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StivenLancheros

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{ "title": [ "Features.", "Estate landmarks.", "Taymouth Castle Golf Club.", "Fly fishing.", "Additional Information.", "The Campbells of Breadalbane and Glenorchy.", "The Black Book of Taymouth.", "Taymouth Castle ships.", "Witches and Ghosts.", "Taymouth Castle History.", "John Campbell, 1st Marquess of Breadalbane (1782 – 1834).", "John Campbell, 2nd Marquess of Breadalbane (1834 – 1862).", "John Alexander Gavin Campbell, 6th Earl of Breadalbane and Holland (1862 – 1871).", "Sir Gavin Campbell, 1st Marquess of Breadalbane (1871 – 1922).", "Taymouth Castle Hotel Company LTD (1922 – 1940).", "Taymouth Castle Hospital (1940 – 1948).", "Civil Defence Corps Training School (1949 – 1968).", "Boarding School (1970 – 1974).", "Speech and Drama School (1982).", "Restoration plans (1982 – date).", "Early history of Balloch Castle.", "Sir Colin Campbell of Glenorchy (1550 – 1583).", "Sir Duncan Campbell of Glenorchy, 1st Baronet Campbell (1583 – 1631).", "Sir Colin Campbell of Glenorchy, 2nd Baronet Campbell (1631 – 1640).", "Sir Robert Campbell of Glenorchy, 3rd Baronet Campbell (1640 – 1657).", "Sir John Campbell of Glenorchy, 4th Baronet Campbell (1657 – 1677).", "John Campbell, 1st Earl of Breadalbane and Holland (1677 – 1717).", "John Campbell, 2nd Earl of Breadalbane and Holland (1717 – 1752).", "John Campbell, 3rd Earl of Breadalbane and Holland (1752 – 1782)." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Among the landmarks that still survive on the 450 acre", "Taymouth Castle has its own 18-hole golf course, operated by the Taymouth Castle Golf Club. The course was laid over the castle's former deer park and designed by the renowned golfer, James Braid in 1925., the course is closed whilst it is being extended and re-modelled. At 6,066 yards, it was regarded as", "The castle offers some of Scotland's finest fishing, with two and a half miles of salmon fishing through the estate, on the River Tay. The Tay", "", "The first twelve owners of the Balloch/Taymouth Castle estate, who held the lands throughout its period of private ownership between 1550 and 1922, were all Campbells of the Clan Campbell and members of the Peerage of Scotland. In the usual way, the ownership of the estate (and the various titles) were generally passed from father to son, excepting when there were no male heirs. This particular branch of the Campbell family were given the titles of Breadalbane, an area in the Highlands of Scotland; and Glenorchy, a glen in Argyll and Bute. A number of the Campbells were Earls of Breadalbane and Holland. The family were given the lands of Breadalbane and Lawers in the 15th century by King James III, for Sir Colin Campbell's help in capturing Thomas Chalmer, one of the assassins of King James I. The title of Holland refers to an area of Lincolnshire, England. The 1st Earl of Breadalbane and", "In 1855, the 2nd Marquess of Breadalbane allowed historical papers from the Breadlabane Charter Room to be published in printed form in a book called \"The Black Book of Taymouth\". This book had in fact largely been written and compiled between 1598 and 1648 by William Bowie, although Cosmo Innes also contributed to the 1855 publication,", "There have been at least three ships with the name Taymouth Castle. The first was a sailing vessel, built in 1851 by Scott & Sons. The second was a three-masted 'fully rigged' sailing vessel, built in 1865, by Charles Connell & Company. This was", "There is an old tale surrounding a blue sapphire stone which is set into a ring belonging to the Grahams of Inchbrakie, Perthshire. Some time in the 17th century, the Laird of Inchbrakie witnessed a large crowd, headed by one of the Campbells of Glenorchy, who were preparing to drown a witch. The Laird recognised the victim as being Katherine Niven, his old nurse and subsequently did his", "The landowners of Taymouth Castle, together with dates of ownership and significant events are shown here. Details of Balloch Castle and its ancestral owners, which was demolished in 1806 and replaced by Taymouth Castle are shown further down.", "John Campbell inherited the title of 4th Earl of Breadalbane and Holland at the age of 19, from his third cousin, who was John Campbell, 3rd Earl of Breadalbane and Holland. In 1789, he called upon Robert Mylne to prepare plans for a new \"chateau\", although these plans were never carried out. It is said that he wanted to demolish Balloch Castle and build a new grander castle in its place, in order to overshadow the Duke of Argyll's castle at Inveraray. However, ten years later, he did completely transform the castle, using many architects, including Alexander Nasmyth. The main block of the old house was demolished, to be replaced from 1806, by a Gothic building, to the designs of the brothers James and Archibald Elliot. The English-Italian Francis Bernasconi carried out the ornate plasterwork of the staircase and drawing rooms between 1809 and 1812. In 1818, the old", "John Campbell, 2nd Marquess of Breadalbane inherited the estate, on the death of his father in 1834. During his lifetime he was Lord Glenorchy, Earl of Ormerlie and an MP for both Okehampton and Perthshire. He also became a Knight of the Thistle, a Knight of the Black Eagle of Prussia, Lord Lieutenant of Argyllshire, and President of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland. Records show that as well as his estates in Scotland, he owned Breadalbane House in Park Lane, London. The 2nd Marquess continued with the improvements to the castle by the remodelling of William Adam's West Wing, which was enlarged and refaced to match the main block. This time, the architect", "Upon the death of the 2nd Marquess of Breadalbane, there were two claimants to the estates and remaining titles. Both were only distantly related to the 2nd Marquess and could never have imagined that they could ultimately inherit. John Alexander Gavin Campbell of Glenfalloch's claim was disputed by Lieutenant Charles William Campbell of Borland. The dispute ultimately hinged on whether J A G Campbell's grandparents were legally married, and therefore the legitimacy", "Gavin Campbell, 1st Marquess of Breadalbane served as a lieutenant in the 4th Battalion, Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders. He also served in the House of Lords as a liberal politician. During his lifetime he amassed a number of titles and honours