" is composed of mostly Asian dwelling species, and a single European representative, \"M. cambrica\". Kadereit et al. (1997) first provided evidence that this relationship is not monophyletic. Carolan et al. (2006) confirmed the separation of \"M. cambrica\" from the rest of \"Meconopsis\". In fact, it forms a well-supported sister-group to the core sections of \"Papaver\", excluding \"Argemonidium\", \"Californicum\", \"Horrida\" and \"Meconella\". The core sections of \"Papaver\" s.s. form a well-supported clade, consisting of \"Pseudopilosa\", \"Pilosa\", \"Papaver\", \"Carinatae\", \"Meconidium\", \"Oxytona\", and \"Rhoeadium\". \"Pseudopilosa\" spp. have a subscapose growth habit, and their distribution includes south-western Asia, northern Africa and southern Spain. There are some leaves on the lower part of the flower axis carrying a single flower. Carolan et al.’s (2006) analysis placed \"Pseudopilosa\" as sister to the remaining \"Papaver\" s.s. sections. \"Pilosa\" is a single species, \"P. pilosum\", found mostly in western Turkey Sects. \"Pilosa\" and \"Pseudopilosa\" are separated based on morphological and chemical differences. The monophyly of \"Carinatae\", \"Papaver\" and \"Rhoeadium\" is questionable based on current molecular evidence. \"Papaver\" sect. \"Rhoeadium\" comprises seventeen annual species. Carolan et al. (2006) use three representative species, \"P. commutatum\", \"P. dubium\", and \"P. rhoeas\" for their genetic analysis. The geographic center of \"Rhoeadium\"’s diversity is in south-western Asia and the Aegean area. They have porocidal capsules and usually dark filaments. This section is morphologically diverse however, leading Kadereit (1989) to recognize three distinct groups. The first comprises species with tetraploid and hexaploid genomes, with long capsules. The second group contains diploid species and diverse morphologies. The third group consists of diploid species and uniform morphologies. Carolan et al. (2006) showed some incongruences between their trnL-F and ITS maximum parsimony trees, showing weak support for Kadereit's (1989) groupings. Further analyses with more species and more samples will be necessary to resolve the phylogeny at this level. \"Papaver\" has traditionally been characterized by the absence of a stigma, and the presence of a sessile stigmatic disc. Carolan et al. (2006) demonstrated that several species with this trait however are closely related to taxa possessing a style e.g. \"S. heterophylla\" and \"P. californicum\", and P. sect. \"Meconella\" and Asian \"Meconopsis\". This evidence, in combination with morphological differences among the discs suggests convergent evolutionary pathways. \"Papaver\" has long been considered the most derived clade within Papaveroideae, due to the belief that the stigmatic disc was an apomorphous characteristic. Sections \"Meconella\" and \"Californicum\" exhibit valvate dehiscence, and their basal position within \"Papaver\" suggest this may be an ancestral form. Its presence in \"Meconidium\", however, suggests it is also a synapomorphy within that group. Note: \"Meconella\" (not to be confused with the genus \"Meconella\") has an alpine and circumpolar arctic distribution and includes some of the most northerly-growing vascular land plants.", "There are 70–100 species, including:", "Poppies have been grown as ornamental plants since 5000 BC in Mesopotamia. They were found in Egyptian tombs. In Greek mythology, the poppy was associated with Demeter, goddess of fertility and agriculture. The origin of the cultural symbol was probably Minoan Crete, because a figurine known as the \"poppy goddess\" was found at a Minoan sanctuary in Crete. People believed they would get a bountiful crop if poppies grew in their fields, hence the name 'corn poppy'. In the course of history, poppies have always been attributed important medicinal properties. The stems contain a milky latex that may cause skin irritation, and the latex in the opium poppy (\"Papaver somniferum\") contains several narcotic alkaloids, including morphine and codeine. The alkaloid rhoeadine, derived from the flowers of the corn poppy (\"Papaver rhoeas\"), is used as a mild sedative. Poppy seeds are used in baking and cooking, and poppyseed oil is used in cooking and pharmaceuticals, and as a radiocontrast agent. The ancient Greeks portrayed Hypnos, Nyx and Thanatos, the gods of sleep, night and death, with the symbol of the poppy. The earliest written record appeared in the eighth century BC. Early Greek accounts seem to indicate the plant was used for euthanasia; on some Greek islands, women used it in old age to shorten the time left until natural death. Hippocrates (460–377 BC) was one of the first to emphasize the medicinal uses of the poppy and outline several methods of preparation. He described poppy juice as narcotic, hypnotic, and cathartic. He also recognized the plant's uses as food, particularly the seeds. By the first century AD, Dioskorides wrote down the first poppy taxonomy. He distinguished between several different kinds, the first of which was the \"cultivated\" or \"garden\" poppies. He further distinguished two types within this category, ones with black and others with white seeds. Both had elongated capsules and the black-seeded variety was involuted. Historians speculate this variety was \"Papaver somniferum\". Other species were in use, as well. Dioskorides named the “flowering” poppy as a type with strong hypnotic properties. This is believed to be \"Papaver hybridum\". Finally, the “wild” poppy he described is believed to be \"Papaver orientale\". Pliny the Elder, a Roman historian, later mentioned an “intermediate” type between the wild and cultivated poppy, likely \"Papaver rhoeas\". He wrote about medical applications of the plant; the leaves and capsules were boiled in water to create juice, pressed and rubbed to create tablets, and the dried latex was used to form opium. These products were used in much the same way they are in many cultures today, to promote sleep and to relieve indigestion and respiratory problems. A century later, Galen wrote even more extensively about the diverse applications of various poppy products. He wrote that opium was the strongest known drug for dulling the senses and for inducing sleep. He wrote about its use to treat a variety of ailments, including eye and lung inflammation. The First (18391842) and Second Opium Wars (18561860) between China and Great Britain resulted from attempts by successive Chinese emperors to suppress increasing imports of opium into the country. In the first half of the 19th century, poppy seed oil was an important food crop, but large-scale production did not begin until Europe began to manufacture morphine in the mid-19th century. While 800–1000 tons of Indian opium are processed legally each year, this represents only an estimated 5% of total opium production worldwide; the majority is produced illegally. The first factory specializing in dry capsule processing was built in 1928. Today, morphine and codeine are common alkaloids found in several poppy varieties, and are important drugs for much of the world. Australia, Turkey and India are the most important producers of poppy for medicinal use, while the US, the UK, France, Australia and Hungary are the largest processors. In the United States, opium is illegal, as is possession or cultivation of the flower itself. However, the law is seldom enforced when poppies are grown for culinary or ornamental use. The Opium Poppy Control Act Of 1942 led to the “Poppy Rebellion”, and a battle between California farmers and the federal government. Today, the law and its enforcement remain vague and controversial, even inciting episodes between gardeners and \"the poppy police\". They are also sold as cut flowers in flower arrangements, especially the Iceland poppy." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Lyrical themes.", "Reception.", "Additional recordings.", "Personnel." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Dickinson: \"Each song has a sort of frame in which it operates. The first song is about fear, the second song is about tragedy, the third song is about union. You could pick a theme or a topic for each song so that's what the song is about and then you put it in a frame. For example, one of the songs is about failure and the song is called \"The Trumpets of Jericho\". In the story of the trumpets of Jericho in the Bible, the walls fall down when the tribes of Israel walk around the city and blow their trumpets. Except in this song they don't, it doesn't work. You've done everything right, everything's cool but the wall's still standing. And what do you do? How do you face up to that fact? And it's all part of the whole alchemy thing. What were the alchemists trying to do? They were trying to achieve something that was virtually impossible, they spent their whole lives trying to do it, and all of them failed, or pretty damn near all of them failed. So, what does that feel like, and how does that work, and why keep carrying on. So that's the way the songs kind of work. And you don't have to go into them in all this detail, you could just sit back there and let it hit you over the head like a sledgehammer cause the album works it's just a really heavy album. But it's all there if you want to dig through the words.\" Metal Storm: \"The lyrics sound as if they were copied right away out of the unholy scriptures, capture the most of the time very empty feeling, warm and comforting sounds you can only expect from the 'Chemical Wedding' and 'The Alchemist' songs.\"", "Critical response to \"The Chemical Wedding\" was generally favourable, with Allmusic praising its \"modern metal aesthetic\". Sputnikmusic said, \"Professionally written and recorded, Bruce Dickinson once again pours his soul into his music, and the result is spectacular\", and went on to deem it \"one of the best metal albums of the late 90s\". In 2005, \"The Chemical Wedding\" was ranked number 388 in \"Rock Hard\" magazine's book of \"The 500 Greatest Rock & Metal Albums of All Time\".", "According to an interview with Rock Brigade in October 1998, Bruce mentioned that the band recorded a cover of the Scorpions song, \"The Zoo\". Although never released as a b-side or bonus track, it did see release that same year on the compilation \"\".", "Guest musicians" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Examples in English.", "Regular and irregular inflection.", "Declension and conjugation.", "Inflectional paradigm.", "Compared to derivation.", "Inflectional morphology.", "Inflection through Reduplication.", "Inflection through Tone Change.", "In various languages.", "Indo-European languages (fusional).", "English.", "Scandinavian languages.", "Other Germanic languages.", "Latin and the Romance languages.", "Baltic languages.", "Slavic languages.", "Arabic (fusional).", "Uralic languages (agglutinative).", "Altaic languages (agglutinative).", "Basque (agglutinative nominal inflection / fusional verb inflection).", "Mainland Southeast Asian languages (isolating).", "Chinese.", "Japanese (isolating/agglutinative).", "Auxiliary languages.", "Esperanto.", "Ido.", "Interlingua." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3" ], "content": [ "In English most nouns are inflected for number with the inflectional plural affix \"-s\" (as in \"dog\" → \"dog-s\"), and most English verbs are inflected for tense with the inflectional past tense affix \"-ed\" (as in \"call\" → \"call-ed\"). English also inflects verbs by affixation to mark the third person singular in the present tense (with \"-s\"), and the present participle (with \"-ing\"). English short adjectives are inflected to mark comparative and superlative forms (with \"-er\" and \"-est\" respectively). There are 9 inflectional affixes in the English language. Despite the march towards regularization, modern English retains traces of its ancestry, with a minority of its words still using inflection by ablaut (sound change, mostly in verbs) and umlaut (a particular type of sound change, mostly in nouns), as well as long-short vowel alternation. For example: For details, see English plural, English verbs, and English irregular verbs.", "When a given word class is subject to inflection in a particular language, there are generally one or more standard patterns of inflection (the \"paradigms\" described below) that words in that class may follow. Words which follow such a standard pattern are said to be regular; those that inflect differently are called irregular. For instance, many languages that feature verb inflection have both regular verbs and irregular verbs. In English, regular verbs form their past tense and past participle with the ending \"-[e]d\"; thus verbs like \"play\", \"arrive\" and \"enter\" are regular. However, there are a few hundred verbs which follow different patterns, such as \"sing–sang–sung\" and \"keep–kept–kept\"; these are described as irregular. Irregular verbs often preserve patterns which were regular in past forms of the language, but which have now become anomalous; in rare cases, there are regular verbs that were irregular in past forms of the language. (For more details see English verbs and English irregular verbs.) Other types of irregular inflected form include irregular plural nouns, such as the English \"mice\", \"children\" and \"women\" (see English plural) and the French'(the plural of ', \"eye\"); and irregular comparative and superlative forms of adjectives or adverbs, such as the English \"better\" and \"best\" (which correspond to the positive form \"good\" or \"well\"). Irregularities can have four basic causes: For more details on some of the considerations that apply to regularly and irregularly inflected forms, see the article on regular and irregular verbs.", "Two traditional grammatical terms refer to inflections of specific word classes: An organized list of the inflected forms of a given lexeme or root word is called its \"declension\" if it is a noun, or its \"conjugation\" if it is a verb. Below is the declension of the English pronoun \"I\", which is inflected for case and number. The pronoun \"who\" is also inflected in according to case. Its declension is defective, in the sense that it lacks a reflexive form. The following table shows the conjugation of the verb \"to arrive\" in the indicative mood: suffixes inflect it for person, number, and tense: The non-finite forms \"arrive (bare infinitive), \"arrived (past participle) and \"arriving\" (gerund/present participle), although not inflected for person or number, can also be regarded as part of the conjugation of the verb \"to arrive\". Compound verb forms, such as \"I have arrived\", \"I had arrived\", or \"I will arrive\", can be included also in the conjugation of the verb for didactical purposes, but they are not overt conjugations of \"arrive\". The formula for deriving the covert form, in which the relevant inflections do not occur in the main verb, is", "An inflectional paradigm refers to a pattern (usually a set of inflectional endings), where a class of words follow the same pattern. Nominal inflectional paradigms are called \"declensions\", and verbal inflectional paradigms are termed \"conjugations\". For instance, there are five types of Latin declension. Words that belong to the first declension usually end in -a and are usually feminine. These words share a common inflectional framework. In Old English, nouns are divided into two major categories of declension, the \"strong\" and \"weak\" ones, as shown below: The terms \"strong declension\" and \"weak declension\" are primarily relevant to well-known dependent-marking languages (such as the Indo-European languages, or Japanese). In dependent-marking languages, nouns in adpositional (prepositional or postpositional) phrases can carry inflectional morphemes. In head-marking languages, the adpositions can carry the inflection in adpositional phrases. This means that these languages will have inflected adpositions. In Western Apache (San Carlos dialect), the postposition \"-ká’\" 'on' is inflected for person and number with prefixes: Traditional grammars have specific terms for inflections of nouns and verbs but not for those of adpositions.", "Inflection is the process of adding \"inflectional morphemes\" that modify a verb's tense, mood, aspect, voice, person, or number or a noun's case, gender, or number, rarely affecting the word's meaning or class. Examples of applying inflectional morphemes to words are adding -\"s\" to the root \"dog\" to form \"dogs\" and adding -\"ed\" to \"wait\" to form \"waited\". In contrast, derivation is the process of adding \"derivational morphemes\", which create a new word from existing words and change the semantic meaning or the part of speech of the affected word, such as by changing a noun to a verb. Distinctions between verbal moods are mainly indicated by derivational morphemes. Words are rarely listed in dictionaries on the basis of their inflectional morphemes (in which case they would be lexical items). However, they often are listed on the basis of their derivational morphemes. For instance, English dictionaries list \"readable\" and \"readability\", words with derivational suffixes, along with their root \"read\". However, no traditional English dictionary lists \"book\" as one entry and \"books\" as a separate entry; the same goes for \"jump\" and \"jumped\".", "Languages that add inflectional morphemes to words are sometimes called \"inflectional languages\", which is a synonym for \"inflected languages\". Morphemes may be added in several different ways:", "Reduplication is a morphological process where a constituent is repeated. The direct repetition of a word or root is called \"total reduplication\" (or \"full reduplication\"). The repetition of a segment is referred to as \"partial reduplication\". Reduplication can serve both derivational and inflectional functions. A few examples are given below:", "Palancar and Léonard provided an example with Tlatepuzco Chinantec (an Oto-Manguean language spoken in Southern Mexico), where tones are able to distinguish mood, person, and number: Case can be distinguished with tone as well, as in Maasai language (a Nilo-Saharan language spoken in Kenya and Tanzania) (Hyman, 2016):", "", "Because the Proto-Indo-European language was highly inflected, all of its descendant Indo-European languages, such as Albanian, Armenian, English, German, Ukrainian, Russian, Persian, Kurdish, Italian, Irish, Spanish, French, Hindi, Kannada, Marathi, Urdu, Bengali, and Nepali, are inflected to a greater or lesser extent. In general, older Indo-European languages such as Latin, Ancient Greek, Old English, Old Norse, Old Church Slavonic and Sanskrit are extensively inflected because of their temporal proximity to Proto-Indo-European. Deflexion has caused modern versions of some Indo-European languages that were previously highly inflected to be much less so; an example is Modern English, as compared to Old English. In general, languages where deflexion occurs replace inflectional complexity with more rigorous word order, which provides the lost inflectional details. Most Slavic languages and some Indo-Aryan languages are an exception to the general Indo-European deflexion trend, continuing to be highly inflected (in some cases acquiring additional inflectional complexity and grammatical genders, as in Czech & Marathi).", "Old English was a moderately inflected language, using an extensive case system similar to that of modern Icelandic or German. Middle and Modern English lost progressively more of the Old English inflectional system. Modern English is considered a weakly inflected language, since its nouns have only vestiges of inflection (plurals, the pronouns), and its regular verbs have only four forms: an inflected form for the past indicative and subjunctive (\"looked\"), an inflected form for the third-person-singular present indicative (\"looks\"), an inflected form for the present participle (\"looking\"), and an uninflected form for everything else (\"look\"). While the English possessive indicator \"'s\" (as in \"Jane's book\") is a remnant of the Old English genitive case suffix, it is now considered by syntacticians not to be a suffix but a clitic, although some linguists argue that it has properties of both.", "Old Norse was inflected, but modern Swedish, Norwegian, and Danish have lost much of their inflection. Grammatical case has largely died out with the exception of pronouns, just like English. However, adjectives, nouns, determiners and articles still have different forms according to grammatical number and grammatical gender. Danish and Swedish only inflect for two different genders while Norwegian has to some degree retained the feminine forms and inflects for three grammatical genders like Icelandic. However in comparison to Icelandic, there are considerably less feminine forms left in the language. In comparison, Icelandic preserves almost all of the inflections of Old Norse and remains heavily inflected. It retains all the grammatical cases from Old Norse and is inflected for number and three different grammatical genders. The dual number forms are however almost completely lost in comparison to Old Norse. Unlike other Germanic languages, nouns are inflected for definiteness in all Scandinavian languages, like in the following case for Norwegian (nynorsk): Adjectives and participles are also inflected for definiteness in all Scandinavian languages like in Proto-Germanic.", "Modern German remains moderately inflected, retaining four noun cases, although the genitive started falling into disuse in all but formal writing in Early New High German. The case system of Dutch, simpler than that of German, is also simplified in common usage. Afrikaans, recognized as a distinct language in its own right rather than a Dutch dialect only in the early 20th century, has lost almost all inflection.", "The Romance languages, such as Spanish, Italian, French, Portuguese and Romanian, have more overt inflection than English, especially in verb conjugation. Adjectives, nouns and articles are considerably less inflected than verbs, but they still have different forms according to number and grammatical gender. Latin, the mother tongue of the Romance languages, was highly inflected; nouns and adjectives had different forms according to seven grammatical cases (including five major ones) with five major patterns of declension, and three genders instead of the two found in most Romance tongues. There were four patterns of conjugation in six tenses, three moods (indicative, subjunctive, imperative, plus the infinitive, participle, gerund, gerundive, and supine) and two voices (passive and active), all overtly expressed by affixes (passive voice forms were periphrastic in three tenses).", "The Baltic languages are highly inflected. Nouns and adjectives are declined in up to seven overt cases. Additional cases are defined in various covert ways. For example, an inessive case, an illative case, an adessive case and allative case are borrowed from Finnic. Latvian has only one overt locative case but it syncretizes the above four cases to the locative marking them by differences in the use of prepositions. Lithuanian breaks them out of the genitive case, accusative case and locative case by using different postpositions. Dual form is obsolete in standard Latvian and nowadays it is also considered nearly obsolete in standard Lithuanian. For instance, in standard Lithuanian it is normal to say \"dvi varnos (plural) – two crows\" instead of \"dvi varni (dual)\". Adjectives, pronouns, and numerals are declined for number, gender, and case to agree with the noun they modify or for which they substitute. Baltic verbs are inflected for tense, mood, aspect, and voice. They agree with the subject in person and number (not in all forms in modern Latvian).", "All Slavic languages make use of a high degree of inflection, typically having six or seven cases and three genders for nouns and adjectives. However, the overt case system has disappeared almost completely in modern Bulgarian and Macedonian. Most verb tenses and moods are also formed by inflection (however, some are periphrastic, typically the future and conditional). Inflection is also present in adjective comparation and word derivation. Declensional endings depend on case (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, locative, instrumental, vocative), number (singular, dual or plural), gender (masculine, feminine, neuter) and animacy (animate vs inanimate). Unusual in other language families, declension in most Slavic languages also depends on whether the word is a noun or an adjective. Slovene and Sorbian languages use a rare third number, (in addition to singular and plural numbers) known as dual (in case of some words dual survived also in Polish and other Slavic languages). Modern Russian, Serbian and Czech also use a more complex form of dual, but this misnomer applies instead to numbers 2, 3, 4, and larger numbers ending in 2, 3, or 4 (with the exception of the teens, which are handled as plural; thus, 102 is dual, but 12 or 127 are not). In addition, in some Slavic languages, such as Polish, word stems are frequently modified by the addition or absence of endings, resulting in consonant and vowel alternation.", "Modern Standard Arabic (also called Literary Arabic) is an inflected language. It uses a system of independent and suffix pronouns classified by person and number and verbal inflections marking person and number. Suffix pronouns are used as markers of possession and as objects of verbs and prepositions. The tatweel (ـــ) marks where the verb stem, verb form, noun, or preposition is placed. Arabic regional dialects (e.g. Moroccan Arabic, Egyptian Arabic, Gulf Arabic), used for everyday communication, tend to have less inflection than the more formal Literary Arabic. For example, in Jordanian Arabic, the second- and third-person feminine plurals ( and ) and their respective unique conjugations are lost and replaced by the masculine ( and ), whereas in Lebanese and Syrian Arabic, is replaced by. In addition, the system known as ʾIʿrāb places vowel suffixes on each verb, noun, adjective, and adverb, according to its function within a sentence and its relation to surrounding words.", "The Uralic languages are agglutinative, following from the agglutination in Proto-Uralic. The largest languages are Hungarian, Finnish, and Estonian—all European Union official languages. Uralic inflection is, or is developed from, affixing. Grammatical markers directly added to the word perform the same function as prepositions in English. Almost all words are inflected according to their roles in the sentence: verbs, nouns, pronouns, numerals, adjectives, and some particles. Hungarian and Finnish, in particular, often simply concatenate suffixes. For example, Finnish \"talossanikinko\" \"in my house, too?\" consists of \"talo-ssa-ni-kin-ko\". However, in the Finnic languages (Finnish, Estonian etc.) and the Sami languages, there are processes which affect the root, particularly consonant gradation. The original suffixes may disappear (and appear only by liaison), leaving behind the modification of the root. This process is extensively developed in Estonian and Sami, and makes them also inflected, not only agglutinating languages. The Estonian illative case, for example, is expressed by a modified root: \"maja\" → \"majja\" (historical form *\"maja-han\").", "The three language families often united as the Altaic languages—Turkic, Mongolic, and Manchu-Tungus—are agglutinative. The largest languages are Turkish, Azerbaijani and Uzbek—all Turkic languages. Altaic inflection is, or is developed from, affixing. Grammatical markers directly added to the word perform the same function as prepositions in English. Almost all words are inflected according to their roles in the sentence: verbs, nouns, pronouns, numerals, adjectives, and some particles.", "Basque, a language isolate, is a highly inflected language, heavily inflecting both nouns and verbs. Noun phrase morphology is agglutinative and consists of suffixes which simply attach to the end of a stem. These suffixes are in many cases fused with the article (\"-a\" for singular and \"-ak\" for plural), which in general is required to close a noun phrase in Basque if no other determiner is present, and unlike an article in many languages, it can only partially be correlated with the concept of definiteness. Proper nouns do not take an article, and indefinite nouns without the article (called \"mugagabe\" in Basque grammar) are highly restricted syntactically. Basque is an ergative language, meaning that inflectionally the single argument (subject) of an intransitive verb is marked in the same way as the direct object of a transitive verb. This is called the \"absolutive\" case and in Basque, as in most ergative languages, it is realized with a zero morph; in other words, it receives no special inflection. The subject of a transitive verb receives a special case suffix, called the \"ergative\" case. There is no case marking concord in Basque and case suffixes, including those fused with the article, are added only to the last word in a noun phrase. Plurality is not marked on the noun and is identified only in the article or other determiner, possibly fused with a case marker. The examples below are in the absolutive case with zero case marking, and include the article only: The noun phrase is declined for 11 cases: \"Absolutive, ergative, dative, possessive-genitive, benefactive, comitative, instrumental, inessive, allative, ablative,\" and \"local-genitive\". These are signaled by suffixes that vary according to the categories of \"Singular, Plural, Indefinite,\" and \"Proper Noun\", and many vary depending on whether the stem ends in a consonant or vowel. The Singular and Plural categories are fused with the article, and these endings are used when the noun phrase is not closed by any other determiner. This gives a potential 88 different forms, but the Indefinite and Proper Noun categories are identical in all but the local cases (inessive, allative, ablative, local-genitive), and many other variations in the endings can be accounted for by phonological rules operating to avoid impermissible consonant clusters. Local case endings are not normally added to animate Proper Nouns. The precise meaning of the local cases can be further specified by additional suffixes added after the local case suffixes. Verb forms are extremely complex, agreeing with the subject, direct object, and indirect object; and include forms that agree with a \"dative of interest\" for intransitive verbs as well as allocutive forms where the verb form is altered if one is speaking to a close acquaintance. These allocutive forms also have different forms depending on whether the addressee is male or female. This is the only area in Basque grammar where gender plays any role at all. Subordination could also plausibly be considered an inflectional category of the Basque verb since subordination is signaled by prefixes and suffixes on the conjugated verb, further multiplying the number of potential forms. Transitivity is a thoroughgoing division of Basque verbs, and it is necessary to know the transitivity of a particular verb in order to conjugate it successfully. In the spoken language only a handful of commonly used verbs are fully conjugated in the present and simple past, most verbs being conjugated by means of an auxiliary which differs according to transitivity. The literary language includes a few more such verbs, but the number is still very small. Even these few verbs require an auxiliary to conjugate other tenses besides the present and simple past. The most common intransitive auxiliary is \"izan\", which is also the verb for \"to be\". The most common transitive auxiliary is \"ukan\", which is also the verb for \"to have\". (Other auxiliaries can be used in some of the tenses and may vary by dialect.) The compound tenses use an invariable form of the main verb (which appears in different forms according to the \"tense group\") and a conjugated form of the auxiliary. Pronouns are normally omitted if recoverable from the verb form. A couple of examples will have to suffice to demonstrate the complexity of the Basque verb: Liburu-\"ak\" saldu \"dizkiegu\". Book-\"plural.the\" sell Auxiliary.\"3rd/Pl/Absolutive.3rd/Pl/Dative.1st/Pl/Ergative\" \"We sold the books to them.\" Kafe-\"a\" gusta-\"tzen zaidak\". Coffee-\"the\" please-\"Habitual\" Auxiliary.\"Allocutive/Male.3rd/Sng/Absolutive.1st/Sng/Dative\" \"I like coffee.\" (\"Coffee pleases me.\") \"(Used when speaking to a male friend.)\" The morphs that represent the various tense/person/case/mood categories of Basque verbs, especially in the auxiliaries, are so highly fused that segmenting them into individual meaningful units is nearly impossible, if not pointless. Considering the multitude of forms that a particular Basque verb can take, it seems unlikely that an individual speaker would have an opportunity to utter them all in his or her lifetime.", "Most languages in the Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area (such as the varieties of Chinese, Vietnamese, and Thai) are not overtly inflected, or show very little overt inflection, and are therefore considered analytic languages (also known as \"isolating languages\").", "Standard Chinese does not possess overt inflectional morphology. While some languages indicate grammatical relations with inflectional morphemes, Chinese utilizes word order and particles. Consider the following examples: Both sentences mean 'The boy sees the girl.' This is because \"puer\" (boy) is singular nominative, \"puellam\" (girl) is singular accusative. Since the roles of puer and puellam have been marked with case endings, the change in position does not matter. The situation is very different in Chinese. Since Modern Chinese makes no use of inflection, the meanings of \"wǒ\" ('I' or'me') and \"tā\" ('he' or 'him') shall be determined with their position. In Classical Chinese, pronouns were overtly inflected to mark case. However, these overt case forms are no longer used; most of the alternative pronouns are considered archaic in modern Mandarin Chinese. Classically, 我 (\"wǒ\") was used solely as the first person accusative. 吾 (\"Wú\") was generally used as the first person nominative. Certain varieties of Chinese are known to express meaning by means of tone change, although further investigations are required. Note that the \"tone change\" must be distinguished from \"tone sandhi\". Tone sandhi is a compulsory change that occurs when certain tones are juxtaposed. Tone change, however, is a morphologically conditioned alternation and is used as an inflectional or a derivational strategy. Examples from Taishan and Zhongshan (both Yue dialects spoken in Guangdong Province) are shown below: The following table compares the personal pronouns of Sixian dialect (a dialect of Taiwanese Hakka) with Zaiwa and Jingpho (both Tibeto-Burman languages spoken in Yunnan and Burma). The superscripted numbers indicate the Chao tone numerals. In Shanghainese, the third-person singular pronoun is overtly inflected as to case and the first- and second-person singular pronouns exhibit a change in tone depending on case.", "Japanese shows a high degree of overt inflection of verbs, less so of adjectives, and very little of nouns, but it is mostly strictly agglutinative and extremely regular. Some fusion of morphemes does take place (e.g. causative-passive され \"-sare-\" as in 行かせられる \"ikaserareru\" \"is made to go\", and non-past progressive ている \"-teiru-\" as in 食べている \"tabeteiru\" \"is eating\"). Formally, every noun phrase must be marked for case, but this is done by invariable particles (clitic postpositions). (Many grammarians consider Japanese particles to be separate words, and therefore not an inflection, while others consider agglutination a type of overt inflection, and therefore consider Japanese nouns as overtly inflected.)", "Auxiliary languages, such as Esperanto, Ido, and Interlingua have comparatively simple inflectional systems.", "In Esperanto, an agglutinative language, nouns and adjectives are inflected for case (nominative, accusative) and number (singular, plural), according to a simple paradigm without irregularities. Verbs are not inflected for person or number, but they are inflected for tense (past, present, future) and mood (indicative, infinitive, conditional, jussive). They also form active and passive participles, which may be past, present or future. All verbs are regular.", "Ido has a different form for each verbal tense (past, present, future, volitive and imperative) plus an infinitive, and both a present and past participle. There are though no verbal inflections for person or number, and all verbs are regular. Nouns are marked for number (singular and plural), and the accusative case may be shown in certain situations, typically when the direct object of a sentence precedes its verb. On the other hand, adjectives are unmarked for gender, number or case (unless they stand on their own, without a noun, in which case they take on the same desinences as the missing noun would have taken). The definite article \"la\" (\"the\") remains unaltered regardless of gender or case, and also of number, except when there is no other word to show plurality. Pronouns are identical in all cases, though exceptionally the accusative case may be marked, as for nouns.", "Interlingua, in contrast with the Romance languages, has no irregular verb conjugations, and its verb forms are the same for all persons and numbers. It does, however, have compound verb tenses similar to those in the Romance, Germanic, and Slavic languages: \"ille ha vivite\", \"he has lived\"; \"illa habeva vivite\", \"she had lived\". Nouns are inflected by number, taking a plural \"-s\", but rarely by gender: only when referring to a male or female being. Interlingua has no noun-adjective agreement by gender, number, or case. As a result, adjectives ordinarily have no inflections. They may take the plural form if they are being used in place of a noun: \"le povres\", \"the poor\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Usage.", "Citation forms and bound morphemes.", "Paradigms and suppletion.", "Oblique stem.", "Examples." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "In one usage, a stem is a form to which affixes can be attached. Thus, in this usage, the English word \"friendships\" contains the stem \"friend\", to which the derivational suffix \"-ship\" is attached to form a new stem \"friendship\", to which the inflectional suffix \"-s\" is attached. In a variant of this usage, the root of the word (in the example, \"friend\") is not counted as a stem. In a slightly different usage, which is adopted in the remainder of this article, a word has a single stem, namely the part of the word that is common to all its inflected variants. Thus, in this usage, all derivational affixes are part of the stem. For example, the stem of \"friendships\" is \"friendship\", to which the inflectional suffix \"-s\" is attached. Stems may be a root, e.g. \"run\", or they may be morphologically complex, as in compound words (e.g. the compound nouns \"meat ball\" or \"bottle opener\") or words with derivational morphemes (e.g. the derived verbs \"black-en\" or \"standard-ize\"). Hence, the stem of the complex English noun \"photographer\" is \"photo·graph·er\", but not \"photo\". For another example, the root of the English verb form \"destabilized\" is \"stabil-\", a form of \"stable\" that does not occur alone; the stem is \"de·stabil·ize\", which includes the derivational affixes \"de-\" and \"-ize\", but not the inflectional past tense suffix \"-(e)d\". That is, a stem is that part of a word that inflectional affixes attach to.", "In languages with very little inflection, such as English and Chinese, the stem is usually not distinct from the \"normal\" form of the word (the lemma, citation or dictionary form). However, in other languages, stems may rarely or never occur on their own. For example, the English verb stem \"run\" is indistinguishable from its present tense form (except in the third person singular). However, the equivalent Spanish verb stem \"corr-\" never appears as such because it is cited with the infinitive inflection (\"correr\") and always appears in actual speech as a non-finite (infinitive or participle) or conjugated form. Such morphemes that cannot occur on their own in this way are usually referred to as \"bound morphemes\". In computational linguistics, the term \"stem\" is used for the part of the word that never changes, even morphologically, when inflected, and a lemma is the base form of the word. For example, given the word \"produced\", its lemma (linguistics) is \"produce\", but the stem is \"produc\" because of the inflected form \"producing\".", "A list of all the inflected forms of a stem is called its inflectional paradigm. The paradigm of the adjective \"tall\" is given below, and the stem of this adjective is \"tall\". Some paradigms do not make use of the same stem throughout; this phenomenon is called suppletion. An example of a suppletive paradigm is the paradigm for the adjective \"good\": its stem changes from \"good\" to the bound morpheme \"bet-\".", "Both in Latin and in Greek, the declension (inflection) of some nouns uses a different stem in the oblique cases than in the nominative and vocative singular cases. Such words belong to, respectively, the so-called third declension of the Latin grammar and the so-called third declension of the Ancient Greek grammar. For example, the genitive singular is formed by adding \"-is\" (Latin) or -ος (Greek) to the oblique stem, and the genitive singular is conventionally listed in Greek and Latin dictionaries to illustrate the oblique.", "English words derived from Latin or Greek often involve the oblique stem: \"adipose\", \"altitudinal\", \"android\", \"mathematics\". Historically, the difference in stems arose due to sound change in the nominative. In the Latin third declension, for example, the nominative singular suffix \"-s\" combined with a stem-final consonant. If that consonant was \"c\", the result was \"x\" (a mere orthographic change), while if it was \"g\", the \"-s\" caused it to devoice, again resulting in \"x\". If the stem-final consonant was another alveolar consonant (\"t, d, r\"), it elided before the \"-s\". In a later era, \"n\" before the nominative ending was also lost, producing pairs like \"atlas, atlant-\" (for English Atlas, Atlantic)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Variations.", "In Shinto mythology.", "History.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Geology.", "Current eruptive danger.", "Aokigahara forest.", "Adventuring.", "Transportation.", "Climbing routes.", "Paragliding.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The current \"kanji\" for Mount Fuji, and, mean \"wealth\" or \"abundant\" and \"a man of status\" respectively. However, the name predates kanji, and these characters are ateji, meaning that they were selected because their pronunciations match the syllables of the name but do not carry a meaning related to the mountain. The origin of the name \"Fuji\" is unclear, having no recording of it being first called by this name. A text of the 9th century, \"Tale of the Bamboo Cutter\", says that the name came from and also from the image of ascending the slopes of the mountain. An early folk etymology claims that \"Fuji\" came from (\"not\" + \"two\"), meaning \"without equal\" or \"nonpareil\". Another claims that it came from (\"not\" + \"to exhaust\"), meaning \"neverending\". A Japanese classical scholar in the Edo era, Hirata Atsutane, speculated that the name is from a word meaning, \"a mountain standing up shapely as an of a rice plant\". A British missionary John Batchelor (1854–1944) argued that the name is from the Ainu word for \"fire\" (\"fuchi\") of the fire deity (Kamui Fuchi), which was denied by a Japanese linguist Kyōsuke Kindaichi (1882–1971) on the grounds of phonetic development (sound change). It is also pointed out that \"huchi\" means an \"old woman\" and \"ape\" is the word for \"fire\", \"ape huchi kamuy\" being the fire deity. Research on the distribution of place names that include \"fuji\" as a part also suggest the origin of the word \"fuji\" is in the Yamato language rather than Ainu. A Japanese toponymist Kanji Kagami argued that the name has the same root as and, and came from its \"long well-shaped slope\". Modern linguist Alexander Vovin proposes an alternative hypothesis based on Old Japanese reading /punzi/: the word may have been borrowed from Eastern Old Japanese 火主 meaning 'fire master', see wikt:富士#Etymology 2.", "In English, the mountain is known as Mount Fuji. Some sources refer to it as \"Fuji-san\", \"Fujiyama\" or, redundantly, \"Mt. Fujiyama\". Japanese speakers refer to the mountain as \"Fuji-san\". This \"san\" is not the honorific suffix used with people's names, such as Watanabe-san, but the Sino-Japanese reading of the character used in Sino-Japanese compounds. In Nihon-shiki and Kunrei-shiki romanization, the name is transliterated as \"Huzi\". Other Japanese names for Mount Fuji, which have become obsolete or poetic, include,,, and, created by combining the first character of, \"Fuji\", and, \"mountain\".", "In Shinto mythology, Kuninotokotachi (国之常立神, \"Kuninotokotachi-no-Kami\", in \"Kojiki\")(国常立尊, \"Kuninotokotachi-no-Mikoto\", in \"Nihon Shoki\") is one of the two gods born from \"something like a reed that arose from the soil\" when the earth was chaotic. According to the \"Nihon Shoki\", Konohanasakuya-hime, wife of Ninigi, is the goddess of Mount Fuji, where Fujisan Hongū Sengen Taisha is dedicated for her.", "Mount Fuji is an attractive volcanic cone and a frequent subject of Japanese art especially after 1600, when Edo (now Tokyo) became the capital and people saw the mountain while traveling on the Tōkaidō road. The mountain is mentioned in Japanese literature throughout the ages and is the subject of many poems. One of the modern artists who depicted Fuji in almost all her works was Tamako Kataoka. It is said, that the first recorded ascent was in 663 by an anonymous monk. The summit has been thought of as sacred since ancient times and was forbidden to women until the Meiji Era in the late 1860s. Ancient samurai used the base of the mountain as a remote training area, near the present-day town of Gotemba. The \"shōgun\" Minamoto no Yoritomo held \"yabusame\" in the area in the early Kamakura period. The first ascent by a foreigner was by Sir Rutherford Alcock in September 1860, from the foot of the mountain to the top in eight hours and three hours for the descent. Alcock's brief narrative in \"The Capital of the Tycoon\" was the first widely disseminated description of the mountain in the West. Lady Fanny Parkes, the wife of British ambassador Sir Harry Parkes, was the first non-Japanese woman to ascend Mount Fuji in 1867. Photographer Felix Beato climbed Mount Fuji two years later. On March 5, 1966, BOAC Flight 911, a Boeing 707, broke up in flight and crashed near the Mount Fuji Gotemba New fifth station, shortly after departure from Tokyo International Airport. All 113 passengers and 11 crew members died in the disaster, which was attributed to the extreme clear air turbulence caused by lee waves downwind of the mountain. There is a memorial for the crash a short distance down from the Gotemba New fifth station. Today, Mount Fuji is an international destination for tourism and mountain climbing. In the early 20th century, populist educator Frederick Starr's Chautauqua lectures about his several ascents of Mount Fuji—1913, 1919, and 1923—were widely known in America. A well-known Japanese saying suggests that a wise person will climb Mt. Fuji once in their lifetime, but only a fool would climb it twice. It remains a popular symbol in Japanese culture, including making numerous movie appearances, inspiring the Infiniti logo, and even appearing in medicine with the Mount Fuji sign. In September 2004, the manned weather station at the summit was closed after 72 years in operation. Observers monitored radar sweeps that detected typhoons and heavy rains. The station, which was the highest in Japan at, was replaced by a fully automated meteorological system. As of 2011, the Japan Self-Defense Forces and the United States Marine Corps continue to operate military bases near Mount Fuji. Mount Fuji was added to the World Heritage List as a Cultural Site on June 22, 2013. However, the inscription became controversial after two professors at the Mt. Fuji World Heritage Centre, Shizuoka, were forced to quit their jobs due to academic and racial harassment by officials of Shizuoka prefecture government in March 2018 and comments on social media called for the cancellation of Mt. Fuji's World Heritage inscription.", "Mount Fuji is a very distinctive feature of the geography of Japan. It stands tall and is located near the Pacific coast of central Honshu, just south-west of Tokyo. It straddles the boundary of Shizuoka and Yamanashi Prefectures. Four small cities surround it: Gotemba to the east, Fujiyoshida to the north, Fujinomiya to the southwest, and Fuji to the south. It is also surrounded by five lakes: Lake Kawaguchi, Lake Yamanaka, Lake Sai, Lake Motosu and Lake Shōji. They, and nearby Lake Ashi, provide views of the mountain. The mountain is part of the Fuji-Hakone-Izu National Park. It can be seen more distantly from Yokohama, Tokyo, and sometimes as far as Chiba, Saitama, Tochigi, Ibaraki and Lake Hamana when the sky is clear. Particularly in the winter it can be seen from the Shinkansen until it reaches Utsunomiya station. It has also been photographed from space during a space shuttle mission.", "The summit of Mount Fuji has a tundra climate (Köppen climate classification \"ET\"). The temperature is very low at the high altitude, and the cone is covered by snow for several months of the year. The lowest recorded temperature is recorded in February 1981, and the highest temperature was recorded in August 1942. The average annual temperature in Mount Fuji is similar to that in Anadyr, but the latter's hottest month is greater than and is classified as subarctic.", "Mount Fuji is located at a trench-trench-trench triple junction where the Amurian Plate (Eurasian Plate), the Okhotsk Plate (North American Plate), and the Philippine Sea Plate meet. These three plates form the western part of Japan, the eastern part of Japan, and the Izu Peninsula respectively. The Pacific Plate is being subducted beneath these plates, resulting in volcanic activity. Mount Fuji is also located near three island arcs: the Southwestern Japan Arc, the Northeastern Japan Arc, and the Izu-Bonin-Mariana Arc. Mt. Fuji's main crater is in diameter and in depth. The bottom of the crater is in diameter. Slope angles from the crater to a distance of are 31°–35°, the angle of repose for dry gravel. Beyond this distance, slope angles are about 27°, due to the presence of scoria. Mid-flank slope angles decrease from 23° to less than 10° in the piedmont. Scientists have identified four distinct phases of volcanic activity in the formation of Mount Fuji. The first phase, called \"Sen-komitake\", is composed of an andesite core recently discovered deep within the mountain. \"Sen-komitake\" was followed by the \"\"Komitake\" Fuji\", a basalt layer believed to be formed several hundred thousand years ago. Approximately 100,000 years ago, \"Old Fuji\" was formed over the top of \"Komitake\" Fuji. The modern, \"New Fuji\" is believed to have formed over the top of Old Fuji around 10,000 years ago. Pre-Komitake started erupting in the Middle Pleistocene in an area north of Mount Fuji. After a relatively short pause, eruptions began again which formed Komitake Volcano in the same location. These eruptions ended 100,000 years ago. Ashitake Volcano was active from 400,000 to 100,000 years ago, and is located southeast of Mount Fuji. Mount Fuji started erupting 100,000 years ago, with Ko-Fuji (old-Fuji) forming 100,000 to 17,000 years ago, but which is now almost completely buried. A large landslide on the southwest flank occurred about 18,000 years ago. Shin-Fuji (new-Fuji) eruptions in the form of lava, lapilli and volcanic ash, have occurred between 17,000 and 8,000 years ago, between 7,000 and 3,500 years ago, and between 4,000 and 2,000 years ago. Flank eruptions, mostly in the form of parasitic cinder cones, ceased in 1707. The largest cone, Omuro-Yama, is one of more than 100 cones aligned NW-SE and NE-SW through the summit. Mt. Fuji also has more than 70 lava tunnels and extensive lava tree molds. Two large landslides are at the head of the Yoshida-Osawa and Osawa-Kuzure valleys. , the volcano is classified as active with a low risk of eruption. The last recorded eruption was the Hōei eruption which started on December 16, 1707 (\"Hōei 4, 23rd day of the 11th month\"), and ended about January 1, 1708 (\"Hōei 4, 9th day of the 12th month\"), during the Edo period. The eruption formed a new crater and a second peak, named Mount Hōei (after the Hōei era), halfway down its southeastern side. Fuji spewed cinders and ash which fell like rain in Izu, Kai, Sagami, and Musashi. Since then, there have been no signs of an eruption. In the evening of March 15, 2011, there was a magnitude 6.2 earthquake at shallow depth a few kilometres from Mount Fuji on its southern side. But according to the Japanese Meteorological Service there was no sign of any eruption.", "Following the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake, there was speculation in the media that the shock may induce volcanic unrest at Mount Fuji. In September 2012, mathematical models created by the National Research Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention (NRIESDP) suggested that the pressure in Mount Fuji's magma chamber could be 1.6 megapascals higher than it was before its last eruption in 1707. This was interpreted by some media outlets to mean that an eruption of Mount Fuji could be imminent. However, since there is no known method of directly measuring the pressure of a volcano's magma chamber, indirect calculations of the type used by NRIESDP are speculative and unverifiable. Other indicators suggestive of heightened eruptive danger, such as active fumaroles and recently discovered faults, are typical occurrences at this type of volcano.", "The forest at the north west base of the mountain is named Aokigahara. Folk tales and legends tell of ghosts, demons, Yūrei and Yōkai haunting the forest, and in the 19th century, Aokigahara was one of many places poor families abandoned the very young and the very old. Aokigahara is the world's third most popular suicide location after San Francisco's Golden Gate Bridge and Nanjing Yangtze River Bridge in Nanjing, China. Since the 1950s, more than 500 people have died in the forest, mostly suicides. Approximately 30 suicides have been counted yearly, with a high of nearly 80 bodies in 2002. The recent increase in suicides prompted local officials to erect signs that attempt to convince individuals experiencing suicidal intent to re-think their desperate plans, and sometimes these messages have proven effective. The numbers of suicides in the past creates an allure that has persisted across the span of decades. Many of these hikers mark their travelled routes by leaving coloured plastic tapes behind as they pass, causing concerns from prefectural officials with regard to the forest's ecosystem.", "", "The closest airport with scheduled international service is Mt. Fuji Shizuoka Airport. It opened in June 2009. It is about from Mount Fuji. The major international airports serving Tokyo, Tokyo International Airport (Haneda Airport) in Tokyo and Narita International Airport in Chiba, are hours from Mount Fuji.", "Approximately 300,000 people climbed Mount Fuji in 2009. The most-popular period for people to hike up Mount Fuji is from July to August, while huts and other facilities are operating and the weather is warmest. Buses to the trail heads typically used by climbers start running on July 1. Climbing from October to May is very strongly discouraged, after a number of high-profile deaths and severe cold weather. Most Japanese climb the mountain at night in order to be in a position at or near the summit when the sun rises. The morning light is called \"goraikō\", \"arrival of light\". There are four major routes to the summit, each has numbered stations along the way. They are (clockwise, starting North): Yoshida, Subashiri, Gotemba, and Fujinomiya routes. Climbers usually start at the fifth stations, as these are reachable by car or by bus. The summit is the tenth station on each trail. The stations on different routes are at different elevations; the highest fifth station is located at Fujinomiya, followed by Yoshida, Subashiri, and Gotemba. There are four additional routes from the foot of the mountain: Shojiko, Yoshida, Suyama, and Murayama routes. Even though it has only the second-highest fifth stations, the Yoshida route is the most-popular route because of its large parking area and many large mountain huts where a climber can rest or stay. During the summer season, most Mount Fuji climbing tour buses arrive there. The next-popular is the Fujinomiya route, which has the highest fifth station, followed by Subashiri and Gotemba. The ascent from the new fifth station can take anywhere between five and seven hours while the descent can take from three to four hours. Even though most climbers do not climb the Subashiri and Gotemba routes, many descend these because of their ash-covered paths. From the seventh station to near the fifth station, one could run down these ash-covered paths in approximately 30 minutes. Besides these routes, there are tractor routes along the climbing routes. These tractor routes are used to bring food and other materials to huts on the mountain. Because the tractors usually take up most of the width of these paths and they tend to push large rocks from the side of the path, the tractor paths are off-limits to the climbers on sections that are not merged with the climbing or descending paths. Nevertheless, one can sometimes see people riding mountain bikes along the tractor routes down from the summit. This is particularly risky, as it becomes difficult to control speed and may send some rocks rolling along the side of the path, which may hit other people. The four routes from the foot of the mountain offer historical sites. The Murayama is the oldest Mount Fuji route and the Yoshida route still has many old shrines, teahouses, and huts along its path. These routes are gaining popularity recently and are being restored, but climbing from the foot of the mountain is still relatively uncommon. Also, bears have been sighted along the Yoshida route. Huts at and above the fifth stations are usually manned during the climbing season, but huts below fifth stations are not usually manned for climbers. The number of open huts on routes are proportional to the number of climbers—Yoshida has the most while Gotemba has the fewest. The huts along the Gotemba route also tend to start later and close earlier than those along the Yoshida route. Also, because Mount Fuji is designated as a national park, it is illegal to camp above the fifth station. There are eight peaks around the crater at the summit. The highest point in Japan, Ken-ga-mine, is where the Mount Fuji Radar System used to be (it was replaced by an automated system in 2004). Climbers are able to visit each of these peaks.", "Paragliders take off in the vicinity of the fifth station Gotemba parking lot, between Subashiri and Hōei-zan peak on the south side of the mountain, in addition to several other locations, depending on wind direction. Several paragliding schools use the wide sandy/grassy slope between Gotemba and Subashiri parking lots as a training hill.", "As a national symbol of the country, the mountain has been depicted in various art media such as paintings, woodblock prints (such as the \"Thirty-six Views of Mount Fuji\"), poetry, music, theater, film, manga, anime, pottery and even Kawaii subculture." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Discoveries.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Pierre Méchain was born in Laon, the son of the ceiling designer and plasterer Pierre François Méchain and Marie–Marguerite Roze. He displayed mental gifts in mathematics and physics but had to give up his studies for lack of money. However, his talents in astronomy were noticed by Jérôme Lalande, for whom he became a friend and proof-reader of the second edition of his book \"L'Astronomie\". Lalande then secured a position for him as assistant hydrographer with the Naval Depot of Maps and Charts at Versailles, where he worked through the 1770s engaged in hydrographic work and coastline surveying. It was during this time—approximately 1774—that he met Charles Messier, and apparently, they became friends. In the same year, he also produced his first astronomical work, a paper on an occultation of Aldebaran by the Moon and presented it as a memoir to the Academy of Sciences. In 1777, he married Barbe-Thérèse Marjou whom he knew from his work in Versailles. They had two sons: Jérôme, born 1780, and Augustin, born 1784, and one daughter. He was admitted to the French Académie des sciences in 1782, and was the editor of \"Connaissance des Temps\" from 1785 to 1792; this was the journal which, among other things, first published the list of Messier objects. In 1789 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. He participated in the Anglo-French Survey (1784–1790) to measure by trigonometry the precise distance between the Paris Observatory and the Royal Greenwich Observatory. This project was initiated by Dominique, comte de Cassini, and in 1787 Méchain visited Dover and London with Cassini and Adrien-Marie Legendre to facilitate its progress. The three men also visited the astronomer William Herschel at Slough. With his surveying skills, he worked on maps of Northern Italy and Germany after this, but his most important mapping work was geodetic: the determination of the southern part of the meridian arc of the Earth's surface between Dunkirk and Barcelona beginning in 1791. This measurement would become the basis of the metric system's unit of length, the meter. He encountered numerous difficulties on this project, largely stemming from the effects of the French Revolution. He was arrested after it was suspected his instruments were weapons, he was interned in Barcelona after war broke out between France and Spain, and his property in Paris was confiscated during The Terror. He was released from Spain to live in Italy, then returned home in 1795. A particularly intriguing fact about this project was that Méchain was uncertain of the precision of his measurements owing to anomalous results in verifying his latitude by astronomical observation. Ultimately, the distance from the pole to the equator, which Méchain and his associate Jean Baptiste Joseph Delambre had intended to be exactly ten million meters (or ten thousand kilometres), was determined in the late 20th century by space satellites to be 10,002,290 meters. This small error of 2,290 meters equals 1.423 statute miles; the error in such a large measurement amounts to 141⁄2 inches per statute mile. It represents in each meter an error of approximately 0.23 millimetres – slightly more than the width of a single strand of human hair. This discrepancy is sometimes mentioned as \"Méchain's error\", with the suggestion that the tiny variation in the length of the meridian (not detected for nearly two hundred years) can be attributed to Méchain's calculations. But analysis of Méchain's figures reveals that Méchain consistently kept the discrepancy very tiny, essentially forcing his individual reported measurements to appear more precise and consistent than would be reasonably expected of a survey involving more than a hundred measurements of mostly rough country using 18th century equipment; Méchain's putative error did not affect the final value of the length of the meter nor the measurement of the meridian. From 1799, he was the director of the Paris Observatory. Continuing doubts about his measurements of the Dunkirk-Barcelona arc led him to return to that work. This took him back to Spain in 1804, where he caught yellow fever and died in Castellón de la Plana.", "Méchain discovered either 25 or 26 deep-sky objects, depending on how one counts M102. However, Méchain specifically disavowed the observation from 1783 onwards as a mistaken re-observation of M101. Since that time, others have proposed that he did in fact observe another object, and suggested what they might be. See the discussion The M102 Controversy for more details. He independently discovered four others, originally discovered by someone else but unknown to him at the time and included in the Messier catalogue: M71, discovered by Jean-Philippe de Chéseaux in the 1740s; M80, discovered by Messier about two weeks earlier than Méchain's observation; and M81 and M82, discovered originally by Johann Bode. Six other discoveries are \"honorary Messier objects\" added to the list in the 20th century: He also discovered NGC 5195, the companion galaxy that makes M51 (the Whirlpool Galaxy) so distinctive. Méchain never set out to observe deep-sky objects. Like Messier, he was solely interested in cataloguing objects that might be mistaken for comets; having done so, he was the second-most successful discoverer of comets of his time, after Messier himself. All together, he originally discovered eight comets, and co-discovered three. His sole discoveries are: Méchain's co-discoveries are: Note that only the two named comets have been connected to periodic comets that have computed orbits and in neither case was he an observer when they were computed, so by that technical definition (commonly used for comets since the 19th century) Méchain did not discover any of these nine.", "On 24 June 2002, Asteroid 21785 Méchain was named in his honour, discovered by Miloš Tichý at Kleť Observatory on 21 September 1999, and provisionally designated 1999 SS2." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Hardware requirements.", "History.", "Beryl.", "Merger of the Compiz and Beryl communities.", "Further branches.", "Merger of the Compiz branches.", "Compiz 0.9 series.", "Compiz Reloaded.", "Features.", "Deployments." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Initially, Compiz only worked with 3D hardware supported by Xgl. Most NVIDIA and ATI graphics cards are known to work with Compiz on Xgl. Since May 22, 2006 Compiz works on the standard X.Org Server, by using AIGLX. Besides Intel GMA graphics cards, AIGLX also supports using AMD graphics cards (including R300 and newer cards) using the open-source radeon driver which supports GLX_EXT_texture_from_pixmap since fall 2006. NVIDIA's binary drivers (since Version 1.0-9629) support GLX_EXT_texture_from_pixmap on standard X.Org server; ATI/AMD's binary drivers do since version 8.42.", "The first version of Compiz was released as free software by Novell (SUSE) in January 2006 in the wake of the (also new) Xgl. It was one of the earliest compositing window managers for X. In March 2006 Compiz was ported to AIGLX by Red Hat.", "Beryl was the project name for the \"quinnstorm\" branch of Compiz, announced on September 19, 2006 after Compiz developer Quinn Storm and the development team decided that the fork had come too far from the original Compiz started by Novell (compiz-vanilla). After the Novell XGL/Compiz team (mostly David Reveman) refused the proposition to merge the Quinnstorm changes with compiz-vanilla, the decision was made to make a real differentiation. Among the differences to Compiz, Beryl had a new window decorator named Emerald based on cgwd along with a theme manager called emerald-theme-manager, used a flat file backend instead of gconf, and had no GNOME dependencies.", "On March 30, 2007, discussions between the Beryl and Compiz communities led to a merger of the two communities which results in two new software packages: Outcomes include plans to fund a code review panel consisting of the best developers from each community who will see that any code included in a release package meets the highest standards and is suitable for distribution in an officially supported package.", "In the fourth quarter of 2008, two separate branches of Compiz were created: \"compiz++\" and \"NOMAD\"; compiz++ was geared toward the separation of compositing and OpenGL layers for the rendering of the window manager without compositing effects, and the port from C to C++ programming language. NOMAD was geared towards the improvement of remote desktop performance for Compiz installations.", "On February 2, 2009 a conference call was held between developers of Compiz, Compiz++, NOMAD and Compiz Fusion where it was decided to merge the projects into a unified project, simply named Compiz, with a unified roadmap.", "On July 4, 2010, Sam Spilsbury, lead Compiz developer, announced the release of Compiz 0.9.0 with a new API, rewritten in C++. Canonical Ltd. hired Spilsbury to further develop Compiz for Ubuntu in October 2010. Since then Compiz development mostly coincides with Ubuntudevelopment. Main development moved to Canonical's Launchpad service. The 0.9.x versions up to 0.9.5 were seen as unstable/beta software. With version 0.9.6 in progress, Canonical hired developer Daniel van Vugt to work on Compiz full-time. While 0.9.6 never officially released, Compiz 0.9.7.0 was released a month ahead of enterprise-targeted Ubuntu 12.04 LTS (\"Long Term Support\") and declared stable. A few days before the official release of Ubuntu 12.04 a new development branch, 0.9.8, was created in preparation for Ubuntu 12.10. For Compiz version 0.9.8 development has moved to a new Launchpad page. In November 2012, Spilsbury announced that he had left Canonical and stated he had no plans to port Compiz to Wayland. A small team continues to work on Compiz with version 0.9.13 being the focus of development as of July 2016.", "A group forked the Compiz 0.8 series code base and modernized it and maintains it as of 2019.", "Almost all available Compiz features – except translucency, dimming, and desaturation – are delivered using plugins. Compiz plugins include the cube effect, Alt-Tab application-switching with live previews or icons, and a feature similar to macOS's Mission Control. The Composite extension to X is used, as is the OpenGL extension GLX_EXT_texture_from_pixmap. The Compiz project categorizes the plugins into four main groups: Main, Extra, Unsupported, and Experimental. Window managers use a program called a window decorator to provide the window borders with the usual minimize, maximize and close buttons. Unlike many window managers which have only one window decorator, Compiz users have a choice of three:", "Compiz or Beryl have usually been deployed on Linux and other X11-based Unix-like platforms together with GNOME 2 and KDE 3. Since version 4.2, however, KDE's own KWin ships with capabilities similar to Compiz. As such, Compiz is not usually deployed with recent Plasma Workspaces versions. GNOME version 3.0 uses GNOME Shell which is built as a plugin to the Mutter compositing window manager. This means Compiz cannot be used in conjunction with GNOME Shell. Citing a lack of maintenance on the part of the Compiz developers, Fedora removed Compiz from the Fedora repositories from Fedora 17 however Compiz has been reinstated in the Fedora repositories since Fedora 18. An official MATE spin which includes Compiz has been available since Fedora 19. Compiz was dropped from the Debian repositories from Debian 7 (Wheezy) onwards in August 2013 due to broken packages and a lack of upstream development on the part of the Compiz developers. Compiz was reintroduced into Debian in December 2016 by the Hypra.fr Team. Compiz was dropped from the Arch Linux repositories in May 2013. Compiz can still be installed from packages available in the Arch User Repository. Ubuntu 6.06 LTS and later included Compiz in the \"universe\" repository. A limited version was included by default as \"Desktop Effects\" in Ubuntu 7.04. From Ubuntu 7.10 onwards, Compiz was enabled by default. In 2010 Canonical released their Unity interface which is written as a plugin for Compiz." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "Safety.", "Facelift.", "China.", "Engines.", "Successor." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "At the Geneva Motor Show in 2005, Škoda unveiled a concept car in the compact SUV category which it called the Yeti. The conceptual study of the Yeti explored feasibility of a future series-produced vehicle, some solutions did not see production, including a single vertical windscreen wiper moving horizontally across the whole of the glass or horizontally divided hatch, the lower part of which was split into an inner and outer section so that two bicycles could safely be secured to the lowered outer section. Four years later, Škoda premiered the production version of the Yeti at the 2009 Geneva Motor Show. The car featured similar practical boxy design as the design study. Despite compact dimensions (length: 4,223 mm / 166.26 in; width: 1,793 mm / 70.60 in; wheelbase: 2,579 mm / 101.54 in), the Yeti offered spacious interior. Utilisation of interior was enhanced by the VarioFlex – the variable layout of the rear seats. This feature was taken from the Roomster. There are three separate seats with adjustable backrest inclination covering a range of 13.5°. The Yeti's outer seats can slide backwards and forwards; after the middle seat has been removed, the outer seats can be moved 80 mm (3.15 in) towards the centre, thus creating exceptional room for two rear passengers. The possibility of folding down the backrest, and then folding the entire seat forwards, has not been changed. Once the seats have been folded over and forwards in this way, they can be removed by means of a simple release function. Differences compared to the VarioFlex system used in the Roomster: the cushion of the middle seat has been repositioned so that it is 70 mm (2.76 in) more towards the back compared to the outer seat cushions (in the Roomster it is level); the cushion of the middle seat is approximately 35 mm longer than the cushion in the Roomster; after the middle seat is removed, the outer seats can be moved towards the centre by 80 mm (in the Roomster by 110 mm / 4.33 in). The front passenger seat can be folded forward into a horizontal position to allow the transportation of long objects. Its luggage capacity, aided by the 'VarioFlex' rear seats, ranges from 405 litres (14.3 cu ft), up to 1,760 litres (62.2 cu ft) when the rear seats are removed. The powertrain offerings in the Yeti included a range of internal combustion engines, all of which are four cylinder (I4) four-stroke turbocharged and EU5 emissions standard compliant. and EU5 emissions standard compliant.[10] petrol engines are all fuel injected and diesel engines are all common rail (CR) Turbocharged Direct Injection (TDI) with diesel particulate filter (DPF). Most engines were offered with six speed manual transmissions. A five speed manual was reserved for front wheel drive only cars with the 81 kW TDI engine. The Volkswagen Group seven speed Direct-Shift Gearbox (DSG) was option exclusively for the 1.2 TSI, while the six speed Direct-Shift Gearbox (DSG) was available for the 103 kW (140 PS) two litre common rail diesel engine. The four-wheel drive variants utilised the fourth generation Haldex Traction multi plate clutch to transmit the drive to the rear wheels, and all drive layouts include fully independent multi link rear suspension first seen on the Volkswagen Golf Mk5 to complement the fully independent front suspension. The all wheel drive Yeti cars featured Off Road button to switch all assistance systems to a special off-road setting, e.g. the accelerator responded less sensitively. A set of Off-Road functions included also a hill descent control, that used sensitive braking to maintain a constant speed descending steep slopes, regardless of whether the vehicle was in any of the gears from one to three, reverse, or neutral. The Škoda Yeti was awarded a five star safety rating by the European New Car Assessment Programme (Euro NCAP). It scored 92% for adult occupant protection in the frontal and side crash tests, 78% for child occupant protection and 46% in the pedestrian safety test.[8] It also scored 71% for default Safety Assist equipment, as the range came with driver/passenger seatbelt reminders as standard. It also included Electronic Stability Programme (ESP) with Anti-lock Braking System (ABS), Hydraulic Brake Assist (HBA), Anti-Slip Regulation (ASR) – which is currently standard equipment on most variants throughout Europe and optional on others. Protection against whiplash injury in the rear impact (whiplash) test was also good. The Yeti could be ordered with up to 9 airbags (dual front, front side torso, rear side torso, side curtain, and driver's knee airbag). In most of Europe, the Yeti was available with three different trim levels: Experience, Ambition and Track (or Active in some markets). However, in the United Kingdom, it was available in five trim levels, E, S, SE, SE Plus and Elegance. In India, it was available in \"Active\", \"Ambition\" (also called \"Ambiente\") and \"Elegance\" trims. An extensive list of standard and extras was available, incl. bi xenon headlamps with AFS, front/rear proximity sensors, automatic park assist system, tyre pressure monitoring system, navigation system with large 6.5” colour touch screen display and 30 GB hard drive, electrically adjustable seat and mirrors, rain sensor, front heated seats and a large tilt/slide two piece panoramic sunroof.", "In May 2017 Škoda Australia advised that a software update had been released by VW for DSG transmissions to reduce wear in the dual clutch assemblies. This is achieved by automatically disengaging the clutch without warning when the clutch temperature reaches 200°C. This design change also introduces a variable delayed throttle response and shuddering in first gear as \"normal operation\".", "A revamped version of the Yeti had its official exhibition premiere at the Frankfurt International Motor Show in September 2013. Following the facelift, Škoda's compact SUV was available in two design versions shorter by just 1 mm in comparison to the original model: sleek Yeti and rugged Yeti Outdoor. The main difference could be found in shape of front/rear bumper; the Outdoor version had parts exposed to potential damage from terrain (lower parts of bumpers, sills) finished in black, while the ‘urban‘ Yeti has them painted in body colour. They varied also in the offer of wheel designs and upholstery. Both versions could be ordered in top of the range trim Laurin & Klement, the ‘urban‘ Yeti also in ‘Monte Carlo‘ sports design version. The technology had also been updated. Four wheel drive was powered by the fifth generation Haldex electro hydraulically controlled multi plate coupling located at the rear axle in the same housing as the final drive and rear differential. The operating principle was much the same as the fourth generation used in the pre facelift previous model. There had been a technical change in the way oil pressure was regulated in the clutch, i.e. FWD switching. Oil pressure on the clutch plates was, after the facelift, regulated by a centrifugal valve integrated in the electric axial six piston oil pump. Compared to the previous generation, the Haldex 5 system was 1.4 kg lighter (ca. 6.6 kg without oil) and simpler as it didn't contain an oil pressure accumulator. The drivetrain line up featured some new combinations: seven speed DSG with the 1.6 TDI engine (currently with five speed manual for the GreenLine only), front wheel drive with the 103 kW two litre diesel and six speed manual (currently as all wheel drive only) and six speed DSG with the 125 kW two litre diesel and all-wheel drive (so far six speed manual only). As for the equipment, the facelifted Yeti became the first Škoda car to offer rear view parking camera. It is automatically activated when reverse gear is engaged: it displays the space behind the car and indicates the driving line, based on the vehicle width. List of features was extended by – among others – keyless system for locking/unlocking doors and starting engine (KESSY), and rechargeable LED torch in boot. Škoda unveiled Yeti Xtreme design study at the 33rd GTI Treffen.", "A special version of the Yeti was offered in China. The car has 60 mm longer wheelbase and spare wheel can be mounted on a fifth door.", "Overview of engines available for the Yeti (\"Typ\" 5L), incl. facelifted model. Petrol engines Diesel engines", "The German magazine \"Auto Bild\" first presented a graphical rendering of the presumed new model. The news was confirmed by the Skoda chairman Bernhard Maier. It would reportedly take inspiration from the Kodiaq, being larger and more expensive than the current model, and was based on Volkswsagen's MQB platform, the same as the SEAT Arona. The successor to the Yeti was officially announced as the Karoq, and was announced publicly at the Frankfurt Motor Show in 2017. It was released in late 2017." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geology.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Ekarma is roughly oval, measuring by with an area of. The island consists of two overlapping stratovolcano, collectively called Pik Ekarma -(; Japanese 越渇磨岳; \"Ekaruma-dake\"), which rises to above sea level. Lava flows radiate in all directly from the central peak, forming an uneven shoreline. Numerous hot springs with sulphur deposits are on the northern slopes of the mountain. The last eruption of the mountain was in May 1980, during which ash emissions reaching a height of one kilometer were observed from a fishing vessel.", "Ekarma was visited by hunting and fishing parties of Ainu at the time of European contact, but was not permanently settled as it has no sources of fresh water aside from rainfall. The island appears on an official map showing the territories of Matsumae Domain, a feudal domain of Edo period Japan dated 1644, and these holdings were officially confirmed by the Tokugawa shogunate in 1744. Subsequently, claimed by the Empire of Russia, sovereignty initially passed to Russia under the terms of the Treaty of Shimoda, but was returned to the Empire of Japan per the Treaty of Saint Petersburg along with the rest of the Kuril islands. The island was formerly administered as part of Shimushu District of Nemuro Subprefecture of Hokkaidō. In 1893, a settlement was attempted by nine members of the Chishima Protective Society led by Gunji Shigetada; however, the colony failed when five of the nine members died in an accident while fishing. After World War II, the island came under the control of the Soviet Union, and is now administered as part of the Sakhalin Oblast of the Russian Federation." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geology.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Kharimkotan is roughly oval, measuring by with an area of. The landscapes of the island are quite diverse; however, a significant part of the island's surface is covered with fine yellow ash, resembling desert dunes. On the north-western cape are the ruins of an Ainu village and in the north of the island, on the shore of Severgin Bay, is the abandoned settlement of Severino. There are a number of small freshwater lakes. Kharimkotan is separated by the Sixth Kuril Strait from Onekotan, located 15 kilometers to the northeast, and by the Severgin Strait from Shiashkotan, located 29 kilometers to the south-west. There are no convenient anchorage sites. The island consists of a dormant stratovolcano, Pik Severgin -(; Japanese 春牟古丹岳; \"Harikotan-dake\"), which rises to above sea level. The peak is marked by two horseshoe shaped volcanic craters created by the collapse of the volcano's upper slopes. Other evidence of the collapse can be seen on the peninsulas to the east and northwest which were formed by the debris. The volcano has erupted occasionally from the 18th century onwards, with the last recorded eruption in 1933 sending volcanic ash as far away as Paramushir. The collapse of the cone resulted in a debris-avalanche which subsequently caused a tsunami, which killed two people on Pamamushir. The path on which the debris took is visible on satellite imagery.", "Kharimkotan was inhabited by the Ainu at the time of European contact. The inhabitants subsisted by growing the edible bulbs of the Cardiocrinum, as well as fishing and hunting. The island appears on an official map showing the territories of Matsumae Domain, a feudal domain of Edo period Japan dated 1644, and these holdings were officially confirmed by the Tokugawa shogunate in 1715. However, by 1736 the Ainu adopted Russian Orthodoxy and were taxed as Russian subjects by the Empire of Russia. In 1811, it was reported that most could speak the Russian language and had adopted Russian names. In 1855, sovereignty under Russia was recognised by the terms of the Treaty of Shimoda, but the island was transferred to the Empire of Japan per the Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1875) along with the rest of the Kuril islands. In 1884, the Ainu on Kharimkotan were resettled by the Japanese authorities to Shikotan. The island was formerly administered as part of Shimushu District of Nemuro Subprefecture of Hokkaidō. In January 1933, a Japanese settlement was destroyed by an eruption of the volcano, and the settlement was abandoned by the Japanese. After World War II, the island came under the control of the Soviet Union, and is now administered as part of the Sakhalin Oblast of the Russian Federation." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Numismatics.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Economy.", "Cultural and other attractions.", "Legacy.", "Sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Over a period of approximately 2,500 years, Sinope has at various times been settled by Colchians, Greeks (in the late 7th, late 5th, and 4th–3rd centuries BC), by Romans in the mid-1st century BC, and by Turkic people beginning in the 12th century. In the 19th and 20th centuries it was also settled by the muhacir who immigrated from the Balkans and Caucasus. Evidence for Hittite Kingdom settlement along the Black Sea's southern shore remains murky. Researchers in the 1940s and 50s debated whether the \"Great Sea\", mentioned on the Boghazkoy tablets describing war between the Kizzuwatna tribe and the Hittites, could mean the Black Sea. Albrecht Goetze argued that the Hittites had never reached the northern Black Sea shore, instead drawing the northernmost boundary of the Hittite Kingdom to the south of the North Anatolia mountain range. D.S. Hogarth similarly concluded that the northern boundary of the Hittites never reached the shore. Hogarth's boundary was based on the distribution of Hittite monuments. Some objects found at Sinope are believed to be of Hittite origin. The Greek colony of Sinope () was founded by Ionians from the city of Miletus. Sinope issued its own coinage, founded colonies, and gave its name to a red earth pigment called sinopia, which was mined in Cappadocia for use throughout the ancient world. Some scholars have dated the earliest Greek colonization of Sinope to the 7th c. BC, while others have proposed an earlier date in the 8th c. While literary evidence exists supporting earlier settlement, archaeological evidence has been found of Greek settlement around the Black Sea region beginning in the late 7th century. Sinope was strategically located among the trade routes that were developing on the southern Coast of the Black Sea, but remained relatively isolated from other inland communities until the 4th century BC. There is literary evidence of early links between Colchis and Sinope in mythological tradition. Strabos writings link the legendary founder of Sinope, Autolycus, with Jason and the Argonauts. Polybius described Sinope as being \"on the way to Phasis\". The Persian Achaemenid Empires northward expansion in the 4th century disrupted Sinope's control over its eastern colonies, including Trapezus (present day Trabzon). The satrap Datames briefly occupied the city around 375 BC. There is archaeological evidence of increased economic activity between the port city of Sinope and the surrounding inland areas during between 4th and 1st c. BC. Sinope appears to have maintained its independence from the dominion of Alexander the Great, and with the help of Rhodes turned back an assault led by Mithridates II of Pontus in 220 BC. Sinope eventually fell to Pharnaces I in 183 BC, after which it became the capital of the Pontic Kingdom. The Roman general Lucullus conquered Sinope in 70 BC, and Julius Caesar established a Roman colony there, Colonia Julia Felix, in 47 BC. Mithradates Eupator was born and buried at Sinope, and it was the birthplace of Diogenes, of Diphilus, poet and actor of the New Attic comedy, of the historian Baton, and of the Christian heretic of the 2nd century AD, Marcion. After the division of the Roman Empire in 395, Sinope remained with the Eastern Roman or Byzantine Empire. Its history in the early Byzantine period is obscure, except for isolated events: it was used by Justinian II as a base from which to reconnoitre Cherson, participated in the rebellion of the Armeniac Theme in 793, was the site of Theophobos' proclamation as emperor by his Khurramite troops in 838, and suffered its only attack by the Arabs in 858. In 1081, the city was captured by the Seljuk Turks, who found there a sizeable treasury, but Sinope was soon recovered by Alexios I Komnenos, ushering a period of prosperity under the Komnenian dynasty. After the sacking of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade in 1204, it was captured for the Empire of Trebizond by David Komnenos, until the Seljuk Turks of Rûm successfully captured the city in 1214. The city returned briefly to Trapezuntine rule in 1254, but returned to Turkish control in 1265, where it has remained since. After 1265, Sinop became home to two successive independent emirates following the fall of the Seljuks: the Pervâne and the Jandarids. The Ottoman Sultan Mehmet II overawed Ismail, the emir of Sinope on his march on Trebizond, and forced him to surrender the city to the Sultan late June 1461 without a fight. The emir was exiled to Philippopolis (modern Plovdiv) in northern Thrace. Ibn Battuta visited the city and stayed for about forty days. He noted it was \"a superb city which combines fortification with beautification.\" In 1614, Sinop was targeted by Cossack raiders and extensively looted and burned in an event which shocked Ottoman contemporaries. In November 1853, at the start of the Crimean War, in the Battle of Sinop, the Russians, under the command of Admiral Nakhimov, destroyed an Ottoman frigate squadron in Sinop, leading Britain and France to declare war on Russia. In the late 19th and early 20th century, Sinop was part of the Kastamonu Vilayet of the Ottoman Empire. As of 1920, Sinop was described as populated mainly by Greeks with an approximate population of 8,000. It was also considered the \"safest\" port \"between Bosphorus and Batum\", at the time. During this period, the port was exporting wheat, tobacco, seeds, timber and hides. They imported produce, coal and hardware. Sinop hosted a US military base and radar that was important for intelligence during the cold war era. The US base was closed in 1992. Explorer Robert Ballard discovered an ancient ship wreck north west of Sinop in the Black Sea and was shown on National Geographic.", "Greek coins featuring an eagle holding a dolphin or marine animal in its talons have been found in Sinope, Istria and Olbia. Located in present-day Turkey, Romania and Ukraine respective, all three were colonies of Miletus. The coins circulated between c. 450 and 325 BC. Coins of the \"Sinope type\" continued to be issued by Persians under Achaemenid rule in the 4th century BC. At least two Persian issuers of such coins have been studied in some detail: the satrap Datames in Cappadocia and Ariarathes.", "Sinope is located on a promontory at the narrowest point of the Black Sea. It has two harbors and is located along the southern shore of the Black Sea, near the shortest crossing to the Crimea. The nearby mountainous terrain is green and noted for its timber.", "Sinop has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen: \"Cfa\"). Sinop has warm and humid summers with an average daytime high of 26 °C (78.8 °F) however temperatures rarely exceed 30 °C (86 °F). The highest recorded temperature for Sinop was 34.4 °C (93.92 °F) on 6 July 2000. The winters are cool and wet, the average for winter ranging around 5 °C (41 °F). The lowest recorded temperature for Sinop was -7.5 °C (18.5 °F) on 21 February 1985. Snowfall is quite common between the months of December and March, snowing for a week or two.", "As of 1920, Sinop was producing embroidered cotton cloth. They also were known for boatbuilding. The British described the boats produced in Sinop as being of \"primitive design but sound workmanship.\" Sinop is currently slated to be the site of the Sinop Nuclear Power Plant, a $15.8 billion nuclear power plant being developed by Elektrik Üretim, Engie, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries and Itochu. The plant will consist of four reactors, with construction to begin as early as 2017 and completion by 2028.", "Visitor attraction places in Sinop are: Pasha Bastion () is a half-moon coastal bastion, a semi-circular fortification, situated southeast of Sinop Peninsula. It was constructed to protect the city against attacks coming from the Black Sea during the Russo-Turkish War, Crimean War (1853–1856). It features an artillery battery of eleven cannons, an arsenal and basement. Today, it is used as a place for refreshments premise. Historic Water Tunnel () is an ancient underground water supply channel situated at Sülüklü Göl (literally: Lake of Leeches. Dug in rock, it is about long and has a clearance of. There exists a high cylindrical ventilation shaft of diameter. Balatlar Church () is a ruined church from the Byzantine Empire period. It is partly preserved as only the chapel vault is in undamaged condition while other parts of the church have no roof any more. Fresco paintings on the chapel's ceiling and on the nave walls are still intact. Serapeum is a ruined temple dedicated to the combined Hellenistic-Ancient Egyptian deity Serapis, situated in the southwestern corner in the yard of Sinop Archaeological Museum. Alaaddin Mosque is a 13th-century mosque of Seljuk architecture named after its endower Sultan Alaaddin Kayqubad I (1188–1237). Pervane Medrese is a former Islamic religious school, which was closed down after the proclamation of the Republic. The 13th-century building was used as a depot for archaeological artifacts and ethnographic items from 1932 on, and served as a museum between 1941 and 1970. It hosts souvenir shops today. Sinop Fortress () is a fortification surrounding the peninsula and the isthmus of Sinop. It was built initially by migrants from Miletus in the 8th century BC. The fortress underwent reparation and expansion to its current extent during the reign of King Mithridates IV of Pontus in the 2nd century BC after its destruction by the Cimmerians in the 7th century BC. Some parts of the fortress, especially the north walls, are ruined. Sinop Fortress Prison () is a defunct state prison situated inside the Sinop Fortress. Served between 1887 and 1997, the prison rose to fame when it featured in many literature works of notable aıthors, who were inmates of the prison for political reasons. It became also a shooting set for many movies and television series. It is a prison museum today. Sinop Archaeological Museum () is a 1941-established archaeological museum exhibiting artifacts dating back to Early Bronze Age and from the Hellenistic, Roman, Byzantine, Seljuk and Ottoman periods as well. Sinop Ethnographic Museum () is a museum of ethnographic exhibits belonging to the cultural history of the region. It is situated in a large 18th-century mansion. Statue of Diogenes () is a monument to the Ancient Greek philosopher Diogenes of Sinope born in Sinop in about 412 BC.", "Sinope has given its name to the outermost satellite of Jupiter. A crater on Mars is named after Sinop.", "Sinop has ten sister cities:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Toponymy.", "Attributes.", "Location.", "Population.", "History.", "Legendary history.", "Old Kingdom.", "Middle Kingdom.", "New Kingdom.", "Late Period.", "Ptolemaic Period.", "Decline and abandonment.", "Remains.", "Great Temple of Ptah.", "Temple of Ptah of Rameses II.", "Temple of Ptah and Sekhmet of Rameses II.", "Temple of Ptah of Merneptah.", "Temple of Hathor.", "Other temples.", "Temple of Sekhmet.", "Temple of Apis.", "Temple of Amun.", "Temple of Aten.", "Statues of Rameses II.", "Saqqara, the Necropolis.", "Royal palaces.", "Other buildings.", "Historical accounts and exploration.", "Sources from antiquity.", "Early exploration.", "Nineteenth century.", "Twentieth century." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Memphis has had several names during its history of almost four millennia. Its Ancient Egyptian name was Inebu-hedj (translated as \"the white walls\"). Because of its size, the city also came to be known by various other names that were actually the names of neighbourhoods or districts that enjoyed considerable prominence at one time or another. For example, according to a text of the First Intermediate Period, it was known as Djed-Sut (\"everlasting places\"), which is the name of the pyramid of Teti. The city was also at one point referred to as Ankh-Tawy (meaning \"Life of the Two Lands\"), stressing the strategic position of the city between", "", "The city of Memphis is south of Cairo, on the west bank of the Nile. The modern cities and towns of Mit Rahina, Dahshur, Abusir, Abu Gorab, and", "The island of the city is today uninhabited. The closest settlement is the town of Mit Rahina. Estimates of historical population size differ widely between sources. According to Tertius Chandler, Memphis had", "Memphis became the capital of Ancient Egypt for over eight consecutive dynasties during the Old Kingdom. The city reached a peak of prestige under the 6th Dynasty as a centre for the worship of Ptah, the god of creation and artworks. The alabaster sphinx that guards the Temple of Ptah serves as a memorial of the city's former power and prestige. The Memphis triad, consisting of the creator god Ptah, his consort Sekhmet, and their son Nefertem, formed the main focus of worship in the city. Memphis declined after the 18th Dynasty with the rise of Thebes and the New Kingdom but was revived under the Persians, before falling firmly into second place following the founding of Alexandria. Under the Roman Empire, Alexandria remained the most important Egyptian city. Memphis remained the second city of Egypt until the establishment of Fustat (or Fostat) in 641 CE. Afterwards it was largely abandoned and became a source of stone for the surrounding settlements. It was still an imposing set of ruins in the 12th century but soon became little more than an expanse of low ruins and scattered stone.", "The legend recorded by Manetho was that Menes, the first pharaoh to unite the Two Lands, established his capital on the banks of the Nile by diverting the river with dikes. The Greek historian Herodotus, who tells a similar story, relates that during his visit to the city, the Persians, at that point the suzerains of the country, paid particular attention to the condition of these dams so that the city was saved from the annual flooding. It has been theorised that Menes was possibly a mythical king,", "Little is known about the city of the Old Kingdom. It was the state capital of the godlike pharaohs, who reigned from Memphis from the date of the 1st dynasty. During the earliest years of the reign of Menes, according to Manetho, the seat of power was further to the south, at Thinis. According to Manetho, ancient sources suggest the \"white walls\" (Ineb-hedj) or \"fortress of the white wall\" were founded by Menes. It is likely that the king established himself here to better control this new union between the two rival kingdoms. The complex of Djoser of the 3rd dynasty, located in the ancient necropolis at Saqqara, would then be the royal funerary chamber, housing all the elements necessary to royalty: temples, shrines, ceremonial courts, palaces and barracks. The golden age began with the 4th dynasty, which seems to have furthered the primary role of Memphis as a royal residence where rulers received the double crown, the divine manifestation of the unification of the Two Lands. Coronations and jubilees such as the Sed festival", "At the beginning of the Middle Kingdom, the capital and court of the pharaoh had moved to Thebes in the south, leaving Memphis for a time in the shade. Although the seat of political power had shifted, Memphis did remain perhaps the most important commercial and artistic centre, as evidenced by the discovery of handicrafts districts and cemeteries, located west of the temple of Ptah. Also found were vestiges attesting to the architectural focus of this time. A large granite offering table on behalf of Amenemhat I mentioned the erection by the king of a shrine to the god Ptah, master of Truth. Other blocks registered in the name of Amenemhat II were found to be used as foundations for large monoliths preceding the pylons of Rameses II. These kings were also known to have ordered mining expeditions, raids or military campaigns beyond the borders, erecting monuments or statues to the consecration of deities, evinced by a panel recording official acts of the royal court during this time. In the ruins of the Temple of", "The 18th dynasty thus opened with the victory over the invaders by the Thebans. Although the reigns of Amenhotep II (r. 1427–1401/1397 BC) and Thutmose IV (r. 1401/1397–1391/1388 BC) saw considerable royal focus in Memphis, power remained for the most part in the south. With the long period of peace that followed, prosperity again took hold of the city, which benefited from her strategic position. Strengthening trade ties with other empires meant that the port of \"Peru-nefer\" (literally means \"Bon Voyage\") became the gateway to the kingdom for neighbouring regions, including Byblos and the Levant. In the New Kingdom, Memphis became a centre for the education of royal princes and the sons of the nobility. Amenhotep II, born and raised in Memphis, was made the \"setem\"—the high priest over Lower Egypt—during the reign of his father. His son, Thutmose IV received his famed and recorded dream whilst residing as a", "During the Third Intermediate Period and the Late Period, Memphis is often the scene of liberation struggles of the local dynasties against an occupying force, such as the Kushites, Assyrians and Persians. The triumphant campaign of Piankhi, ruler of the Kushites, saw the establishment of the 25th dynasty, whose seat of power was in Napata. Piankhi's conquest of Egypt was recorded on the Victory Stele at the Temple of Amun in Gebel Barkal. Following the capture of Memphis, he restored the temples and cults neglected during the reign of the Libyans. His successors are known for building chapels in the southwest corner of the temple of Ptah. Memphis was at the heart of the turmoil produced by the great Assyrian threat. Under Taharqa, the city formed the frontier base of the resistance, which soon crumbled as", "In 332 BCE, Alexander the Great was crowned pharaoh in the Temple of Ptah, ushering in the Hellenistic period. The city retained a significant status, especially religious, throughout the period following the takeover by one of his generals, Ptolemy. On the death of Alexander in Babylon (323 BCE), Ptolemy took great pains in acquiring his body and bringing it to Memphis. Claiming that the king himself had officially expressed a desire to be buried in Egypt, he then carried the body of Alexander to the heart of the temple of Ptah, and had him embalmed by the priests. By custom, kings in Macedon asserted their right to the throne by burying their predecessor. Ptolemy II later transferred the sarcophagus to Alexandria, where a royal tomb was constructed for its burial. The exact location of the tomb has been lost since then. According to Aelian, the seer Aristander foretold that the land where Alexander was laid to rest \"would be happy and unvanquishable forever\". Thus began the Ptolemaic dynasty, during which began the", "With the arrival of the Romans, Memphis, like Thebes, lost its place permanently in favour of Alexandria, which opened onto the empire. The rise of the cult of Serapis, a syncretic deity most suited to the mentality of the new rulers of Egypt, and the emergence of Christianity taking root deep into the country, spelled the complete ruin of the ancient cults of Memphis. During the Byzantine and Coptic periods the city gradually dwindled and finally dropped out of existence. It then became a quarry used to build new settlements nearby, including a new capital founded by the Arabs who took possession in the 7th century. The foundations of Fustat and later Cairo, both built further north, were laid with stones of dismantled temples and ancient necropoleis of Memphis. In the 13th century, the Arab chronicler Abd-ul-Latif, upon visiting the site, describes and gives testimony to the grandeur of the ruins.", "During the time of the New Kingdom, and especially under the reign of the rulers of the 19th dynasty, Memphis flourished in power and size, rivalling Thebes both politically and architecturally. An indicator of this development can be found in a chapel of Seti I dedicated to the worship of Ptah. After over a century of excavations on the site, archaeologists have gradually been able to confirm the layout and expansion of the ancient city.", "The \"Hout-ka-Ptah\", dedicated to the worship of the creator god Ptah, was the largest and most important temple in ancient Memphis. It was one of the most prominent structures in the city, occupying a large precinct within the city's centre. Enriched by centuries of veneration, the temple was one of the three foremost places of worship in Ancient Egypt, the others being the great temples of Ra in Heliopolis, and of Amun in Thebes. Much of what is known about the ancient temple today comes from the writings of Herodotus, who visited the site at the time of the first Persian invasion, long after the fall of the New Kingdom. Herodotus claimed that the temple had been founded by Menes himself, and that the core building of the complex was restricted to priests and kings. His account, however, gives no physical description of the complex. Archaeological work undertaken in the", "This small temple, adjoining the southwest corner of the larger Temple of Ptah, was dedicated to the deified Rameses II, along with the three state gods: Horus, Ptah and Amun. It is known in full as the Temple of Ptah of Rameses, Beloved of Amun, God, Ruler of Heliopolis. Its ruins were discovered in 1942, by archaeologist Ahmed Badawy, and were excavated in 1955 by Rudolf", "Located further east, and near to the great colossus of Rameses, this small temple is attributed to the 19th dynasty, and seems to have been dedicated to Ptah and his divine consort Sekhmet, as well as deified Rameses II. Its ruins are not as well", "In the southeast of the Great Temple complex, the pharaoh Merneptah, of the 19th dynasty, founded a new shrine in honour of the chief god of the city, Ptah. This temple was discovered in the early 20th century by Flinders Petrie, who identified a depiction of the Greek god Proteus cited by Herodotus. The site was excavated during the First World War by Clarence Stanley Fisher. Excavations began in the anterior part, which is formed by a large courtyard of about 15 sq metres, opening on the south by a large door with reliefs supplying the names of the pharaoh and the epithets", "This small temple of Hathor was unearthed south of the great wall of the Hout-Ka-Ptah by Abdullah al-Sayed Mahmud in the 1970s and also dates from the time of Rameses II. Dedicated to the goddess Hathor, Lady of the Sycamore, it presents an architecture similar to the small temple-shrines known especially to Karnak. From its proportions, it does not seem to be a major shrine of the goddess,", "A temple dedicated to Mithras, dated from the Roman period, has been uncovered in the grounds north of Memphis. The temple of Astarte, described by Herodotus, was located in the area reserved to the Phoenicians during the time when the Greek author visited the city. The temple of the goddess Neith was said to have been located to the north of the temple of Ptah. Neither of the latter two has been discovered to date. Memphis is believed to have housed a number of other temples dedicated to gods who accompanied Ptah. Some of these sanctuaries are attested by ancient hieroglyphs, but have not yet been found among the ruins of the city. Surveys and excavations are still continuing at nearby Mit Rahina, and will likely add to the knowledge of the planning of the ancient religious city.", "A temple dedicated to the goddess Sekhmet, consort of Ptah, has not yet been found but is currently certified by Egyptian sources. Archaeologists are still searching for remains. It may be located within the precinct of the Hout-ka-Ptah, as would seem to suggest several discoveries made among the ruins of the complex in the late", "The Temple of Apis in Memphis was the main temple dedicated to the worship of the bull Apis, considered to be a living manifestation of Ptah. It is detailed in the works of classical historians such as Herodotus, Diodorus, and Strabo, but its location has yet to be discovered amidst the ruins of the ancient capital. According to Herodotus, who described the temple's courtyard as a peristyle of columns with giant statues, it was built during the reign of Psamtik I. The Greek historian Strabo visited the site with the conquering Roman troops, following the victory against Cleopatra in the Battle of Actium. He details that the temple consisted of two chambers, one for the bull and the other for his mother, and all was built near the temple of Ptah. At the temple, Apis was used as an oracle, his movements being interpreted as prophecies. His breath", "During the 21st dynasty, a shrine of the great god Amun was built by Siamun to the south of the temple of Ptah. This", "A temple dedicated to Aten in Memphis is attested by hieroglyphs found within the tombs of Memphite dignitaries of the end of the 18th dynasty, uncovered at Saqqara. Among them, that of Tutankhamun, who began his career under the reign of Akhenaten as a \"steward of the temple of Aten in Memphis\". Since the early excavations at Memphis in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, artefacts have been uncovered in different parts of the city that indicate the presence of a building dedicated to the worship of the sun disc. The location of such a building is lost, and various hypotheses have been made on this subject based on the place of discovery of the remains of the Amarna period features.", "The ruins of ancient Memphis have yielded a large number of sculptures representing Pharaoh Rameses II. Within the museum in Memphis is a giant statue of the pharaoh carved of monumental limestone, about 10 metres in length. It was discovered in 1820 near the southern gate of the temple of Ptah by Italian archaeologist Giovanni Caviglia. Because the base and feet of the sculpture are broken off from the rest of the body, it is currently displayed lying on its back. Some of the colours are still partially preserved, but the beauty of this statue lies in its flawless detail of the complex and subtle forms of human anatomy. The pharaoh wears the white crown of Upper Egypt, Hedjet. Caviglia offered to send the statue to Grand Duke", "Because of its antiquity and its large population, Memphis had several necropoleis spread along the valley, including the most famous, Saqqara. In addition, the urban area itself consisted of cemeteries that were constructed to the west of the great temple. The sanctity of these places inevitably attracted the devout and the faithful, who sought either to make an offering to Osiris, or to bury another. The part of town called \"Ankh-tawy\" was already included in the", "Memphis was the seat of power for the pharaohs of over eight dynasties. According to Manetho, the first royal palace was founded by Hor-Aha, the successor of Narmer, the founder of the 1st dynasty. He built a fortress in Memphis of white walls. Egyptian sources themselves tell of the palaces of the Old Kingdom rulers, some of which were built underneath major royal pyramids. They were immense in size, and were embellished with parks and", "The centrally located palaces and temples were surrounded by different districts of the city, in which were many craftsmen's workshops, arsenals, and dockyards. Also were residential neighbourhoods, some of which were inhabited primarily by foreigners—first Hittites and Phoenicians, later Persians, and finally Greek. The city was indeed located", "The site of Memphis has been famous since ancient times, and is cited in many ancient sources, including both Egyptian and foreign. Diplomatic records found on different sites have detailed the correspondence between the city and the various contemporary empires in the Mediterranean, Near East, and Africa. These include for example the Amarna letters, which detail trade conducted between Memphis and the sovereigns of Babylon and the various city-states of Lebanon. The proclamations of the later Assyrian kings cite Memphis among its list of conquests.", "Beginning with the second half of the 1st millennium BCE, the city was detailed more and more intensely in the words of ancient historians, especially with the development of trade ties with Greece. The descriptions of the city by travellers who followed the traders in the discovery of Egypt have proved instrumental in reconstructing an image of the ancient capital's glorious past. Among the main classical authors are: Subsequently,", "In 1652, Jean de Thévenot, during his trip to Egypt, identified the location of the site and its ruins, confirming the accounts of the old Arab authors for Europe. His description is brief, but represents the first step towards the exploration that will emerge after the development of archaeology.", "The early French expeditions paved the way for explorations of a deeper scope that would follow from the 19th century until today, conducted by leading explorers, Egyptologists and major archaeological institutions. Here is a partial list: During the British era in Egypt, the development of agricultural technology along with the systematic cultivation of the Nile floodplains led to a considerable amount of accidental archaeological discoveries. Much of what was found would fall into the hands of major European collectors travelling the country on behalf of the great museums of London, Paris, Berlin, and Turin. It was during one of these land cultivations that peasants discovered, accidentally in 1847 near the village of Mit Rahina, elements of a Roman temple of Mithras. It was probably at this location where eleven statues were found. A review of \"Les Statues Ptolémaïques du Sarapieion de Memphis\" noted they were probably build in the 3rd Century with limestone and stucco, some standing others sitting.", "The major excavations of the British Egyptologist Sir William Matthew Flinders Petrie, conducted from 1907 to 1912, uncovered the majority of the ruins as seen today. Major discoveries on the site during these excavations included the pillared hall of the temple of Ptah, the pylon of" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Uses.", "Medicine.", "Interrogation.", "Chemistry.", "Side effects.", "Tolerance and dependence.", "Overdose.", "Mechanism of action.", "History.", "Society and culture.", "Legal status.", "Recreational use.", "Examples." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Barbiturates such as phenobarbital were long used as anxiolytics and hypnotics. Intermediate-acting barbiturates reduce time to fall asleep, increase total sleep time, and reduce REM sleep time. Today they have been largely replaced by benzodiazepines for these purposes because the latter are less toxic in drug overdose. However, barbiturates are still used as anticonvulsants (e.g., phenobarbital and primidone) and general anesthetics (e.g., sodium thiopental). Barbiturates in high doses are used for physician-assisted suicide, and in combination with a muscle relaxant for euthanasia and for capital punishment by lethal injection. Barbiturates are frequently employed as euthanizing agents in small-animal veterinary medicine.", "Sodium thiopental is an ultra-short-acting barbiturate that is marketed under the name Sodium Pentothal. It is often mistaken for \"truth serum\", or sodium amytal, an intermediate-acting barbiturate that is used for sedation and to treat insomnia, but was also used in so-called sodium amytal \"interviews\" where the person being questioned would be much more likely to provide the truth whilst under the influence of this drug. When dissolved in water, sodium amytal can be swallowed, or it can be administered by intravenous injection. The drug does not itself force people to tell the truth, but is thought to decrease inhibitions and slow creative thinking, making subjects more likely to be caught off guard when questioned, and increasing the possibility of the subject revealing information through emotional outbursts. Lying is somewhat more complex than telling the truth, especially under the influence of a sedative-hypnotic drug. The memory-impairing effects and cognitive impairments induced by sodium thiopental are thought to reduce a subject's ability to invent and remember lies. This practice is no longer considered legally admissible in court due to findings that subjects undergoing such interrogations may form false memories, putting the reliability of all information obtained through such methods into question. Nonetheless, it is still employed in certain circumstances by defense and law enforcement agencies as a \"humane\" alternative to torture interrogation when the subject is believed to have information critical to the security of the state or agency employing the tactic.", "In 1988, the synthesis and binding studies of an artificial receptor binding barbiturates by six complementary hydrogen bonds was published. Since this first article, different kind of receptors were designed, as well as different barbiturates and cyanurates, not for their efficiencies as drugs but for applications in supramolecular chemistry, in the conception of materials and molecular devices. Sodium barbital and barbital have also been used as pH buffers for biological research, e.g., in immunoelectrophoresis or in fixative solutions.", "There are special risks to consider for older adults, and women who are pregnant. When a person ages, the body becomes less able to rid itself of barbiturates. As a result, people over the age of sixty-five are at higher risk of experiencing the harmful effects of barbiturates, including drug dependence and accidental overdose. When barbiturates are taken during pregnancy, the drug passes through the placenta to the fetus. After the baby is born, it may experience withdrawal symptoms and have trouble breathing. In addition, nursing mothers who take barbiturates may transmit the drug to their babies through breast milk. A rare adverse reaction to barbiturates is Stevens–Johnson syndrome, which primarily affects the mucous membranes.", "With regular use, tolerance to the effects of barbiturates develops. Research shows that tolerance can develop with even one administration of a barbiturate. As with all GABAergic drugs, barbiturate withdrawal produces potentially fatal effects such as seizures in a manner reminiscent of delirium tremens and benzodiazepine withdrawal although its more direct mechanism of GABA agonism makes barbiturate withdrawal even more severe than that of alcohol or benzodiazepines (subsequently making it one of the most dangerous withdrawals of any known addictive substance). Similarly to benzodiazepines, the longer acting barbiturates produce a less severe withdrawal syndrome than short acting and ultra-short acting barbiturates. Withdrawal symptoms are dose-dependent with heavier users being more affected than lower-dose addicts. The pharmacological treatment of barbiturate withdrawal is an extended process often consisting of converting the patient to a long-acting benzodiazepine (i.e. Valium), followed by slowly tapering off the benzodiazepine. Mental cravings for barbiturates can last for months or years in some cases and counselling/support groups are highly encouraged by addiction specialists. Patients should never try to tackle the task of discontinuing barbiturates without consulting a doctor due to the high lethality and relatively sudden onset of the withdrawal. Attempting to quit \"cold turkey\" may result in serious neurological damage, severe physical injuries received during convulsions, and even death via glutamatergic excitotoxicity.", "Some symptoms of an overdose typically include sluggishness, incoordination, difficulty in thinking, slowness of speech, faulty judgement, drowsiness, shallow breathing, staggering, and, in severe cases, coma or death. The lethal dosage of barbiturates varies greatly with tolerance and from one individual to another. The lethal dose is highly variable among different members of the class with superpotent barbiturates such as pentobarbital being potentially fatal in considerably lower doses than the low-potency barbiturates such as butalbital. Even in inpatient settings the development of tolerance is still a problem, as dangerous and unpleasant withdrawal symptoms can result when the drug is stopped after dependence has developed. Tolerance to the anxiolytic and sedative effects of barbiturates tends to develop faster than tolerance to their effects on smooth muscle, respiration, and heart rate, making them generally unsuitable for a long time psychiatric use. Tolerance to the anticonvulsant effects tends to correlate more with tolerance to physiological effects, however, meaning that they are still a viable option for long-term epilepsy treatment. Barbiturates in overdose with other CNS (central nervous system) depressants (e.g. alcohol, opiates, benzodiazepines) are even more dangerous due to additive CNS and respiratory depressant effects. In the case of benzodiazepines, not only do they have additive effects, barbiturates also increase the binding affinity of the benzodiazepine binding site, leading to exaggerated benzodiazepine effects. (ex. If a benzodiazepine increases the frequency of channel opening by 300%, and a barbiturate increases the duration of their opening by 300%, then the combined effects of the drugs increase the channels overall function by 900%, not 600%). The longest-acting barbiturates have half-lives of a day or more, and subsequently result in bioaccumulation of the drug in the system. The therapeutic and recreational effects of long-acting barbiturates wear off significantly faster than the drug can be eliminated, allowing the drug to reach toxic concentrations in the blood following repeated administration (even when taken at the therapeutic or prescribed dose) despite the user feeling little or no effects from the plasma-bound concentrations of the drug. Users who consume alcohol or other sedatives after the drug's effects have worn off, but before it has cleared the system, may experience a greatly exaggerated effect from the other sedatives which can be incapacitating or even fatal. Barbiturates induce a number of hepatic CYP enzymes (most notably CYP2C9, CYP2C19, and CYP3A4), leading to exaggerated effects from many prodrugs and decreased effects from drugs which are metabolized by these enzymes to inactive metabolites. This can result in fatal overdoses from drugs such as codeine, tramadol, and carisoprodol, which become considerably more potent after being metabolized by CYP enzymes. Although all known members of the class possess relevant enzyme induction capabilities, the degree of induction overall as well as the impact on each specific enzyme span a broad range, with phenobarbital and secobarbital being the most potent enzyme inducers and butalbital and talbutal being among the weakest enzyme inducers in the class. People who are known to have committed suicide by barbiturate overdose include Charles Boyer,Ruan Lingyu, Dalida, Jeannine \"The Singing Nun\" Deckers, Felix Hausdorff, Abbie Hoffman, Phyllis Hyman, C. P. Ramanujam, George Sanders, Jean Seberg, Lupe Vélez and the members of Heaven's Gate cult. Others who have died as a result of barbiturate overdose include Pier Angeli, Brian Epstein, Judy Garland, Jimi Hendrix, Marilyn Monroe, Inger Stevens, Dinah Washington, Ellen Wilkinson, and Alan Wilson; in some cases these have been speculated to be suicides as well. Those who died of a combination of barbiturates and other drugs include Rainer Werner Fassbinder, Dorothy Kilgallen, Malcolm Lowry, Edie Sedgwick and Kenneth Williams. Dorothy Dandridge died of either an overdose or an unrelated embolism. Ingeborg Bachmann may have died of the consequences of barbiturate withdrawal (she was hospitalized with burns, the doctors treating her not being aware of her barbiturate addiction).", "Barbiturates act as positive allosteric modulators and, at higher doses, as agonists of GABA receptors. GABA is the principal inhibitory neurotransmitter in the mammalian central nervous system (CNS). Barbiturates bind to the GABA receptor at multiple homologous transmembrane pockets located at subunit interfaces, which are binding sites distinct from GABA itself and also distinct from the benzodiazepine binding site. Like benzodiazepines, barbiturates potentiate the effect of GABA at this receptor. In addition to this GABAergic effect, barbiturates also block AMPA and kainate receptors, subtypes of ionotropic glutamate receptor. Glutamate is the principal excitatory neurotransmitter in the mammalian CNS. Taken together, the findings that barbiturates potentiate inhibitory GABA receptors and inhibit excitatory AMPA receptors can explain the superior CNS-depressant effects of these agents to alternative GABA potentiating agents such as benzodiazepines and quinazolinones. At higher concentration, they inhibit the Ca-dependent release of neurotransmitters such as glutamate via an effect on P/Q-type voltage-dependent calcium channels. Barbiturates produce their pharmacological effects by increasing the duration of chloride ion channel opening at the GABA receptor (pharmacodynamics: This increases the efficacy of GABA), whereas benzodiazepines increase the frequency of the chloride ion channel opening at the GABA receptor (pharmacodynamics: This increases the potency of GABA). The direct gating or opening of the chloride ion channel is the reason for the increased toxicity of barbiturates compared to benzodiazepines in overdose. Further, barbiturates are relatively non-selective compounds that bind to an entire superfamily of ligand-gated ion channels, of which the GABA receptor channel is only one of several representatives. This Cys-loop receptor superfamily of ion channels includes the neuronal nACh receptor channel, the 5-HT receptor channel, and the glycine receptor channel. However, while GABA receptor currents are increased by barbiturates (and other general anaesthetics), ligand-gated ion channels that are predominantly permeable for cationic ions are blocked by these compounds. For example, neuronal nAChR channels are blocked by clinically relevant anaesthetic concentrations of both thiopental and pentobarbital. Such findings implicate (non-GABA-ergic) ligand-gated ion channels, e.g. the neuronal nAChR channel, in mediating some of the (side) effects of barbiturates. This is the mechanism responsible for the (mild to moderate) anesthetic effect of barbiturates in high doses when used in anesthetic concentration.", "Barbituric acid was first synthesized November 27, 1864, by German chemist Adolf von Baeyer. This was done by condensing urea with diethyl malonate. There are several stories about how the substance got its name. The most likely story is that Baeyer and his colleagues went to celebrate their discovery in a tavern where the town's artillery garrison were also celebrating the feast of Saint Barbara – the patron saint of artillerymen. An artillery officer is said to have christened the new substance by amalgamating \"Barbara\" with \"urea\". Another story was barbiturate was invented on the feast day of St. Barbara. Another story holds that Baeyer synthesized the substance from the collected urine of a Munich waitress named Barbara. No substance of medical value was discovered, however, until 1903 when two German scientists working at Bayer, Emil Fischer and Joseph von Mering, discovered that barbital was very effective in putting dogs to sleep. Barbital was then marketed by Bayer under the trade name Veronal. It is said that Mering proposed this name because the most peaceful place he knew was the Italian city of Verona. It was not until the 1950s that the behavioural disturbances and physical dependence potential of barbiturates became recognized. Barbituric acid itself does not have any direct effect on the central nervous system and chemists have derived over 2,500 compounds from it that possess pharmacologically active qualities. The broad class of barbiturates is further broken down and classified according to speed of onset and duration of action. Ultrashort-acting barbiturates are commonly used for anesthesia because their extremely short duration of action allows for greater control. These properties allow doctors to rapidly put a patient \"under\" in emergency surgery situations. Doctors can also bring a patient out of anesthesia just as quickly, should complications arise during surgery. The middle two classes of barbiturates are often combined under the title \"short/intermediate-acting.\" These barbiturates are also employed for anesthetic purposes, and are also sometimes prescribed for anxiety or insomnia. This is not a common practice anymore, however, owing to the dangers of long-term use of barbiturates; they have been replaced by the benzodiazepines and Z-drugs such as zolpidem, zaleplon and eszopiclone for sleep. The final class of barbiturates are known as long-acting barbiturates (the most notable one being phenobarbital, which has a half-life of roughly 92 hours). This class of barbiturates is used almost exclusively as anticonvulsants, although on rare occasions they are prescribed for daytime sedation. Barbiturates in this class are not used for insomnia, because, owing to their extremely long half-life, patients would awake with a residual \"hang-over\" effect and feel groggy. Barbiturates can in most cases be used either as the free acid or as salts of sodium, calcium, potassium, magnesium, lithium, etc. Codeine- and Dionine-based salts of barbituric acid have been developed. In 1912, Bayer introduced another barbituric acid derivative, phenobarbital, under the trade name Luminal, as a sedative–hypnotic.", "", "During World War II, military personnel in the Pacific region were given \"goofballs\" to allow them to tolerate the heat and humidity of daily working conditions. Goofballs were distributed to reduce the demand on the respiratory system, as well as maintaining blood pressure, to combat the extreme conditions. Many soldiers returned with addictions that required several months of rehabilitation before discharge. This led to growing dependency problems, often exacerbated by indifferent doctors prescribing high doses to unknowing patients through the 1950s and 1960s. In the late 1950s and 1960s, an increasing number of published reports of barbiturate overdoses and dependence problems led physicians to reduce their prescription, particularly for spurious requests. This eventually led to the scheduling of barbiturates as controlled drugs. In the Netherlands, the Opium Law classifies all barbiturates as List II drugs, with the exception of secobarbital, which is on List I. There is a small group of List II drugs for which doctors have to write the prescriptions according to the same, tougher guidelines as those for List I drugs (writing the prescription in full in letters, listing the patients name, and have to contain the name and initials, address, city and telephone number of the licensed prescriber issuing the prescriptions, as well as the name and initials, address and city of the person the prescription is issued to). Among that group of drugs are the barbiturates amobarbital, butalbital, cyclobarbital, and pentobarbital. In the United States, the Controlled Substances Act of 1970 classified most barbiturates as controlled substances—and they remain so. Barbital, methylphenobarbital (also known as mephobarbital), and phenobarbital are designated schedule IV drugs, and \"Any substance which contains any quantity of a derivative of barbituric acid, or any salt of a derivative of barbituric acid\" (all other barbiturates) were designated as being schedule III. Under the original CSA, no barbiturates were placed in schedule I, II, or V; however, amobarbital, pentobarbital, and secobarbital are schedule II controlled substances unless they are in a suppository dosage form. In 1971, the Convention on Psychotropic Substances was signed in Vienna. Designed to regulate amphetamines, barbiturates, and other synthetics, the 34th version of the treaty,, regulates secobarbital as schedule II, amobarbital, butalbital, cyclobarbital, and pentobarbital as schedule III, and allobarbital, barbital, butobarbital, mephobarbital, phenobarbital, butabarbital, and vinylbital as schedule IV on its \"Green List\". The combination medication Fioricet, consisting of butalbital, caffeine, and paracetamol (acetaminophen), however, is specifically exempted from controlled substance status, while its sibling Fiorinal, which contains aspirin instead of paracetamol and may contain codeine phosphate, remains a schedule III drug.", "Recreational users report that a barbiturate high gives them feelings of relaxed contentment and euphoria. Physical and psychological dependence may also develop with repeated use. Chronic misuse of barbiturates is associated with significant morbidity. One study found that 11% of males and 23% of females with a sedative-hypnotic misuse die by suicide. Other effects of barbiturate intoxication include drowsiness, lateral and vertical nystagmus, slurred speech and ataxia, decreased anxiety, and loss of inhibitions. Barbiturates are also used to alleviate the adverse or withdrawal effects of illicit drug use, in a manner similar to long-acting benzodiazepines such as diazepam and clonazepam. Often poly drug abuse occurs: Barbiturates are consumed with or substituted by other available substances, most commonly alcohol. Drug users tend to prefer short-acting and intermediate-acting barbiturates. The most commonly used are amobarbital (Amytal), pentobarbital (Nembutal), and secobarbital (Seconal). A combination of amobarbital and secobarbital (called Tuinal) is also highly used. Short-acting and intermediate-acting barbiturates are usually prescribed as sedatives and sleeping pills. These pills begin acting fifteen to forty minutes after they are swallowed, and their effects last from five to six hours. Slang terms for barbiturates include barbs, barbies, bluebirds, dolls, wallbangers, yellows, downers, goofballs, sleepers,'reds & blues', and tooties.", "Thiopental is a barbiturate with one of the C-O double bonds (with the carbon being labelled 2 in the adjacent diagram) replaced with a C-S double bond, R being CHCH and R being CH(CH)CHCHCH." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "World War II.", "Slave labour during World War II.", "Post-war.", "Products.", "Microcar.", "Scooters.", "Mopeds." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Following the successful career of Ernst Heinkel as the chief designer for the Hansa-Brandenburg aviation firm in World War I, Heinkel's own firm was established at Warnemünde in 1922, after the restrictions on German aviation imposed by the Treaty of Versailles were relaxed. By 1929, the firm's compressed air-powered catapults were in use on the German Norddeutscher Lloyd ocean-liners and to launch short-range mail planes from the liners' decks. The company's first post-World War I aircraft design success was the design of the all-metal, single-engined Heinkel He 70 \"Blitz\" high-speed mail plane and airliner for Deutsche Luft Hansa in 1932, which broke a number of air speed records for its class. It was followed by the two-engine Heinkel He 111 \"Doppel-Blitz\", which became a mainstay of the Luftwaffe during World War II as a bomber. Heinkel's most important designers at this point were the twin Günter brothers, Siegfried and Walter, and Heinrich Hertel. The firm's headquarters was in Rostock later known as \"Heinkel-Nord\" (Heinkel-North), located in what used to be named the \"Rostock\"- neighborhood (today's \"Rostock\"- community, along the west bank of the Unterwarnow estuary), where the firm additionally possessed a factory airfield along the coastline in the Rostock/Schmarl neighborhood roughly three kilometers (1.9 miles) north-northwest of the main offices, with a second \"Heinkel-Süd\" engineering and manufacturing facility in Schwechat, Austria, after the Anschluss in 1938.", "The Heinkel company is most closely associated with aircraft used by the Luftwaffe during World War II. This began with the adaptation of the He 70 and, in particular, the He 111, to be used as bombers. Heinkel also provided the Luftwaffe's only operational heavy bomber, the Heinkel He 177, although this was never deployed in significant numbers. The German Luftwaffe equipped both of these bombers with the \"Z-Gerät\", \"Y-Gerät\", and \"Knickebein\", developed by Johannes Plendl, and thus they were among the first aircraft to feature advanced night navigation devices, common in all commercial airplanes today. Heinkel was less successful in selling fighter designs. Before the war, the Heinkel He 112 had been rejected in favour of the Messerschmitt Bf 109, and Heinkel's attempt to top Messerschmitt's design with the Heinkel He 100 failed due to political interference within the Reichsluftfahrtministerium (RLM — Reich Aviation Ministry). The company also provided the Luftwaffe with an outstanding night fighter, the Heinkel He 219, which also suffered from politics and was produced only in limited numbers, but was the first Luftwaffe front-line aircraft to use retractable tricycle gear for its undercarriage design, and the world's first front-line military aircraft to use ejection seats. By contrast, the only heavy bomber to enter service with the \"Luftwaffe\" during the war years – the Heinkel He 177 \"Greif\" – turned out to be one of the most troublesome German wartime aircraft designs, plagued with numerous engine fires from both its inadequate engine accommodation design and its general airframe design being mis-tasked, for a 30-meter (100 ft) class wingspan design, to be built to be able to perform moderate-angle dive bombing attacks from the moment of its approval by the RLM in early November 1937, which would not be rescinded until September 1942. From 1941 until the end of the war, the company was merged with engine manufacturer Hirth to form Heinkel-Hirth, giving the company the capability of manufacturing its own powerplants, including its \"Heinkel Strahltriebwerke\" turbojet engine manufacturing firm. The Heinkel name was also behind pioneering work in jet engine and rocket development, and also the German aviation firm that attempted to popularize the use of retractable tricycle landing gear, a relative rarity in early WW II German airframe design. In 1939, flown by Erich Warsitz, the Heinkel He 176 and Heinkel He 178 became the first aircraft designs to fly under liquid-fuel rocket and turbojet power respectively. Heinkel was the first to develop a jet fighter to prototype stage, the Heinkel He 280, the first Heinkel design to use and fly with retractable tricycle gear. In early 1942, the photographic interpretation unit at RAF Medmenham first saw evidence of the existence of the 280 in aerial reconnaissance photographs taken after a bombing raid on the Rostock factory. Thereafter, the Allies began intensive aerial reconnaissance intended to learn more about the German jet aircraft programme. The He 219 night fighter design was the first German frontline combat aircraft to have retracting tricycle gear, and the first operational military aircraft anywhere to use ejection seats. Heinkel's He 280, the firm's only twin-jet aircraft design to fly never reached production, however, since the RLM wanted Heinkel to concentrate on bomber production and instead promoted the development of the rival Messerschmitt Me 262. Very late in the war, a Heinkel single-jet powered fighter finally took to the air as the Heinkel He 162A \"Spatz\" (sparrow) as the first military jet to use retractable tricycle landing gear, use a turbojet engine from its maiden flight forward, and use an ejection seat from the start, but it had barely entered service at the time of Germany's surrender.", "Heinkel was a major user of Sachsenhausen concentration camp labour, using between 6,000 and 8,000 prisoners on the He 177 bomber.", "Following the war, Heinkel was prohibited from manufacturing aircraft and instead built bicycles, motor scooters (see below), and the Heinkel microcar. The company eventually returned to aircraft in the mid-1950s, licence building F-104 Starfighters for the West German Luftwaffe. In 1965, the company was absorbed by Vereinigte Flugtechnische Werke (VFW), which was in turn absorbed by Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm in 1980 and later became part of Airbus. The company designed a VSTOL aircraft called the Heinkel He 231 (VJ 101A), intended to protect West Germany's airfields against Soviet attack. P - \"Projekt\"", "", "Heinkel introduced the \"Kabine\" bubble car in 1956. It competed with the BMW Isetta and the Messerschmitt KR200. It had a unit body and a four-stroke single-cylinder engine. Heinkel stopped manufacturing the Kabine in 1958 but production continued under licence, first by Dundalk Engineering Company in Ireland and then by Trojan Cars Ltd., which ceased production in 1966.", "Heinkel introduced the \"Tourist\" motor scooter in the 1950s which was known for its reliability. A large and relatively heavy touring machine, it provided good weather protection with a full fairing and the front wheel turning under a fixed nose extension. The \"Tourist\" had effective streamlining, perhaps unsurprising in view of its aircraft ancestry, and although it had only a, 9.5 bhp 4-stroke engine, it was capable of sustaining speeds of up to (official figures ), given time to get there. Heinkel also made a lighter scooter called the Heinkel 150.", "Heinkel built the Perle moped from 1954 to 1957. The Perle was a sophisticated cycle with a cast alloy unit frame, rear suspension, a fully enclosed chain with part of the chain enclosure integral with the swingarm, and interchangeable wheels. This high level of sophistication came at a high cost. As with most mopeds, it had a two-stroke engine with a displacement of 50cc that operated on a mixture of gasoline and lubrication oil. Approximately twenty-seven thousand Perles were sold." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early years.", "Czechoslovak League.", "Second leg.", "New era – Slovak League.", "Affiliated clubs.", "Supporters.", "Stadium.", "Honours.", "Domestic.", "Slovak League Top Goalscorer.", "European.", "UEFA ranking.", "Transfers.", "Players.", "Current squad.", "Reserve team.", "Squad.", "Results.", "League and Cup history.", "European record.", "Player records.", "Most goals.", "Notable players." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "2", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The club was founded towards the end of 1908 under the Hungarian name \"Zsolnai Testgyakorlók Köre\", and was officially registered on 20 June 1909. The club won its first Slovak championship (Zväzové majstrovstvá Slovenska) in 1928 followed by another in 1929.", "In total, Žilina played 30 out of 47 seasons in the Czechoslovak First League spanning from 1945 to 1993 and come 13th in all-time table. The most successful season remains 1946–47 when they clinched 4th place. Many consider 1961 a milestone in club's history. Firstly, the team reached the final of the National Cup, where they lost to Dukla Prague, the eventual Czechoslovak champion. Despite the defeat, for the first time in its history the club, then known as \"Dynamo Žilina\", broke into Europe to contest in the UEFA Cup Winners' Cup. Notable 3–2 and 1–0 victories over Olympiacos moved them in quarter-finals, however the ambitious Slovak team was ultimately knocked out by the previous year's winner Fiorentina. Although Žilina grabbed a promising 3–2 victory at home, Fiorentina went through by winning the second leg 2–0.", "\"Fiorentina won 4–3 on aggregate.\" In the late 1960s the club was renamed \"TJ ZVL Žilina\" and participated in the Intertoto Cup for several years, winning the group in 1969 and coming 2nd a year later. In 1973–74 they reached the final of the Mitropa Cup but they were defeated by Tatabányai Bányász 5–2 on aggregate. Between 1972 and 1974, they finished 5th in the First Division of the Czechoslovak League for three years running, followed by relegation to the Second Division in the 1978–79 season. The club bounced back four years later and finished second in the Mitropa Cup.", "Following dissolution of Czechoslovakia in 1993, MŠK Žilina has been playing in the Slovak Superliga for the total of 23 seasons with the exception of 1995–96 season after relegation to the Second Division. In the autumn of 2000, former Czechoslovakian defender Ladislav Jurkemik joined the club as a new manager. After his departure halfway through the 2001–02 season the club appointed Czech coach Leoš Kalvoda. During his short reign at the club he led them to win their first title. In the 2002–03 season, now under the management of Milan Lešický, the club succeeded in retaining the title. Ladislav Jurkemik was reappointed as a manager during the 2003–04 season. He led the defending champions to 10 priceless consecutive victories to clinch the third successive title though narrowly on a goal difference. After Slovan Bratislava, MŠK Žilina became only the second club to win three Slovakian titles. The team's performances in next two seasons faded while they lacked the quality they had been famous for during their winning campaigns. In pursuit of silverware numerous players were signed over next two years. In the span of only fourteen months, three managers; the reputable Karol Pecze, his successor Milan Nemec and eventually Marijan Vlak were in charge over the team. Since the results and performances never met the expectations, Vlak ended his reign immediately at the end of 2005–06 season after they failed to reach UEFA Cup spot only to finish fourth. They played in the UEFA Cup 2008–09, reaching the group stages where they beat Aston Villa 2–1 at Villa Park. Former Czechoslovakia and later Czech international Pavel Hapal was appointed new manager before 2009–10 campaign. In his first season, he led the team to win a league title, their fifth in nine years. Arguably the greatest success in their history came by making a debut in 2010–11 UEFA Champions League group stage after eliminating Sparta Prague in play-off round. In the following season they completed their first ever double, while the 2012–13 season saw the team finishing 7th – their worst league position since 2000. However, as a defeated finalists of the Slovak Cup the club secured a place to contest in the 1st qualifying round of 2013–14 UEFA Europa League.", "The following clubs are currently affiliated with MŠK Žilina:", "MŠK Žilina supporters are called \"Žilinskí Šošoni\" (Žilina Shoshones), \"North Brigade\" and \"Žilinskí Fanatici\" (Žilina Fanatics). Žilina supporters maintain friendly relations with fans of Polish", "Štadión Pod Dubňom is their home stadium. It has a capacity of 11,181.", "", "Czechoslovakia Slovakia", "Slovak League Top scorer since 1993–94", "", "This is the current 2017–18 UEFA coefficient:", "MŠK have produced numerous players who have gone on to represent the Slovak national football team. Over the last period there has been a steady increase of young players leaving Žilina after a few years of first team football and moving on to play football in leagues of a higher standard, with the German Bundesliga (Double best scorer Marek Mintál to 1. FC Nürnberg in 2003, another forwards Stanislav Šesták to VfL Bochum in 2009 and Mário Breška to 1. FC Nürnberg in 2008, also right back Peter Pekarík to VfL Wolfsburg in 2009), Italian Serie A (Milan Škriniar to Sampdoria in 2016, Dávid Hancko to ACF Fiorentina in 2018), Spanish La Liga (Róbert Mazáň to Celta de Vigo in 2018), Turkish Süper Lig (William to Kayserispor in 2016), Dutch Eredivisie (Róbert Boženík to Feyenoord in 2020), Austrian Football Bundesliga (Admir Vladavić to Salzburg in 2009 and 2013–14 best goalscorer Matej Jelić to Rapid Wien in 2015), Polish Ekstraklasa (Ján Mucha to Legia Warsaw in 2005 and Róbert Jež to Górnik Zabrze in 2010). Russian Premier League (Tomáš Hubočan to Zenit in 2008). The top transfer was agreed in 2016 when 18 years old talented midfielder László Bénes joined German Mönchengladbach for a fee more than €5.0 million, which was the highest ever paid to a Slovak club.", "", "\"As of 14 June 2020\"<br> \"For recent transfers, see List of Slovak football transfers winter 2019–20\" \"and List of Slovak football transfers summer 2019.\"", "MŠK Žilina B are the reserve team of MŠK Žilina. They currently play in the second-level football league in Slovakia 2. Liga.", "Head coach: Peter Černák Assistant coach: Vladimír Labant Assistant coach: Pavol Staňo Goalkeeper coach: Michal Klec \"As of 19 August 2019\" \"For recent transfers, see List of Slovak football transfers winter 2019–20.\"", "", "\"Slovak League only (1993–present)\"", "\"As of July 19, 2017\"", "", "Players whose name is listed in bold are still active.", "Had international caps for their respective countries. Players whose name is listed in bold represented their countries while playing for MŠK." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Development and technology.", "Signals and controlled points.", "Operation.", "By country.", "Australia.", "New Zealand.", "United States.", "Suppliers." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Key to the concept of CTC is the notion of \"traffic control\" as it applies to railroads. Trains moving in opposite directions on the same track cannot pass each other without special infrastructure such as sidings and switches that allow one of the trains to move out of the way. Initially, the only two ways for trains to arrange such interactions was to somehow arrange it in advance or provide a communications link between the authority for train movements (the dispatcher) and the trains themselves. These two mechanisms for control would be formalized by railroad companies in a set of procedures called train order operation, which was later partly automated through use of Automatic Block Signals (ABS). The starting point of each system was the railroad timetable that would form the advanced routing plan for train movements. Trains following the timetable would know when to take sidings, switch tracks and which route to take at junctions. However, if train movements did not go as planned, the timetable would then fail to represent reality, and attempting to follow the printed schedule could lead to routing errors or even accidents. This was especially common on single-track lines that comprised the majority of railroad route miles in North America. Pre-defined \"meets\" could lead to large delays if either train failed to show up, or worse, an \"extra\" train not listed in the timetable could suffer a head-on collision with another train that did not expect it. Therefore, timetable operation was supplemented with train orders, which superseded the instructions in the timetable. From the 1850s until the middle of the twentieth century, train orders were telegraphed in Morse code by a dispatcher to a local station, where the orders would be written down on standardized forms and a copy provided to the train crew when they passed that station, directing them to take certain actions at various points ahead: for example, take a siding to meet another train, wait at a specified location for further instructions, run later than scheduled, or numerous other actions. The development of Direct Traffic Control via radio or telephone between dispatchers and train crews made telegraph orders largely obsolete by the 1970s. Where traffic density warranted it, multiple tracks could be provided, each with a timetable-defined flow of traffic which would eliminate the need for frequent single track-style \"meets.\" Trains running counter to this flow of traffic would still require train orders, but other trains would not. This system was further automated by the use of Automatic Block Signaling and interlocking towers which allowed for efficient and failsafe setting of conflicting routes at junctions and that kept trains following one another safely separated. However, any track that supported trains running bi-directionally, even under ABS protection, would require further protection to avoid the situation of two trains approaching each other on the same section of track. Such a scenario not only represents a safety hazard, but also would require one train to reverse direction to the nearest passing point. Before the advent of CTC there were a number of solutions to this problem that did not require the construction of multiple single direction tracks. Many western railroads used an automatic system called absolute permissive block (APB), where trains entering a stretch of single track would cause all of the opposing signals between there and the next passing point to \"tumble down\" to a Stop position thus preventing opposing trains from entering. In areas of higher traffic density, sometimes bi-directional operation would be established between manned interlocking towers. Each section of bi-directional track would have a traffic control lever associated with it to establish the direction of traffic on that track. Often, both towers would need to set their traffic levers in the same way before a direction of travel could be established. Block signals in the direction of travel would display according to track conditions and signals against the flow of traffic would always be set to their most restrictive aspect. Furthermore, no train could be routed into a section of track against its flow of traffic and the traffic levers would not be able to be changed until the track section was clear of trains. Both APB and manual traffic control would still require train orders in certain situations, and both required trade-offs between human operators and granularity of routing control.", "The ultimate solution to the costly and imprecise train order system was developed by the General Railway Signal company as their trademarked \"Centralized Traffic Control\" technology. Its first installation in 1927 was on a 40-mile stretch of the New York Central Railroad between Stanley and Berwick, Ohio, with the CTC control machine located at Fostoria, Ohio. CTC was designed to enable the train dispatcher to control train movements directly, bypassing local operators and eliminating written train orders. Instead, the train dispatcher could directly see the trains' locations and efficiently control the train's movements by displaying signals and controlling switches. It was also designed to enhance safety by reporting any track occupancy (\"see\" track circuit) to a human operator and automatically preventing trains from entering a track against the established flow of traffic. What made CTC machines different from standard interlocking machines and ABS was that the vital interlocking hardware was located at the remote location and the CTC machine only displayed track state and sent commands to the remote locations. A command to display a signal would require the remote interlocking to set the flow of traffic and check for a clear route through the interlocking. If a command could not be carried out due to the interlocking logic, the display would not change on the CTC machine. This system provided the same degree flexibility that the manual traffic control has before it, but without the cost and complexity associated with providing a manned operator at the end of every route segment. This was especially true for lightly used lines that could never hope to justify so much overhead. Initially the communication was accomplished by dedicated wires or wire pairs, but later this was supplanted by pulse code systems utilizing a single common communications link and relay-based telecommunications technology similar to that used in crossbar switches. Also, instead of only displaying information about trains approaching and passing through interlockings, the CTC machine displayed the status of every block between interlockings, where previously such sections had been considered \"dark territory\" (i.e., of unknown status) as far as the dispatcher was concerned. The CTC system would allow the flow of traffic to be set over many sections of track by a single person at a single location as well as control of switches and signals at interlockings, which also came to be referred to as control points. CTC machines started out as small consoles in existing towers only operating a few nearby remote interlockings and then grew to control more and more territory, allowing less trafficked towers to be closed. Over time, the machines were moved directly into dispatcher offices, eliminating the need for dispatchers to first communicate with block operators as middlemen. In the late 20th century, the electromechanical control and display systems were replaced with computer operated displays. While similar signaling control mechanisms have been developed in other countries, what sets CTC apart is the paradigm of independent train movement between fixed points under the control and supervision of a central authority.", "CTC makes use of railway signals to convey the dispatcher's instructions to the trains. These take the form of routing decisions at controlled points that authorize a train to proceed or stop. Local signaling logic will ultimately determine the exact signal to display based on track occupancy status ahead and the exact route the train needs to take, so the only input required from the CTC system amounts to the go, no-go instruction. Signals in CTC territory are one of two types: an absolute signal, which is directly controlled by the train dispatcher and helps design the limits of a control point, or an intermediate signal, which is automatically controlled by the conditions of the track in that signal's block and by the condition of the following signal. Train dispatchers cannot directly control intermediate signals and so are almost always excluded from the dispatcher's control display except as an inert reference. The majority of control points are equipped with remote control, power-operated switches. These switches often are \"dual-controlled switches\", as they may be either remotely controlled by the train dispatcher or by manually operating a lever or pump on the switch mechanism itself (although the train dispatcher's permission is generally required to do so). These switches may lead to a passing siding, or they may take the form of a crossover, which allows movement to an adjacent track, or a \"turnout\" which routes a train to an alternate track (or route).", "Although some railroads still rely on older, simpler electronic lighted displays and manual controls, in modern implementations, dispatchers rely on computerized systems similar to supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems to view the location of trains and the aspect, or display, of absolute signals. Typically, these control machines will prevent the dispatcher from giving two trains conflicting authority without needing to first have the command fail at the remote interlocking. Modern computer systems generally display a highly simplified mock-up of the track, displaying the locations of absolute signals and sidings. Track occupancy is displayed via bold or colored lines overlaying the track display, along with tags to identify the train (usually the number of the lead locomotive). Signals which the dispatcher can control are represented as either at Stop (typically red) or \"displayed\" (typically green). A displayed signal is one which is not displaying Stop and the exact aspect that the crew sees is not reported to the dispatcher.", "", "The first CTC installation in Australia was commissioned in September 1957 on the Glen Waverley line in suburban Melbourne. in length, the Victorian Railways installed it as a prototype for the North East standard project. CTC has since been widely deployed to major interstate railway lines.", "CTC was first installed in New Zealand between Taumarunui and Okahukura on the North Island Main Trunk in 1938 followed by Te Kuiti-Puketutu in 1939 and Tawa Flat-Paekakariki in 1940. CTC was extended from Paekakariki to Paraparaumu in 1943, followed by Puketutu-Kopaki in 1945. CTC was installed between Frankton Junction and Taumarunui from 1954 to 1957 as well as Te Kauwhata-Amokura in 1954. CTC was then installed between Upper Hutt and Featherston in 1955 and between St Leonards and Oamaru in stages from 1955 to 1959. CTC was completed between Hamilton and Paekakariki on the NIMT on 12 December 1966. CTC was then installed from Rolleston to Pukeuri Junction on the Main South Line in stages from 1969 to completion in February 1980. The older CTC installation from St Leonards to Oamaru was replaced in stages with Track Warrant Control in 1991 and 1992. The most recent installations of CTC were completed in August 2013 on the MNPL from Marton to Aramoho and from Dunedin to Mosgiel and on the Taieri Gorge Line as far as North Taieri in late 2015.", "CTC-controlled track is significantly more expensive to build than non-signalled track, due to the electronics and failsafes required. CTC is generally implemented in high-traffic areas where the reduced operating cost from increased traffic density and time savings outweigh the capital cost. Most of BNSF Railway's and Union Pacific Railroad's track operates under CTC; the portions that are generally lighter-traffic lines that are operated under Track Warrant Control (BNSF and UP) or Direct Traffic Control (UP). Recently the costs of CTC has fallen as new technologies such as microwave, satellite and rail based data links have eliminated the need for wire pole lines or fiber optic links. These systems are starting to be called train management systems.", "There are several companies offering individual components as well as turnkey systems that comprise the elements of a CTC system. These suppliers include:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Connections." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "An Underground station was first proposed for the Greenwich Peninsula in a government report on the redevelopment of London's Docklands published in 1973. The proposal, part of the then unbuilt Fleet line, proposed a line running from Charing Cross via Fenchurch Street to Beckton, with stations on each side at Millwall and Custom House. The proposal was developed during the 1970s as the Fleet line developed into the Jubilee line. The route was approved in 1980, but financial constraints meant that the route was not proceeded with. By the start of the 1990s new plans had been developed to extend the Jubilee line on a route south of the River Thames towards Stratford with North Greenwich station built in accordance with this plan. Opened on 14 May 1999, North Greenwich is one of the largest stations on the Jubilee line, capable of handling around 20,000 passengers an hour, having been designed to cope with the large number of visitors expected at the Millennium Dome (now The O). The track at North Greenwich was designed to facilitate a branch of the line from this station. A branch towards Thamesmead was planned; however this has not been developed beyond the initial proposal, and is not currently in Transport for London's investment programme. The track layout allows trains from both Stanmore and Stratford to terminate at North Greenwich. A number of trains from Stanmore terminate here during peak and off-peak times, and enter platform 2 instead of the usual platform 3. Trains head back towards central London from platform 2. During times of disruption and engineering work, trains from and back to Stratford can be routed into and out of platform 2. The striking blue-tiled and glazed interior, with raking concrete columns rearing up inside the huge underground space, was designed by the architectural practice Alsop, Lyall and Störmer. The blue tiles on walls were inspired by the design of MTR stations in Hong Kong, where every station adopts a livery in order to help passengers to recognise their alighting stop. As with other stations on the Jubilee Line Extension, all platforms are equipped with platform screen doors. On 20 October 2016, police conducted a controlled explosion on an improvised explosive device at North Greenwich after a passenger spotted an unattended bag filled with \"wires and an alarm clock\" aboard a Jubilee line train. No injuries were reported, and a suspect was later detained. The man, Damon Smith, was convicted of possession of an explosive substance with intent and was sentenced to 15 years' imprisonment.", "The bus station is interconnected and above the tube station on the surface for direct transfer with London Buses routes 108, 129, 132, 161, 188, 422, 472 and 486 serving the station. The Emirates Air Line cable car opened nearby on 28 June 2012, providing a link between the Greenwich Peninsula and the Royal Victoria Dock and ExCeL London." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early life.", "Harland and Wolff.", "RMS \"Titanic\".", "Death.", "Legacy.", "Family." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Thomas Andrews was born on 7 February 1873 at Ardara House, Comber, County Down, in Ireland, to The Rt. Hon. Thomas Andrews, a member of the Privy Council of Ireland, and Eliza Pirrie. Andrews was a Presbyterian of Scottish descent, and like his brother considered himself British. His siblings included John Miller Andrews, the future Prime Minister of Northern Ireland, and Sir James Andrews, the future Lord Chief Justice of Northern Ireland. Thomas Andrews lived with his family in Ardara, Comber. In 1884, he began attending the Royal Belfast Academical Institution until 1889 when, at the age of sixteen, he began a premium apprenticeship at Harland and Wolff where his uncle, the Viscount Pirrie, was part owner.", "At Harland and Wolff, Andrews began with three months in the joiners' shop, followed by a month in the cabinetmakers' and then a further two months working on the ships. The last eighteen months of his five-year apprenticeship were spent in the drawing office. He worked tirelessly during the day and continued his studies in the evening hours. In 1901,boarding at 11 Wellington place, after working his way up through the many departments of the company, became the manager of the construction works. That same year, he also became a member of the Institution of Naval Architects. In 1907, he was appointed the managing director and head of the drafting department at Harland and Wolff. By that point, Andrews had earned a reputation as a genius in the field of ship design. During his long years of apprenticeship, study, and work, he had become well-loved in the company and amongst the shipyard's employees. His kindness and generosity was well-documented. He was always willing to acknowledge the hard work of other people, and his wife recalled that he had of himself \"the humblest opinion of anyone I ever knew.\" On 24 June 1908, he married Helen Reilly Barbour, daughter of textile industrialist John Doherty Barbour and sister to Sir John Milne Barbour- known as \"Milne\". Their daughter, Elizabeth Law-Barbour Andrews (known by her initials, \"ELBA\"), was born on 27 November 1910. The couple lived at Dunallan, 12 Windsor Avenue, Belfast, now numbered 20. It is known that Andrews took Helen to view the RMS \"Titanic\" one night, shortly before Elizabeth was born.", "In 1907, Andrews began to oversee the plans for a new superliner, the for the White Star Line. The \"Olympic\" and its sister ship the, which began construction in 1909, were designed by William Pirrie and general manager Alexander Carlisle along with Andrews. As he had done for the other ships he had overseen, Andrews familiarised himself with every detail of the \"Olympic\" and \"Titanic\", in order to ensure that they were in optimal working order. Andrews's suggestions that the ship have 46 lifeboats (instead of the 20 it ended up with) as well as a double hull and watertight bulkheads that went up to B deck, were overruled. Andrews headed a group of Harland and Wolff workers who went on the maiden voyages of the ships built by the company (the guarantee group), to observe ship operations and spot any necessary improvements. The \"Titanic\" was no exception, so Andrews and the rest of his Harland and Wolff group travelled from Belfast to Southampton on \"Titanic\" for the beginning of her maiden voyage on 10 April 1912. During the voyage, Andrews took notes on various improvements he felt were needed, primarily cosmetic changes to various facilities. However, on 14 April, Andrews remarked to a friend that \"Titanic\" was \"as nearly perfect as human brains can make her.\" On 14 April at 11:40 PM, the \"Titanic\" struck an iceberg on the ship's starboard side. Andrews had been in his stateroom, planning changes he wanted to make to the ship, and barely noticed the collision. Captain Edward J. Smith had Andrews summoned to help examine the damage. Andrews and Captain Smith discussed the damage to the ship shortly after midnight after Andrews had toured the damaged section of the ship and received several reports of the vessel's damage. Andrews determined that the first five of the ship's watertight compartments were rapidly flooding. Andrews knew that with more than four of the ship's forward compartments flooded, it would inevitably sink. He relayed this information to Captain Smith, stating that it was a'mathematical certainty', and adding that in his opinion, the vessel had only about an hour before it completely sank. He also informed Smith of the severe shortage of lifeboats on board the ship. As the evacuation of the \"Titanic\" began, Andrews tirelessly searched staterooms telling the passengers to put on lifebelts and go up on deck. Several survivors testified to have met or spotted Andrews several times. Fully aware of the short time the ship had left and of the lack of lifeboat space for all passengers and crew, he continued to urge reluctant people into the lifeboats in the hope of filling them with as many people as possible. The ship disappeared beneath the ocean at 2:20 a.m.. Andrews perished that night along with around 1,500 others, and his body was never recovered.", "Andrews was reportedly last seen by John Stewart, a steward on the ship, after approximately 2:05 a.m., fifteen minutes before the \"Titanic\" sank. Andrews was standing alone in the first-class smoking room, arms folded, his lifebelt lying on a nearby table. Stewart asked him: \"Aren't you going to have a try for it, Mr. Andrews?\" Andrews didn't answer or move, apparently in a state of shock. Walter Lord suggested that he was staring at a painting, \"Plymouth Harbour\", above the fireplace. The painting depicted the entrance to Plymouth Sound, which \"Titanic\" had been expected to visit on her return voyage. This led to popular belief that Andrews may have made no attempt to escape and waited in the smoking room for the end. Although this has become one of the most famous legends of the sinking of the \"Titanic\" – published in a 1912 book (\"Thomas Andrews: Shipbuilder\" by Shan Bullock) and thereby perpetuated – there is circumstantial evidence to show that Stewart, in fact, left the ship in lifeboat No. 15 at approximately 1:40 a.m., half an hour before his reputed sighting of Andrews, suggesting his sighting of Andrews in the smoking room must have taken place prior to 1:40 a.m.. In \"Thomas Andrews: Shipbuilder\", Bullock wrote that Andrews likely stayed in the smoking room for some time to gather his thoughts, then continued assisting with the evacuation. Bullock even discussed several other very later sightings of Andrews after that moment. At around 2:00 a.m., he was seen back on the boat deck. The crowd had begun to stir, but some women remained reluctant to leave the ship. To be heard and to draw attention to himself, Andrews waved his arms and called to them in a loud voice. Bullock cited another reported sighting of Andrews, that was told to David Galloway, a friend of Thomas Andrews, who relayed the information to Lord Pirrie, Andrews’ uncle, throwing deck chairs into the ocean for passengers to cling to in the water. Bullock also added that Andrews was seen, carrying a lifebelt, possibly the same lifebelt that was lying on the table in the smoking room, and on his way to the bridge, perhaps in search of Captain Smith. In two newspaper accounts, and apparently a statement to Galloway, mess steward Cecil William N Fitzpatrick claimed to have seen Andrews and Captain Smith together on the bridge just a few minutes before the ship began its final plunge, and that both men jumped overboard just before the bridge was submerged.", "On 19 April 1912, his father received a telegram from his mother's cousin, who had spoken with survivors in New York: \"INTERVIEW TITANIC'S OFFICERS. ALL UNANIMOUS THAT ANDREWS HEROIC UNTO DEATH, THINKING ONLY SAFETY OTHERS. EXTEND HEARTFELT SYMPATHY TO ALL.\" Newspaper accounts of the disaster labelled Andrews a hero. Mary Sloan, a stewardess on the ship, whom Andrews persuaded to enter a lifeboat, later wrote in a letter: \"Mr. Andrews met his fate like a true hero, realising the great danger, and gave up his life to save the women and children of the \"Titanic\". They will find it hard to replace him.\" A short biography was produced within the year by Shan Bullock at the request of Sir Horace Plunkett, a member of Parliament, who felt that Andrews' life was worthy of being memorialised. In his home town, Comber, one of the earliest and most substantial memorials for a single victim of the \"Titanic\" disaster was built. The Thomas Andrews Jr. Memorial Hall was opened in January 1914. The architects were Young and McKenzie with sculpted work by the artist Sophia Rosamond Praeger. The hall is now maintained by the South Eastern Education Board and used by The Andrews Memorial Primary School. An Ulster History Circle blue plaque is located on his house in Windsor Avenue, Belfast. Today, the SS \"Nomadic\" is the sole surviving ship designed by Andrews. Asteroid 245158 Thomasandrews was named in his honour in 2004.", "After Thomas's death, Helen remarried; she died 22 August 1966 in Northern Ireland and is buried in the Barbour family mausoleum at Lambeg." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Classification.", "Stability.", "Comparison of algorithms.", "Comparison sorts.", "Non-comparison sorts.", "Others.", "Popular sorting algorithms.", "Simple sorts.", "Insertion sort.", "Selection sort.", "Efficient sorts.", "Merge sort.", "Heapsort.", "Quicksort.", "Shellsort.", "Bubble sort and variants.", "Bubble sort.", "Comb sort.", "Distribution sort.", "Counting sort.", "Bucket sort.", "Radix sort.", "Memory usage patterns and index sorting.", "Related algorithms." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "From the beginning of computing, the sorting problem has attracted a great deal of research, perhaps due to the complexity of solving it efficiently despite its simple, familiar statement. Among the authors of early sorting algorithms around 1951 was Betty Holberton (née Snyder), who worked on ENIAC and UNIVAC. Bubble sort was analyzed as early as 1956. Comparison sorting algorithms have a fundamental requirement of Ω(\"n\" log \"n\") comparisons (some input sequences will require a multiple of \"n\" log \"n\" comparisons); algorithms not based on comparisons, such as counting sort, can have better performance. Asymptotically optimal algorithms have been known since the mid-20th century—useful new algorithms are still being invented, with the now widely used Timsort dating to 2002, and the library sort being first published in 2006. Sorting algorithms are prevalent in introductory computer science classes, where the abundance of algorithms for the problem provides a gentle introduction to a variety of core algorithm concepts, such as big O notation, divide and conquer algorithms, data structures such as heaps and binary trees, randomized algorithms, best, worst and average case analysis, time–space tradeoffs, and upper and lower bounds.", "Sorting algorithms are often classified by:", "Stable sort algorithms sort repeated elements in the same order that they appear in the input. When sorting some kinds of data, only part of the data is examined when determining the sort order. For example, in the card sorting example to the right, the cards are being sorted by their rank, and their suit is being ignored. This allows the possibility of multiple different correctly sorted versions of the original list. Stable sorting algorithms choose one of these, according to the following rule: if two items compare as equal, like the two 5 cards, then their relative order will be preserved, so that if one came before the other in the input, it will also come before the other in the output. Stability is important for the following reason: say that student records consisting of name and class section are sorted dynamically on a web page, first by name, then by class section in a second operation. If a stable sorting algorithm is used in both cases, the sort-by-class-section operation will not change the name order; with an unstable sort, it could be that sorting by section shuffles the name order. Using a stable sort, users can choose to sort by section and then by name, by first sorting using name and then sort again using section, resulting in the name order being preserved. (Some spreadsheet programs obey this behavior: sorting by name, then by section yields an alphabetical list of students by section.) More formally, the data being sorted can be represented as a record or tuple of values, and the part of the data that is used for sorting is called the \"key\". In the card example, cards are represented as a record (rank, suit), and the key is the rank. A sorting algorithm is stable if whenever there are two records R and S with the same key, and R appears before S in the original list, then R will always appear before S in the sorted list. When equal elements are indistinguishable, such as with integers, or more generally, any data where the entire element is the key, stability is not an issue. Stability is also not an issue if all keys are different. Unstable sorting algorithms can be specially implemented to be stable. One way of doing this is to artificially extend the key comparison, so that comparisons between two objects with otherwise equal keys are decided using the order of the entries in the original input list as a tie-breaker. Remembering this order, however, may require additional time and space. One application for stable sorting algorithms is sorting a list using a primary and secondary key. For example, suppose we wish to sort a hand of cards such that the suits are in the order clubs (♣), diamonds (♦), hearts (♥), spades (♠), and within each suit, the cards are sorted by rank. This can be done by first sorting the cards by rank (using any sort), and then doing a stable sort by suit: Within each suit, the stable sort preserves the ordering by rank that was already done. This idea can be extended to any number of keys and is utilised by radix sort. The same effect can be achieved with an unstable sort by using a lexicographic key comparison, which, e.g., compares first by suit, and then compares by rank if the suits are the same.", "In this table, is the number of records to be sorted. The columns \"Average\" and \"Worst\" give the time complexity in each case, under the assumption that the length of each key is constant, and that therefore all comparisons, swaps, and other needed operations can proceed in constant time. \"Memory\" denotes the amount of auxiliary storage needed beyond that used by the list itself, under the same assumption. The run times and the memory requirements listed below should be understood to be inside big O notation, hence the base of the logarithms does not matter; the notation means.", "Below is a table of comparison sorts. A comparison sort cannot perform better than.", "The following table describes integer sorting algorithms and other sorting algorithms that are not comparison sorts. As such, they are not limited to. Complexities below assume items to be sorted, with keys of size, digit size, and the range of numbers to be sorted. Many of them are based on the assumption that the key size is large enough that all entries have unique key values, and hence that, where ≪ means \"much less than\". In the unit-cost random access machine model, algorithms with running time of formula_1, such as radix sort, still take time proportional to, because is limited to be not more than formula_2, and a larger number of elements to sort would require a bigger in order to store them in the memory. Samplesort can be used to parallelize any of the non-comparison sorts, by efficiently distributing data into several buckets and then passing down sorting to several processors, with no need to merge as buckets are already sorted between each other.", "Some algorithms are slow compared to those discussed above, such as the bogosort with unbounded run time and the stooge sort which has \"O\"(\"n\") run time. These sorts are usually described for educational purposes in order to demonstrate how run time of algorithms is estimated. The following table describes some sorting algorithms that are impractical for real-life use in traditional software contexts due to extremely poor performance or specialized hardware requirements. Theoretical computer scientists have detailed other sorting algorithms that provide better than \"O\"(\"n\" log \"n\") time complexity assuming additional constraints, including:", "While there are a large number of sorting algorithms, in practical implementations a few algorithms predominate. Insertion sort is widely used for small data sets, while for large data sets an asymptotically efficient sort is used, primarily heap sort, merge sort, or quicksort. Efficient implementations generally use a hybrid algorithm, combining an asymptotically efficient algorithm for the overall sort with insertion sort for small lists at the bottom of a recursion. Highly tuned implementations use more sophisticated variants, such as Timsort (merge sort, insertion sort, and additional logic), used in Android, Java, and Python, and introsort (quicksort and heap sort), used (in variant forms) in some C++ sort implementations and in.NET. For more restricted data, such as numbers in a fixed interval, distribution sorts such as counting sort or radix sort are widely used. Bubble sort and variants are rarely used in practice, but are commonly found in teaching and theoretical discussions. When physically sorting objects (such as alphabetizing papers, tests or books) people intuitively generally use insertion sorts for small sets. For larger sets, people often first bucket, such as by initial letter, and multiple bucketing allows practical sorting of very large sets. Often space is relatively cheap, such as by spreading objects out on the floor or over a large area, but operations are expensive, particularly moving an object a large distance – locality of reference is important. Merge sorts are also practical for physical objects, particularly as two hands can be used, one for each list to merge, while other algorithms, such as heap sort or quick sort, are poorly suited for human use. Other algorithms, such as library sort, a variant of insertion sort that leaves spaces, are also practical for physical use.", "Two of the simplest sorts are insertion sort and selection sort, both of which are efficient on small data, due to low overhead, but not efficient on large data. Insertion sort is generally faster than selection sort in practice, due to fewer comparisons and good performance on almost-sorted data, and thus is preferred in practice, but selection sort uses fewer writes, and thus is used when write performance is a limiting factor.", "\"Insertion sort\" is a simple sorting algorithm that is relatively efficient for small lists and mostly sorted lists, and is often used as part of more sophisticated algorithms. It works by taking elements from the list one by one and inserting them in their correct position into a new sorted list similar to how we put money in our wallet. In arrays, the new list and the remaining elements can share the array's space, but insertion is expensive, requiring shifting all following elements over by one. Shellsort (see below) is a variant of insertion sort that is more efficient for larger lists.", "\"Selection sort\" is an in-place comparison sort. It has O(\"n\") complexity, making it inefficient on large lists, and generally performs worse than the similar insertion sort. Selection sort is noted for its simplicity, and also has performance advantages over more complicated algorithms in certain situations. The algorithm finds the minimum value, swaps it with the value in the first position, and repeats these steps for the remainder of the list. It does no more than \"n\" swaps, and thus is useful where swapping is very expensive.", "Practical general sorting algorithms are almost always based on an algorithm with average time complexity (and generally worst-case complexity) O(\"n\" log \"n\"), of which the most common are heap sort, merge sort, and quicksort. Each has advantages and drawbacks, with the most significant being that simple implementation of merge sort uses O(\"n\") additional space, and simple implementation of quicksort has O(\"n\") worst-case complexity. These problems can be solved or ameliorated at the cost of a more complex algorithm. While these algorithms are asymptotically efficient on random data, for practical efficiency on real-world data various modifications are used. First, the overhead of these algorithms becomes significant on smaller data, so often a hybrid algorithm is used, commonly switching to insertion sort once the data is small enough. Second, the algorithms often perform poorly on already sorted data or almost sorted data – these are common in real-world data, and can be sorted in O(\"n\") time by appropriate algorithms. Finally, they may also be unstable, and stability is often a desirable property in a sort. Thus more sophisticated algorithms are often employed, such as Timsort (based on merge sort) or introsort (based on quicksort, falling back to heap sort).", "\"Merge sort\" takes advantage of the ease of merging already sorted lists into a new sorted list. It starts by comparing every two elements (i.e., 1 with 2, then 3 with 4...) and swapping them if the first should come after the second. It then merges each of the resulting lists of two into lists of four, then merges those lists of four, and so on; until at last two lists are merged into the final sorted list. Of the algorithms described here, this is the first that scales well to very large lists, because its worst-case running time is O(\"n\" log \"n\"). It is also easily applied to lists, not only arrays, as it only requires sequential access, not random access. However, it has additional O(\"n\") space complexity, and involves a large number of copies in simple implementations. Merge sort has seen a relatively recent surge in popularity for practical implementations, due to its use in the sophisticated algorithm Timsort, which is used for the standard sort routine in the programming languages Python and Java (as of JDK7). Merge sort itself is the standard routine in Perl, among others, and has been used in Java at least since 2000 in JDK1.3.", "\"Heapsort\" is a much more efficient version of selection sort. It also works by determining the largest (or smallest) element of the list, placing that at the end (or beginning) of the list, then continuing with the rest of the list, but accomplishes this task efficiently by using a data structure called a heap, a special type of binary tree. Once the data list has been made into a heap, the root node is guaranteed to be the largest (or smallest) element. When it is removed and placed at the end of the list, the heap is rearranged so the largest element remaining moves to the root. Using the heap, finding the next largest element takes O(log \"n\") time, instead of O(\"n\") for a linear scan as in simple selection sort. This allows Heapsort to run in O(\"n\" log \"n\") time, and this is also the worst case complexity.", "\"Quicksort\" is a divide and conquer algorithm which relies on a \"partition\" operation: to partition an array, an element called a \"pivot\" is selected. All elements smaller than the pivot are moved before it and all greater elements are moved after it. This can be done efficiently in linear time and in-place. The lesser and greater sublists are then recursively sorted. This yields average time complexity of O(\"n\" log \"n\"), with low overhead, and thus this is a popular algorithm. Efficient implementations of quicksort (with in-place partitioning) are typically unstable sorts and somewhat complex, but are among the fastest sorting algorithms in practice. Together with its modest O(log \"n\") space usage, quicksort is one of the most popular sorting algorithms and is available in many standard programming libraries. The important caveat about quicksort is that its worst-case performance is O(\"n\"); while this is rare, in naive implementations (choosing the first or last element as pivot) this occurs for sorted data, which is a common case. The most complex issue in quicksort is thus choosing a good pivot element, as consistently poor choices of pivots can result in drastically slower O(\"n\") performance, but good choice of pivots yields O(\"n\" log \"n\") performance, which is asymptotically optimal. For example, if at each step the median is chosen as the pivot then the algorithm works in O(\"n\" log \"n\"). Finding the median, such as by the median of medians selection algorithm is however an O(\"n\") operation on unsorted lists and therefore exacts significant overhead with sorting. In practice choosing a random pivot almost certainly yields O(\"n\" log \"n\") performance.", "\"Shellsort\" was invented by Donald Shell in 1959. It improves upon insertion sort by moving out of order elements more than one position at a time. The concept behind Shellsort is that insertion sort performs in time, where k is the greatest distance between two out-of-place elements. This means that generally, they perform in \"O\"(\"n\"), but for data that is mostly sorted, with only a few elements out of place, they perform faster. So, by first sorting elements far away, and progressively shrinking the gap between the elements to sort, the final sort computes much faster. One implementation can be described as arranging the data sequence in a two-dimensional array and then sorting the columns of the array using insertion sort. The worst-case time complexity of Shellsort is an open problem and depends on the gap sequence used, with known complexities ranging from \"O\"(\"n\") to \"O\"(\"n\") and Θ(\"n\" log \"n\"). This, combined with the fact that Shellsort is in-place, only needs a relatively small amount of code, and does not require use of the call stack, makes it is useful in situations where memory is at a premium, such as in embedded systems and operating system kernels.", "Bubble sort, and variants such as the shell sort and cocktail sort, are simple, highly-inefficient sorting algorithms. They are frequently seen in introductory texts due to ease of analysis, but they are rarely used in practice.", "\"Bubble sort\" is a simple sorting algorithm. The algorithm starts at the beginning of the data set. It compares the first two elements, and if the first is greater than the second, it swaps them. It continues doing this for each pair of adjacent elements to the end of the data set. It then starts again with the first two elements, repeating until no swaps have occurred on the last pass. This algorithm's average time and worst-case performance is O(\"n\"), so it is rarely used to sort large, unordered data sets. Bubble sort can be used to sort a small number of items (where its asymptotic inefficiency is not a high penalty). Bubble sort can also be used efficiently on a list of any length that is nearly sorted (that is, the elements are not significantly out of place). For example, if any number of elements are out of place by only one position (e.g. 0123546789 and 1032547698), bubble sort's exchange will get them in order on the first pass, the second pass will find all elements in order, so the sort will take only 2\"n\" time.", "\"Comb sort\" is a relatively simple sorting algorithm based on bubble sort and originally designed by Włodzimierz Dobosiewicz in 1980. It was later rediscovered and popularized by Stephen Lacey and Richard Box with a \"Byte\" Magazine article published in April 1991. The basic idea is to eliminate \"turtles\", or small values near the end of the list, since in a bubble sort these slow the sorting down tremendously. (\"Rabbits\", large values around the beginning of the list, do not pose a problem in bubble sort) It accomplishes this by initially swapping elements that are a certain distance from one another in the array, rather than only swapping elements if they are adjacent to one another, and then shrinking the chosen distance until it is operating as a normal bubble sort. Thus, if Shellsort can be thought of as a generalized version of insertion sort that swaps elements spaced a certain distance away from one another, comb sort can be thought of as the same generalization applied to bubble sort.", "\"Distribution sort\" refers to any sorting algorithm where data is distributed from their input to multiple intermediate structures which are then gathered and placed on the output. For example, both bucket sort and flashsort are distribution based sorting algorithms. Distribution sorting algorithms can be used on a single processor, or they can be a distributed algorithm, where individual subsets are separately sorted on different processors, then combined. This allows external sorting of data too large to fit into a single computer's memory.", "Counting sort is applicable when each input is known to belong to a particular set, \"S\", of possibilities. The algorithm runs in O(|\"S\"| + \"n\") time and O(|\"S\"|) memory where \"n\" is the length of the input. It works by creating an integer array of size |\"S\"| and using the \"i\"th bin to count the occurrences of the \"i\"th member of \"S\" in the input. Each input is then counted by incrementing the value of its corresponding bin. Afterward, the counting array is looped through to arrange all of the inputs in order. This sorting algorithm often cannot be used because \"S\" needs to be reasonably small for the algorithm to be efficient, but it is extremely fast and demonstrates great asymptotic behavior as \"n\" increases. It also can be modified to provide stable behavior.", "Bucket sort is a divide and conquer sorting algorithm that generalizes counting sort by partitioning an array into a finite number of buckets. Each bucket is then sorted individually, either using a different sorting algorithm, or by recursively applying the bucket sorting algorithm. A bucket sort works best when the elements of the data set are evenly distributed across all buckets.", "\"Radix sort\" is an algorithm that sorts numbers by processing individual digits. \"n\" numbers consisting of \"k\" digits each are sorted in O(\"n\" · \"k\") time. Radix sort can process digits of each number either starting from the least significant digit (LSD) or starting from the most significant digit (MSD). The LSD algorithm first sorts the list by the least significant digit while preserving their relative order using a stable sort. Then it sorts them by the next digit, and so on from the least significant to the most significant, ending up with a sorted list. While the LSD radix sort requires the use of a stable sort, the MSD radix sort algorithm does not (unless stable sorting is desired). In-place MSD radix sort is not stable. It is common for the counting sort algorithm to be used internally by the radix sort. A hybrid sorting approach, such as using insertion sort for small bins, improves performance of radix sort significantly.", "When the size of the array to be sorted approaches or exceeds the available primary memory, so that (much slower) disk or swap space must be employed, the memory usage pattern of a sorting algorithm becomes important, and an algorithm that might have been fairly efficient when the array fit easily in RAM may become impractical. In this scenario, the total number of comparisons becomes (relatively) less important, and the number of times sections of memory must be copied or swapped to and from the disk can dominate the performance characteristics of an algorithm. Thus, the number of passes and the localization of comparisons can be more important than the raw number of comparisons, since comparisons of nearby elements to one another happen at system bus speed (or, with caching, even at CPU speed), which, compared to disk speed, is virtually instantaneous. For example, the popular recursive quicksort algorithm provides quite reasonable performance with adequate RAM, but due to the recursive way that it copies portions of the array it becomes much less practical when the array does not fit in RAM, because it may cause a number of slow copy or move operations to and from disk. In that scenario, another algorithm may be preferable even if it requires more total comparisons. One way to work around this problem, which works well when complex records (such as in a relational database) are being sorted by a relatively small key field, is to create an index into the array and then sort the index, rather than the entire array. (A sorted version of the entire array can then be produced with one pass, reading from the index, but often even that is unnecessary, as having the sorted index is adequate.) Because the index is much smaller than the entire array, it may fit easily in memory where the entire array would not, effectively eliminating the disk-swapping problem. This procedure is sometimes called \"tag sort\". Another technique for overcoming the memory-size problem is using external sorting, for example one of the ways is to combine two algorithms in a way that takes advantage of the strength of each to improve overall performance. For instance, the array might be subdivided into chunks of a size that will fit in RAM, the contents of each chunk sorted using an efficient algorithm (such as quicksort), and the results merged using a \"k\"-way merge similar to that used in mergesort. This is faster than performing either mergesort or quicksort over the entire list. Techniques can also be combined. For sorting very large sets of data that vastly exceed system memory, even the index may need to be sorted using an algorithm or combination of algorithms designed to perform reasonably with virtual memory, i.e., to reduce the amount of swapping required.", "Related problems include partial sorting (sorting only the \"k\" smallest elements of a list, or alternatively computing the \"k\" smallest elements, but unordered) and selection (computing the \"k\"th smallest element). These can be solved inefficiently by a total sort, but more efficient algorithms exist, often derived by generalizing a sorting algorithm. The most notable example is quickselect, which is related to quicksort. Conversely, some sorting algorithms can be derived by repeated application of a selection algorithm; quicksort and quickselect can be seen as the same pivoting move, differing only in whether one recurses on both sides (quicksort, divide and conquer) or one side (quickselect, decrease and conquer). A kind of opposite of a sorting algorithm is a shuffling algorithm. These are fundamentally different because they require a source of random numbers. Shuffling can also be implemented by a sorting algorithm, namely by a random sort: assigning a random number to each element of the list and then sorting based on the random numbers. This is generally not done in practice, however, and there is a well-known simple and efficient algorithm for shuffling: the Fisher–Yates shuffle." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Construction.", "History.", "Tourism." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The fortress was founded by Erik Axelsson Tott in 1475 under the name Sankt Olofsborg in an effort to profit from the political turmoil following Ivan III's conquest of the Novgorod Republic. It was sited in Savonia so as to lay claim to the Russian side of the border established by the Treaty of Nöteborg. One of Tott's letters from 1477 includes a passing mention of foreign builders invited to Olofsborg, probably from Reval, where the city fortifications were being extended. It was the first Swedish castle provided with a set of thickset circular towers that could withstand cannon fire. It is not by accident that a network of lakes and waterways forms the setting for the castle, for these would seriously impede a prospective Russian offensive. The three-towered keep was completed in 1485, and the construction of the outer curtain walls with two towers was initiated immediately. They were completed in 1495. The castle is roughly a truncated rhomboid with keep on the western side of the island and the curtain walls and outer bailey to east. One of the towers of the keep, St. Erik's Tower, has a bad foundation and has since collapsed. One of the towers of Bailey, the Thick Tower, exploded in the 18th century. A bastion has been built on its place. The castle was converted into a Vaubanesque fort in the late 18th century with bastions.", "Olofsborg withstood several sieges by the Russians during the First and Second Russian-Swedish wars. A brisk trade developed under the umbrella of the castle towards the end of the 16th century, giving birth to the town of Savonlinna, which was chartered in 1639. While the castle was never captured by force, its garrison agreed to terms of surrender twice; first to invading Russians on 28 July 1714 and the second time on 8 August 1743, with the latter conflict's peace treaty in form of the Treaty of Åbo leading to the castle and the entire region being seceded to Empress Elizabeth of Russia. Several devastating fires destroyed much of the castle's decor in the 19th century, all of its original furnishings were destroyed.", "The castle hosts several small exhibitions, including the Castle Museum which displays artifacts found in the castle or related to it, and the Orthodox Museum which displays icons and other religious artifacts both from Finland and Russia. The castle forms a spectacular stage for the Savonlinna Opera Festival, held annually in the summer since 1912. Olavinlinna is the initial model for Kropow Castle in the bande dessinée \"King Ottokar's Sceptre\", an album in the series of Adventures of Tintin created by Hergé." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Summary.", "Part 1.", "The First Sally (Chapters 1–5).", "Destruction of Don Quixote's library (Chapters 6 and 7).", "The Second Sally.", "Part 2.", "The Third Sally.", "Meaning.", "Themes.", "Background.", "Sources.", "Spurious \"Second Part\" by Avellaneda.", "Other stories.", "Style.", "Spelling and pronunciation.", "Setting.", "Language.", "Publication.", "Tilting at windmills.", "List of English translations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Cervantes wrote that the first chapters were taken from \"the archives of La Mancha\", and the rest were translated from an Arabic text by the Moorish author Cide Hamete Benengeli. This metafictional trick appears to give a greater credibility to the text, implying that Don Quixote is a real character and that the events related truly occurred several decades prior to the recording of this account. However, it was also common practice in that era for fictional works to make some pretense of being factual, such as the common opening line of fairy tales \"Once upon a time in a land far away...\". In the course of their travels, the protagonists meet innkeepers, prostitutes, goat-herders, soldiers, priests, escaped convicts and scorned lovers. The aforementioned characters sometimes tell tales that incorporate events from the real world, like the conquest of the Kingdom of Maynila or battles in the Eighty Years' War. Their encounters are magnified by Don Quixote's imagination into chivalrous quests. Don Quixote's tendency to intervene violently in matters irrelevant to himself, and his habit of not paying debts, result in privations, injuries, and humiliations (with Sancho often the victim). Finally, Don Quixote is persuaded to return to his home village. The narrator hints that there was a third quest, but says that records of it have been lost.", "", "Alonso Quixano, the protagonist of the novel (though he is not given this name until much later in the book), is a hidalgo (member of the lesser Spanish nobility), nearing 50 years of age, living in an unnamed section of La Mancha with his niece and housekeeper, as well as a boy who is never heard of again after the first chapter. Although Quixano is usually a rational man, in keeping with the humoral physiology theory of the time, not sleeping adequately—because he was reading—has caused his brain to dry. Quixano's temperament is thus choleric, the hot and dry humor. As a result, he is easily given to anger and believes every word of these fictional books of chivalry to be true. Imitating the protagonists of these books, he decides to become a knight errant in search of adventure. To these ends, he dons an", "While Don Quixote is unconscious in his bed, his niece, the housekeeper, the parish curate, and the local barber burn most of his chivalric and other books. A large part of this section consists of the priest deciding which books deserve to be burned and which to be saved. It is a scene of high comedy:", "After a short period of feigning health, Don Quixote requests his neighbour, Sancho Panza, to be his squire, promising him a petty governorship (\"ínsula\"). Sancho is a poor and simple farmer but more practical than the head-in-the-clouds Don Quixote and agrees to the offer, sneaking away with Don Quixote in the early dawn. It is here that their famous adventures begin, starting with Don Quixote's attack on windmills that he believes to be ferocious giants. The two next encounter two Benedictine friars travelling on the road ahead of a lady", "Although the two parts are now published as a single work, \"Don Quixote, Part Two\" was a sequel published ten years after the original novel. While \"Part One\" was mostly farcical, the second half is more serious and philosophical about the theme of deception. \"Part Two\" of \"Don Quixote\" explores the concept of a character understanding that he is written about, an idea much explored in the 20th century. As \"Part Two\" begins, it is assumed that the literate classes of Spain have all read the first part of the story. Cervantes' meta-fictional device was to make even the characters in the story familiar with the publication of \"Part One\", as well as with an actually published, fraudulent Part Two.", "When strangers encounter the duo in person, they already know their famous history. A Duke and Duchess, and others, deceive Don Quixote for entertainment, setting forth a string of imagined adventures resulting in a series of practical jokes. Some of them put Don Quixote's sense of chivalry and his devotion to Dulcinea through many tests. Pressed into finding Dulcinea, Sancho brings back three ragged peasant girls and tells Don Quixote that they are Dulcinea and her ladies-in-waiting. When Don Quixote only sees the peasant girls, Sancho pretends (reversing some incidents of \"Part One\") that their derelict appearance results from an enchantment. Sancho later gets his comeuppance for this when, as part of one of the Duke and Duchess's pranks, the two are led to believe that the only method to release Dulcinea from her spell is for Sancho to give himself three thousand three hundred lashes. Sancho naturally resists this course of action, leading to friction with his master. Under the Duke's patronage, Sancho eventually gets a governorship, though it is false, and he proves to be", "Harold Bloom says \"Don Quixote\" is the first modern novel, and that the protagonist is at war with Freud's reality principle, which accepts the necessity of dying. Edith Grossman, who wrote and published a highly acclaimed English translation of the novel in 2003, says that the book is mostly meant to move people into emotion using a systematic change of course, on the verge of both tragedy and comedy at the same time. Grossman has stated:The question is that Quixote has multiple interpretations [...] and how do I deal with that in my translation. I'm going to answer your question by avoiding it [...] so when I first started reading the", "The novel's structure is episodic in form. The full title is indicative of the tale's object, as \"ingenioso\" (Spanish) means \"quick with inventiveness\", marking the transition of modern literature from dramatic to thematic unity. The novel takes place over a long period of time, including many adventures united by common themes of the nature of reality, reading, and dialogue in general. Although burlesque on the surface, the novel, especially in its second half, has served as an important thematic source not only in literature but also in much of art and music, inspiring works by Pablo Picasso and Richard Strauss. The contrasts between the tall, thin, fancy-struck and idealistic Quixote and the fat, squat, world-weary Panza is a motif echoed ever since the book's publication, and Don Quixote's imaginings are the butt of outrageous and cruel practical jokes in the novel. Even faithful and simple Sancho is forced", "", "Sources for \"Don Quixote\" include the Castilian novel \"Amadis de Gaula\", which had enjoyed great popularity throughout the 16th century. Another prominent source, which Cervantes evidently admires more, is \"Tirant lo Blanch\", which the priest describes in Chapter VI of \"Quixote\" as \"the best book in the world.\" (However, the sense in which it was \"best\" is much debated among scholars. Since the 19th century, the passage has been called \"the most difficult passage of \"Don Quixote\"\".) The scene of the book burning gives us an excellent list of Cervantes' likes and dislikes about literature. Cervantes makes a number of references to the Italian poem \"Orlando furioso\". In chapter 10 of the first part of the novel, Don Quixote says he must take the magical helmet of Mambrino, an episode from Canto I of \"Orlando\", and itself a reference to Matteo Maria Boiardo's \"Orlando innamorato\". The interpolated story in chapter 33 of Part four of the First Part is a retelling of a tale from Canto 43 of \"Orlando\", regarding a man who tests the fidelity of his wife.", "It is not certain when Cervantes began writing \"Part Two\" of \"Don Quixote\", but he had probably not proceeded much further than Chapter LIX by late July 1614. About September, however, a spurious Part Two, entitled \"Second Volume of the Ingenious Gentleman Don Quixote of La Mancha: by the Licenciado (doctorate) Alonso Fernández de Avellaneda, of Tordesillas\", was published in Tarragona by an unidentified Aragonese who was an admirer of Lope de Vega, rival of Cervantes. It was translated into English by William Augustus Yardley, Esquire in two volumes in 1784. Some modern scholars suggest that Don Quixote's fictional encounter with Avellaneda in Chapter 59 of Part II should not be taken as the date that \"Cervantes\" encountered it, which may have been much earlier.", "\"Don Quixote, Part One\" contains a number of stories which do not directly involve the two main characters, but which are narrated by some of the picaresque figures encountered by the Don and Sancho during their travels. The longest and best known of these is \"El Curioso Impertinente\" (the impertinently curious man), found in Part One, Book Four. This story, read to a group of travelers at an inn, tells", "", "Cervantes wrote his work in early modern Spanish, heavily borrowing from Old Castilian, the medieval form of the language. The language of \"Don Quixote\", although still containing archaisms, is far more understandable to modern Spanish readers than is, for instance, the completely medieval Spanish of the \"Poema de mio Cid\", a kind of Spanish that is as different from Cervantes' language as Middle English is from Modern English. The Old Castilian language was also used to show the higher class that came with being a knight errant. In \"Don Quixote\", there are basically two different types of Castilian: Old Castilian is spoken only by Don Quixote, while the rest of the roles speak a contemporary (late 16th century) version of Spanish. The Old Castilian of Don Quixote is a humoristic resource—he copies the language spoken in the chivalric books that made him mad; and many times, when he talks nobody is able to understand him because his language is too old. This humorous effect is more difficult to see nowadays", "Cervantes' story takes place on the plains of La Mancha, specifically the \"comarca\" of Campo de Montiel. The story also takes place in El Toboso where Don Quixote goes to seek Dulcinea's blessings. The location of the village to which Cervantes alludes in the opening sentence of \"Don Quixote\" has been the subject of debate since its publication over four centuries ago. Indeed, Cervantes deliberately omits the name of the village, giving an explanation in the final chapter: In 2004, a multidisciplinary team of academics from Complutense University, led by Francisco Parra Luna, Manuel Fernández Nieto, and Santiago Petschen Verdaguer, deduced that the village was", "Because of its widespread influence, \"Don Quixote\" also helped cement the modern Spanish language. The opening sentence of the book created a classic Spanish cliché with the phrase (\"whose name I do not wish to recall\"): (\"In a village of La Mancha, whose name I do not wish to recall, there lived, not very long ago, one of those gentlemen with a lance in the lance-rack, an ancient shield, a skinny old horse, and a fast greyhound.\") The novel's farcical elements make use of punning and similar verbal playfulness. Character-naming in \"Don Quixote\" makes ample figural use of contradiction,", "In July 1604, Cervantes sold the rights of \"El ingenioso hidalgo don Quixote de la Mancha\" (known as \"Don Quixote, Part I\") to the publisher-bookseller Francisco de Robles for an unknown sum. License to publish was granted in September, the printing was finished in December, and the book came out on 16 January 1605. The novel was an immediate success. The majority of the 400 copies of the first edition were sent to the New World, with the publisher hoping to get a better price in the Americas. Although most of them disappeared in a shipwreck near La Havana, approximately 70 copies reached Lima, from where they were sent to Cuzco in the heart of the defunct Inca Empire. No sooner was it in the hands of the public than preparations were made to issue derivative (pirated) editions. \"Don Quixote\" had been growing in favour, and its author's name was now known beyond the Pyrenees. By August 1605, there were two Madrid editions, two published in Lisbon, and one in Valencia. Publisher Francisco de Robles secured additional copyrights for Aragon and Portugal for a second edition. Sale of these publishing rights deprived Cervantes of further financial profit on \"Part One\". In 1607, an edition was printed in Brussels. Robles, the Madrid publisher, found it necessary to meet demand with a third edition, a seventh publication in all, in 1608. Popularity of the book in Italy was such that a Milan bookseller issued an Italian edition in 1610. Yet another Brussels edition was called for in 1611. Since then, numerous editions have been released and in total, the novel is believed to have sold more than 500 million copies worldwide. The work has been produced in numerous editions and languages, the Cervantes Collection, at the State Library of New South Wales includes over 1,100 editions. These were collected, by Dr Ben Haneman, over a period of thirty years. In 1613, Cervantes published the \"Novelas Ejemplares\", dedicated to the Maecenas of the day, the Conde de Lemos. Eight and a half years after \"Part One\" had appeared came the first hint of a forthcoming \"Segunda Parte\" (Part Two). \"You shall see shortly,\" Cervantes says, \"the further exploits of Don Quixote and humours of Sancho Panza.\" \"Don Quixote, Part Two\", published by the same press as its predecessor, appeared late in 1615, and quickly reprinted in Brussels and Valencia (1616) and Lisbon (1617). Parts One and Two were published as one edition in Barcelona in 1617. Historically, Cervantes' work has been said to have \"smiled Spain's chivalry away\", suggesting that Don Quixote as a chivalric satire contributed to the demise of Spanish Chivalry.", "Tilting at windmills is an English idiom that means attacking imaginary enemies. The expression is derived from \"Don Quixote\", and the word \"tilt\" in this context comes from jousting.", "Reviewing the English translations as a whole, Daniel Eisenberg stated that there is no one translation ideal for every purpose, but expressed a preference for those of Putnam and the revision of Ormsby's translation by Douglas and Jones." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Taxonomy.", "Description.", "Breeding.", "Species and distribution." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "They have traditionally been thought to form one of two subfamilies, Plataleinae, in the family Threskiornithidae, which also includes the ibises (Threskiornithinae). Molecular studies, including a 2013 study, have suggested instead that they form a clade within the family with several cosmopolitan ibis genera, separate from another clade of New World ibises. A 2010 study of mitochondrial DNA of the spoonbills by Chesser and colleagues found that the roseate and yellow-billed spoonbills were each other's closest relative, and the two were descended from an early offshoot from the ancestors of the other four spoonbill species. They felt the genetic evidence meant it was equally valid to consider all six to be classified within the genus \"Platalea\" or alternatively the two placed in the monotypic genera \"Platibis\" and \"Ajaja\" respectively. However, as the six species were so similar morphologically, keeping them within the one genus made more sense.", "The spoonbills are most distinct from the ibises in the shape of their bill, which is long and flat and wider at the end. The nostrils are located near the base of the bill so that the bird can breathe while the bill is submerged in water. The eyes are positioned to provide spoonbills with binocular vision, although when foraging tactile senses are important too. Like the ibises the spoonbills have bare patches of skin around the bills and eyes.", "Spoonbills are monogamous, but, so far as is known, only for one season at a time. Most species nest in trees or reed beds, often with ibises or herons. The male gathers nesting material—mostly sticks and reeds, sometimes taken from an old nest—the female weaves it into a large, shallow bowl or platform which varies in its shape and structural integrity according to species. The female lays a clutch of about three smooth, oval, white eggs and both parents incubate; chicks hatch one at a time rather than all together. The newly hatched young are blind and cannot care for themselves immediately; both parents feed them by partial regurgitation. Chicks' bills are short and straight, and only gain the characteristic spoonbill shape as they mature. Their feeding continues for a few weeks longer after the family leaves the nest. The primary cause of brood failure appears not to be predation but starvation.", "The six species of spoonbill are distributed over much of the world." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Preindustrial era.", "Gas lamp lighting.", "\"Farola fernandina\".", "Arc lamps.", "Incandescent lighting.", "Later developments.", "Modern lights.", "Measurement.", "Advantages.", "Disadvantages.", "Health and safety.", "Light pollution.", "Energy consumption.", "Street light control systems.", "Accessories.", "Economics.", "Image-based street light control.", "Purpose.", "Beacon lights.", "Roadway lights.", "Cycle path lights.", "Maintenance." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Early lamps were used by Greek and Roman civilizations, where light primarily served the purpose of security, both to protect the wanderer from tripping on the path over something or keeping the potential robbers at bay. At that time oil lamps were used predominantly as they provided a long-lasting and moderate flame. A slave responsible for lighting the oil lamps in front of Roman villas was called a. The use of street lighting was first recorded in the city of Antioch from the 4th century B.C. Later it was recorded in the Caliphate of Córdoba from the 9th–10th centuries, especially in Cordova. In the Middle Ages, so-called \"link boys\" escorted people from one place to another through the murky winding streets of medieval towns. Before incandescent lamps, candle lighting was employed in cities. The earliest lamps required that a lamplighter tour the town at dusk, lighting each of the lamps. According to some sources, illumination was ordered in London in 1417 by Sir Henry Barton, Mayor of London though there is no firm evidence of this. Public street lighting was first developed in the 1500s, and accelerated following the invention of lanterns with glass windows, which greatly improved the quantity of light. In 1588 the Parisian Parlement decreed that a torch be installed and lit at each intersection, and in 1594 the police changed this to lanterns. Still, in the mid-1600s it was a common practice for travelers to hire a lantern-bearer if they had to move at night through the dark, winding streets. King Louis XIV authorized sweeping reforms in Paris in 1667, which included the installation and maintenance of lights on streets and at intersections, as well as stiff penalties for vandalizing or stealing the fixtures. Paris had more than 2,700 street lights by the end of the 17th century, and twice as many by 1730. Under this system, streets were lit with lanterns suspended apart on a cord over the middle of the street at a height of ; as an English visitor enthused in 1698, 'The streets are lit all winter and even during the full moon!' In London, public street lighting was implemented around the end of the 17th century; a diarist wrote in 1712 that ‘All the way, quite through Hyde Park to the Queen’s Palace at Kensington, lanterns were placed for illuminating the roads on dark nights.’ A much-improved oil lantern, called a, was introduced in 1745 and improved in subsequent years. The light shed from these réverbères was considerably brighter, enough that some people complained of glare. These lamps were attached to the top of lampposts; by 1817, there were 4694 lamps on the Paris streets. During the French Revolution (1789–1799), the revolutionaries found that the lampposts were a convenient place to hang aristocrats and other opponents.", "The first widespread system of street lighting used piped coal gas as fuel. Stephen Hales was the first person who procured a flammable fluid from the actual distillation of coal in 1726 and John Clayton, in 1735, called gas the \"spirit\" of coal and discovered its flammability by accident. William Murdoch (sometimes spelled \"Murdock\") was the first to use this gas for the practical application of lighting. In the early 1790s, while overseeing the use of his company's steam engines in tin mining in Cornwall, Murdoch began experimenting with various types of gas, finally settling on coal-gas as the most effective. He first lit his own house in Redruth, Cornwall in 1792. In 1798, he used gas to light the main building of the Soho Foundry and in 1802 lit the outside in a public display of gas lighting, the lights astonishing the local population. The first public street lighting with gas was demonstrated in Pall Mall, London on 28 January 1807 by Frederick Albert Winsor. In 1812, Parliament granted a charter to the London and Westminster Gas Light and Coke Company, and the first gas company in the world came into being. Less than two years later, on 31 December 1813, the Westminster Bridge was lit by gas. Following this success, gas lighting spread outside London, both within Britain and abroad. The first place outside London in England to have gas lighting, was Preston, Lancashire in 1816, where Joseph Dunn's Preston Gaslight Company introduced a new, brighter gas lighting. Another early adopter was the city of Baltimore, where the gas lights were first demonstrated at Rembrandt Peale's Museum in 1816, and Peale's Gas Light Company of Baltimore provided the first gas streetlights in the United States. In Paris, public street lighting was first installed on a covered shopping street, the Passage des Panoramas, in 1817, private interior gas lighting having been previously demonstrated in a house on the rue Saint-Dominique seventeen years prior. The first gas lamps on the main streets of Paris appeared in January 1829 on the place du Carrousel and the rue de Rivoli, then on rue de la Paix, place Vendôme, and rue de Castiglione. By 1857, the Grands Boulevards were all lit with gas; a Parisian writer enthused in August, 1857: \"That which most enchants the Parisians is the new lighting by gas of the boulevards...From the church of the Madeleine all the way to rue Montmartre, these two rows of lamps, shining with a clarity white and pure, have a marvelous effect.\" The gaslights installed on the boulevards and city monuments in the 19th century gave the city the nickname \"The City of Light.\" Oil-gas appeared in the field as a rival of coal-gas. In 1815, John Taylor patented an apparatus for the decomposition of \"oil\" and other animal substances. Public attention was attracted to \"oil-gas\" by the display of the patent apparatus at Apothecary's Hall, by Taylor & Martineau. The first modern street lamps to use kerosene were introduced in Lviv in what was then the Austrian Empire in 1853. In Brest, street lighting with kerosene lamps reappeared in 2009 in the shopping street as a tourist attraction.", "\"Farola fernandina\" is a traditional design of gas street light which remains popular in Spain. Essentially it is a neo-classical French style of gas lamp dating from the late 18th century. It may be either a wall-bracket or standard lamp. The standard base is cast metal with an escutcheon bearing two intertwined letters 'F', the Royal cypher of King Ferdinand VII of Spain and commemorates the date of the birth of his daughter, the Infanta Luisa Fernanda, Duchess of Montpensier.", "The first electric street lighting employed arc lamps, initially the 'Electric candle', 'Jablotchkoff candle' or 'Yablochkov candle' developed by a Russian, Pavel Yablochkov, in 1875. This was a carbon arc lamp employing alternating current, which ensured that both electrodes were consumed at equal rates. In 1876, the common council of the City of Los Angeles ordered four arc lights installed in various places in the fledgling town for street lighting. On 30 May 1878, the first electric street lights in Paris were installed on the avenue de l'Opera and the Place d'Etoile, around the Arc de Triomphe, to celebrate the opening of the Paris Universal Exposition. In 1881, to coincide with the Paris International Exposition of Electricity, street lights were installed on the major boulevards. The first streets in London lit with the electrical arc lamp were by the Holborn Viaduct and the Thames Embankment in 1878. More than 4,000 were in use by 1881, though by then an improved differential arc lamp had been developed by Friedrich von Hefner-Alteneck of Siemens & Halske. The United States was quick in adopting arc lighting, and by 1890 over 130,000 were in operation in the US, commonly installed in exceptionally tall moonlight towers. Arc lights had two major disadvantages. First, they emit an intense and harsh light which, although useful at industrial sites like dockyards, was discomforting in ordinary city streets. Second, they are maintenance-intensive, as carbon electrodes burn away swiftly. With the development of cheap, reliable and bright incandescent light bulbs at the end of the 19th century, arc lights passed out of use for street lighting, but remained in industrial use longer.", "The first street to be lit by an incandescent lightbulb was Mosley Street, in Newcastle upon Tyne. The street was lit for one night by Joseph Swan's incandescent lamp on 3 February 1879. Consequently, Newcastle has the first city street in the world to be lit by electric lighting. The first city in the United States to successfully demonstrate electric lighting was Cleveland, Ohio with 12 electric lights around the Public Square road system on 29 April 1879. Wabash, Indiana lit 4 Brush arc lamps with 3,000 candlepower each, suspended over their courthouse on 2 February 1880, making the town square \"as light as midday\". Kimberley, Cape Colony (modern South Africa), was the first city in the Southern Hemisphere and in Africa to have electric street lights - with 16 first lit on 2 September 1882. The system was only the second in the world, after that of Philadelphia, to be powered municipally. In Central America, San Jose, Costa Rica lit 25 lamps powered by a hydroelectric plant on 9 August 1884. Nürnberg was the first city in Germany to have electric public lighting on 7 June 1882, followed by Berlin on 20 September 1882 (Potsdamer Platz only). Timișoara, in present-day Romania, was the first city in the Austrian-Hungarian Monarchy to have electric public lighting on 12 November 1884; 731 lamps were used. On 9 December 1882, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia was introduced to electricity by having a demonstration of 8 arc lights, erected along Queen Street Mall. The power to supply these arc lights was taken from a 10 hp Crompton DC generator driven by a Robey steam engine in a small foundry in Adelaide Street and occupied by J. W. Sutton and Co. In 1884 Walhalla, Victoria, Victoria, had two lamps installed on the main street by the Long Tunnel (Gold) Mining Company. In 1886, the isolated mining town of Waratah in Tasmania was the first to have an extensive system of electrically powered street lighting installed. In 1888, the New South Wales town of Tamworth installed a large system illuminating a significant portion of the city, with over 13 km of streets lit by 52 incandescent lights and 3 arc lights. Powered a municipal power company, this system gave Tamworth the title of \"First City of Light\" in Australia.", "Incandescent lamps were primarily used for street lighting until the advent of high-intensity gas-discharge lamps. They were often operated at high-voltage series circuits. Series circuits were popular since their higher voltage produced more light per watt consumed. Furthermore, before the invention of photoelectric controls, a single switch or clock could control all the lights in an entire district. To avoid having the entire system go dark if a single lamp burned out, each street lamp was equipped with a device that ensured that the circuit would remain intact. Early series street lights were equipped with isolation transformers. that would allow current to pass across the transformer whether the bulb worked or not. Later the film cutout was invented. This was a small disk of insulating film that separated two contacts connected to the two wires leading to the lamp. If the lamp failed (an open circuit), the current through the string became zero, causing the voltage of the circuit (thousands of volts) to be imposed across the insulating film, penetrating it (see Ohm's law). In this way, the failed lamp was bypassed and power restored to the rest of the district. The street light circuit contained an automatic current regulator, preventing the current from increasing as lamps burned out, preserving the life of the remaining lamps. When the failed lamp was replaced, a new piece of film was installed, once again separating the contacts in the cutout. This system was recognizable by the large porcelain insulator separating the lamp and reflector from the mounting arm. This was necessary because the two contacts in the lamp's base may have operated at several thousand volts above ground.", "Today, street lighting commonly uses high-intensity discharge lamps. Low-pressure sodium lamps became commonplace after World War II for their low power consumption and long life. Late in the 20th century HPS high pressure sodium lamps were preferred, taking further the same virtues. Such lamps provide the greatest amount of photopic illumination for the least consumption of electricity. However, white light sources have been shown to double driver peripheral vision and improve driver brake reaction time by at least 25%; to enable pedestrians to better detect pavement trip hazards and to facilitate visual appraisals of other people associated with interpersonal judgements. Studies comparing metal halide and high-pressure sodium lamps have shown that at equal photopic light levels, a street scene illuminated at night by a metal halide lighting system was reliably seen as brighter and safer than the same scene illuminated by a high pressure sodium system. Two national standards now allow for variation in illuminance when using lamps of different spectra. In Australia, HPS lamp performance needs to be reduced by a minimum value of 75%. In the UK, illuminances are reduced with higher values S/P ratio New street lighting technologies, such as LED or induction lights, emit a white light that provides high levels of scotopic lumens allowing street lights with lower wattages and lower photopic lumens to replace existing street lights. However, there have been no formal specifications written around Photopic/Scotopic adjustments for different types of light sources, causing many municipalities and street departments to hold back on implementation of these new technologies until the standards are updated. Eastbourne in East Sussex UK is currently undergoing a project to see 6000 of its street lights converted to LED and will be closely followed by Hastings in early 2014. Milan, Italy, is the first major city to have entirely switched to LED lighting. In North America, the city of Mississauga (Canada) was one of the first and biggest LED conversion projects with over 46,000 lights converted to LED technology between 2012 and 2014. It is also one of the first cities in North America to use Smart City technology to control the lights. DimOnOff, a company based in Quebec City, was chosen as a Smart City partner for this project. Photovoltaic-powered LED luminaires are gaining wider acceptance. Preliminary field tests show that some LED luminaires are energy-efficient and perform well in testing environments. In 2007, the Civil Twilight Collective created a variant of the conventional LED streetlight, namely the Lunar-resonant streetlight. These lights increase or decrease the intensity of the streetlight according to the lunar light. This streetlight design thus reduces energy consumption as well as light pollution.", "Two very similar measurement systems were created to bridge the scotopic and photopic luminous efficiency functions, creating a Unified System of Photometry. This new measurement has been well-received because the reliance on V(λ) alone for characterizing night-time light illuminations requires more electric energy. The cost-savings potential of using a new way to measure mesopic lighting scenarios is tremendous. Outdoor Site-Lighting Performance (OSP) is a method for predicting and measuring three different aspects of light pollution: glow, trespass and glare. Using this method, lighting specifiers can quantify the performance of existing and planned lighting designs and applications to minimize excessive or obtrusive light leaving the boundaries of a property.", "Major advantages of street lighting include prevention of accidents and increase in safety. Studies have shown that darkness results in a large number of crashes and fatalities, especially those involving pedestrians; pedestrian fatalities are 3 to 6.75 times more likely in the dark than in daylight. Several decades ago when automobile crashes were far more common, street lighting was found to reduce pedestrian crashes by approximately 50%. Furthermore, in the 1970s, lighted intersections and highway interchanges tend to have fewer crashes than unlighted intersections and interchanges. Lighting also reduces crime. Towns, cities, and villages use the unique locations provided by lampposts to hang decorative or commemorative banners. Many communities in the US use lampposts as a tool for fund raising via lamppost banner sponsorship programs first designed by a US based lamppost banner manufacturer.", "The major criticisms of street lighting are that it can actually cause accidents if misused, and cause light pollution.", "There are two optical phenomena that need to be recognized in street light installations. There are also physical dangers to the posts of street lamps other than children climbing them for recreational purposes. Street light stanchions (lampposts) pose a collision risk to motorists and pedestrians, particularly those affected by poor eyesight or under the influence of alcohol. This can be reduced by designing them to break away when hit (frangible or collapsible supports), protecting them by guardrails, or marking the lower portions to increase their visibility. High winds or accumulated metal fatigue also occasionally topple street lights.", "In urban areas, light pollution can hide the stars and interfere with astronomy and the migration of many bird species. In settings near astronomical telescopes and observatories, low pressure sodium lamps may be used. These lamps are advantageous over other lamps such as mercury and metal halide lamps because low pressure sodium lamps emit lower intensity, monochromatic light. Observatories can filter the sodium wavelength out of their observations and virtually eliminate the interference from nearby urban lighting. Full cutoff streetlights also reduce light pollution by reducing the amount of light that is directed at the sky which also improves the luminous efficiency of the light.", "As of 2017, globally 70% of all electricity was generated by burning fossil fuels, a source of air pollution and greenhouse gases, and also globally there are approximately 300 million street lights using that electricity. Cities are exploring more efficient energy use, reducing street light power consumption by dimming lights during off-peak hours and switching to high-efficiency LED lamps. A British county council has turned off 5% of its street lights on a trial basis. Typical collector road lighting in New York State costs $6,400/mile/year for high pressure sodium at 8.5 kW/mile or $4,000 for light-emitting diode luminaires at 5.4 kW/mile.", "A number of street light control systems have been developed to control and reduce energy consumption of a town's public lighting system. These range from controlling a circuit of street lights and/or individual lights with specific ballasts and network operating protocols. These may include sending and receiving instructions via separate data networks, at high frequency over the top of the low voltage supply or wireless. Street light controllers are smarter versions of the mechanical or electronic timers previously used for street light ON-OFF operation. They come with energy conservation options like twilight saving, staggering or dimming. Also many street light controllers come with an astronomical clock for a particular location or a Global Positioning System (GPS) connection to give the best ON-OFF time and energy saving.", "Some intelligent street light controllers also come with Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM), Radio frequency (RF) or General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) communication, user adjusted according to latitude and longitude (low cost type), for better street light management and maintenance. Many street light controllers also come with traffic sensors to manage the lux level of the lamp according to the traffic and to save energy by decreasing lux when there is no traffic. The United States, Canada, India, and many other countries have started introducing street light controllers to their road lighting for energy conservation, street light management and maintenance purpose.", "Street light controllers can be expensive in comparison with normal timers, and can cost between $100 and $2,500, but most of them return the investment between 6 months and 2 years. As the equipment's lifetime is 7 to 10 years it saves energy and cost for some years.", "A number of companies are now manufacturing intelligent street lighting that adjust light output based on usage and occupancy, i.e. automating classification of pedestrian versus cyclist, versus automobile, sensing also velocity of movement and illuminating a certain number of streetlights ahead and fewer behind, depending on velocity of movement. Also the lights adjust depending on road conditions, for example, snow produces more reflectance therefore reduced light is required.", "There are three distinct main uses of street lights, each requiring different types of lights and placement. Using the wrong types of lights can make the situation worse by compromising visibility or safety.", "A modest steady light at the intersection of two roads is an aid to navigation because it helps a driver see the location of a side road as they come closer to it, so that they can adjust their braking and know exactly where to turn if they intend to leave the main road or see vehicles or pedestrians. A beacon light's function is to say \"here I am\" and even a dim light provides enough contrast against the dark night to serve the purpose. To prevent the dangers caused by a car driving through a pool of light, a beacon light must never shine onto the main road, and not brightly onto the side road. In residential areas, this is usually the only appropriate lighting, and it has the bonus side effect of providing spill lighting onto any sidewalk there for the benefit of pedestrians. On Interstate highways this purpose is commonly served by placing reflectors at the sides of the road.", "Because of the dangers discussed above, roadway lights are properly used sparingly and only when a particular situation justifies increasing the risk. This usually involves an intersection with several turning movements and much signage, situations where drivers must take in much information quickly that is not in the headlights' beam. In these situations (a freeway junction or exit ramp), the intersection may be lit so that drivers can quickly see all hazards, and a well-designed plan will have gradually increasing lighting for approximately a quarter of a minute before the intersection and gradually decreasing lighting after it. The main stretches of highways remain unlighted to preserve the driver's night vision and increase the visibility of oncoming headlights. If there is a sharp curve where headlights will not illuminate the road, a light on the outside of the curve is often justified. If it is desired to light a roadway (perhaps due to heavy and fast multi-lane traffic), to avoid the dangers of casual placement of street lights, it should not be lit intermittently since this requires repeated eye readjustment, which causes eyestrain and temporary blindness when entering and leaving light pools. In this case, the system is designed to eliminate the need for headlights. This is usually achieved with bright lights placed on high poles at close regular intervals so that there is consistent light along the route. The lighting goes from curb to curb. Further information: pedestrian crossing#Lighting.", "Policies that encourage utility cycling have been proposed and implemented, including lighting bike paths to increase safety at night.", "Street lighting systems require ongoing maintenance, which can be classified as either reactive or preventative. Reactive maintenance is a direct response to a lighting failure, such as replacing a discharge lamp after it has failed, or replacing an entire lighting unit after it has been hit by a vehicle. Preventative maintenance is scheduled replacement of lighting components, for example replacing all of the discharge lamps in an area of the city when they have reached 85% of their expected life. In the United Kingdom the Roads Liaison Group has issued a Code of Practice recommending specific reactive and preventative maintenance procedures. Some street lights in New York City have an orange or red light on top of the luminaire (light fixture) or a red light attached to the lamppost. This indicates that near to this lighting pole or in the same intersection, there is a fire alarm pull box. Other street lights have a small red light next to the street light bulb; when the small light flashes, it indicates an issue with the electrical current." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background and writing.", "Composition.", "Reception and accolades.", "Chart performance.", "Music video.", "Background and release.", "Synopsis.", "Reception.", "Live performances.", "Cover versions.", "Credits and personnel." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In 2004, Clarkson flew to Sweden to collaborate with Max Martin and Lukasz \"Dr. Luke\" Gottwald for her album, \"Breakaway\". Clarkson and Martin were interested in turning in a more rock direction, as opposed to the \"slick pop\" with which they were identified. The songs \"Since U Been Gone\" as well as \"Behind These Hazel Eyes\" were the products of their collaboration. According to Dr. Luke, \"Behind These Hazel Eyes\" was sent to Clarkson without any lyrics as part of an olive branch to the singer. He explained, We had just done with \"Since U Been Gone,\" which everyone was happy with. We sent a rough version of \"Behind These Hazel Eyes,\" without any lyrics, to Kelly and Clive Davis. It was in part an olive branch to Kelly, because there was miscommunication on \"Since U Been Gone,\" where Kelly had written some lyrics and Max and I didn't know about it and we had finished the song. So we wanted to write \"Behind\" with her from the beginning, but we were in different places. She had just won \"American Idol\" and was on tour, so she'd e-mail me lyrics, and I'd e-mail her my thoughts. In an interview with \"Entertainment Weekly,\" Clarkson explains that \"Behind These Hazel Eyes\" is \"about the dipstick who completely screwed up and now is unhappy and you're happy.\" She also considered the song as one of her favorites that she once intended to name \"Breakaway\" after the song. Critics speculated that the song reflects Clarkson's break-up with David Hodges, an ex-member of Evanescence. According to MTV, the song was originally written prior to the break-up. Nonetheless, Clarkson decided to tweak the song lyrics after breaking up with Hodges to express her emotional pain. Clarkson also said that the song almost did not make it into the album. She explained, \"It had different lyrics in the beginning [...] I ended up calling Luke [Lukasz Gottwald], the writer, and we did a totally different song to it. It's now my favorite song on the record. Crappy relationships [make for] a good song.\"", "\"Behind These Hazel Eyes\" is a power ballad that was written by Clarkson, Max Martin, and Dr. Luke and produced by the latter two. According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Alfred Publishing, it is set in common time and has a moderate tempo of 90 beats per minute. It is composed in the key of F sharp minor with Clarkson's vocal range spanning over two octaves from F# to F#. The bridge was the only part of the song that was written by Dr. Luke and Martin together with Clarkson face to face. The song begins with Clarkson wailing \"oh oh oh\" over a restless percussion. In the first verse, the music becomes quiet to focus on Clarkson's vocal as she wails \"Seems like just yesterday/You were a part of me/I used to stand so tall/I used to be so strong/Your arms around me tight/Everything it felt so right/Unbreakable like nothing could go wrong.\" During the chorus, the sound of electronic guitar is dominant as she vocalizes \"Here I am/Once again/I’m torn into pieces/Can’t deny it/Can’t pretend/Just thought you were the one/Broken up deep inside/But you won’t get to see the tears I cry/Behind these hazel eyes.\" Gil Kaufman of MTV noticed that the song \"soared on crunchy guitars, driving beats and anthemic, agitated choruses.\" Lyrically, the song narrates the story of a failed relationship which initially started off well. Clarkson regrets having allowed herself to be vulnerable to her ex-boyfriend and she is determined that despite the pain that she feels, he will not get the satisfaction of seeing her cry. Michael Paoletta of \"Billboard\" praised Clarkson's vocal, writing \"Clarkson simply delivers a loose, tour-de-force vocal that simmers alongside a steroid-charged musical backdrop that is fun, fast and furious.\" Scott Juba of The Trade praised the production of the song, writing \"The song’s strong hook pulls listeners in and involves them in the lyrics without ever becoming gimmicky or manipulative.\" He also complimented Clarkson's vocal which \"oscillates between pain and defiance with near pinpoint accuracy.\"", "Elizabeth Scott of Sky Living wrote, \"while Clarkson is doing well musically, her love life still hasn't picked up and she is heartbroken once again. I'm sure the thought of another top ten hit might cheer her up!\" Scott Juba of The Trades considered \"Behind These Hazel Eyes\" as the highlight of the album, writing \"Now that [Clarkson is] a few years older than she was when she recorded her first album, she brings more authenticity to relationship songs.\" Evan Sawdey of \"PopMatters\" compared \"Don't Let Me Stop You\" (2009) with \"Behind These Hazel Eyes\" saying that the former \"may sound like another rewrite of an older Clarkson hit (in this case, \"Behind These Hazel Eyes\"), but the observational lyrics about a questionable relationship are what ultimately makes the whole thing click.\" Charles Merwin of \"Stylus Magazine\" felt that the song should sell records more because \"the entire musical backing drops out to let Clarkson’s voice through to live or die on its own.\" Pam Avoledo of Blogcritics believed that \"Behind These Hazel Eyes\" was superior to the writing of \"Since U Been Gone\", commenting that \"It's punchier, well-written and gives Clarkson a chance to show off her vocal skills without the trendy haughtiness.\" Joe Cross of Cox Communications thought that \"Behind These Hazel Eyes\" was a decent follow-up to \"Since U Been Gone\", saying \"It's no \"Since U Been Gone\" which is just a pop-rock juggernaut, but as follow-ups go, it's not too shabby. Clarkson's down-home everything (well, mostly her looks) sells these little heartbreak haikus exceptionally well.\" He also listed \"Behind These Hazel Eyes\" as one of the 40 songs that defined the summer of 2005. The same sentiment was echoed by Robert Copsey of Digital Spy who considered the song as Clarkson's second best single after \"Since U Been Gone\", writing \"It proved a slow burner at the time of release, but this track's greatness continues to be realised over time.\" \"Behind These Hazel Eyes\" was listed at number five on \"Billboard\" magazine's list of Songs of the Summer of 2005. In 2015, the same publication ranked the song at number four on its list of Top 100 'American Idol' Hits of All Time. It also appeared at number three on the list of Kelly Clarkson's Top 15 Biggest \"Billboard\" Hot 100 Hits. Chris Kal of WKNS ranked \"Behind These Hazel Eyes\" at number four in his list of \"Top 10 Summer Songs From 2005\". Sam Lamsky of PopCrush described the song as \"a surefire fan favorite\" and ranked it at number nine in his list of \"Top 10 Kelly Clarkson songs\". Bill Lamb of About.com put the song at number 62 on his list of \"Top 100 Pop Songs of 2005\". The song was nominated in the category for Song of the Year: Mainstream Hit Radio in the 2005 Radio Music Awards. At the 24th ASCAP Pop Music Awards, the song was honored with the Most Performed Songs award. In January 2010, \"Behind These Hazel Eyes\" was the fifth most played song of the last decade by \"American Idol\" performers. According to Nielsen Broadcast Data Systems, the song has been played 513,149 times through the week ending March 24, 2010.", "\"Behind These Hazel Eyes\" debuted at number eighty-seven on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 on the week ending, April 23, 2005. The song stayed inside the top ten in \"Billboard\" Hot 100 for fifteen weeks before peaking at number six on the week ending June 11, 2005. It consequently held the record as the song with the most weeks in the chart's top ten without hitting the top five, before being surpassed by Rihanna's \"Needed Me\" which spent sixteen weeks in the top ten but only peaked at number seven, eleven years later in 2016. On the week ending May 28, 2005, \"Behind These Hazel Eyes\" jumped from number seven to number three on the \"Billboard\" Pop 100 Airplay chart. With \"Since U Been Gone\" holding steady at number two, the ascent made Clarkson the first artist with two songs in the top three of the chart. The song also appeared on the US Pop Songs at number thirty on the week ending April 30, 2005, and peaked at number two on the week ending July 9, 2005. It spent seven consecutive weeks at number two and was held off the top spot by Mariah Carey's \"We Belong Together\". It became the sixteenth ranked single of the 2000s decade on the Pop Songs chart compiled by \"Billboard\". On the \"Billboard\"s Radio Songs, the song peaked at number four on August 6, 2005. On the week ending August 27, 2005, the song topped the Adult Top 40 and stayed in the position for five consecutive weeks. On January 31, 2008, \"Behind These Hazel Eyes\" was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). The song has sold 1,644,000 digital copies in the United States as of September 2017. Internationally, \"Behind These Hazel Eyes\" was a commercial success. In Australia, the song debuted and peaked at number six on the week ending July 3, 2005. In New Zealand, the song entered New Zealand Singles Chart and peaked at number seven on the week ending July 4, 2005 as the highest debut of the week. In the United Kingdom, the song also debuted and peaked at number nine on the week ending October 1, 2005. In Ireland, the song debuted at number nine on the week ending September 22, 2005, and peaked at number four on the week ending November 3, 2005.", "", "The music video was directed by Joseph Kahn and was produced by Danyi Deats-Barrett. It was shot for two days in April 2005 in Toronto at a Church and a sound stage while Clarkson was on tour. According to Kahn, Clarkson was sick during the production and could not speak. During Clarkson's wardrobe fitting, they communicated together using notes written by her. Though she is seen speaking and is interviewed in the behind the scenes footage. \"Access Hollywood\" reported that a single sprinkler was used to produce rain in the music video. The concept of the music video was conceived by Clarkson. She explained, \"The whole thing is a metaphor about a broken fairy tale [...] You think everything is going well, and then reality kicks your butt. It's kind of a sad video, but it's going to be my best one. It's real, and that's why people like me.\" Clarkson also added that after the production of the music video was completed, she had bruises and a green-and-yellow splotch on her left biceps. The music video premiered online on May 9, 2005, on MTV. On May 16, 2005, it premiered on \"Total Request Live\" where it debuted at number five on the chart the following day. It features a cameo from Renee Young, who would later become known as a sports broadcaster.", "The music video begins with Clarkson standing in a room wearing a white wedding dress. Holding a bouquet of red roses, she is surrounded by her bridesmaids as they prepare for her wedding. She sits down on a sofa and sees a wedding photo of her fiancé with another woman as a storm begins to form outside. The bridesmaids try to close the windows but fail so they run out of the room leaving Clarkson alone, who is seen dropping the bouquet of rose as well as the wedding photo from her hands onto the floor. The next scene shows Clarkson walking down the aisle in a church wearing a black dress. She sees a bride standing at the altar with her fiancé, getting married. When she draws the veil of the bride, she realizes that the bride is the woman from the photo. Clarkson, who is now wearing a white wedding dress, runs out of the church and into a dark swamp. A montage of Clarkson singing with her band in a dark swamp is shown alternately with scenes of Clarkson running in the forest and laying on the ground. Clarkson is also seen standing inside an abandoned house, wearing a voluminous black dress. As the rain starts to fall, Clarkson finally collapses, kneeling on the ground while looking at and being comforted by her other self who is singing with the band. The scene shifts to a present day, where Clarkson is standing at the altar, exchanging vows with her fiancé. Before he puts the ring on her finger, she looks at the guests and notices that the woman from the photo is among the audience. She sees her fiancé exchanging a smile with the woman as the woman blows him a kiss. Clarkson then reaches for the ring and throws it at her fiancé, before running away from the altar. She throws her wedding bouquet into the lap of the woman and shoves her way past the wedding guests who are trying to stop her from leaving. The video ends with Clarkson stepping out the doors into the bright sunlight.", "James Dinh of MTV Newsroom listed \"Behind These Hazel Eyes\" as one of the music videos with \"a bad case of the runaway bride syndrome,\" writing, \"Throughout the clip, Clarkson finds herself running through a swampy mud land until she snaps out of her visions, refuses to proceed with the wedding and makes a shocking escape out of the church.\" Andrea Holmes of AOL ranked \"Behind These Hazel Eyes\" at number five in her list of \"Top Wedding Music Videos: 15 Clips for the Big 'I Do'.\" She commented, \"The perfect illustration of our point about wedding videos, 'Behind These Hazel Eyes' takes an atypical approach to marriage [...] Throughout the video the weather is dark and rainy, matching the story line, but when Clarkson ditches the wedding and runs out of the church, she is greeted with sunshine. Johnni Macke of E! opined that the video was intense, writing \"She is heartbroken and \"torn into pieces\" throughout the video once she discovers her love is marrying someone else and it results in epic cemetery rock sessions and rolling in the mud.\" Lyndsey Parker of Yahoo! Music put the song's music video at number 22 on her list of the best matrimony-themed musical videos of all time. In an interview with MTV, the lead vocalist of Yellowcard, Ryan Key, praised Clarkson in the music video. He said, \"She is so unbelievably gorgeous in that video that is all over TV right now [...] The wet wedding dress and the wet hair and... come on, man! Who knew? She is so hot. She looks so good in it.\" Robert Copsey of Digital Spy opined that the music video is Clarkson's best video to date. The music video had a successful run at \"Total Request Live\" where it topped the chart for 33 days, a record that Clarkson holds for the longest stay by a female artist at number one on the chart.", "\"Behind These Hazel Eyes\" was included in the setlist of Clarkson's Breakaway World Tour (2005). During her concert tour at Germain Arena, Clarkson performed the song wearing the same wedding dress she wore in the song's music video. Clarkson also performed \"Behind These Hazel Eyes\" on her All I Ever Wanted Tour (2009). While touring at Hammerstein Ballroom, New York City, Clarkson sang the stripped down version of the song, accompanied by guitars and vocal. Caryn Ganz of \"Rolling Stone\" felt that Alanis Morissette's influence was evident on the chorus of \"Behind These Hazel Eyes\" which was performed acoustically in the event. Clarkson explained that the arrangement was intended to maximize audience sing-along potential in which Jim Cantiello of MTV thought was effective. In December 2011, Clarkson also performed \"Behind These Hazel Eyes\" on Chicago Theatre as part of the Miracle on State Street benefit concert. Bob Gendron of the \"Chicago Tribune\" reviewed Clarkson's performance, writing \"the Texas native could've impressed simply by projecting her booming voice and relishing its prodigious range. Yet she seemed determined to reinforce female empowerment themes often missing from her mainstream-pop contemporaries' hits.\"", "\"Behind These Hazel Eyes\" was covered by Cassadee Pope in the third season of \"The Voice\". According to Pope, she decided to sing the song in order to reach out to her father who divorced from her mother when she was still 11 years old. Her rendition was praised by Christina Aguilera saying, \"I got to feel your heart.\"", "Credits adapted from the liner notes of \"Breakaway\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History overview.", "Early history.", "Honours.", "Domestic.", "Czechoslovak and Slovak Top Goalscorer.", "Results.", "League and Cup history.", "Rivalries.", "Current squad.", "Reserve team.", "Player records.", "Most goals.", "Notable players." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The first official football match on the territory of present-day Slovakia took place on 25 May 1898 in Eperjes, today's Prešov, that time in Hungary, between two Budapest-based teams, Óbudai TE and Budapesti TC on the initiation of František Pethe, a gymnastic teacher in the local grammar school. On the same day the Eperjesi Torna és Vívó Egyesület (Eperjesi TVE, lit. \"Gymnastic and Fencing Association of Eperjes\") was founded, which is regarded as the first football club of Slovakia. Eperjesi TVE initially competed in the Hungarian league system, achieving its best result in the 1907–08 season, when it won the Northern District Championship. In 1920 Prešov became part of the newly founded Czechoslovakia, subsequently the club competed in the Czechoslovak leagues. Prešov finished in second place in the Czechoslovak First League in 1965 and 1973, finishing the season just one point behind champions Spartak Trnava in the 1972–73 season. In the national cup the team also had success, reaching the final of the Czechoslovak Cup in 1966, where they lost to Dukla Prague and in 1992 where Sparta Prague were victorious. The greatest legend of Tatran's Prešov history is Ladislav Pavlovič. From 1948 until 1966, he netted for Tatran Prešov 150 goals in 309 matches. He also represented Czechoslovakia national football team, where he played 14 matches and scored two goals. In 2013, he was stated to Prešov's Hall of Fame.", "", "Czechoslovakia", "The Czechoslovak League top scorer from 1944 to 1945 until 1992–93. Since the 1993–94 Slovak League Top scorer.", "", "\"Slovak League only (1993–present)\"", "Tatran's biggest rivals are VSS Košice, and the matches between the two teams are referred to as \"Eastern Slovak derby\" (). They also have rivalry with MFK Zemplín Michalovce and FC Spartak Trnava. \"1. FC Tatran Prešov\" supporters maintain friendly relations with fans of the Polish side.", "\"As of 28 July 2019.\" \"For recent transfers, see List of Slovak football transfers winter 2018–19.\"", "1. FC Tatran Prešov juniori was the reserve team of 1. FC Tatran Prešov. They mostly played in the Slovak 3. Liga (Eastern division).", "", "Players whose name is listed in bold are still active.", "Had international caps for their respective countries. Players whose name is listed in bold represented their countries while playing for Tatran. \"For full list, see \"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Work.", "The most important works." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Medek's work initially relies on the tradition of surrealism, later it brings new elements of the spiritual dimension. In 1952, he entered his \"existential period\" with the central theme of the human character in space, and at the turn of the 1950s and 1960s he came to abstract painting. As a result, so-called \"prepared paintings\" of color matter, arranged in the form of surface symbols and rationally distributed color formations have come into being. He brings the theme of the basic question of the meaning of human life directly to the color of its original image-making techniques (emails, etc.). In the last period of his life, he developed imaginative painting and also devoted himself to a book illustration. His work, thanks to non-public exhibitions (so-called \"Confrontation\"), became a model for younger radical artists. After 1960, Medek was allowed to realize some public monumental works, which included the altarpiece of the church in Jedovnice (1963), made together with sculptor Jan Koblasa and the compositions for the interiors of the Czechoslovak office. airlines in Damascus, Košice (1963), Paris (1964), Prague (1969) and New York (1970). The central theme of Medek's work is the theme of human destiny, which is combined with the emotive expression of the intensive experience of the mystical character in an inwardly unified and unusually impressive whole, which speaks to the spectator with extreme urgency. Symbolism of sign systems creates special visual metaphors of human existence in its tragic, painful and mysterious dimensions.", "Medek's works are largely owned by galleries (e.g. Sydney, New York, Amsterdam, Rotterdam, Hamburg, Bochum, Bratislava, Skopje, etc.) or are contained in private collections around the world." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Discovery and species.", "Valid species.", "Classification.", "Palaeobiology.", "Neck posture.", "Physiology.", "Growth.", "Juveniles.", "Tail.", "Paleoecology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Apatosaurus\" was a large, long-necked, quadrupedal animal with a long, whip-like tail. Its forelimbs were slightly shorter than its hindlimbs. Most size estimates are based on specimen CM3018, the type specimen of \"A.louisae\". In 1936 this was measured to be, by measuring the vertebral column. Current estimates are similar, finding that the individual was long and had a mass of. A 2015 study that estimated the mass of volumetric models of \"Dreadnoughtus\", \"Apatosaurus\", and \"Giraffatitan\" estimates CM3018 at, similar in mass to \"Dreadnoughtus\". Past estimates have put the creature's mass as high as. Some specimens of \"A.ajax\" (such as OMNH1670) represent individuals 1130% longer, suggesting masses twice that of CM3018 or, potentially rivalling the largest titanosaurs. The skull is small in relation to the size of the animal. The jaws are lined with spatulate (chisel-like) teeth suited to an herbivorous diet. The snout of \"Apatosaurus\" and similar diplodocoids is squared, with only \"Nigersaurus\" having a squarer skull. The braincase of \"Apatosaurus\" is well preserved in specimen BYU17096, which also preserved much of the skeleton. A phylogenetic analysis found that the braincase had a morphology similar to those of other diplodocoids. Some skulls of \"Apatosaurus\" have been found still in articulation with their teeth. Those teeth that have the enamel surface exposed do not show any scratches on the surface; instead, they display a sugary texture and little wear. Like those of other sauropods, the neck vertebrae are deeply bifurcated; they carried neural spines with a large trough in the middle, resulting in a wide, deep neck. The vertebral formula for the holotype of \"A.louisae\" is 15cervicals, 10dorsals, 5sacrals, and 82caudals. The caudal vertebra number may vary, even within species. The cervical vertebrae of \"Apatosaurus\" and \"Brontosaurus\" are stouter and more robust than those of other diplodocids and were found to be most similar to \"Camarasaurus\" by Charles Whitney Gilmore. In addition, they support cervical ribs that extend farther towards the ground than in diplodocines, and have vertebrae and ribs that are narrower towards the top of the neck, making the neck nearly triangular in cross-section. In \"Apatosaurus louisae\", the atlas-axis complex of the first cervicals is nearly fused. The dorsal ribs are not fused or tightly attached to their vertebrae and are instead loosely articulated. \"Apatosaurus\" has ten dorsal ribs on either side of the body. The large neck was filled with an extensive system of weight-saving air sacs. \"Apatosaurus\", like its close relative \"Supersaurus\", has tall neural spines, which make up more than half the height of the individual bones of its vertebrae. The shape of the tail is unusual for a diplodocid; it is comparatively slender because of the rapidly decreasing height of the vertebral spines with increasing distance from the hips. \"Apatosaurus\" also had very long ribs compared to most other diplodocids, giving it an unusually deep chest. As in other diplodocids, the tail transformed into a whip-like structure towards the end. The limb bones are also very robust. Within Apatosaurinae, the scapula of \"Apatosaurus louisae\" is intermediate in morphology between those of \"A.ajax\" and \"Brontosaurus excelsus\". The arm bones are stout, so the humerus of \"Apatosaurus\" resembles that of \"Camarasaurus\", as well as \"Brontosaurus\". However, the humeri of \"Brontosaurus\" and \"A.ajax\" are more similar to each other than they are to \"A.louisae\". In 1936 Charles Gilmore noted that previous reconstructions of \"Apatosaurus\" forelimbs erroneously proposed that the radius and ulna could cross; in life they would have remained parallel. \"Apatosaurus\" had a single large claw on each forelimb, a feature shared by all sauropods more derived than \"Shunosaurus\". The first three toes had claws on each hindlimb. The phalangeal formula is 2-1-1-1-1, meaning the innermost finger (phalanx) on the forelimb has two bones and the next has one. The single manual claw bone (ungual) is slightly curved and squarely truncated on the anterior end. The pelvic girdle includes the robust ilia, and the fused (co-ossified) pubes and ischia. The femora of \"Apatosaurus\" are very stout and represent some of the most robust femora of any member of Sauropoda. The tibia and fibula bones are different from the slender bones of \"Diplodocus\" but are nearly indistinguishable from those of \"Camarasaurus\". The fibula is longer and slenderer than the tibia. The foot of \"Apatosaurus\" has three claws on the innermost digits; the digit formula is 3-4-5-3-2. The first metatarsal is the stoutest, a feature shared among diplodocids.", "The first Apatosaurus bones were discovered by Edward Drinker Cope and the name \"Apatosaurus ajax\" was coined in 1877 by Cope’s rival Othniel Charles Marsh, Professor of Paleontology at Yale University, based on a nearly complete skeleton (holotype, YPM1860) discovered in the eastern foothills of the Rocky Mountains in Gunnison County, Colorado. The composite term \"Apatosaurus\" comes from the Greek words \"apatē\" ()/\"apatēlos\" () meaning \"deception\"/\"deceptive\", and \"sauros\" () meaning \"lizard\"; thus, \"deceptive lizard\". Marsh gave it this name based on the chevron bones, which are dissimilar to those of other dinosaurs; instead, the chevron bones of \"Apatosaurus\" showed similarities with those of mosasaurs. During excavation and transportation, the bones of the holotype skeleton were mixed with those of another \"Apatosaurus\" individual originally described as \"Atlantosaurus immanis\"; as a consequence, some elements cannot be ascribed to either specimen with confidence. Marsh distinguished the new genus \"Apatosaurus\" from \"Atlantosaurus\" on the basis of the number of sacral vertebrae, with \"Apatosaurus\" possessing three and \"Atlantosaurus\" four. Two years later, Marsh announced the discovery of a larger and more complete specimen at Como Bluff, Wyoming. He gave this specimen a new name based on the conventions of his age and the relatively sparse fossil record available at that time. It was later recognised that the features he had used to distinguish genera and species were in fact more widespread among sauropods. He named the new species \"Brontosaurus excelsus\". All specimens currently considered \"Apatosaurus\" were from the Morrison Formation, the location of the excavations of Marsh and Cope. Another specimen, in the American Museum of Natural History under specimen number460, which is occasionally assigned to \"Apatosaurus\", is considered nearly complete; only the head, feet, and sections of the tail are missing, and it was the first sauropod skeleton mounted. The specimen was found north of Medicine Bow, Wyoming, in 1898 by Walter Granger, and took the entire summer to extract. To complete the mount, sauropod feet that were discovered at the same quarry and a tail fashioned to appear as Marsh believed it shouldbut which had too few vertebraewere added. In addition, a sculpted model of what the museum thought the skull of this massive creature might look like was made. This was not a delicate skull like that of \"Diplodocus\"which was later found to be more accuratebut was based on \"the biggest, thickest, strongest skull bones, lower jaws and tooth crowns from three different quarries\". These skulls were likely those of \"Camarasaurus\", the only other sauropod for which good skull material was known at the time. The mount construction was overseen by Adam Hermann, who failed to find \"Apatosaurus\" skulls. Hermann was forced to sculpt a stand-in skull by hand. Osborn said in a publication that the skull was \"largely conjectural and based on that of \"Morosaurus\"\" (now \"Camarasaurus\"). In 1903 Elmer Riggs published a study that described a well-preserved skeleton of a diplodocid from the Grand River Valley near Fruita, Colorado, Field Museum of Natural History specimen P25112. Riggs thought that the deposits were similar in age to those of the Como Bluff in Wyoming from which Marsh had described \"Brontosaurus\". Most of the skeleton was found, and after comparison with both \"Brontosaurus\" and \"Apatosaurus ajax\", Riggs realized that the holotype of \"A.ajax\" was immature, and thus the features distinguishing the genera were not valid. Since \"Apatosaurus\" was the earlier name, \"Brontosaurus\" should be considered a junior synonym of \"Apatosaurus\". Because of this, Riggs recombined \"Brontosaurus excelsus\" as \"Apatosaurus excelsus\". Based on comparisons with other species proposed to belong to \"Apatosaurus\", Riggs also determined that the Field Columbian Museum specimen was likely most similar to \"A.excelsus\". Despite Riggs' publication, Henry Fairfield Osborn, who was a strong opponent of Marsh and his taxa, labeled the \"Apatosaurus\" mount of the American Museum of Natural History \"Brontosaurus\". Because of this decision the name \"Brontosaurus\" was commonly used outside of scientific literature for what Riggs considered \"Apatosaurus\", and the museum's popularity meant that \"Brontosaurus\" became one of the best known dinosaurs, even though it was invalid throughout nearly all of the 20th and early 21st centuries. It was not until 1909 that an \"Apatosaurus\" skull was found during the first expedition, led by Earl Douglass, to what would become known as the Carnegie Quarry at Dinosaur National Monument. The skull was found a short distance from a skeleton (specimen CM3018) identified as the new species \"Apatosaurus louisae\", named after Louise Carnegie, wife of Andrew Carnegie, who funded field research to find complete dinosaur skeletons in the American West. The skull was designated CM11162; it was very similar to the skull of \"Diplodocus\". Another smaller skeleton of \"A.louisae\" was found nearby CM11162 and CM3018. The skull was accepted as belonging to the \"Apatosaurus\" specimen by Douglass and Carnegie Museum director William H. Holland, although other scientistsmost notably Osbornrejected this identification. Holland defended his view in 1914 in an address to the Paleontological Society of America, yet he left the Carnegie Museum mount headless. While some thought Holland was attempting to avoid conflict with Osborn, others suspected Holland was waiting until an articulated skull and neck were found to confirm the association of the skull and skeleton. After Holland's death in 1934, museum staff placed a cast of a \"Camarasaurus\" skull on the mount. While most other museums were using cast or sculpted \"Camarasaurus\" skulls on \"Apatosaurus\" mounts, the Yale Peabody Museum decided to sculpt a skull based on the lower jaw of a \"Camarasaurus\", with the cranium based on Marsh's 1891 illustration of the skull. The skull also included forward-pointing nasalssomething unusual for any dinosaurand fenestrae differing from both the drawing and other skulls. No \"Apatosaurus\" skull was mentioned in literature until the 1970s when John Stanton McIntosh and David Berman redescribed the skulls of \"Diplodocus\" and \"Apatosaurus\". They found that though he never published his opinion, Holland was almost certainly correct, that \"Apatosaurus\" had a \"Diplodocus\"-like skull. According to them, many skulls long thought to pertain to \"Diplodocus\" might instead be those of \"Apatosaurus\". They reassigned multiple skulls to \"Apatosaurus\" based on associated and closely associated vertebrae. Even though they supported Holland, it was noted that \"Apatosaurus\" might have possessed a \"Camarasaurus\"-like skull, based on a disarticulated \"Camarasaurus\"-like tooth found at the precise site where an \"Apatosaurus\" specimen was found years before. On October20, 1979, after the publications by McIntosh and Berman, the first true skull of \"Apatosaurus\" was mounted on a skeleton in a museum, that of the Carnegie. In 1998 it was suggested that the Felch Quarry skull that Marsh had included in his 1896 skeletal restoration instead belonged to \"Brachiosaurus\". In 2011 the first specimen of \"Apatosaurus\" where a skull was found articulated with its cervical vertebrae was described. This specimen, CMCVP7180, was found to differ in both skull and neck features from \"A.louisae\", but shared many features of the cervical vertebrae with \"A.ajax\". Another well-preserved skull is Brigham Young University specimen 17096, a well-preserved skull and skeleton, with a preserved braincase. The specimen was found in Cactus Park Quarry in western Colorado. Almost all modern paleontologists agreed with Riggs that the two dinosaurs should be classified together in a single genus. According to the rules of the ICZN (which governs the scientific names of animals), the name \"Apatosaurus\", having been published first, has priority as the official name; \"Brontosaurus\" was considered a junior synonym and was therefore long discarded from formal use. Despite this, at least one paleontologistRobert T. Bakkerargued in the 1990s that \"A.ajax\" and \"A.excelsus\" were in fact sufficiently distinct for the latter to merit a separate genus. In 2015 Emanuel Tschopp, Octávio Mateus, and Roger Benson released a paper on diplodocoid systematics, and proposed that genera could be diagnosed by thirteen differing characters, and species separated based on six. The minimum number for generic separation was chosen based on the fact that \"A.ajax\" and \"A.louisae\" differ in twelve characters, and \"Diplodocus carnegiei\" and \"D.hallorum\" differ in eleven characters. Thus, thirteen characters were chosen to validate the separation of genera. The six differing features for specific separation were chosen by counting the number of differing features in separate specimens generally agreed to represent one species, with only one differing character in \"D.carnegiei\" and \"A.louisae\", but five differing features in \"B.excelsus\". Therefore, Tschopp etal. argued that \"Apatosaurus excelsus\", originally classified as \"Brontosaurus excelsus\", had enough morphological differences from other species of \"Apatosaurus\" that it warranted being reclassified as a separate genus again. The conclusion was based on a comparison of 477 morphological characteristics across 81 different dinosaur individuals. Among the many notable differences are the widerand presumably strongerneck of \"Apatosaurus\" species compared to \"B.excelsus\". Other species previously assigned to \"Apatosaurus\", such as \"Elosaurus parvus\" and \"Eobrontosaurus yahnahpin\" were also reclassified as \"Brontosaurus\". Some features proposed to separate \"Brontosaurus\" from \"Apatosaurus\" include: posterior dorsal vertebrae with the centrum longer than wide; the scapula rear to the acromial edge and the distal blade being excavated; the acromial edge of the distal scapular blade bearing a rounded expansion; and the ratio of the proximodistal length to transverse breadth of the astragalus 0.55 or greater. Sauropod expert Michael Daniel D'Emic pointed out that the criteria chosen were to an extent arbitrary and that they would require abandoning the name \"Brontosaurus\" again if newer analyses obtained different results. Mammal palaeontologist Donald Prothero criticized the mass media reaction to this study as superficial and premature, concluding that he would keep \"Brontosaurus\" in quotes and not treat the name as a valid genus.", "Many species of \"Apatosaurus\" have been designated from scant material. Marsh named as many species as he could, which resulted in many being based upon fragmentary and indistinguishable remains. In 2005 Paul Upchurch and colleagues published a study that analyzed the species and specimen relationships of \"Apatosaurus\". They found that \"A.louisae\" was the most basal species, followed by FMNHP25112, and then a polytomy of \"A.ajax\", \"A.parvus\", and \"A.excelsus\". Their analysis was revised and expanded with many additional diplodocid specimens in 2015, which resolved the relationships of \"Apatosaurus\" slightly differently, and also supported separating \"Brontosaurus\" from \"Apatosaurus\". The cladogram below is the result of an analysis by Tschopp, Mateus, and Benson (2015). The authors analyzed most diplodocid type specimens separately to deduce which specimen belonged to which species and genus.", "\"Apatosaurus\" is a member of the family Diplodocidae, a clade of gigantic sauropod dinosaurs. The family includes some of the longest creatures ever to walk the earth, including \"Diplodocus\", \"Supersaurus\", and \"Barosaurus\". \"Apatosaurus\" is sometimes classified in the subfamily Apatosaurinae, which may also include \"Suuwassea\", \"Supersaurus\", and \"Brontosaurus\". Othniel Charles Marsh described \"Apatosaurus\" as allied to \"Atlantosaurus\" within the now-defunct group Atlantosauridae. In 1878 Marsh raised his family to the rank of suborder, including \"Apatosaurus\", \"Atlantosaurus\", \"Morosaurus\" (=\"Camarasaurus\") and \"Diplodocus\". He classified this group within Sauropoda, a group he erected in the same study. In 1903 Elmer S. Riggs said the name Sauropoda would be a junior synonym of earlier names; he grouped \"Apatosaurus\" within Opisthocoelia. Sauropoda is still used as the group name. In 2011, John Whitlock published a study that placed \"Apatosaurus\" a more basal diplodocid, sometimes less basal than \"Supersaurus\". Cladogram of the Diplodocidae after Tschopp, Mateus, and Benson (2015).", "It was believed throughout the 19th and early 20th centuries that sauropods like \"Apatosaurus\" were too massive to support their own weight on dry land. It was theorized that they lived partly submerged in water, perhaps in swamps. More recent findings do not support this; sauropods are now thought to have been fully terrestrial animals. A study of diplodocid snouts showed that the square snout, large proportion of pits, and fine, subparallel scratches of the teeth of \"Apatosaurus\" suggests it was a ground-height, nonselective browser. It may have eaten ferns, cycadeoids, seed ferns, horsetails, and algae. Stevens and Parish (2005) speculate that these sauropods fed from riverbanks on submerged water plants. A 2015 study of the necks of \"Apatosaurus\" and \"Brontosaurus\" found many differences between them and other diplodocids, and that these variations may have shown that the necks of \"Apatosaurus\" and \"Brontosaurus\" were used for intraspecific combat. Various uses for the single claw on the forelimb of sauropods have been proposed. One suggestion is that they were used for defense, but their shape and size make this unlikely. It was also possible they were for feeding, but the most probable use for the claw was grasping objects such as tree trunks when rearing. Trackways of sauropods like \"Apatosaurus\" show that they may have had a range of around per day, and that they could potentially have reached a top speed of per hour. The slow locomotion of sauropods may be due to their minimal muscling, or to recoil after strides. A trackway of a juvenile has led some to believe that they were capable of bipedalism, though this is disputed.", "Diplodocids like \"Apatosaurus\" are often portrayed with their necks held high up in the air, allowing them to browse on tall trees. Some studies state diplodocid necks were less flexible than previously believed, because the structure of the neck vertebrae would not have allowed the neck to bend far upwards, and that sauropods like \"Apatosaurus\" were adapted to low browsing or ground feeding. Other studies by Taylor find that all tetrapods appear to hold their necks at the maximum possible vertical extension when in a normal, alert posture; they argue the same would hold true for sauropods barring any unknown, unique characteristics that set the soft tissue anatomy of their necks apart from that of other animals. \"Apatosaurus\", like \"Diplodocus\", would have held its neck angled upwards with the head pointing downwards in a resting posture. Kent Stevens and Michael Parrish (1999 and 2005) state \"Apatosaurus\" had a great feeding range; its neck could bend into a U-shape laterally. The neck's range of movement would have also allowed the head to feed at the level of the feet. Matthew Cobley et al. (2013) dispute this, finding that large muscles and cartilage would have limited movement of the neck. They state the feeding ranges for sauropods like \"Diplodocus\" were smaller than previously believed, and the animals may have had to move their whole bodies around to better access areas where they could browse vegetation. As such, they might have spent more time foraging to meet their minimum energy needs. The conclusions of Cobley etal. are disputed by Taylor, who analyzed the amount and positioning of intervertebral cartilage to determine the flexibility of the neck of \"Apatosaurus\" and \"Diplodocus\". He found that the neck of \"Apatosaurus\" was very flexible.", "Given the large body mass and long neck of sauropods like \"Apatosaurus\", physiologists have encountered problems determining how these animals breathed. Beginning with the assumption that, like crocodilians, \"Apatosaurus\" did not have a diaphragm, the dead-space volume (the amount of unused air remaining in the mouth, trachea, and air tubes after each breath) has been estimated at about for a specimen. Paladino calculates its tidal volume (the amount of air moved in or out during a single breath) at with an avian respiratory system, if mammalian, and if reptilian. On this basis, its respiratory system would likely have been parabronchi, with multiple pulmonary air sacs as in avian lungs, and a flow-through lung. An avian respiratory system would need a lung volume of about compared with a mammalian requirement of, which would exceed the space available. The overall thoracic volume of \"Apatosaurus\" has been estimated at, allowing for a, four-chambered heart and a lung capacity. That would allow about for the necessary tissue. Evidence for the avian system in \"Apatosaurus\" and other sauropods is also present in the pneumaticity of the vertebrae. Though this plays a role in reducing the weight of the animal, Wedel (2003) states they are also likely connected to air sacs, as in birds. James Spotila et al. (1991) concludes that the large body size of sauropods would have made them unable to maintain high metabolic rates because they would not have been able to release enough heat. They assumed sauropods had a reptilian respiratory system. Wedel says that an avian system would have allowed it to dump more heat. Some scientists state that the heart would have had trouble sustaining sufficient blood pressure to oxygenate the brain. Others suggest that the near-horizontal posture of the head and neck would have eliminated the problem of supplying blood to the brain because it would not have been elevated. James Farlow (1987) calculates that an \"Apatosaurus\"-sized dinosaur about would have possessed of fermentation contents. Assuming \"Apatosaurus\" had an avian respiratory system and a reptilian resting-metabolism, Frank Paladino etal. (1997) estimate the animal would have needed to consume only about of water per day.", "A 1999 microscopic study of \"Apatosaurus\" and \"Brontosaurus\" bones concluded the animals grew rapidly when young and reached near-adult sizes in about 10years. In 2008, a study on the growth rates of sauropods was published by Thomas Lehman and Holly Woodward. They said that by using growth lines and length-to-mass ratios, \"Apatosaurus\" would have grown to 25t (25 long tons; 28 short tons) in 15years, with growth peaking at in a single year. An alternative method, using limb length and body mass, found \"Apatosaurus\" grew per year, and reached its full mass before it was about 70years old. These estimates have been called unreliable because the calculation methods are not sound; old growth lines would have been obliterated by bone remodelling. One of the first identified growth factors of \"Apatosaurus\" was the number of sacral vertebrae, which increased to five by the time of the creature's maturity. This was first noted in 1903 and again in 1936. Long-bone histology enables researchers to estimate the age that a specific individual reached. A study by Eva Griebeler etal. (2013) examined long-bone histological data and concluded the \"Apatosaurus\" sp.SMA0014 weighed, reached sexual maturity at 21years, and died aged 28. The same growth model indicated \"Apatosaurus\" sp.BYU 601–17328 weighed, reached sexual maturity at 19years, and died aged 31.", "Compared with most sauropods, a relatively large amount of juvenile material is known from \"Apatosaurus\". Multiple specimens in the OMNH are from juveniles of an undetermined species of \"Apatosaurus\"; this material includes partial shoulder and pelvic girdles, some vertebrae, and limb bones. OMNH juvenile material is from at least two different age groups and based on overlapping bones likely comes from more than three individuals. The specimens exhibit features that distinguish \"Apatosaurus\" from its relatives, and thus likely belong to the genus. Juvenile sauropods tend to have proportionally shorter necks and tails, and a more pronounced forelimb-hindlimb disparity than found in adult sauropods.", "An article published in 1997 reported research of the mechanics of \"Apatosaurus\" tails by Nathan Myhrvold and paleontologist Philip J. Currie. Myhrvold carried out a computer simulation of the tail, which in diplodocids like \"Apatosaurus\" was a very long, tapering structure resembling a bullwhip. This computer modeling suggested diplodocids were capable of producing a whiplike cracking sound of over 200 decibels, comparable to the volume of a cannon being fired. A pathology has been identified on the tail of \"Apatosaurus\", caused by a growth defect. Two caudal vertebrae are seamlessly fused along the entire articulating surface of the bone, including the arches of the neural spines. This defect might have been caused by the lack or inhibition of the substance that forms intervertebral disks or joints. It has been proposed that the whips could have been used in combat and defense, but the tails of diplodocids were quite light and narrow compared to \"Shunosaurus\" and mamenchisaurids, and thus to injure another animal with the tail would severely injure the tail itself.", "The Morrison Formation is a sequence of shallow marine and alluvial sediments which, according to radiometric dating, dates from between 156.3mya at its base, and 146.8mya at the top, placing it in the late Oxfordian, Kimmeridgian, and early Tithonian stages of the Late Jurassic period. This formation is interpreted as originating in a locally semiarid environment with distinct wet and dry seasons. The Morrison Basin, where dinosaurs lived, stretched from New Mexico to Alberta and Saskatchewan; it was formed when the precursors to the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains started pushing up to the west. The deposits from their east-facing drainage basins were carried by streams and rivers and deposited in swampy lowlands, lakes, river channels, and floodplains. This formation is similar in age to the Lourinhã Formation in Portugal and the Tendaguru Formation in Tanzania. \"Apatosaurus\" was the second most common sauropod in the Morrison Formation ecosystem, after \"Camarasaurus\". \"Apatosaurus\" may have been more solitary than other Morrison Formation dinosaurs. Fossils of the genus have only been found in the upper levels of the formation. Those of \"Apatosaurus ajax\" are known exclusively from the upper Brushy Basin Member, about 152–151 mya. \"A.louisae\" fossils are rare, known only from one site in the upper Brushy Basin Member; they date to the late Kimmeridgian stage, about 151mya. Additional \"Apatosaurus\" remains are known from similarly aged or slightly younger rocks, but they have not been identified as any particular species, and thus may instead belong to \"Brontosaurus\". The Morrison Formation records a time when the local environment was dominated by gigantic sauropod dinosaurs. Dinosaurs known from the Morrison Formation include the theropods \"Allosaurus\", \"Ceratosaurus\", \"Ornitholestes\", \"Saurophaganax\", and \"Torvosaurus\"; the sauropods \"Brontosaurus\", \"Brachiosaurus\", \"Camarasaurus\", and \"Diplodocus\"; and the ornithischians \"Camptosaurus\", \"Dryosaurus\", and \"Stegosaurus\". \"Apatosaurus\" is commonly found at the same sites as \"Allosaurus\", \"Camarasaurus\", \"Diplodocus\", and \"Stegosaurus\". \"Allosaurus\" accounted for 70–75% of theropod specimens and was at the top trophic level of the Morrison food web. Many of the dinosaurs of the Morrison Formation are of the same genera as those seen in Portuguese rocks of the Lourinhã Formationmainly \"Allosaurus\", \"Ceratosaurus\", and \"Torvosaurus\"or have a close counterpart\"Brachiosaurus\" and \"Lusotitan\", \"Camptosaurus\" and \"Draconyx\", and \"Apatosaurus\" and \"Dinheirosaurus\". Other vertebrates that are known to have shared this paleo-environment include ray-finned fishes, frogs, salamanders, turtles, sphenodonts, lizards, terrestrial and aquatic crocodylomorphans, and several species of pterosaur. Shells of bivalves and aquatic snails are also common. The flora of the period has been evidenced in fossils of green algae, fungi, mosses, horsetails, cycads, ginkgoes, and several families of conifers. Vegetation varied from river-lining forests of tree ferns with fern understory (gallery forests), to fern savannas with occasional trees such as the \"Araucaria\"-like conifer \"Brachyphyllum\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "\"Czechoslovak Photography From 1915 to the 1960s\"." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Medková was born in Ústí nad Orlicí. Her father was a typographer and her mother was a seamstress. The family moved to Prague, where, in 1942, Emila began to attend the class of the landscape photographer Josef Ehm at a specialized photography school in the Smíchov district of Prague. Her work has been directly linked to Surrealism. In the early period, she joined a circle of young artists centered around Karel Teige. From 1947 to 1951, she and Mikuláš Medek created collections of staged photographs. She married him on 12 September 1951. From the early 1950s, she focused on creating several loosely overlapping thematic cycles that went through her whole career, up to her death. At the turn of the 1950s and 1960s, she became a leading exponent of the Czech Informel photography. Although she found inspiration mainly in Prague, she created extensive photographic cycles of Paris (1966) and Italy (1967). The life and work of Medková were covered in a monograph designed by art historians Karel Srp and Lenka Bydžovská, curators of her first comprehensive exhibition, held in 2001. Medková gave only one interview in her life. It was initiated by the renowned art historian Anna Fárová and published in 1976 in the magazine \"Československá fotografie\" (Czechoslovak Photography). After the death of her husband (Medek died in 1974), she suffered a stroke and was partially paralyzed. She died in Prague.", "From 10 June to 31 August 1992 the Jacques Baruch Gallery in Chicago showed an exhibit called \"Czechoslovak Photography From 1915 to the 1960s.” It showed 90 images by 16 photographers with a range of renown and obscurity. Emila Medkova is significant in that she was the only female entry in this male-dominated show." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Administrative and municipal status.", "Economy.", "Climate." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Ainu have been known to inhabit the present site of Kurilsk since the 2nd millennium BCE, with their settlement known as Shana, and under Russian rule as Syana (). Russian colonists first appeared on Iturup in the late 18th century, with the Japanese erecting a military post in 1800. Tensions between Russian and Japanese colonists in the area led to the Treaty of Shimoda, which saw the southern Kuril Islands officially placed under Japanese rule in 1855, remaining so until the end of World War II. Under Japanese administration that ended in 1945, the village of Shana was the central settlement of the island. As of August 15, 1945, the population of the village was 1,001. In 1947, the village was given its present name and granted town status by the Soviets. All Japanese villagers were exiled; however, the Japanese do not recognize it to have been legally dissolved and the city office of Nemuro in Hokkaido takes care of its family registry.", "Within the framework of administrative divisions, Kurilsk serves as the administrative center of Kurilsky District and is subordinated to it. As a municipal division, the town of Kurilsk and six rural localities of Kurilsky District are incorporated as Kurilsky Urban Okrug.", "Kurilsk is a center for fishing and fish farming, particularly salmon. A tsunami warning station is also located in the town.", "Remarkably for its relatively southerly latitude, Kurilsk has a humid continental climate (Köppen \"Dfb\") that almost qualifies as a subarctic climate owing to the powerful influence of the cold Oyashio Current which makes summers exceptionally cool. Unlike most subarctic climates, however, the winters are fairly mild and there is no permafrost. Precipitation, as with all the Kuril Islands, is very heavy owing to the influence of the Aleutian Low, though Kurilsk is a little less wet than Yuzhno-Kurilsk because of its westerly aspect which tends to shelter it from cyclonic storms originating over the Pacific. The climate actually resembles the subpolar oceanic climate of the Aleutian Islands more than the climate of interior Siberia, but the mean February temperature of is well beyond the threshold of oceanic climates. <div style=\"width:82%;\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Relationships.", "Hospice.", "Marriage.", "Charitable organisation.", "Medical ethics.", "Total pain.", "Death.", "Biography." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Saunders was born in Barnet, Hertfordshire, to Philip Gordon Saunders, a chartered surveyor and landowner, and Mary Christian Knight. She had two younger brothers, John Frederick Stacey Saunders and Christopher Gordon Strode Saunders. After attending Roedean School (1932–37), Saunders began studying politics, philosophy, and economics at St Anne's College, Oxford in 1938. During the war, she decided to become a nurse and trained at Nightingale School of Nursing based at St Thomas's Hospital from 1940–44. Returning to St Anne's College after a back injury in 1944, she took a BA in 1945, qualifying as a medical social worker in 1947 and eventually trained as a doctor at St Thomas's Hospital Medical School (now merged to form King's College London GKT School of Medical Education) and qualified MBBS in 1957.", "In 1948, Saunders fell in love with a patient, Ela Majer \"David\" Tasma, a Polish-Jewish refugee who, having escaped from the Warsaw Ghetto, worked as a waiter; he was dying of cancer. He bequeathed her £500 () to be \"a window in your home\". This donation, which helped germinate the idea that would become St Christopher's Hospice, Sydenham, London, is memorialized with a plain sheet of glass at the hospice's entrance. While training for social work, she holidayed with some Christians and was converted to Christianity. In the late 1940s, Saunders began working part-time at St Luke's Home for the Dying Poor in Bayswater, and it was partly this which, in 1951, led her to begin studying to become a physician.", "A year later, she began working at St Joseph's Hospice, a Catholic establishment in Hackney, East London, where she would remain for seven years, researching pain control. There she met a second Pole, Antoni Michniewicz, a patient with whom she fell in love. His death, in 1960, coincided with the death of Saunders's father in 1961, and another friend, and put her into what she later called a state of \"pathological grieving\". But she had already decided to set up her own hospice, serving cancer patients, and said that Michniewicz's death had shown her that \"as the body becomes weaker, so the spirit becomes stronger\". Saunders said that after 11 years of thinking about the project, she had drawn up a comprehensive plan and sought finance after reading Psalm 37: \"Commit thy way unto the Lord; trust also in him; and he shall bring it to pass.\" She succeeded in engaging the support of Albertine Winner, the deputy chief medical officer at the Ministry of Health at the time. Later, as Dame Albertine Winner, she served as chair of St Christopher's. In 1965, Saunders was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire. In 1967, St Christopher's Hospice, the world's first purpose-built hospice, was established. The hospice was founded on the principles of combining teaching and clinical research, expert pain and symptom relief with holistic care to meet the physical, social, psychological and spiritual needs of its patients and those of their family and friends. St Christopher’s Hospice was developed based on a care philosophy that \"you matter because you are you, you matter to the last moment of your life\", and approach requiring specialist care which led to a new medical specialty – palliative care – that could be adapted to different situations. Research shows that St Christopher's was quite different to hospitals in the 1960s, designed and managed as a \"home from home\" where the physical environment was important. It was a place where patients could garden, write, talk – and get their hair done. There was always, Saunders would emphasize, so much more to be done, and she worked in this spirit as its medical director from 1967, and then, from 1985, as its chairperson, a post she occupied until 2000 when she became president. Saunders was an Anglican. In 1977, she was awarded an honorary Lambeth doctorate by the Archbishop of Canterbury. She later was made a Dame of the Order of St Gregory the Great (awarded by the Pope) In 1979, she was appointed Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE). In 1981 she was awarded the Templeton Prize, the world's highest-value annual prize awarded to an individual. In 1989, she was appointed to the Order of Merit. In 2001, she received the world's largest humanitarian award, the Conrad N. Hilton Humanitarian Prize, on behalf of St Christopher's. On 25 April 2005, another portrait of Saunders was unveiled at the National Portrait Gallery. Saunders was one of the subjects of Prime Minister Gordon Brown's book: \"\". She was a Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, a Fellow of the Royal College of Nursing and a Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons. St Christopher's includes an arts team that provides art therapy, music therapy, drama therapy and community arts. The work of the arts team is reflected in two publications: \"End of Life Care: A Guide for Therapists, Artists and Arts Therapists\" and \"The Creative Arts in Palliative Care\".", "In 1963, three years after the death of Michniewicz, Saunders became familiar with the paintings of Marian Bohusz-Szyszko, a Polish émigré and professor with a degree in fine art. They met and became friends, and she became a patron of his art. A substantial amount of his work is hung at St Christopher's Hospice. Bohusz-Szyszko had a long-estranged wife in Poland, whom he supported, and was a devout Roman Catholic. In 1980, five years after the death of his wife, he married Saunders. She was 61 and he was 79. Bohusz-Szyszko died in 1995, at the age of 94, spending his last days at St Christopher's Hospice.", "In 2002, Saunders co-founded a new charitable organisation, Cicely Saunders International, of which she was the founding trustee and president. The charity's mission is to promote research to improve the care and treatment of all patients with progressive illness and to make high-quality palliative care available to everyone who needs it – hospice, hospital or home. The charity has co-created the world's first purpose built institute of palliative care – the Cicely Saunders Institute, and supported research to improve the management of symptoms such as breathlessness, action to meet more closely patient and family choice in palliative care and better support for older people. Cicely Saunder's obituary in the Royal College of Physicians of London's Munk's Roll collection contains further information about her work with this organisation.", "Saunders was instrumental in the history of UK medical ethics. She was an advisor to Andrew Mephem whose report led the Rev. Edward Shotter to set up the London Medical Group, a forerunner of the Society for the Study of Medical Ethics, later the Institute of Medical Ethics. She gave one of the first LMG lectures on the subject of pain, developing the talk into \"The Nature and Management of Terminal pain\" by 1972. This went on to be one of the most often repeated and requested lectures of the LMG and other such Medical Groups that sprung up around Great Britain, where it was often given as their inaugural lecture. Her talk on the care of the dying patient was printed by the LMG in its series 'Documentation in Medical Ethics, a forerunner of the Journal of Medical Ethics.", "Saunders introduced the idea of \"total pain\", which included physical, emotional, social, and spiritual distress.", "Saunders developed breast cancer but still continued to work. She died aged 87 in 2005 at St Christopher's Hospice. To mark what would have been her 100th birthday, Google honoured her with a Google Doodle.", "She is the subject of a biography, \"Cicely Saunders: A Life and Legacy\", published in 2018 to mark the 100th anniversary of her birth." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Family members.", "Andrea Amati.", "Antonio and Girolamo Amati.", "Nicolo Amati.", "Girolamo Amati (Hieronymus II).", "Extant Amati instruments.", "United Kingdom." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Andrea Amati (December 20,1577) designed and created the violin, viola and cello known as the \"violin family\". He standardized the basic form, shape, size, materials and method of construction. Makers from nearby Brescia experimented, such as Gasparo da Salò, Micheli, Zanetto and Pellegrino, but it was Andrea Amati in Cremona, Italy, who gave the modern violin family their definitive profile. The first violin was ordered by Lorenzo de' Medici in 1555. His letter to Amati stated the instrument was to be \"made of the highest quality materials like that of a lute, but simple to play\". What became of this first violin is not known. A number of his instruments survived for some time, dating between 1538 (Amati made the first Cello called \"The King\" in 1538 [1]) and 1574. The largest number these are from 1560, a set for an entire orchestra of 38 ordered by Catherine de Médicis the regent queen of France and bore hand painted royal French decorations in gold including the motto and coat of arms of her son Charles IX of France. Of these 38 instruments ordered, Amati created violins of two sizes, violas of two sizes and large-sized cellos. They were in use until the French revolution of 1789 and only 14 of these instruments survived. His work is marked by selection of the finest materials, great elegance in execution, soft clear amber, soft translucent varnish, and an in depth use of acoustic and geometrical principles in design.", "Andrea Amati was succeeded by his sons Antonio Amati (–1607) and Girolamo Amati (–1630). \"The Brothers Amati\", as they were known, implemented far-reaching innovations in design, including the perfection of the shape of the f-holes. They are also thought to have pioneered the modern alto format of viola, in contrast to older tenor violas, but the widespread belief that they were the first ones to do so is incorrect given that Gasparo da Salo made violas ranging from altos of 39 cm to tenors of 44.7 cm.", "Nicolò Amati (December 3, 1596April 12, 1684) was the son of Girolamo Amati. He was the most eminent of the family. He improved the model adopted by the rest of the Amatis and produced instruments capable of yielding greater power of tone. His pattern was unusually small, but he also made a wider model now known as the \"Grand Amati\", which have become his most sought-after violins. Of his pupils, the most famous were Antonio Stradivari and Andrea Guarneri, the first of the Guarneri family of violin makers. (There is much controversy regarding the apprenticeship of Antonio Stradivari. While the label on Stradivari's first known violin states that he was a pupil of Amati, the validity of his statement is questioned.)", "The last maker of the family was Nicolò's son, Girolamo Amati, known as Hieronymus II (February 26, 1649February 21, 1740). He improved the arching of his father's instruments.", "", "Instruments in the UK include Andrea Amati violins from the set delivered to Charles IX of France in 1564." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Benz's first factory and early inventions (1871–1882).", "Benz's Gasmotoren-Fabrik Mannheim (1882–1883).", "Benz and Cie. and the Benz Patent Motorwagen.", "Bertha Benz's long-distance drive.", "Benz and Cie. expansion.", "Blitzen Benz.", "Benz Söhne (1906–1923).", "Toward Daimler-Benz and the first Mercedes-Benz in 1926.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Karl Benz was born Karl Friedrich Michael Vaillant, on 25 November 1844 in Mühlburg, now a borough of Karlsruhe, Baden-Württemberg, which is part of modern (Germany), to Josephine Vaillant and a locomotive driver, Johann Georg Benz, whom she married a few months later. According to German law, the child acquired the name \"Benz\" by legal marriage of his parents Benz and Vaillant. When he was two years old, his father died of pneumonia, and his name was changed to Karl Friedrich Benz in remembrance of his father. Despite living in near poverty, his mother strove to give him a good education. Benz attended the local Grammar School in Karlsruhe and was a prodigious student. In 1853, at the age of nine he started at the scientifically oriented Lyceum. Next he studied at the Poly-Technical University under the instruction of Ferdinand Redtenbacher. Benz had originally focused his studies on locksmithing, but he eventually followed his father's steps toward locomotive engineering. On 30 September 1860, at age 15, he passed the entrance exam for mechanical engineering at the University of Karlsruhe, which he subsequently attended. Benz graduated 9 July 1864 aged 19. Following his formal education, Benz had seven years of professional training in several companies, but did not fit well in any of them. The training started in Karlsruhe with two years of varied jobs in a mechanical engineering company. He then moved to Mannheim to work as a draftsman and designer in a scales factory. In 1868 he went to Pforzheim to work for a bridge building company \"Gebrüder Benckiser Eisenwerke und Maschinenfabrik\". Finally, he went to Vienna for a short period to work at an iron construction company.", "In 1871, at the age of twenty-seven, Karl Benz joined August Ritter in launching the Iron Foundry and Mechanical Workshop in Mannheim, later renamed Factory for Machines for Sheet-metal Working. The enterprise's first year went very badly. Ritter turned out to be unreliable, and the business's tools were impounded. The difficulty was overcome when Benz's fiancée, Bertha Ringer, bought out Ritter's share in the company using her dowry. On 20 July 1872, Karl Benz and Bertha Ringer married. They had five children: Eugen (1873), Richard (1874), Clara (1877), Thilde (1882), and Ellen (1890). Despite the business misfortunes, Karl Benz led in the development of new engines in the early factory he and his wife owned. To get more revenues, in 1878 he began to work on new patents. First, he concentrated all his efforts on creating a reliable petrol two-stroke engine. Benz finished his two-stroke engine on 31 December 1879, New Year's Eve, and was granted a patent for it in 28 June 1880. Karl Benz showed his real genius, however, through his successive inventions registered while designing what would become the production standard for his two-stroke engine. Benz soon patented the speed regulation system, the ignition using sparks with battery, the spark plug, the carburetor, the clutch, the gear shift, and the water radiator.", "Problems arose again when the banks at Mannheim demanded that Bertha and Karl Benz's enterprise be incorporated due to the high production costs it maintained. The Benzes were forced to improvise an association with photographer Emil Bühler and his brother (a cheese merchant), to get additional bank support. The company became the joint-stock company \"Gasmotoren Fabrik Mannheim\" in 1882. After all the necessary incorporation agreements, Benz was unhappy because he was left with merely five percent of the shares and a modest position as director. Worst of all, his ideas weren't considered when designing new products, so he withdrew from that corporation just one year later, in 1883.", "Benz's lifelong hobby brought him to a bicycle repair shop in Mannheim owned by Max Rose and Friedrich Wilhelm Eßlinger. In 1883, the three founded a new company producing industrial machines: \"Benz & Companie Rheinische Gasmotoren-Fabrik\", usually referred to as \"Benz & Cie.\" Quickly growing to twenty-five employees, it soon began to produce static gas engines as well. The success of the company gave Benz the opportunity to indulge in his old passion of designing a \"horseless carriage\". Based on his experience with, and fondness for, bicycles, he used similar technology when he created an automobile. It featured wire wheels (unlike carriages' wooden ones) It was the first automobile entirely designed as such to generate its own power, not simply a motorized stage coach or horse carriage, which is why Karl Benz was granted his patent and is regarded as its inventor. The Motorwagen was patented on 29 January 1886 as DRP-37435: \"automobile fueled by gas\". The 1885 version was difficult to control, leading to a collision with a wall during a public demonstration. The first successful tests on public roads were carried out in the early summer of 1886. The next year Benz created the Motorwagen Model 2, which had several modifications, and in 1889, the definitive Model 3 with wooden wheels was introduced, showing at the Paris Expo the same year. Benz began to sell the vehicle (advertising it as \"\"Benz Patent Motorwagen\"\") in the late summer of 1888, making it the first commercially available automobile in history. The second customer of the Motorwagen was a Parisian bicycle manufacturer Emile Roger, who had already been building Benz engines under license from Karl Benz for several years. Roger added the Benz automobiles (many built in France) to the line he carried in Paris and initially most were sold there. The early 1888 version of the Motorwagen had only two gears and could not climb hills unaided. This limitation was rectified after Bertha Benz made her famous trip driving one of the vehicles a great distance and suggested to her husband the addition of a third gear for climbing hills. In the course of this trip she also invented brake pads.", "The world's first ever long distance automobile trip was undertaken by Bertha Benz using a Model 3. On the morning of 5 August 1888 Bertha – supposedly without the knowledge of her husband – took the vehicle on a trip from Mannheim to Pforzheim to visit her mother, taking her sons Eugen and Richard with her. In addition to having to locate pharmacies along the way to refuel, she repaired various technical and mechanical problems. One of these included the invention of brake lining; after some longer downhill slopes she ordered a shoemaker to nail leather onto the brake blocks. Bertha Benz and sons finally arrived at nightfall, announcing the achievement to Karl by telegram. It had been her intention to demonstrate the feasibility of using the Benz Motorwagen for travel and to generate publicity in the manner now referred to as live marketing. Today, the event is celebrated every two years in Germany with an antique automobile rally. In 2008, the Bertha Benz Memorial Route was officially approved as a route of the industrial heritage of mankind, because it follows Bertha Benz's tracks of the world's first long-distance journey by automobile in 1888. The public can now follow the 194 km of signposted route from Mannheim via Heidelberg to Pforzheim (Black Forest) and back. The return trip – which didn't go through Heidelberg – was along a different, slightly shorter route, as shown on the maps of the Bertha Benz Memorial Route. Benz's Model 3 made its wide-scale debut to the world in the 1889 World's Fair in Paris; about twenty-five Motorwagens were built between 1886 and 1893.", "The great demand for static internal combustion engines forced Karl Benz to enlarge the factory in Mannheim, and in 1886 a new building located on Waldhofstrasse (operating until 1908) was added. \"Benz & Cie.\" had grown in the interim from 50 employees in 1889 to 430 in 1899. During the last years of the nineteenth century, \"Benz\" was the largest automobile company in the world with 572 units produced in 1899. Because of its size, in 1899, \"Benz & Cie.\" became a joint-stock company with the arrival of Friedrich von Fischer and Julius Ganß, who came aboard as members of the Board of Management. Ganß worked in the commercialization department, which is somewhat similar to marketing in contemporary corporations. The new directors recommended that Benz should create a less expensive automobile suitable for mass production. In 1893, Karl Benz created the \"Victoria\", a two-passenger automobile with a engine, which could reach the top speed of and had a pivotal front axle operated by a roller-chained tiller for steering. The model was successful with 85 units sold in 1893. The Benz \"Velo\" also participated in the world's first automobile race, the 1894 Paris to Rouen, where Émile Roger finished 14th, after covering the in 10 hours 01-minute at an average speed of. In 1895, Benz designed the first truck with an internal combustion engine in history. Benz also built the first motor buses in history in 1895, for the \"Netphener\" bus company. In 1896, Karl Benz was granted a patent for his design of the first flat engine. It had horizontally opposed pistons, a design in which the corresponding pistons reach top dead centre simultaneously, thus balancing each other with respect to momentum. Flat engines with four or fewer cylinders are most commonly called boxer engines, \"boxermotor\" in German, and also are known as \"horizontally opposed engines\". This design is still used by Porsche, Subaru, and some high performance engines used in racing cars. In motorcycles, the most famous boxer engine is found in BMW Motorrad, though the boxer engine design was used in many other models, including Victoria, Harley-Davidson XA, Zündapp, Wooler, Douglas Dragonfly, Ratier, Universal, IMZ-Ural, Dnepr, Gnome et Rhône, Chang Jiang, Marusho, and the Honda Gold Wing. Although Gottlieb Daimler died in March 1900—and there is no evidence that Benz and Daimler knew each other nor that they knew about each other's early achievements—eventually, competition with Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft (DMG) in Stuttgart began to challenge the leadership of Benz & Cie. In October 1900, the main designer of DMG, Wilhelm Maybach, built the engine that would later be used in the \"Mercedes-35hp\" of 1902. The engine was built to the specifications of Emil Jellinek under a contract for him to purchase thirty-six vehicles with the engine, and for him to become a dealer of the special series. Jellinek stipulated the new engine be named Daimler-\"Mercedes\" (for his daughter). Maybach would quit DMG in 1907, but he designed the model and all of the important changes. After testing, the first was delivered to Jellinek on 22 December 1900. Jellinek continued to make suggestions for changes to the model and obtained good results racing the automobile in the next few years, encouraging DMG to engage in commercial production of automobiles, which they did in 1902. Benz countered with \"Parsifil\", introduced in 1903 with a vertical twin engine that achieved a top speed of. Then, without consulting Benz, the other directors hired some French designers. France was a country with an extensive automobile industry based on Maybach's creations. Because of this action, after difficult discussions, Karl Benz announced his retirement from design management on 24 January 1903, although he remained as director on the Board of Management through its merger with DMG in 1926 and, remained on the board of the new Daimler-Benz corporation until his death in 1929. He was inducted into the Automotive Hall of Fame in 1984 and the European Automotive Hall of Fame. Benz's sons Eugen and Richard left Benz & Cie. in 1903, but Richard returned to the company in 1904 as the designer of passenger vehicles. That year, sales of Benz & Cie. reached 3,480 automobiles, and the company remained the leading manufacturer of automobiles. Along with continuing as a director of Benz & Cie., Karl Benz would soon found another company, \"C. Benz Söhne\", (with his son Eugen and closely held within the family), a privately held company for manufacturing automobiles. The brand name used the first initial of the French variant of Benz's first name, \"Carl\".", "In 1909, the \"Blitzen Benz\" was built in Mannheim by Benz & Cie. The bird-beaked vehicle had a 21.5-liter (1312ci), engine, and on 9 November 1909 in the hands of Victor Hémery of France, the land speed racer at Brooklands, set a record of 226.91 km/h (141.94 mph), said to be \"faster than any plane, train, or automobile\" at the time, a record that was not exceeded for ten years by any other vehicle. It was transported to several countries, including the United States, to establish multiple records of this achievement.", "Karl Benz, Bertha Benz, and their son, Eugen, moved east of Mannheim to live in nearby Ladenburg, and solely with their own capital, founded the private company, C. Benz Sons (German: \"Benz Söhne\") in 1906, producing automobiles and gas engines. The latter type was replaced by petrol engines because of lack of demand. This company never issued stocks publicly, building its own line of automobiles independently from Benz & Cie., which was located in Mannheim. The \"Benz Sons\" automobiles were of good quality and became popular in London as taxis. In 1912, Karl Benz liquidated all of his shares in Benz Sons and left the family-held company in Ladenburg to Eugen and Richard, but he remained as a director of Benz & Cie. During a birthday celebration for him in his home town of Karlsruhe on 25 November 1914, the seventy-year-old Karl Benz was awarded an honorary doctorate by his alma mater, the \"Karlsruhe University\", thereby becoming—Dr. Ing. h. c. Karl Benz. Almost from the very beginning of the production of automobiles, participation in sports car racing became a major method to gain publicity for manufacturers. At first, the production models were raced and the Benz \"Velo\" participated in the first automobile race: Paris to Rouen 1894. Later, investment in developing racecars for motorsports produced returns through sales generated by the association of the name of the automobile with the winners. Unique race vehicles were built at the time such as the first mid-engine and aerodynamically designed, \"Tropfenwagen\", a \"teardrop\" body introduced at the 1923 European Grand Prix at Monza. In the last production year of the \"Benz Sons\" company, 1923, three hundred and fifty units were built. During the following year, 1924, Karl Benz built two additional 8/25 hp units of the automobile manufactured by this company, tailored for his personal use, which he never sold; they are still preserved.", "The German economic crisis worsened. In 1923 \"Benz & Cie.\" produced only 1,382 units in Mannheim, and \"DMG\" made only 1,020 in Stuttgart. The average cost of an automobile was 25 million marks because of rapid inflation. Negotiations between the two companies resumed and in 1924 they signed an \"Agreement of Mutual Interest\" valid until the year 2000. Both enterprises standardized design, production, purchasing, sales, and advertising—marketing their automobile models jointly—although keeping their respective brands. On 28 June 1926, Benz & Cie. and DMG finally merged as the \"Daimler-Benz\" company, baptizing all of its automobiles, \"Mercedes-Benz\", honoring the most important model of the DMG automobiles, the 1902 \"Mercedes 35 hp\", along with the Benz name. The name of that DMG model had been selected after ten-year-old Mercédès Jellinek, the daughter of Emil Jellinek who had set the specifications for the new model. Between 1900 and 1909 he was a member of DMG's board of management, however had resigned long before the merger. Karl Benz was a member of the new \"Daimler-Benz\" board of management for the remainder of his life. A new logo was created in 1926, consisting of a three pointed star (representing Daimler's motto: \"\"engines for land, air, and water\"\") surrounded by traditional laurels from the Benz logo, and the brand of all of its automobiles was labeled \"Mercedes-Benz\". Model names would follow the brand name in the same convention as today. The next year, 1927, the number of units sold tripled to 7,918 and the diesel line was launched for truck production. In 1928, the \"Mercedes-Benz SSK\" was presented. On 4 April 1929, Karl Benz died at home in Ladenburg at the age of eighty-four from a bronchial inflammation. Until her death on 5 May 1944, Bertha Benz continued to reside in their last home. Members of the family resided in the home for thirty more years. The Benz home now has been designated as historic and is used as a scientific meeting facility for a nonprofit foundation, the \"Gottlieb Daimler and Karl Benz Foundation\", that honors both Bertha and Karl Benz for their roles in the history of automobiles.", "In 2011, a dramatized television movie about the life of Karl and Bertha Benz was made named \"Carl & Bertha\" which premiered on 11 May and was aired by Das Erste on 23 May. A trailer of the movie and a \"making of\" special were released on YouTube." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Taxonomy and genetics.", "Natural history.", "Ecology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Research has shown the use of these subspecies designations is questionable. Complete colour intergradation occurs between white and dark morphs of the species with intermediately coloured populations, called Fannin sheep (\"O. d. fannini\"), found in the Pelly Mountains and Ogilvie Mountains of the Yukon Territory. mitochondrial DNA evidence has shown no molecular division along current subspecies boundaries, although evidence from nuclear DNA may provide some support. Also at the species level, current taxonomy is questionable because hybridization between \"O. dalli\" and \"O. canadensis\" has been recorded in recent evolutionary history. The species name, \"dalli,\" is derived from William Healey Dall (1845–1927), an American naturalist. The common name Dall sheep or Dall's sheep is often used to refer to the species \"O. dalli\". An alternative use of common name terminology is that thinhorn sheep refers to the species \"O. dalli\", while Dall's sheep and Stone's sheep refer to subspecies \"O. d. dalli\" and \"O. d. stonei\", respectively.", "", "The sheep inhabit the subarctic mountain ranges of Alaska, the Yukon Territory, the Mackenzie Mountains in the western Northwest Territories, and central and northern British Columbia. Dall sheep are found in relatively dry country and try to stay in a special combination of open alpine ridges, meadows, and steep slopes with extremely rugged ground in the immediate vicinity, to allow escape from predators that cannot travel quickly through such terrain. Male Dall sheep have thick, curling horns. The females have shorter, more slender, slightly curved horns. Males live in bands which seldom associate with female groups except during the mating season in late November and early December. Lambs are born in May. During the summer when food is abundant, the sheep eat a wide variety of plants. The winter diet is much more limited, and consists primarily of dry, frozen grass and sedge stems available when snow is blown off, lichen, and moss. Many Dall sheep populations visit mineral licks during the spring, and often travel many miles to eat the soil around the licks. Primary predators of this sheep are wolf packs, coyotes, black bears, and grizzly bears; golden eagles are predators of the young. The Dall sheep has been known to butt gray wolves off the face of cliffs. Dall sheep can often be observed along the Alaska Highway at Muncho Lake in British Columbia, along the Seward Highway South of Anchorage, AK, within Denali National Park and Preserve (which was created in 1917 to preserve Dall sheep from overhunting), at Sheep Mountain in Kluane National Park and Reserve and near Faro, Yukon (Fannin's sheep)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Administrative and municipal status.", "Economy.", "Climate." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Ainu are the original inhabitants of Paramushir, which came under the control of the Russian Empire in the mid-18th century. Russian sovereignty was initially confirmed under the terms of the Treaty of Shimoda in 1855, but the island was transferred to the Empire of Japan per the Treaty of Saint Petersburg in 1875. The Japanese established a settlement, Kashiwabara, on the site of the largest Ainu village (Ottomai), which became the major port on the island, and a center for the commercial fishing industry, particularly for herring. The village was named for the captain of the survey vessel \"Iwaki\", which charted the coasts of the island in 1875. The village had the northernmost post office in Japan. During World War II Kashiwabara was strongly garrisoned by the Imperial Japanese Army and served as the headquarters of the IJA 91st Infantry Division. Kashiwabara Airfield was established in the outskirts of the village, and numerous fortifications and gun emplacements were built. The area was subject to sporadic air raids from the US Army Air Force and US Navy based in the Aleutian Islands from 1943 until the end of the war. During the Invasion of the Kuril Islands, Soviet forces landed on Paramushir on August 18, 1945, and combat operations continued through August 23, ending with the surrender of the surviving members of the Japanese garrison. The Soviets forcibly deported the remaining Japanese civilian inhabitants and sent the prisoners of war to labor camps. Kashiwabara was renamed Severo-Kurilsk (\"Northern Kuril Town\") and the island annexed by the Soviet Union in 1946. On November 5, 1952 the town was completely destroyed by the 1952 Severo-Kurilsk tsunami, with at least 2,336 of the town's 6,000 inhabitants killed. Severo-Kurilsk was rebuilt on higher ground, and the population soon rose above its original level, however in the years since the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the associated economic crisis of the 1990s, the town's population has again declined. The surrounding area has some remaining Japanese fortifications visible. On 25 March 2020, an earthquake of magnitude 7.5 struck near the town of Severo-Kurilsk.", "Within the framework of administrative divisions, Severo-Kurilsk serves as the administrative center of Severo-Kurilsky District and is subordinated to it. As a municipal division, the town of Severo-Kurilsk and one rural locality of Severo-Kurilsky District are incorporated as Severo-Kurilsky Urban Okrug.", "Commercial fishing is virtually the only industry in the town.", "Severo-Kurilsk has a subarctic climate (Köppen \"Dfc\"). The monthly average temperature is greater than 10 degrees Celsius only in August and September. Due to the influence of the cold current of the Oyashio current, it is cold and humid all year round. The annual precipitation is more than five times that of Siberia." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Administrative and municipal status.", "Climate.", "Transportation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The history of Yuzhno-Kurilsk is connected with the history of the Kuril Islands as a whole. In Russia, the Kuril Islands first became known after an expedition by Russian explorer Ivan Moskvitin and his companions, after which another explorer Kolobov in 1646 talked of the Ainus—the indigenous inhabitants of the Kuriles. According to some Japanese sources, Kunashir became known to Russians later than the other islands of the Kuril chain. After that, the Kuriles, Sakhalin, and Hokkaido were explored and settled both by the Russians and Japanese. By the end of the 18th century, first settlements of Russian exiles and volunteers appeared on the Kuriles. Also, along with Ainu settlements, the islands had a Japanese trading post and fortified settlements with military garrisons. In 1769, Lieutenant Ivan Chyorny was informed that the Japanese on Kunashir had founded a settlement with a fortress and a permanent garrison. Weakened by the Crimean War, in 1855 Russia signed the Treaty of Shimoda and ceded a part of the South Kuril Islands to Japan, including the island of Kunashir. The Japanese predecessor of Yuzhno-Kurilsk, the village of Furukamappu (), was located in the northeastern corner of the eponymous bay. Furukamappu, with the neighboring villages of Okinokotan and Isoyanbetsu had fifty houses. There was a post office with the telegraph and shops. When the island was administered by Japan (1855–1945), other settlements were founded as well. Kunashir came back under the Russian rule on September 1, 1945, as a result of the Kuril landing operation. A Platoon of the Machine Gun Battalion of the 113th Infantry Brigade of the 87th Infantry Corps of the 2nd Far Eastern Front landed near Furukamappu. On the shore there was a Japanese battalion commander waiting for them with a white flag in hands. The Japanese garrison surrendered without a fight. On February 2, 1946 the island was included in the Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk (Sakhalin) Oblast of the USSR, and the village of Yuzhno-Kurilsk was founded. The first Yuzhno-Kurilsk City Council and all the services of civil authority were formed from members of the 113th Infantry Brigade. Captain Babukhadiya, an artillery division battery commander, became the first chairman of the regional executive committee. After World War II, active construction was launched using Soviet military forces. Japanese prisoners of war who were kept on Kunashir in a separate camp were also used for the construction. Japanese prisoners of war were given the same rations as Soviet soldiers. The Japanese wore their uniform with their own insignia, were divided into platoons and companies with their commanders in the lead. They moved around in formation, abided by strict discipline and order according to the statutes of the Japanese army (if it posed no harm to the Soviet side). According to the decision of the Soviet Government, in the summer of 1947 all the Japanese people were repatriated from the Kuril Islands to Hokkaido, Japan. By that time Kunashir was settled by many immigrants and seasonal workers from various regions of the Soviet Union. Fisheries based on Kunashir and Shikotan began to increase their production output and revenues. After the 1953 tsunami, many Yuzhno-Kurilsk public facilities had to be rebuilt above the previous level. After the 1994 earthquake in the open sea to the east of the island of Hokkaido, the buildings sustained extensive damage and were rebuilt at a new location. After a period of uncertainty and decline in the 1990s, largely caused by the fears that the island was going to be ceded to Japan, Yuzhno-Kurilsk gradually began to revive. A Federal Program for the Development of the Kuril Islands involves a significant investment to build a new airport, roads and other facilities on the island.", "Within the framework of administrative divisions, Yuzhno-Kurilsk serves as the administrative center of Yuzhno-Kurilsky District and is subordinated to it. As a municipal division, the urban-type settlement of Yuzhno-Kurilsk and nine rural localities of Yuzhno-Kurilsky District are incorporated as Yuzhno-Kurilsky Urban Okrug.", "Yuzhno-Kurilsk has a humid continental climate (Köppen \"Dfb\") with strong influences from the North Pacific Ocean and Sea of Okhotsk. However, precipitation is much heavier than in most humid-continental climates, owing to the presence of strong onshore winds from the Pacific Ocean. However, these also make the whole Kuril Islands archipelago extremely cloudy, especially in summer, when fog from the cold Oyashio Current produces near-saturation humidity and extremely high cloudiness. However, Yuzhno-Kurilsk itself is less affected than areas like Simushir in the Kuril Islands to the northeast, because it is somewhat shielded from fog by nearby Japan's Shiretoko and Nemuro Peninsulas and actually receives more sunshine than Wakkanai and only marginally less than Sapporo. In Yuzhno-Kurilsk, with powerful oceanic and marine influences (producing strong seasonal lag), average monthly temperatures are lowest in February, and highest in August, but warmer in September than July, suggesting the year's highest average temperatures occur in late August - exceptionally late in the year, relative to the rest of the Northern Hemisphere. Average monthly precipitation is lowest in February, and highest in September - the latter resulting in part from tropical weather systems, including former typhoons approaching from over or near Japan to the southwest, and bringing high winds and heavy rains. Maritime influences are also reflected in summer temperatures here being much lower than in comparable latitudes in the interior of Asia; for example, the warmest month at Yuzhno-Kurilsk is cooler than at Vladivostok and cooler than in Harbin. Due to its less cold winters, these differences even out during the course of the year, but Yuzhno-Kurilsk has a colder climate annually than Genoa, Italy on the exact same latitude. In winter, Yuzhno-Kurilsk lies in a sharp transition zone between pulses of frigid air from the Siberian High centered over northeastern Russia during winter, and the much milder (but still chilly), wet and stormy Aleutian Low over the North Pacific Ocean to the east and northeast. In summer, clouds, fog and cooling influence from the Sea of Okhotsk and Oyashio Current predominate. Combined over the year, these features produce an exceptionally cold climate for a marine area for this near 44 degrees north-latitude location.", "Aurora Airlines operates flights to and from Yuzhno-Sakhalinsk 3 times per week, out of Mendeleyevo Airport (ICAO: UHSM), located 20 kilometers outside Yuzhno-Kurilsk. One or two times every month in summer, there is a ferry service connecting to Korsakov on Sakhalin island." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "The Exhibition Palace and original amateur club (1854–1905).", "Birth of the professional club and playing at the FA Cup Final venue (1905–20).", "Into the Football League (1920–58).", "Historic Real Madrid visit and promotion to the top flight (1958–73).", "Bouncing between the divisions (1973–84).", "Steve Coppell years (1984–93).", "The yo-yo years (1993–98).", "Financial crisis (1998–2010).", "Established back in the Premier League (2010–present).", "Colours and crest.", "Stadium.", "Support base.", "Rivalries.", "Ownership.", "Statistics and records.", "Notable former players.", "Crystal Palace \"Centenary XI\".", "In popular culture.", "Crystal Palace Women." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "In 1854, the Crystal Palace Exhibition building had been relocated from Hyde Park, London and rebuilt in an area of South London next to Sydenham Hill. This area was renamed Crystal Palace which included the Crystal Palace Park that surrounded the site where various sports facilities were built. The Crystal Palace Company who owned the exhibition building founded the Crystal Palace Club in 1857 to play cricket before turning their attention to football. It had been lobbied by existing members of the cricket club to provide a continuation of sporting activities during the winter months. The company formed an amateur Crystal Palace football club in 1861. All of", "The professional Crystal Palace football club was formed on 10 September 1905 under the guidance of Aston Villa assistant secretary Edmund Goodman. Palace applied for election to the Football League, but were rejected and the club found itself in the Southern League Second Division for the 1905–06 season. The club was successful in its inaugural season and were promoted to the First Division, crowned as champions. Palace also played in the mid-week", "The club became founder members of the new Football League Third Division in the 1920–21 season, finishing as champions and gaining promotion to the Second Division. This achievement meant they joined Preston North End, Small Heath, Liverpool and Bury as the only clubs to win a championship in their first season as a league club. Palace then moved to the purpose-built stadium Selhurst Park in 1924, which is the ground the club", "The club remained in Division Three South until 1957–58 when the league was restructured which saw clubs in the bottom half of the table merge with those in the bottom half of Division Three North to form a new Fourth Division. Palace finished fourteenth – just below the cut – and found itself in the basement of English football. Their stay was only brief. Palace chairman Arthur Wait appointed the ex-Tottenham manager Arthur Rowe in April 1960, and his exciting style of football was a joy to watch for the Palace fans. The 1960–61 season saw Palace gain promotion and they also achieved distinction in 1962 when they played the great Real Madrid team of that era in an", "After the disappointment of relegation, worse was to follow for the club. Under the management of Allison, Palace were immediately relegated again finding itself back in Division Three for the 1974–75 season. It was also under Allison that the club changed its nickname from \"The Glaziers\" to \"The Eagles\", and ended its association with claret and blue kit colours by deciding to change to the red and blue vertical stripes worn today. Palace enjoyed a run to the semi-finals of the 1975–76 FA Cup, beating Leeds and Chelsea along the way. Allison resigned at the end of the 1975–76", "On 4 June 1984, former Manchester United and England player Steve Coppell who had recently retired from the game due to injury was appointed as manager, and it was under his stewardship and rebuilding that the club achieved promotion via the play-offs back to the First Division in 1988–89. Palace followed this up by reaching the 1990 FA Cup Final, drawing 3–3 with Manchester United after extra-time in the first match but losing the replay 0–1. The club were able to build on this success and the 1990–91 season saw them achieve their highest ever league finish of third place in the top flight. Palace were to be denied a European place at the end of that season", "Alan Smith's first season as manager saw the club win the First Division title and gain promotion back to the Premier League. Their stay on this occasion proved eventful. On 25 January 1995, Palace played Manchester United at Selhurst Park in which Eric Cantona was sent off. He was taunted by Palace fan Matthew Simmons, and retaliated with a flying kick. Cantona was sentenced to two weeks in jail, reduced to 120 hours community service on appeal. Simmons was immediately banned from Selhurst Park, and found guilty on two charges of threatening Cantona. More was to follow in March, when Chris Armstrong was suspended by the FA for failing a drugs test. On the field, Smith guided the club to the semi-finals of both the FA Cup", "Terry Venables returned to Palace for a second spell as manager and the club competed in European competition during the summer when they played in the UEFA Intertoto Cup. Palace then went into administration in 1999, when owner Mark Goldberg was unable to sustain his financial backing of the club. Venables left and Steve Coppell took over again as manager. The club emerged from administration under the ownership of Simon Jordan, and Coppell was replaced as manager by Alan Smith for a second time. Palace were almost relegated in Jordan's first season, in 2000–01. Smith was sacked in April and long-serving coach Steve Kember took over as caretaker manager and managed to win the two remaining fixtures that would guarantee survival, Dougie Freedman scoring the winner in a 1–0 victory over Stockport County in the 87th minute on the final day of the season. Steve Bruce was appointed manager for the 2001–02 season. A good start to the season gave Palace hope for a promotion challenge, but Bruce attempted to walk out on the club after just four months at the helm to take charge of Birmingham City. After", "During the close of the season, CPFC 2010, a consortium consisting of several wealthy fans, successfully negotiated the purchase of the club. They were led by Steve Parish, the vocal representative for the consortium of four that also included Stephen Browett, Jeremy Hosking and Martin Long. Crucially, the consortium also secured the freehold of the ground, and paid tribute to a fans' campaign which helped pressure Lloyds Bank into selling the ground back to the club. The consortium swiftly installed George Burley as the new Palace manager. However a poor start to the season saw the club hovering around the bottom of the table by December. On 1 January 2011, after a 0–3 defeat to Millwall, Burley was sacked and his assistant Dougie Freedman named caretaker manager. Freedman was appointed manager on a full-time basis on 11 January 2011. Palace moved up the table and by securing a 1–1 draw at Hull City on 30 April, the club was", "The original amateur club wore blue and white hooped shirts with blue shorts, although there were variations on this, it is thought their first ever kit in 1861 was light blue and white halves. When the professional Crystal Palace club were formed in 1905, they turned to one of the biggest clubs in the country at the time, Aston Villa, to seek advice. Villa helped the club in a number of ways, not least by donating their kit. As a result, Palace's colours were originally claret and blue shirts paired with white shorts, socks tending to be claret. They kept to this formula fairly consistently until 1938. The 1937–38 strip saw them try vertical stripes of claret and blue on the jersey rather than the claret body and blue sleeves, but in 1938 they decided to abandon the claret and blue and adopt white shirts and black shorts with matching socks. Although they returned to claret and blue from 1949 to 1954, the 1955 season saw them return to white and black, now using claret and blue as trim. There were variations on this theme until 1963 when the club adopted the away strip of yellow jersey as the home colours. In 1964 the club adopted an all-white strip modelled on Real Madrid whom the club had played recently in a friendly, before they returned to claret and blue jerseys with white shorts in 1966. The club continued with variations on this theme up until Malcolm Allison's arrival as manager in 1973. Allison overhauled the club's image, adopting red and blue vertical stripes for colours and kit, inspired by FC Barcelona. Palace have played in variations of red and blue ever since, bar the centenary season of 2005 which saw them deploy a version of their 1971–72 claret, blue and white kit. The club were relatively late in establishing a crest. Although the initials were embroidered onto the shirt from the 1935–36 season, a crest featuring the façade of The Crystal Palace did not appear until 1955. This crest disappeared from the shirt in 1964, and the team's name appeared embroidered on shirts in 1967–72. The year 1972 saw a round badge adopted with the club's initials and nickname \"The Glaziers\" before Allison changed this too. The club's nickname became \"The Eagles\", inspired by Portuguese club Benfica, and the badge adopted an eagle holding a ball. This emblem remained until 1987 when the club married the eagle with the Crystal Palace façade, and although updated in 1996 and again in 2013, the crest retains these features. Since mid-2010, the club has made use of an American bald eagle, called Kayla, as the club mascot, with the bird flying from one end of the stadium to the other at every home game.", "In 1905, the Crystal Palace Company who owned the FA Cup Final venue situated inside the grounds of The Crystal Palace, wanted a professional club to play there and tap into the crowd potential of the area. They formed a new professional Crystal Palace football club to play at the stadium. When the First World War broke out the Palace and grounds were seized by the armed forces, and in 1915 the club were forced to move by the Admiralty. They found a temporary base at the Herne Hill Velodrome. Although other clubs had offered the use of their ground to Palace, the club felt it best to remain as close to their natural catchment area as possible. When Croydon Common F.C. were wound up in 1917, the club took over their old stadium located at the Nest, but in 1919 they began the purchase of the land", "Crystal Palace have a fan base predominantly from the local area which draws on South London, Kent, and Surrey. Their original home, at The Crystal Palace, was on the boundary with Kent, while Selhurst Park was within Surrey's borders until the London Government Act 1963 saw Greater London encompass Croydon. The club's passionate support at home games emanates from the Holmesdale Road Stand, in which the ultras group the Holmesdale Fanatics have been based since 2005. The fans have established at least two other supporters groups. The Palace Independent Supporters' Association was set up to raise supporter concerns with the club, while the Crystal Palace Supporters' Trust was originally established to enable fans to purchase the club during the administration of 2000. The Trust remained in existence, and now lists one of its aims as building \"a new state-of-the-art training ground to lease to the Club\". A number of fanzines have been produced by the fans over the years. \"Eagle Eye\" launched in 1987 and ran until 1994, with a number of contributors launching the replacement \"Palace Echo\" in 1995, running until 2007. \"The Eastern Eagles\", \"So Glad You're Mine\" and \"One More Point\" were also published by fans in the 1990s. When \"One More Point\" ceased publication, \"Five Year Plan\" launched in its place, and maintains an online", "Due to their location in the capital, Crystal Palace are involved in a number of local derbies, mostly across South London. They enjoy rivalries with both Millwall and former tenants Charlton Athletic. They have a long-standing and fierce rivalry with Brighton & Hove Albion which developed", "The Crystal Palace Company formed both the amateur and professional clubs. The first chairman of the professional Crystal Palace club Sydney Bourne was found by club secretary Edmund Goodman after he had examined records of FA Cup Final ticket purchasers. Goodman noted his name as one that had bought a number of tickets every year, and so met with Bourne and found him very agreeable to the idea of the new club. Bourne was invited onto the board of directors and elected chairman at the club's first ever meeting. He remained chairman until his death in 1930. Local businessman Arthur Wait established a consortium of seven other businessmen to purchase the club in 1949, and they initially rotated the chairmanship. In 1958 Wait became the chairman, before being replaced by Raymond Bloye in 1972. Bloye's ownership lasted until 26 January 1981, when property developer Ron Noades and his small consortium took control of the club. Noades eventually sold the club to Mark Goldberg on 5 June 1998, becoming the second longest serving chairman behind Sydney Bourne. Goldberg's tenure of the club was not a success and the club entered administration in March 1999. Although the fans established a group,", "Jim Cannon holds the record for Crystal Palace appearances, having played 660 first-team matches between 1973 and 1988. He also holds the record for most League appearances, making 571. Cannon joined the club as a trainee, and of his appearances only four of them were made as a substitute. His first appearance was made aged 19, scoring in a home win against Chelsea on 31 March 1973. Cannon's last game was on 7 May 1988, a home win against Manchester City. Peter Simpson holds the record for the most goals scored in a season, 54 in the 1930–31 season in Division Three (South). Simpson, who signed for the club from Kettering Town, is also the top scorer over a career – 165 between 1929 and 1935. Wayne Hennessey holds the club record for most international caps. Palace were inaugural champions of the newly formed Third Division in 1920–21, which was also their first ever season in the Football League and so became one of only a small group of clubs to have achieved the feat of winning a Football League Division at the first time of asking. Their average league attendance of 19,092 in the 1960–61 season and the attendance of 37,774 for the Good Friday game at Selhurst", "", "To celebrate the professional Crystal Palace F.C.'s centenary in 2005, the club asked", "In the 1999 Michael Winterbottom film \"Wonderland\", the scenes of the character Dan and his son at a football match were filmed at Selhurst Park during Palace's 1–1 draw against Birmingham City on 6 February 1999. In the Mike Leigh play \"Abigail's Party\", the character Tony mentions that he used to play professionally for Crystal Palace but it \"didn't work out\", something actor John Salthouse brought to the character in rehearsals based on his own life. Salthouse also incorporated the club into the children's television series he wrote, \"Hero to Zero\", in which the father of the main character once played", "Crystal Palace F.C. (Women) is the women's football club affiliated to Crystal Palace, founded in 1992. They are managed by Dean Davenport. The team play in the FA Women's Premier League South, the third tier of English women's football. They play their home games at the Hayes Lane, Bromley, London." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Issues.", "Food contamination.", "Physical contamination.", "Chemical contamination.", "Biological contamination.", "Safe food handling procedures (from market to consumer).", "Incidence.", "Regulations by jurisdiction and agency.", "WHO and FAO.", "Australia.", "China.", "European Union.", "France.", "Germany.", "Greece.", "Hong Kong.", "Hungary.", "India.", "New Zealand.", "Pakistan.", "South Korea.", "Korea Food & Drug Administration.", "National Institute of Food and Drug Safety Evaluation.", "Taiwan.", "Turkey.", "United Kingdom.", "United States.", "Federal level regulation.", "US legislation history.", "State and local regulation.", "Vietnam.", "Manufacturing control.", "HACCP guidelines.", "Consumer labeling.", "United Kingdom.", "United States.", "Australia and New Zealand." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Food safety", "Food contamination happens when food are corrupted with another substance. It can happen In the process of production, transportation, packaging, storage, sales and cooking process. The contamination can be physical, chemical and biological.", "Physical contaminants (or ‘foreign bodies’) are objects such as hair, plant stalks or pieces of plastic and metal. When the foreign object comes into the", "Chemical contamination happens when food is contaminated with a natural or artificial chemical substance. Common sources of chemical contamination can include: pesticides, herbicides, veterinary drugs,", "Biological contamination refers to food that has been contaminated by substances produced by living creatures, such as humans, rodents, pests or microorganisms. This includes bacterial contamination, viral contamination, or parasite contamination that is transferred through saliva, pest droppings, blood or faecal matter. Bacterial contamination is the most common cause of food poisoning worldwide. If an environment is high in starch or protein, water, oxygen, has a neutral pH level, and maintains", "Proper storage, sanitary tools and work spaces, heating and cooling properly and to adequate temperatures, and avoiding contact with other uncooked foods can greatly reduce the chances of contamination. Tightly sealed water and air proof containers are good measures to limit the chances of both physical and biological contamination during storage. Using clean, sanitary surfaces and tools, free of debris, chemicals, standing liquids, and other food types (different than the kind currently being prepared, i.e. mixing vegetables/meats or beef/poultry) can help reduce the chance of all forms of contamination. However, even if all precautions have been taken and the food has been safely prepared and stored, bacteria can still form over time during storage. Food should be consumed within one to seven (1-7) days while it has been stored in a cold environment, or one to twelve (1-12) months if it was in a frozen environment (if it was frozen immediately after preparation). The length of time before a food becomes unsafe to eat depends on the type of food it is, the surrounding environment, and the method with which it is kept out of the danger zone. For example, liquid foods like soup kept in a", "A 2003 World Health Organization (WHO) report concluded that about 30% of reported food poisoning outbreaks in the WHO European", "", "In 1963, the WHO and FAO published the Codex Alimentarius which serves as an guideline to food safety. However, according to Unit 04 - Communication of Health & Consumers Directorate-General of the European Commission (SANCO): \"The Codex, while being recommendations for voluntary application by members, Codex standards serve in many cases as a basis for national legislation. The reference made to Codex food safety standards in the World Trade Organizations' Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary measures (SPS Agreement) means that Codex has far reaching implications for resolving trade disputes. WTO members", "Food Standards Australia New Zealand requires all food businesses to implement food safety systems. These systems are designed to ensure food is safe to consume and halt the increasing incidence of food poisoning, and they include basic food safety training for at least one person in each business. Food safety training is delivered", "Food safety is a growing concern in Chinese agriculture. The Chinese government oversees agricultural production as well as the manufacture of food packaging, containers, chemical additives, drug production, and business regulation. In recent years, the Chinese government attempted to consolidate food regulation with the creation of the State Food and Drug Administration in 2003, and officials have also been under increasing public and international pressure to solve food safety problems. However, it appears that regulations are not well known by the trade. Labels used for \"green\" food, \"organic\" food and \"pollution-free\" food are not well recognized by traders", "The parliament of the European Union (EU) makes legislation in the form of directives and regulations, many of which are mandatory for member states and which therefore must be incorporated into individual countries' national legislation. As a very large organisation that exists to remove barriers to trade between member states, and into which individual member states have only a proportional influence, the outcome is often seen as an excessively bureaucratic 'one size fits all' approach. However, in relation to", "Agence nationale de sécurité sanitaire de l'alimentation, de l'environnement", "The Federal Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Consumer Protection (BMEL) is a Federal Ministry of the Federal Republic of Germany. History: Founded as Federal Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Foresting in 1949, this name did not change until 2001. Then the name changed to Federal Ministry of Consumer Protection, Food and Agriculture. At 22 November 2005, the name got changed again to its current state: Federal Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Consumer Protection. The reason for this last change was that all the resorts should get equal ranking which was achieved by sorting the resorts alphabetically. Vision: A balanced and healthy diet", "In Greece, the Hellenic Food Authority (EFET) governing body supervised by the Ministry of the Environment and Energy (Greek: Υπουργείο Περιβάλλοντος και", "In Hong Kong SAR, the Food and Environmental Hygiene", "In Hungary, the National Food Chain Safety Office controls the food business operators including agricultural", "Food Safety and Standards Authority of India, established under the Food Safety and", "The New Zealand Food Safety Authority (NZFSA), or Te Pou Oranga Kai O Aotearoa is the New Zealand government body responsible for food safety. NZFSA", "The Pure Food Ordinance 1960 consolidates and amends the law in relation to the preparation and the sale of foods. Its aim is to ensure purity of food being supplied to people in the market and, therefore, provides for preventing adulteration.", "", "Korea Food & Drug Administration (KFDA) is working for food safety since 1945. It is part of the Government of South Korea. IOAS-Organic Certification Bodies Registered in KFDA: \"Organic\" or related claims can be labelled on food products when organic certificates are", "National Institute of Food and Drug Safety Evaluation (NIFDS) is functioning as well. The National Institute of Food and Drug Safety Evaluation is a national organization for toxicological tests and research. Under the Korea Food & Drug Administration, the Institute performs research on toxicology, pharmacology, and risk analysis of foods, drugs, and their additives. The Institute strives primarily to understand important biological triggering mechanisms and improve assessment methods of human exposure, sensitivities, and risk by (1) conducting basic, applied, and policy research that closely examines biologically triggering harmful effects on the regulated products such as foods, food additives, and drugs, and operating the national toxicology program for the toxicological test development and inspection of hazardous chemical substances assessments. The Institute ensures safety by investigation and research on safety by its own researchers, contract research by external academicians and research centers.", "In Taiwan, the Ministry of Health and Welfare in charge of Food and Drug Safety, also", "In Turkey, the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, is in charge of food safety and they provide their mission as \"to ensure access to safe food and high-quality agricultural", "In the UK the Food Standards Agency is an independent government department responsible for food safety and hygiene across the UK. They work with businesses to help them produce safe food, and with local authorities to enforce food safety regulations. In 2006 food hygiene legislation changed and new requirements came into force. The main requirement resulting from", "The US food system is regulated by numerous federal, state and local officials. Since 1906 tremendous progress has been made in producing safer foods as can be seen in the section below. Still, it has been criticized as lacking in \"organization, regulatory tools, and not addressing food borne illness.\"", "The Food and Drug Administration publishes the Food Code, a model set of guidelines and procedures that assists food control jurisdictions by providing a scientifically sound technical and legal basis for regulating the retail and food service industries, including restaurants, grocery stores and institutional foodservice providers such as nursing homes. Regulatory agencies at all levels of government in the United States use the FDA Food Code to develop or update food safety rules in their jurisdictions that are consistent with national food regulatory policy. According to the FDA, 48 of 56 states and territories, representing 79% of the US population, have adopted food codes patterned after one of the five versions of the Food Code, beginning with the 1993 edition. In the United States, federal regulations governing food safety are fragmented and", "Recognition of food safety issues and attempts to address them began after Upton Sinclair published the novel \"The Jungle\" in 1906. It was a fictional account of the lives of immigrants in the industrial cities in the US around this time. Sinclair spent nine months undercover as an employee in a Chicago meat plant doing research. The book inadvertently raised public concern about food safety and sanatization of the Chicago meat packing industry. Upon reading \"The Jungle\", President Theodore Roosevelt called on Congress to pass the Pure Food and Drug Act and the Federal Meat Inspection Act (FMIA), which passed in 1906 and 1907 respectively. These laws were the first to address food safety in the US Misbranding and adulteration were defined as they concerned food additives and truth in labeling. Food preservatives such as formaldehyde and borax used to disguise unsanitary production processes were also addressed. The first test and major court battle involving the Pure Food and Drug Act was \"United States v. Forty Barrels & Twenty Kegs of Coca-Cola\", an attempt to outlaw Coca-Cola due to its excessive caffeine content. The Meat Inspection Act led to the formation of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Between 1906 and 1938, acts were created that monitored food coloration additives, and other chemical", "A number of US states have their own meat inspection programs that substitute for USDA inspection for meats that are sold only in-state. Certain state programs have been criticized for undue leniency to bad practices. However, other state food safety programs supplement, rather than replace, Federal inspections, generally with the goal of increasing consumer confidence in the state's produce. For example, state health departments have a role in investigating outbreaks of food-borne disease bacteria, as in the case of the 2006 outbreak of (a pathogenic strain of the ordinarily harmless bacteria, \"E. coli\") from processed spinach. Health departments also promote better food processing practices to eliminate these threats. In addition to the US Food and Drug Administration, several states that are major producers of fresh fruits and vegetables (including California, Arizona and Florida) have their own state programs to test produce for pesticide residues. The food", "The Vietnam Food Administration is reafor managing food hygiene, safety, and quality and has made significant progress since its establishment in 1999. Food safety remains a high priority in Vietnam with the growth of export markets", "", "Meat and Poultry manufacturers are required to have a HACCP plan in accordance with 9 CFR part 417. Juice manufacturers", "", "Foodstuffs in the UK have one of two labels to indicate the nature of the deterioration of the product and any subsequent health issues. EHO Food Hygiene certification is required to prepare and distribute food. While there is no specified expiry date of such a qualification the changes in legislation it is suggested to update every five years. Best before indicates a future date beyond which the food product \"may\" lose quality", "With the exception of infant formula and baby foods which must be withdrawn by their expiration date, Federal law does not require expiration dates. For all other foods, except dairy products in some states, freshness dating is strictly voluntary on the part of manufacturers. In response to consumer demand, perishable foods are typically labelled with a", "Guide to Food Labelling and Other Information Requirements: This guide provides background information on the general labelling requirements in the Code. The information in this guide applies both to food for retail sale and to food for catering purposes. Foods for catering purposes means those foods for use" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Structure.", "Focal Point network.", "Members.", "Observers.", "Journal.", "Criticism.", "Conflicts of interests.", "Misinformation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Based on a regulation of 2002, the EFSA is composed of four bodies: The Management Board sets the budget, approves work programmes, and is responsible for ensuring that EFSA co-operates successfully with partner organisations across the EU and beyond. It is composed of fourteen members appointed by the Council of the European Union in consultation with the European Parliament from a list drawn up by the European Commission, plus one representative of the European Commission. The Executive Director is EFSA's legal representative and is responsible for day-to-day administration, drafting and implementing work programmes, and implementing other decisions adopted by the Management Board. They are appointed by the Management Board. The Advisory Forum advises the Executive Director, in particular in drafting a proposal for the EFSA's work programmes. It is composed of representatives of national bodies responsible for risk assessment in the Member States, with observers from Norway, Iceland, Switzerland and the European Commission. The Scientific Committee and its Scientific Panels provide scientific opinions and advice, each within their own sphere of competence, and are composed of independent scientific experts. The number and names of the Scientific Panels are adapted in the light of technical and scientific development by the European Commission at EFSA's request. The independent scientific experts are appointed by the Management Board upon a proposal from the Executive Director for three-year terms.", "The EFSA cooperates with the national food safety authorities of the 28 EU member states, Iceland and Norway, as well as observers from Switzerland and EU candidate countries, through its Focal Points, who also communicate with research institutes and other stakeholders. They 'assist in the exchange of scientific information and experts, advise on cooperation activities and scientific projects, promote training in risk assessment and raise EFSA’s scientific visibility and outreach in Member States.'", "The following countries' national food safety authorities are members of the EFSA Focal Point network:", "The following countries' national food safety authorities are observers of the EFSA Focal Point network:", "The scientific output of the European Food Safety Authority is published in the \"EFSA Journal\", an open-access, online scientific journal. This concerns risk assessment in relation to food and feed and includes nutrition, animal health and welfare, plant health and plant protection.", "The EFSA has been criticised for its alleged \"overregulation\".", "The EFSA has been criticised, including by the European Court of Auditors in 2012, for \"frequent conflicts of interests\", some of them undeclared. According to Corporate Europe Observatory, in 2013, 58 % of the experts of the agency were in situation of conflict of interests. In 2017, they were still 46 % in situation of conflict of interests.", "EFSA has also been criticised by the NGO CHEM Trust for misrepresenting the results of their expert committee's report on bisphenol A (BPA) in January 2015. EFSA claimed in the abstract, press release and briefing that bisphenol A 'posed no risk' to health, when the expert report actually stated the risk was 'low' when considering aggregate exposure (beyond just food). EFSA later modified the abstract to correct this error, though the press release remains unchanged. EFSA have argued that use of 'no health concern' in their press release and bisphenol A briefing is to ensure these materials are accessible, though this rationale is disputed by CHEM Trust." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Temperature control.", "Packaging.", "Issues associated with sell by / use by dates.", "Enforcement.", "Regulations in Canada.", "Regulations in Hong Kong.", "Regulations in the European Union.", "Regulations in Germany.", "Regulations in the UK.", "Regulation and practices in the United States.", "US federal government guidelines.", "Beer.", "Freshness date.", "Beginnings of freshness dating.", "Related concepts." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Shelf life is the recommended maximum time for which products or fresh (harvested) produce can be stored, during which the defined quality of a specified proportion of the goods remains acceptable under expected (or specified) conditions of distribution, storage and display. According to the USDA, \"canned foods are safe indefinitely as long as they are not exposed to freezing temperatures, or temperatures above 90 °F (32.2° C)\". If the cans look okay, they are safe to use. Discard cans that are dented, rusted, or swollen. High-acid canned foods (tomatoes, fruits) will keep their best quality for 12 to 18 months; low-acid canned foods (meats, vegetables) for 2 to 5 years. \"Sell by date\" is a less ambiguous term for what is often referred to as an \"expiration date\". Most food is still edible after the expiration date. A product that has passed its shelf life might still be safe, but quality is no longer guaranteed. In most food stores, waste is minimized by using stock rotation, which involves moving products with the earliest sell by date from the warehouse to the sales area, and then to the front of the shelf, so that most shoppers will pick them up first and thus they are likely to be sold before the end of their shelf life. Some stores can be fined for selling out of date products; most if not all would have to mark such products down as wasted, resulting in a financial loss. Shelf life depends on the degradation mechanism of the specific product. Most can be influenced by several factors: exposure to light, heat, moisture, transmission of gases, mechanical stresses, and contamination by things such as micro-organisms. Product quality is often mathematically modelled around a parameter (concentration of a chemical compound, a microbiological index, or moisture content). For some foods, health issues are important in determining shelf life. Bacterial contaminants are ubiquitous, and foods left unused too long will often be contaminated by substantial amounts of bacterial colonies and become dangerous to eat, leading to food poisoning. However, shelf life alone is not an accurate indicator of how long the food can safely be stored. For example, pasteurized milk can remain fresh for five days after its sell-by date if it is refrigerated properly. However, improper storage of milk may result in bacterial contamination or spoilage before the expiration date. The expiration date of pharmaceuticals specifies the date the manufacturer guarantees the full potency and safety of a drug. Most medications continue to be effective and safe for a time after the expiration date. A rare exception is a case of renal tubular acidosis purportedly caused by expired tetracycline. A study conducted by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration covered over 100 drugs, prescription and over-the-counter. The study showed that about 90% of them were safe and effective as long as 15 years past their expiration dates. Joel Davis, a former FDA expiration-date compliance chief, said that with a handful of exceptions - notably nitroglycerin, insulin and some liquid antibiotics - most expired drugs are probably effective. Shelf life is not significantly studied during drug development, and drug manufacturers have economic and liability incentives to specify shorter shelf lives so that consumers are encouraged to discard and repurchase products. One major exception is the Shelf Life Extension Program (SLEP) of the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD), which commissioned a major study of drug efficacy from the FDA starting in the mid-1980s. One criticism is that the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) refused to issue guidelines based on SLEP research for normal marketing of pharmaceuticals even though the FDA performed the study. The SLEP and FDA signed a memorandum that scientific data could not be shared with the public, public health departments, other government agencies, and drug manufacturers. State and local programs are not permitted to participate. The failure to share data has caused foreign governments to refuse donations of expired medications. One exception occurred during the 2010 Swine Flu Epidemic when the FDA authorized expired Tamiflu based on SLEP Data. The SLEP discovered that drugs such as Cipro remained effective nine years after their shelf life, and, as a cost-saving measure, the US military routinely uses a wide range of SLEP tested products past their official shelf life if drugs have been stored properly. Preservatives and antioxidants may be incorporated into some food and drug products to extend their shelf life. Some companies use induction sealing and vacuum/oxygen-barrier pouches to assist in the extension of the shelf life of their products where oxygen causes the loss. The DoD Shelf-Life Program defines shelf-life as The total period of time beginning with the date of manufacture, date of cure (for elastomeric and rubber products only), date of assembly, or date of pack (subsistence only), and terminated by the date by which an item must be used (expiration date) or subjected to inspection, test, restoration, or disposal action; or after inspection/laboratory test/restorative action that an item may remain in the combined wholesale (including manufacture's) and retail storage systems and still be suitable for issue or use by the end user. Shelf-life is not to be confused with service-life (defined as, A general term used to quantify the average or standard life expectancy of an item or equipment while in use. When a shelf-life item is unpacked and introduced to mission requirements, installed into intended application, or merely left in storage, placed in pre-expended bins, or held as bench stock, shelf-life management stops and service life begins.) Shelf life is often specified in conjunction with a specific product, package, and distribution system. For example, an MRE field ration is designed to have a shelf life of three years at and six months at.", "Nearly all chemical reactions can occur at normal temperatures (although different reactions proceed at different rates). However most reactions are accelerated by high temperatures, and the degradation of foods and pharmaceuticals is no exception. The same applies to the breakdown of many chemical explosives into more unstable compounds. Nitroglycerine is notorious. Old explosives are thus more dangerous (i.e. liable to be triggered to explode by very small disturbances, even trivial jiggling) than more recently manufactured explosives. Rubber products also degrade as sulphur bonds induced during vulcanization revert; this is why old rubber bands and other rubber products soften and get crispy, and lose their elasticity as they age. The usually quoted rule of thumb is that chemical reactions double their rate for each temperature increase of because activation energy barriers are more easily surmounted at higher temperatures. However, as with many rules of thumb, there are many caveats and exceptions. The rule works best for reactions with activation energy values around 50 kJ/mole; many of these are important at the usual temperatures we encounter. It is often applied in shelf life estimation, sometimes wrongly. There is a widespread impression, for instance in industry, that \"triple time\" can be simulated in practice by increasing the temperature by, e.g., storing a product for one month at simulates three months at. This is mathematically incorrect (if the rule was precisely accurate the required temperature increase would be about ), and in any case the rule is only a rough approximation and cannot always be relied on. The same is true, up to a point, of the chemical reactions of living things. They are usually catalyzed by enzymes which change reaction rates, but with no variation in catalytic action, the rule of thumb is still mostly applicable. In the case of bacteria and fungi, the reactions needed to feed and reproduce speed up at higher temperatures, up to the point that the proteins and other compounds in their cells themselves begin to break down, or denature, so quickly that they cannot be replaced. This is why high temperatures kill bacteria and other micro-organisms: 'tissue' breakdown reactions reach such rates that they cannot be compensated for and the cell dies. On the other hand, 'elevated' temperatures short of these result in increased growth and reproduction; if the organism is harmful, perhaps to dangerous levels. Just as temperature increases speed up reactions, temperature decreases reduce them. Therefore, to make explosives stable for longer periods, or to keep rubber bands springy, or to force bacteria to slow down their growth, they can be cooled. That is why shelf life is generally extended by temperature control: (refrigeration, insulated shipping containers, controlled cold chain, etc.) and why some medicines and foods \"must\" be refrigerated. Since such storing of such goods is temporal in nature and shelf life is dependent on the temperature controlled environment, they are also referred to as cargo even when in special storage to emphasize the inherent time-temperature sensitivity matrix. Temperature data loggers and time temperature indicators can record the temperature history of a shipment to help estimate their remaining shelf life. According to the USDA, \"foods kept frozen continuously are safe indefinitely.\"", "Passive barrier packaging can often help control or extend shelf life by blocking the transmission of deleterious substances, like moisture or oxygen, across the barrier. Active packaging, on the other hand, employs the use of substances that scavenge, capture, or otherwise render harmless deleterious substances. When moisture content is a mechanism for product degradation, packaging with a low moisture vapor transmission rate and the use of desiccants help keep the moisture in the package within acceptable limits. When oxidation is the primary concern, packaging with a low oxygen transmission rate and the use of oxygen absorbers can help extend the shelf life. Produce and other products with respiration often require packaging with controlled barrier properties. The use of a modified atmosphere in the package can extend the shelf life for some products.", "According to the UK Waste & Resources Action Programme (WRAP), 33% percent of all food produced is wasted along the cold chain or by the consumer. At the same time, a large number of people get sick every year due to spoiled food. According to the WHO and CDC, every year in the USA there are 76 million foodborne illnesses, leading to 325,000 hospitalizations and 5,000 deaths. According to former UK minister Hilary Benn, the use by date and sell by dates are old technologies that are outdated and should be replaced by other solutions or disposed of altogether. The UK government's Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs revised guidance in 2011 to exclude the use of sell by dates. The guidance was prepared in consultation with the food industry, consumer groups, regulators, and Waste & Resources Action Programme (WRAP). It aims to reduce the annual £12bn of wasted supermarket food.", "", "The Canadian Food Inspection Agency produces a \" Guide to Food Labelling and Advertising\" which sets out a \"Durable Life Date\". The authority for producing the guide comes from the Food and Drugs Act. The guide sets out what items must be labelled and the format of the date. The month and day must be included and the year if it is felt necessary and must be in the format year/month/day. However, there is no requirement that the year be in four digits.", "In Hong Kong, prepackaged food which from the microbiological point of view is highly perishable and is therefore likely after a short period to constitute an immediate danger to human health, are required to use the 'Use by' label instead of the 'Best before' label. Examples include pasteurised fresh milk, packed egg and ham sandwiches, etc. Dates are usually presented in the DD MM YY (or YYYY) format.", "In the EU food quality dates are governed by Regulation (EU) 1169/2011, \"On the Provision of Food Information to Consumers\".", "In Germany, one differentiates between the \"Mindesthaltbarkeitsdatum\" (MHD), roughly minimum shelf-life and \"Verbrauchsdatum\", which is more in line with the common expiry date. Products that spoil quickly, such as minced meat, have to be given a Verbrauchsdatum and are barred from sale upon expiry. Other products are given Mindesthaltbarkeitsdatum, which is set by the individual producers of said product and do not bar the product from being sold past the date determined. Products with an expired MHD may be sold if the seller is satisfied that the goods are in perfect condition. Accordingly, it follows that the customer is not entitled to compensation if he unintentionally acquires a product with an expired shelf life, provided that the product can still be regarded as faultless. Neither the MHD nor the Verbrauchsdatum provide legal rights if a product is no longer fit for consumption before the indicated date and the manufacturer can prove the credibility of his claims. The MHD has been criticized for possibly causing food waste. For example, the then Minister Christian Schmidt complained that many still edible foods with an expired MHD would be thrown away by consumers who would misunderstand the MHD as an expiration date.", "According to the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs dates must be in the day/month or day/month/year format. Technical expertise should be hired for regular end of shelf life safety and quality testing. Shelf life trials should be conducted using the same ingredients, equipment, procedures and manufacturing environment as will be used during the actual production.", "Sale of expired food products, \"per se\", is lightly regulated in the US. Some states restrict or forbid the sale of expired products, require expiration dates on all perishable products, or both, while other states do not. However, sale of contaminated food is generally illegal, and may result in product liability litigation if consumption of the food results in injury. After losing an expensive lawsuit, one pharmacy chain – CVS – implemented a system that causes its registers to recognize expired products and avert their sale. Voluntary industry guidelines announced in 2017 from the Grocery Manufacturers Association and the Food Marketing Institute recommend using only \"best if used by\" or \"use by\", to avoid confusion that leads to food waste. In 2019, the Food and Drug Administration urged food manufacturers to adopt the voluntary standards.", "The Food and Drug Administration, which regulates packaged foods and drugs, only requires a use-by, or expiration, date on infant formula and some baby foods, because formula must contain a certain quantity of each nutrient as described on the label. If formula is stored too long, it may lose its nutritional value. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), which regulates fresh poultry and meats, only requires labeling of the date when poultry is packed. However, many manufacturers also voluntarily add sell-by or use-by dates. The DoD Shelf-Life Program operates under the DoD Regulation 4140.1-R, DoD Material Management Regulation, ()", "", "A \"freshness date\" is the date used in the American brewing industry to indicate either the date the beer was bottled or the date before which the beer should be consumed. Beer is perishable. It can be affected by light, air, or the action of bacteria. Although beer is not legally mandated in the United States to have a shelf life, freshness dates serve much the same purpose and are used as a marketing tool.", "General Brewing Company of San Francisco marketed their Lucky Lager Beer as \"Age Dated\" as early as late 1935. They stamped a date on each can lid to indicate that the beer was brewed before that date. This was not to ensure that the beer was \"fresh\" but to ensure that it had been aged properly. So many breweries had rushed beer to market before it was ready when Prohibition ended, that customers were wary of getting \"green\" beer. The Boston Beer Company, maker of Samuel Adams, was among the first contemporary brewers to start adding freshness dates to their product line in 1985. For ten years there was a slow growth in brewers adding freshness dates to their beer. The practice rapidly grew in popularity after the Anheuser-Busch company's heavily marketed \"Born-On dates\" starting in 1996. Many other brewers have started adding freshness dates to their products, but there is no standard for what the date means. For some companies, the date on the bottle or can will be the date that the beer was bottled; others have the date by which the beer should be consumed.", "The concept of shelf life applies to other products besides food and drugs. Gasoline has a shelf life, although it is not normally necessary to display a sell-by date. Exceeding this time-frame will introduce harmful varnishes, etc. into equipment designed to operate with these products, i.e. a gasoline lawn mower that has not been properly winterized could incur damage that will prevent use in the spring, and require expensive servicing to the carburetor. Some glues and adhesives also have a limited storage life, and will stop working in a reliable and usable manner if their safe shelf life is exceeded. Rather different is the use of a time limit for the use of items like vouchers, gift certificates and pre-paid phone cards, so that after the displayed date the voucher etc. will no longer be valid. Bell Mobility and its parent company, BCE Inc. have been served with notice of a $100-million class-action lawsuit alleging that expiry dates on its pre-paid wireless services are illegal." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Geography.", "Municipalities.", "Coat of arms.", "Natural resources.", "Protected natural areas.", "Environmental issues.", "Mining.", "Governors.", "Economy.", "Demographics.", "Education.", "Media.", "Transportation.", "Notable people and residents." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In pre-Columbian times, the territory now occupied by the state of San Luis Potosí contained the cultural areas of Mesoamerica and Aridoamerica. Its northern and western-central areas were inhabited by the Otomi and Chichimeca tribes. These indigenous groups were nomadic hunter-gatherers. Although many indigenous people died during Spanish colonization, Huasteco groups still live, along with Pame and Náhua peoples. In 1592, gold and silver deposits were discovered, which triggered the establishment of the state. Spanish miners established the first town known as “San Luis de Mezquitique”, modern location of the capital San Luis Potosí. This led to Juan de Oñate being appointed as the first mayor. The State was given the name \"San Luis Rey\", \"King Saint Louis\", in honor of Louis IX of France, and \"Potosí\" because the wealth of the state compared to the rich silver mines in Potosí, Bolivia. Settlers hoped of rivaling the Bolivian mine wealth, but this was never truly accomplished. In the 17th and 18th centuries, Franciscans, Augustinians, and Jesuits arrived in the area and settled, then began to build churches and buildings, many of which are still standing and have been turned into museums and universities. In mid-1821, after the Independence of Mexico, General Jose Antonio Echavarri intimidated and threatened the Mayor and the City Council to surrender the city of San Luis to the Army of the Three Guarantees of Agustín de Iturbide (Ejercito de las Tres Garantias de Iturbide), who at the time was emperor of Mexico. They submitted to his demand, as there was no way to resist, and thus proclamation of Independence of San Luis Potosí was declared. The first Constitution of San Luis Potosí was then written on October 16, 1826, and this was in effect until 1835 when Congress proclaimed it centralist. At this point, local legislatures disappeared and state governors were appointed by the central government. This situation lasted until the promulgation of the 1857 Constitution. The state participation in the Mexican–American War in the years of 1846-1847 gave it the name \"San Luis de la Patria\", which translates into English, \"Saint Louis of the Homeland\", for having contributed important leaders and ideas during the struggle with the United States. During the Reform War, state involvement was very prominent, and during the French Intervention in 1863, the city of San Luis Potosí became the capital of the country under the order of President Benito Juárez. During the regime of Maximilian, San Luis became an important location. The city was held by the Imperialists until late 1866. In that year, the telegraph line was opened between San Luis Potosí and Mexico City, which opened up communication lines and helped begin the industrialization of the state.", "The state lies mostly on the Mexican Plateau, with the exception of the eastern part of the state, where the tableland breaks down into the tropical valley of the Tampaon River (which continues flowing northwestward until it becomes the Pánuco River, which divides San Luis Potosí from the north-eastern state of Tamaulipas). The surface of the plateau is comparatively level, with some low mountainous wooded ridges. The Sierra Madre Oriental runs north and south through the state, and separates the Mexican Plateau from the Gulf Coastal Plain to the east. The Sierra Madre Oriental is home to the Sierra Madre Oriental pine-oak forests. The easternmost portion of the state lies on the Gulf Coastal Plain, and covered by the Veracruz moist forests. The eastern part is included in the region commonly referred to as \"La Huasteca\". The Tampaón river and its tributaries drain the southern and southeastern portion of the state. The northern and central portion of the state, including the capital, lie on an interior drainage basin which does not drain to the sea. The mean elevation is about 6,000 ft ensuring a temperate climate for the most part. The state lies partly within the arid zone of the north, while the southern half receiving more rainfall through the influence of the Nortes, which deliver significant amounts of rain. The rainfall, however, is uncertain at the western and northern regions, and much of the state does not have major rivers. The soil is fertile and in favorable seasons large crops of wheat, maize, beans and cotton are grown on the uplands. In the low tropical valleys, sugar, coffee, tobacco, peppers and fruit are staple products. Livestock is an important industry and hides, tallow and wool are exported. Fine cabinet and construction woods are also made and exported to a limited extent. Potosí (in Bolivia) was believed to have enough gold to build a bridge between Potosí and Spain. San Luis Potosí was compared to it upon the discovery of the mines and therefore named after it. At one time San Luis Potosí ranked among the leading mining provinces of Mexico, but the revolts following independence resulted in a great decline in that industry. The area around Real de Catorce has some of the richest silver mines in the country. Other well-known silver mining districts are Peñón Blanco, Ramos and Guadalcázar. The development of Guadalcazar dates from 1620 and its ores yield gold, copper, zinc and bismuth, as well as silver. In the Ramos district, the Cocinera lode was said to have had a total yield of over $60,000,000 in the first decade of the 20th century.", "The State of San Luis Potosí is divided into 58 municipalities (), each headed by a municipal president (mayor). These are similar in function to counties. Is it so divided into four zones municipalities Altiplano (Highlands), Centro (centre), Media and Huasteca zone", "The coat of arms of the state shows Louis IX of France, after whom the state was named, standing on a hill in the town of Cerro de San Pedro, where gold and silver were discovered. The state was well known for its gold and silver mines, so there are two gold bars on the left and two silver bars on the right. The blue and yellow backgrounds represent night and day, respectively.", "", "The state has several protected elements included in the federal system of protected areas administered by the National Commission of Natural Protected Areas (CONANP): It also has a declared place Ramsar site (n. Ref 1766, declared in 2008), Arrochas y Manantiales de Tanchachín. In addition, it has 12 other natural areas protected by state competition managed by the SEGAM (Secretariat of Ecology and Environmental Management):", "", "In 1996, Minera San Xavier (MSX), a subsidiary of Canadian company New Gold, announced plans to start open pit mining at Cerro San Pedro. There was major opposition to the project, but in 2007, the mine started operating, and was still both active and disputed as of 2016. One of the mountains within the state's declared National Sacred Site, Wirikuta, is being purchased for silver mining by a Canadian company, First Majestic Silver. The mountain is an important site for the Huichol ceremonial migration, Peyote hunt, and deer dance. On October 27, 2000 United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) claimed this site as a protected area for its importance as a cultural route and endemic flora and fauna species. Later on June 9, 2001 it was declared as a National Sacred Site under the State of San Luis Potosí's Natural Protection act. Canada's First Majestic Silver Corp still decided to purchase mineral rights on November 13, 2009 with 80% of their interest within the protected land. The company's current methods includes open pit mining and leaching through cyanide, using two kilograms of NaCN per tonne of ore. While open pit mining itself removes entire habitats and landscapes, the addition of sodium cyanide, NaCN, is a lethal method requiring only 0.2 grams to kill a person. In April 2010 the company also opened a new cyanidation plant in Coahila, Mexico where it has started producing 3500 tons of cyanide a day to help them expand their mining efforts. Currently the Huichol people are trying to find outside groups to help them in the conservation of their land and culture by protecting this mountain.", "The current governor is Juan Manuel Carreras López (2015–2021) of the PRI party (Partido Revolucionario Institucional)", "The State has a unique position within the country, since it is located in between three major cities; Mexico City, Monterrey, and Guadalajara, and near four major ports; Tampico, Altamira, Manzanillo, and Mazatlán. Its varied climate patterns and territory along with extensive communications networks enabled it to maintain attractive business environments. Traditionally, the Real de Minas potosino has driven the industrial engines in the state of San Luis Potosí, and as such, nowadays basic metallurgy still has the largest contribution within the Gross Domestic Product of the entity. The main metals and products extracted across mines are zinc, copper, lead, gold, silver, mercury, manganese, and arsenic. Other major industries following the mining lead are in the sectors of chemicals, foods, beverages, tobacco, and textiles. The services sector, also known as tertiary, is second regarding contribution to the state's income with a 21%, followed by commerce, hotels and restaurants with 18%. These combined activities employ 51% of the economically active population or EAP. Agriculture has been a traditional activity, sometimes still practiced in the Huasteca region. Currently, even if it contributes very little to the state GDP, it nevertheless employs as much as 20% of the EAP of the entity. The main agricultural products grown on Potosí soil are maize, beans, barley, sugar cane, oranges, coffee, sour lemon, prickly pear, and mango. Livestock activities are focused on raising sheep, cattle, and pigs. The state is also a contributor to the large automotive industry of Mexico. General Motors now has a plant under construction, San Luis Potosí Assembly, to employ up to 1,800 people which will have the capacity to produce up to 160,000 vehicles per year, or about 440 cars per day. The new plant in San Luis Potosi is an important pillar of the BMW Group’s global production strategy who aim to achieve a balance in our production and sales in the different world regions. Its grand opening in June 7, 2019 created 1,500 jobs, eco friendly by being supplied with 100% of CO2 free electricity, and produce 150,000 (3 series model only) vehicles annually. Cummins has also had a manufacturing presence in San Luis Potosí since 1980 and employs nearly 2,000 people there. ABB Group multinational in Mexico moved its headquarters from Mexico City to San Luis Potosí in 2007. Throughout the state, major industrial parks can be seen, especially in highly urbanized areas such as the capital, San Luis Potosí, and other major cities. The minimum wage in the state is 66.45 pesos per day as of 2015 In July 2014 BMW announced it was establishing a $1 billion plant in San Luis Potosí which will employ 1,500 people, and produce 150,000 cars annually, commencing in 2019.", "The state of San Luis Potosí reports a population of about 2,678,231 people, according to the latest projection which took place in 2013. The population growth rate from 2010 to 2013 was about 3.6%. The state's population is relatively young, 60% of its residents being under 30 years of age. The state reports a life expectancy rate similar to the national average, that is, 72 years for men, and 77 years of age for women. Regarding cultural and ethnic diversity, 15% of the state population is indigenous, and the most representative language is Nahuatl, followed by Huasteco. The native people of the state include the Huastec and Pame peoples. Concerning immigrants and people of European ancestry, 89% of the population has some form of European roots, mostly from Spain. During the colonization and establishment of Mexico, there was a constant flow of Spanish immigrants. There have also been large influxes during instabilities in Spain, such as during the Spanish Civil War. Besides Spanish people, there is also a significant population of descendants of Italian immigrants, especially in cities such as Rio Verde and Cerritos. Most of the European peoples have arrived through the state of Veracruz to the East. Nonetheless, due to its relative isolation, the state is one of the nine states in Mexico which report high rates of migration into the United States.", "The average schooling rate for those over 15 years of age lies at 7.7 years of education, considerably lower than the 8.1 found nationally. The same portion of those older than the age of 15 yield a 28% dropout rate of primary school. Children under the age of 14 years have a 4% school dropout rate. The literacy rate is about 90.8%, most of the illiterate being the older generation. There is only one major university in the state, Autonomous University of San Luis Potosí (UASLP). Other higher education institutions include:", "Newspapers of San Luis Potosí include: \"Diario Regional El Mañana de Valles\", \"El Sol de San Luis\", \"Esto del Centro\", \"Gran Diario Regional Zona Media El Mañana de Rioverde\", \"La Jornada de San Luis\", \"La Prensa del Centro\", and \"Pulso Diario de San Luis.\"", "Ponciano Arriaga International Airport serves the capital of San Luis Potosí (named the same) with a variety of domestic and international daily flights. Other cities such as Matehuala, Tamuin and Rioverde also have airports but they are only domestic flights. Besides airports, the state has an extensive road network, like the rest of the country. Most of the roads are paved in urban areas and highways. Some small towns, however, have cobblestone streets.", "Arts and sciences Politics Sports Journalism" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Parallel names.", "Best before.", "Use by.", "Open dating.", "Canada.", "United States." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "\"Best before\" or \"best by\" dates appear on a wide range of frozen, dried, tinned and other foods. These dates are only advisory and refer to the quality of the product, in contrast with \"use by\" dates, which indicate that the product may no longer be safe to consume after the specified date. Food kept after the \"best before\" date will not necessarily be harmful, but may begin to lose its optimum flavour and texture. Eggs are a special case, since they may contain salmonella which multiplies over time; they should therefore be eaten before the \"best before\" date, which is, in the USA, a maximum of 45 days after the eggs are packed. Sometimes the packaging process involves using pre-printed labels, making it impractical to write the \"best before\" date in a clearly visible location. In this case, wording like \"best before see bottom\" or \"best before see lid\" might be printed on the label and the date marked in a different location as indicated.", "Generally, foods that have a \"use by\" date written on the packaging must not be eaten after the specified date. This is because such foods usually go bad quickly and may be injurious to health if spoiled. It is also important to follow storage instructions carefully for these foods (for example, if they specify that the product must be refrigerated). Bathroom products and toiletries usually state a time in months from the date the product is opened, by which they should be used. This is often indicated by a graphic of an open tub, with the number of months written inside (e.g., \"12M\" means use the product within 12 months of opening). Similarly, some food products say \"eat within X days of opening\".", "\"Open dating\" is the use of a date stamped on the package of a food product to help determine how long to display the product for sale. This benefits the consumer by ensuring that the product is of best quality when sold. An open date does not supersede a use-by date, if shown, which should still be followed.", "An expiration date on food differs from a best-before date. According to the Canadian Food Inspection Agency \"Expiration dates are required only on certain foods that have strict compositional and nutritional specifications which might not be met after the expiration date.\" In Canada expiration dates must be used on the following food items (list and comments copied from CFIA website): The concern is that after the expiration date has passed, the food may not have the same nutrient content as specified on the packaging and for the listed regulated products, the nutritional content is quite important. The CFIA recommends that food should be discarded and should not be bought, sold or eaten beyond the stated expiration date. This contrasts with a best before date which is an indication of how long properly stored prepackaged food is expected to retain its \"freshness, taste, nutritional value, or any other qualities claimed by the manufacturer.\" Passing a best before date is not necessarily a reason to discard the food. \"Sell by\" and \"manufactured on\" dates are related concepts that may guide the consumer. Non-food items may also carry an expiration date. For example, in Canada, all children are required to be secured in an infant car seat while in a motor vehicle that is in motion. Users are required by law to follow manufacturer's directions. There is no specific law that requires an expiration date, but all Transport Canada approved car seats sold in Canada carry a manufacturer applied expiration date that ranges between 6 and 9 years from date of manufacture. The rationale is that car seats are subjected to heat, cold, sun exposure, abuse by the children, and long term storage between children, all of which can degrade the structure and function of the car seat and fail in a crash. Further, beyond the expiration date the manufacturer will no longer be monitoring the safety of the seat through testing. Transport Canada advises to destroy an expired car seat and dispose of it at a landfill or recycling facility, and never to give an expired seat to someone else or to charity.", "The Food and Drug Administration in the United States notes that \"[a] principle of U.S. food law is that foods in U.S. commerce must be wholesome and fit for consumption\". However, the agency also states: Most expiration dates are used as guidelines based on normal and expected handling and exposure to temperature. Use prior to the expiration date does not guarantee the safety of a food or drug, and a product is not necessarily dangerous or ineffective after the expiration date. According to the United States Department of Agriculture, \"canned foods are safe indefinitely as long as they are not exposed to freezing temperatures, or temperatures above 90 °F (32.2° C). If the cans look okay, they are safe to use. Discard cans that are dented, rusted, or swollen. High-acid canned foods (tomatoes, fruits) will keep their best quality for 12 to 18 months; low-acid canned foods (meats, vegetables) for 2 to 5 years\".. \"Sell by date\" is a less ambiguous term for what is often referred to as an \"expiration date\". Most food is still edible after the expiration date. A product that has passed its shelf life might still be safe, but quality is no longer guaranteed. In most food stores, waste is minimized by using stock rotation, which involves moving products with the earliest sell by date from the warehouse to the sales area, and then to the front of the shelf, so that most shoppers will pick them up first and thus they are likely to be sold before the end of their shelf life. This is important, as consumers enjoy fresher goods, and furthermore some stores can be fined for selling out of date products; most if not all would have to mark such products down as wasted, resulting in a financial loss. The expiration date of pharmaceuticals specifies the date the manufacturer guarantees the full potency and safety of a drug. Most medications continue to be effective and safe for a time after the expiration date. A rare exception is a case of renal tubular acidosis purportedly caused by expired tetracycline. A study conducted by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration covered over 100 drugs, prescription and over-the-counter. The study showed that about 90% of them were safe and effective as long as 15 years past their expiration dates. Joel Davis, a former FDA expiration-date compliance chief, said that with a handful of exceptions - notably nitroglycerin, insulin and some liquid antibiotics - most expired drugs are probably effective." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "1990s.", "2000s.", "2010s.", "Musical style and themes.", "Band members.", "Discography." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Nile formed in Greenville, South Carolina in 1993 from a previous band called Morriah, in which founding member Karl Sanders performed in since the 1980s. The name of this band was taken from the Nile river. Nile released a self-titled thrash-influenced demo in 1994 (re-issued in 2011 under the title \"Worship the Animal - 1994: The Lost Recordings\"). Sanders, vocalist/bassist Chief Spires and drummer Pete Hammoura released the \"Festivals of Atonement\" EP in 1995, leading Nile to a southwestern tour in support of other metal acts such as Obituary, Deicide, and Broken Hope. The EP \"Ramses Bringer of War\" was released by Visceral Productions in 1997. The label was due to release the band's first full-length album \"Amongst the Catacombs of Nephren-Ka\", but went out of business later that year. However, Relapse Records was open to releasing it early on, giving Nile a wider distribution and a chance to tour with Incantation and Morbid Angel.", "The follow-up, \"Black Seeds of Vengeance\", was released in September 2000. Prior to the release, drummer Pete Hammoura left the band due to injuries sustained while touring with Catacomb. Derek Roddy stepped in as a session musician to perform on all of the tracks (except \"To Dream of Ur\"). Also, prior to the album, Dallas Toler-Wade joined as a second guitarist/vocalist. Chief Spires left the band a few months after the release of \"Black Seeds of Vengeance\", citing personal and professional differences. He was replaced by Jon Vesano. The band also found new drummer Tony Laureano. In 2002, \"In Their Darkened Shrines\" was released. One reviewer noted that the album gave \"death metal a cinematic, symphonic twist\". Two videos were shot with director Darren Doane, \"Sarcophagus\" and \"Execration Text\", respectively. The follow-up album \"Annihilation of the Wicked\" was released in 2005. Greek drummer George Kollias stepped in to replace Laureano, who left before the recording sessions began. After recording the bass parts for the album, Jon Vesano also left the band. He was temporary replaced by Joe Payne on the following tour. Another Darren Doane directed video was shot for the song \"Sacrifice Unto Sebek\". In May 2006, Nile signed a recording contract with Nuclear Blast. On February 26, 2007, Nile entered the studio and began recording their fifth full-length album entitled \"Ithyphallic\", which was their first release with the label. Karl Sanders had confirmed a release date of June 29, 2007 via a posting on the band's message board, which was later pushed back to July 20, 2007. As a special bonus, Nuclear Blast gave several fans the opportunity to listen to the new album two weeks before its release if they could decipher a hieroglyphic message, to which \"papyrus\" was the answer. Upon the album's release, it sold 4,600 copies, which enabled Nile to get onto the \"Billboard\" 200 for the first time, reaching No. 162 on that chart. On March 21, 2007, Nile was confirmed as a \"Second Stage\" act for Ozzfest 2007. A message from Karl Sanders via Nile's MySpace profile indicated that they were excited to finally bring true death metal to an Ozzfest audience. From March to April 2008, Nile went on a headlining tour in the United States with Suicide Silence, The Faceless, Unexpect, and Warbringer. From September to October 2008, Nile set out on a European headlining tour with Grave, Omnium Gatherum and Severe Torture. In October 2008, the band planned to take their \"Ithyphallic\" tour to South Africa for a booking of three shows, but were canceled for unknown reasons. In June 2009, Nile entered the recording studio to begin work on their sixth full-length album entitled \"Those Whom the Gods Detest\". The album was released on November 3, 2009 and was critically well-received, with one reviewer suggesting \"pretty much the only thing standing in Nile's way at this point is the fact that we as listeners have become so accustomed to the band's excellence that another excellent album seems almost par for the course\".", "On October 21, 2010, bassist Chris Lollis was confirmed as the new member for Nile, after four years of session work with the band. On December 6, 2011, Nile announced work in progress, and the completion of drum tracking, for their upcoming album in 2012. On February 4, 2012, Karl Sanders announced on his Facebook page that they had a new bassist, Todd Ellis, who would contribute vocals to the new record. The next day, he explained on the band's official forum that he had lost contact with Chris Lollis during the writing and recording of the upcoming album, and after three months of silence from him they hired a replacement. The seventh album \"At the Gate of Sethu\" was released on June 29, 2012. On February 9, 2015, Todd Ellis left the band, citing \"unforeseen circumstances beyond my control\". Nile's eighth studio album \"What Should Not Be Unearthed\" was released on August 28, 2015. In the summer of 2016, the band took part in the Summer Slaughter tour. In February 2017, Dallas Toler-Wade left the band, prioritizing his duties with Narcotic Wasteland, and was replaced by Enthean vocalist/guitarist Brian Kingsland. In May 2017, the band entered the studio to begin work on their ninth album \"Vile Nilotic Rites\", which was released on November 1, 2019.", "The majority of Nile's music is written by vocalist/guitarist Karl Sanders. It combines traditional and technical death metal. Nile's music is also characterized by its extreme complexity and speed – for which the band has received acknowledgement from many music fans and journalists – and its extremely \"heavy\" riffing, due to Nile's guitar and bass tunings, which are normally Dropped A tuning. Much of the lyrical content is based on Sanders' interest in Egyptology (mainly inspired by Ancient Egyptian and Near Eastern mysticism, history, religion, and ancient art) and other ancient Middle Eastern cultures, such as Mesopotamia. Works of H.P. Lovecraft also seems to have an enduring influence upon the band's lyrical themes; the word \"Nile\" and the title of the band's first full-length album (\"Amongst the Catacombs of Nephren-Ka\") can both be found in the same sentence of Lovecraft's short story \"The Outsider\". Extensive sleeve notes are included on all Nile's full-length releases from \"Black Seeds of Vengeance\" onwards, explaining the inspiration or source for the lyrics of each song.", "Current members Former members Session musicians Live musicians Timeline", "Studio albums" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biosynthesis, synthesis, and reactivity.", "Uses.", "Sources of exposure.", "Toxicity.", "Acute.", "Subacute.", "Genotoxicity.", "Reproduction studies.", "Immunotoxicity.", "Human health.", "Risk management and regulations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The immediate precursor is 6-methylsalicylic acid. Isoepoxydon dehydrogenase (IDH) is an important enzyme in the multi-step biosynthesis of patulin. Its gene is present in other fungi that may potentially produce the toxin. It is reactive with sulfur dioxide, so antioxidant and antimicrobial agents may be useful to destroy it. Levels of nitrogen, manganese, and pH as well as abundance of necessary enzymes regulate the biosynthetic pathway of patulin.", "Patulin was originally used as an antibiotic against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, but after several toxicity reports, it is no longer used for that purpose. Isolated by Nancy Atkinson in 1943, it was specifically trialed to be used against the common cold. Patulin is used as a potassium-uptake inhibitor in laboratory applications. Kashif Jilani and co-workers reported that patulin stimulates suicidal erythrocyte death under physiological concentrations.", "Frequently, patulin is found in apples and apple products such as juices, jams, and ciders. It has also been detected in other fruits including cherries, blueberries, plums, bananas, strawberries, and grapes. Fungal growth leading to patulin production is most common on damaged fruits. Patulin has also been detected in grains like barley, wheat, corn and their processed products as well as in shellfish., Dietary intake of patulin from apple juice has been estimated at between 0.03 and 0.26 μg/kg bw/day in various age groups and populations. Content of patulin in apple juice is estimated to be less than 10–15μg/L. A number of studies have looked into comparisons of organic vs conventional harvest of apples and levels of patulin contamination. For example, one study showed 0.9% of children drinking organic apple juice exceeded the tolerable daily intake (TDI) for patulin. A recent article described detection of patulin in marine strains of Penicillium, indicating a potential risk in shellfish consumption.", "A subacute rodent NOAEL of 43 μg/kg body weight as well as genotoxicity studies were primarily the cause for setting limits for patulin exposure, although a range of other types of toxicity also exist. While not a particularly potent toxin, patulin is genotoxic. Some theorize that it may be a carcinogen, although animal studies have remained inconclusive. Patulin has shown antimicrobial properties against some microorganisms. Several countries have instituted patulin restrictions in apple products. The World Health Organization recommends a maximum concentration of 50 μg/L in apple juice. In the European Union, the limit is also set to 50 micrograms per kilogram (μg/kg) in both apple juice and cider, and to half of that concentration, 25 μg/kg, in solid apple products and 10 μg/kg in products for infants and young children. These limits came into force on 1 November 2003.", "Patulin is toxic primarily through affinity to sulfhydryl groups (SH), which results in inhibition of enzymes. Oral LD in rodent models have ranged between 20 and 100 mg/kg. In poultry, the oral LD range was reported between 50–170 mg/kg. Other routes of exposure are more toxic, yet less likely to occur. Major acute toxicity findings include gastrointestinal problems, neurotoxicity (i.e., convulsions), pulmonary congestion, and edema.", "Studies in rats showed decreased weight, and gastric, intestinal, and renal function changes, while repetitive doses lead to neurotoxicity. Reproductive toxicity in males were also reported. A NOAEL in rodents was observed at 43μg/kg bw.", "WHO concluded that patulin is genotoxic based on variable genotoxicity data, however it is considered a group 3 carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), since data was inconclusive.", "Patulin decreased sperm count and altered sperm morphology in the rat. Also, it resulted in abortion of F1 litters in rats and mice after i.p. injection. Embryotoxicity and teratogenicity were also reported in chick eggs.", "Patulin was found to be immunotoxic in a number of animal and even human studies. Reduced cytokine secretion, oxidative burst in macrophages, increased splenic T lymphocytes, and increased neutrophil numbers are a few endpoints noticed. However, dietary relevant exposure would not be likely to alter immune response.", "Although there are only very few reported cases and epidemiological data, the FDA has set an action limit of 50 ppb in cider due to its potential carcinogenicity and other reported adverse effects. In humans, it was tested as an antibiotic intranasally for use against the common cold with few significant adverse effects, yet also had negligible or no beneficial effect.", "Patulin exposure can be successfully managed by following good agricultural practices such as removing mold, washing, and not using rotten or damaged apples for baking, canning, or juice production. US The provisional tolerable daily intake (PTDI) for patulin was set at 0.43 μg/kg bw by the FDA based on a NOAEL of 0.3 mg/kg bw per week. Monte Carlo analysis was done on apple juice to compare exposure and the PTDI. Without controls or an action limit, 90th percentile of consumers would not be above the PTDI. However, the concentration in children 1–2 years old would be 3 times higher than the PDTI. Hence, an action limit of 50 μg/kg was set. WHO The World Health Organization recommends a maximum concentration of 50 μg/L in apple juice. EU The European Union (EU) has set a maximum limits of 50μg/kg pertaining to fruit juices and drinks, while solid apple products have a limit of 25μg/kg. For certain foods intended for infants, and even lower limit of 10μg/kg is observed. To test for patulin contamination, a variety of methods and sample preparation methods have been employed including thin layer chromatography (TLC), gas chromatography (GC), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), capillary electrophoresis." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Causes.", "Contamination of food or water supply.", "Farming, ranching and animal husbandry.", "Pets.", "Exhibition.", "Deforestation.", "Biodiversity loss and environmental degradation.", "History.", "Use in vaccines." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Zoonotic transmission can occur in any context in which there is contact with or consumption of animals, animal products, or animal derivatives. This can occur in a companionistic (pets), economic (farming, trade, butchering, etc.), predatory (hunting, butchering or consuming wild game) or research context.", "The most significant zoonotic pathogens causing foodborne diseases are, \"Campylobacter\", \"Caliciviridae\", and \"Salmonella\". In 2006 a conference held in Berlin focused on the issue of zoonotic pathogen effects on food safety, urging government intervention and public vigilance against the risks of catching food-borne diseases from farm-to-table dining. Many food outbreaks can be linked to zoonotic pathogens. Many different types of food that have an animal origin can become contaminated. Some common foods linked to zoonotic contaminations include eggs, seafood, meat, dairy, and even some vegetables. Outbreaks involving contaminated food should be handled in preparedness plans to prevent widespread outbreaks and to efficiently and effectively contain outbreaks.", "Contact with farm animals can lead to disease in farmers or others that come into contact with infected farm animals. Glanders primarily affects those who work closely with horses and donkeys. Close contact with cattle can lead to cutaneous anthrax infection, whereas inhalation anthrax infection is more common for workers in slaughterhouses, tanneries and wool mills. Close contact with sheep who have recently given birth can lead to clamydiosis, or enzootic abortion, in pregnant women, as well as an increased risk of Q fever, toxoplasmosis, and listeriosis in pregnant or the otherwise immunocompromised. Echinococcosis is caused by a tapeworm which can be spread from infected sheep by food or water contaminated with feces or wool. Bird flu is common in chickens. While rare in humans, the main public health worry is that a strain of bird flu will recombine with a human flu virus and cause a pandemic like the 1918 Spanish flu. In 2017, free range chickens in the UK were temporarily ordered to remain inside due to the threat of bird flu. Cattle are an important reservoir of cryptosporidiosis and mainly affects the immunocompromised. Recent reports have shown Minks can also get infected. Practicing veterinarians are exposed to unique occupational hazards and zoonotic diseases. In the US, studies have highlighted an increased risk to injuries and a lack of veterinary awareness for these hazards. Research has proved the importance for continued clinical veterinarian education on occupational risks associated with musculoskeletal injuries, animal bites, needle-sticks, and cuts.", "Pets can transmit a number of diseases. Dogs and cats are routinely vaccinated against rabies. Pets can also transmit ringworm and \"Giardia\", which are endemic in both animal and human populations. Toxoplasmosis is a common infection of cats; in humans it is a mild disease although it can be dangerous to pregnant women. Dirofilariasis is caused by \"Dirofilaria immitis\" through mosquitoes infected by mammals like dogs and cats. Cat-scratch disease is caused by \"Bartonella henselae\" and \"Bartonella quintana\" from fleas which are endemic in cats. Toxocariasis is infection of humans of any of species of roundworm, including species specific to the dog (\"Toxocara canis)\" or the cat (\"Toxocara cati\"). Cryptosporidiosis can be spread to humans from pet lizards, such as the leopard gecko. \"Encephalitozoon cuniculi\" is a microsporidial parasite carried by many mammals, including rabbits, and is an important opportunistic pathogen in people immunocompromised by HIV/AIDS, organ transplantation, or CD4+ T-lymphocyte deficiency.", "Outbreaks of zoonoses have been traced to human interaction with and exposure to other animals at fairs, live animal markets, petting zoos, and other settings. In 2005, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) issued an updated list of recommendations for preventing zoonosis transmission in public settings. The recommendations, developed in conjunction with the National Association of State Public Health Veterinarians, include educational responsibilities of venue operators, limiting public animal contact, and animal care and management.", "Kate Jones, chair of ecology and biodiversity at University College London, says zoonotic diseases are Increasingly linked to environmental change and human behaviour. The disruption of pristine forests driven by logging, mining, road building through remote places, rapid urbanisation and population growth is bringing people into closer contact with animal species they may never have been near before. The resulting transmission of disease from wildlife to humans, she says, is now “a hidden cost of human economic development\". In a guest article published by IPBES, Peter Daszak and three co-chairs of the 2019 \"Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services\", Josef Settele, Sandra Díaz and Eduardo Brondizio, write that \"rampant deforestation, uncontrolled expansion of agriculture, intensive farming, mining and infrastructure development, as well as the exploitation of wild species have created a ‘perfect storm’ for the spillover of diseases from wildlife to people.\"", "An April 2020 study published in the \"Proceedings of the Royal Society\" Part B found that increased virus spillover events from animals to humans can be linked to biodiversity loss and environmental degradation, as humans further encroach on wildlands to engage in agriculture, hunting and resource extraction they become exposed to pathogens which normally would remain in these areas. Such spillover events have been tripling every decade since 1980.", "During most of human prehistory groups of hunter-gatherers were probably very small. Such groups probably made contact with other such bands only rarely. Such isolation would have caused epidemic diseases to be restricted to any given local population, because propagation and expansion of epidemics depend on frequent contact with other individuals who have not yet developed an adequate immune response. To persist in such a population, a pathogen either had to be a chronic infection, staying present and potentially infectious in the infected host for long periods, or it had to have other additional species as reservoir where it can maintain itself until further susceptible hosts are contacted and infected. In fact, for many 'human' diseases, the human is actually better viewed as an accidental or incidental victim and a dead-end host. Examples include rabies, anthrax, tularemia and West Nile virus. Thus, much of human exposure to infectious disease has been zoonotic. Many modern diseases, even epidemic diseases, started out as zoonotic diseases. It is hard to establish with certainty which diseases jumped from other animals to humans, but there is increasing evidence from DNA and RNA sequencing, that measles, smallpox, influenza, HIV, and diphtheria came to humans this way. Various forms of the common cold and tuberculosis also are adaptations of strains originating in other species. Zoonoses are of interest because they are often previously unrecognized diseases or have increased virulence in populations lacking immunity. The West Nile virus appeared in the United States in 1999 in the New York City area, and moved through the country in the summer of 2002, causing much distress. Bubonic plague is a zoonotic disease, as are salmonellosis, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, and Lyme disease. A major factor contributing to the appearance of new zoonotic pathogens in human populations is increased contact between humans and wildlife. This can be caused either by encroachment of human activity into wilderness areas or by movement of wild animals into areas of human activity. An example of this is the outbreak of Nipah virus in peninsular Malaysia in 1999, when intensive pig farming began on the habitat of infected fruit bats. Unidentified infection of the pigs amplified the force of infection, eventually transmitting the virus to farmers and causing 105 human deaths. Similarly, in recent times avian influenza and West Nile virus have spilled over into human populations probably due to interactions between the carrier host and domestic animals. Highly mobile animals such as bats and birds may present a greater risk of zoonotic transmission than other animals due to the ease with which they can move into areas of human habitation. Because they depend on the human host for part of their life-cycle, diseases such as African schistosomiasis, river blindness, and elephantiasis are \"not\" defined as zoonotic, even though they may depend on transmission by insects or other vectors.", "The first vaccine against smallpox by Edward Jenner in 1800 was by infection of a zoonotic bovine virus which caused a disease called cowpox. Jenner had noticed that milkmaids were resistant to smallpox. Milkmaids contracted a milder version of the disease from infected cows that conferred cross immunity to the human disease. Jenner abstracted an infectious preparation of 'cowpox' and subsequently used it to inoculate persons against smallpox. As a result, smallpox has been eradicated globally, and mass vaccination against this disease ceased in 1981." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early years (1902–1934).", "Move to Carrow Road and an FA Cup semi-final (1934–1959).", "League Cup glory and a place in the First Division (1959–1973).", "The John Bond era (1973–1980).", "Promotion, silverware and more cup runs (1980–1992).", "Early success in the Premier League era (1992–1995).", "The Division One years (1995–2003).", "Return to the Premier League (2003–2009).", "Relegation, promotion and yo-yo years (2009–present).", "Colours and crest.", "Stadium.", "Supporters.", "Ownership.", "Statistics and records.", "Club sponsors.", "Players.", "Notable players.", "Greatest Ever Norwich City XI.", "Captains.", "Honours.", "League.", "Cup.", "In popular culture.", "Norwich City Ladies." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Norwich City F.C. was formed after a meeting at the Criterion Café in Norwich on 17 June 1902 and played their first competitive match against Harwich & Parkeston, at Newmarket Road on 6 September 1902. They joined the Norfolk & Suffolk League for the 1902–03 season, but following a FA commission, the club was ousted from the amateur game in 1905, as it was deemed a professional organisation. Later that year Norwich were elected to play in the Southern League. With increasing crowds, they were forced to leave Newmarket Road in 1908 and moved to The Nest, a disused chalk pit. The club's original nickname was the Citizens, but this was superseded by 1907 by the more familiar Canaries after the club's chairman (who was a keen breeder of canaries) dubbed his boys \"The Canaries\" and changed their strip to yellow and green. During the First World War, with football suspended and facing spiralling debts, City went into voluntary liquidation on 10 December 1917. The club was officially reformed on 15 February 1919 – a key figure in the event was Charles Frederick Watling, future Lord Mayor of Norwich and the father of future club chairman, Geoffrey Watling. When, in May 1920, the Football League formed a third Division, Norwich joined the Third Division for the following season. Their first league fixture, against Plymouth Argyle, on 28 August 1920, ended in a 1–1 draw. The club went on to endure a mediocre decade, finishing no higher than eighth but no lower than 18th. The following decade proved more successful for the club with a club-record victory, 10–2, over Coventry City and promotion as champions to the Second Division in the 1933–34 season under the management of Tom Parker.", "With crowds continuing to rise, and with the Football Association raising concerns over the suitability of The Nest, the club considered renovation of the ground, but ultimately decided on a move to Carrow Road. The inaugural match, on 31 August 1935 against West Ham United, ended in a 4–3 victory for the home team and set a new record attendance of 29,779. The biggest highlight of the following four seasons was the visit of King George VI to Carrow Road on 29 October 1938. However the club was relegated to the Third Division at the end of the season. The league was suspended the following season due to the Second World War, and did not resume until the 1946–47 season. City finished this and the following season in 21st place, the poor results forcing the club to apply for re-election to the league. The club narrowly missed out on promotion under the guidance of manager Norman Low in the early 1950s, but following the return of Tom Parker as manager, Norwich finished bottom of the football league in the 1956–57 season. The 1958–59 season saw Norwich reach the semi-final of the FA Cup as a Third Division side, defeating two First Division sides on the way: Tottenham Hotspur and Matt Busby's Manchester United.", "In the 1959–60 season, Norwich were promoted to the Second Division after finishing second to Southampton, and achieved a fourth-place finish in the 1960–61 season. In 1962 Ron Ashman guided Norwich to their first trophy, defeating Rochdale 4–0 on aggregate in a two-legged final to win the League Cup. Sixth place in the league was the closest the club came to promotion to the First Division again during the 1960s, but after winning the division in the 1971–72 season under manager Ron Saunders, Norwich City reached the highest level of English football for the first time. They made their first appearance at Wembley Stadium in 1973, losing the League Cup final 1–0 to Tottenham Hotspur.", "Relegation to the Second Division in 1974 came after Saunders had departed and been succeeded by John Bond, but the board of directors kept faith in Bond and were quickly rewarded. A highly successful first season saw promotion back to the First Division and another visit to Wembley, again in the League Cup final, this time losing 1–0 to Aston Villa.", "Bond departed to Manchester City in autumn 1980 and the club were relegated six months later, but bounced back the following season after finishing third under Bond's successor Ken Brown. In August 1981, Norwich City striker Justin Fashanu became the first black footballer to command a £1millon transfer fee when he moved to Nottingham Forest. The 1984–85 season was of mixed fortunes for the club; under Ken Brown's guidance, they reached the final of the Football League Cup at Wembley Stadium, having defeated Ipswich Town in the semi-final. In the final, they beat Sunderland 1–0, but in the league, both Norwich and Sunderland were relegated to the second tier of English football. This made Norwich the first English club to win a major trophy and suffer relegation in the same season; something which was not matched until Birmingham City also suffered relegation the season they won the League Cup 26 years later. Norwich were also denied their first foray into Europe with the ban on English clubs after the Heysel Stadium disaster. City bounced back to the top flight by winning the Second Division championship in the 1985–86 season. This was the start a club-record nine consecutive seasons in the top division of English football. High league placing in the First Division in 1988–89 would have been enough for UEFA Cup qualification, but the ban on English clubs remained. They also had good cup runs during this period, reaching the FA Cup semi-finals in 1989 and again in 1992.", "During 1992–93, the inaugural season of the Premier League, Norwich City quickly emerged as surprise title contenders, before faltering in the final weeks to finish third behind the champions, Manchester United, and runners-up Aston Villa. Their top scorer that season was Mark Robins, who had been signed from Manchester United the previous summer. The following season Norwich participated in the UEFA Cup for the first (and only) time, losing in the third round to Inter Milan, but defeating Bayern Munich. Winning 2–1, Norwich were the first British team to beat Bayern Munich in the Olympic Stadium. Mike Walker quit as Norwich City manager in January 1994, to take charge of Everton and was replaced by first team coach John Deehan who led the club to 12th place in the 1993–94 season in the Premier League. Norwich began the 1994–95 season well, despite the pre-season loss of top scorer Chris Sutton to Blackburn Rovers for a national record £5 million, and by Christmas they were seventh in the league. Norwich then won only one of their final 20 league games and slumped to 20th place and relegation, ending a nine-season run in the top flight.", "Shortly before relegation, Deehan resigned as manager and his assistant Gary Megson took over until the end of the season. Martin O'Neill, who had taken Wycombe Wanderers from the Conference to the Second Division with successive promotions, was appointed as Norwich City manager in summer 1995. He lasted just six months in the job before resigning after a dispute with chairman Robert Chase over money to strengthen the squad. Soon after, Chase stepped down after protests from supporters, who complained that he kept selling the club's best players and was to blame for their relegation. Chase's majority stakeholding was bought by Geoffrey Watling. English television cook Delia Smith and husband Michael Wynn-Jones took over the majority of Norwich City's shares from Watling in 1996, and Mike Walker was re-appointed as the club's manager. He was unable to repeat the success achieved during his first spell and was sacked two seasons later with Norwich mid-table in Division One. Nigel Worthington took over as Norwich City manager in December 2000 following an unsuccessful two years for the club under Bruce Rioch and then Bryan Hamilton. He had been on the coaching staff under Hamilton who resigned with the club 20th in the First Division and in real danger of relegation to the third tier of English football for the first time since the 1960s. Worthington avoided the threat of relegation and, the following season, led City to a playoff final at the Millennium Stadium, which Norwich lost against Birmingham City on penalties.", "The 2003–04 campaign saw the club win the First Division title, finishing eight points clear of second-placed West Bromwich Albion and returned to the top flight for the first time since 1995. For much of the 2004–05 season, the club struggled and, despite beating Manchester United 2–0 towards the end of the season, a last day 6–0 defeat away to Fulham condemned them to relegation. The club finished in ninth place in The Championship in the 2005–06 season and, as results in the 2006–07 season went against City, manager Nigel Worthington was sacked in October 2006, directly after a 4–1 defeat by Burnley. On 16 October 2006, Norwich announced that former City player Peter Grant had left West Ham United to become the new manager, and in February 2007, Grant replaced assistant Doug Livermore with his fellow Scot, Jim Duffy. Grant's side struggled for most of the season and made a poor start to the 2007–08 season, with only two wins by mid October; following a 1–0 defeat at fellow-strugglers Queens Park Rangers, Grant left the club by \"mutual consent\" on 9 October 2007. On 30 October 2007, former Newcastle United manager Glenn Roeder was confirmed as Grant's replacement. Roeder kept Norwich in the Championship with a 3–0 win over Queens Park Rangers, Norwich's penultimate game of the season.", "On 14 January 2009 it was announced that Roeder had been relieved of his first team duties after 60 games in charge, and just 20 victories. A week later, Bryan Gunn was appointed as manager until the end of the season, but he was unable to prevent the club from being relegated on 3 May 2009, after a 4–2 defeat away at already relegated Charlton Athletic. Following their relegation, their first game of the season resulted in a shock 7–1 home defeat against East Anglian rivals Colchester United. This was the club's heaviest ever home defeat and Gunn was sacked six days later. On 18 August 2009, Paul Lambert was announced as the new manager, leaving his post at Colchester, and nine months later led Norwich to promotion back to the Championship as League One Champions, after a single season in League One. The following season saw Norwich promoted to the Premier League, finishing second in the table and completing the first back-to-back promotions from the 3rd tier to the 1st since Manchester City in 2000. The club finished in 12th place in their first season back in the Premier League. However, Lambert resigned within a month of the season's close to take up the vacant managerial spot at league rivals Aston Villa and was replaced by Chris Hughton. The 2012–13 season started poorly but a club record unbeaten run in the Premier League secured their third year in the Premier League with an 11th-place finish in the league. They were relegated back to the Championship after finishing 18th in the 2013–14 season and Hughton was sacked. After a mediocre first half of the 2014–15 season, Neil Adams resigned which paved the way for the appointment of then Hamilton Academical manager Alex Neil in January 2015. The appointment reinvigorated Norwich's season, and victory in the 2015 Championship playoff final secured an immediate return to the top division of English football. This was only temporary relief, as at the end of the next season they were relegated again to play the 2016–17 season in the Football League Championship. The following season started successfully, with the club sitting top of the Championship in mid-October. A poor run of form and results followed and saw the team slide to as low as twelfth in the table. On 10 March 2017, Alex Neil was sacked by the club, with first-team coach Alan Irvine placed in caretaker charge for the remainder of the season, ultimately finishing in 8th. On 25 May 2017, the club appointed German coach Daniel Farke as head coach, becoming the first head coach of the club in its 114-year history that was not from the British Isles. Under Farke, the club underwent a rebuilding process that saw the team adopt a fast-paced, possession-focused brand of football reminiscent of Farke's predecessor Dortmund side. Norwich finish the 2017–18 season in 14th place. Despite a slow start, the following season was far more successful and the team spent most of the season at the top of the table – helped on by top scorer Teemu Pukki. Following a 2–1 win over Blackburn Rovers, the club was promoted back to the Premier League after a three-year absence as champions of the Championship.", "Norwich City's nickname, \"The Canaries\", has long influenced the team's colours and crest. Originally, the club was nicknamed the Citizens (\"Cits\" for short), and played in light blue and white halved shirts, although the halves were inconsistent; \"the blue was sometimes on the left-hand side of the shirt and sometimes on the right.\" The earliest known recorded link between the club and canaries comes in an interview recorded in the Eastern Daily Press with the newly appointed manager, John Bowman in April 1905. The paper quotes him saying \"Well I knew of the City's existence... I have... heard of the canaries.\" \"This as far as we can tell is the first time that the popular pastime of the day ie... rearing... canaries was linked with Norwich City FC... the club still played in blue and white, and would continue to do so for another two seasons.\" By February 1907, the nickname \"Canaries\" had come more into vogue; thoughts that an FA Cup tie against West Bromwich Albion (nicknamed \"Throstles\" after a bird) was \"a bird -singing contest\" were dismissed by the polymath C.B. Fry as \"humbug\" but the national press increasingly referred to the team as Canaries. The following season, to match the nickname, City played for the first time in Canary livery; \"yellow shirts with green collars and cuffs. One paper produced the quote 'The Cits are dead but the Canaries are very much alive'.\" While the home colours of yellow and green remain to this day, the away colours have varied since introduction. For example, the away kit for the 2012–13 season was black shirts and shorts. A simple canary badge was first adopted in 1922. The current club badge consists of a canary resting on a football with a stylised version of the City of Norwich arms in the top left corner. For the club's centenary celebrations in 2002, a special crest was designed. It featured two canaries looking left and right, and a ribbon noting the centenary.", "Norwich City F.C. played at Newmarket Road from 1902 to 1908, with a record attendance of 10,366 against Sheffield Wednesday in a second round FA Cup match in 1908. Following a dispute over the conditions of renting the Newmarket Road ground, in 1908 the club moved to a new home in a converted disused chalk pit in Rosary Road which became known as \"The Nest\". By the 1930s, the ground was too small for the growing crowds, and in 1935 the club moved to its current home in Carrow Road. The original stadium, \"the largest construction job in the city since the building of Norwich Castle... was \"miraculously\" built in just 82 days... it was referred to [by club officials] as 'The eighth wonder of the world'\" An aerial photograph from August 1935 shows three sides of open terracing and a covered stand, with a Colman's Mustard advertisement painted on its roof, visible only from the air. Another photograph, taken on a match day that same season, shows that despite the era's limited car ownership, a parking area was provided at the ground. Floodlights were erected at the ground in 1956, but their cost of £9,000 nearly sent the club into bankruptcy. However the success in the 1959 FA Cup secured the financial status of the club and allowed a cover to be built over the South Stand, which was itself replaced in 2003 when a new 7,000 seat South stand, subsequently renamed the Jarrold Stand, was built in its place. 1963 saw the record attendance for Carrow Road, with a crowd of 43,984 for a 6th round FA Cup match against Leicester City, but in the wake of the Ibrox disaster in 1971, safety licences were required by clubs, and this drastically reduced the ground's capacity to around 20,000. A two-tier terrace was built at the River End, and soon afterwards seats began to replace the terraces. By 1979 the stadium had a capacity of 28,392 with seats for 12,675. A fire in 1984 partially destroyed one of the stands, which eventually led to its complete demolition and replacement by 1987 of a new City Stand, which chairman Robert Chase described as \"Coming to a football match within the City Stand is very much like going to the theatre – the only difference being that our stage is covered with grass\". After the Hillsborough disaster in 1989 and the subsequent outcome of the Taylor Report in 1990, the stadium was converted to all-seater. Today, Carrow Road is an all-seater stadium, with a capacity of 27,244.", "While much of the support that the club enjoys is local, there are a number of exile fan clubs, notably in London and stretching from Scandinavia to countries further afield such as the United Arab Emirates, Bermuda, Hong Kong, Thailand, Australia and the United States. The fans' song, \"On the Ball, City\", is the oldest football song in the world still in use today; the song is, in fact, older than the club itself having probably been penned for Norwich Teachers or Caley's FC in the 1890s and adapted for Norwich City. Although the first use of the tune and song is disputed, it had been adopted by 1902 and it remains in use today in part if not the whole. The chorus is: Locally, much is made of the informal title \"Pride of Anglia\". Fans variously claim the title for either winning the East Anglian Derby, finishing highest in the league, having the better current league position, having the more successful club history or for reasons without any apparent logical basis. The club's main local rival is Ipswich Town. When Norwich and Ipswich meet it is known as the 'East Anglian Derby', or, informally, as the 'Old Farm Derby' – a comic reference to the 'Old Firm Derby' played between Scottish teams Celtic and Rangers. Norwich are currently unbeaten against Ipswich in a decade, encompassing 12 matches, including 5-1 and 4-1 victories, as well as a victorious play-off semi final fixture in 2015. The club also maintains a healthy celebrity support with celebrity cook Delia Smith and comedian Stephen Fry both having moved from fans of the club to running it. Actor Hugh Jackman is also a fan of the club, having been taken to Carrow Road as a child by his English mother, though he turned down an opportunity to become an investor in the club in 2010. BT Sport Presenter Jake Humphrey, who was born in Peterborough but moved to Norwich with his family at the age of nine, is another celebrity supporter. Also Sky Sports presenter Simon Thomas, who is Vice-President of the Norwich City Supporters Trust, Norfolk-born musician, model and media personality Myleene Klass and Labour ex-politician Ed Balls. Journalist and broadcaster Sir David Frost also declared his love for The Canaries during his lifetime. In March 2018, supporters helped the club raise £5,000,000 through a mini-bond investment scheme via sports investment platform Tifosy. The purpose of the mini-bond, called the Canaries Bond was to raise money to fund new academy facilities at Colney Training Ground for the Norwich City F.C. Under-23s and Academy.", "Norwich City FC is a public limited company that, in 2003, comprised approximately 8,000 individual shareholdings. Since purchasing their shares from Geoffrey Watling, Delia Smith and husband Michael Wynn-Jones have been joint majority shareholders. At the 2006–07 Norwich City FC Annual General Meeting (on 18 January 2007) Smith and Wynn-Jones announced that they would be open to offers to buy their majority stake-holding in the club. They made clear that any prospective buyer would have to invest heavily in the squad, with regards to team improving. On 8 May 2007 the football club announced that Andrew and Sharon Turner had bought out all 5,000 shares belonging to former Board member, Barry Skipper and had given the club an interest-free loan of £2m. Mr and Mrs Turner are owners and directors of personal finance company Central Trust. During July 2008 Peter Cullum declared that he was interested in a takeover of the club, and pledged that he would invest £20m for enhancement of the playing squad. On 8 July the EDP reported that Delia Smith and the board had invited Peter Cullum for talks. Reports later stated that the talks had been terminated with immediate effect, and no deal was to be reached. On 2 September 2008, Andrew and Sharon Turner announced that they were leaving the football club's board of directors. This left a £2 million hole in Norwich City's budget. On 4 September 2008, Delia Smith and Michael Wynn-Jones announced that they would be injecting £2 million, avoiding financial problems for the club. The 2011 Annual General Meeting, attended by over 500 shareholders, saw joint majority shareholder Delia Smith and Stephan Phillips re-elected as directors and new director Stephen Fry formally re-elected having joined the Board the previous August. On 27 December 2015, former Shadow Chancellor Ed Balls was appointed Chairman, however he left in late 2018.", "Kevin Keelan holds the record for Norwich appearances, having played 673 first-team matches between 1963 and 1980. Ralph Hunt holds the record for the most goals scored in a season, 31 in the 1955–56 season in Division Three (South), with Johnny Gavin the top scorer over a career – 122 between 1948 and 1955. Mark Bowen holds the club record for most international caps, with 35 for Wales. The club's widest victory margin in the league was their 10–2 win against Coventry City in the Division Three (South) in 1930. Their heaviest defeat in the league was 10–2 against Swindon Town in 1908 in the Southern Football League. Norwich's record home attendance is 43,984 for a sixth-round FA Cup match against Leicester City on 30 March 1963. With the introduction of regulations enforcing all-seater stadiums, it is unlikely that this record will be beaten in the foreseeable future. The highest transfer fee received for a Norwich player is £22 million, from Leicester City for James Maddison in June 2018, while the most spent by the club on a player was the signing of Ricky van Wolfswinkel for £8.5 million (€10 million) from Sporting Lisbon. This transfer fee was then equalled by the signing of Steven Naismith from Everton in January 2016. The club's highest league finish was third in the FA Premier League in 1992–93. The 2015–16 season was Norwich's 25th in the top flight of English football. The club has won the League Cup twice (most recently in 1985) and reached the FA Cup semi-final three times, most recently in 1992. Norwich have taken part in European competition just once, reaching the third round of the UEFA Cup in 1993–94 and are the only English side to beat Bayern Munich in the Olympic Stadium.", "\"Source:\" Between 2006 and 2008 the club was sponsored by airline Flybe but on 26 April 2008, it was announced that the company was stepping down as the main sponsor. On 29 April 2008 it was announced that Aviva which has offices in the city and is the parent company of the former Norwich Union, would be the new shirt sponsor, having signed a three-year contract. In 2009 the deal was extended until the end of the 2011–12 season. It was further extended in 2012 by four more years to the end of the 2015–16 season. During the 2016–17 season, Aviva Community Fund were Norwich's main shirt sponsor. On 26 June 2017, the club announced that Swedish mobile betting company LeoVegas would take over as their main shirt sponsor for three seasons, starting from the 2017–18 season.", "", "During the club's centenary season, a \"Hall of Fame\" was created, honouring 100 former players chosen by fan vote. Further players have been inducted into the Norwich City Hall of Fame in 2003, 2006 and 2012.", "In 2008, supporters cast votes to determine the greatest ever Norwich City team.", "\"For a list of Norwich City captains, see Norwich City captains\"", "Norwich City have won a number of honours:", "Football League Second Division/EFL Championship (Tier 2) Football League Third Division (1921–92)/EFL League One (2004–present) (Tier 3)", "League Cup Each time they meet, Norwich and Sunderland contest the Friendship Trophy, a game dating back to the camaraderie forged between fans of the two clubs at the time of the 1985 League Cup final that they contested. Sunderland are the current holders having beaten Norwich 3–1 at Carrow Road on 13 August 2017 in the 2017-18 EFL Championship.", "In the 2001 film \"\", the eponymous hero, played by Ricky Tomlinson, rises to prominence as a result of success as manager of Norwich City, having won the 'Mr Clutch Cup'. The celebratory scenes of the open-top bus ride around the city (right) were actually shot in St Albans, Hertfordshire, rather than Norwich. In 1972 the Children's Film Foundation released a movie called \"The Boy Who Turned Yellow\", about a boy living in London who supports Norwich City. In the film, he and everyone and everything else on his tube train are turned yellow. That night he is visited by a yellow alien called Nick, short for electronic, who teaches him all about electricity. The link to the football club is used to explain why the boy already has so many yellow things in his bedroom.", "Norwich City Ladies is the women's football club affiliated to Norwich City. They are managed by Scott Emmerson and compete in the Women's South East Combination League, in the third tier of English women's football. According to Norwich City, \"They are the official women's team of Norwich City Football Club and are linked to the Girls' Centre of Excellence programme\". Consequently, 95% of the club's players have progressed from the youth ranks. Norwich City LFC play their home games at Plantation Park, Blofield, Norwich." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Taxonomy.", "Description.", "Uses.", "Species." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The genus \"Festuca\" represents a major evolutionary line of the tribe Poeae. The ancient group has produced various segregates that possess more advanced characteristics than \"Festuca\", including racemose inflorescences and more annual habits. The word \"\"festuca\"\" is a Latin word meaning \"stem\" or \"stalk\" first used by Pliny the Elder to describe a weed. The word \"Festuca\" first appears to describe grasses in Dodoens' \"Stirpium historiae pemptades sex, sive libri XXX\" in 1583. However, the plant Dodoens described as \"Festuca altera\" is truly \"Bromus secalinus\". Other authors before Linnaeus used the name to describe other various species of \"Bromus\". In the first edition of \"Genera Plantarum\", Linnaeus describes seven species of \"Festuca\", five of which are truly \"Bromus\" grasses with the other two being \"Festuca gigantea\" and \"Festuca pratensis\". In 1753 the genus is accepted as first being formally described, in Linnaeus' \"Species Plantarum\". Eleven species were described, with \"F. ovina\" being the type species. Of these eleven, one species was \"Danthonia\", one \"Poa\", and one \"Koeleria\". The first major monograph on the genus was Hackel's \"Monographia Festucarum Europaearum\" in 1882. Since Linnaeus' publications, seven genera have been proposed for groups of perennial fescues and fifteen for annual fescues, all with varying degrees of acceptance. For example, in 1906 the subgenus \"Vulpia\" was introduced for North American species. The annual habit and shorter anthers of \"Vulpia\" has since been enough to distinguish \"Vulpia\" as a separate genus from \"Festuca\". The taxonomy of the genus is ultimately problematic and controversial, as evidenced by the large number of small genera closely related to \"Festuca\". Often distinguishing species within the genus requires the analysis of highly specific morphological differences on characters such as ovary pubescence or leaf sclerenchyma patterns. This distribution of sclerenchyma tissue is an important distinguishing character between species, and though species can be locally distinguished without analyzing these characteristics, to distinguish the genus as a whole the analysis is necessary.", "\"Festuca\" grasses are perennial and bisexual plants that are densely to loosely cespitose. The some grasses are rhizomatous and some lack rhizomes, and rarely species are stoloniferous. The culms of the grasses are typically glabrous and smooth, though some species have scabrous culms or culms that are pubescent below the inflorescences. The leaf sheaths range from open to the base to closed to the top. Some species have sheaths that persist over years and typically have deciduous blades, and some species have sheaths that quickly shred into fibers and decay in senescence and typically have blades that are not deciduous. Species lack auricles. The membranous ligules measure and are typically longest at the margins. The ligules are typically truncate and ciliate, though they can occasionally be acute or erose. The flat and conduplicate leaf blades are involute or convolute and are sometimes glaucous or pruinose. The abaxial surfaces of leaf blades are glabrous or scabrous and occasionally pubescent or puberulent. The adaxial surfaces of leaf blades are typically scabrous, though occasionally are hirsute or puberulent. The abaxial sclerenchyma tissue forms longitudinal strands that vary in presence from the margins and opposite of the midvein to adjacent to some or every lateral vein. These longitudinal strands occasionally merge into interrupted or continuous bands. Bands of confluent strands that reach veins are known as \"pillars\". The adaxial sclerenchyma tissue sometimes forms strands that are opposite or extend to epidermal veins. Some strands form \"girders\" together with the abaxial sclerenchyma tissue that connect epidermides at some or all veins. The inflorescences of species are open or contracted panicles, occasionally racemes, with one to two (rarely three) branches at their lower node. The branches are erect and begin to spread during anthesis, and occasionally lower branches are reflexed. The spikelets have two to twelve mostly bisexual florets. The rachillas are typically either scabrous or pubescent, but can occasionally be smooth and glabrous. The subequal or unequal glumes are ovate to lanceolate, acute to acuminate, and are typically exceeded by the florets. The lower glumes are as long or shorter than their adjacent lemmas and have one (rarely two or three) veins, and the upper glumes have three (rarely four or five) veins. The calli are typically glabrous and smooth, but can be occasionally scabrous or rarely pubescent. The chartaceous or sometimes coriaceous lemmas have somewhat dorsally rounded and distally keeled bases. The lemmas typically have five (rarely six or seven) veins. The lemmas have acute to attenuate apices that are occasionally doubly pointed, and terminal awns or mucros. The bidentate paleas are shorter to longer than the lemmas, with scabrous-ciliate veins. The regions between the veins are smooth and glabrous near the base of the paleas and become scabrous or puberulent distally. All grasses have three anthers. The ovaries are glabrous with occasionally hispidulous apices on which hairs persist when ovaries become caryopses. The oblong caryopses have adaxial grooves. The linear hila vary in length from half as long to as long as the caryopses.", "Some fescues are used as ornamental and turf grasses and as pasture and hay for livestock, being a highly nutritious stock feed. \"Festuca rubra\" and \"F. rubra\" subsp. \"commutata\" are used as lawn grasses, and these species, \"F. arundinacea\", and \"F. trachyphylla\" are used in parks, deforested areas, and sports fields for land stabilization. \"F. saximontana\" and \"F. idahoensis\" are used as rangeland grasses for livestock, and fescues often provide good forage for native wildlife. \"F. ovina\" and its various subspecies are the most important grazing fescues for North America, and \"F. arundinacea\" is one of the most important hay and pasture grasses in Europe. Fescue is easily established on bare ground, outcompeting other plants and persisting over several years, and so is often used in soil erosion control programs. Tall fescue (\"F. arundinacea\") is good for this purpose, and one cultivar, 'Kentucky 31', was used in land reclamation during the Dust Bowl of the 1930s in the US. Fescues have been used as building material, as rope and as a variety of other things in indigenous Ethiopian communities, in particular the Guassa Community Conservation Area where it is referred to as 'Guassa Grass'. The grasses \"F. amethystina\", \"F. cinerea\", \"F. elegans\", \"F. glauca\", and \"F. pallens\" are all grown as ornamentals. Fescue is sometimes used as feed for horses. However, fescue poisoning, caused by ergot alkaloids produced by the endophytic fungus \"Epichloë coenophiala\", is a risk for pregnant mares. During the last three months of pregnancy fescue poisoning increases the risk of spontaneous abortion, stillbirths, retained placenta, absent milk production, and prolonged pregnancy. Incorporating legumes into the fescue can be a way to increase livestock gains and conception rates, even if the fescue is infected.", "Species include:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History of development.", "Techniques and technology.", "Relating information from different sources.", "GIS uncertainties.", "Data representation.", "Data capture.", "Raster-to-vector translation.", "Projections, coordinate systems, and registration.", "Spatial analysis with geographical information system (GIS).", "Slope and aspect.", "Data analysis.", "Topological modeling.", "Geometric networks.", "Hydrological modeling.", "Cartographic modeling.", "Map overlay.", "Geostatistics.", "Address geocoding.", "Reverse geocoding.", "Multi-criteria decision analysis.", "Data output and cartography.", "Graphic display techniques.", "Spatial ETL.", "GIS data mining.", "Applications.", "Open Geospatial Consortium standards.", "Web mapping.", "Adding the dimension of time.", "Semantics.", "Implications of GIS in society.", "In education.", "In local government." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The phrase, \"geographic information system\", was coined by Roger Tomlinson in 1968, when he published the scientific paper, \"A Geographic Information System for Regional Planning\". Tomlinson, acknowledged as the \"father of GIS\", is credited with enabling the first computerized–GIS to be created through his work on the Canada Geographic Information System in 1963. Ultimately, Tomlinson created a framework for a database that was capable of storing and analyzing huge amounts of data; leading to the Canadian government being able to implement its National Land-Use Management Program. One of the first known instances in which spatial analysis was used, came from the field of epidemiology in the, \"\"Rapport sur la marche et les effets du choléra dans Paris et le département de la Seine\"\" (1832).French geographer and cartographer, Charles Picquet, created a map outlining the forty-eight Districts in Paris, using halftone color gradients, to provide a visual representation for the number of reported deaths due to cholera, per every 1,000 inhabitants. In 1854, John Snow, an epidemiologist and physician, was able to determine the source of a cholera outbreak in London through the use of spatial analysis. Snow achieved this through plotting the residence of each victim on a map of the area, as well as the nearby water sources. Once these points were marked, he was able to visualize the water source within the cluster that was responsible for the outbreak. This was one of the earliest successful uses of a geographic methodology in pinpointing the source of an outbreak in epidemiology. While the basic elements of topography and theme existed previously in cartography, Snow's map was unique due to his use of cartographic methods, not only to depict, but also to analyze clusters of geographically dependent phenomena. The early 20th century saw the development of photozincography, which allowed maps to be split into layers, for example one layer for vegetation and another for water. This was particularly used for printing contours – drawing these was a labour-intensive task but having them on a separate layer meant they could be worked on without the other layers to confuse the draughtsman. This work was originally drawn on glass plates but later plastic film was introduced, with the advantages of being lighter, using less storage space and being less brittle, among others. When all the layers were finished, they were combined into one image using a large process camera. Once color printing came in, the layers idea was also used for creating separate printing plates for each color. While the", "Modern GIS technologies use digital information, for which various digitized data creation methods are used. The most common method of data creation is digitization, where a hard copy map or survey plan is transferred into a digital medium through the use of a CAD program, and geo-referencing capabilities. With the wide availability of ortho-rectified imagery (from satellites, aircraft, Helikites and UAVs), heads-up digitizing is becoming the main avenue through which geographic data is extracted. Heads-up digitizing involves the tracing of geographic data directly on top of the aerial imagery instead of by the traditional method of tracing the geographic form on a separate digitizing tablet (heads-down digitizing). Geoprocessing is a GIS operation used to manipulate spatial data. A typical geoprocessing operation takes an input dataset, performs an operation on that dataset, and returns the result of the operation as an output dataset. Common geoprocessing operations include geographic feature overlay, feature selection and analysis, topology processing, raster processing, and data conversion. Geoprocessing allows for definition, management, and analysis of information used to form decisions.", "GIS uses spatio-temporal (space-time) location as the key index variable for all other information. Just as a relational database containing text or numbers can relate many different tables using common key index variables, GIS can relate otherwise unrelated information by using location as the key index variable. The key is the location and/or extent in space-time. Any variable that can be located spatially, and increasingly also temporally, can be referenced using a GIS. Locations or extents in Earth space–time may be recorded as dates/times of occurrence, and x, y, and z coordinates", "GIS accuracy depends upon source data, and how it is encoded to be data referenced. Land surveyors have been able to provide a high level of positional accuracy utilizing the GPS-derived positions. High-resolution digital terrain and aerial imagery, powerful computers and Web technology are changing the quality, utility, and expectations of GIS to serve society on a grand scale, but nevertheless there are other source data that affect overall GIS accuracy like paper maps, though these may be of limited use in achieving the desired accuracy. In developing a digital topographic database for a GIS, topographical maps are the main", "GIS data represents real objects (such as roads, land use, elevation, trees, waterways, etc.) with digital data determining the mix. Real objects can be divided into two abstractions: discrete objects (e.g., a house) and continuous fields (such as rainfall amount, or elevations). Traditionally, there are two broad methods used to store data in a GIS for", "Data capture—entering information into the system—consumes much of the time of GIS practitioners. There are a variety of methods used to enter data into a GIS where it is stored in a digital format. Existing data printed on paper or PET film maps can be digitized or scanned to produce digital data. A digitizer produces vector data as an operator traces points, lines, and polygon boundaries from a map. Scanning a map results in raster data that could be further processed to produce vector data. Survey data can be directly entered into a GIS from digital data collection systems on", "Data restructuring can be performed by a GIS to convert data into different formats. For example, a GIS may be used to convert a satellite image map to a vector structure by generating lines around all cells with the same classification, while determining the cell spatial relationships, such as adjacency or inclusion. More advanced data processing can occur with image processing, a technique developed", "The earth can be represented by various models, each of which may provide a different set of coordinates (e.g., latitude, longitude, elevation) for any given point on the Earth's surface. The simplest model is to assume the earth", "GIS spatial analysis is a rapidly changing field, and GIS packages are increasingly including analytical tools as standard built-in facilities, as optional toolsets, as add-ins or 'analysts'. In many instances these are provided by the original software suppliers (commercial vendors or collaborative non commercial development teams), while in other cases facilities have been developed and are provided by third parties. Furthermore, many products offer software development kits (SDKs), programming languages and language support, scripting facilities and/or special interfaces for developing one's own analytical tools or variants. The increased availability has created a new dimension to business intelligence termed \"spatial intelligence\" which, when openly delivered via intranet, democratizes access to geographic and social network data. Geospatial intelligence, based on GIS spatial analysis, has also become a key element for security. GIS as a whole can be described as conversion to a vectorial representation or to any other digitisation process.", "Slope can be defined as the steepness or gradient of a unit of terrain, usually measured as an angle in degrees or as a percentage. Aspect can be defined as the direction in which a unit of terrain faces. Aspect is usually expressed in degrees from north. Slope, aspect, and surface curvature in terrain analysis are all derived from neighborhood operations using elevation values of a cell's adjacent neighbours. Slope is a function of resolution, and the spatial resolution used to calculate slope and aspect should always be specified. Various", "It is difficult to relate wetlands maps to rainfall amounts recorded at different points such as airports, television stations, and schools. A GIS, however, can be used to depict two- and three-dimensional characteristics of the Earth's surface, subsurface, and atmosphere from information points. For example, a GIS can quickly generate a map with isopleth or contour lines that indicate differing amounts of rainfall. Such a map can be thought of as a rainfall contour map. Many sophisticated methods can estimate the characteristics of surfaces from a limited number of point measurements. A two-dimensional contour map created from", "A GIS can recognize and analyze the spatial relationships that exist within digitally stored spatial data. These topological relationships allow complex", "Geometric networks are linear networks of objects that can be used to represent interconnected features, and to perform special spatial analysis on them. A geometric network is composed of edges, which are connected at junction points, similar to graphs in mathematics", "GIS hydrological models can provide a spatial element that other hydrological models lack, with the analysis of variables such as slope, aspect and watershed or catchment area. Terrain analysis is fundamental to hydrology, since water always flows down a slope. As basic terrain analysis of a digital elevation model (DEM) involves calculation of slope and aspect, DEMs are very useful for hydrological analysis. Slope and aspect can then be used to determine direction of surface", "Dana Tomlin probably coined the term \"cartographic modeling\" in his PhD dissertation (1983); he later used it in the title of his book, \"Geographic Information Systems and Cartographic Modeling\" (1990). Cartographic modeling", "The combination of several spatial datasets (points, lines, or polygons) creates a new output vector dataset, visually similar to stacking several maps of the same region. These overlays are similar to mathematical Venn diagram overlays. A union overlay combines the geographic features and attribute tables of both inputs into a single new output. An intersect overlay defines the area where both inputs overlap and retains a set of attribute fields for each. A symmetric difference overlay defines an output area that includes the total area", "Geostatistics is a branch of statistics that deals with field data, spatial data with a continuous index. It provides methods to model spatial correlation, and predict values at arbitrary locations (interpolation). When phenomena are measured, the observation methods dictate the accuracy of any subsequent analysis. Due to the nature of the data (e.g. traffic patterns in an urban environment; weather patterns over the Pacific Ocean), a constant or dynamic degree of precision is always lost in the measurement. This loss of precision is determined from the scale and distribution of the data collection. To determine the statistical relevance of the analysis, an average is determined so that points (gradients) outside of any immediate measurement can be included to determine their predicted behavior. This is due to the limitations of the applied statistic and data collection methods, and", "Geocoding is interpolating spatial locations (X,Y coordinates) from street addresses or any other spatially referenced data such as ZIP Codes, parcel lots and address locations. A reference theme is required to geocode individual addresses, such as a road centerline file with address ranges. The individual address locations have historically been interpolated, or estimated, by examining address ranges along a road segment. These are usually provided", "Reverse geocoding is the process of returning an estimated street address number as it relates to a given coordinate. For example, a user can click on a road centerline theme (thus providing a coordinate) and have information returned that reflects the estimated", "Coupled with GIS, multi-criteria decision analysis methods support decision-makers in analysing a set of alternative spatial solutions, such as the most likely ecological habitat for restoration,", "Cartography is the design and production of maps, or visual representations of spatial data. The vast majority of modern cartography is done with the help of computers, usually using GIS but production of quality cartography is also achieved by importing layers into a design program to refine it. Most GIS software gives the user substantial control over the appearance of the data. Cartographic work serves two major functions:", "Traditional maps are abstractions of the real world, a sampling of important elements portrayed on a sheet of paper with symbols to represent physical objects. People who use maps must interpret these symbols. Topographic maps show the shape of land surface with contour lines or with shaded relief. Today, graphic display techniques such as shading based on altitude in a GIS can make relationships among map elements visible, heightening one's ability to extract and analyze information. For example, two types of data were combined in a", "Spatial ETL tools provide the data processing functionality of traditional extract, transform, load (ETL) software, but with a primary focus on the ability to manage spatial", "GIS or spatial data mining is the application of data mining methods to spatial data. Data mining, which is the partially automated search for hidden patterns", "The implementation of a GIS is often driven by jurisdictional (such as a city), purpose, or application requirements. Generally, a GIS implementation may be custom-designed for an organization. Hence, a GIS deployment developed for an application, jurisdiction, enterprise, or purpose may not be necessarily interoperable or compatible with a GIS that has been developed for some other application, jurisdiction, enterprise, or purpose. GIS provides, for every kind of location-based organization, a platform to update geographical data without wasting time to visit the field and update a database manually. GIS when integrated with other powerful enterprise solutions like SAP and the Wolfram Language helps creating powerful decision support system at enterprise level. Many disciplines can benefit from GIS technology. An active GIS market has resulted in lower costs and continual improvements in the hardware and software components of GIS, and usage in the fields of science, government, business, and industry, with applications including real estate, public health, crime mapping, national defense, sustainable development, natural resources, climatology, landscape architecture, archaeology, regional and community planning, transportation and logistics. GIS is also diverging into location-based services, which allows GPS-enabled mobile devices to display their location in relation to fixed objects (nearest restaurant, gas station, fire hydrant) or mobile objects (friends, children, police car), or to relay their position back to a central server for display or other processing.", "The Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) is an international industry consortium of 384 companies, government agencies, universities, and individuals participating in a consensus process to develop publicly available geoprocessing specifications. Open interfaces and protocols defined by OpenGIS Specifications support interoperable solutions that \"geo-enable\" the Web, wireless and location-based services, and mainstream IT, and empower technology developers to make complex spatial information and services accessible and useful with all kinds of applications. Open Geospatial Consortium protocols include Web", "In recent years there has been a proliferation of free-to-use and easily accessible mapping software such as the proprietary web applications Google Maps and Bing Maps, as well as the free and open-source alternative OpenStreetMap. These services give the public access to huge amounts of geographic data; perceived by many users to be as trustworthy and usable as professional", "The condition of the Earth's surface, atmosphere, and subsurface can be examined by feeding satellite data into a GIS. GIS technology gives researchers the ability to examine the variations in Earth processes over days, months, and years. As an example, the changes in vegetation vigor through a growing season can be animated to determine when drought was most extensive in a particular region. The resulting graphic represents a rough measure of plant health. Working with two variables over time would then allow researchers to detect regional differences in the lag between a decline in rainfall and its effect on vegetation. GIS technology and the availability of digital data on regional and global scales enable such analyses. The satellite sensor output used to generate a vegetation graphic is produced", "Tools and technologies emerging from the World Wide Web Consortium's Semantic Web are proving useful for data integration problems in information systems. Correspondingly, such technologies have been proposed as a means to facilitate interoperability and data reuse among GIS applications. and also to enable new analysis mechanisms. Ontologies are a key component of this semantic approach as they allow a formal, machine-readable specification of the concepts and relationships in a given domain. This in turn allows a GIS to focus on the intended meaning of data rather than its syntax or structure. For example, reasoning that a land cover type classified as \"deciduous needleleaf trees\" in one dataset is a specialization or subset", "With the popularization of GIS in decision making, scholars have begun to scrutinize the social and political implications of GIS. GIS can also be misused to distort reality for individual and political gain. It has been argued that the production, distribution, utilization, and representation of geographic information are largely related with the social context and has the potential to increase citizen trust in government. Other related topics include discussion on copyright, privacy, and censorship. A more optimistic social approach to GIS adoption is to use it as a tool for public participation.", "At the end of the 20th century, GIS began to be recognized as tools that could be used in the classroom. The benefits of GIS in education seem focused on developing spatial thinking, but there is not enough bibliography or statistical data to show the concrete scope of the use", "GIS is proven as an organization-wide, enterprise and enduring technology that continues to change how local government operates. Government agencies have adopted GIS technology as a method to better manage the following areas of government organization: The Open Data initiative is pushing local government to take advantage of technology such as" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geology.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Shiashkotan is roughly dumbbell shaped, formed by two volcanic islands joined together by a narrow landspit. The island has a total length of with a width ranging from at its widest point to at its narrowest, and an area of. Both ends of the island are complex stratovolcanos, and landing is possible only on the sandy isthmus.", "Shiashkotan was inhabited by the Ainu, who subsided off of hunting and fishing at the time of European contact. The island appears on an official map showing the territories of Matsumae Domain, a feudal domain of Edo period Japan dated 1644, and these holdings were officially confirmed by the Tokugawa shogunate in 1715. Subsequently, claimed by the Empire of Russia, sovereignty initially passed to Russia under the terms of the Treaty of Shimoda. During an eruption of 1872, Russian authorities recorded that 13 inhabitants died; however, when the island was returned to the Empire of Japan per the Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1875) along with the rest of the Kuril islands, no inhabitants remained as they had chosen to move north to Kamchatka, which remained under the Russian jurisdiction. The island was formerly administered as part of Shimushu District of Nemuro Subprefecture of Hokkaidō. In 1893, a settlement was attempted by nine members of the Chishima Protective Society led by Gunji Shigetada; however, when a ship called on the island a year later, five of the colonists had already died, and the remaining four were critically ill with beri-beri. After World War II, the island came under the control of the Soviet Union, and is now administered as part of the Sakhalin Oblast of the Russian Federation." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "History.", "Early history.", "Hungarian rule.", "Austrian control and revolts.", "Mukachevo during and after the wars.", "Climate.", "Demographics.", "Economy.", "Jewish community.", "Twin towns – sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Etymologically the origin of the settlement's name from Hungarian. The name probably from the Hungarian surname \"Muncas\" - munkás (worker) which later transformed into Munkács. The other bames of the city derived from this. Today, there are many different ways to name Mukachevo. On 23 May 2017 the Ukrainian parliament officially renamed Mukacheve into Mukachevo, a year after the city council had decided to rename the city. Previously, it was usually spelled in Ukrainian as Mukacheve while Мукачів (\"Mukachiv\") was sometimes also used. The city's name in Rusyn is Мукачево (\"Mukachevo\"), which is also the Russian transliteration -- as well as a name adopted by the local authorities and portrayed on the city's coat of arms. Other names are ; ; Polish \"Mukaczewo\"; Slovak and Czech: \"Mukačevo\"; ; (\"Munkatsh\").", "", "Archaeological excavation suggest that early settlements existed here before the Middle Ages. For example, a Celtic oppidum and metal works center that existed in the 3rd-1st century BC were found between the Halish and Lovachka mountains. A Thracian fort of the Iron Age (10th century BC) was found on the mountain of Tupcha. Around the 1st century the area was occupied by the Carpi people who displaced the local Celts from the area.", "In 895 the Hungarian tribes entered the Carpathian Basin through the Verecke Pass, about north of present-day Mukachevo. In 1397, the town and its surrounding was granted by King Sigismund of Hungary to his distant cousin, the exiled prince of Grand Duchy of Lithuania Theodor Koriatovich, who used to administrate the Ruthenian Podolia region of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, until was exiled for disobedience by Grand Duke Vytautas the Great in 1392. Theodor therefore became a vassal of Hungary and settled many Ruthenians in the territory. Other sources, however, state that Theodor bought the town and the surrounding area in 1396. During the 15th century, the city prospered and became a prominent craft and trade center for the region. In 1445, the town became a Hungarian free royal town. It was also granted the rights of Magdeburg law. During the 16th century, Mukachevo became part of the Principality of Transylvania. The 17th century (from 1604-1711) was a time of continuous struggle against the expansionist intentions of the Habsburg Empire for the Principality. In 1687 the anti-Habsburg Revolt of Imre Thököly started out from Mukachevo. The region also played an important role in Rákóczi's War of Independence.", "After the defeat of Francis II Rákóczi the city came under Austrian control in the mid-18th century as part of the Kingdom of Hungary and was made a key fortress of the Habsburg Monarchy. In 1726, the Palanok Castle and the town, before 1711 owned by the Rákóczi family, was given by the Habsburgs to the Schönborn family, who were responsible for an expansion of the town. They also settled many Germans in the territory, thereby causing an economic boom of the region. During 1796–1897, the city's castle, until then a strong fortress, became a prison. The Greek national hero Alexander Ypsilanti was imprisoned at the Palanok Castle between 1821 and 1823.", "In 1919, after the American-Rusyns agreed with Tomáš Masaryk to incorporate Carpathian Ruthenia into Czechoslovakia, the whole of Carpathian Ruthenia was occupied by Czechoslovak troops. On June 4, 1920, Mukachevo officially became part of Czechoslovakia by the Treaty of Trianon. In November 1938, a part of the territory of the former Kingdom of Hungary was re-annexed by Hungary as part of the First Vienna Award. Without delay the new authorities decreed the expulsion of all the Jews without Hungarian citizenship. As a consequence Polish and Russian Jews, long-term residents of the now Hungarian-controlled Transcarpathian region, and also from Mukachevo, as well as the native Jews who could not prove their citizenship, were deported over the Ukrainian border where their fate was sealed by the hands of a German Einsatzgruppe commando led by Friedrich Jeckeln. On August 27 and 28 1941 they were all murdered by the Germans in Kamianets-Podilskyi's massacre. Even so, Mukachevo's population still held an important Jewish component, until in 1944 all the Jews were deported to Auschwitz by the Nazi German Eichmann Commando. They were the last Jewish community in Europe to succumb to the Holocaust. In the end of 1944, the Red Army stormed Carpathian Ruthenia. At first the territory was given to the reestablished Czechoslovakia, then became part of the Soviet Union by a treaty between the two countries, later in 1945. The Soviet Union began a policy of expulsion of the Hungarian population. In 1945, the city was ceded to the Ukrainian SSR (\"now Ukraine\"). Since 2002, Mukachevo has been the seat of the Roman Catholic diocese comprising Transcarpathia.", "Mukachevo has a humid continental climate (Köppen: \"Dfb\").", "In 1921, 21,000 people lived in Mukachevo. Of these, 48 percent were Jews, 24 percent were Rusyns, and 22 percent were Hungarians. The city's population in 1966 was 50,500. Of these, 60% were Ukrainians, 18 percent Hungarians, 10% Russians and 6% Jews. According to the 2001 census, 82,200 people live in Mukachevo. Population in 1989 was 91,000, in 2004 77,300 and in 2008 93,738. Its population includes: Residents in seven villages of the Mukachevo Raion have the option to learn the Hungarian language in a school or home school environment.", "Fischer Sports, an Austrian company that produces Nordic Skiing, Alpine Skiing and Hockey equipment has a factory in Mukachevo. The firm benefits from provisional application on January 1, 2016 of the Deep and Comprehensive Free Trade Area provisions of the Ukraine–European Union Association Agreement.", "There are documents in the Berehove State Archives which indicate that Sephardi Jews lived in Munkács and the surrounding villages as early as the second half of the seventeenth century. The Jewish community of Munkács was an amalgam of Galician and Hungarian Hasidic Jewry, Orthodox Jews, and Zionists. The town is most noted for its Chief Rabbi Chaim Elazar Spira who led the community until his death in 1937. By 1851, Munkacs supported a large yeshiva, thereby demonstrating the community's commitment to Talmudic learning and piety. Materially impoverished, yet wealthy in ideological debate, the Jews of interwar Munkacs constituted almost half of the town's population. The Munkacs Jewish community was famous for its Hasidic activity as well as its innovations in Zionism and modern Jewish education. The Jewish population of Munkacs grew from 2,131 in 1825 to 5,049 in 1891 (almost 50 percent of the total population) to 7,675 in 1910 (about 44 percent). By 1921, the 10,000 Jews still made up about half the residents, though by 1930, the proportion had dropped to 43 percent, with a little over 11,000 Jews. The Jews of Munkacs constituted 11 percent of the Jewry of Subcarpathian Rus. Interwar Munkacs had a very large Jewish population, which was most visible on the Shabbat. On that day most stores were closed and, after services, the streets filled with Hasidic Jews in their traditional garb. The first movie house in the town was established by a Hasidic Jew, and it too closed on the Shabbat and Jewish holidays. The Chief Rabbi of Munkacs, Rabbi Chaim Elazar Spira (who led the community from 1913 until his death in 1937) was the most outspoken voice of religious anti-Zionism. He had succeeded his father, Rabbi Zvi Hirsh Spira, who had earlier inherited the mantle of leadership from his father Rabbi Shlomo Spira. He was also a Hasidic rebbe with a significant number of followers. Rabbi Chaim Elazar Spira was succeeded by his son-in-law, Rabbi Baruch Yehoshua Yerachmiel Rabinowicz. Along with the dominant Munkacser hasidic community there co-existed smaller yet vibrant Hasidic groups who were followers of the rebbes Belz, of Spinka, Zidichov, and Vizhnitz. By the time of the Holocaust there were nearly 30 synagogues in town, many of which were \"Shtieblech\" (\"[small] house\" - small [Hasidic] synagogues). The Hebrew Gymnasium was founded in Munkacs five years after the first Hebrew speaking elementary school in Czechoslovakia was established there in 1920. It soon became the most prestigious Hebrew high school east of Warsaw. Zionist activism along with chasidic pietism contributed to a community percolating with excitement, intrigue and at times internecine conflict In 1935, Chaim Kugel, formerly director of the Munkacs gymnasium (Jewish high school) and then Jewish Party delegate to the Czechoslovak Parliament, gave a speech during a parliamentary debate: \"...It is completely impossible to adequately describe the poverty in the area. The Jews... are affected equally along with the rest.... I strongly wish to protest any attempt to blame the poverty of the Subcarpathian Ruthenian peasantry on the Jews\" (Kugel later got to Mandatory Palestine and eventually became mayor of the Israeli city of Holon). Government policies were covertly directed against Jews, who bore a heavy share of taxes and had difficulty getting high civil service positions. In 1939, the Hungarians seized and annexed Subcarpathian Rus—including Munkacs—taking advantage of the dismemberment of Czechoslovakia. Though antisemitic legislation was introduced by the Hungarian authorities, Subcarpathian Rus, like the rest of Hungary, remained a relative haven for Jews until Nazi Germany occupied Hungary in 1944. In the spring of 1944 there were nearly 15,000 Jewish residents of the town. This ended on May 30, 1944 when the city was pronounced \"Judenrein\" (free of Jews after ghettoization and a series of deportations to Auschwitz). Today, Mukachevo is experiencing a Jewish renaissance of sorts with the establishment of a supervised kosher kitchen, a mikveh, Jewish summer camp in addition to the prayer services which take place three times daily. In July 2006, a new synagogue was dedicated on the site of a pre-war hasidic synagogue.", "Mukachevo is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Decorations.", "Railway station.", "In popular culture.", "Further reading." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The first fixed crossing at Blackfriars was a long toll bridge designed in an Italianate style by Robert Mylne and constructed with nine semi-elliptical arches of Portland stone. Beating designs by John Gwynn and George Dance, it took nine years to build, opening to the public in 1769. It was the third bridge across the Thames in the then built-up area of London, supplementing the ancient London Bridge, which dated from several centuries earlier, and Westminster Bridge. It was originally named \"William Pitt Bridge\" (after the Prime Minister William Pitt the Elder) as a dedication, but its informal name relating to the precinct within the City named after the Blackfriars Monastery, a Dominican priory which once stood nearby, was generally adopted. It was later made toll free. The City of London Corporation was responsible for promoting it and the location between the other two bridges was chosen because it was realised that the disused wharfage of the lower River Fleet from the Thames to what became Ludgate Circus would allow access into the north bank without unduly disrupting the neighbourhood; hence its name of New Bridge Street. The Fleet can be seen discharging into the Thames at its north side. By taking an access road from its southern landing to a junction with the routes created to simplify passage between those bridges to its east and west to the south it would also add to those improvements. This created the junction at St George's Circus between Westminster Bridge Road, Borough Road and the later named Blackfriars Road which crossed the largely open parish of Christchurch Surrey. The continuation to the south at the major junction at Elephant and Castle is therefore named London Road. Although it was built of Portland stone the workmanship was very faulty. Between 1833 and 1840 extensive repairs were necessary, until at last it was decided to build a new bridge on the same site, which coincided with the creation of the Thames Embankment's junction with the new Queen Victoria Street and required a major reconfiguration. The original Blackfriars Bridge was demolished in 1860, P.A. Thom & Company won with the lowest tender and placed an order with Lloyds, Foster and Company for the necessary ironwork. Due to P.A. Thom's problems in finding solid foundations, Lloyds, Fosters & Company went into liquidation having lost £250,000 on the project. The metalwork was built by The Patent Shaft and Axletree Company, Wednesbury, following their takeover of Lloyds, Foster and Company. The present bridge which on 6 November 1869 was opened by Queen Victoria is long, consisting of five wrought iron arches built to a design by Joseph Cubitt. Cubitt also designed the adjacent rail bridge (now demolished) and it was a condition that the spans and piers of the two bridges be aligned. Like its predecessor it is owned and maintained by the Bridge House Estates, a charitable trust overseen by the City of London Corporation. Like London Bridge the full length and its southern end is within the City's borders and not in the adjoining borough of Southwark. Due to the volume of traffic over the bridge, it was widened between 1907–10, from to its present. The bridge attracted some international attention in June 1982, when the body of Roberto Calvi, a former chairman of Italy's largest private bank, was found hanging from one of its arches with five bricks and around $14,000 in three different currencies in his pockets. Calvi's death was initially treated as suicide, but he was on the run from Italy accused of embezzlement and in 2002 forensic experts concluded that he had been murdered by the Mafia, to whom he was indebted. In 2005, five suspected members of the Mafia were tried in a Rome court for Calvi's murder, but all were acquitted in June 2007 for lack of evidence.", "On the piers of the bridge are stone carvings of water birds by sculptor John Birnie Philip. On the East (downstream) side (i.e. the side closer to the Thames Estuary and North Sea), the carvings show marine life and seabirds; those on the West (upstream) side show freshwater birds – reflecting the role of Blackfriars as the tidal turning point. On the north side of the bridge is a statue of Queen Victoria (funded by Sir Alfred Seale Haslam), to whom the bridge was dedicated. The ends of the bridge are shaped like a pulpit in a reference to Black Friars.", "The bridge gave its name to Blackfriars Bridge railway station on the southern bank which opened in 1864 before closing to passengers in 1885 following the opening of what is today the main Blackfriars station. Blackfriars Bridge station continued as a goods stop until 1964 when it was completely demolished, and much of it redeveloped into offices. The River Fleet empties into the Thames under the north end of Blackfriars Bridge. The structure was given Grade II listed status in 1972.", "In 1774 the new bridge was mentioned in a popular song in Charles Dibdin's opera \"The Waterman\", referring to the boatmen who used to carry fashionable folks to Vauxhall Gardens and Ranelagh Gardens. \"And did you not hear of the jolly young waterman, Who at Blackfriars Bridge used for to ply? And he feathered his oars with such skill and dexterity, Winning each heart and delighting each eye.\" A Bailey bridge constructed over the River Rhine at Rees, Germany, in 1945 by the Royal Canadian Engineers (R.C.E.) was named \"Blackfriars Bridge\", and, at 558 m (1814 ft) including the ramps at each end, was the longest Bailey bridge then constructed. In Neil Gaiman's \"Neverwhere\", \"Blackfriars Bridge\" was named as the home of an unknown order of monks who held the key to an angelic prison. The bridge is also featured in the lyrics of the songs \"The Resurrectionist\" by the Pet Shop Boys, and \"Cold Bread\" by Johnny Flynn & The Sussex Wit. In Louis A. Meyer's \"Bloody Jack: Being An Account of the Curious Adventures of Mary \"Jacky\" Faber, Ship's Boy\", Jacky is introduced as an orphan in early 19th-century London who lives with her orphan gang under Blackfriars Bridge. The bridge is mentioned in Harold Pinter's play \"The Homecoming\" when the character Max suggests that his brother, Sam, would have sex for a few pennies here. The bridge also appears during the opening sequence of the film \"Happy-Go-Lucky\", where the main character rides across it on a bicycle. In the 1998 spy film \"The Avengers\", the bridge is destroyed by a tornado caused by a weather-changing machine built by a mad scientist when he causes a hurricane over London. The bridge is also cited in several Italian songs referring to the death of Roberto Calvi: \"Via Italia\" by Gang and \"Nostra signora dei depistati\" by Modena City Ramblers. The bridge was featured in the film \"Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix\" (2007). The Order of the Phoenix passes under it on their flight from number four, Privet Drive to Grimmauld Place. In Terry Gilliam's \"The Imaginarium of Doctor Parnassus\" (2009), Heath Ledger's character Tony is found hanging under the Blackfriars Bridge, described by Terry Gilliam as \"an homage to Roberto Calvi\". In Cassandra Clare's book series \"The Infernal Devices\", Tessa Gray and Jem Carstairs meet at the bridge every year from 1878 to 2008. They also get married here. Blackfriars Bridge is referenced in the song \"Addiction\" by the English punk rock band Counterfeit: \"I'm strung out and I'm sentimental On Blackfriars bridge hoping that it's all over\"", "The many difficulties encountered and innovations used in building the first Blackfriars Bridge 1759–69 are described in:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Battersea Park.", "Victoria Bridge (Old Chelsea Bridge).", "Design and construction.", "Opening.", "Abolition of tolls.", "New Chelsea Bridge.", "Design and construction.", "Temporary wartime bridge.", "Motorcycle gangs.", "Present-day.", "Battersea Footbridge.", "Notes and references." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The Red House Inn was an isolated inn on the south bank of the River Thames in the marshlands by Battersea fields, about east of the developed street of the prosperous farming village of Battersea. Not on any major road, its isolation and lack of any police presence made it a popular destination for visitors from London and Westminster since the 16th century, who would travel to the Red House by wherry, attracted by Sunday dog fighting, bare-knuckle boxing bouts and illegal horse racing. Because of its lawless nature, Battersea Fields was also a popular area for duelling, and was the venue for the 1829 duel between the then Prime Minister the Duke of Wellington and the Earl of Winchilsea. The town of Chelsea, on the north bank of the Thames about west of Westminster, was an important industrial centre. Although by the 19th century its role as the centre of the British porcelain industry had been overtaken by the West Midlands, its riverside location and good roads made it an important centre for the manufacture of goods to serve the nearby and rapidly growing London. The Chelsea Waterworks Company occupied a site on the north bank of the Thames opposite the Red House Inn. Founded in 1723, the company pumped water from the Thames to reservoirs around Westminster through a network of hollow elm trunks. As London spread westwards, the former farmland to the west became increasingly populated, and the Thames became seriously polluted with sewage and animal carcasses. In 1852 Parliament banned water from being taken from the Thames downstream of Teddington, forcing the Chelsea Waterworks Company to move upstream to Seething Wells. Since 1771, Battersea and Chelsea had been linked by the modest wooden Battersea Bridge. As London grew following the advent of the railways, Chelsea began to become congested, and in 1842 the Commission of Woods, Forests, and Land Revenues recommended the building of an embankment at Chelsea to free new land for development, and proposed the building of a new bridge downstream of Battersea Bridge and the replacement of Battersea Bridge with a more modern structure.", "In the early 1840s Thomas Cubitt and James Pennethorne had proposed a plan to use 150,000 tons of rocks and earth from the excavation of the Royal Victoria Dock to infill the marshy Battersea Fields and create a large public park to serve the growing population of Chelsea. In 1846 the Commissioners of Woods and Forests purchased the Red House Inn and of surrounding land, and work began on the development that would become Battersea Park. It was expected that with the opening of the park the volume of cross river traffic would increase significantly, putting further strain on the dilapidated Battersea Bridge. Consequently, in 1846 an Act of Parliament authorised the building of a new toll bridge on the site of an ancient ford exactly downstream of Battersea Bridge. The approach road on the southern side was to run along the side of the new park, while that on the northern side was to run from Sloane Square, through the former Chelsea Waterworks site, to the new bridge. Although previous toll bridges in the area had been built and operated by private companies, the new bridge was to be built and operated by the government, under the control of the Metropolitan Improvement Commission, despite protests in Parliament from Radicals objecting to the Government profiting from a toll-paying bridge. It was intended that the bridge would be made toll-free once the costs of building it had been recouped.", "Engineer Thomas Page was appointed to build the bridge, and presented the Commission with several potential designs, including a seven-span stone bridge, a five-span cast iron arch bridge, and a suspension bridge. The Commission selected the suspension bridge design, and work began in 1851 on the new bridge, to be called the Victoria Bridge.", "Page's design was typical of suspension bridges of the period, and consisted of a wrought iron deck and four cast iron towers supporting chains, which in turn supported the weight of the deck. The towers rested on a pair of timber and cast iron piers. The towers passed through the deck, meaning that between the towers the road was narrower than on the rest of the bridge. Although work had begun in 1851 delays in the closure of the Chelsea Waterworks, which only completed its relocation to Seething Wells in 1856, caused lengthy delays to the project, and the Edinburgh-made ironwork was only transported to the site in 1856. Victoria Bridge was long with a central span of, and the roadway was wide with a footpath on either side, making a total width of. Large lamps were set at the tops of the four towers, which were only to be lit when Queen Victoria was spending the night in London. The central span was inscribed with the date of construction and the words \"Gloria Deo in Excelsis\" (\"Glory to God in the Highest\"). It took seven years to build, at a total cost of £90,000 (about £ in ). The controversial tolls were collected from octagonal stone tollhouses at each end of the bridge. As with the earlier construction of nearby Battersea Bridge, during excavations workers found large quantities of Roman and Celtic weapons and skeletons in the riverbed, leading many historians to conclude that the area was the site of Julius Caesar's crossing of the Thames during the 54 BC invasion of Britain. The most significant item found was the Celtic La Tène style bronze and enamel Battersea Shield, one of the most important pieces of Celtic military equipment found in Britain, recovered from the riverbed during dredging for the piers.", "On 31 March 1858 Queen Victoria, accompanied by two of her daughters and \"en route\" to the formal opening of Battersea Park, crossed the new bridge and declared it officially open, naming it the Victoria Bridge; it was opened to the public three days later, on 3 April 1858. The design met with great critical acclaim, particularly from the \"Illustrated London News\". Shortly after its opening, concerns were raised about the bridge's safety. Following an inspection by John Hawkshaw and Edwin Clark in 1861, an additional support chain was added on each side. Despite the strengthening there were still concerns about its soundness, and a weight limit of 5 tons was imposed. At the same time, the name was changed from Victoria Bridge to Chelsea Bridge, as the government was concerned about the reliability of suspension bridges and did not want a potential collapse to be associated with the Queen. Although reasonably well used, it was unpopular with the public, who objected to being obliged to pay tolls to use it. On 4 July 1857, almost a year before the bridge's opening, a demonstration against the tolls attracted 6,000 residents. Concerns were raised in Parliament that poorer industrial workers in Chelsea, which had no large parks of its own, would be unable to afford to use the new park in Battersea. Bowing to public pressure, shortly after the bridge opened Parliament declared it free to use for pedestrians on Sundays, and in 1875 it was also made toll-free on public holidays. Additionally, because the main lights were only turned on when Queen Victoria was staying in London, it was poorly used at night. Despite this, the new Battersea Park was extremely popular, particularly the sporting facilities; on 9 January 1864 the park staged the world's first official game of association football.", "In 1873 the privately owned Albert Bridge, between Chelsea and Battersea bridges, opened. Although Albert Bridge was not as successful as intended at luring customers from Chelsea Bridge and soon found itself in serious financial difficulties, it nonetheless caused a sharp drop in usage of Chelsea Bridge. In 1877 the Metropolis Toll Bridges Act was passed, which allowed the Metropolitan Board of Works (MBW) to buy all London bridges between Hammersmith and Waterloo bridges and free them from tolls. Ownership of Chelsea Bridge was transferred to the MBW in 1877 at a cost of £75,000 (about £ in ), and on 24 May 1879 Chelsea Bridge, Battersea Bridge and Albert Bridge were declared toll free by the Prince of Wales in a brief ceremony, after which a parade of Chelsea Pensioners marched across the bridge to Battersea Park. By the early 20th century, Chelsea Bridge was in poor condition. It was unable to carry the increasing volume of traffic caused by the growth of London and the increasing popularity of the automobile; between 1914 and 1929 use of the bridge almost doubled from 6,500 to 12,600 vehicles per day. In addition, parts of its structure were beginning to work loose, and in 1922 the gilded finials on the towers had to be removed because of concerns that they would fall off. Architectural opinion had turned heavily against Victorian styles and Chelsea Bridge was now deeply unpopular with architects; former President of the Royal Institute of British Architects Reginald Blomfield spoke vehemently against its design in 1921, and there were few people supporting the preservation of the old bridge. In 1926 the Royal Commission on Cross-river Traffic recommended that Chelsea Bridge be rebuilt or replaced.", "In 1931 the London County Council (LCC) proposed demolishing Chelsea Bridge and replacing it with a modern six-lane bridge at a cost of £695,000 (about £ in ). Because of the economic crisis of the Great Depression the Ministry of Transport refused to fund the project and the LCC was unable to raise the funds elsewhere. However, in an effort to boost employment in the Battersea area, which had suffered badly in the depression, the Ministry of Transport agreed to underwrite 60% of the costs of a cheaper four-lane bridge costing £365,000 (about £ in ), on condition that all materials used in the building of the bridge be sourced from within the British Empire.", "In 1934 a temporary footbridge which had previously been used during rebuilding works on Lambeth Bridge was moved into place alongside Chelsea Bridge, and demolition began. The new bridge, also called Chelsea Bridge, was designed by LCC architects G. Topham Forrest and E. P. Wheeler and built by Holloway Brothers (London). Much wider than the older bridge at wide, it has a wide roadway and two wide pavements cantilevered out from the sides of the bridge. Uniquely in London, Chelsea Bridge is a self-anchored suspension bridge, the first of the type to be built in Britain. The horizontal stresses are absorbed by stiffening girders in the deck itself and the suspension cables are not anchored to the ground, relieving stress on the abutments which are built on soft and unstable London clay. The piers of the new bridge were built on the site of the old bridge's piers, and are built of concrete, faced with granite above the low-water point. Each side of the bridge has a single suspension cable, each made up of 37 1-inch (23mm) diameter wire ropes bundled to form a hexagonal cable. As was agreed with the Ministry of Transport, all materials used in the bridge came from the British Empire; the steel came from Scotland and Yorkshire, the granite of the piers from Aberdeen and Cornwall, the timbers of the deck from British Columbia and the asphalt of the roadway from Trinidad. Because the self-anchored structure relies on the roadway itself to absorb stresses, the suspension cables could not be installed until the roadway was built; however, until the cables were in place the roadway could not be supported. To resolve this problem, Topham had the roadway built in sections, supported on very tall barges. The barges were floated into place at low tide, and the rising tide was used to lift the sections above the height of the piers. As the tide ebbed, the roadway dropped into place. The recently built Battersea Power Station then dominated most views of the area, so it was decided that the bridge's appearance was unimportant. Consequently, in contrast to the heavily ornamented 1858 bridge, the new bridge has a starkly utilitarian design and the only ornamentation consists of two ornamental lamp posts at each entrance. Each features a gilded galleon on top of a coat of arms. The outward facing sides of all four posts show the LCC coat of arms of the Lion of England, St George's Cross and the barry wavy lines representing the Thames; the inward faces on the south side show the dove of peace of the Metropolitan Borough of Battersea, that on the northwest corner shows the winged bull, lion, boars' heads and stag of the Metropolitan Borough of Chelsea, and that on the northeast corner the portcullis and Tudor roses of the Metropolitan Borough of Westminster. The new bridge was completed five months ahead of schedule and within the £365,000 budget. It was opened on 6 May 1937 by the Prime Minister of Canada, William Lyon Mackenzie King, who was in London for the coronation of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth.", "Two years after the bridge's opening the Second World War broke out. Because of their close proximity to Chelsea Barracks it was expected that enemy bombers would target the three road bridges in the area, and a temporary bridge was built parallel to Chelsea Bridge. As with the four other temporary Thames bridges built in this period, it was built of steel girders supported by wooden stakes; however, despite its flimsy appearance it was a sturdy structure, capable of supporting tanks and other heavy military equipment. As it turned out, no enemy action took place in the area, and all three bridges survived the war undamaged. The temporary bridge was dismantled in 1945.", "Beginning in the 1950s Chelsea Bridge became a favourite meeting place for motorcyclists, who would race across the bridge on Friday nights. On 17 October 1970 a serious confrontation took place on Chelsea Bridge between the Essex and Chelsea chapters of the Hells Angels, and rival motorcycle gangs the Road Rats, Nightingales, Windsor Angels and Jokers. Around 50 people took part in the fight; weapons used included motorcycle chains, flick knives and at least one spiked flail. One member of the Jokers was shot with a sawn-off shotgun and fatally wounded, and 20 of those present were sentenced to between one and twelve years imprisonment.", "In the 1970s Chelsea Bridge was painted bright red and white, prompting a number of complaints from Chelsea F.C. fans that Chelsea Bridge had been painted in Arsenal colours. In 2007 it was redecorated in a less controversial red, blue and white colour scheme. Chelsea Bridge is now floodlit from beneath at night and of light-emitting diodes strung along the towers and suspension chains, intended to complement the illuminations of the nearby Albert Bridge. Although motorcyclists still meet on the bridge, following complaints from residents about the noise their racing has been curtailed. Chelsea Bridge was declared a Grade II listed structure in 2008, providing protection to preserve its character from further alteration. Battersea Park still retains Cubitt and Pennethorne's original layout and features, including a riverfront promenade, a formal avenue through the centre of the park and multiple animal enclosures. On the eastern side of the bridge at the southern end a major new residential development of 600 homes called Chelsea Bridge Wharf has been built, as part of long term plans to regenerate the long-derelict former industrial sites around Battersea Power Station.", "To link the new developments around Battersea Power Station to Battersea Park, in 2004 a new curved footbridge was built beneath the southern end of Chelsea Bridge. The footbridge was built offsite in four sections, transported by road to the King George V Dock where it was assembled, and the completed structure floated down the river and hoisted into position. It is planned that once the riverfront in the area has been opened to the public, following the completion of the rebuilding of Battersea Power Station into a commercial development, the new bridge will form part of the Thames Path. The new bridge curves out from the bank, overhanging the river bank by, and cost £600,000 to build.", "Notes References Bibliography" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Location." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The original bridge was constructed in the mid-nineteenth century in two stages: the first bridge was built by the Victoria Station and Pimlico Railway between 1859 and 1860 at a cost of £84,000 to carry two tracks into Victoria Station; it was the first railway bridge across the Thames in central London. The engineer was Sir John Fowler. The bridge was widened by four tracks on the eastern side for the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway and London, Chatham and Dover Railway between 1865 and 1866, at a cost of £245,000. Sir Charles Fox was the engineer. In 1907 the bridge was widened again with a further track, on the western side, for the London, Brighton and South Coast Railway. In 1963–67, the structure of the bridge was completely renewed and modernized, leaving only the cores of the original piers. At the same time, a tenth track was added in a space formerly used for gas mains. To minimize disruption to traffic, each track was renewed separately, and put back into service before the next one was closed. The designer for this work was Freeman Fox & Partners, and the project engineer was A. H. Cantrell, chief civil engineer of the Southern Region of British Rail. It was said to be the busiest railway bridge in the world with 1000 trains crossing per day in 1968.", "On the north bank is Pimlico to the north and east and Chelsea to the west; the Lister Hospital and the Royal Chelsea Hospital lie immediately to the north west. On the south bank is Nine Elms to the east and Battersea to the west. Battersea Power Station is immediately to the south of the bridge, and Battersea Park to the south west." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "The new footbridges." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The first Hungerford Bridge, designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel, opened in 1845 as a suspension footbridge. It was named after the then Hungerford Market, because it went from the South Bank to Hungerford Market on the north side of the Thames. In 1859 the original bridge was bought by the railway company extending the South Eastern Railway into the newly opened Charing Cross railway station. The railway company replaced the suspension bridge with a structure designed by Sir John Hawkshaw, comprising nine spans made of wrought iron lattice girders, which opened in 1864. The chains from the old bridge were re-used in Bristol's Clifton Suspension Bridge. The original brick pile buttresses of Brunel's footbridge are still in use, though the one on the Charing Cross side is now much closer to the river bank than it was originally, due to the building of the Victoria Embankment, completed in 1870. The buttress on the South Bank side still has the entrances and steps from the original steamer pier Brunel built on to the footbridge. To compensate for the removal of the footbridge, walkways were added on each side, with the upstream one later being removed when the railway was widened. Another walkway was temporarily added in 1951 when an Army Bailey bridge was constructed for the Festival of Britain. In 1980 a temporary walkway was erected on the upstream side while the downstream railway bridge and walkway were refurbished. It is one of only three bridges in London to combine pedestrian and rail use; the others being Fulham Railway Bridge and Barnes Railway Bridge. The footbridge gained a reputation for being narrow, dilapidated and dangerous; it was the scene of a murder in 1999. In the mid-1990s a decision was made to replace the footbridge with new structures on either side of the existing railway bridge, and a competition was held in 1996 for a new design. Further justification for new footbridge structures both upstream and downstream of the railway bridge was that the brittle wrought iron support pillars of Sir John Hawkshaw's railway bridge were vulnerable to impact from riverboats. It was felt, especially following the Marchioness disaster, that these should be clad in concrete at water level; but the bridge's owners, Railtrack, could not afford the work. The Golden Jubilee Bridges achieved this protection at no cost to Railtrack.", "The concept design for the new footbridges was won by architects Lifschutz Davidson Sandilands and engineers WSP Group. Detailed design of the two bridges was carried out by consulting engineers Gifford, now Ramboll UK. Their construction was complicated by the need to keep the railway bridge operating without interruptions, the Bakerloo line tunnels passing only a few feet under the river bed, and the potential danger of unexploded World War II bombs in the Thames mud. Despite extensive surveys of the riverbed, London Underground was unwilling to accept these risks and preliminary works were stopped in 2000. The design was modified so that the support structure on the north side, which would have been within of the tube lines, was moved out of the river bed and onto Victoria Embankment. Excavation near the tube lines was carried out when the tube was closed, and foundations were hand-dug for additional security. The two new wide footbridges were completed in 2002. They were named the Golden Jubilee Bridges, in honour of the fiftieth anniversary of Queen Elizabeth II's accession, although in practice they are often still referred to as the \"Hungerford Footbridges\". The long decks were raised using an innovative method called \"incremental launching\", in which each long section was pulled across the river using a long steel truss weighing 300 tonnes. This process was repeated five times until each deck spanned the river, supported by six temporary piers made of steel and concrete. The seven 25-tonne pylons were then raised over the subsequent two weeks. Once the pylons had been installed, the decks were jacked up to enable their connection with the cable stays suspended from the pylons. The concrete deck was then lowered into its final position and the temporary piers and supports were dismantled. The design of the bridges is complex. Each of the two decks is supported by inclined outward-leaning pylons. The decks are suspended from fans of slender steel rods called deck stays—there are 180 on each deck, made up of over of cable—and are held in position by other rods called backstays. Because the pylons lean the back stays are under tension. The deck is secured in place by steel collars fitted around (although not supported by) the pillars of the railway bridge; the collars are themselves attached to the bridge's foundations by tie-down rods. The entire structure is thus held in place by exploiting the tensions between the pylons and the various stay rods and struts. The new bridges won the Specialist category in the Royal Fine Art Commission Building of the Year Award in 2003. It gained a Structural Achievement Award commendation in the 2004 Institution of Structural Engineers awards, and has won awards from the Civic Trust and for its lighting design. In 2014, the planning application for the now cancelled Garden Bridge, revealed in its assessment of pedestrian movement across the Thames that the footbridges are the busiest in London, with an estimated footfall of 8.5 million each year." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Lambeth Bridge is on the site of a horse ferry between the Palace of Westminster and Lambeth Palace on the south bank. Its name lives on in Horseferry Road, which forms the approach to the bridge on the north bank. The first modern bridge was a suspension bridge, long, designed by Peter W. Barlow. Sanctioned by an Act of Parliament in 1860, it opened as a toll bridge on 10 November 1862. Doubts about its safety, coupled with its awkwardly steep approaches deterring horse-drawn traffic, meant it soon became used almost solely as a pedestrian crossing. It ceased to be a toll bridge in 1879 when the Metropolitan Board of Works assumed responsibility for its upkeep — it was by then severely corroded, and by 1910 it was closed to vehicular traffic. The London County Council prepared a masterplan for the area, including a replacement road bridge linking to a widened Horseferry Road, which was authorised by \"London County Council (Lambeth Bridge) Act 1924\". Before work had started on the project, the 1928 Thames flood caused extensive destruction of property in the Millbank area. Following the flood the Chelsea Embankment was rebuilt and raised, resulting in some minor redesign of the approaches, and creating the open space to the north of Lambeth Bridge now known as Victoria Tower Gardens South. During the period of delay, the bridge was also redesigned to be able to cope with a higher weight of motorised traffic. The current structure, a five-span steel arch, designed by engineer Sir George Humphreys and architects Sir Reginald Blomfield and G. Topham Forrest, was built by Dorman Long and opened on 19 July 1932 by King George V. It formerly carried four lanes of road traffic (now reduced to three lanes, one of which is a buses-only lane flowing eastbound) from a roundabout junction by the Lambeth Palace northwards to another roundabout, where the Millbank road meets Horseferry Road. The bridge is notable at road level for the pairs of obelisks at either end of the bridge, which are surmounted by stone pinecones. However, there is a popular urban legend that they are pineapples, as a tribute to Lambeth resident John Tradescant the younger, who is said to have grown the first pineapple in Britain. The bridge was declared a Grade II listed structure in 2008, providing protection to preserve its special character from unsympathetic development. The listing designation includes the parapets, lamps, obelisks and the approach walls." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Nearby." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A previous bridge, designed by John Rennie the Elder, opened on the site in 1819. On the 1818 Cary map of London, it was labelled as Queen Street Bridge. All subsequent maps label it as Southwark Bridge. The bridge consisted of three large cast-iron spans supported by granite piers. The bridge was notable for having the longest cast iron span,, ever made. Unsurprisingly, it became known colloquially as \"The Iron Bridge\" as mentioned inter alia in Charles Dickens' \"Little Dorrit\". The iron spans were cast in Masborough, Rotherham. It was a commercial tolled operation which was trying to compete with the toll free Blackfriars and London bridges nearby, but the company became bankrupt and its interest were acquired by the Bridge House Estates which then made it toll free in 1864. A new bridge on the site was designed by Ernest George and Basil Mott. It was built by Sir William Arrol & Co. and opened on 6 June 1921. Halfway along the bridge on the Western side is a plaque which is inscribed: The bridge provides access to Upper Thames Street on the north bank and, due to the ring of steel, there is no further road access to the City and the north. The bridge is owned and maintained by Bridge House Estates, a charitable trust overseen by the City of London Corporation. The current bridge was given Grade II listed structure status in 1995.", "At the north-west side is Vintners’ Court, a 1990s office block which has a classical façade of columns and pediment; this was developed on the site owned by the Worshipful Company of Vintners whose Hall is behind it on Upper Thames Street. The south end is near the Tate Modern, the Clink Prison Museum, the Globe Theatre, and the \"Financial Times\" and Ofcom buildings. Below the bridge on the south side are some old steps, which were once used by Thames watermen as a place to moor their boats and wait for customers. Below the bridge on the south side is a pedestrian tunnel, part of the Queen's Walk Embankment, containing a frieze depicting the Thames frost fairs. Cycle Superhighway 7 runs along the bridge." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Location.", "Roman bridges.", "Early medieval bridges.", "\"Old\" London Bridge (1209–1831).", "\"New\" London Bridge (1831–1967).", "Sale to Robert McCulloch.", "Modern London Bridge.", "Transport." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The abutments of modern London Bridge rest several metres above natural embankments of gravel, sand and clay. From the late Neolithic era the southern embankment formed a natural causeway above the surrounding swamp and marsh of the river's estuary; the northern ascended to higher ground at the present site of Cornhill. Between the embankments, the River Thames could have been crossed by ford when the tide was low, or ferry when it was high. Both embankments, particularly the northern, would have offered stable beachheads for boat traffic up and downstream – the Thames and its estuary were a major inland and Continental trade route from at least the 9th century BC. There is archaeological evidence for scattered Neolithic, Bronze Age and Iron Age settlement nearby, but until a bridge was built there, London did not exist. A few miles upstream, beyond the river's upper tidal reach, two ancient fords were in use. These were apparently aligned with the course of Watling Street, which led into the heartlands of the Catuvellauni, Britain's most powerful tribe at the time of Caesar's invasion of 54 BC. Some time before Claudius's conquest of AD 43, power shifted to the Trinovantes, who held the region northeast of the Thames Estuary from a capital at Camulodunum, nowadays Colchester in Essex. Claudius imposed a major \"colonia\" at Camulodunum, and made it the capital city of the new Roman province of Britannia. The first London Bridge was built by the Romans as part of their road-building programme, to help consolidate their conquest.", "The first bridge was probably a Roman military pontoon type, giving a rapid overland shortcut to Camulodunum from the southern and Kentish ports, along the Roman roads of Stane Street and Watling Street (now the A2). Around AD 55, the temporary bridge over the Thames was replaced by a permanent timber piled bridge, maintained and guarded by a small garrison. On the relatively high, dry ground at the northern end of the bridge, a small, opportunistic trading and shipping settlement took root and grew into the town of Londinium. A smaller settlement developed at the southern end of the bridge, in the area now known as Southwark. The bridge was probably destroyed along with the town in the Boudican revolt (AD 60), but both were rebuilt and Londinium became the administrative and mercantile capital of Roman Britain. The upstream fords and ferries remained in use but the bridge offered uninterrupted, mass movement of foot, horse, and wheeled traffic across the Thames, linking four major arterial road systems north of the Thames with four to the south. Just downstream of the bridge were substantial quays and depots, convenient to seagoing trade between Britain and the rest of the Roman Empire.", "With the end of Roman rule in Britain in the early 5th century, Londinium was gradually abandoned and the bridge fell into disrepair. In the Anglo-Saxon period, the river became a boundary between the emergent, mutually hostile kingdoms of Mercia and Wessex. By the late 9th century, Danish invasions prompted at least a partial reoccupation of the site by the Saxons. The bridge may have been rebuilt by Alfred the Great soon after the Battle of Edington as part of Alfred's redevelopment of the area in his system of burhs, or it may have been rebuilt around 990 under the Saxon king Æthelred the Unready to hasten his troop movements against Sweyn Forkbeard, father of Cnut the Great. A skaldic tradition describes the bridge's destruction in 1014 by Æthelred's ally Olaf, to divide the Danish forces who held both the walled City of London and Southwark. The earliest contemporary written reference to a Saxon bridge is c.1016 when chroniclers mention how Cnut's ships bypassed the crossing, during his war to regain the throne from Edmund Ironside (see Battle of Brentford (1016)). Following the Norman conquest in 1066, King William I rebuilt the bridge. The London tornado of 1091 destroyed it, also damaging St Mary-le-Bow. It was repaired or replaced by King William II, destroyed by fire in 1136, and rebuilt in the reign of Stephen. Henry II created a monastic guild, the \"Brethren of the Bridge\", to oversee all work on London Bridge. In 1163, Peter of Colechurch, chaplain and warden of the bridge and its brethren, supervised the bridge's last rebuilding in timber.", "After the murder of his erstwhile friend and later opponent Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, the penitent King Henry II commissioned a new stone bridge in place of the old, with a chapel at its centre dedicated to Becket as martyr. The archbishop had been a native Londoner and a popular figure. The Chapel of St Thomas on the Bridge became the official start of pilgrimage to his Canterbury shrine; it was grander than some town parish churches, and had an additional river-level entrance for fishermen and ferrymen. Building work began in 1176, supervised by Peter of Colechurch. The costs would have been enormous; Henry's attempt to meet them with taxes on wool and sheepskins probably gave rise to a later legend that London Bridge was built on wool packs. After Colechurch's death, Isembert, a French monk who was renowned as a bridge builder, was appointed by King John to complete the project. Construction was not finished until 1209 during the reign of King John. John tried to recoup the cost of building and maintenance by licensing out building plots on the bridge but this was never enough. In 1284, in exchange for loans to Edward I, the City of London acquired the charter for the maintenance of the bridge, based on the duties and toll-rights of the former \"Brethren of the Bridge\". The bridge was wide according to some records that were later disputed. The structure was about long, supported by 19 irregularly spaced arches, founded on starlings set into the river-bed. It had a drawbridge to allow for the passage of tall ships, and defensive gatehouses at both ends. By 1358 it was already crowded with 138 shops. At least one two-entranced, multi-seated public latrine overhung the bridge parapets and discharged into the river below; so did an unknown number of private latrines reserved for Bridge householders or shopkeepers and bridge officials. In 1382–83 a new latrine was made (or an old one replaced) at considerable cost, at the northern end of the bridge. The buildings on London Bridge were a major fire hazard and increased the load on its arches, several of which had to be rebuilt over the centuries. In 1212, perhaps the greatest of the early fires of London broke out on both ends of the bridge simultaneously, trapping many people in the middle. Houses on the bridge were burnt during Wat Tyler's Peasants' Revolt in 1381 and during Jack Cade's rebellion in 1450. A major fire of 1633 that destroyed the northern third of the bridge formed a firebreak that prevented further damage to the bridge during the Great Fire of London (1666). By the Tudor period, there were some 200 buildings on the bridge. Some stood up to seven storeys high, some overhung the river by seven feet, and some overhung the road, to form a dark tunnel through which all traffic had to pass; this did not prevent the addition, in 1577, of the palatial Nonsuch House to the buildings that crowded the bridge. The available roadway was just wide, divided into two lanes, so that in each direction, carts, wagons, coaches and pedestrians shared a single file lane six feet wide. When the bridge was congested, crossing it could take up to an hour. Those who could afford the fare might prefer to cross by ferry, but the bridge structure had several undesirable effects on river traffic. The narrow arches and wide pier bases restricted the river's tidal ebb and flow, so that in hard winters, the river upstream of the bridge became more susceptible to freezing and impassable by boat. The flow was further obstructed in the 16th century by waterwheels (designed by Peter Morice) installed under the two north arches to drive water pumps, and under the two south arches to power grain mills; the difference in water levels on the two sides of the bridge could be as much as, producing ferocious rapids between the piers resembling a weir. Only the brave or foolhardy attempted to \"shoot the bridge\"—steer a boat between the starlings when in flood—and some were drowned in the attempt. The bridge was \"for wise men to pass over, and for fools to pass under.\" The southern gatehouse became the scene of one of London's most notorious sights — a display of the severed heads of traitors, impaled on pikes and dipped in tar and boiled to preserve them against the elements. The head of William Wallace was the first to appear on the gate, in 1305, starting a tradition that was to continue for another 355 years. Other famous heads on pikes included those of Jack Cade in 1450, Thomas More in 1535, Bishop John Fisher in the same year, and Thomas Cromwell in 1540. In 1598, a German visitor to London, Paul Hentzner, counted over 30 heads on the bridge: Evelyn's \"Diary\" noted that the practice stopped in 1660, following the Restoration of King Charles II, although heads continued to be displayed at Temple Bar, about half a mile north west, as late as 1772. In 1666, the Great Fire of London first destroyed the bridge's waterwheels, preventing them from pumping water to fight the fire, and then burned one third of the houses on the bridge; a gap in the building left by a previous fire in 1633 prevented the destruction of the rest. Over the years, incidents of arches collapsing were recorded in 1281–82 and in 1437. A survey in 1683 provided specifics as to the bridge's dimensions, stating that it had been 15 feet wide but was recently widened to 20 feet. Considering the houses, the width actually available for traffic however, was only about 12 feet. A recently rediscovered list of leases from the 17th century provided a great deal of information, including the size and location of the 124 houses, the chapel, the gate and the drawbridge tower. By 1710, most of the houses on the bridge had been rebuilt in the Restoration style and in order to widen the roadway to 20 feet (6 metres), the new houses were built overhanging the river supported by wooden girders and struts which hid the tops of the arches. In 1722 congestion was becoming so serious that the Lord Mayor decreed that \"all carts, coaches and other carriages coming out of Southwark into this City do keep all along the west side of the said bridge: and all carts and coaches going out of the City do keep along the east side of the said bridge.\" This has been suggested as one possible origin for the practice of traffic in Britain driving on the left. A fire in September 1725 destroyed houses on the bridge's east side and damaged some on the west side; they were rebuilt. The last houses to be built on the bridge were designed by George Dance the Elder in 1745, but even these elegant buildings had begun to subside within a decade. In 1756, the London Bridge Act gave the City Corporation the power to purchase all the properties on the bridge so that they could be demolished and the bridge improved. While this work was underway, a temporary wooden bridge was constructed to the west of London Bridge. It opened in October 1757 but caught fire and collapsed in the following April. The old bridge was reopened until a new wooden construction could be completed a year later. To help improve navigation under the bridge, its two centre arches were replaced by a single wider span, the Great Arch, in 1759. Demolition of the houses was completed in 1762 and the last tenant departed after some 550 years of housing on the bridge. Under the supervision of Dance the Elder, the roadway was widened to 46 feet (14 metres) and a balustrade was added \"in the Gothic taste\" together with fourteen stone alcoves for pedestrians to shelter in. However, the creation of the Great Arch had weakened the rest of the structure and constant expensive repairs were required in the following decades; this, combined with congestion both on and under bridge, often leading to fatal accidents, resulted in public pressure for a modern replacement.", "In 1799, a competition was opened to design a replacement for the medieval bridge. Entrants included Thomas Telford; he proposed a single iron arch span of, with centre clearance beneath it for masted river traffic. His design was accepted as safe and practicable, following expert testimony. Preliminary surveys and works were begun, but Telford's design required exceptionally wide approaches and the extensive use of multiple, steeply inclined planes, which would have required the purchase and demolition of valuable adjacent properties. A more conventional design of five stone arches, by John Rennie, was chosen instead. It was built west (upstream) of the original site by Jolliffe and Banks of Merstham, Surrey, under the supervision of Rennie's son. Work began in 1824 and the foundation stone was laid, in the southern coffer dam, on 15 June 1825. The old bridge continued in use while the new bridge was being built, and was demolished after the latter opened in 1831. New approach roads had to be built, which cost three times as much as the bridge itself. The total costs, around £2.5 million (£ in ), were shared by the British Government and the Corporation of London. Rennie's bridge was long and wide, constructed from Haytor granite. The official opening took place on 1 August 1831; King William IV and Queen Adelaide attended a banquet in a pavilion erected on the bridge. In 1896 the bridge was the busiest point in London, and one of its most congested; 8,000 pedestrians and 900 vehicles crossed every hour. It was widened by, using granite corbels. Subsequent surveys showed that the bridge was sinking an inch (about 2.5 cm) every eight years, and by 1924 the east side had sunk some three to four inches (about 9 cm) lower than the west side. The bridge would have to be removed and replaced.", "In 1967, the Common Council of the City of London placed the bridge on the market and began to look for potential buyers. Council member Ivan Luckin had put forward the idea of selling the bridge, and recalled: \"They all thought I was completely crazy when I suggested we should sell London Bridge when it needed replacing.\" On 18 April 1968, Rennie's bridge was purchased by the Missourian entrepreneur Robert P. McCulloch of McCulloch Oil for US$2,460,000. The claim that McCulloch believed mistakenly that he was buying the more impressive Tower Bridge was denied by Luckin in a newspaper interview. As the bridge was taken apart, each piece was meticulously numbered. The blocks were then shipped via the Panama Canal to California and trucked from Long Beach to Arizona. The bridge was reconstructed by Sundt Construction at Lake Havasu City, Arizona, and re-dedicated on 10 October 1971. The reconstruction of Rennie's London Bridge spans the Bridgewater Channel canal that leads from the Uptown area of Lake Havasu City and follows McCulloch Boulevard onto an island that has yet to be named. The London Bridge that was rebuilt at Lake Havasu City consists of a frame with stones from Rennie's London Bridge used as cladding. The cladding stones used are thick. Some of the stones from the bridge were left behind at Merrivale Quarry at Princetown in Devon. When Merrivale Quarry was abandoned and flooded in 2003, some of the remaining stones were sold in an online auction.", "The current London Bridge was designed by architect Lord Holford and engineers Mott, Hay and Anderson. It was constructed by contractors John Mowlem and Co from 1967 to 1972, and opened by Queen Elizabeth II on 17 March 1973. It comprises three spans of prestressed-concrete box girders, a total of long. The cost of £4 million (£ in ), was met entirely by the Bridge House Estates charity. The current bridge was built in the same location as Rennie's bridge, with the previous bridge remaining in use while the first two girders were constructed upstream and downstream. Traffic was then transferred onto the two new girders, and the previous bridge demolished to allow the final two central girders to be added. In 1984, the British warship HMS \"Jupiter\" collided with London Bridge, causing significant damage to both the ship and the bridge. On Remembrance Day 2004, several bridges in London were furnished with red lighting as part of a night-time flight along the river by wartime aircraft. London Bridge was the one bridge not subsequently stripped of the illuminations, which are regularly switched on at night. The current London Bridge is often shown in films, news and documentaries showing the throng of commuters journeying to work into the City from London Bridge Station (south to north). An example of this is actor Hugh Grant crossing the bridge north to south during the morning rush hour, in the 2002 film \"About a Boy\". On 11 July 2009, as part of the annual Lord Mayor's charity appeal and to mark the 800th anniversary of Old London Bridge's completion in the reign of King John, the Lord Mayor and Freemen of the City drove a flock of sheep across the bridge, supposedly by ancient right. On 3 June 2017, London Bridge was the target of a terrorist attack. Three terrorists used a rented van to ram pedestrians walking across the bridge, killing three. The attackers then drove their vehicle to nearby Borough Market, where they stabbed multiple people, five of whom died. Armed police arrived on scene and shot the three suspects dead. In addition to the eight people killed in the attack, 48 were injured. As a response, security barriers were installed between the bridge's pavement and road. On 29 November 2019, five people were stabbed, two of them fatally, in a knife attack carried out by Usman Khan at Fishmongers' Hall, on the north side of the bridge. Several people fought back on the bridge, including a man who used a narwhal tusk as a weapon. The perpetrator was shot and killed by police.", "The nearest London Underground stations are Monument, at the northern end of the bridge, and London Bridge at the southern end. London Bridge station is also served by National Rail." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "For over 600 years (at least 1129–1729), the nearest Thames bridge to London Bridge was at Kingston. From late Tudor times congestion in trading hours at London Bridge (for road goods and carriages from Kent, Essex, much of Surrey, Middlesex and beyond) often amounted to more than an hour. A bridge at Westminster was proposed in 1664, but opposed by the Corporation of London and the watermen. Further opposition held sway in 1722. However an intervening bridge (albeit in timber) was built at Putney in 1729 and the scheme received parliamentary approval in 1736. Financed by private capital, lotteries and grants, Westminster Bridge was built between 1739–1750, under the supervision of the Swiss engineer Charles Labelye. The bridge opened on 18 November 1750. The City of London responded to Westminster Bridge and the population growth by removing the buildings on London Bridge and widening it in 1760–63. With Putney Bridge, the bridge paved the way for four others within three decades: Blackfriars Bridge (1769, built by the City), Kew Bridge (1759), Battersea Bridge (1773), and Richmond Bridge (1777) by which date roads and vehicles were improved and fewer regular goods transported by water. The bridge assisted the expanding West End to the developing South London as well as goods and carriages from the more estuarine counties and the East Sussex and Kentish ports. Without the bridge, traffic to and from the greater West End would have to negotiate streets often as congested as London Bridge, principally the Strand/Fleet Street and New Oxford Street/Holborn. Roads on both sides of the river were also built and improved, including Charing Cross Road and around the Elephant & Castle in Southwark. By the mid-19th century the bridge was subsiding badly and expensive to maintain. The current bridge was designed by Thomas Page and opened on 24 May 1862. With a length of and a width of, it is a seven-arch, cast-iron bridge with Gothic detailing by Charles Barry (the architect of the Palace of Westminster). Since the removal of Rennie's New London Bridge in 1967 it is the oldest road structure which crosses the Thames in central London. On 22 March 2017, a terrorist attack started on the bridge and continued into Bridge Street and Old Palace Yard. Five people – three pedestrians, one police officer, and the attacker – died as a result of the incident. A colleague of the officer (who was stationed nearby) was armed and shot the attacker. More than 50 people were injured. An investigation is ongoing by the Metropolitan Police." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Old Vauxhall Bridge.", "Usage.", "Public ownership.", "New Vauxhall Bridge.", "Sculpture.", "Usage.", "Millbank Bridge.", "The Crystal Span.", "Recent history." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In the early 13th century, Anglo-Norman mercenary Falkes de Breauté built a manor house in the then empty marshlands of South Lambeth, across the River Thames from Westminster. In 1223–24, de Breauté and others revolted against Henry III; following a failed attempt to seize the Tower of London, de Breauté's lands in England were forfeited and he was forced into exile in France and later Rome. The lands surrounding his Lambeth manor house continued to be known as Falkes' Hall, later Vauxhall. With the exception of housing around the New Spring Gardens (later Vauxhall Gardens) pleasure park, opened in around 1661, the land at Vauxhall remained sparsely populated into the 19th century, with the nearest fixed river crossings being the bridges at Westminster, downstream, and Battersea, upstream. In 1806 a scheme was proposed by Ralph Dodd to open the south bank of the Thames for development, by building a new major road from Hyde Park Corner to Kennington and Greenwich, crossing the river upstream of the existing Westminster Bridge. The proprietors of Battersea Bridge, concerned about a potential loss of customers, petitioned Parliament against the scheme, stating that \"[Dodd] is a well known adventurer and Speculist, and the projector of numerous undertakings upon a large scale most if not all of which have failed\", and the bill was abandoned. In 1809 a new bill was presented to Parliament, and the proprietors of Battersea Bridge agreed to allow it to pass and to accept compensation. The Bill incorporated the Vauxhall Bridge Company, allowing it to raise up to £300,000 (about £ in ) by means of mortgages or the sale of shares, and to keep all profits from any tolls raised. From these profits, the Vauxhall Bridge Company was obliged to compensate the proprietors of Battersea Bridge for any drop in revenue caused by the new bridge.", "Dodd submitted a scheme for a bridge at Vauxhall of 13 arches. However, soon after the 1809 Act was passed, he was dismissed by the Vauxhall Bridge Company and his design was abandoned. John Rennie was commissioned to design and build the new bridge, and a stone bridge of seven arches was approved. On 9 May 1811, Lord Dundas laid the foundation stone of the bridge on the northern bank. The Vauxhall Bridge Company ran into financial difficulties and was unable to raise more than the £300,000 stipulated in the 1809 Act, and a new Act was passed in 1812 permitting the Company to build a cheaper iron bridge. Rennie submitted a new design for an iron bridge of eleven spans, costing far less than the original stone design. Rennie's design was rejected, and instead construction began on a nine arch iron bridge designed by Samuel Bentham. Concerns were raised about the construction of the piers, and engineer James Walker was appointed to inspect the work. Walker's report led to the design being abandoned for the second time, and Walker himself was appointed to design and build a bridge of nine cast-iron arches with stone piers, the first iron bridge to be built across the Thames. On 4 June 1816, over five years after construction began, the bridge opened, initially named Regent Bridge after George, Prince Regent, but shortly afterwards renamed Vauxhall Bridge. The developers failed to pay the agreed compensation to the owners of Battersea Bridge and were taken to court; after a legal dispute lasting five years a judgement was made in favour of Battersea Bridge, with Vauxhall Bridge being obliged to pay £8,234 (about £ in ) compensation. As well as the compensation awarded by the courts to Battersea Bridge in 1821, the 1809 Act also obliged the Vauxhall Bridge Company to pay compensation to the operators of Huntley Ferry, the Sunday ferry service to Vauxhall Gardens, with the level to be decided by \"a jury of 24 honest, sufficient and indifferent men\". The bridge cost £175,000 (about £ in ) to build; with the costs of approach roads and compensation payments, the total cost came to £297,000 (about £ in ).", "In anticipation of the areas surrounding the bridge becoming prosperous suburbs, tolls were set at relatively high rates on a sliding scale, ranging from a penny for pedestrians to 2s 6d for vehicles drawn by six horses. Exemptions were granted for mail coaches, soldiers on duty and parliamentary candidates during election campaigns. However, the area around the bridge failed to develop as expected. In 1815 John Doulton built the Doulton & Watts (later Royal Doulton) stoneware factory at Vauxhall, and consequently instead of the wealthy residents anticipated by the company, the area began to fill with narrow streets of working class tenements to house the factory's workers. Meanwhile, the large Millbank Penitentiary was built near the northern end of the bridge, discouraging housing development. Consequently, toll revenues were initially lower than expected, and the dividends paid to investors were low. Usage rose considerably in 1838 when the terminus of the London and South Western Railway was built at nearby Nine Elms. Nine Elms station proved inconvenient and unpopular with travellers, and in 1848 a new railway terminus was built closer to central London, at Waterloo Bridge station (renamed \"Waterloo Station\" in 1886), and the terminus at Nine Elms was abandoned. With the closure of the rail terminus, Vauxhall Bridge's main source of revenue was visitors to the Vauxhall Gardens pleasure park. In addition to people visiting the Gardens themselves, Vauxhall Gardens were used as a launch point for hot air balloon flights, and large crowds would gather on the bridge and surrounding streets to watch the flights. A large crowd also assembled on the bridge in September 1844 to watch Mister Barry, a clown from Astley's Amphitheatre, sail from Vauxhall Bridge to Westminster Bridge in a washtub towed by geese.", "Despite early setbacks and the construction nearby in the 19th century of three competing bridges (Lambeth Bridge, Chelsea Bridge and Albert Bridge), the rapid urban growth of London made Vauxhall Bridge very profitable. The annual income from tolls rose from £4,977 (about £ in ) in its first full year of operation, to £62,392 in 1877 (about £ in ). In 1877 the Metropolis Toll Bridges Act was passed, allowing the Metropolitan Board of Works (MBW) to buy all London bridges between Hammersmith Bridge and Waterloo Bridge and free them from tolls. In 1879 the bridge was bought by the MBW for £255,000 (about £ in ) and tolls on the bridge were lifted. Inspections of the bridge by the MBW following the purchase found that the two central piers were badly eroded, exposing the timber cradles on which the piers rested. Large quantities of cement in bags were laid around the wooden cradles as an emergency measure; however, the cement bags themselves soon washed away. The piers were removed, replaced by a single large central arch. By this time the bridge was in very poor condition, and in 1895 the London County Council (LCC), which had taken over from the MBW in 1889, sought and gained Parliamentary approval to replace the bridge. Permission was granted by Parliament to raise the projected replacement costs of £484,000 (about £ in ) from rates across the whole of London rather than only local residents, as a new bridge was considered to be of benefit to the whole of London. In August 1898 a temporary wooden bridge was moved into place alongside the existing bridge, and the demolition of the old bridge began.", "Sir Alexander Binnie, the resident engineer of the London County Council (LCC), submitted a design for a steel bridge, which proved unpopular. At the request of the LCC, Binnie submitted a new design for a bridge of five spans, to be built in concrete and faced with granite. Work on Binnie's design began, but was beset by problems. Leading architects condemned the design, with Arthur Beresford Pite describing it as \"a would-be Gothic architectural form of great vulgarity and stupid want of meaning\", and T G Jackson describing the bridge designs as a sign of \"the utter apparent indifference of those in authority to the matter of art\". Plans to build large stone abutments had to be suspended when it was found that the southern abutment would block the River Effra, which by this time had been diverted underground to serve as a storm relief sewer and which flowed into the Thames at this point. The Effra had to be rerouted to join the Thames to the north of the bridge. After the construction of the foundations and piers it was then discovered that the clay of the riverbed at this point would not be able to support the weight of a concrete bridge. With the granite piers already in place, it was decided to build a steel superstructure onto the existing piers, and a superstructure long and wide was designed by Binnie and Maurice Fitzmaurice and built by LCC engineers at a cost of £437,000 (about £ in ). The new bridge was eventually opened on 26 May 1906, five years behind schedule, in a ceremony presided over by the Prince of Wales and Evan Spicer, Chairman of the LCC. Charles Wall, who had won the contract to build the superstructure of the new bridge, paid the LCC £50 for the temporary wooden bridge, comprising of timber and 580 tons of scrap metal.", "The new bridge was built to a starkly functional design, and many influential architects had complained about the lack of consultation from any architects during the design process by the engineers designing the new bridge. In 1903, during the construction of the bridge, the LCC consulted with architect William Edward Riley regarding possible decorative elements that could be added to the bridge. Riley proposed erecting two pylons topped with statues at one end of the bridge, and adding decorative sculpture to the bridge piers. The pylons were rejected on grounds of cost, but following further consultation with leading architect Richard Norman Shaw it was decided to erect monumental bronze statues above the piers, and Alfred Drury, George Frampton and Frederick Pomeroy were appointed to design appropriate statues. Frampton resigned from the project through pressure of work, and Drury and Pomeroy carried out the project, each contributing four monumental statues, which were installed in late 1907. On the upstream piers are Pomeroy's \"Agriculture\", \"Architecture\", \"Engineering\" and \"Pottery\", whilst on the downstream piers are Drury's \"Science\", \"Fine Arts\", \"Local Government\" and \"Education\". Each statue weighs approximately two tons. Despite their size, the statues are little-noticed by users of the bridge as they are not visible from the bridge itself, but only from the river banks or from passing shipping.", "The new bridge soon became a major transport artery and today carries the A202 and Cycle Superhighway 5 across the Thames. Originally built with tram tracks, New Vauxhall Bridge was the first in central London to carry trams. Initially it carried horse-drawn trams, but shortly after the bridge's opening it was converted to carry the electric trams of London County Council Tramways; it continued to carry trams until the ending of tram services in 1951. In 1968 Vauxhall Bridge and Park Lane became the first roads in London to have bus lanes; during weekday evening rush hours, the central lane of the bridge was reserved for southbound buses only.", "During the Second World War the government was concerned that Axis bombers would target the bridge, and a temporary bridge known as Millbank Bridge was built parallel to Vauxhall Bridge, downstream. Millbank Bridge was built of steel girders supported by wooden stakes; however, despite its flimsy appearance it was a sturdy structure, capable of supporting tanks and other heavy military equipment. In the event, Vauxhall Bridge survived the war undamaged, and in 1948 Millbank Bridge was dismantled. Its girders were shipped to Northern Rhodesia and used to span a tributary of the Zambezi.", "In 1963 the Glass Age Development Committee commissioned a design for a replacement bridge at Vauxhall, inspired by the design of the Crystal Palace, to be called the Crystal Span. The Crystal Span was to have been a seven-story building supported by two piers in the river, overhanging the river banks at either end. The structure itself would have been enclosed in an air conditioned glass shell. The lowest floor would have contained two three-lane carriageways for vehicles, with a layer of shops and a skating rink in the centre of the upper floors. The southern end of the upper floors was to house a luxury hotel, whilst the northern end was to house the modern art collection of the nearby Tate Gallery, which at this time was suffering from a severe shortage of display space. The roof was to have housed a series of roof gardens, observation platforms and courtyards, surrounding a large open-air theatre. The entire structure would have been long and wide. Despite much public interest in the proposals, the London County Council was reluctant to pay the estimated £7 million (£ in ) construction costs, and the scheme was abandoned.", "In 1993, a remnant of the earliest known bridge-like structure in London was discovered alongside Vauxhall Bridge, when shifting currents washed away a layer of silt which had covered it. Dating to between 1550 BC and 300 BC, it consists of two rows of wooden posts, which it is believed would originally have carried a deck of some kind. It is believed that it did not cross the whole river, but instead connected the south bank to an island, possibly used for burial of the dead. As no mention of this or similar structures in the area is made in Julius Caesar's account of crossing the Thames nor by any other Roman author, it is presumed that the structure had been dismantled or destroyed prior to Caesar's expedition to Britain in 55 BC. The posts are still visible at extreme low tides. Following the closure of a number of the area's industries, in the 1970s and 1980s the land at the southern end of Vauxhall Bridge remained empty, following the failures of multiple redevelopment schemes. The most notable came in 1979 when Keith Wickenden MP, owner of the land at the immediate southern end of the bridge, proposed a large-scale redevelopment of the site. The development was to contain of office space, 100 luxury flats and a gallery to house the Tate Gallery's modern art collection. The offices were to be housed in a tower of green glass, which was nicknamed the \"Green Giant\" and met with much opposition. The then Secretary of State for the Environment, Michael Heseltine, refused permission for the development and the site remained empty. In 1988 Regalian Properties purchased the site, and appointed Terry Farrell as architect. Farrell designed a self-contained community of shops, housing, offices and public spaces for the site. Regalian disliked the proposals and requested Farrell design a single large office block. Despite containing 50% more office space than the rejected Green Giant proposal, the design was accepted. The government then bought the site and design as a future headquarters for the Secret Intelligence Service, and the design was accordingly modified to increase security. In 1995 the SIS Building was opened on the site, and today dominates other buildings in the vicinity of the bridge. In 2004 the Vauxhall Cross area at the southern end of the bridge was redeveloped as a major transport interchange, combining a large bus station with the existing National Rail and London Underground stations at Vauxhall. Immediately to the east of the southern end of the bridge, a slipway provides access for amphibious buses between the road and river. The only significant alteration to the structure of the bridge itself since the addition of the sculptures in 1907 came in 1973, when the Greater London Council (GLC) decided to add an extra traffic lane by reducing the width of the pavements. To counter the increased load of extra traffic, the council announced the replacement of the cast-iron balustrades with low box-girder structures. Despite formal objections from both Lambeth and Westminster Councils, the GLC ignored the objections. In 2015, the extra lane of motor traffic was removed in favour of a kerb-protected two-way cycle track, on the north-east side of the bridge. This forms part of Cycle Superhighway 5. The bridge was declared a Grade II* listed structure in 2008, providing protection to preserve its character from alteration." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Departments.", "Geography.", "Culture.", "Economy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Tambacounda region is divided into 4 departments:", "Tambacounda is traversed by the northwesterly line of equal latitude and longitude.", "Tambacounda is famous for its rich djembe and dance culture and heritage. Some of the greatest djembe masters from Segu, Mali came to Tambacounda in the mid 1900s, bringing with them their history, knowledge, and secrets of the djembe. Its official language is French, but Wolof is more widely spoken in Sénégal. Much knowledge of djembe history was transmitted directly to djembe master Abdoulaye Diakite by his master teacher Suncaru Jara. Suncaru Jara's teacher was Chebleni Traore, whose teacher was Numuni Traore, the first djembe master to bring the djembe out of Bamana secrecy, thus igniting the diaspora of the djembe. The diaspora of the djembe also took place because there were too many djembe masters in Tambacounda at that time, pressuring some to move on to different towns or countries. Abdoulaye Diakite significantly influenced the diaspora of the djembe, first by touring worldwide with the National Ballet of Senegal for 18 years as their lead soloist, in addition to his later work in the 1990s running the Tambacounda West African Drum and Dance Camp. In light of its rich cultural heritage and location, Tambacounda is today known as djembe \"proving ground\", since one never knows who might be passing through town. This has had the effect of keeping the local djembe players on their toes, by playing exactly as tradition dictates. Even in the face of globalization, the djembe playing has remained remarkably traditional in Tambacounda.", "The economy of Tambacounda is based primarily on agriculture, with cash crops including cotton and peanuts. Mining plays a role in the southern part of the region around the city of Kedougou. The region is also home to the Niokolo-Koba National Park, the largest reserve in western Africa, which supports another leg of Tambacounda's economy, tourism." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Research." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Napoleon complex is named after Napoleon, the first Emperor of the French. Common folklore supposes that Napoleon compensated for his lack of height by seeking power, war, and conquest. This view was fostered and encouraged by the British, who waged a propaganda campaign to diminish their enemy in print and art, during his life and after his death. In 1803, he was mocked in British newspapers as a short-tempered small man. According to some historians, he was actually 5 feet 7 inches tall, an inch or so above the period's average adult male height, depending on the source chosen. Other historians assert that he was 5 feet 2 inches because he was measured on a British island 28 years after the French adopted the metric system. Napoleon was often seen with his Imperial Guard, which contributed to the perception of his being short because the Imperial Guards were tall men. Other names for the purported condition include Napoleonic complex, Napoleon syndrome and Short man syndrome.", "In 2007, research by the University of Central Lancashire suggested that the Napoleon complex (described in terms of the theory that shorter men are more aggressive to dominate those who are taller than they are) is likely to be a myth. The study discovered that short men were less likely to lose their temper than men of average height. The experiment involved subjects dueling each other with sticks, with one subject deliberately rapping the other's knuckles. Heart monitors revealed that the taller men were more likely to lose their tempers and hit back. University of Central Lancashire lecturer Mike Eslea commented that \"when people see a short man being aggressive, they are likely to think it is due to his size, simply because that attribute is obvious and grabs their attention.\" The Wessex Growth Study is a community-based longitudinal study conducted in the UK that monitored the psychological development of children from school entry to adulthood. The study was controlled for potential effects of gender and socioeconomic status, and found that \"no significant differences in personality functioning or aspects of daily living were found which could be attributable to height\"; this functioning included generalizations associated with the Napoleon complex, such as risk-taking behaviours. Abraham Buunk, a professor at the University of Groningen in the Netherlands, claimed to have found evidence of the small man syndrome. Researchers at the University found that men who were were 50% more likely to show signs of jealousy than men who were. In 2018, evolutionary psychologist Mark van Vugt and his team at the Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam found evidence for the Napoleon complex in human males. Men of short stature behaved more (indirectly) aggressive in interactions with taller men. Their evolutionary psychology hypothesis argues that in competitive situations when males, human or nonhuman, receive cues that they are physically outcompeted, the Napoleon complex psychology kicks in: physically weaker males should adopt alternative behavioral strategies to level the playing field, including showing indirect aggression and coalition building." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "First bridge.", "Second bridge.", "Reuse of the original stones.", "Geography." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The first bridge on the site was designed in 1807–10 by John Rennie for the Strand Bridge of Life and opened in 1817 as a toll bridge. The granite bridge had nine arches, each of span, separated by double Doric stone columns, and was long, including approaches– between abutments–and wide between the parapets. Before its opening it was known as the Strand Bridge. During the 1840s the bridge gained a reputation as a popular place for suicide attempts. In 1841 the American daredevil Samuel Gilbert Scott was killed while performing an act in which he hung by a rope from a scaffold on the bridge. In 1844 Thomas Hood wrote the poem \"The Bridge of Sighs\", which concerns the suicide of a prostitute there. Paintings of the bridge were created by the French Impressionist Claude Monet and the English Romantic John Constable. The bridge was nationalised in 1878 and placed under the control of the Metropolitan Board of Works, which removed the toll from it. Michael Faraday tried in 1832 to measure the potential difference between each side of the bridge caused by the ebbing salt water flowing through the Earth's magnetic field. See magnetohydrodynamics. From 1884 serious problems were found in Rennie's bridge piers, after scour from the increased river flow after Old London Bridge was demolished damaged their foundations. By the 1920s the problems had increased, and settlement at pier five necessitated the closure of the whole bridge while some heavy superstructure was removed and temporary reinforcements were put in place. In 1925, a temporary steel framework was built on top of the existing bridge and then placed next to it for the use of southbound vehicles (the postcard image shows this, and the settlement especially to the left of the fifth pier).", "In the 1930s London County Council decided to demolish the bridge and replace it with a new structure designed by Sir Giles Gilbert Scott. The engineers were Ernest Buckton and John Cuerel of Rendel Palmer & Tritton. The project was placed on hold due to the Second World War. Scott, by his own admission, was no engineer and his design, with reinforced concrete beams (illustrated) under the footways, leaving the road to be supported by transverse slabs, was difficult to implement. The pairs of spans on each side of the river were supported by beams continuous over their piers, and these were cantilevered out at their ends to support the centre span and the short approach slabs at the banks. The beams were shaped \"to look as much like arches as... beams can\". They are clad in Portland stone, which is cleaned by rain. To guard against the possibility of further subsidence from scour each pier was given a number of jacks that can be used to level the structure. The new bridge was partially opened on Tuesday 11 March 1942 and \"officially opened\" in September 1942. However, it was not fully completed until 1945. It is the only Thames bridge to have been damaged by German bombers during the Second World War. The building contractor was Peter Lind & Company Limited. It is frequently asserted that the work force was largely female and it is sometimes referred to as \"the Ladies' Bridge\". Lind used elm from the old bridge for the dining room floor of Hamstone House, his house that he commissioned and built in 1938 in St George's Hill in Surrey. Georgi Markov, a Bulgarian dissident, was assassinated on Waterloo Bridge on 7 September 1978 by agents of the Bulgarian secret police, the Committee for State Security, possibly assisted by the Soviet security agency, the KGB.", "Granite stones from the original bridge were subsequently \"presented to various parts of the British world to further historic links in the British Commonwealth of Nations\". Two of these stones are in Canberra, the capital city of Australia, sited between the parallel spans of the Commonwealth Avenue Bridge, one of two major crossings of Lake Burley Griffin in the heart of the city. Stones from the bridge were also used to build a monument in Wellington, New Zealand, to Paddy the Wanderer, a dog that roamed the wharves from 1928 to 1939 and was befriended by seamen, watersiders, Harbour Board workers and taxi drivers. The monument, built in 1945, is on Queens Wharf, opposite the Museum of Wellington City & Sea. It includes a bronze likeness of Paddy, a drinking fountain and drinking bowls below for dogs. Another piece of the stone is situated under the sundial in the Wellington Boat Harbour Park, next to Clyde Quay Marina, an area of historical significance in Wellington Harbour. Several stone balusters from the demolished bridge were sent in the late 1930s by the authour Dornford Yates to be used in his French home 'Cockade', but the Fall of France in 1940 interrupted this project. They were shipped after the war to his new house in Umtali, Rhodesia (now Mutare, Zimbabwe).", "The south end of the bridge is in the area known as the South Bank, which includes the Royal Festival Hall, Waterloo station, Queen Elizabeth Hall and the Royal National Theatre, as well as the BFI Southbank, which is directly beneath the bridge. The north end of the bridge passes above the Victoria Embankment where the road joins the Strand and Aldwych alongside Somerset House. This end housed the southern portal of the Kingsway Tramway Subway until the late 1950s. The entire bridge was given Grade II* listed structure protection in 1981. The nearest London Underground station is Waterloo, the nearest National Rail station is London Waterloo." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "Grayswandir.", "Corwin's Pattern.", "Corwin of Amber in popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Centuries before the opening of \"Nine Princes in Amber\", while their father Oberon was still ruling in Amber, Corwin fought a duel (or, as Corwin referred to it later, \"a simultaneous decision to murder each other\") with Eric and nearly died. Eric, fearing their father's wrath, dumped Corwin in Elizabethan England during one of the recurrent plague outbreaks, most likely during one of the outbreaks in 1592 or 1603. Corwin recovered from the plague, but he suffered brain damage causing amnesia. He proceeded to live out several hundred years of Earth's history as a soldier of fortune, physician, and songwriter until the 1970s, when he was in a car accident and confined to a clinic. Waking with no memories at all, Corwin escapes and makes contact with his sister Florimel, and soon after his brother Random, using them to return to Amber and finally regain his past (by re-walking on the copy of the Pattern located in the underwater city Rebma). Once Corwin's memory returns, we learn that he is far from saintly. Like his siblings, he has created his own kingdom in Shadow to rule, calling it Avalon, and in doing so has cast shadows of himself and his kingdom around. While the original Avalon has been destroyed, in the shadow Avalons his name is reviled for cruelty and arrogance. As Benedict says of the Avalon that he has adopted, acting as Lord Protector, \"young boys are not named Corwin here, nor am I brother to anyone of that name\". Even in Lorraine, the shadow of a shadow where he first encounters the forces of Chaos, he is remembered as a tyrant and butcher. However, it is also implied that this image may be distorted, as it is from a shadow of Avalon in which the real Corwin never ruled. Even so, it seems that his centuries on Earth have somehow mellowed his character, if not his ambition. For an in-depth plot summary of Corwin's adventures following his time in the clinic, see \"Nine Princes in Amber\", \"The Guns of Avalon\", \"Sign of the Unicorn\", \"The Hand of Oberon\", and \"The Courts of Chaos\".", "Grayswandir is Corwin's sword, also known as the Night Blade; its twin is Brand's Werewindle, the Day Sword. Both Grayswandir and Werewindle are inscribed with portions of the Pattern of Amber; this makes them particularly effective against creatures of Chaos. In addition, Grayswandir has one magical property that makes it particularly useful: Corwin can call it by creating a Shadow where he wills it to exist. Unlike a normal blade, Grayswandir can also harm apparitions, and allows Corwin to speak to the shades in Tir-na Nog'th. In the Amber short story \"Hall of Mirrors\", Corwin revealed that Grayswandir and Werewindle were transformed spikards. Spikards are rings of power that existed before Amber, and possibly even Chaos, were created; they allow the bearer to tap into a power source somewhere in shadow. The name Grayswandir echoes that of Graywand, the longsword of Fafhrd in Fritz Leiber's tales of Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser. Fafhrd naming consecutive swords all \"Graywand\" after losing each predecessor is the likely inspiration for the name of Grayswandir as it can reappear to Corwin after being lost.", "In \"The Courts of Chaos\", Corwin inscribed a new Pattern after he incorrectly concluded that Oberon's attempt to repair the Primal Pattern had failed. He created his pattern in a Shadow originally resembling the nearby Courts of Chaos; when his Pattern was complete, it brought a measure of order to that Shadow. Corwin's Pattern created an additional emblem of Order, upsetting the balance of power between the original Pattern and the weakened Logrus of Chaos. Corwin's Pattern is somewhat different from the original Primal Pattern and the copies of it. It feels more benevolent than Amber's Pattern and its Shadow copies; this is theorized by readers to be a result of Corwin's mellowed personality and his experiences in Paris, France, which he drew on while creating his Pattern. Corwin's Pattern treats its Pattern ghosts as helpers rather than expendable tools. It appears that the original Pattern wishes to incorporate Corwin's Pattern into itself, to further its advantage over the Logrus, and that Corwin's Pattern is resisting its incursions, to the extent that the Pattern of Amber could not subdue the independence of Corwin's without being sufficiently weakened to lay itself open to a counter-stroke from the Logrus of Chaos. Likewise, the Logrus seeks to destroy Corwin's Pattern, since it represents an additional artifact of Order against Chaos (although not in accord with the Order of Amber's Pattern) — but equally cannot do so without the risk of a counter-stroke from Amber's Pattern. It is suggested that Corwin's Pattern may end up forming a third \"pole\" in the struggle between Order and Chaos, ultimately taking neither side and able to retain its independent existence against anything short of what will never happen, namely a combined assault from the Amber Pattern and Logrus.", "In the game \"NetHack\", Grayswandir appears as a powerful artifact silver saber that protects its wielder from hallucination. In \"\", typing in \"Corwin of Amber\" activates the game's cheat codes. The summoning of non-human armies from another dimension to lay siege in the case of \"The Horde\" in the \"Warcraft\" series also closely mirror the events in the climax of \"Nine Princes in Amber\". In \"Lost Souls\", the magical sword Grayswandir appears as a rare artifact longsword that destroys items of chaos on contact." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Economy.", "Languages.", "Administrative divisions.", "Environment." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Bumthang farms yield buckwheat, dairy products, honey, apples, potato, rice, woolen products and many other products. Bumthang is rich in producing wheat, buckwheat, dairy products and potatoes. Bumthang is also nationally famous for yatha and bumthna matha weaving.", "The language spoken in the Bumthang district is known as Bumthangkha. It is a Tibeto-Burman language mutually intelligible with Khengkha and closely related to Dzongkha, the national language of Bhutan. Bumthangkha is partially comprehensible to speakers of Dzongkha, which originated in valleys to the west of Bumthang. Each of the four valleys of Bumthang has its own dialect, and the remnants of the Kheng kingdom, near and in Zhemgang District to the south, speak Khengkha. Historically, Bhumthangkha and its speakers have had close contact with speakers of Kurtöpkha to the east, Nupbikha to the west, and Khengkha to the south, to the extent that they may be considered part of a wider collection of \"Bumthang languages.\" Brokkat, an endangered Southern Bodish language, is spoken by about 300 people in the village of Dhur in Bumthang Valley. The language is a remnant of pastoral yakherd communities.", "Bumthang District is divided into four village blocks (or \"gewogs\"): Bumthang also contains several notable towns: Annual Jakar Tshechus: Tandindang school was started on 17 July 2010, to benefit the children going to school.", "Most of Bumthang District is part of Bhutan's extensive protected areas network. The northern two-thirds of the district (the \"gewogs\" of Chhoekhor and Tang) belong to Wangchuck Centennial Park, buffered by pockets of biological corridors. Southern Bumthang (the \"gewogs\" of Chhumig, Tang and Ura) is part of another protected area, Thrumshingla National Park. Bumthang is known for its important population of black-necked cranes migrating in winter." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Varieties.", "Philosophical connections.", "With nature/nurture controversy.", "With particular factors.", "Structural determinism.", "History.", "Western tradition.", "Eastern tradition.", "Modern scientific perspective.", "Generative processes.", "Compatibility with the existence of science.", "Mathematical models.", "Quantum and classical mechanics.", "Day-to-day physics.", "Quantum realm.", "Other matters of quantum determinism." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3" ], "content": [ "\"Determinism\" may commonly refer", "", "Although some of the above forms of determinism concern human behaviors and cognition, others frame themselves as an answer to the debate on nature and nurture. They will suggest that one factor will entirely determine behavior. As scientific understanding has grown, however, the strongest versions of these theories have been widely rejected as a single-cause fallacy. In other words, the modern deterministic theories attempt to explain how the interaction of both nature \"and\" nurture is entirely predictable. The concept of heritability has been helpful in making this", "Other 'deterministic' theories actually seek only to highlight the importance of a particular factor in predicting the future. These theories often use the factor as a sort of guide or constraint on the future. They need not suppose that complete knowledge of that one factor would allow us to make perfect predictions. Psychological determinism can mean that humans must act according to reason, but it can also be synonymous with some", "Philosophy has explored the concept of determinism for thousands of years, which derives from the principle of causality. But philosophers, often, do not clearly distinguish between cosmic nature, human nature, and historical reality. Anthropologists define historical reality as synonymous with culture. The reality of determinism, as an uncontrollable element for human beings, unfolds in the classification of various types of society, after the overcoming of the \"society of nature\", identifiable with the overcoming of the society without any structure (and, therefore, consistent with the nature of the animal species, endowed with a minimum sociality, and minimal psychic processing). On the contrary, structured societies are based on cultural mechanisms, that is to say on mechanisms other than natural drives, which drives are common to all social animals. Already for some animal species, with less intellectual capacity than homo sapiens, elements of structures can be noted, that is, elements of the societies of the hordes, or of the tribal societies or those with stable social stratifications. These structural elements, insofar as they are artificial, or extraneous to the nature of the specific species in which they emerge, constitute factors of external determination, that is, of upheaval, on the drives, desires, needs, and purposes of the individuals of that particular species. Contemporary human beings are generally inserted in a social reality equipped with structures, of an organic-stratified type, based on the concept and essence of the state, and therefore definable as structural statual reality, suffer from this reality structural, a decisive influence, which is such as to determine, almost entirely, their character, their thinking, and their behavior. Of this decisive influence, human beings are very little, or not at all, conscious, and can realize such consciousness only through in-depth philosophical studies, and individual reflections. Individually, they can, at least partially, abstract themselves from this decisive influence, only if they self-marginalize themselves from the reality of these same structures, in the specific manifestation that the latter assumption, in the historical era in which a specific individual finds himself living. This marginalization does not necessarily imply social isolation, which causes it to take refuge in asociality, but to renounce being actively involved in the logic of the specific historical moment in which the individual finds himself living and, therefore, even more, abstracting from the hierarchical logic, based on the principle of authority, which is characteristic of the structural reality, historically determined and, in turn, decisive, on the individuals and peoples.", "Determinism was developed by the Greek philosophers during the 7th and 6th centuries BC by the Pre-socratic philosophers Heraclitus and Leucippus, later Aristotle, and mainly by the Stoics. Some of the main philosophers who have dealt with this issue are Marcus Aurelius, Omar Khayyám, Thomas Hobbes, Baruch Spinoza, Gottfried Leibniz, David Hume, Baron d'Holbach (Paul Heinrich Dietrich), Pierre-Simon Laplace, Arthur Schopenhauer, William James, Friedrich Nietzsche, Albert Einstein, Niels Bohr, Ralph Waldo Emerson and, more recently, John Searle, Ted Honderich, and Daniel Dennett. Mecca Chiesa notes that the probabilistic or selectionistic determinism of B. F. Skinner comprised a wholly separate conception of determinism that was not mechanistic at all. Mechanistic determinism assumes that every event has an unbroken chain of prior occurrences, but a selectionistic or probabilistic model does not.", "In the West, some elements of determinism have been expressed in Greece from the 6th century BC by the Presocratics Heraclitus and Leucippus. The first full-fledged notion of determinism appears to originate with the Stoics, as part of their theory of universal causal determinism. The resulting philosophical debates, which involved the confluence of elements of Aristotelian Ethics with Stoic psychology, led in the 1st-3rd centuries CE in the works of Alexander of Aphrodisias to the first recorded Western debate over determinism and freedom, an issue that is known in theology as the paradox of free will.", "The idea that the entire universe is a deterministic system has been articulated in both Eastern and non-Eastern religion, philosophy, and literature. In \"I Ching\" and Philosophical Taoism, the ebb and flow of favorable and unfavorable conditions suggests the path of least resistance is effortless (see wu wei). In the philosophical schools of the Indian Subcontinent, the concept of Karma deals with similar philosophical issues to the western concept of determinism. Karma is understood as a spiritual mechanism which causes the entire cycle of rebirth (i.e. Saṃsāra). Karma, either positive", "", "Although it was once thought by scientists that any indeterminism in quantum mechanics occurred at too small a scale to influence biological or neurological systems, there is indication that nervous systems are influenced by quantum indeterminism due to chaos theory. It is unclear what implications this has for the problem of free will given various possible reactions to the problem in the first place. Many biologists do not grant determinism: Christof Koch argues against it, and in favour of libertarian free will, by making arguments based on generative processes (emergence). Other proponents of emergentist or generative philosophy, cognitive sciences and evolutionary psychology, argue that a certain form of determinism (not necessarily causal) is true. They suggest instead that an illusion of free will is experienced due to the generation of infinite behaviour from the interaction of finite-deterministic set of rules and parameters. Thus the unpredictability of the emerging behaviour from deterministic processes leads to a perception of free will, even though free will as an ontological entity does not exist.", "Certain philosophers of science argue that, while causal determinism (in which everything including the brain/mind is subject to the laws of causality) is compatible with minds capable of science, fatalism and predestination is not. These philosophers make the distinction that causal determinism means that each step is determined by the step before and therefore allows sensory input from observational", "Many mathematical models of physical systems are deterministic. This is true of most models involving differential equations (notably, those measuring rate of change over time). Mathematical models that are not deterministic because they involve randomness are called stochastic. Because", "", "Since the beginning of the 20th century, quantum mechanics—the physics of the extremely small—has revealed previously concealed aspects of events. Before that, Newtonian physics—the physics of everyday life—dominated. Taken in isolation (rather than as an approximation to quantum mechanics), Newtonian physics depicts a universe in which objects move in perfectly determined ways. At the scale where humans exist and interact with the universe, Newtonian mechanics remain useful, and make relatively accurate predictions (e.g. calculating the trajectory of a bullet). But whereas in theory, absolute knowledge of the forces accelerating a bullet would produce an absolutely accurate prediction of its path, modern quantum mechanics casts reasonable doubt", "Quantum physics works differently in many ways from Newtonian physics. Physicist Aaron D. O'Connell explains that understanding our universe, at such small scales as atoms, requires a different logic than day-to-day life does. O'Connell does not deny that it is all interconnected: the scale of human existence ultimately does emerge from the quantum scale. O'Connell argues that we must simply use different models and constructs when dealing with the quantum world. Quantum mechanics is the product of a careful application of the scientific method, logic and empiricism. The Heisenberg uncertainty principle is frequently confused with the observer effect. The uncertainty principle actually describes how precisely we may measure the position and momentum of a particle at the same time – if we increase the accuracy in measuring one quantity, we are forced to lose accuracy in measuring the other. \"These uncertainty relations give us that measure of freedom from the", "All uranium found on earth is thought to have been synthesized during a supernova explosion that occurred roughly 5 billion years ago. Even before the laws of quantum mechanics were developed to their present level, the radioactivity of such elements has posed a challenge to determinism due to its unpredictability. One gram of uranium-238, a commonly occurring radioactive substance, contains some 2.5 x 10 atoms. Each of these atoms are identical and indistinguishable according to all tests known to modern science. Yet about 12600 times a second, one of the atoms in that gram will decay, giving off an alpha particle. The challenge for determinism is to explain why and when decay occurs, since it does not seem to depend on external stimulus. Indeed, no extant theory of physics makes testable predictions of exactly when any given atom will decay. At best scientists can discover determined probabilities in the form of the element's half life. The time dependent Schrödinger equation gives the first time derivative of the quantum state. That is, it explicitly and uniquely predicts the development of the wave function with time. So if the wave function itself is reality (rather than probability of classical coordinates), then the unitary evolution of the wave function in quantum mechanics, can be said to be deterministic. But the unitary evolution of the wave function is not the" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Chemoautotroph.", "Chemoheterotroph.", "Iron- and manganese-oxidizing bacteria.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Chemoautotrophs (or chemotrophic autotroph) (\"Greek\": Chemo (χημεία) = chemical, auto (εαυτός) = self, troph (τροφή) = nourishment), in addition to deriving energy from chemical reactions, synthesize all necessary organic compounds from carbon dioxide. Chemoautotrophs can use inorganic electron sources such as hydrogen sulfide, elemental sulfur, ferrous iron, molecular hydrogen, and ammonia or organic sources. Most chemoautotrophs are extremophiles, bacteria or archaea that live in hostile environments (such as deep sea vents) and are the primary producers in such ecosystems. Chemoautotrophs generally fall into several groups: methanogens, halophiles, sulfur oxidizers and reducers, nitrifiers, anammox bacteria, and thermoacidophiles. An example of one of these prokaryotes would be Sulfolobus. Chemolithotrophic growth can be dramatically fast, such as \"Hydrogenovibrio crunogenus\" with a doubling time around one hour. The term \"chemosynthesis\", coined in 1897 by Wilhelm Pfeffer, originally was defined as the energy production by oxidation of inorganic substances in association with autotrophy—what would be named today as chemolithoautotrophy. Later, the term would include also the chemoorganoautotrophy, that is, it can be seen as a synonym of chemoautotrophy.", "Chemoheterotrophs (or chemotrophic heterotrophs) (\"Gr\": Chemo (χημία) = chemical, hetero (ἕτερος) = (an)other, troph (τροφιά) = nourishment) are unable to fix carbon to form their own organic compounds. Chemoheterotrophs can be chemolithoheterotrophs, utilizing inorganic electron sources such as sulfur, or chemoorganoheterotrophs, utilizing organic electron sources such as carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. Most animals and fungi are examples of chemoheterotrophs, obtaining most of their energy from O.", "In the deep oceans, iron-oxidizing bacteria derive their energy needs by oxidizing ferrous iron (Fe) to ferric iron (Fe). The electron conserved from this reaction reduces the respiratory chain and can be thus used in the synthesis of ATP by forward electron transport or NADH by reverse electron transport, replacing or augmenting traditional phototrophism. Manganese-oxidizing bacteria also make use of igneous lava rocks in much the same way; by oxidizing manganous manganese (Mn) into manganic (Mn) manganese. Manganese is more scarce than iron oceanic crust, but is much easier for bacteria to extract from igneous glass. In addition, each manganese oxidation donates two electrons to the cell versus one for each iron oxidation, though the amount of ATP or NADH that can be synthesised in couple to these reactions varies with pH and specific reaction thermodynamics in terms of how much of a Gibbs free energy change there is during the oxidation reactions versus the energy change required for the formation of ATP or NADH, all of which vary with concentration, pH etc. Much still remains unknown about manganese-oxidizing bacteria because they have not been cultured and documented to any great extent.", "1. Katrina Edwards. \"Microbiology of a Sediment Pond and the Underlying Young, Cold, Hydrologically Active Ridge Flank\". Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. 2. Coupled Photochemical and Enzymatic Mn(II) Oxidation Pathways of a Planktonic Roseobacter-Like Bacterium Colleen M. Hansel and Chris A. Francis* Department of Geological and Environmental Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305-2115 Received 28 September 2005/ Accepted 17 February 2006" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Baroque.", "Later development." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The artist Caravaggio is generally credited with the invention of the style, although this technique was used by earlier artists such as Albrecht Dürer, Tintoretto and El Greco. The term is usually applied to artists from the seventeenth century onward. Artemisia Gentileschi, a rare female artist of the Baroque and a follower of Caravaggio, was an outstanding exponent of tenebrism. El Greco painted three versions of a composition with a boy, a man, and a monkey grouped in darkness around a single flame. Among the most best known tenebrist artists are: Italian and Dutch followers (the Utrecht School) of Caravaggio, Francisco Ribalta, Jusepe de Ribera, and their Spanish followers. Tenebrism is most often applied to seventeenth-century Spanish painters. It is sometimes applied to other seventeenth-century painters in what has been called the \"candlelight tradition\". These include Georges de La Tour, who painted many works illuminated with a single candle, Trophime Bigot, Gerrit van Honthorst, and Rembrandt. In Flanders Adam de Coster was recognized as a leading tenebrist who excelled in scenes in which a single candle has its light blocked by an object. The Dutch artist Godfried Schalcken painted many candle-lit scenes. The northern painters (but not always Rembrandt) often achieved a mood of stillness and tranquility through their extreme lighting, rather the reverse of the impression that Spanish painters intended. They are typically as interested in the very dimly-lit areas of the painting as the spot-lit ones, and their light diffuses gently across much of the picture area. The term is not often used of Adam Elsheimer, although he was an important innovator in painting night-scenes with a restricted lighted areas.", "Later, similar compositions were painted by Joseph Wright of Derby and other artists of the Romantic Movement, but the term is rarely used to characterize their work in general." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Late Antiquity.", "Renaissance.", "Modern era.", "Philosophy.", "\"Prisca theologia\".", "\"As above, so below\".", "The three parts of the wisdom of the whole universe.", "Reincarnation.", "Good and evil.", "Cosmogony.", "The Fall of Man.", "Alternative Account to The Fall of Man.", "As a religion.", "Religious and philosophical texts.", "Societies.", "Rosicrucianism.", "Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn.", "Esoteric Christianity.", "Mystical Neopaganism." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The term \"Hermetic\" is from the medieval Latin \"hermeticus\", which is derived from the name of the Greek god Hermes. In English, it has been attested since the 17th century, as in \"Hermetic writers\" (e.g., Robert Fludd). The word \"Hermetic\" was used by John Everard in his English translation of \"The Pymander of Hermes\", published in 1650. Mary Anne Atwood mentioned the use of the word \"Hermetic\" by Dufresnoy in 1386. The synonymous term \"Hermetical\" is also attested in the 17th century. Sir Thomas Browne in his \"Religio Medici\" of 1643 wrote: \"Now besides these particular and divided Spirits, there may be (for ought I know) a universal and common Spirit to the whole world. It was the opinion of Plato, and is yet of the Hermeticall Philosophers.\" (R. M. Part 1:2) Hermes Trimegistus supposedly invented the process of making a glass tube airtight (a process in alchemy) using a secret seal. Hence, the term \"completely sealed\" is implied in \"hermetically sealed\" and the term \"hermetic\" is also equivalent to \"occult\" or hidden.", "", "In Late Antiquity, Hermetism emerged in parallel with early Christianity, Gnosticism, Neoplatonism, the Chaldaean Oracles, and late Orphic and Pythagorean literature. These doctrines were \"characterized by a resistance to the dominance of either pure rationality or doctrinal faith.\" The texts now known as the \"Corpus Hermeticum\" are dated by modern translators and most scholars as beginning of 2nd century or earlier. These texts dwell upon the oneness and goodness of God, urge purification of the soul, and expand on the relationship between mind and spirit. Their predominant literary form is the dialogue: Hermes Trismegistus instructs a perplexed disciple upon various teachings of the hidden wisdom.", "Plutarch's mention of Hermes Trismegistus dates back to the 1st century AD, and Tertullian, Iamblichus, and Porphyry were all familiar with Hermetic writings. After centuries of falling out of favor, Hermeticism was reintroduced to the West when, in 1460, a man named Leonardo de Candia Pistoia brought the \"Corpus Hermeticum\" to Pistoia. He was one of many agents sent out by Pistoia's ruler, Cosimo de' Medici, to scour European monasteries for lost ancient writings. In 1614, Isaac Casaubon, a Swiss philologist, analyzed the Greek Hermetic texts for linguistic style. He concluded that the writings attributed to Hermes Trismegistus were not the work of an ancient Egyptian priest but in fact dated to the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD. Even in light of Casaubon's linguistic discovery (and typical of many adherents of Hermetic philosophy in Europe during the 16th and 17th centuries), Thomas Browne in his \"Religio Medici\" (1643) confidently stated: \"The severe schools shall never laugh me out of the philosophy of Hermes, that this visible world is but a portrait of the invisible.\" (R. M. Part 1:12) In 1678, however, flaws in Casaubon's dating were discerned by Ralph Cudworth, who argued that Casaubon's allegation of forgery could only be applied to three of the seventeen treatises contained within the Corpus Hermeticum. Moreover, Cudworth noted Casaubon's failure to acknowledge the codification of these treatises as a late formulation of a pre-existing oral tradition. According to Cudworth, the texts must be viewed as a terminus ad quem and not a terminus a quo. Lost Greek texts, and many of the surviving vulgate books, contained discussions of alchemy clothed in philosophical metaphor. In the 19th century, Walter Scott placed the date of the Hermetic texts shortly after 200 AD, but W. Flinders Petrie placed their origin between 200 and 500 BC.", "In 1945, Hermetic texts were found near the Egyptian town Nag Hammadi. One of these texts had the form of a conversation between Hermes and Asclepius. A second text (titled \"On the Ogdoad and Ennead\") told of the Hermetic mystery schools. It was written in the Coptic language, the latest and final form in which the Egyptian language was written. According to Geza Vermes, Hermeticism was a Hellenistic mysticism contemporaneous with the Fourth Gospel, and Hermes Tresmegistos was \"the Hellenized reincarnation of the Egyptian deity Thoth, the source of wisdom, who was believed to deify man through knowledge (\"gnosis\").\" Gilles Quispel says \"It is now completely certain that there existed before and after the beginning of the Christian era in Alexandria a secret society, akin to a Masonic lodge. The members of this group called themselves 'brethren,' were initiated through a baptism of the Spirit, greeted each other with a sacred kiss, celebrated a sacred meal and read the Hermetic writings as edifying treatises for their spiritual progress.\" On the other hand, Christian Bull argues that \"there is no reason to identify [Alexandria] as the birthplace of a 'Hermetic lodge' as several scholars have done. There is neither internal nor external evidence for such an Alexandrian 'lodge', a designation that is alien to the ancient world and carries Masonic connotations.\"", "In Hermeticism, the ultimate reality is referred to variously as God, the All, or the One. God in the Hermetica is unitary and transcendent: he is one and exists apart from the material cosmos. Hermetism is therefore profoundly monotheistic although in a deistic and unitarian understanding of the term. \"For it is a ridiculous thing to confess the World to be one, one Sun, one Moon, one Divinity, and yet to have, I know not how many gods.\" Its philosophy teaches that there is a transcendent God, or Absolute, in which we and the entire universe participate. It also subscribes to the idea that other beings, such as aeons, angels and elementals, exist within the universe.", "Hermeticists believe in a \"prisca theologia\", the doctrine that a single, true theology exists, that it exists in all religions, and that it was given by God to man in antiquity. In order to demonstrate the truth of the \"prisca theologia\" doctrine, Christians appropriated the Hermetic teachings for their own purposes. By this account, Hermes Trismegistus was (according to the fathers of the Christian church) either a contemporary of Moses or the third in a line of men named Hermes—Enoch, Noah, and the Egyptian priest-king who is known to us as Hermes Trismegistus.", "The actual text of that maxim, as translated by Dennis W. Hauck from \"The Emerald Tablet of Hermes Trismegistus\", is: \"That which is Below corresponds to that which is Above, and that which is Above corresponds to that which is Below, to accomplish the miracle of the One Thing.\" Thus, whatever happens on any level of reality (physical, emotional, or mental) also happens on every other level. This principle, however, is more often used in the sense of the microcosm and the macrocosm. The microcosm is oneself, and the macrocosm is the universe. The macrocosm is as the microcosm and vice versa; within each lies the other, and through understanding one (usually the microcosm) a person may understand the other.", "Alchemy (the operation of the Sun): Alchemy is not merely the changing of lead into gold. It is an investigation into the spiritual constitution, or life, of matter and material existence through an application of the mysteries of birth, death, and resurrection. The various stages of chemical distillation and fermentation, among other processes, are aspects of these mysteries that, when applied, quicken nature's processes in order to bring a natural body to perfection. This perfection is the accomplishment of the \"magnum opus\" (Latin for \"Great Work\"). Astrology (the operation of the stars): Hermes claims that Zoroaster discovered this part of the wisdom of the whole universe, astrology, and taught it to man. In Hermetic thought, it is likely that the movements of the planets have meaning beyond the laws of physics and actually hold metaphorical value as symbols in the mind of The All, or God. Astrology has influences upon the Earth, but does not dictate our actions, and wisdom is gained when we know what these influences are and how to deal with them. Theurgy (the operation of the gods): There are two different types of magic, according to Giovanni Pico della Mirandola's \"Apology\", completely opposite of each other. The first is Goëtia (Greek: γοητεια), black magic reliant upon an alliance with evil spirits (i.e., demons). The second is Theurgy, divine magic reliant upon an alliance with divine spirits (i.e., angels, archangels, gods). \"Theurgy\" translates to \"The Science or Art of Divine Works\" and is the practical aspect of the Hermetic art of alchemy. Furthermore, alchemy is seen as the \"key\" to theurgy, the ultimate goal of which is to become united with higher counterparts, leading to the attainment of Divine Consciousness.", "Reincarnation is mentioned in Hermetic texts. Hermes Trismegistus asked: O son, how many bodies have we to pass through, how many bands of demons, through how many series of repetitions and cycles of the stars, before we hasten to the One alone?", "Hermes explains in Book 9 of the \"Corpus Hermeticum\" that nous (reason and knowledge) brings forth either good or evil, depending upon whether one receives one's perceptions from God or from demons. God brings forth good, but demons bring forth evil. Among the evils brought forth by demons are: \"adultery, murder, violence to one's father, sacrilege, ungodliness, strangling, suicide from a cliff and all such other demonic actions\". This provides evidence that Hermeticism includes a sense of morality. However, the word \"good\" is used very strictly. It is restricted to references to God. It is only God (in the sense of the nous, not in the sense of the All) who is completely free of evil. Men are prevented from being good because man, having a body, is consumed by his physical nature, and is ignorant of the Supreme Good. A focus upon the material life is said to be the only thing that offends God: One must create, one must do something positive in one's life, because God is a generative power. Not creating anything leaves a person \"sterile\" (i.e., unable to accomplish anything).", "A creation story is told by God to Hermes in the first book of the \"Corpus Hermeticum\". It begins when God, by an act of will, creates the primary matter that is to constitute the cosmos. From primary matter God separates the four elements (earth, air, fire, and water). Then God orders the elements into the seven heavens (often held to be the spheres of Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, the Sun, and the Moon, which travel in circles and govern destiny). \"The Word (Logos)\" then leaps forth from the materializing four elements, which were unintelligent. Nous then makes the seven heavens spin, and from them spring forth creatures without speech. Earth is then separated from water, and animals (other than man) are brought forth. The God then created androgynous man, in God's own image, and handed over his creation.", "Man carefully observed the creation of nous and received from God man's authority over all creation. Man then rose up above the spheres' paths in order to better view creation. He then showed the form of the All to Nature. Nature fell in love with the All, and man, seeing his reflection in water, fell in love with Nature and wished to dwell in it. Immediately, man became one with Nature and became a slave to its limitations, such as sex and sleep. In this way, man became speechless (having lost \"the Word\") and he became \"double\", being mortal in body yet immortal in spirit, and having authority over all creation yet subject to destiny.", "An alternative account of the fall of man, preserved in the \"Discourses of Isis to Horus\", is as follows: God, having created the universe, then created the divisions, the worlds, and various gods and goddesses, whom he appointed to certain parts of the universe. He then took a mysterious transparent substance, out of which he created human souls. He appointed the souls to the astral region, which is just above the physical region. He then assigned the souls to create life on Earth. He handed over some of his creative substance to the souls and commanded them to contribute to his creation. The souls then used the substance to create the various animals and forms of physical life. Soon after, however, the souls began to overstep their boundaries; they succumbed to pride and desired to be equal to the highest gods. God was displeased and called upon Hermes to create physical bodies that would imprison the souls as a punishment for them. Hermes created human bodies on earth, and God then told the souls of their punishment. God decreed that suffering would await them in the physical world, but he promised them that, if their actions on Earth were worthy of their divine origin, their condition would improve and they would eventually return to the heavenly world. If it did not improve, he would condemn them to repeated reincarnation upon Earth.", "Tobias Churton, Professor of Western Esotericism at the University of Exeter, states, \"The Hermetic tradition was both moderate and flexible, offering a tolerant philosophical religion, a religion of the (omnipresent) mind, a purified perception of God, the cosmos, and the self, and much positive encouragement for the spiritual seeker, all of which the student could take anywhere.\" Lutheran Bishop James Heiser recently evaluated the writings of Marsilio Ficino and Giovanni Pico della Mirandola as an attempted \"Hermetic Reformation\".", "Hermeticists generally attribute 42 books to Hermes Trismegistus, although many more have been attributed to him. Most of them, however, are said to have been lost when the Great Library of Alexandria was destroyed. There are three major texts that contain Hermetic doctrines: Other important original Hermetic texts include the Discourses of Isis to Horus, which consists of a long dialogue between Isis and Horus on the fall of man and other matters; the Definitions of Hermes to Asclepius; and many fragments, which are chiefly preserved in the anthology of Stobaeus. There are additional works that, while not as historically significant as the works listed above, have an important place in neo-Hermeticism: \"A Suggestive Inquiry\" was used for the study of Hermeticism and resulted in several works being published by members of the Golden Dawn:", "When Hermeticism was no longer endorsed by the Christian church, it was driven underground, and several Hermetic societies were formed. The western esoteric tradition is now steeped in Hermeticism. The work of such writers as Giovanni Pico della Mirandola, who attempted to reconcile Jewish kabbalah and Christian mysticism, brought Hermeticism into a context more easily understood by Europeans during the time of the Renaissance. A few primarily Hermetic occult orders were founded in the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance. Hermetic magic underwent a 19th-century revival in Western Europe, where it was practiced by groups such as the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, Aurum Solis, and Ragon. It was also practiced by individual persons, such as Eliphas Lévi, William Butler Yeats, Arthur Machen, Frederick Hockley, and Kenneth M. Mackenzie. Many Hermetic, or Hermetically influenced, groups exist today. Most of them are derived from Rosicrucianism, Freemasonry, or the Golden Dawn.", "Rosicrucianism is a movement which incorporates the Hermetic philosophy. It dates back to the 17th century. The sources dating the existence of the Rosicrucians to the 17th century are three German pamphlets: the \"Fama\", the \"Confessio Fraternitatis\", and \"The Chymical Wedding of Christian Rosenkreutz\". Some scholars believe these to be hoaxes and say that later Rosicrucian organizations are the first actual appearance of a Rosicrucian society. This argument is hard to sustain given that original copies are in existence, including a \"Fama Fraternitatis\" at the University of Illinois and another in the New York Public Library. The Rosicrucian Order consists of a secret inner body and a public outer body that is under the direction of the inner body. It has a graded system in which members move up in rank and gain access to more knowledge. There is no fee for advancement. Once a member has been deemed able to understand the teaching, he moves on to the next higher grade. The \"Fama Fraternitatis\" states that the Brothers of the Fraternity are to profess no other thing than \"to cure the sick, and that gratis\". The Rosicrucian spiritual path incorporates philosophy, kabbalah, and divine magic. The Order is symbolized by the rose (the soul) and the cross (the body). The unfolding rose represents the human soul acquiring greater consciousness while living in a body on the material plane.", "Unlike the Societas Rosicruciana in Anglia, the Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn was open to both sexes and treated them as equals. The Order was a specifically Hermetic society that taught alchemy, kabbalah, and the magic of Hermes, along with the principles of occult science. The Golden Dawn maintained the tightest of secrecy, which was enforced by severe penalties for those who disclosed its secrets. Overall, the general public was left oblivious of the actions, and even of the existence, of the Order, so few if any secrets were disclosed. Its secrecy was broken first by Aleister Crowley in 1905 and later by Israel Regardie in 1937. Regardie gave a detailed account of the Order's teachings to the general public. Regardie had once claimed that there were many occult orders which had learned whatever they knew of magic from what had been leaked from the Golden Dawn by those whom Regardie deemed \"renegade members\". The Stella Matutina was a successor society of the Golden Dawn.", "Hermeticism remains influential within esoteric Christianity, especially in Martinism. Influential 20th century and early 21st century writers in the field include Valentin Tomberg and Sergei O. Prokofieff. The Kybalion somewhat explicitly owed itself to Christianity, and the Meditations on the Tarot was one important book illustrating the theory and practice of Christian Hermeticism.", "Hermeticism remains influential within Neopaganism, especially in Hellenism." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Use of ISO 639 codes.", "Current and historical parts of the standard.", "Characteristics of individual codes.", "Relations between the parts.", "Code space.", "Alpha-2 code space.", "Alpha-3 code space.", "Alpha-4 code space (withdrawn)." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The language codes defined in the several sections of ISO 639 are used for bibliographic purposes and, in computing and internet environments, as a key element of locale data. The codes also find use in various applications, such as Wikipedia URLs for its different language editions.", "Each part of the standard is maintained by a maintenance agency, which adds codes and changes the status of codes when needed. ISO 639-6 was withdrawn in 2014.", "Scopes: Types (for individual languages): Individual languages and macrolanguages with two distinct alpha-3 codes in Part 2:", "The different parts of ISO 639 are designed to work together, in such a way that no code means one thing in one part and something else in another. However, not all languages are in all parts, and there is a variety of different ways that specific languages and other elements are treated in the different parts. This depends, for example, whether a language is listed in Parts 1 or 2, whether it has separate B/T codes in Part 2, or is classified as a macrolanguage in Part 3, and so forth. These various treatments are detailed in the following chart. In each group of rows (one for each scope of ISO 639-3), the last four columns contain codes for a representative language that exemplifies a specific type of relation between the parts of ISO 639, the second column provides an explanation of the relationship, and the first column indicates the number of elements that have that type of relationship. For example, there are four elements that have a code in Part 1, have a B/T code, and are classified as macrolanguages in Part 3. One representative of these four elements is \"Persian\" codice_32/codice_33/codice_34. These differences are due to the following factors. In ISO 639-2, two distinct codes were assigned to 22 individual languages, namely a bibliographic and a terminology code (B/T codes). B codes were included for historical reasons because previous widely used bibliographic systems used language codes based on the English name for the language. In contrast, the ISO 639-1 codes were based on the native name for the language, and there was also a strong desire to have 639-2 codes (T codes) for these languages which were similar to the corresponding 2-character code in ISO 639-1. Individual languages in Part 2 always have a code in Part 3 (only the Part 2 terminology code is reused there) but may or may not have a code in Part 1, as illustrated by the following examples: Some codes (62) in Part 3 are macrolanguages. These are groups containing multiple individual languages that have a good mutual understanding and are commonly mixed or confused. Some macrolanguages developed a default standard form on one of their individual languages (e.g. Mandarin is implied by default for the Chinese macrolanguage, other individual languages may be still distinguished if needed but the specific code codice_44 for Mandarin is rarely used). Collective codes in Part 2 have a code in Part 5: e.g. codice_63 in Parts 2 and 5, which stands for Australian languages. Parts 2 and 3 also have a reserved range and four special codes:", "", "\"Alpha-2\" codes (for codes composed of 2 letters of the ISO basic Latin alphabet) are used in ISO 639-1. When codes for a wider range of languages were desired, more than 2 letter combinations could cover (a maximum of 26 = 676), ISO 639-2 was developed using Alpha-3 codes. (However, the latter was formally published first.)", "\"Alpha-3\" codes (for codes composed of 3 letters of the ISO basic Latin alphabet) are used in ISO 639-2, ISO 639-3, and ISO 639-5. The number of languages and language groups that can be so represented is 26 = 17,576. The common use of Alpha-3 codes by three parts of ISO 639 requires some coordination within a larger system. Part 2 defines four special codes codice_2, codice_70, codice_71, codice_72, a reserved range codice_77 (20 × 26 = 520 codes) and has 20 double entries (the B/T codes), plus 2 entries with deprecated B-codes. This sums up to 520 + 22 + 4 = 546 codes that cannot be used in part 3 to represent languages or in part 5 to represent language families or groups. The remainder is 17,576 – 546 = 17,030. There are somewhere around six or seven thousand languages on Earth today. So those 17,030 codes are adequate to assign a unique code to each language, although some languages may end up with arbitrary codes that sound nothing like the traditional name(s) of that language.", "\"Alpha-4\" codes (for codes composed of 4 letters of the ISO basic Latin alphabet) were proposed to be used in ISO 639-6, which has been withdrawn. The upper limit for the number of languages and dialects that can be represented is 26 = 456,976." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Łowicz Ghetto.", "International relations.", "Twin towns — Sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The history of Lowicz dates back to the 12th century, when a gord, which guarded the swampy Bzura river ford existed in the location of the castle. Lowicz, spelled as \"Loviche\", was first mentioned in a papal bull of Pope Innocent II, on July 7, 1136. In this document, the pope confirmed the right of the Archbishops of Gniezno to own local land. In 1214 or 1215 at Wolborz, Piast Dukes of four Polish provinces: Leszek I the White of Kraków, Konrad I of Masovia, Wladyslaw Odonic of Kalisz and Casimir I of Opole issued the so-called \"Immunity Privilege\", in which they confirmed the fact that Archbishops of Gniezno owned Lowicz. At that time, Lowicz was still called \"villa\" (village), even though the archbishops’ mansion already existed here. It is not known when Lowicz received town charter. First document which calls it oppidium (town) dates back to 1298, and was issued by Duke Boleslaw I of Płock. Before that, in 1263, Lowicz was ransacked and burned in a Lithuanian raid. According to chronicler Jan of Czarnkow, in ca. 1355 Archbishop Jaroslaw of Bogoria and Skotnik built a brick Gothic castle in the location of the former gord. The castle became one of residences of Archbishops of Gniezno and Primates of Poland. Furthermore, in ca. 1358, he granted Magdeburg rights to the newly established New Town (Nowe Miasto). New \"Civitas of Lowicz\" was located east of the old gord, along the Bzura and around the wooden church, which stood in the location of contemporary Cathedral Basilica. In the late Middle Ages Lowicz was the seat of a castellany. Located on the border between the Kingdom of Poland and the Duchy of Masovia, it remained under firm control of the Gniezno Archbishops. In the mid-14th century Lowicz, together with 111 adjacent villages, was the biggest church property in Poland. On May 17, 1359, Siemowit III, Duke of Masovia confirmed the ownership of Lowicz by the Gniezno Primates. Nevertheless, the dukes of Masovia on several occasions tried to place Lowicz under their authority, which resulted in conflicts with Polish kings, who supported the Archbishops. On April 8, 1382, Siemowit IV, Duke of Masovia besieged Lowicz, and such conflicts occasionally returned until the annexation of Mazovia into Poland. Lowicz prospered in the 15th century. In 1404, Archbishop Mikolaj Kurowski funded the first brick church in town, and a new Roman Catholic parish. In the 1430s, old wooden church in Lowicz's Old Town was replaced by a brick, Gothic complex. On April 25, 1433, Archbishop Wojciech Jastrzebiec named it a Collegiate church, and soon afterwards, a branch of Kraków Academy was established here. On October 24, 1419, Archbishop Mikolaj Traba confirmed the town charter of Lowicz and unified legal regulations of the three districts of Lowicz: \"Podgrodzie\" (Suburb), \"Stare Miasto\" (Old Town) and \"Nowe Miasto\" (New Town). In 1443, a town hall was built in the market square of the Old Town. Due to its convenient locations, multiple royal privileges and frequent fairs, Lowicz prospered. The town remained under the authority of the Archbishops of Gniezno, and as a residency of the Primates of Poland, Lowicz occasionally served as a second capital of the Kingdom, during the periods known as interregnum. The period of prosperity ended after the disastrous Swedish invasion of Poland (1655 - 1660). Almost completely destroyed, Lowicz never regained its importance and turned into a small, local town. Nevertheless, it remained a cultural center, as in 1668 one of the first Piarist Colleges in Poland-Lithuania was opened here. After the Second Partition of Poland (1793) Lowicz was annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia. In 1807 it became part of the Duchy of Warsaw, and from 1815 until 1915 it belonged to Russian-controlled Congress Poland (later Vistula Land). In 1820, the real estate of the Archbishops of Gniezno became the property of Grand Duke Constantine Pavlovich of Russia and his wife Joanna Grudzinska, who was granted the title of the \"Duchess of Lowicz\". On July 9, 1822, Tsar Alexander I of Russia formally established the \"Duchy of Lowicz\". In 1831, following the last will of Joanna Grudzinska, the Duchy of Lowicz became the property of Polish rulers. Since at that time Russian Tsars regarded themselves as Kings of Poland, the duchy belonged to them until World War I. Following the request of General Ivan Paskevich, who was the governor of Poland, Tsar Nicholas I of Russia gave permission for construction of the first railroad in Russian Poland. The Warsaw–Vienna railway was completed in 1848, giving Lowicz rail connection with Warsaw, Kraków, Vienna and Breslau. In 1861, Lowicz Glowny railway station was built. Due to the construction of additional line to Koluszki (November 1866), Lowicz emerged as a rail hub, which contributed to its development. Following the Act of 5th November, the Duchy of Lowicz was annexed into the Kingdom of Poland (1916–18), which was a puppet state of the German Empire. In the Second Polish Republic, Lowicz and the County of Lowicz belonged to Warsaw Voivodeship, but on April 1, 1938, it was moved to Lodz Voivodeship (see Territorial changes of Polish Voivodeships on April 1, 1938). During the Invasion of Poland, the Battle of Bzura took place in the area of the town. Lowicz itself was captured by the Wehrmacht on September 8, 1939, to be recaptured by the Polish Army three days later. Between September 14–16, the town changed hands three times. Finally, Polish forces abandoned Lowicz in the night of September 16/17, 1939. German occupation of Lowicz lasted until January 17, 1945.", "In 1940, during the Nazi Occupation of Poland, German authorities established a Jewish ghetto in Łowicz, in order to confine its Jewish population for the purpose of persecution and exploitation. The ghetto was liquidated in March 1941, when all its 8,000–8,200 inhabitants were transported in cattle trucks to Warsaw Ghetto, the largest ghetto in all of Nazi occupied Europe with over 400,000 Jews crammed into an area of. From there, most victims were sent to Treblinka extermination camp.", "", "Łowicz is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Critical reception.", "Commercial response." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album has received an average score of 66, based on 15 reviews indicating generally positive reviews. John Bush from AllMusic said that \"Elephunk\" \"possesses some of the most boundary-pushing productions in contemporary, (mostly) uncommercial hip-hop\". Chris Nettleton from \"Drowned in Sound\" complimented the album, saying: \"This record is full of first rate rapping, first rate tunes, first rate instrumentation. Look on the surface, and you've got an album full of memorable songs, hooks that lodge in your mind... but look in depth, and it's quality from the top down.\" In his consumer guide for \"The Village Voice\", Robert Christgau commented that the group \"remain unbelievable, but in pop that's just one more aesthetic nuance\", and stated, \"In which the unbelievably dull El Lay alt-rappers fabricate the brightest actual rap album of 2003.\" \"Entertainment Weekly\" had more of a negative view on the record: \"They try dancehall ('Hey Mama'), salsa ('Latin Girls'), even nu-metal ('Anxiety' with Papa Roach), but the biggest offense for a once smart-sounding rap collective is 'Where Is the Love?', the horrifyingly trite single. It's enough to make longtime fans wonder, 'Where are the Peas?'\".", "In the United States, \"Elephunk\" reached number 14 on the \"Billboard Top 200\" and was their first album to chart in the top 15. On the UK Album Charts it reached number 3. It has sold over 1.6 million copies in the UK and 8.5 million copies worldwide. The band was approached by EA games to feature some of their music on the 2004 game \"\". They remixed some of the tracks on \"Elephunk\" and translated it into Simlish and created new tracks for the game. They appear in the game as playable characters. The album is considered a victim of the loudness war, with the worst possible ranking in the Hall of CD Clipping Shame, as 1 minute 19 seconds of the CD's audio has been damaged by clipping." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "Naming.", "Water quality.", "Boat clubs." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "This lake is situated about northeast of the downtown areas of Detroit, Michigan, and Windsor, Ontario. Along with the St. Clair River and Detroit River, Lake St. Clair connects Lake Huron (to its north) with Lake Erie (to its south). The area is notable for the fact that the Canadian territory around the lake (Windsor metropolitan area) lies south of the adjacent United States territory. Lake St. Clair measures about from north to south and about from east to west. Its total surface area is about. This is a rather shallow lake for its size, with an average depth of about, and a maximum natural depth of. However, it is deep in the navigation channel which is dredged for lake freighter passage by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. The lake is fed by the St. Clair River, which flows to the south from Lake Huron and has an extensive river delta where it enters Lake St. Clair. This is the largest delta of the Great Lakes System. Other rivers which feed Lake St. Clair are the Thames and Sydenham rivers which originate in Southwestern Ontario, and the Clinton River, which originates in Michigan. The outflow from Lake St. Clair travels from its southwestern end into the Detroit River, and then into Lake Erie. The tarry time (i.e. the time between entering and leaving) of the water in Lake St. Clair averages about seven days, but this can vary from as little as two to as many as thirty days, depending on the direction of the winds, the water circulation patterns, and the amount of water that is flowing out of Lake Huron. For water flowing through the navigation channel, the time period is only about two days. Lake St. Clair is part of the Great Lakes system, but its surface area is 17 times smaller than Lake Ontario, and it has less than 1/4 of one percent of its volume. It is rarely included in the list of \"Great Lakes\" but is sometimes referred to as \"the sixth Great Lake.\" Scattered proposals have called for it to be officially recognized as a Great Lake, which might enable it to attract greater public funding for scientific research and other projects.", "First Nations/Native Americans used the lake as part of their extensive navigation of the Great Lakes. The Mississauga called it ', meaning \"(at) the whirlpool.\" The Wea derived their name from a Miami cognate: '. In the latter part of the 17th century, the Mississauga established a village near the lake. Early French mapmakers had identified the lake by a variety of French and Iroquoian-language names, including'[Seawater Lake]; \"Lac Ganatchio\" (\"kettle,\" for its shape), in French '. A variety of Native names were associated with sweetness, as the lake was freshwater as opposed to saltwater. These included \"Otsiketa\" (sugar or candy), \"Kandequio\" or \"Kandekio\" (possibly candy), \"Oiatinatchiketo\" (probably a form of Otsiketa), and \"Oiatinonchikebo\". Similarly, the Iroquois nations called present-day Lake Huron a term meaning \"The Grand Lake of the Sweet Sea\" (fresh water as opposed to salt water.) The French expressed this association on their maps as'(sweet sea) and the Dutch identified it in Latin as '. On August 12, 1679, the French explorer René Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle arrived with an expedition. He named the body of water \"Lac Sainte-Claire,\" as the expedition sighted it on the feast day of Saint Clare of Assisi. The historian on the voyage, Louis Hennepin, recorded that the Iroquoian tribes referred to the lake as \"Otseketa\". As early as 1710, the English adopted the French name, identifying the lake on their maps as Saint Clare. By the Mitchell Map in 1755, the spelling appeared as the shorter \"St. Clair,\" the form that became most widely used. Some scholars credit the name as honoring the American Revolutionary War General Arthur St. Clair, later Governor of the Northwest Territory, but the name Lake St. Clair was in use with this current spelling long before St. Clair became a notable figure. Together the place name and general's name likely influenced settlers' naming a proliferation of nearby political jurisdictions: the Michigan county and township of St. Clair, as well as the cities of St. Clair and St. Clair Shores. Some local historians attributed the namesake to Patrick Sinclair, a British officer who purchased land on the St. Clair River at the outlet of the Pine River. There, in 1764, he built Fort Sinclair, which was in use for nearly twenty years before being abandoned. Unlike most smaller lakes in the region—but like the Great Lakes—\"Lake\" comes at the front of its proper name, rather than the end; this is reflective of its French origins.", "Lake St Clair's location, downstream from the largest freshwater delta in the Great Lakes, has a large effect on its turbidity (clarity). Current water quality is quite good despite past incidents and a history of chemical bio-accumulation. A number of cities source drinking water from or just downstream of the lake and quality is closely monitored. In the early 1970s, the Canadian and American governments closed the commercial fishery over concerns of bio-accumulation of mercury. The industry responsible for this contamination was the Dow Chemical Chlor-Alkali Plant in Sarnia, Ontario. Since 1949, Dow Chemical had been operating mercury cell plants for the production of chlorine and other chemicals. Through its production process, it discharged mercury into the river and contaminated the fishery. The fishery has since not been re-opened, although studies have now confirmed mercury levels are well within the safe range. Sport fishing remains popular in the lake. The governments on both sides of the lakes continue to monitor and publish guides for sport fish consumption.", "Many yacht clubs (boating and sailing clubs) are located along the shores. Some of which include:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "Geology.", "Biology.", "International waterway." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Great Belt is the largest and most important of the three Danish Straits that connect the Baltic Sea to the Kattegat strait and Atlantic Ocean. The others are the Øresund and the Little Belt straits. The Great Belt is long and wide. It flows around two major islands: Samsø in the north and Langeland to the south. At Sprogø the Great Belt divides into the East Channel and the West Channel. Both are traversed by the Great Belt Bridge, but a tunnel also runs under the East Channel.", "In pre-glacial times a river, which the Baltic Sea basin then contained and which geologists call the Eridanos, must have passed near the region as the rise of South Swedish Dome in Neogene times diverted it south from its previous path across central Sweden. The Great Belt originated as Dana River that was eroded into existence 9000–8900 years B.P. when post-glacial rebound made the Ancylus Lake that occupied the Baltic depression lose its outlets around Gothenburg tipping over in the south. The forming of Dana River is thought to have caused a dramatic erosion of sediments, peatlands and forests along its way. This led initially to a relatively rapid fall in the lake level over hundreds of years to then continue falling at a lower pace. Rising sea levels allowed the sea to break through the Dana River forming the Great Belt as a proper seaway. In the processes the Ancylus Lake became the Littorina Sea as salt water entered the Baltic depression.", "The Great Belt is home to some popular fish: flatfish, sea trout, Atlantic cod, Atlantic mackerel and garfish, which are fished avidly for sport and for sale. A large and rising population of harbour porpoises lives in the Belts.", "The Great Belt was historically navigable to ocean-going vessels. It still is used, despite a few collisions and near collisions with the Great Belt Bridge. The Danish navy monitors maritime traffic in the waters around the Great Belt. In the reign of king Eric of Pomerania the Danish government began to receive a large part of its income from the so-called \"Sound Dues\" toll on international merchant ships passing through the Øresund. Non-Danish vessels were restricted to the Øresund channel. Merchants paid the tax under threat of having their vessels sunk or confiscated. During the middle of the 19th century, this practice became a diplomatic liability and the Danish government agreed to terminate it, achieving an international financial compensation in return. Danish waterways were consequently opened to foreign shipping. The eastern half of the Great Belt is an international waterway, legally based on the 1857 Copenhagen Convention. The western half of the Great Belt (between Funen and Sprogø) and all other parts of the Danish straits are Danish territorial waters and subject to Danish jurisdiction." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Old rack railway.", "History.", "Rolling stock.", "New rack railway.", "History.", "Rolling stock." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "With the completion of the Košice–Bohumín Railway in 1871, the High Tatras received their first railway connection. Tourism to Štrbské pleso arising from this led to the opening of hotels, footpaths and mountain huts. Under the management of Emil Várnai, the Košice–Bohumín Railway developed plans for a metre-gauge rack railway connecting Štrbské pleso to the station at Štrba. On 30 July 1895 the railway received a concession from the Hungarian Trade Ministry. Building began quickly and the railway opened on 30 July 1896. The Košice–Bohumín Railway founded the \"Csorbatói Fogaskerekű Vasút\" (, ) to operate the railway. The line was only operated during the summer season between June and September and in winter for the ski season. For more than six months of the year there was no traffic. From the 1920s there was strong competition from motor transport and the railway was no longer profitable. In 1924 the railway (together with the Košice–Bohumín Railway) was taken over by the Czechoslovak State Railways. The Tatranská elektrická vicinálna dráha (TEVD) was founded in 1927 to operate the Tatra Electric Railway but refused to take over the old and inefficient rack railway. During the Great Depression traffic on the rack railway was ended on 14 September 1932. On 11 December 1936 the concession to operate the railway ended and in the 1940s the line was dismantled.", "In 1896 two steam locomotives were delivered from the Floridsdorf Locomotive Factory, Austria, with manufacturer's numbers 1012 and 1013. Four identical locomotives, which are still in service, were later built for the Achenseebahn. The locomotives were originally numbered 1 and 2 but were renumbered by ČSD as U 29.001 and U 29.002. There were also four passenger carriages and four goods wagons which were built by Ganz in Budapest.", "", "In 1968, in connection with the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships 1970 in Štrbské Pleso, plans were made for a new rack railway. Two-thirds of the old route was used but the rest of the route was entirely new. In Štrbské Pleso a new joint railway station with the Tatra Electric Railway was laid out, with a track connection for transferring vehicles. At Štrba railway station a new departure hall for the rack railway was built. The new railway was electrified at 1500 V DC, the same system as that used for the Tatra Electric Railway. The new railway was opened on 12 February 1970.", "Three new trains were delivered from Swiss Locomotive and Machine Works for the rebuilt line. The trains consist of a driving trailer of ČSD class R 29.0 (now ZSSK class 905.95) and a rack railcar of ČSD class EM 29.0 (now ZSSK class 405.95)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Formation.", "Mineralogy and petrology.", "Occurrence.", "Economic importance." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Unusually, phonolite forms from magma with a relatively low silica content, generated by low degrees of partial melting (less than 10%) of highly aluminous rocks of the lower crust such as tonalite, monzonite and metamorphic rocks. Melting of such rocks to a very low degree promotes the liberation of aluminium, potassium, sodium and calcium by melting of feldspar, with some involvement of mafic minerals. Because the rock is silica-undersaturated, it has no quartz or other silica crystals, and is dominated by low-silica feldspathoid minerals more than feldspar minerals. A few geological processes and tectonic events can melt the necessary precursor rocks to form phonolite. These include intracontinental hotspot volcanism, such as may form above mantle plumes covered by thick continental crust. A-type granites and alkaline igneous provinces usually occur alongside phonolites. Low-degree partial melting of underplates of granitic material in collisional orogenic belts may also produce phonolites.", "Phonolite is a fine-grained equivalent of nepheline syenite. They are products of partial melting, are silica-undersaturated, and have feldspathoids in their normative mineralogy. Mineral assemblages in phonolite occurrences are usually abundant feldspathoids (nepheline, sodalite, hauyne, leucite and analcite) and alkali feldspar (sanidine, anorthoclase or orthoclase), and rare sodic plagioclase. Biotite, sodium-rich amphiboles and pyroxenes along with iron-rich olivine are common minor minerals. Accessory phases include titanite, apatite, corundum, zircon, magnetite and ilmenite. Blairmorite is an analcite-rich variety of phonolite.", "Nepheline syenites and phonolites occur widely distributed throughout the world in Canada, Norway, Greenland, Sweden, the United Kingdom, the Ural Mountains, the Pyrenees, Italy, Eifel and Kaiserstuhl in Germany, Brazil, the Transvaal region, the Magnet Cove igneous complex of Arkansas, the Beemerville Complex of New Jersey, as well as on oceanic islands such as the Canary Islands. Nepheline-normative rocks occur in close association with the Bushveld Igneous Complex, possibly formed from partial melting of the wall rocks adjacent to that large ultramafic layered intrusion. Phonolite occurs in the related Pilanesberg Complex and Pienaars River Complex.", "Phonolites can be of interest as dimension stone or as aggregate for gravels. Rarely, economically mineralised phonolite-nepheline syenite alkaline complexes can be associated with rare-earth mineralisation, uranium mineralisation and phosphates, such as at Phalaborwa, South Africa. Phonolite tuff was used as a source of flint for adze heads and such by prehistoric people from Hohentwiel and Hegau, Germany. Phonolites can be separated into slabs of appropriate dimensions to be used as roofing tiles in place of roofing slate. One such occurrence is in the French Massif Central region such as the Haute Loire département." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Participants.", "The battle.", "Outcome.", "Concept and creation.", "Critical response.", "Adaptations.", "Radio.", "Film." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The city of Minas Tirith was besieged following the fall of Osgiliath and the Rammas Echor, Gondor's final barriers against the forces of Mordor. In the retreat to the city, Faramir, son of Denethor, Steward of Gondor, was severely wounded. Since the despairing Steward refused to leave his son's side, the Wizard Gandalf took command of the city's defences. Meanwhile, the enemy forces assembled before the city on the Pelennor Fields. A Great Darkness of smoke and cloud from Mordor blotted out the sun. The Nazgûl or Ringwraiths, Sauron's most feared servants, flew over the battlefield on fell beasts, causing the defenders' morale to waver.", "Sauron's army from Minas Morgul, led by the Witch-king of Angmar (chief of the Nazgûl) greatly outnumbered the combined armies of Gondor and its allies. This army consisted of some 150,000 orcs, trolls, and Men who had allied with Sauron. Sauron's forces included Haradrim Southrons who brought elephantine beasts, Easterlings from Rhûn and Variags from Khand, and many Orcs and Trolls. Tolkien describes the army as the greatest to \"issue from that vale since the days of Isildur's might, no host so fell and strong in arms had yet assailed the fords of Anduin; and yet it was but one and not the greatest of the hosts that Mordor now sent forth.\" The defenders' numbers were considerably less. Faramir was outnumbered by ten times at Osgiliath, where he lost one third of his men. The companies from outlying provinces of Gondor that came to the aid of Minas Tirith amounted to nearly 3,000 defenders. Prominent among these was a 700-strong contingent led by Prince Imrahil of Dol Amroth, Denethor's brother-in-law. Their number was smaller than expected since Gondor's coastal towns were being attacked by the Corsairs of Umbar. A 6,000-strong cavalry army from Rohan, Gondor's northern ally, arrived at dawn the next day, whereupon the battle proper began. The Men of Rohan (the Rohirrim) were \"thrice outnumbered by the Haradrim alone\". Further reinforcements from the coastal towns of Gondor sailed on Corsair ships to the city, led by Aragorn, who had captured the ships, thus removing the threat to the southern provinces. He had a claim to the throne of Gondor, as he was descended from the last High King of Gondor and Arnor. He led a small force of Rangers of the North, representing Arnor.", "After breaking the city gate with Grond, the Witch-king of Angmar rode under \"the archway that no enemy ever yet had passed.\" Gandalf, on his horse Shadowfax, alone stood in his way. But before the two could fight, they heard the horns of the Rohirrim, who had arrived at the Rammas Echor, the wall around the Pelennor Fields, newly broken by the invading orcs. Dawn broke, and the main battle began. The Rohirrim had bypassed Sauron's lookouts thanks to the Wild Men (the Drúedain), who led them through the hidden Stonewain Valley of their Drúadan Forest. Charging the ranks of Mordor, the Rohirrim split into two groups. The left group, including the van, broke the Witch-king's right wing. The right group secured the walls of Minas Tirith. They destroyed siege engines and camps, and drove off the Haradrim cavalry. Théoden killed the chieftain of the Haradrim and threw down their standard. The Witch-king exchanged his horse for his winged steed and attacked Théoden. With a dart, he killed the king's horse, Snowmane; it fell and crushed the king. The Black Breath, the terror spread by the Witch-King, drove off Theoden's guards, but his niece Éowyn (disguised as a man and calling herself \"Dernhelm\") stood firm, challenging the Witch-king. She cut off the head of the Witch-king's mount; he broke her shield and shield arm with his mace. The hobbit Meriadoc Brandybuck, who had accompanied \"Dernhelm\", stabbed the Witch-king behind the knee with his Barrow-blade, a dagger from the ancient kingdom of Arnor enchanted against the forces of Angmar. The Witch-king staggered forwards, and Éowyn \"drove her sword between crown and mantle\", killing him. This fulfilled Glorfindel's prophecy following the fall of Arnor that the Witch-king would not die \"by the hand of man\". Both the weapons that struck his undead flesh were destroyed. Éowyn's brother Éomer arrived to find Théoden mortally wounded; he named Éomer king before dying. Éomer then saw his sister unconscious. Mistaking her for dead, he became enraged and led his entire army in a near-suicidal charge. His vanguard broke out far beyond the rest of the Rohirrim, risking becoming encircled. Meanwhile, Imrahil led Gondor's men in a sortie from Minas Tirith. Imrahil rode up to Éowyn and found she was still alive, though gravely ill from the Black Breath. She and Merry were sent to the Houses of Healing in the city. Denethor prepared to burn himself and his son upon a funeral pyre, believing Faramir to be beyond cure. Only the intervention of the hobbit Peregrin Took, Beregond (a Guard of the Citadel) and Gandalf saved Faramir, but Denethor immolated himself before they could stop him. Tolkien indirectly states that Théoden's death could have been prevented if Gandalf had helped the Rohirrim instead, as he had intended. Out on the Pelennor Fields, the battle was turning against Gondor and its allies. Though the Rohirrim had inflicted enormous damage on their enemies, Sauron's forces were still numerically superior, and Gothmog, the lieutenant of Minas Morgul, in command after the death of the Witch-king, summoned reserves from nearby Osgiliath. The Rohirrim were now on the southern half of the Pelennor, with enemies between them and the Anduin, and Gothmog's reinforcements threatened to occupy the centre of the Pelennor, thus surrounding the Rohirrim and preventing the Gondorian troops from joining with them. Éomer was by this time only about a mile from the Harlond, so rather than cut his way through to the river, he prepared to make a last stand on a hill. Meanwhile, a fleet of black ships, apparently the navy of the Corsairs of Umbar, Sauron's allies, sailed up Anduin to the Harlond. Just before reaching the quays, the flagship unfurled the ancient banner of the Kings of Gondor. This sight alone put heart into the Rohirrim and Imrahil's forces and demoralised Sauron's armies. The ships indeed were manned by Aragorn and his Rangers, Gimli the Dwarf, Legolas the Elf, the Half-elven brothers Elladan and Elrohir and many troops from southern Gondor. (Later in the book, Legolas and Gimli relate how a ghostly host commanded by Aragorn, the Dead Men of Dunharrow, captured the ships from the Corsairs chiefly through fear.) This proved the turning point of the battle. A large portion of Sauron's forces were now pinned between Aragorn's and Éomer's forces, while Imrahil's troops advanced from the direction of the city. Though the advantage now rested with Gondor, fighting continued throughout the day, until at sunset no living enemy remained on the Pelennor Fields.", "The battle was only a tactical defeat for Sauron, as he had committed only a small portion of his forces to the assault, but he had lost the Witch-king, his chief lieutenant. The Captains of the West understood that their victory too would be only momentary, unless the Ring-bearer completed his task. Therefore, it was decided that the Host of the West should march to the Morannon without delay, to draw Sauron's attention away from Mordor. The victory allowed them to send a force to challenge Sauron, and still leave Minas Tirith better defended than it had been during the siege. However, Denethor was dead, as were Halbarad, Théoden, and many officers and men of Gondor and Rohan, and some would have to be kept in Gondor in case of attack, so only a small force could be sent. The climactic Battle of the Morannon soon followed.", "\"The War of the Ring\", the third volume of \"The History of the Lord of the Rings\", contains superseded versions of the battle. Some changes of detail are apparent. For example, Théoden dies by a projectile to the heart instead of being crushed by his horse; when Éowyn reveals her sex she has cut her hair short, a detail absent from the final version. Tolkien also considered killing off both Théoden and Éowyn. The scholar Elizabeth Solopova notes that Tolkien repeatedly referred to a historic account of the Battle of the Catalaunian Fields by Jordanes, and analyses the two battles' similarities. Both battles take place between civilisations of the \"East\" and \"West\", and like Jordanes, Tolkien describes his battle as one of legendary fame that lasted for several generations. Another apparent similarity is the death of king Theodoric I on the Catalaunian Fields and that of Théoden on the Pelennor. Jordanes reports that Theodoric was thrown off by his horse and trampled to death by his own men who charged forward. Théoden similarly rallies his men shortly before he falls and is crushed by his horse. And like Theodoric, Théoden is carried from the battlefield with his knights weeping and singing for him while the battle still goes on.", "The scholar Tom Shippey writes that prominent at the critical moment of the battle, the decisive charge of the Riders of Rohan, is panache, which he explains means both \"the white horsetail on [Eomer's] helm floating in his speed\" and \"the virtue of sudden onset, the dash that sweeps away resistance.\" Shippey notes that this allows Tolkien to display Rohan both as English, based on their Old English names and words like \"\"eored\"\" (troop of cavalry), and as \"alien, to offer a glimpse of the way land shapes people\". The arrival of Rohan is heralded by two calls: a cockerel crowing as the morning comes, and \"as if in answer... great horns of the North wildly blowing\". The cock-crow recalls multiple accounts in Western literature that speak, Shippey writes, of renewed hope and life after death; of the call which told Simon Peter that he had denied Christ three times, and that there would, despite him, be a resurrection; of the cock-crow in Milton's \"Comus\" that would \"be some solace yet\"; of the cockerel in the Norse \"Ódáinsakr\", killed and thrown over a wall by the witch, but crowing to King Hadding a moment later. As for the horns of Rohan, in Shippey's view \"their meaning is bravado and recklessness\", and in combination with the cock-crow, the message is that \"he who fears for his life shall lose it, but that dying undaunted is no defeat; furthermore that this was true before the Christian myth that came to explain why\". Shippey writes that warhorns exemplify the \"heroic Northern world\", as in what he calls the nearest \"Beowulf\" has to a moment of eucatastrophe, when Ongentheow's Geats, trapped all night, hear the horns of Hygelac's men coming to rescue them. The critic David Day states that Tolkien particularly disliked Shakespeare's treatment of myth, and must have resolved to do better. Day compares Tolkien's \"not by the hand of man will [the Witch-king of Angmar] fall\" to the \"almost identical\" prophecy about Macbeth, who should \"laugh to scorn / The power of man, for none of woman born / Shall harm Macbeth\" (Act 4, scene 1): and Macbeth is indeed killed by one who \"was from his mother's womb / Untimely ripp'd\" (as Macduff was born by Caesarean section: Act 5, scene 8). In both cases, the prophecies are at once true and false: Macduff was a living man, but not born; while Éowyn and Meriadoc were not men, but woman and hobbit, in Day's opinion \"rather more satisfying than Shakespeare's rather quibbling solution\".", "", "In the BBC radio series \"The Lord of the Rings\", the Battle of the Pelennor Fields is heard from two sides, the first being mainly Pippin's. One hears him discussing with Denethor, and like in the book, he has to find Gandalf to prevent Denethor from burning Faramir. This part is very similar to the book. The second side is the battle itself. Théoden's speech is declaimed, followed by music. A vocalist sings how the Rohirrim host rides forth and attacks the forces of darkness. Then the vocalism changes again and one hears Jack May and Anthony Hyde, voicing respectively Théoden and Éomer, saying a Nazgûl is coming. The 'opera' begins again, stating the Witch-king attacks Théoden, smacks him down and prepares to kill him. The vocalism ends here, then one hears Éowyn facing the Witch-king and slaying him.", "The battle is the centrepiece of Peter Jackson's film \"\"; \"The Telegraph\" wrote that \"the battle scenes involving the storming of Minas Tirith and the climactic battle of Pelennor Fields are quite simply the most spectacular and breathtaking ever filmed\". CNN.com put the battle on a list of best and worst battle scenes in film, where it appeared twice: one of the best before the Army of the Dead arrives, and one of the worst after that, dubbing the battle's climax an \"oversimplified cop out\" as a result of their involvement." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Economy.", "Sights and spa." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Dubí was first mentioned in the period of 1494–1498 as a village of tin miners (in Czech \"cín\", giving the name to nearby village of located on the border with Germany). Rapid development started in the 19th century. First, a new road to Saxony was built, followed by a spa (1862) and in (1864) A.Tschinkel purchased a mill Buschmühle where he established porcelain factory that in 1871 changed name to \"Eichwalder Porzellan und Ofenfabriken Bloch and Co.\" Furthermore, a new railroad (1884) made Dubí a popular holiday spa resort, visited by Johann Wolfgang Goethe, Jan Neruda, Václav Talich and others.", "Europe's largest deposits of lithium-bearing mica zinnwaldite in Cínovec, a village which gave its old German name Zinnwald (German for Tin Wood) to the mineral, were expected to be mined starting 2019 (as of June 2017). As of April 2019, it is expected to start in 2022.", "The most important sight in Dubí is Saint Maria's Church, which was built on the order of princes Clary-Aldringen between 1898 and 1906 as a copy of the Venice church Santa Maria dell'Orto to serve as their family's church. The first spas in Dubí were built in 1860 under the management of Anton Tschinkel, the founder of a local china factory. In 1862, his first spa (Diana Spa) was opened. The present-day Theresa Spa (Tereziny lázně) with mineral waters, recommended to patients after brain and spine surgeries, have been operating since 1879. The scenic railroad line Dubí–Moldava was declared a national monument in 1998." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Operation.", "Exploration.", "Financial status.", "Incidents and controversies.", "Incidents.", "Controversies.", "Odebrecht corruption investigation of EPN and the ex-director of Pemex Emilio Lozoya Austin." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3" ], "content": [ "Asphalt and pitch had been worked in Mexico since the time of the Aztecs. Small quantities of oil were first refined into kerosene around 1876 near Tampico. By 1917, commercial quantities of oil were being extracted and refined by subsidiaries of the British Pearson and American Doheny companies, and had attracted the attention of the Mexican government who then claimed all mineral rights for the state as part of its Constitution. In 1938, President Lázaro Cárdenas (1934–40) sided with oil workers striking against foreign-owned oil companies for an increase in pay and social services. On March 18, 1938, citing Article 27 of the Constitution of 1917, President Cárdenas embarked on the state-expropriation of all resources and facilities, nationalizing the United States and Anglo–Dutch operating companies, creating Pemex. He is famous in saying in his speech addressing the nation, \"I ask the entire nation to furnish the necessary moral and material support to face the consequences of a decision which we, of our own free will, would neither have sought nor desired.\" He framed expropriation as a necessary national response to the injustice of the operations of foreign companies operating on Mexican soil. Expropriation was not outright confiscation since the Mexican government promised to compensate companies. However, in retaliation, many foreign governments closed their markets to Mexican oil. In spite of the boycott, Pemex developed into one of the largest oil companies in the world and helped Mexico become the fifth-largest oil exporter in the world. In an interview on the oil news website in November 2005, a Pemex employee spoke anonymously of the company's inability to grow production, stating that the company and country is at Hubbert's Peak. The person interviewed believed export levels could not be recovered once peak had passed, as the size of current fields that have been discovered or are coming online represent a fraction of the size of the oilfields going into terminal decline. Annual production has dropped each year since 2004. Furthermore, it has been reported the 2005–2006 daily oil production was down by approximately (a large proportion of the country's 4,500,000 barrels) on the previous year. Pemex averaged 3.71 MMBPD in 2006. Pemex has never produced 4 MMBPD or higher for a yearly average. Pemex has been replaced as Latin America's largest company by Petrobras, according to the latest Latin Business Chronicle ranking of Latin America's Top 500 companies. To help capitalize the company, former President Vicente Fox brought forward the possibility of making shares of Pemex available to Mexican citizens and pension funds, to complement a current project-specific investment setup known as \"Proyectos de Inversión Diferida En El Registro del Gasto\" (Deferred Investment Projects in the Expenditure Registry); this proposal, along with alleviating Pemex's heavy tax burden and a substantial budget increase, have met opposition in Congress. President Felipe Calderón made clear at the beginning of his presidency that he would try his best to open up the sector to private investment. Pemex is Latin America's second-largest company measured by revenues, according to a ranking of the region's 500 largest companies by Latin Business Chronicle, behind Brazilian oil company Petrobras. In June 2009, Pemex has asked for an extra $1.5 billion state aid to finance oil fields investments, reported Bloomberg. President Calderón called for a change in Mexico's oil industry after output at Pemex fell at the fastest rate since 1942. His comments came after Petrobras and London-based BP said they made a \"giant\" oil find of as much as in the Gulf of Mexico southeast of Houston. According to Mexican Energy Minister Georgina Kessel, Mexico may seek to emulate Brazilian Oil rules that strengthened Petroleo Brasileiro SA as it considers regulation changes to revive the oil industry. In January 2014, Pemex signed a cooperation agreement with the Russian oil company Lukoil focusing on oil production and field exploration as well as exchange of knowledge in the aforementioned areas, including actions for ecological preservation and environmental protection. In February 2016, Emilio Lozoya Austin stepped down as CEO of Pemex, and was replaced by Dr. José Antonio González Anaya. On November 27, 2017, Dr. José Antonio González Anaya was appointed to be the Secretary of Finance and Public Credit. Carlos Alberto Treviño Medina was appointed CEO, sequentially.", "", "It is said that Pemex lacks the equipment, technology, and financial means to explore for new reserves in deep water or shale gas; hence, a reform to Mexican law has been put forward by the government. In addition to a failing infrastructure, dwindling reserves have created urgency in completing some type of reform. Only 20% of Mexico has been extensively explored for further reserves, and it has been argued that Pemex will need the help of some form of foreign investment to successfully explore new reserves, including in the Gulf of Mexico. In February 2015, the board approved a $4.16 billion spending cut, pulling the company's budget down 11.5 percent from the 2015 budget approved by Mexico's congress. The company also said it will delay deepwater exploration plans and cut jobs in response to weak oil prices. In December 2019, the company stated that it has discovered a deposit in southeastern Mexico that could produce 500 million barrels of crude which is considered the largest discovery in more than 30 years.", "Taxes on Pemex revenue provide about a third of all the tax revenues collected by the Mexican government. Pemex has a debt of $42.5 billion, including $24 billion in off-balance-sheet debt. The state-owned company pays out over 60% of its revenue in royalties and taxes. Mexico exports crude oil, but imports more expensive gasoline. National Hydrocarbons Commission, created in 2008 by the Mexican Congress to increase regulatory oversight, has increased scrutiny over Pemex in 2012. As of July 2019, Pemex is the most indebted oil company in the world.", "", "In 1979, Pemex's Ixtoc I exploratory oil well in the Bay of Campeche suffered a blowout resulting in one of the largest oil spills in history. Pemex spent $100 million to clean up the spill and avoided most compensation claims by asserting sovereign immunity as a state-run company. Pemex was blamed for a series of gas explosions in Guadalajara. On September 19, 2012 an explosion at the Pemex gas plant in Reynosa, Tamaulipas killed 30 and injured 46 people. Pemex Director Juan Jose Suarez said that there was \"no evidence that it was a deliberate incident, or some kind of attack\". On January 31, 2013, an explosion occurred at the administrative offices of Pemex in Mexico City. At least 37 people were killed and at least 126 were injured. The cause has not been confirmed. Local media reported that machinery exploded in the basement of an administrative center next door to the 52-story Pemex tower. On April 1, 2015, a fire occurred on platform Abkatun A in the southern Gulf of Mexico which killed 4 workers. On April 20, 2016, a large explosion and fire at the company's Chlorinate 3 plant in Coatzacoalcos killed at least 28 people. On September 24, 2016, a fire broke out on the oil tanker \"Burgos\", off the coast of Boca del Río, Veracruz, forcing all the crew (31 members) to be evacuated safely. The tanker was carrying 80,000 barrels of diesel and 70,000 barrels of gasoline. On January 18, 2019, an explosion occurred on a pipeline passing through the village of Tlauhuelilpan Hidalgo killing 120 people. Several hundred people were gathering around an illegal pipe drain in order to get fuel. Images of the event shows people collecting fuel with buckets and small containers from a waterfall of gasoline. Military and police forces were present during the event for several hours before the explosion but were unable to stop the people from stealing fuel. The pipeline was not closed on time even after the fuel drain was reported.", "In 2009, the U.S. Justice Department reported that some U.S. refineries had bought millions of dollars' worth of oil stolen from Mexican government pipelines. Criminals, especially drug gangs, tap remote pipelines and sometimes build their own pipelines to siphon off hundreds of millions of dollars' worth of oil each year. One oil executive has been charged and has pleaded guilty to conspiracy charges. The U.S. Homeland Security Department will return $2.4 million to Mexico's tax administration—the first money seized during a binational investigation into smuggled oil that authorities expect to lead to more arrests and seizures. The President of Houston-based Trammo Petroleum is set to be sentenced in December after pleading guilty in May. There have been various allegations of corruption within Pemex for over a decade. These range from political contributions to the Institutional Revolutionary Party (over $200 million), \"no show\" jobs (individuals receive a salary while performing no duties whatsoever), various forms of fraud, embezzlement, and even under the table fuel sales. It has been estimated these various forms of corruption contribute to the loss of over $1 billion a year. Pemex has a long history of alleged violation of human and labour rights regarding engineers, unrightfully considered to be \"trusted workers\" who have tried to unionize since 1995 and succeeded, after several repression episodes, in doing so in 2008 and 2009, although at a high human cost. This included the death of a person who was refused medical service at one of Pemex's hospitals because his son had just been sacked for belonging to this union, the Unión Nacional de Técnicos y Profesionistas (shorthand UNTyPP). It also included forcing union members to resign from the Union from their hospital beds, as happened to three cancer patients in 2009. Up to date, and in spite of pressure by the Mexican Congress, the International Labour Organization, the Global Compact, the Industrial Global Union and thousands of citizens all over the world, workers sacked in 2002, 2004, 2008, 2009, 2010 and 2011 haven't been all reinstated nor has there been any reparation otherwise. Pemex has never acknowledged these violations of human rights. On November 10, 2019, the institution suffered a cyber attack, computers were infected with DoppelPaymer Ransomware.", "Odebrecht is a Brazilian conglomerate that like Pemex also operates in the field of petroleum. Back in 2010-2012, Emilio Lozoya Austin was part of the PRI's team supporting Enrique Peña Nieto (EPN) during his presidential campaign. After EPN won the elections, Lozoya was promoted to director of Pemex, a role he served for most of EPN's presidency. In 2017, Brazilian news paper O Globo claimed that Odebrecht helped finance EPN's presidential campaign, by giving $10 million to Emilio Lozoya as a bribe during times close to the 2012 elections. Soon after EPN won the elections in 2012, Lozoya was placed as director of Pemex, and Odebrecht \"won\" huge contracts from Pemex and the Mexican government. The surfacing of the news involving the controversy surfaced in 2017, further revealing Lozoya bought a $38 million house with a single payment before even being declared director of Pemex, affording such house did not fit with his salary at the time. In October 2017, it was confirmed by the presidency that in fact EPN himself, also met with Odebrecht 4 times during his presidential campaign. Thus directly tying EPN into the scandal, albeit EPN claimed not to receive bribes, EPN lacks credibility among Mexican people. A document from Brazil reported Lozoya received $5 million in November 2014. Santiago Nieto, the man in charge of the FEPADE (an office in charge of investigations against electoral crimes), was controversially fired, soon after the Odebretch scandal started. Santiago was said to be receiving too much pressure from EPN and Lozoya to stop the investigation. The firing was criticized by ex-president Felipe Calderon's wife and independent 2018 presidential candidate Margarita Zavala. President EPN said Santiago's restitution fate was on the Mexican Senate. The organization Borde Politico, had published weeks before that 116 out of the 128 Mexican senators were incompetent." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Career." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Sawyer was born in Scotland, and graduated with a degree in Computer Science and Microprocessor Systems from the University of Strathclyde in Glasgow. Following school, he entered the video game industry in 1983, writing games in Z80 machine code on the Memotech MTX home computer, and then the Amstrad CPC series home computer. Some of these were published by Ariolasoft, \"Sepulcri Scelerati\" and \"Ziggurat\". From 1988 to 1993, Sawyer worked on MS-DOS conversions of Amiga games and was involved in many projects, including \"Virus\", \"Conqueror\", \"Campaign\", \"Birds of Prey\", \"Dino Dini's Goal\" and \"\". He also contributed to the MS-DOS version of \"Elite Plus\". Sawyer's first management simulation game, \"Transport Tycoon\", was released by MicroProse in 1994 and became a classic of the tycoon series of games. A year later, he improved and extended the game, giving it the title \"Transport Tycoon Deluxe\". The title sold well, and Sawyer immediately sought to create a sequel. While working on the basic game engine for this sequel, Sawyer had used some of the revenue from \"Transport Tycoon\" to travel across Europe and the United States and developed an interest in roller coasters, and changed the project into what would become \"RollerCoaster Tycoon\", originally called \"White Knuckle\" before release. Sawyer coded 99% of \"RollerCoaster Tycoon\" in x86 assembly language, using only the services of freelance artist Simon Foster and music composer Allister Brimble as needed. After creating \"RollerCoaster Tycoon\", he resumed work on the sequel for \"Transport Tycoon\", but again postponed it to create \"RollerCoaster Tycoon 2\". Upon completing that project, he resumed his work on the \"Transport Tycoon\" sequel, finally releasing it in 2004 as \"Chris Sawyer's Locomotion\". Sawyer also served as a consultant for Atari in the development of \"RollerCoaster Tycoon 3\" done by Frontier Developments. In November 2005, Sawyer sued Atari, claiming that they had failed to pay him certain royalties. Sawyer and Atari settled out of court for an undisclosed amount in February 2008. Due to a combination of the legal issues with Atari, and a general detest of the violent nature of video games, Sawyer temporarily stepped away from video games after the release of \"Locomotion\", until 2010. In 2010, Sawyer founded 31X Ltd. which he initially planned to use as a holding company for the \"Transport Tycoon\" intellectual property. However, he saw that there was interest in a mobile version of \"Transport Tycoon\" and a space in the market for simulation games like this, and reworked 31X to be a video game developer focused on mobile games. In addition to Sawyer, several others that worked with him on the \"Tycoon\" games became part of 31X, including Jacqui Lyons, who worked with Sawyer for more than 20 years, serving as the company's executive producer. 31X's first product was \"Transport Tycoon\" for iOS and Android, released in 2013, which was assisted with Origin8. Sawyer continued to work with Origin8 to bring the first two \"RollerCoaster Tycoon\" games into \"RollerCoaster Tycoon Classic\" released for mobile in December 2016. The game later received ports to Microsoft Windows and macOS in September 2017." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "Climate.", "Mythic Lemnos.", "History.", "Prehistory.", "Antiquity.", "Middle Ages.", "Ottoman period.", "Modern period.", "Municipality.", "Subdivisions.", "Culture.", "Cuisine.", "In popular culture.", "Socio-economic data.", "Transport." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Lemnos is mostly flat (hence its more than 30 sand beaches), but the west, and especially the northwest part, is rough and mountainous. The highest point is Mount Skopia at the altitude of 430 m. The chief towns are Myrina, on the western coast, and Moudros on the eastern shore of a large bay in the middle of the island. Myrina (also called Kastro, meaning \"castle\") possesses a good harbour, which is in the process of being upgraded through construction of a west-facing sea wall. It is the seat of all trade carried on with the mainland. The hillsides afford pasture for sheep, and Lemnos has a strong husbandry tradition, being famous for its Kalathaki Limnou (PDO), a cheese made from sheep and goat milk and melipasto cheese, and for its yogurt. Fruit and vegetables that grow on the island include almonds, figs, melons, watermelons, tomatoes, pumpkins and olives. The main crops are wheat, barley, sesame; in fact Lemnos was Constantinople's granary after the Byzantine Empire lost its Anatolian possessions in the 1320s. Lemnos also produces honey (from thyme-fed bees), but, as is the case with most products of a local nature in Greece, the produced quantities are little more than simply sufficient for the local market. Muscat grapes are grown widely, and are used to produce an unusual table wine that is dry yet has a strong Muscat flavor. Since 1985 the variety and quality of Lemnos wines have increased greatly.", "The climate in Lemnos is mainly Mediterranean. Winters are generally mild, but there will be a snowfall occasionally. Strong winds are a feature of the island, especially in August and in winter time, hence its nickname \"the wind-ridden one\" (in Greek, Ανεμόεσσα). The temperature is typically 2 to 5 degrees Celsius less than in Athens, especially in summertime.", "For ancient Greeks, the island was sacred to Hephaestus, god of metallurgy, who—as he tells himself in \"Iliad\" I.590ff—fell on Lemnos when Zeus hurled him headlong out of Olympus. There, he was cared for by the Sinties, according to \"Iliad\", or by Thetis (Apollodorus, \"Bibliotheke\" I:3.5), and there with a Thracian nymph Cabiro (a daughter of Proteus) he fathered a tribe called the Kaberoi. Sacred initiatory rites dedicated to them were performed in the island. Its ancient capital was named Hephaistia in the god's honour. Hephaestus' forge, which was located on Lemnos, as well as the name \"Aethaleia\", sometimes applied to it, points to its volcanic character. It is said that fire occasionally blazed forth from Mosychlos, one of its mountains. The ancient geographer Pausanias relates that a small island called Chryse, off the Lemnian coast, was swallowed up by the sea. All volcanic action is now extinct. The earliest inhabitants are said to have been a Thracian tribe, whom the Greeks called \"Sintians\", \"robbers\". The name \"Lemnos\" is said by Hecataeus to have been applied in the form of a title to Cybele among the Thracians. The worship of Cybele was characteristic of Thrace, where it had spread from Asia Minor at a very early period. Hypsipyle and Myrina (the name of one of the chief towns) are Amazon names, which are always connected with Asiatic Cybele-worship. According to the epitome of the \"Bibliotheke\" traditionally attributed to Apollodorus (\"Epitome\" I:9), when Dionysus found Ariadne abandoned on Naxos, he brought her to Lemnos and there fathered Thoas, Staphylus, Oenopion, and Peparethus. Pliny the Elder in his \"Natural History\" (xxxvi. 