including; Knight of St John of Jerusalem, Knight of the Garter, Baronet of Nova Scotia, Baron Breadalbane, Lord of Glenorchy, Benederloch, Ormelie and Weick, Viscount Tay and Paintland, Earl of Ormelie and Marquess of Breadalbane. He was also a County Councillor in both Perth and Argyll, a Deputy Lieutenant of Argyll, a Privy Councillor, Keeper of the Privy Seal of Scotland, Lord High Commissioner to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, Lord-in-waiting to Queen Victoria, Treasurer and Lord Steward of the Royal Household", "At the time of their purchase, the hotel company from Glasgow, which included the MacTaggart family, also bought 520 acres of adjoining land, which brought the estate back to around 2,000 acres. It was declared by the company that they intended to convert the castle into a hydropathic hotel, along with opening a brand new golf course on its lands. The company also acquired fishing rights on Loch Tay and part of the River Tay and shooting rights on Drumhill. At the same time, there was a huge auction at the castle, in which all of its furniture and effects were sold. The newspaper article reporting the event, said that 'the things that gave the castle its life and history, will be scattered to the four winds of heaven'. The auction realised total sales of £24,000, with half of that amount being paid by the new hotel owners, to retain furniture in the castle. The hydro hotel opened on 30 June 1923, boasting around 100 bedrooms. Since buying the castle, its facilities had been greatly improved, including central heating and electricity being installed throughout.", "After the outbreak of the Second World War, use of the castle was requisitioned by the War Office, to help with the war effort. From 1940, it became known as the No. 1 Polish General Hospital, or otherwise as the Taymouth Castle Hospital. It was the chief Polish hospital in the country and boasted some of the finest and most up-to-date equipment, with its operating theatres and X-Ray machines. Also, in April 1940, the castle advertised that the golf course and Policy Parks were available for let, for sheep and cattle grazing. It was later noted that despite having its own golf course, the wounded Polish servicemen showed no interest in golf, although they were enthusiastic footballers. Over the eight years of its use as a", "In February 1949, the government formed the Civil Defence Corps, which was a civilian volunteer organisation, which could take control of areas of the country in times of national emergency, such as after a nuclear attack. In a joint announcement by the Home Office and the Scottish Office, it was declared that Taymouth Castle was to be used as one of three training centres in Scotland, which would teach instructors in how to train a much bigger volunteer force. Alterations were made to the castle, which was designed to train between 100 and 150 men and women at a time. The cost of these alterations was finally put at £126,000, way past its original budget of £75,700. When it was opened in December 1950 by the Scottish Secretary Hector McNeil, it was described as the most up-to-date in the world. The centre also included a mock 'blitzed village', for trainees to practice in. The village was built and then partially demolished, to provide defense volunteers with practical rescue training. Roofs were said to lie at 'drunken angles', walls gaped", "After it ceased to be a Civil Defence Corps training centre in 1968, Taymouth Castle was turned into a boarding school for high-school aged students. It first opened in this guise in 1970, and followed a US (New York) curriculum -- all the students being from the US. The castle was leased for this purpose by a Mr McCormick who also operated Herringswell Manor School in Suffolk. At its opening, Taymouth Castle School had only 17 students -- some were the children of American workers on North Sea oil rigs, but most came from families resident in the continental US. For these students, there were 7 teaching staff. The original Headmaster was Mr Griggs who was replaced by the Texan, Miss Bomhoff, shortly after the school opened. Subjects taught at the school were English, US History, British History, Geography, Algebra, Geometry, Biology, Chemistry, Physics, General Science, French, and German -- with two'study halls' and a PE class every weekday. Activities via a number of 'clubs' were also offered, and at weekends, trips were arranged", "In September 1981, it was advertised that the Taymouth Castle Residential School of Speech and Drama was starting classes in January 1982. Auditions were being held for three courses, which were a One-year Stage course, a Two-year Diploma", "Despite its many changes of use and its requisitioning by the government, through the war years and beyond, legal ownership of the castle was still retained by the MacTaggart family, who had first turned the castle into a hotel in 1922. However, they had been unable to make any real commercial use of the castle since the boarding school for children of American servicemen closed in 1979. Throughout the 1990s, the family had been unsuccessfully trying to sell the estate, with Madonna and Cher both", "The landowners of Balloch Castle, together with dates of ownership and significant events are shown below:-", "Sir Colin Campbell of Glenorchy, otherwise known as 'Grey Colin', because of his white hair and long flowing beard, became laird of Glenorchy upon the death of his older brother John, in 1550. One of his first actions as laird, was to evict the Clan Gregor from Balloch (now Kenmore), at the east end of Loch Tay. In 1552, he consolidated his position and built a tower house there, known as Balloch Castle. Balloch means 'the house at the narrow pass'. Sir Colin is said to have chosen the site of the castle in a novel manner. He was apparently instructed in a dream to found the castle on the spot where he first heard a blackbird sing, whilst making his way down the strath of the Tay. Later, in 1787, Robert Burns described the beauty of Balloch Castle and its surrounding lands in verse, as follows:- The castle was the seat of Clan Campbell whose lands, at the height of their powers, extended over 100 miles from Taymouth to the west coast of Scotland. Another source quotes", "Sir Duncan Campbell was knighted in 1590, was declared MP for Argyllshire in 1593 and held the office of Hereditary Sheriff of Perthshire for life. He was also created 1st Baronet Campbell of Nova Scotia, in 1625. Sir Duncan had 23 children from three marriages, dying in 1631. It is said that he married a low-born lady as his second wife, but quickly regretted it. The traditional tale is that he had her locked in an underground vault, whilst he courted Elizabeth Sinclair, the daughter of the 5th Lord Sinclair. Wary that he might already be married, Elizabeth made him swear that he had no other wife and he solemnly swore on the cross of his sword that he 'had no wife above ground'. She did not realise the deception and they were indeed married. His other wife was ultimately released from the vault, after she had made a declaration that she was not his wife. He had several nicknames, the first being 'Duncan of the (seven) Castles', as he was renowned for building them. His other nickname was 'Black Duncan'. He had been appointed by the King to keep the", "In comparison with his father, Sir Colin Campbell, 2nd Baronet Campbell, also the 8th Laird of Glenorchy, was a much more peaceful character and was known as a patron of the arts. As well as repairing and extending the family castles, including Balloch Castle, he also employed several famous artists to paint portraits for them,", "Brother of the 2nd Baronet, he was also known as Robert Campbell of Glenfalloch. He was MP for Argyllshire between 1639 and 1641 and from 1643 to 1649. Sir Robert lived through one of the stormiest and most trying periods in Highland history, during which time his estates were laid waste during the Scottish Civil War, by the 1st Marquess of Montrose and his Royalist forces. The Black Book of Taymouth states that in 1644 and 1645, his whole lands and estates, between the Ford of Lyon and the Point of Lesmore were", "Sir John Campbell was Commissioner of Supply and Excise for Argyll and Perth and succeeded to the title of 4th Baronet Campbell, of Glenorchy.", "John Campbell, known as 'Slippery John', was created 1st Earl of Breadalbane and Holland in 1681. In 1692, he played a key role in the Massacre of Glencoe, by instructing a relative, Robert Campbell of Glenlyon, to carry it out. Thirty Eight McDonalds from the Clan McDonald of Glencoe were killed by their own guests and another 40 women and children died of exposure, after their homes were burned. Campbell also took part in the abortive royalist uprising under John Campbell, 1st Earl of Loudoun in 1654 and was also implicated in the Montgomery Plot, a Jocobite scheme to restore King James II and VII to the thrones of England and Scotland. In 1692, he was imprisoned for a time in Edinburgh Castle for his involvement in negotiations between Jacobite chiefs. However, he was released after it was discovered that he was acting with the knowledge of King William III. In 1672, Campbell acquired as payment of debts, the estates and titles of George Sinclair, 6th Earl of Caithness, which included the parish of Wick and the castles of Girnigoe, Ackergill and Keiss. He assumed the title of Earl of Caithness, although his right to these titles and lands were disputed by George Sinclair of Keiss, first cousin to the 6th Earl of Caithness. Sinclair lay siege to Girnigoe Castle, damaging it so badly that it has never been inhabited since. In a counter-attack, Campbell took his army and marched on Sinclair, to fight what was to become known as the Battle of Altimarlach. Campbell's force easily routed Sinclair's army, whose men fled across the River Wick. But, a large number were killed and it is said that so many lay slain, that Campbell's soldiers were able to cross the river over their bodies, without getting their feet wet. Despite", "In 1720, John Campbell, 2nd Earl of Breadalbane and Holland commissioned William Adam to remodel the castle and lay out extensive formal gardens. Adam's design included six radiating avenues, each over a mile long, which converged on the castle. Elaborate gardens and orchards were also planted on both sides of the Castle. To the south, Adam planted an avenue of trees in the shape of a D. On the banks of the river, he planted two long avenues of lime trees. These are known as the North and South Terraces. In 1739, Jan", "Later, John Campbell, 3rd Earl of Breadalbane and Holland oversaw further changes in the 1750s, including building a handsome bridge over the River Tay and also Kenmore's church, which dates from 1760, replacing the earlier church of 1579. By the 1780s, the formal gardens had been replaced with a picturesque landscape in the manner of Stourhead and Painshill Park. The" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Loopback.", "Name resolution.", "IETF standards.", "Packet processing.", "Special cases." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The local loopback mechanism may be used to run a network service on a host without requiring a physical network interface, or without making the service accessible from the networks the computer may be connected to. For example, a locally installed website may be accessed from a Web browser by the URL \"<nowiki>http://localhost</nowiki>\" to display its home page. The name \"localhost\" normally resolves to the IPv4 loopback address, and to the IPv6 loopback address.", "IPv4 network standards reserve the entire address block 127.0.0.0/8 (more than 16 million addresses) for loopback purposes. That means any packet sent to any of those addresses is looped back. The address is the standard address for IPv4 loopback traffic; the rest are not supported by all operating systems. However they can be used to set up multiple server applications on the host, all listening on the same port number. The IPv6 standard assigns only a single address for loopback:. The resolution of the name \"localhost\" to one or more IP addresses is normally configured by the following lines in the operating system's hosts file: The name may also be resolved by Domain Name System (DNS) servers, but queries for this name should be resolved locally, and should not be forwarded to remote name servers. In addition to the mapping of \"localhost\" to the loopback addresses ( and ), \"localhost\" may also be mapped to other IPv4 (loopback) addresses and it is also possible to assign other, or additional, names to any loopback address. The mapping of \"localhost\" to addresses other than the designated loopback address range in the hosts file or in DNS is not guaranteed to have the desired effect, as applications may map the name internally. In the Domain Name System, the name \"localhost\" is reserved as a top-level domain name, originally set aside to avoid confusion