13) speaks of a remarkable labyrinth in Lemnos, which has not been identified in modern times. According to a Hellenic legend, the women were all deserted by their husbands for Thracian women, and in revenge they murdered every man on the island. From this barbarous act, the expression \"Lemnian deeds\" became proverbial among the Hellenes. According to Apollonius of Rhodes' \"Argonautica\" the Argonauts landing soon after found only women in the island, ruled by Hypsipyle, daughter of the old king Thoas. From the Argonauts and the Lemnian women were descended the race called Minyans, whose king Euneus, son of Jason and Hypsipyle, sent wine and provisions to the Achaeans at Troy. According to later Greek historians, the Minyans were expelled by a Pelasgian tribe who came from Attica. The historical element underlying these traditions is probably that the original Thracian people were gradually brought into communication with the Greeks as navigation began to unite the scattered islands of the Aegean; the Thracian inhabitants were technologically primitive in comparison with the Greek mariners. In another legend, Philoctetes was left on Lemnos by the Greeks on their way to Troy; and there he suffered ten years' agony from his wounded foot, until Odysseus and Neoptolemus induced him to accompany them to Troy. According to Sophocles, he lived beside Mount Hermaeus, which Aeschylus makes one of the beacon points to flash the news of Troy's downfall home to Argos.", "", "The ruins of the oldest human settlement in the Aegean Islands found so far have been unearthed in archaeological excavations on Lemnos by a team of Greek, Italian and American archaeologists at the Ouriakos site on the Louri coast of Fyssini in Moudros municipality. The excavation began in early June 2009 and the finds brought to light, consisting mainly of high quality stone tools, are from the Epipaleolithic Period, indicating a settlement of hunters and gatherers and fishermen of the 12th millennium BC. A rectangular building with a double row of stepped seats on the long sides, at the southwest side of the hill of Poliochne, dates back to the Early Bronze Age and was possibly used as a kind of Bouleuterion. In August and September 1926, members of the Italian School of Archaeology at Athens conducted trial excavations on the island. The overall purpose of the excavations was to shed light on the island's pre-Hellenic \"Etrusco-Pelasgian\" civilization, following the discovery of the \"Lemnos stele\", bearing an inscription philologists related to the Etruscan language. The excavations, with then-current political overtones, were conducted on the site of the city of Hephaistia (i. e., Palaiopolis) where the Pelasgians, according to Herodotus, surrendered to Miltiades of Athens in 510 BC, initiating the social and political hellenization of the island. There, a necropolis (ca. 9th–8th centuries BC) was discovered, revealing bronze objects, pots, and over 130 ossuaries. The ossuaries contained distinctly male and female funeral ornaments. Male ossuaries contained knives and axes whereas female ossuaries contained earrings, bronze pins, necklaces, gold-diadems, and bracelets. The decorations on some of the gold objects contained spirals of Mycenaean origin, but had no Geometric forms. According to their ornamentation, the pots discovered at the site were from the Geometric period. However, the pots also preserved spirals indicative of Mycenaean art. The results of the excavations indicate that the Early Iron Age inhabitants of Lemnos could be a remnant of a Mycenaean population and, in addition, the earliest attested reference to Lemnos is the Mycenaean Greek \"ra-mi-ni-ja\", \"Lemnian woman\", written in Linear B syllabic script. Professor Della Seta reports: The lack of weapons of bronze, the abundance of weapons of iron, and the type of the pots and the pins gives the impression that the necropolis belongs to the ninth or eighth century B.C. That it did not belong to a Greek population, but to a population which, in the eyes of the Hellenes, appeared barbarous, is shown by the weapons. The Greek weapon, dagger or spear, is lacking: the weapons of the barbarians, the axe and the knife, are common. Since, however, this population... preserves so many elements of Mycenaean art, the Tyrrhenians or Pelasgians of Lemnos may be recognized as a remnant of a Mycenaean population.", "Homer speaks as if there were one town in the island called Lemnos. In Classical times there were two towns, Myrina (also called Kastro) and Hephaistia, which was the chief town. Coins from Hephaestia are found in considerable number, and various types including the goddess Athena with her owl, native religious symbols, the caps of the Dioscuri, Apollo, etc. Few coins of Myrina are known. They belong to the period of Attic occupation, and bear Athenian types. A few coins are also known which bear the name of the whole island, rather than of either city. A trace of the Lemnian language is found on a 6th-century inscription on a funerary stele, the Lemnos stele. Lemnos later adopted the Attic dialect of Athens. Coming down to a better authenticated period, it is reported that Lemnos was conquered by Otanes, a general of Darius Hystaspis. But soon (510 BC) it was reconquered by Miltiades the Younger, the tyrant of the Thracian Chersonese. Miltiades later returned to Athens and Lemnos was an Athenian possession until the Macedonian empire absorbed it. By 450 BC, Lemnos was an Athenian cleruchy. The Athenian settlers brought with them Athenian drama, dated to at least 348 BC. However, the tradition of theater seems to date back to the 5th century, and recent excavations at the site Hephaisteia suggest that the theater dated to the late 6th to early 5th century. On a barren island near Lemnos there was an altar of Philoctetes with a brazen serpent, bows and breastplate bound with strips, to remind of the sufferings of the hero. In 197 BC, the Romans declared it free, but in 166 BC gave it over to Athens which retained nominal possession of it until the whole of Greece was made a province of the Roman Republic in 146 BC. After the division of the Roman Empire in 395, Lemnos passed to the Byzantine Empire. Pliny the Elder writes about a labyrinth on Lemnos which was built by the architects Zmilis, Rhoecus and Theodorus, who were all natives of Lemnos.", "As a province of the Byzantine Empire, Lemnos belonged to the theme of the Aegean Sea, and was a target of Saracen raids in the 10th century and of Seljuk raids in the 11th century. Following the dissolution and division of the Empire after the Fourth Crusade, Lemnos (known by Westerners as \"Stalimene\") was apportioned to the Latin Empire, and given as a fief to the Navigajoso family under the Venetian (or possibly of mixed Greek and Venetian descent) \"megadux\" Filocalo Navigajoso. Filocalo died in 1214, and was succeeded by his son Leonardo and his daughters, who partitioned the island into three fiefs between them. Leonardo retained the title of \"megadux\" of the Latin Empire and half the island with the capital, Kastro, while his sisters and their husbands received one quarter each with the fortresses of Moudros and Kotsinos. Leonardo died in 1260 and was succeeded by his son Paolo Navigajoso, who resisted Byzantine attempts at reconquest until his death during a siege of the island by the Byzantine admiral Licario in 1277. Resistance continued by his wife, but in 1278 the Navigajosi were forced to capitulate and cede the island back to Byzantium. During the last centuries of Byzantium, Lemnos played a prominent role: following the loss of Asia Minor, it was a major source of food, and it played an important role in the recurring civil wars of the 14th century. As the Ottoman threat mounted in the 15th century, possession of Lemnos was demanded by Alfonso V of Aragon in exchange for offering assistance to the beleaguered Byzantines, while the last Byzantine emperor, Constantine XI Palaiologos, offered it to the Genoese captain Giustiniani Longo, if the Ottoman besiegers were driven off. Dorino I Gattilusio, the ruler of Lesbos, also acquired Lemnos as his fief shortly before the Fall of Constantinople in 1453.", "Following the fall of Constantinople (1453), and thanks to the intercession of Michael Critobulus, Sultan Mehmed II recognized Dorino I Gattilusio's possession of Lemnos and Thasos in exchange for an annual tribute of 2,325 gold coins. When Dorino died in 1455, his son and successor Domenico was only granted Lemnos, however. In 1456, Mehmed II attacked and captured the Gattilusi domains in Thrace (Ainos and the islands of Samothrace and Imbros). During the subsequent negotiations with Domenico Gattilusio, the Greek populace of Lemnos rose up against Domenico's younger brother Niccolò Gattilusio and submitted to the Sultan, who appointed a certain Hamza Bey as governor under the Bey of Gallipoli, Isma'il. Mehmed granted a special legal charter (\"kanun-name\") to Lemnos, Imbros, and Thasos, at this time, later revised by Selim I in 1519. In 1457 a Papal fleet under Cardinal Ludovico Scarampi Mezzarota captured the island. Pope Callixtus III (in office 1455-1458) hoped to establish a new military order on the island, which controlled the exit of the Dardanelles, but nothing came of it as Isma'il Bey soon recovered Lemnos for the Sultan. In 1464, during the First Ottoman–Venetian War,the Venetians seized Lemnos and other former Gattilusi possessions, but the area reverted to Ottoman control in accordance with the 1479 Treaty of Constantinople. In the aftermath, the Kapudan Pasha, Gedik Ahmed, repaired the island's fortifications and brought in settlers from Anatolia. At this time, the administration of the island was also reformed and brought in line with Ottoman practice, with a governor (\"voevoda\"), judge (\"kadi\"), and elders (\"kodjabashis\") heading the local Greek inhabitants. In the late-16th century, Lemnos is recorded, along with Chios, as \"the only prosperous island of the Archipelago\". It had 74 villages, three of them inhabited by Turkish Muslims. In July 1656, during the Fifth Ottoman–Venetian War, the Venetians captured the island again following a major victory over the Ottoman fleet. The Ottomans under Topal Mehmed Pasha recovered it barely a year later, on 15 November 1657, after besieging the capital of Kastro for 63 days. The famous Sufi poet Niyazi Misri was exiled to Lemnos for several years during the late 17th century. In 1770 Russian forces under Count Alexei Grigoryevich Orlov besieged Kastro for 60 days during the Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774. The fortress had just surrendered when an attack by the Ottoman fleet on the Russian vessels in Mudros Bay forced the Russians to withdraw (24 October 1770). Under Ottoman rule, Lemnos initially formed part of the \"sanjaks\" of Gallipoli or Mytilene under the Eyalet of the Archipelago, but was constituted as a separate \"sanjak\" in the reforms of the mid-19th century, at the latest by 1846. Abolished in 1867, the sanjak was re-formed in 1879 and existed until the island's capture by the Greeks in 1912. It comprised the islands of Lemnos (Limni in Turkish), Agios Efstratios (Bozbada), Imbros (Imroz) and Tenedos (Bozcaada). The French scholar Vital Cuinet, in his 1896 work \"La Turquie d'Asie\", recorded a population of 27,079, of which 2,450 were Muslims and the rest Greek Orthodox.", "On 8 October 1912, during the First Balkan War, Lemnos became part of Greece. The Greek navy under Rear Admiral Pavlos Kountouriotis took it over without any casualties from the occupying Turkish Ottoman garrison, who were returned to Anatolia. Peter Charanis, born on the island in 1908 and later a professor of Byzantine history at Rutgers University recounts when the island was occupied and Greek soldiers were sent to the villages and stationed themselves in the public squares. Some of the children ran to see what Greek soldiers looked like. ‘‘What are you looking at?’’ one of them asked. ‘‘At Hellenes,’’ the children replied. ‘‘Are you not Hellenes yourselves?’’ a soldier retorted. ‘‘No, we are Romans.\" Moudros Bay became a forward anchorage for the Greek fleet, which enabled it to keep watch on the Dardanelles and prevent a foray by the Ottoman Navy into the Aegean. The Ottomans' two attempts to achieve this were beaten back in the battles of Elli and Lemnos. Thus the Ottomans were prevented from supplying and reinforcing their land forces in Macedonia by sea, a critical factor in the success of the Balkan League in the war. During World War I, in early 1915, the Allies used the island to try to capture the Dardanelles Straits, some away. This was done chiefly by the British and largely due to the urging of Winston Churchill. The harbour at Moudros was put under the control of British Admiral Rosslyn Wemyss, who was ordered to prepare the then largely unused harbour for operations against the Dardanelles. The harbour was broad enough for British and French warships, but lacked suitable military facilities, which was recognized early on. Troops intended for Gallipoli had to train in Egypt, and the port found it difficult to cope with casualties of the ill-starred Gallipoli campaign. The campaign was called off in evident failure at the close of 1915. Moudros' importance receded, although it remained the Allied base for the blockade of the Dardanelles during the war. The town of Lemnos, Victoria, Australia, established in 1927 as a soldier settlement zone for returning First World War soldiers, was named after the island. There are three Commonwealth War Graves Commission (CWGC) cemeteries on the island, the first one for the 352 Allied soldiers in Portianou, the second one for the 148 Australian and 76 New Zealander soldiers in the town of Moudros and the third one for the Ottoman soldiers (170 Egyptian and 56 Turkish soldiers). In late October 1918, the armistice between the Ottoman Empire and the Allies was signed at Moudros. After the Red Army victory in the Russian Civil War, many Kuban Cossacks fled the country to avoid persecution from the Bolsheviks. A notable evacuation point was the Greek island of Lemnos where 18,000 Kuban Cossacks landed, though many later died of starvation and disease. Most left the island after a year. Today the island of Lemnos (Limnos) has about 30 villages and settlements. The province includes the island of Agios Efstratios to the southwest which has some exceptional beaches and one of the two deserts in Europe (the other being Błędów Desert in Poland).", "The present municipality of Lemnos was formed on the merger of the following four former municipalities, each of which became municipal units, following the 2011 local government reform: Lemnos and the smaller island of Agios Efstratios previously formed part of Lesbos Prefecture. In 2011, the prefecture was abolished and Lemnos and Agios Efstratios now form Lemnos Regional Unit. Lemnos Province, abolished in 2006, comprised the same territory as the present regional unit.", "The municipal units of Atsiki, Moudros, Myrina and Nea Koutali are subdivided into the following communities (constituent villages in brackets): Atsiki Moudros Myrina Nea Koutali", "", "Local specialties include:", "On September 11, 2012, 2 Bohemia Interactive staff involved in working on Arma 3, Ivan Buchta and Martin Pezlar, were arrested on Lemnos on counts of suspected spying on military areas and installations and taking photographs. This was because Bohemia Interactive wanted to make Arma 3 as realistic to Lemnos as possible.", "In 2001 the island had 12,116 regular dwellings, of which 65% were stone-built, and 90.2% had pitched roofs made of red tiles (source: 18.3.2001 Census, National Statistical Service of Greece). The island's economically active population in 2001 was 6,602. Of them, 12% were employers, 20.5% self-employed, 55.3% wage-earners, 7.1% unpaid, auxiliary family members, and 5.1% did not declare line of occupation. Of the economically active population, 17.9% worked in agriculture, 5.3% in light manufacturing, 11% in construction, 6.7% in hotels and restaurants, and the rest in other lines of business.", "The only airport is Lemnos International Airport, east of Myrina. The island is well served by ferries from Piraeus (Athens), Laurium, Thessaloniki and Kavala." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Characteristics.", "Uses." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"A. chroococcum\" is a microaerophilic plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGRP), which is bacillus in shape and is Gram negative. As a mesophile, this bacterium grows best in moderate temperature soils and requires a neutral pH environment. It is able to fix nitrogen under aerobic conditions. The soil cannot be poor in phosphorus or else nitrogen fixing can be hindered. In addition to phosphorus, these bacterium needed potassium, \"sulphur, magnesium, and calcium\" to grow. To fix nitrogen \"A. chrococcum\" produces three enzymes (catalase, peroxidase, and superoxide dismutase) to \"neutralise\" reactive oxygen species. It also forms the dark-brown, water-soluble pigment melanin at high levels of metabolism during the fixation of nitrogen, which is thought to protect the nitrogenase system from oxygen. It has also been found that in the presence of some saccharides (such as sucrose and raffinose) while on agar plates, a levan ring can form around the \"A. chroococcum\" colony.", "Research has been carried out into \"A. chroococcum\"'s potential applications in improving crop production. At least one study has so far shown a significant increase in crop production linked to the production of \"auxins, cytokinins, and GA–like substances\" by \"A. chroococcum\". In addition to these biomolecules, this bacterium has been found to be able to produce \"siderophores, ammonia, and ACC deaminase\" as well as indoleacetic acid which all are known to assist with the growth of crops. On top of helping with the growth of crops in general, \"A. chroococcum\" has also been shown to help crops grow in polluted soils. A 2018 study has shown that \"A. chroococcum\" is able to survive and improve the growth of crops in soils polluted with heavy metals when seeds are inoculated with the bacterium prior to planting. In this study, \"A. chroococcum\" not only produced growth positive biomolecules and increased the number and quality of maize kernels, but also reduced the production of \"proline, antioxidant enzymes, and MDA\" in the plants, all which are indicative of the presence of heavy metals in the soil. In addition to treating soils polluted with heavy metals, \"A. chroococcum\" can act as a fungicide that can be used to treat soils and plants inflicted with fungal infections, specifically fungi that are susceptible to \"fungicidal substances of the anisomycin group\". This bacterium can also be used to determine the nutrient composition of the soil. Since plants and \"A.chroccoccum\" both need phosphorus and potassium to grow, this bacterium can be used to determine if the soil is fit for crop growth as it would thrive in soils that have these nutrients. \"A. chroococcum\" is also a possible asset for the purposes of bioremediation. It was found that the melanin produced by this bacterium is able to bind to heavy metals, subsequently protecting \"A. chroococcum\", which may be useful for removing heavy metals from polluted soils. Since this bacterium is able promote plant growth through nitrogen fixation, it can also reduce the amount of nitrogen that has to be added to fields which can reduce the amount of nitrogen runoff. This effect of less nitrogen being added in soil was seen in a study involving cotton plants." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Structure.", "Cell wall.", "Origin of name.", "Isolation and identification.", "Phylogeny.", "Ecological and clinical significance.", "Industrial significance.", "Use as model organism." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The cell wall of \"Bacillus\" is a structure on the outside of the cell that forms the second barrier between the bacterium and the environment, and at the same time maintains the rod shape and withstands the pressure generated by the cell's turgor. The cell wall is composed of teichoic and teichuronic acids. \"B. subtilis\" is the first bacterium for which the role of an actin-like cytoskeleton in cell shape determination and peptidoglycan synthesis was identified and for which the entire set of peptidoglycan-synthesizing enzymes was localized. The role of the cytoskeleton in shape generation and maintenance is important. \"Bacillus\" species are rod-shaped, endospore-forming aerobic or facultatively anaerobic, Gram-positive bacteria; in some species cultures may turn Gram-negative with age. The many species of the genus exhibit a wide range of physiologic abilities that allow them to live in every natural environment. Only one endospore is formed per cell. The spores are resistant to heat, cold, radiation, desiccation, and disinfectants.", "The genus \"Bacillus\" was named in 1835 by Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg, to contain rod-shaped (bacillus) bacteria. He had seven years earlier named the genus \"Bacterium\". \"Bacillus\" was later amended by Ferdinand Cohn to further describe them as spore-forming, Gram-positive, aerobic or facultatively anaerobic bacteria. Like other genera associated with the early history of microbiology, such as \"Pseudomonas\" and \"Vibrio\", the 266 species of \"Bacillus\" are ubiquitous. The genus has a very large ribosomal 16S diversity.", "An easy way to isolate \"Bacillus\" species is by placing nonsterile soil in a test tube with water, shaking, placing in melted mannitol salt agar, and incubating at room temperature for at least a day. Cultured colonies are usually large, spreading, and irregularly shaped. Under the microscope, the \"Bacillus\" cells appear as rods, and a substantial portion of the cells usually contain oval endospores at one end, making them bulge.", "Three proposals have been presented as representing the phylogeny of the genus \"Bacillus\". The first proposal, presented in 2003, is a \"Bacillus\"-specific study, with the most diversity covered using 16S and the ITS regions. It divides the genus into 10 groups. This includes the nested genera \"Paenibacillus, Brevibacillus, Geobacillus, Marinibacillus\" and \"Virgibacillus\". The second proposal, presented in 2008, constructed a 16S (and 23S if available) tree of all validated species. The genus \"Bacillus\" contains a very large number of nested taxa and majorly in both 16S and 23S. It is paraphyletic to the Lactobacillales (\"Lactobacillus, Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, Listeria\", etc.), due to \"Bacillus coahuilensis\" and others. A third proposal, presented in 2010, was a gene concatenation study, and found results similar to the 2008 proposal, but with a much more limited number of species in terms of groups. (This scheme used \"Listeria\" as an outgroup, so in light of the ARB tree, it may be \"inside-out\"). One clade, formed by \"Bacillus anthracis\", \"Bacillus cereus\", \"Bacillus mycoides\", \"Bacillus pseudomycoides\", \"Bacillus thuringiensis\", and \"Bacillus weihenstephanensis\" under the 2011 classification standards, should be a single species (within 97% 16S identity), but due to medical reasons, they are considered separate species (an issue also present for four species of \"Shigella\" and \"Escherichia coli\").", "\"Bacillus\" species are ubiquitous in nature, e.g. in soil. They can occur in extreme environments such as high pH (\"B. alcalophilus\"), high temperature (\"B. thermophilus\"), and high salt concentrations (\"B. halodurans\"). \"B. thuringiensis\" produces a toxin that can kill insects and thus has been used as insecticide. \"B. siamensis\" has antimicrobial compounds that inhibit plant pathogens, such as the fungi \"Rhizoctonia solani\" and \"Botrytis cinerea\", and they promote plant growth by volatile emissions. Some species of \"Bacillus\" are naturally competent for DNA uptake by transformation.", "Many \"Bacillus\" species are able to secrete large quantities of enzymes. \"Bacillus amyloliquefaciens\" is the source of a natural antibiotic protein barnase (a ribonuclease), alpha amylase used in starch hydrolysis, the protease subtilisin used with detergents, and the BamH1 restriction enzyme used in DNA research. A portion of the \"Bacillus thuringiensis\" genome was incorporated into corn (and cotton) crops. The resulting GMOs are resistant to some insect pests. \"Bacillus\" species continue to be dominant bacterial workhorses in microbial fermentations. \"Bacillus subtilis\" (natto) is the key microbial participant in the ongoing production of the soya-based traditional natto fermentation, and some \"Bacillus\" species are on the Food and Drug Administration's GRAS (generally regarded as safe) list. The capacity of selected \"Bacillus\" strains to produce and secrete large quantities (20-25 g/L) of extracellular enzymes has placed them among the most important industrial enzyme producers. The ability of different species to ferment in the acid, neutral, and alkaline pH ranges, combined with the presence of thermophiles in the genus, has led to the development of a variety of new commercial enzyme products with the desired temperature, pH activity, and stability properties to address a variety of specific applications. Classical mutation and (or) selection techniques, together with advanced cloning and protein engineering strategies, have been exploited to develop these products. Efforts to produce and secrete high yields of foreign recombinant proteins in \"Bacillus\" hosts initially appeared to be hampered by the degradation of the products by the host proteases. Recent studies have revealed that the slow folding of heterologous proteins at the membrane-cell wall interface of Gram-positive bacteria renders them vulnerable to attack by wall-associated proteases. In addition, the presence of thiol-disulphide oxidoreductases in \"B. subtilis\" may be beneficial in the secretion of disulphide-bond-containing proteins. Such developments from our understanding of the complex protein translocation machinery of Gram-positive bacteria should allow the resolution of current secretion challenges and make \"Bacillus\" species preeminent hosts for heterologous protein production. \"Bacillus\" strains have also been developed and engineered as industrial producers of nucleotides, the vitamin riboflavin, the flavor agent ribose, and the supplement poly-gamma-glutamic acid. With the recent characterization of the genome of \"B. subtilis\" 168 and of some related strains, \"Bacillus\" species are poised to become the preferred hosts for the production of many new and improved products as we move through the genomic and proteomic era.", "\"Bacillus subtilis\" is one of the best understood prokaryotes, in terms of molecular and cellular biology. Its superb genetic amenability and relatively large size have provided the powerful tools required to investigate a bacterium from all possible aspects. Recent improvements in fluorescent microscopy techniques have provided novel insight into the dynamic structure of a single cell organism. Research on \"B. subtilis\" has been at the forefront of bacterial molecular biology and cytology, and the organism is a model for differentiation, gene/protein regulation, and cell cycle events in bacteria." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Medical use.", "Recreational use.", "Party use.", "Sports and athletics.", "Usage as a date rape drug.", "Adverse effects.", "Combination with alcohol.", "Deaths.", "Neurotoxicity.", "Addiction.", "Withdrawal.", "Overdose.", "Detection of use.", "Endogenous production.", "Natural fermentation by-product.", "Pharmacology.", "History.", "Legal status." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The only common medical uses for GHB today are in the treatment of narcolepsy and, more rarely, alcoholism, although its use for alcoholism is not supported by evidence from randomized controlled trials. It is sometimes used off-label for the treatment of fibromyalgia. GHB is the active ingredient of the prescription medication sodium oxybate (Xyrem). Sodium oxybate is approved by U.S. Food and Drug Administration for the treatment of cataplexy associated with narcolepsy and excessive daytime sleepiness (EDS) associated with narcolepsy. GHB has been shown to reliably increase slow-wave sleep and decrease the tendency for REM sleep in modified multiple sleep latency tests.", "GHB is a central nervous system depressant used as an intoxicant. It has many street names. Its effects have been described anecdotally as comparable with ethanol (alcohol) and MDMA use, such as euphoria, disinhibition, enhanced libido and empathogenic states. At higher doses, GHB may induce nausea, dizziness, drowsiness, agitation, visual disturbances, depressed breathing, amnesia, unconsciousness, and death. One potential cause of death from GHB consumption is polydrug toxicity. Co-administration with other CNS depressants such as alcohol or benzodiazepines can result in an additive effect (potentiation), as they all bind to gamma-aminobutyric acid (or \"GABA\") receptor sites. The effects of GHB can last from 1.5 to 4 hours, or longer if large doses have been consumed. Consuming GHB with alcohol can cause respiratory arrest and vomiting in combination with unrousable sleep, which can contribute to a lethal outcome. Recreational doses of 1–2 g generally provide a feeling of euphoria, and larger doses create deleterious effects such as reduced motor function and drowsiness. The sodium salt of GHB has a salty taste. Other salt forms such as calcium GHB and magnesium GHB have also been reported, but the sodium salt is by far the most common. Some prodrugs, such as γ-butyrolactone (GBL), convert to GHB in the stomach and blood stream. Other prodrugs, such as 1,4-butanediol (1,4-B), have their own toxicity concerns. GBL and 1,4-B are normally found as pure liquids, but they can be mixed with other more harmful solvents when intended for industrial use (e.g. as paint stripper or varnish thinner). GHB can be manufactured with little knowledge of chemistry, as it involves the mixing of its two precursors, GBL and an alkali hydroxide such as sodium hydroxide, to form the GHB salt. Due to the ease of manufacture and the availability of its precursors, it is not usually produced in illicit laboratories like other synthetic drugs, but in private homes by low-level producers. GHB is \"colourless and odourless\". A 2006 report commissioned by a UK parliamentary committee found the use of GHB to be less dangerous than tobacco and alcohol in physical harm, dependence and social harms.", "GHB has been used as a club drug, apparently starting in the 1990s, as small doses of GHB can act as a euphoriant and are believed to be aphrodisiac. Slang terms for GHB include \"liquid ecstasy\", \"lollipops\", \"liquid X\" or \"liquid E\" due to its tendency to produce euphoria and sociability and its use in the dance party scene. By 2009 this use had diminished, possibly due to efforts to control distribution of GHB and its analogs, or to the narrow range of dosing and adverse effects of confusion, dizziness, blurred vision, hot/cold flushes, profuse sweating, vomiting, and loss of consciousness when overdosed. The downward trend was still apparent in 2012.", "Some athletes have used GHB or its analogs because of being marketed as anabolic agents, although there is no evidence that it builds muscle or improves performance.", "GHB became known to the general public as a date rape drug by the late 1990s. GHB is colourless and odorless and has been described as \"very easy to add to drinks\". When consumed, the victim will quickly feel groggy and sleepy and may become unconscious. Upon recovery they may have an impaired ability to recall events that have occurred during the period of intoxication. In these situations evidence and the identification of the perpetrator of the rape is often difficult. It is also difficult to establish how often GHB is used to facilitate rape as it is difficult to detect in a urine sample after a day, and many victims may only recall the rape some time after its occurrence; however, a 2006 study suggested that there was \"no evidence to suggest widespread date rape drug use\" in the UK, and that less than 2% of cases involved GHB, while 17% involved cocaine, and a survey in the Netherlands published in 2010 found that the proportion of drug-related rape where GHB was used appeared to be greatly overestimated by the media. There have been several high-profile cases of GHB as a date rape drug that received national attention in the United States. In early 1999, a 15-year-old girl, Samantha Reid of Rockwood, Michigan, died from GHB poisoning. Reid's death inspired the legislation titled the \"Hillory J. Farias and Samantha Reid Date-Rape Drug Prohibition Act of 2000\". This is the law that made GHB a Schedule 1 controlled substance. GHB can be detected in hair. Hair testing can be a useful tool in court cases or for the victim's own information. Most over-the-counter urine test kits test only for date rape drugs that are benzodiazepines, and GHB is not a benzodiazepine. To detect GHB in urine, the sample must be taken within four hours of GHB ingestion, and cannot be tested at home.", "", "In humans, GHB has been shown to reduce the elimination rate of alcohol. This may explain the respiratory arrest that has been reported after ingestion of both drugs. A review of the details of 194 deaths attributed to or related to GHB over a ten-year period found that most were from respiratory depression caused by interaction with alcohol or other drugs.", "One publication has investigated 226 deaths attributed to GHB. Of 226 deaths included, 213 had a cardiorespiratory arrest and 13 had fatal accidents. Seventy-one deaths (34%) had no co-intoxicants. Postmortem blood GHB was 18–4400 mg/L (median=347) in deaths negative for co-intoxicants. One report has suggested that sodium oxybate overdose might be fatal, based on deaths of three patients who had been prescribed the drug. However, for two of the three cases, post-mortem GHB concentrations were 141 and 110 mg/L, which is within the expected range of concentrations for GHB after death, and the third case was a patient with a history of intentional drug overdose. The toxicity of GHB has been an issue in criminal trials, as in the death of Felicia Tang, where the defense argued that death was due to GHB, not murder. GHB is produced in the body in very small amounts, and blood levels may climb after death to levels in the range of 30–50 mg/L. Levels higher than this are found in GHB deaths. Levels lower than this may be due to GHB or to postmortem endogenous elevations.", "In multiple studies, GHB has been found to impair spatial memory, working memory, learning and memory in rats with chronic administration. These effects are associated with decreased NMDA receptor expression in the cerebral cortex and possibly other areas as well. In addition, the neurotoxicity appears to be caused by oxidative stress.", "Although there have been reported fatalities due to GHB withdrawal, reports are inconclusive and further research is needed. A common problem is that GHB does not leave traces in the body after a short period of time, complicating diagnosis and research. Addiction occurs when repeated drug use disrupts the normal balance of brain circuits that control rewards, memory and cognition, ultimately leading to compulsive drug taking. Rats forced to consume massive doses of GHB will intermittently prefer GHB solution to water but, after experiments on rats, it was noted that \"no rat showed any sign of withdrawal when GHB was finally removed at the end of the 20-week period\" or during periods of voluntary abstinence.", "GHB has also been associated with a withdrawal syndrome of insomnia, anxiety, and tremor that usually resolves within three to twenty-one days. The withdrawal syndrome can be severe producing acute delirium and may require hospitalization in an intensive care unit for management. Management of GHB dependence involves considering the person's age, comorbidity and the pharmacological pathways of GHB. The mainstay of treatment for severe withdrawal is supportive care and benzodiazepines for control of acute delirium, but larger doses are often required compared to acute delirium of other causes (e.g. > 100 mg/d of diazepam). Baclofen has been suggested as an alternative or adjunct to benzodiazepines based on anecdotal evidence and some animal data. However, there is less experience with the use of baclofen for GHB withdrawal, and additional research in humans is needed. Baclofen was first suggested as an adjunct because benzodiazepines do not affect GABA receptors and therefore have no cross-tolerance with GHB while baclofen, which works via GABA receptors, is cross-tolerant with GHB and may be more effective in alleviating withdrawal effects of GHB. GHB withdrawal is not widely discussed in textbooks and some psychiatrists, general practitioners, and even hospital emergency physicians may not be familiar with this withdrawal syndrome.", "Overdose of GHB can sometimes be difficult to treat because of its multiple effects on the body. GHB tends to cause rapid unconsciousness at doses above 3500 mg, with single doses over 7000 mg often causing life-threatening respiratory depression, and higher doses still inducing bradycardia and cardiac arrest. Other side-effects include convulsions (especially when combined with stimulants), and nausea/vomiting (especially when combined with alcohol). The greatest life threat due to GHB overdose (with or without other substances) is respiratory arrest. Other relatively common causes of death due to GHB ingestion include aspiration of vomitus, positional asphyxia, and trauma sustained while intoxicated (e.g., motor vehicle accidents while driving under the influence of GHB). The risk of aspiration pneumonia and positional asphyxia risk can be reduced by laying the patient down in the recovery position. People are most likely to vomit as they become unconscious, and as they wake up. It is important to keep the victim awake and moving; the victim must not be left alone due to the risk of death through vomiting. Frequently the victim will be in a good mood but this does not mean the victim is not in danger. GHB overdose is a medical emergency and immediate assessment in an emergency department is needed. Convulsions from GHB can be treated with the benzodiazepines diazepam or lorazepam. Even though these benzodiazepines are also CNS depressants, they primarily modulate GABA receptors whereas GHB is primarily a GABA receptor agonist, and so do not worsen CNS depression as much as might be expected. Because of the faster and more complete absorption of GBL relative to GHB, its dose-response curve is steeper, and overdoses of GBL tend to be more dangerous and problematic than overdoses involving only GHB or 1,4-B. Any GHB/GBL overdose is a medical emergency and should be cared for by appropriately trained personnel. A newer synthetic drug SCH-50911, which acts as a selective GABA antagonist, quickly reverses GHB overdose in mice. However, this treatment has yet to be tried in humans, and it is unlikely that it will be researched for this purpose in humans due to the illegal nature of clinical trials of GHB and the lack of medical indemnity coverage inherent in using an untested treatment for a life-threatening overdose.", "GHB may be quantitated in blood or plasma to confirm a diagnosis of poisoning in hospitalized patients, to provide evidence in an impaired driving, or to assist in a medicolegal death investigation. Blood or plasma GHB concentrations are usually in a range of 50–250 mg/L in persons receiving the drug therapeutically (during general anesthesia), 30–100 mg/L in those arrested for impaired driving, 50–500 mg/L in acutely intoxicated patients and 100–1000 mg/L in victims of fatal overdosage. Urine is often the preferred specimen for routine drug abuse monitoring purposes. Both γ-butyrolactone (GBL) and 1,4-butanediol are converted to GHB in the body. In January 2016, it was announced scientists had developed a way to detect GHB, among other things, in saliva.", "Cells produce GHB by reduction of succinic semialdehyde via succinic semialdehyde reductase (SSR). This enzyme appears to be induced by cAMP levels, meaning substances that elevate cAMP, such as forskolin and vinpocetine, may increase GHB synthesis and release. Conversely, endogeneous GHB production in those taking valproic acid will be inhibited via inhibition of the conversion from succinic acid semialdehyde to GHB. People with the disorder known as succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase deficiency, also known as γ-hydroxybutyric aciduria, have elevated levels of GHB in their urine, blood plasma and cerebrospinal fluid. The precise function of GHB in the body is not clear. It is known, however, that the brain expresses a large number of receptors that are activated by GHB. These receptors are excitatory, however, and therefore not responsible for the sedative effects of GHB; they have been shown to elevate the principal excitatory neurotransmitter, glutamate. The benzamide antipsychotics—amisulpride, nemonapride, etc.—have been shown to bind to these GHB-activated receptors in vivo. Other antipsychotics were tested and were not found to have an affinity for this receptor. GHB is a precursor to GABA, glutamate, and glycine in certain brain areas. In spite of its demonstrated neurotoxicity, (see relevant section, above), GHB has neuroprotective properties, and has been found to protect cells from hypoxia.", "GHB is also produced as a result of fermentation and so is found in small quantities in some beers and wines, in particular fruit wines. The amount found in wine is pharmacologically insignificant and not sufficient to produce psychoactive effects.", "GHB has at least two distinct binding sites in the central nervous system. GHB is an agonist at the newly characterized GHB receptor, which is excitatory, and it is a weak agonist at the GABA receptor, which is inhibitory. GHB is a naturally occurring substance that acts in a similar fashion to some neurotransmitters in the mammalian brain. GHB is probably synthesized from GABA in GABAergic neurons, and released when the neurons fire. GHB has been found to activate oxytocinergic neurons in the supraoptic nucleus. If taken orally, GABA itself does not effectively cross the blood–brain barrier. GHB induces the accumulation of either a derivative of tryptophan or tryptophan itself in the extracellular space, possibly by increasing tryptophan transport across the blood–brain barrier. The blood content of certain neutral amino-acids, including tryptophan, is also increased by peripheral GHB administration. GHB-induced stimulation of tissue serotonin turnover may be due to an increase in tryptophan transport to the brain and in its uptake by serotonergic cells. As the serotonergic system may be involved in the regulation of sleep, mood, and anxiety, the stimulation of this system by high doses of GHB may be involved in certain neuropharmacological events induced by GHB administration. However, at therapeutic doses, GHB reaches much higher concentrations in the brain and activates GABA receptors, which are primarily responsible for its sedative effects. GHB's sedative effects are blocked by GABA antagonists. The role of the GHB receptor in the behavioural effects induced by GHB is more complex. GHB receptors are densely expressed in many areas of the brain, including the cortex and hippocampus, and these are the receptors that GHB displays the highest affinity for. There has been somewhat limited research into the GHB receptor; however, there is evidence that activation of the GHB receptor in some brain areas results in the release of glutamate, the principal excitatory neurotransmitter. Drugs that selectively activate the GHB receptor cause absence seizures in high doses, as do GHB and GABA(B) agonists. Activation of both the GHB receptor and GABA(B) is responsible for the addictive profile of GHB. GHB's effect on dopamine release is biphasic. Low concentrations stimulate dopamine release via the GHB receptor. Higher concentrations inhibit dopamine release via GABA(B) receptors as do other GABA(B) agonists such as baclofen and phenibut. After an initial phase of inhibition, dopamine release is then increased via the GHB receptor. Both the inhibition and increase of dopamine release by GHB are inhibited by opioid antagonists such as naloxone and naltrexone. Dynorphin may play a role in the inhibition of dopamine release via kappa opioid receptors. This explains the paradoxical mix of sedative and stimulatory properties of GHB, as well as the so-called \"rebound\" effect, experienced by individuals using GHB as a sleeping agent, wherein they awake suddenly after several hours of GHB-induced deep sleep. That is to say that, over time, the concentration of GHB in the system decreases below the threshold for significant GABA receptor activation and activates predominantly the GHB receptor, leading to wakefulness. Recently, analogs of GHB, such as 4-hydroxy-4-methylpentanoic acid (UMB68) have been synthesised and tested on animals, in order to gain a better understanding of GHB's mode of action. Analogues of GHB such as 3-methyl-GHB, 4-methyl-GHB, and 4-phenyl-GHB have been shown to produce similar effects to GHB in some animal studies, but these compounds are even less well researched than GHB itself. Of these analogues, only 4-methyl-GHB (γ-hydroxyvaleric acid, GHV) and a prodrug form γ-valerolactone (GVL) have been reported as drugs of abuse in humans, and on the available evidence seem to be less potent but more toxic than GHB, with a particular tendency to cause nausea and vomiting. Other prodrug ester forms of GHB have also rarely been encountered by law enforcement, including 1,4-butanediol diacetate (BDDA/DABD), methyl-4-acetoxybutanoate (MAB), and ethyl-4-acetoxybutanoate (EAB), but these are, in general, covered by analogue laws in jurisdictions where GHB is illegal, and little is known about them beyond their delayed onset and longer duration of action. The intermediate compound γ-hydroxybutyraldehyde (GHBAL) is also a prodrug for GHB; however, as with all aliphatic aldehydes this compound is caustic and is strong-smelling and foul-tasting; actual use of this compound as an intoxicant is likely to be unpleasant and result in severe nausea and vomiting. Both of the metabolic breakdown pathways shown for GHB can run in either direction, depending on the concentrations of the substances involved, so the body can make its own GHB either from GABA or from succinic semialdehyde. Under normal physiological conditions, the concentration of GHB in the body is rather low, and the pathways would run in the reverse direction to what is shown here to produce endogenous GHB. However, when GHB is consumed for recreational or health promotion purposes, its concentration in the body is much higher than normal, which changes the enzyme kinetics so that these pathways operate to metabolise GHB rather than producing it.", "Alexander Zaytsev worked on this chemical family and published work on it in 1874. The first extended research into GHB and its use in humans was conducted in the early 1960s by Dr. Henri Laborit to use in studying the neurotransmitter GABA. It was studied in a range of uses including obstetric surgery and during childbirth and as an anxiolytic; there were anecdotal reports of it having antidepressant and aphrodisiac effects as well. It was also studied as an intravenous anesthetic agent and was marketed for that purpose starting in 1964 in Europe but it was not widely adopted as it caused seizures; as of 2006 that use was still authorized in France and Italy but not widely used. It was also studied to treat alcohol addiction; while the evidence for this use is weak, however sodium oxybate is marketed for this use in Italy. GHB and sodium oxybate were also studied for use in narcolepsy from the 1960s onwards. In May 1990 GHB was introduced as a dietary supplement and was marketed to body builders, for help with weight control and as a sleep aid, and as a \"replacement\" for l-tryptophan, which was removed from the market in November 1989 when batches contaminated with trace impurities were found to cause eosinophilia-myalgia syndrome, although eosinophilia-myalgia syndrome is also tied to tryptophan overload. In 2001 tryptophan supplement sales were allowed to resume, and in 2005 the FDA ban on tryptophan supplement importation was lifted. By November 1989 57 cases of illness caused by the GHB supplements had been reported to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, with people having taken up to three teaspoons of GHB; there were no deaths but nine people needed care in an intensive care unit. The FDA issued a warning in November 1990 that sale of GHB was illegal. GHB continued to be manufactured and sold illegally and it and analogs were adopted as a club drug and came to be used as a date rape drug, and the DEA made seizures and the FDA reissued warnings several times throughout the 1990s. At the same time, research on the use of GHB in the form of sodium oxybate had formalized, as a company called Orphan Medical had filed an investigational new drug application and was running clinical trials with the intention of gaining regulatory approval for use to treat narcolepsy. A popular children's toy, Bindeez (also known as Aqua Dots, in the United States), produced by Melbourne company Moose, was banned in Australia in early November 2007 when it was discovered that 1,4-butanediol (1,4-B), which is metabolized into GHB, had been substituted for the non-toxic plasticiser 1,5-pentanediol in the bead manufacturing process. Three young children were hospitalized as a result of ingesting a large number of the beads, and the toy was recalled.", "In the United States, GHB was placed on Schedule I of the Controlled Substances Act in March 2000. However, used in sodium oxybate under an IND or NDA from the US FDA, it is considered a Schedule III substance but with Schedule I trafficking penalties, one of several drugs that are listed in multiple schedules. On 20 March 2001, the UN Commission on Narcotic Drugs placed GHB in Schedule IV of the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances. In the UK GHB was made a class C drug in June 2003. In October 2013 the ACMD recommended upgrading it from schedule IV to schedule II in line with UN recommendations. Their report concluded that the minimal use of Xyrem in the UK meant that prescribers would be minimally inconvenienced by the rescheduling. This advice was followed and GHB was moved to schedule 2 on 7 January 2015. In Hong Kong, GHB is regulated under Schedule 1 of Hong Kong's Chapter 134 \"Dangerous Drugs Ordinance\". It can only be used legally by health professionals and for university research purposes. The substance can be given by pharmacists under a prescription. Anyone who supplies the substance without prescription can be fined HK$10,000. The penalty for trafficking or manufacturing the substance is a HK$150,000 fine and life imprisonment. Possession of the substance for consumption without license from the Department of Health is illegal with a HK$100,000 fine or five years of jail time. In Canada, GHB has been a Schedule I controlled substance since 6 November 2012 (the same schedule that contains heroin and cocaine). Prior to that date, it was a Schedule III controlled substance (the same schedule that contains amphetamines and LSD). In New Zealand and Australia, GHB, 1,4-B, and GBL are all Class B illegal drugs, along with any possible esters, ethers, and aldehydes. GABA itself is also listed as an illegal drug in these jurisdictions, which seems unusual given its failure to cross the blood–brain barrier, but there was a perception among legislators that all known analogues should be covered as far as this was possible. Attempts to circumvent the illegal status of GHB have led to the sale of derivatives such as 4-methyl-GHB (γ-hydroxyvaleric acid, GHV) and its prodrug form γ-valerolactone (GVL), but these are also covered under the law by virtue of their being \"substantially similar\" to GHB or GBL and; so importation, sale, possession and use of these compounds is also considered to be illegal. In Chile, GHB is a controlled drug under the law (psychotropic substances and narcotics). In Norway and in Switzerland, GHB is considered a narcotic and is only available by prescription under the trade name Xyrem (Union Chimique Belge S.A.). Sodium oxybate is also used therapeutically in Italy under the brand name Alcover for treatment of alcohol withdrawal and dependence." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biological characteristics.", "Morphology.", "Cysts.", "Germination of cysts.", "Physiological properties.", "Pigments.", "Genome.", "Distribution.", "Nitrogen fixation.", "Nitrogenase.", "Importance.", "Applications.", "Taxonomy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Cells of the genus \"Azotobacter\" are relatively large for bacteria (2–4 μm in diameter). They are usually oval, but may take various forms from rods to spheres. In microscopic preparations, the cells can be dispersed or form irregular clusters or occasionally chains of varying lengths. In fresh cultures, cells are mobile due to the numerous flagella. Later, the cells lose their mobility, become almost spherical, and produce a thick layer of mucus, forming the cell capsule. The shape of the cell is affected by the amino acid glycine, which is present in the nutrient medium peptone. Under magnification, the cells show inclusions, some of which are colored. In the early 1900s, the colored inclusions were regarded as \"reproductive grains\", or gonidia – a kind of embryo cells. However, the granules were later determined to not participate in the cell division. The colored grains are composed of volutin, whereas the colorless inclusions are drops of fat, which act as energy reserves.", "Cysts of the genus \"Azotobacter\" are more resistant to adverse environmental factors than the vegetative cells; in particular, they are twice as resistant to ultraviolet light. They are also resistant to drying, ultrasound, and gamma and solar irradiation, but not to heating. The formation of cysts is induced by changes in the concentration of nutrients in the medium and addition of some organic substances such as ethanol, n-butanol, or β-hydroxybutyrate. Cysts are rarely formed in liquid media. The formation of cysts is induced by chemical factors and is accompanied by metabolic shifts, changes in catabolism, respiration, and biosynthesis of macromolecules; it is also affected by aldehyde dehydrogenase and the response regulator AlgR. The cysts of \"Azotobacter\" are spherical and consist of the so-called \"central body\" – a reduced copy of vegetative cells with several vacuoles – and the \"two-layer shell\". The inner part of the shell is called intine and has a fibrous structure. The outer part has a hexagonal crystalline structure and is called exine. Exine is partially hydrolyzed by trypsin and is resistant to lysozyme, in contrast to the central body. The central body can be isolated in a viable state by some chelation agents. The main constituents of the outer shell are alkylresorcinols composed of long aliphatic chains and aromatic rings. Alkylresorcinols are also found in other bacteria, animals, and plants.", "A cyst of the genus \"Azotobacter\" is the resting form of a vegetative cell; however, whereas usual vegetative cells are reproductive, the cyst of \"Azotobacter\" does not serve this purpose and is necessary for surviving adverse environmental factors. Following the resumption of optimal environmental conditions, which include a certain value of pH, temperature, and source of carbon, the cysts germinate, and the newly formed vegetative cells multiply by a simple division. During the germination, the cysts sustain damage and release a large vegetative cell. Microscopically, the first manifestation of spore germination is the gradual decrease in light refractive by cysts, which is detected with phase contrast microscopy. Germination of cysts takes about 4–6 h. During germination, the central body grows and captures the granules of volutin, which were located in the intima (the innermost layer). Then, the exine bursts and the vegetative cell is freed from the exine, which has a characteristic horseshoe shape. This process is accompanied by metabolic changes. Immediately after being supplied with a carbon source, the cysts begin to absorb oxygen and emit carbon dioxide; the rate of this process gradually increases and saturates after four hours. The synthesis of proteins and RNA occurs in parallel, but it intensifies only after five hours after the addition of the carbon source. The synthesis of DNA and nitrogen fixation are initiated 5 hours after the addition of glucose to a nitrogen-free nutrient medium. Germination of cysts is accompanied by changes in the intima, visible with an electron microscope. The intima consists of carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins and has almost the same volume as the central body. During germination of cysts, the intima hydrolyses and is used by the cell for the synthesis its components.", "\"Azotobacter\" respires aerobically, receiving energy from redox reactions, using organic compounds as electron donors, and can use a variety of carbohydrates, alcohols, and salts of organic acids as sources of carbon. \"Azotobacter \"can fix at least 10 μg of nitrogen per gram of glucose consumed. Nitrogen fixation requires molybdenum ions, but they can be partially or completely replaced by vanadium ions. If atmospheric nitrogen is not fixed, the source of nitrogen can alternatively be nitrates, ammonium ions, or amino acids. The optimal pH for the growth and nitrogen fixation is 7.0–7.5, but growth is sustained in the pH range from 4.8 to 8.5. \"Azotobacter\" can also grow mixotrophically, in a molecular nitrogen-free medium containing mannose; this growth mode is hydrogen-dependent. Hydrogen is available in the soil, thus this growth mode may occur in nature. While growing, \"Azotobacter\" produces flat, slimy, paste-like colonies with a diameter of 5–10 mm, which may form films in liquid nutrient media. The colonies can be dark-brown, green, or other colors, or may be colorless, depending on the species. The growth is favored at a temperature of 20–30°C. Bacteria of the genus \"Azotobacter\" are also known to form intracellular inclusions of polyhydroxyalkanoates under certain environmental conditions (e.g. lack of elements such as phosphorus, nitrogen, or oxygen combined with an excessive supply of carbon sources).", "\"Azotobacter\" produces pigments. For example, \"Azotobacter chroococcum\" forms a dark-brown water-soluble pigment melanin. This process occurs at high levels of metabolism during the fixation of nitrogen, and is thought to protect the nitrogenase system from oxygen. Other \"Azotobacter\" species produce pigments from yellow-green to purple colors, including a green pigment which fluoresces with a yellow-green light and a pigment with blue-white fluorescence.", "The nucleotide sequence of chromosomes of \"Azotobacter vinelandii\", strain AvOP, is partially determined. This chromosome is a circular DNA molecule which contains 5,342,073 nucleotide pairs and 5,043 genes, of which 4,988 encode proteins. The fraction of guanine + cytosine pairs is 65 mole percent. The number of chromosomes in the cells and the DNA content increases upon aging, and in the stationary growth phase, cultures may contain more than 100 copies of a chromosome per cell. The original DNA content (one copy) is restored when replanting the culture into a fresh medium. In addition to chromosomal DNA, \"Azotobacter\" can contain plasmids.", "\"Azotobacter\" species are ubiquitous in neutral and weakly basic soils, but not acidic soils. They are also found in the Arctic and Antarctic soils, despite the cold climate, short growing season, and relatively low pH values of these soils. In dry soils, \"Azotobacter\" can survive in the form of cysts for up to 24 years. Representatives of the genus \"Azotobacter\" are also found in aquatic habitats, including fresh water and brackish marshes. Several members are associated with plants and are found in the rhizosphere, having certain relationships with the plants. Some strains are also found in the cocoons of the earthworm \"Eisenia fetida\".", "\"Azotobacter\" species are free-living, nitrogen-fixing bacteria; in contrast to \"Rhizobium\" species, they normally fix molecular nitrogen from the atmosphere without symbiotic relations with plants, although some \"Azotobacter\" species are associated with plants. Nitrogen fixation is inhibited in the presence of available nitrogen sources, such as ammonium ions and nitrates. \"Azotobacter\" species have a full range of enzymes needed to perform the nitrogen fixation: ferredoxin, hydrogenase, and an important enzyme nitrogenase. The process of nitrogen fixation requires an influx of energy in the form of adenosine triphosphate. Nitrogen fixation is highly sensitive to the presence of oxygen, so \"Azotobacter\" developed a special defensive mechanism against oxygen, namely a significant intensification of metabolism that reduces the concentration of oxygen in the cells. Also, a special nitrogenase-protective protein protects nitrogenase and is involved in protecting the cells from oxygen. Mutants not producing this protein are killed by oxygen during nitrogen fixation in the absence of a nitrogen source in the medium. Homocitrate ions play a certain role in the processes of nitrogen fixation by \"Azotobacter\".", "Nitrogenase is the most important enzyme involved in nitrogen fixation. \"Azotobacter\" species have several types of nitrogenase. The basic one is molybdenum-iron nitrogenase. An alternative type contains vanadium; it is independent of molybdenum ions and is more active than the Mo-Fe nitrogenase at low temperatures. So it can fix nitrogen at temperatures as low as 5 °C, and its low-temperature activity is 10 times higher than that of Mo-Fe nitrogenase. An important role in maturation of Mo-Fe nitrogenase plays the so-called P-cluster. Synthesis of nitrogenase is controlled by the \"nif\" genes. Nitrogen fixation is regulated by the enhancer protein NifA and the \"sensor\" flavoprotein NifL which modulates the activation of gene transcription of nitrogen fixation by redox-dependent switching. This regulatory mechanism, relying on two proteins forming complexes with each other, is uncommon for other systems.", "Nitrogen fixation plays an important role in the nitrogen cycle. \"Azotobacter\" also synthesizes some biologically active substances, including some phytohormones such as auxins, thereby stimulating plant growth. They also facilitate the mobility of heavy metals in the soil, thus enhancing bioremediation of soil from heavy metals, such as cadmium, mercury and lead. Some kinds of \"Azotobacter\" can also biodegrade chlorine-containing aromatic compounds, such as 2,4,6-trichlorophenol, which was previously used as an insecticide, fungicide, and herbicide, but later was found to have mutagenic and carcinogenic effects.", "Owing to their ability to fix molecular nitrogen and therefore increase the soil fertility and stimulate plant growth, \"Azotobacter\" species are widely used in agriculture, particularly in nitrogen biofertilizers such as azotobacterin. They are also used in production of alginic acid, which is applied in medicine as an antacid, in the food industry as an additive to ice cream, puddings, and creams.", "The genus \"Azotobacter\" was discovered in 1901 by Dutch microbiologist and botanist Martinus Beijerinck, who was one of the founders of environmental microbiology. He selected and described the species \"Azotobacter chroococcum\" – the first aerobic, free-living nitrogen fixer. In 1909, Lipman described \"Azotobacter vinelandii\", and a year later, which he named in honor of Beijerinck. In 1949, Russian microbiologist Nikolai Krasilnikov identified the species of which was divided in 1981 by Thompson Skerman into two subspecies – \"Azotobacter nigricans\" subsp. \"nigricans\" and \"Azotobacter nigricans\" subsp. \"achromogenes\"; in the same year, Thompson and Skerman described. In 1991, Page and Shivprasad reported a microaerophilic and air-tolerant type which was dependent on sodium ions. Earlier, representatives of the genus were assigned to the family Azotobacteraceae, but then were transferred to the family Pseudomonadaceae based on the studies of nucleotide sequences 16S rRNA. In 2004, a phylogenetic study revealed that \"A. vinelandii\" belongs to the same clade as the bacterium \"Pseudomonas aeruginosa\", and in 2007 it was suggested that the genera \"Azotobacter\", \"Azomonas\" and \"Pseudomonas\" are related and might be synonyms." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History and use.", "Potential medical usage.", "Biosynthesis.", "Laboratory synthesis.", "Pharmacokinetics.", "Behavioral and non-behavioral effects.", "Mechanism of action.", "Legality.", "United States.", "United Kingdom.", "Australia.", "Other countries." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Peyote has been used for at least 5,700 years by Native Americans in Mexico. Europeans noted use of peyote in Native American religious ceremonies upon early contact, notably by the Huichols in Mexico. Other mescaline-containing cacti such as the San Pedro have a long history of use in South America, from Peru to Ecuador. In traditional peyote preparations, the top of the cactus is cut off, leaving the large tap root along with a ring of green photosynthesizing area to grow new heads. These heads are then dried to make disc-shaped buttons. Buttons are chewed to produce the effects or soaked in water to drink. However, the taste of the cactus is bitter, so contemporary users will often grind it into a powder and pour it in capsules to avoid having to taste it. The usual human dosage is 200–400 milligrams of mescaline sulfate or 178–356 milligrams of mescaline hydrochloride. The average button contains about 25 mg mescaline. Mescaline was first isolated and identified in 1897 by the German chemist Arthur Heffter and first synthesized in 1918 by Ernst Späth. In 1955, English politician Christopher Mayhew took part in an experiment for BBC's \"Panorama\", in which he ingested 400 mg of mescaline under the supervision of psychiatrist Humphry Osmond. Though the recording was deemed too controversial and ultimately omitted from the show, Mayhew praised the experience, calling it \"the most interesting thing I ever did\".", "Mescaline has a wide array of suggested medical usage, including treatment of alcoholism and depression, due to these disorders having links to serotonin deficiencies. However, its status as a Schedule I controlled substance in the Convention on Psychotropic Substances limits availability of the drug to researchers. Because of this, very few studies concerning mescaline's activity and potential therapeutic effects in humans have been conducted since the early 1970s.", "Mescaline is biosynthesized from tyrosine which, in turn, is derived from phenylalanine by the enzyme phenylalanine hydroxylase. In \"Lophophora williamsii\" (Peyote), dopamine converts into mescaline in a biosynthetic pathway involving \"m\"-\"O\"-methylation and aromatic hydroxylation. Tyrosine and phenylalanine serve as the metabolic precursors to synthesis of mescaline. Tyrosine can either undergo a decarboxylation via tyrosine decarboxylase to generate tyramine and subsequently undergo an oxidation at carbon 3 by a monophenol hydroxylase or first be hydroxylated by tyrosine hydroxylase to form L-DOPA and decarboxylated by DOPA decarboxylase. These create dopamine, which then experiences methylation by a catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) by an \"S\"-adenosyl methionine (SAM)-dependent mechanism. The resulting intermediate is then oxidized again by a hydroxylase enzyme, likely monophenol hydroxylase again, at carbon 5, and methylated by COMT. The product, methylated at the two meta positions with respect to the alkyl substituent, experiences a final methylation at the 4 carbon by a guaiacol-O-methyltransferase, which also operates by a SAM-dependent mechanism. This final methylation step results in the production of mescaline. Phenylalanine serves as a precursor by first being converted to -tyrosine by L-amino acid hydroxylase. Once converted, it follows the same pathway as described above.", "Mescaline was first synthesized in 1919 by Ernst Späth from 3,4,5-trimethoxybenzoyl chloride. Subsequent to this, numerous approaches utilizing different starting materials have been developed. Notable examples include the following:", "Tolerance builds with repeated usage, lasting for a few days. Mescaline causes cross-tolerance with other serotonergic psychedelics such as LSD and psilocybin. About half the initial dosage is excreted after 6 hours, but some studies suggest that it is not metabolized at all before excretion. Mescaline appears not to be subject to metabolism by CYP2D6 and between 20% and 50% of mescaline is excreted in the urine unchanged, and the rest being excreted as the carboxylic acid form of mescaline, a likely result of MAO degradation. The LD of mescaline has been measured in various animals: 212 mg/kg i.p. (mice), 132 mg/kg i.p. (rats), and 328 mg/kg i.p. (guinea pigs).", "Mescaline induces a psychedelic state similar to those produced by LSD and psilocybin, but with unique characteristics. Subjective effects may include altered thinking processes, an altered sense of time and self-awareness, and closed- and open-eye visual phenomena. Prominence of color is distinctive, appearing brilliant and intense. Recurring visual patterns observed during the mescaline experience include stripes, checkerboards, angular spikes, multicolor dots, and very simple fractals that turn very complex. Aldous Huxley described these self-transforming amorphous shapes as like animated stained glass illuminated from light coming through the eyelids. Like LSD, mescaline induces distortions of form and kaleidoscopic experiences but they manifest more clearly with eyes closed and under low lighting conditions. Mescaline may cause Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder. Heinrich Klüver coined the term \"cobweb figure\" in the 1920s to describe one of the four form constant geometric visual hallucinations experienced in the early stage of a mescaline trip: \"Colored threads running together in a revolving center, the whole similar to a cobweb\". The other three are the chessboard design, tunnel, and spiral. Klüver wrote that \"many 'atypical' visions are upon close inspection nothing but variations of these form-constants.\" As with LSD, synesthesia can occur especially with the help of music. An unusual but unique characteristic of mescaline use is the \"geometricization\" of three-dimensional objects. The object can appear flattened and distorted, similar to the presentation of a Cubist painting. Mescaline elicits a pattern of sympathetic arousal, with the peripheral nervous system being a major target for this substance.", "Mescaline is produced when products of natural mammalian catecholamine-based neuronal signaling such as dopamine and noradrenaline are subjected to additional metabolism via methylation, and mescaline's hallucinogenic properties stem from its structural similarities with these two neurotransmitters. In plants, this compound may be the end-product of a pathway utilizing catecholamines as a method of stress response, similar to how animals may release compounds such as cortisol when stressed. The \"in vivo\" function of catecholamines has not been investigated, but they may function as antioxidants, as developmental signals, and as integral cell wall components that resist degradation from pathogens. The deactivation of catecholamines via methylation produces alkaloids such as mescaline.<ref name=\"10.1016/j.plantsci.2006.10.013\"></ref> Mescaline acts similarly to other psychedelic agents. It acts as an agonist, binding to and activating the serotonin 5-HT receptor with a high affinity. How activating the 5-HT receptor leads to psychedelia is still unknown, but it is likely that somehow it involves excitation of neurons in the prefrontal cortex. Mescaline is also known to bind to and activate the serotonin 5-HT receptor. Difluoromescaline and trifluoromescaline are more potent than mescaline, as is its amphetamine homologue trimethoxyamphetamine. Escaline and proscaline are also both more potent than mescaline, showing the importance of the 4-position substituent with regard to receptor binding.", "", "In the United States, mescaline was made illegal in 1970 by the Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act, categorized as a Schedule I hallucinogen. The drug was prohibited internationally by the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances. Mescaline is legal only for certain religious groups (such as the Native American Church by the American Indian Religious Freedom Act of 1978) and in scientific and medical research. In 1990, the Supreme Court ruled that the state of Oregon could ban the use of mescaline in Native American religious ceremonies. The Religious Freedom Restoration Act (RFRA) in 1993 allowed the use of peyote in religious ceremony, but in 1997, the Supreme Court ruled that the RFRA is unconstitutional when applied against states. Many states, including the state of Utah, have legalized peyote usage with \"sincere religious intent\", or within a religious organization, regardless of race. While mescaline-containing cacti of the genus \"Echinopsis\" are technically controlled substances under the Controlled Substances Act, they are commonly sold publicly as ornamental plants.", "In the United Kingdom, mescaline in purified powder form is a Class A drug. However, dried cactus can be bought and sold legally.", "Mescaline is considered a schedule 9 substance in Australia under the Poisons Standard (February 2020). A schedule 9 substance is classified as \"Substances with a high potential for causing harm at low exposure and which require special precautions during manufacture, handling or use. These poisons should be available only to specialised or authorised users who have the skills necessary to handle them safely. Special regulations restricting their availability, possession, storage or use may apply.\" The peyote cacti and other mescaline-containing plants such as San Pedro are illegal in Western Australia, Queensland, and the Northern Territory, whilst in other states such as Tasmania, Victoria and New South Wales, they are legal for ornamental and gardening purposes", "In Canada, France, The Netherlands and Germany, mescaline in raw form and dried mescaline-containing cacti are considered an illegal drug. However, anyone may grow and use peyote, or \"Lophophora williamsii\", as well as \"Echinopsis pachanoi\" and \"Echinopsis peruviana\" without restriction, as it is specifically exempt from legislation. In Canada, mescaline is classified as a schedule III drug under the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act, whereas peyote is exempt. In Russia mescaline, its derivatives and mescaline-containing plants are banned as narcotic drugs (Schedule I)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Gameplay.", "Plot.", "Development history.", "Release.", "Reception.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Wolfenstein 3D\" is a first-person shooter presented with rudimentary 3D graphics. The game is broken up into levels, each of which is a flat plane divided into areas and rooms by a grid-based pattern of walls and doors, all of equal height. Each level is themed after Nazi bunkers and buildings. To finish a level, the player must traverse through the area to reach an elevator. Levels—ten in the original episodes—are grouped together into named episodes, with the final level focusing on a boss fight with a particularly difficult enemy. While traversing the levels, the player must fight Nazi guards and soldiers, dogs, and other enemies while managing supplies of ammunition and health. The player can find weapons and ammunition placed in the levels or can collect them from dead enemies; weapons include a knife, a pistol, a submachine gun,", "\"Wolfenstein 3D\" is divided into two sets of three episodes: \"Escape from Castle Wolfenstein\", \"Operation: Eisenfaust\", and \"Die, Führer, Die!\" serve as the primary trilogy, with a second trilogy titled \"The Nocturnal Missions\" including \"A Dark Secret\", \"Trail of the Madman\", and \"Confrontation\". The protagonist is William \"B.J.\" Blazkowicz, an American spy of Polish descent, and the game follows his efforts to destroy the Nazi regime. In \"Escape\", Blazkowicz has been captured while trying to find the plans for Operation Eisenfaust (Iron Fist) and imprisoned in Castle Wolfenstein, from which he must escape. \"Operation: Eisenfaust\" follows his discovery and thwarting of the Nazi plan to create an army of undead mutants in Castle Hollehammer, while in \"Die, Führer, Die!\" he infiltrates a bunker under the", "In October–December 1990, a team of employees from programming studio Softdisk calling themselves Ideas from the Deep developed the three-part video game \"Commander Keen in Invasion of the Vorticons\", the first game in the \"Commander Keen\" series. The group, who worked at Softdisk in Shreveport, Louisiana developing games for the \"Gamer's Edge\" video game subscription service and disk magazine, was composed of programmers John Romero and John Carmack, designer Tom Hall, artist Adrian Carmack, and manager Jay Wilbur. After the release of the game in December through shareware publisher Apogee Software, the team planned to quit Softdisk and start their own company. When their boss, Softdisk owner Al Vekovius, confronted them on both their plans and their use of company resources to develop the game—the team had created it on their work computers, both in the office after hours and by taking the computers to John Carmack's house on the weekends—the team made no secret of their intentions. After a few weeks of negotiation, the team agreed to produce a series of games for \"Gamer's Edge\", one every two months. Ideas from the Deep, now formally established as id Software, used some of these to prototype ideas for their own games. Adrian Carmack used them to push his preferred, dark art style, while John Carmack began to experiment with 3D computer graphics, which until then was largely the purview of flight simulation games such as \"Wing Commander\" (1990). Carmack found that this was largely due to the limitations of personal computers of the time, which had difficulty displaying a fast action game in 3D due to the number of surfaces it needed to calculate, but felt that the increasing computational power of PCs meant that it may be possible. During 1991, he experimented with limiting the possible surfaces the computer needed to display, creating game levels with walls designed only on a flat grid rather than with arbitrary shapes or angles. He also took the unusual approach of creating the displayed graphics through ray casting, in which only the surfaces visible to the player were calculated rather than the entire area surrounding the player. After six weeks of development, Carmack had created a rudimentary 3D game engine that used animated 2D sprites for enemies. Id Software then used the engine for the April 1991 Softdisk game \"Hovertank 3D\", in which the player drives a tank through a plane of colored walls and shoots nuclear monsters. In the fall of 1991, after the team—sans Wilbur—had relocated to Madison, Wisconsin, and he had largely finished the engine work for \"Commander Keen in Goodbye, Galaxy\", Carmack decided to implement a feature from \"\", a role-playing game in development by Blue Sky Productions. \"Ultima Underworld\" was planned to display texture-mapped 3D graphics without \"Hovertank\"s restrictions of flat walls and simple lighting. Deciding that he could add texture mapping without sacrificing the engine's speed or greatly increasing the system requirements as \"Underworld\" was doing, Carmack enhanced the engine over six weeks from \"Hovertank 3D\" for another Softdisk game, the November 1991 \"Catacomb 3-D\". Upon seeing it, Scott Miller of Apogee began to push the team to make a 3D shareware action game. In November 1991, with the second \"Commander Keen\" trilogy of episodes nearing completion and their contractual obligations to Softdisk almost finished, id Software sat down to plan out their next major game. Designer Tom Hall, who initially wanted to do a third \"Keen\" trilogy, recognized that Carmack's programming focus had shifted from the 2D side-scrolling platform game series to 3D action games. After an initial proposal by Hall of a sci-fi project, \"It's Green and Pissed\", Romero suggested a 3D remake of the 1981 \"Castle Wolfenstein\". The team was interested in the idea, as Romero, Hall, and John Carmack all had fond memories of the original title and felt the maze-like shooter gameplay fit well with Carmack's 3D game engine, while Adrian Carmack was interested in moving away from the child-friendly art style of \"Keen\" into something more violent. Encouraged by the reception to his idea, Romero expounded on it by proposing a \"loud\" and \"cool\" fast action game where the player could shoot soldiers before dragging and looting their bodies. The core of the gameplay would be fast and simple, for Romero believed that due to the novelty of a 3D game and control scheme, players would not be receptive to more complicated, slow gameplay. He felt the game would occupy a unique place in", "The first episode was released as shareware for free distribution by Apogee and the whole original trilogy of episodes made available for purchase on May 5 as \"Wolfenstein 3D\", though the purchased episodes were not actually shipped to customers until a few weeks later. The second trilogy that Miller had convinced id to create was released soon after as an add-on pack titled \"The Nocturnal Missions\". Players were able to buy each trilogy separately or as a single game. In 1993 Apogee also published the \"Wolfenstein 3D Super Upgrades\" pack, which included 815 fan-made levels called \"WolfMaster\", along with a map editor titled \"MapEdit\" and a random level generator named \"Wolf Creator\". A retail \"Wolfenstein\" episode double the length of the Apogee episodes, \"Spear of Destiny\", was released through FormGen on September 18, 1992. FormGen later published two mission packs titled \"Return to Danger\" and \"Ultimate Challenge\", each the same length as \"Spear of Destiny\", in May 1994, and later that year published \"Spear of Destiny\" and the two mission packs together as the \"Spear of Destiny Super CD Package\". Id released the original six Apogee episodes as a retail title through GT Software in 1993 and produced a collection of both the Apogee and FormGen episodes released through Activision in 1998. There were two intended promotions associated with the original Apogee release, both of which were cancelled. A pushable wall maze led to a sign reading \"Call Apogee and say Aardwolf\" (\"Snapity\" in beta versions); it was intended that the first person to find the sign and carry out its instructions would win a prize (consisting of US$1,000 or a line of Apogee games for life), but the quick creation of level editors and cheat programs for the game soon after release led id and Apogee to give up on the idea. Additionally, after completing an episode the player is given a three-letter code in addition to their total score and time. This code was intended to be a verification code as part of a high-score contest, but the sudden prevalence of editor programs resulted in the cancellation of the contest without ever being formally announced.", "Id had no clear expectations for \"Wolfenstein\"s commercial reception, but hoped that it would make around US$60,000 in its first month; the first royalty check from Apogee was instead for US$100,000. The game was selling at a rate of 4,000 copies a month by mail order. \"PC Zone\" quoted a shareware distributor as saying \"Wolfenstein 3D\" was the top shareware seller of 1992. By the end of 1993, sales of the Apogee episodes of \"Wolfenstein 3D\" as well as \"Spear of Destiny\" had reached over 100,000 units each, with the Apogee game still selling strongly by the end of the year as its reach spread without newer retail titles to compete with it for shelf space. By mid-1994 150,000 shareware copies were registered and id sold another 150,000 retail copies as \"Spear of Destiny\"; the company estimated that one million shareware copies were distributed worldwide. Over 20 percent of its sales were from outside of the US, despite the lack of any marketing or non-English description and despite the game being banned from sale in Germany due to its inclusion of Nazi symbols by the Federal Department for Media Harmful to Young Persons in 1994, and again in 1997 for \"Spear of Destiny\". Japanese gaming magazine \"Famitsu\" reviewed the game five months after release, describing it as: \"View from the character's point of view: It's a real shooter. The game is easy to play, and it runs well... This is the only game of its type.\" The Apogee episodes' sales vastly exceeded the shareware game sales record set by the developer's earlier \"Commander Keen\" series and provided id with a much higher profit margin than the sales of its retail counterpart; where \"Commander Keen\" games were bringing Apogee around $10,000 a month, \"Wolfenstein 3D\" averaged $200,000 per month for the first year and a half. \"Wolfenstein 3D\" won the 1992 Best Arcade game award from \"Compute!\", the 1992 Most Innovative Game and Best Action Game awards from \"VideoGames & Computer Entertainment\", the 1992 Reader's Choice — Action/Arcade Game award from \"Game Bytes\", the 1993 Best Action/Arcade Game, Best Entertainment Software, and People's Choice awards at the Shareware Industry Awards, the 1993 Best Action Game award from \"Computer Gaming World\", and a Codie award from the Software Publishers Association for Best Action/Arcade Game. It was the first shareware title to win a Codie, and id (with six employees) became the smallest company to ever receive the award. \"Wolfenstein 3D\" was noted as one of the top games of the year at the 1993 Game Developers Conference. \"Wolfenstein 3D\" was well received by reviewers upon its release. Chris Lombardi of \"Computer Gaming World\" praised the \"sparse [but] gorgeous\", \"frighteningly realistic\", and \"extremely violent\" graphics, as well as the immersive sound and music. Noting the violence, he warned \"those sensitive to such", "\"Wolfenstein 3D\" has been called the \"grandfather of 3D shooters\", specifically first-person shooters, because it established the fast-paced action and technical prowess commonly expected in the genre and greatly increased the genre's popularity. Although some prior computer shooting-based games existed, they were generally scrolling shooters, while \"Wolfenstein 3D\" helped move the market towards first-person shooters. It has also been attributed with confirming shareware distribution as a serious and profitable business strategy at the time; \"VideoGames & Computer Entertainment\" claimed in September 1992 that the game \"justified the existence of shareware\", and in July 1993 \"Computer Gaming World\" claimed that it \"almost single-handedly\" demonstrated the viability of shareware as a method of publishing, leading to a wave of other shareware first-person shooters. The game's high revenue compared to prior, smaller 2D titles led Apogee as well as others in the shareware games industry to move towards larger, 3D titles built by larger development teams. During development, id approached Sierra Entertainment, then one of the biggest companies in the industry and employer of several of their idols, with the goal of seeing if they could make a deal with the company. After viewing \"Commander Keen\" and an early version of \"Wolfenstein 3D\", CEO Ken Williams offered to buy id Software for US$2.5 million and turn it into an in-house development studio. The team was excited by the deal, but had felt there was a large culture clash between the two companies during their visit to Sierra and were hesitant to accept; Romero proposed asking for US$100,000 in cash up front as part of the deal rather than solely accepting payment in Sierra stock as a measure of Williams's seriousness. Williams refused, which id interpreted to mean that Williams did not truly recognize the potential of \"Wolfenstein 3D\" and the company, and the deal fell through, causing id to decide to remain an independent company for the foreseeable future. By the end of 1993 just before the release of their next game, \"Doom\", the success of \"Wolfenstein 3D\" led id to receive multiple calls every month from investment companies looking to make id a publicly-traded company, which were all turned down. In 1996, \"Computer Gaming World\" declared \"Wolfenstein 3-D\" the 97th-best computer game ever released. The game is also recognized as the principal cause for Germany banning video games that contain certain types of symbols and imagery from extremist groups like Nazis under its \"Strafgesetzbuch\" section 86a up through 2018. Section 86a had \"social adequacy\" allowances for works of art, but in 1998, a High District Frankfurt Court case evaluating the Nazi imagery within \"Wolfenstein 3D\" determined that video games did not fall under this allowance. The court ruled that because video games drew younger audiences, \"this could lead to them growing up with these symbols and insignias and thereby becoming used to them, which again could make them more vulnerable for ideological manipulation by national socialist ideas\". Up through 2018, the Germany software ratings board, the Unterhaltungssoftware Selbstkontrolle (USK) refused to rate any game that included inappropriate symbols and imagery, effectively banning the game for sale within the country. However, in August 2018, the decision was reversed by the German government, having determined that the \"Wolfenstein 3D\" decision was outdated since the USK now included age ratings alongside other content warnings, and that video games should be considered as art under the social adequacy allowance. In November 2019, \"Wolfenstein 3D\" was formally struck from the \"Index\", the list of games banned from sale in Germany. After the game's release, id Software licensed the engine to other developers, like the \"Commander Keen\" engine before it, as part of a series of engine licensing deals that id has made throughout its history; games using the \"Wolfenstein 3D\" engine or derivatives of it include \"\", the Capstone Software games \"\" and \"Operation Body Count\", as well as \"Super 3D Noah's Ark\". Apogee intended to produce an expansion pack in 1993 titled \"Rise of the Triad: Wolfenstein 3D Part II\", designed by Tom Hall using the \"Wolfenstein 3D\" engine, but during development the game was changed into a stand-alone title with an enhanced engine, \"Rise of the Triad\". Additionally, Softdisk produced \"Catacomb Abyss\" using the prototype \"Wolfenstein 3D\" engine from \"Catacomb 3-D\" as part of the \"Catacomb Adventure Series\" trilogy of sequels. Although \"Wolfenstein 3D\" was not designed to be editable or modified, players developed character and level editors to create original alterations to the game's content. John Carmack and Romero, who had played numerous mods of other games, were delighted, and overrode any concerns about copyright issues by the others. The modding efforts of \"Wolfenstein\" players led id Software to explicitly design later titles like \"Doom\" and \"Quake\" to be easily modifiable by players, even including the map editing tools id Software used with the games. The source code for the original \"Wolfenstein 3D\" engine was released by id in 1995; when making the 2009 iOS port, Carmack used some of the enhancements to the engine made by fans after its release. The game's technical achievements also led to numerous imitators such as \"Ken's Labyrinth\", \"Nitemare 3D\", \"\", \"Terminal Terror\" and \"The Fortress of Dr. Radiaki\", among others. Although id Software did not develop another \"Wolfenstein\" game, as their development focus shifted to \"Doom\" shortly after release, and has never returned to the series, multiple \"Wolfenstein\" titles have been produced by other companies, sometimes using game engines developed by id. The first of these newer \"Wolfenstein\" games was \"Return to Castle Wolfenstein\" in 2001, a reboot of the series, and the most recent titles are the 2019 games \"\" and \"\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design and development.", "Origins.", "Test flights.", "Operational history.", "Introduction.", "Anti-bomber tactics.", "Counter-jet tactics.", "High-speed research.", "Production.", "Postwar history.", "Flyable reproductions.", "Variants.", "Rüstsätze (field modification kits).", "Reproductions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Several years before World War II, the Germans foresaw the great potential for aircraft that used the jet engine constructed by Hans Joachim Pabst von Ohain in 1936. After the successful test flights of the world's first jet aircraft—the Heinkel He 178—within a week of the Invasion of Poland to start the war, they adopted the jet engine for an advanced fighter aircraft. As a result, the Me 262 was already under development as \"Projekt\" 1065 (P.1065) before the start of World War II. The project originated with a request by the \"Reichsluftfahrtministerium\" (RLM, Ministry of Aviation) for a jet aircraft capable of one hour's endurance and a speed of at least. Dr Waldemar Voigt headed the design team, with Messerschmitt's chief of development, Robert Lusser, overseeing. Plans were first drawn up in April 1939, and the original design was", "Test flights began on 18 April 1941, with the Me 262 V1 example, bearing its \"Stammkennzeichen\" radio code letters of PC+UA, but since its intended BMW 003 turbojets were not ready for fitting, a conventional Junkers Jumo 210 engine was mounted in the V1 prototype's nose, driving a propeller, to test the Me 262 V1 airframe. When the BMW 003 engines were installed, the Jumo was retained for safety, which proved wise as both 003s failed during the first flight and the pilot had to land using the nose-mounted engine alone. The V1 through V4 prototype airframes all possessed what would become an uncharacteristic feature for most later jet aircraft designs, a fully retracting conventional gear setup with a retracting tailwheel—indeed, the very first prospective German \"jet fighter\"", "", "On 19 April 1944, \"Erprobungskommando\" 262 was formed at Lechfeld just south of Augsburg, as a test unit (\"Jäger Erprobungskommando Thierfelder\", commanded by \"Hauptmann\" Werner Thierfelder) to introduce the 262 into service and train a corps of pilots to fly it. On 26 July 1944, Leutnant Alfred Schreiber with the 262 A-1a W.Nr. 130 017 damaged a Mosquito reconnaissance aircraft of No. 540 Squadron RAF PR Squadron, which was allegedly lost in a crash upon landing at an air base in Italy. Other sources state the aircraft was damaged during evasive manoeuvres and escaped. Major Walter Nowotny was assigned as commander after the death of Thierfelder in July 1944, and the unit redesignated \"Kommando Nowotny\". Essentially a trials and development unit, it mounted the world's first jet fighter operations. Trials continued slowly, with initial operational missions against the Allies in August 1944, and the unit made claims for 19 Allied aircraft in exchange of six Me 262s lost. Despite orders to stay grounded, Nowotny chose to fly a mission against an enemy bomber formation flying some above, on 8 November 1944. He claimed two", "The Me 262 was so fast that German pilots needed new tactics to attack Allied bombers. In the head-on attack, the combined closing speed of about was too high for accurate shooting, with ordnance that could only fire about 44 shells a second (650 rounds/min from each cannon) in total from the quartet of them. Even from astern, the closing speed was too great to use the short-ranged quartet of MK 108 cannon to maximum effect. Therefore, a roller-coaster attack was devised. The 262s approached from astern and about than the bombers. From about, they went into a shallow dive that took them through the escort fighters with", "The Me 262 was difficult to counter because its high speed and rate of climb made it hard to intercept. However, as with other turbojet engines at the time, the Me 262's engines did not provide sufficient thrust at low air speeds and throttle response was slow, so that in certain circumstances such as takeoff and landing the aircraft became a vulnerable target. Another disadvantage that pioneering jet aircraft of the World War II era shared, was the high risk of compressor stall and if throttle movements were too rapid, the engine(s) could suffer a flameout. The coarse opening of the throttle would cause fuel surging and lead to excessive jet pipe temperatures. Pilots were instructed to operate the throttle gently and avoid quick changes. German engineers introduced an automatic throttle regulator later in the war but it only partly alleviated the problem. The plane had, by contemporary standards, a high wing loading (294.0 kg/m, 60.2 lbs/ft) that required higher takeoff and landing speeds.", "Adolf Busemann had proposed swept wings as early as 1935; Messerschmitt researched the topic from 1940. In April 1941, Busemann proposed fitting a 35° swept wing (\"Pfeilflügel II\", literally \"arrow wing II\") to the Me 262, the same wing-sweep angle later used on both the American F-86 Sabre and Soviet Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-15 fighter jets. Though this was not implemented, he continued with the projected HG II and HG III (\"Hochgeschwindigkeit\", \"high-speed\") derivatives in 1944, designed with a 35° and 45° wing sweep, respectively. Interest in high-speed flight, which led", "About 1,400 planes were produced, but a maximum of 200 were operational at any one time. According to sources they destroyed from 300 to 450 enemy planes, with the Allies destroying about one hundred Me 262s in the air. While Germany was bombed intensively, production of the Me 262 was dispersed into low-profile production facilities, sometimes little more than clearings in the forests of Germany and occupied countries. Through the end of February to the end of March 1945, approximately sixty Me 262s were destroyed in attacks on Obertraubling and thirty at Leipheim; the", "After the end of the war, the Me 262 and other advanced German technologies were quickly swept up by the Soviets, British and Americans, as part of the USAAF's Operation Lusty. Many Me 262s were found in readily repairable condition and were confiscated. The Soviets, British and Americans wished to evaluate the technology, particularly the engines. During testing, the Me 262 was found to be faster than the British Gloster Meteor jet fighter, and had better visibility to the sides and rear (mostly due to the canopy frames and the discoloration caused by the plastics used in the Meteor's construction), and was a superior gun platform to the Meteor F.1 which had a tendency to snake at high speed and exhibited \"weak\" aileron response. The Me 262 had a shorter range than the Meteor and had less reliable engines. The USAAF compared the P-80 Shooting", "In January 2003, the American Me 262 Project, based in Everett, Washington, completed flight testing to allow the delivery of partially updated spec reproductions of several versions of the Me 262 including at least two B-1c two-seater variants, one A-1c single seater and two \"convertibles\" that could be switched between the A-1c and B-1c configurations. All are powered by General Electric CJ610 engines and feature additional safety features, such as upgraded brakes and strengthened landing gear. The \"c\" suffix refers to the new CJ610 powerplant and has been informally assigned with the approval of the Messerschmitt Foundation in Germany (the Werknummer of", "\"Note:\"- U = \" Umrüst-Bausatz\" – conversion kit installed at factory level, denoted as a suffix in the form /U\"n\".", "Rüstsatze may be applied to various sub-types of their respective", "A series of reproductions was constructed by American company Legend Flyers (later Me 262 Project) of Everett, Washington. The Jumo 004 engines of the original are replaced by more" ] }