with the hostname used for loopback purposes. IETF standards prohibit domain name registrars from assigning the name \"localhost\".", "The name \"localhost\" is reserved for loopback purposes by RFC 6761 (\"Special-Use Domain Names\"), which achieved the Proposed Standard maturity level in February, 2013. The standard sets forth a number of special considerations governing the use of the name in the Domain Name System: The IPv4 loopback addresses are reserved within the IPv4 address space by the IETF \"Special Use IPv4 Addresses\" standard (RFC 5735). The reservation can be traced back to the November, 1986 \"Assigned Numbers\" standard (RFC 990). In contrast, the IETF \"IP Version 6 Addressing Architecture\" standard (RFC 4291) reserves the single IPv6 loopback address within the IPv6 address space. The standard precludes the assignment of that address to any physical interface, as well as its use as the source or destination address in any packet sent to remote hosts. Any such packet that is erroneously transmitted is not supposed to be routed, and should be dropped by all routers or hosts that receive it.", "The processing of any packet sent to a loopback address, is implemented in the link layer of the TCP/IP stack. Such packets are never passed to any network interface controller (NIC) or hardware device driver and must not appear outside of a computing system, or be routed by any router. This permits software testing and local services in the absence of any hardware network interfaces. Looped-back packets are distinguished from any other packets traversing the TCP/IP stack only by the special IP address they were addressed to. Thus, the services that ultimately receive them respond according to the specified destination. For example, an HTTP service could route packets addressed to and to different Web servers, or to a single server that returns different web pages. To simplify such testing, the hosts file may be configured to provide appropriate names for each address. Packets received on a non-loopback interface with a loopback source or destination address must be dropped. Such packets are sometimes referred to as Martian packets. As with any other bogus packets, they may be malicious and any problems they might cause can be avoided by applying bogon filtering.", "The releases of the MySQL database differentiate between the use of the hostname \"localhost\" and the use of the addresses and. When using \"localhost\" as the destination in a client connector interface of an application, the MySQL application programming interface connects to the database using a Unix domain socket, while a TCP connection via the loopback interface requires the direct use of the explicit address. One notable exception to the use of the addresses is their use in Multiprotocol Label Switching (MPLS) traceroute error detection, in which their property of not being routable provides a convenient means to avoid delivery of faulty packets to end users." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Military flamethrowers.", "Operation.", "Origins.", "Early 20th century.", "World War II.", "Axis use.", "Germany.", "Italy.", "Japan.", "Allies.", "Britain and the Commonwealth.", "United States.", "Soviet Union.", "After 1945.", "Private ownership.", "Other uses." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Modern flamethrowers were first used during the trench warfare conditions of World War I and their use greatly increased in World War II. They can be vehicle-mounted, as on a tank, or man-portable. The man-portable flamethrower consists of two elements — the backpack and the gun. The backpack element usually consists of two or three cylinders. In a two-cylinder system, one cylinder holds compressed, inert propellant gas (usually nitrogen), and the other holds flammable liquid, typically petrol, with some form of fuel thickener added to it. A three-cylinder system often has two outer cylinders of flammable liquid and a central cylinder of propellant gas to maintain the balance of the soldier carrying it. The gas propels the liquid fuel out of the cylinder through a flexible pipe and then into the gun element of the flamethrower system. The gun consists of a small reservoir, a spring-loaded valve, and an ignition system; depressing a trigger opens the valve, allowing pressurized flammable liquid to flow and pass over the igniter and out of the gun nozzle. The igniter can be one of several ignition systems: A simple type is an electrically-heated wire coil; another used a small pilot flame, fueled with pressurized gas from the system. The flamethrower is a potent weapon with great psychological impact, inflicting a particularly horrific death. This has led to some calls for the weapon to be banned. It is primarily used against battlefield fortifications, bunkers, and other protected emplacements. A flamethrower projects a stream of flammable liquid, rather than flame, which allows bouncing the stream off walls and ceilings to project the fire into unseen spaces, such as inside bunkers or pillboxes. Typically, popular visual media depict the flamethrower as short-ranged and only effective for a few meters (due to the common use of propane gas as the fuel in flamethrowers in movies, for the safety of the actors). Contemporary flamethrowers can incinerate a target some from the gunner; moreover, an unignited stream of flammable liquid can be fired and afterwards ignited, possibly by a lamp or other flame inside the bunker. Flamethrowers pose many risks to the operator. The risk of a flamethrower operator being caught in the explosion of their weapon due to enemy hits on the tanks is exaggerated in films. However, there are cases where the pressure tanks have exploded and killed the operator when hit by bullets or grenade shrapnel. In the documentary \"Vietnam in HD\", platoon sergeant Charles Brown tells of how one of his men was killed when his flamethrower was hit by grenade shrapnel during the battle for Hill 875. The best way to minimize the disadvantages of flame weapons was to mount them on armoured vehicles. The Commonwealth and the United States were the most prolific users of vehicle-mounted flame weapons; the British and Canadians fielded \"Wasps\" (Universal Carriers fitted with flamethrowers) at infantry battalion level, beginning in mid-1944, and eventually incorporating them into infantry battalions. Early tank-mounted flamethrower vehicles included the \"Badger\" (a converted Ram tank) and the \"Oke\", used first at Dieppe.", "A propane-operated flamethrower is a relatively straightforward device. The gas is expelled through the gun assembly by its own pressure and is ignited at the exit of the barrel through piezo ignition. Liquid-operated flamethrowers use a smaller tank with a pressurized gas to expel the flammable liquid fuel. The propellant gas is fed to two tubes. The first opens in the fuel tanks, providing the pressure necessary for expelling the liquid. The other tube leads to an ignition chamber behind the exit of the gun assembly, where it is mixed with air and ignited through piezo ignition. This pre-ignition line is the source of the flame seen in front of the gun assembly in movies and documentaries. As the fuel passes through the flame, it is ignited and propelled towards the target.", "The concept of throwing fire as a weapon has existed since ancient times. The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea mentions the use of a flame-thrower by the Early Cholas of India by around 50 AD, and the usage of flamethrowers by the later Imperial Cholas during the Battle of Kedah in the 11th century is depicted in a Siamese mural. During the Peloponnesian War, Boeotians used some kind of a flamethrower trying to destroy the fortification walls of the Athenians during the Battle of Delium. Later, during the Byzantine era, sailors used rudimentary hand-pumped flamethrowers on board their naval ships. Greek fire, extensively used by the Byzantine Empire, is said to have been invented by Kallinikos of Heliopolis, probably about 673. The flamethrower found its origins in a device consisting of a hand-held pump that shot bursts of Greek fire via a siphon-hose and a piston which ignited it with a match, similar to modern versions, as it was ejected. Greek fire, used primarily at sea, gave the Byzantines a substantial military advantage against enemies such as members of the Arab Empire (who later adopted the use of Greek fire). An 11th-century illustration of its use survives in the John Skylitzes manuscript. The Pen Huo Qi (fire spraying machine; lit. spray fire device) was a Chinese piston flamethrower that used a substance similar to petrol or naphtha, invented around 919 AD during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. Advances in military technology aided the Song dynasty in its defense against hostile neighbours to the north, including the Mongols. The earliest reference to Greek fire in China was made in 917 AD, written by Wu Renchen in his \"Spring and Autumn Annals of the Ten Kingdoms\". In 919 CE, the siphon projector-pump was used to spread the 'fierce fire oil' that could not be doused with water, as recorded by Lin Yu (林禹) in his \"Wu-Yue Beishi\" (吳越備史), hence the first credible Chinese reference to the flamethrower employing the chemical solution of Greek fire. Lin Yu mentioned also that the 'fierce fire oil' derived ultimately from China's contact in the'southern seas', with Arabia (大食國 \"Dashiguo\"). In the Battle of Langshan Jiang (Wolf Mountain River) in 919, the naval fleet of the Wenmu King of Wuyue defeated the fleet of the Kingdom of Wu because he had used 'fire oil' to burn his fleet; this signified the first Chinese use of gunpowder in warfare, since a slow-burning match fuse was required to ignite the flames. The Chinese applied the use of double-piston bellows to pump petrol out of a single cylinder (with an upstroke and a downstroke), lit at the end by a slow-burning gunpowder match to fire a continuous stream of flame (as referred to in the \"Wujing Zongyao\" manuscript of 1044 AD). In the suppression of the Southern Tang state by 976 AD, early Song naval forces confronted them on the Yangtze River in 975 AD. Southern Tang forces attempted to use flamethrowers against the Song navy, but were accidentally consumed by their own fire when violent winds swept in their direction. Documented also in later Chinese publications, illustrations and descriptions of mobile flamethrowers on four-wheel push carts appear in the \"Wujing Zongyao\", written in 1044 AD (its illustration redrawn in 1601 as well). It has been suggested that the flamethrower reached China from the Tamil dynasties of India with which they traded. The Periplus of the Erythrean Sea mentions the use of a flame-thrower by the Early Cholas of India by around 50 AD, and the usage of flamethrowers by the later Imperial Cholas during the Battle of Kedah in the 11th century is depicted in an Siamese mural. Although flamethrowers were never used in the American Civil War, the use of Greek fire was threatened, and flamethrowers have been in use in most modern conflicts ever since.", "The English word \"flamethrower\" is a loan-translation of the German word \"Flammenwerfer\", since the modern flamethrower was invented in Germany. The first flamethrower, in the modern sense, is usually credited to Richard Fiedler. He submitted evaluation models of his \"Flammenwerfer\" to the German Army in 1901. The most significant model submitted was a portable device, consisting of a vertical single cylinder long, horizontally divided in two, with pressurized gas in the lower section and flammable oil in the upper section. On depressing a lever the propellant gas forced the flammable oil into and through a rubber tube and over a simple igniting wick device in a steel nozzle. The weapon projected a jet of fire and enormous clouds of smoke some. It was a single-shot weapon—for burst firing, a new igniter section was attached each time. Hungarian Gábor Szakáts invented the flamethrower which was first used by the German army in WWI. Gábor Szakáts was the only Hungarian on the list of war criminals assembled by France after the war due to the invention of the flamethrower. Even his birthplace Budapest refused to bury Szakáts because of his invention. It was not until 1911 that the German Army accepted their first real flamethrowing device, creating a specialist regiment of twelve companies equipped with \"Flammenwerferapparaten\". Despite this, use of fire in a World War I battle predated flamethrower use, with a petrol spray being ignited by an incendiary bomb in the Argonne-Meuse sector in October 1914. The flamethrower was first used in World War I on February 26, 1915, when it was briefly used against the French outside Verdun. On July 30, 1915, it was first used in a concerted action, against British trenches at Hooge, where the lines were apart—even there, the casualties were caused mainly by soldiers being flushed into the open and then shot rather than from the fire itself. After two days of fighting the British had suffered casualties of 31 officers and 751 other ranks. The success of the attack prompted the German Army to adopt the device on all fronts. Flammenwerfers were used in teams of six during battles, at the beginning of an attack and preceding the infantry advance. The flamethrower was useful at short distances but had other limitations: it was cumbersome and difficult to operate and could only be safely fired from a trench, which limited its use to areas where the opposing trenches were less than the maximum range of the weapon, namely apart—which was not a common situation; the fuel would also only last for about 2 minutes. The German deployed flamethrowers during the war in more than 650 attacks. The British experimented with flamethrowers in the Battle of the Somme used experimental weapons called \"Livens Large Gallery Flame Projector\", named for their inventor, a Royal Engineers officer William Howard Livens. This weapon was enormous and completely non-portable. The weapon had an effective range of 90 yards, which proved effective at clearing trenches, but with no other benefit the project was abandoned. Two Morriss static flamethrowers mounted in HMS \"Vindictive\" and several Hay portable flamethrowers were deployed by the Royal Navy during the Zeebrugge Raid on 23 April 1918. A British newspaper report of the action referred to the British flamethrowers only as \"flammenwerfer\", using the German word. The French Army deployed the Schilt family of flamethrowers, that were also used by the Italian Army. The Russian army used 11,446 indigenously produced flamethrowers, over 10,000 of which were the Tovarnitski man-portable design. In the interwar period, at least four flamethrowers were used in the Chaco War by the Bolivian Army, during the unsuccessful assault on the Paraguayan stronghold of Nanawa in 1933.", "The flamethrower was extensively used during World War II. In 1939, the Wehrmacht first deployed man-portable flamethrowers against the Polish Post Office in Danzig. Subsequently, in 1942, the U.S. Army introduced its own man-portable flamethrower. The vulnerability of infantry carrying backpack flamethrowers and the weapon's short range led to experiments with tank-mounted flamethrowers (flame tanks), which were used by many countries.", "", "The Germans made considerable use of the weapon (\"Flammenwerfer\" 35) during their invasion of the Netherlands and France, against fixed fortifications. World War II German army flamethrowers tended to have one large fuel tank with the pressurizer tank fastened to its back or side. Some German army flamethrowers occupied only the lower part of its wearer's back, leaving the upper part of his back free for an ordinary rucksack. Flamethrowers soon fell into disfavor. Flamethrowers were extensively used by German units in urban fights in Poland, both in 1943 in the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising and in 1944 in the Warsaw Uprising (See the Stroop Report and the article on the 1943 Warsaw Ghetto Uprising.) With the contraction of the Third Reich during the latter half of World War II, a smaller, more compact flamethrower known as the Einstossflammenwerfer 46 was produced. Germany also used flamethrower vehicles, most of them based on the chassis of the Sd.Kfz. 251 half track and the Panzer II and Panzer III tanks, generally known as \"Flammpanzers\". The Germans also produced the Abwehrflammenwerfer 42, a flame-mine or flame fougasse, based on a Soviet version of the weapon. This was essentially a disposable, single use flamethrower that was buried alongside conventional land mines at key defensive points and triggered by either a trip-wire or a command wire. The weapon contained around of fuel, that was discharged within a second, to a second and a half, producing a flame with a range. One defensive installation found in Italy included seven of the weapons, carefully concealed and wired to a central control point.", "Italy employed man-portable flamethrowers and L3 Lf flame tanks during the Second Italo-Abyssinian War of 1935 to 1936, during the Spanish Civil War, and during World War II. The L3 Lf flame tank was a CV-33 or CV-35 tankette with a flamethrower operating from the machine gun mount. In the Northern Africa Theatre, the L3 Lf flame tank found little to no success. An L6 Lf flametank was also developed using the L6/40 light tank platform.", "Japan used man-portable flamethrowers to clear fortified positions, in the Battle of Wake Island, Corregidor, Battle of the Tenaru on the Guadalcanal and Battle of Milne Bay.", "", "The British World War II army flamethrowers, \"Ack Packs\", had a doughnut-shaped fuel tank with a small spherical pressurizer gas tank in the middle. As a result, some troops nicknamed them \"lifebuoys\". It was officially known as Flamethrower, Portable, No 2. Extensive plans were made in 1940-1941 by the Petroleum Warfare Department to use Flame fougasse static flame projectors in the event of an invasion, with around 50,000 barrel-based incendiary mines being deployed in 7,000 batteries throughout Southern England. The British hardly used their man-portable systems, relying on Churchill Crocodile tanks in the European theatre. These tanks proved very effective against German defensive positions, and caused official Axis protests against their use. This flamethrower could produce a jet of flame exceeding. There are documented instances of German units summarily executing any captured British flame-tank crews. In the Pacific theatre, Australian forces used converted Matilda tanks, known as Matilda Frogs.", "In the Pacific theatre, The U.S. Army used M-1 & M-2 flamethrowers to clear stubborn Japanese resistance from prepared defenses, caves, and trenches. Starting in New Guinea, through the closing stages on Guadalcanal and during the approach to and reconquest of the Philippines and then through the Okinawa campaign, the Army deployed hand-held, man-portable units. Often flamethrower teams were made up of combat engineer units, later with troops of the chemical warfare service. The Army fielded more Flamethrower units than the Marine Corps, and The Army's Chemical Warfare Service pioneered tank mounted flamethrowers on Sherman tanks (CWS-POA H-4). All the flamethrower tanks on Okinawa were manned by the 713th provisional tank battalion. It was tasked with supporting all U.S. Army/ Marine infantry. All Pacific mechanized flamethrower units were trained by Seabee specialists with Col. UNMACHT's CWS Flamethrower group in Hawaii. The U.S. Army used flamethrowers in Europe in much smaller numbers, though they were available for special employments. Flamethrowers were deployed during the Normandy landings in order to clear Axis fortifications. Also, most boat teams on Omaha Beach included a two-man flamethrower team. The Marine Corps used the backpack-type M2A1-7 flamethrower and M2-2 flamethrowers, also finding them useful in clearing Japanese trench and bunker complexes. The first known USMC use of the man portable flamethrower was against the formidable defenses at Tarawa in November 1943. The Marines pioneered the use of Ronson-equipped M-3 Stuart tanks in the Marianas. These were known as SATAN flame tanks. Though effective, they lacked the armor to safely engage fortifications and were phased out in favor of the better-armored M4 Sherman tanks. USMC Flamethrower Shermans were produced at Schofield Barracks by Seabees attached to the Chemical Warfare Serice under Col. Unmacht. CWS designated M4s with \"CWS-POA-H\" for \"Chemical Warfare Service Pacific Ocean Area, Hawaii plus a flamethrower number The Marines had previously deployed large Navy Flamethrowers mounted on LVT-4 AMTRACs at Peleliu. Late in the war, both services operated LVT-4 & -5 amphibious Flametanks in limited numbers. Both the Army and the Marines still used their infantry-portable systems, despite the arrival of adapted Sherman tanks with the Ronson system (cf. flame tank). In cases where the Japanese were installed in deep caves, the flames often consumed the available oxygen, suffocating the occupants. Many Japanese troops interviewed post war said they were terrified more by flamethrowers than any other American weapon. Flamethrower operators were often the first U.S. troops targeted.", "The FOG-1 and 2 flamethrowers were stationary devices used in defense. They could also be categorized as a projecting incendiary mine. The FOG had only one cylinder of fuel, which was compressed using an explosive charge and projected through a nozzle. The November 1944 issue of the US War Department Intelligence Bulletin refers to these 'Fougasse flame throwers' being used in the Soviet defense of Stalingrad. The FOG-1 was directly copied by the Germans as the Abwehrflammenwerfer 42. Unlike the flamethrowers of the other powers during World War II, the Soviets were the only ones to consciously attempt to camouflage their infantry flamethrowers. With the ROKS-2 flamethrower this was done by disguising the flame projector as a standard issue rifle, such as the Mosin–Nagant, and the fuel tanks as a standard infantryman's rucksack. This was to try to stop the flamethrower operator from being specifically targeted by enemy fire. This \"rifle\" had a working action which was used to cycle blank igniter cartridges.", "The United States Marines used flamethrowers in the Korean and Vietnam Wars. The M132 Armored Flamethrower, an M113 armored personnel carrier with a mounted flame thrower was successfully used in the conflict. Flamethrowers have not been in the U.S. arsenal since 1978, when the Department of Defense unilaterally stopped using them ⁠— ⁠the last American infantry flamethrower was the Vietnam-era M9-7. They have been deemed of questionable effectiveness in modern combat. Despite some assertions, they are not generally banned, but as incendiary weapons they are subject to the usage prohibitions described under Protocol III of the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons. USA army flamethrowers developed up to the M9 model. In the M9 the propellant tank is a sphere below the left fuel tank and does not project backwards. Non-flamethrower incendiary weapons remain in modern military arsenals. Thermobaric weapons have been fielded in Afghanistan by the United States. The USA and USSR both developed a rocket launcher specifically for the deployment of incendiary munitions, respectively the M202 FLASH and the RPO \"Rys,\" ancestor of the RPO-A Shmel. In the last stages of the Troubles, during the mid-80s, the IRA smuggled a number of Soviet LPO-50 military flamethrowers (supplied to them by the Libyan government) into Northern Ireland. They used a flamethrower, among other weapons, to storm a British Army permanent checkpoint in Derryard, near Rosslea, on 13 December 1989. Another IRA unit attacked a British Army watchtower, the Borucki sangar, with an improvised flamethrower towed by a tractor in Crossmaglen, on 12 December 1992. The device consisted of a manure spreader which doused the facility with fuel, ignited few seconds later by a small explosion. A nine-meter-high fireball engulfed the tower. The four Grenadier Guards inside were rescued by a Saxon armored vehicle.", "In the United States, private ownership of a flamethrower is not restricted by federal law. Flamethrowers are legal in 48 states and restricted in California and Maryland. In California, unlicensed possession of a flame-throwing device—statutorily defined as \"any non-stationary and transportable device designed or intended to emit or propel a burning stream of combustible or flammable liquid a distance of at least 10 feet\" H&W 12750 (a)—is a misdemeanor punishable with a county jail term not exceeding one year OR with a fine not exceeding $10,000 (CA H&W 12761). Licenses to use flamethrowers are issued by the State Fire Marshal, and they may use any criteria for issuing or not issuing that license which is deemed fit, but must publish those criteria in the California Code of Regulations, Title 11, Section 970 et seq. In the United Kingdom, flamethrowers are a \"prohibited weapon\" under section 5(1)(b) of the Firearms Act 1968 and article 45(1)(f) of the Firearms (Northern Ireland) Order 2004 and possession of a flamethrower would carry a sentence of up to ten years' imprisonment. In 1994, a man attacked school pupils at Sullivan Upper School, just outside Belfast, with a home-made flamethrower. A South African inventor brought the Blaster car mounted flamethrower to market in 1998 as a security device to defend against carjackers. It has since been discontinued, with the inventor moving on to pocket-sized self-defence flamethrowers.", "Flamethrowers are occasionally used for igniting controlled burns for land management and agriculture. For example, in the production of sugar cane, where canebrakes are burned to get rid of the dry dead leaves which clog harvesters, and incidentally kill any lurking venomous snakes. More commonly, however, a driptorch or a flare (fusee) is used. U.S. troops allegedly used flamethrowers on the streets of Washington, D.C. (mentioned in a December 1998 article in the \"San Francisco Flier\"), as one of several clearance methods used for the surprisingly large amount of snow that fell before the presidential inauguration of John F. Kennedy. A history article on the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers notes, \"In the end, the task force employed hundreds of dump trucks, front-end loaders, sanders, plows, rotaries, and allegedly flamethrowers to clear the way\". A squad armed with backpack flamethrowers had an important part in the 2012 Summer Paralympics closing ceremony. They had one big tank each. They could make a flame about 12 feet long. In April 2014 it was reported by South Korea's Chosun Ilbo newspaper without confirmation that a North Korean government official, O Sang-hon, Deputy Minister at the Ministry of Public Security was executed by flamethrower. Note the two Korea's are still in a state of war. It has been known for police to fill a \"flamethrower\", not with flammable liquid, but rather with tear gas dissolved in water as a riot-control device; see Converted Flamethrower 40." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Chemistry.", "Varieties.", "Occurrence.", "Economic importance.", "Gemstone use." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The mineral crystallizes in the cubic crystal system. Like other minerals with a cubic crystal structure, sphalerite may show a tetrahedral crystal habit. In the crystal structure, zinc and sulfur atoms are tetrahedrally coordinated. The structure is closely related to the structure of diamond. The hexagonal analog is known as the wurtzite structure. The lattice constant for zinc sulfide in the zinc blende crystal structure is 0.541 nm. All natural sphalerites contain concentrations of various impurity elements. These generally substitute for the zinc position in the lattice. The most common are Cd and Mn, but Gallium, Germanium and Indium may also be present in relatively high concentrations (100s to 1000s of ppm). The abundances of these elements are controlled by the conditions under which the sphalerite formed, most importantly formation temperature and fluid composition.", "Its color is usually yellow, brown, or gray to gray-black, and it may be shiny or dull. Its luster is adamantine, resinous to submetallic for high iron varieties. It has a yellow or light brown streak, a Mohs hardness of 3.5–4, and a specific gravity of 3.9–4.1. Some specimens have a red iridescence within the gray-black crystals; these are called \"ruby sphalerite\". The pale yellow and red varieties have very little iron and are translucent. The darker, more opaque varieties contain more iron. Some specimens are also fluorescent in ultraviolet light. The refractive index of sphalerite (as measured via sodium light, average wavelength 589.3 nm) is 2.37. Sphalerite crystallizes in the isometric crystal system and possesses perfect dodecahedral cleavage. Gemmy, pale specimens from Franklin, New Jersey (see Franklin Furnace), are highly fluorescent orange and/or blue under longwave ultraviolet light and are known as \"cleiophane\", an almost pure ZnS variety.", "Sphalerite is the major ore of zinc and is found in thousands of locations worldwide. Sources of high quality crystals include:", "Sphalerite is the most important ore of zinc. Around 95% of all primary zinc is extracted from sphaleritic ores. However, due to its variable trace element content, sphalerite is also an important source of several other elements, such as cadmium, gallium germanium, and indium.", "Crystals of suitable size and transparency have been fashioned into gemstones, usually featuring the brilliant cut to best display sphalerite's high dispersion of 0.156 (B-G interval), over three times that of diamond. Freshly cut gems have an adamantine luster. Owing to their softness and fragility the gems are often left unset as collector's or museum pieces (although some have been set into pendants). Gem-quality material is usually a yellowish to honey brown, red to orange, or green." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Summary.", "Predictions for 1960.", "Publication deferred.", "Literary significance and criticism." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The novel's main character is 16-year-old Michel Dufrénoy, who graduates with a major in literature and the classics, but finds they have been forgotten in a futuristic world where only business and technology are valued. Michel, whose father was a musician, is a poet born too late. Michel had been living with his respectable uncle, Monsieur Stanislas Boutardin, and his family. The day after graduation, Boutardin tells Michel that he is to start working at a banking company. Boutardin doubts Michel can do anything in the business world. The rest of that day, Michel searches for literature by classic 19th-century writers, such as Hugo and Balzac. Nothing but books about technology are available in bookstores. Michel's last resort is the Imperial Library. The librarian turns out to be his long-hidden uncle, Monsieur Huguenin. Huguenin, still working in the arts, is considered a \"disgrace\" to the rest of the family, and so was barred from attending Michel's birthdays, graduations, and other family events, though he has followed Michel's life—from a distance. This is the first time they meet in person. At his new job, Michel fails at each task with Casmodage and Co. Bank until he is assigned to The Ledger, where Michel dictates the accounts for bookkeeper Monsieur Quinsonnas. Quinsonnas, a kindred spirit of 30, writes the bookkeeping information on The Ledger. Quinsonnas tells Michel that this is a job he can do in order to eat, have an apartment, and support himself while he continues working on a mysterious musical project that will bring him fame and fortune. Michel's fear of not fitting in is resolved; he can be a reader and still work on his own writing after work. The pair visit Uncle Huguenin and are joined by other visitors, Michel's former teacher Monsieur Richelot and Richelot's granddaughter, Mademoiselle Lucy. Quinsonnas introduces Michel to his friend, Jacques Aubanet, who dreams of being a soldier, but this is impossible, because warfare has become so scientific that there is really no need for soldiers anymore—only chemists and mechanics are able to work the killing machines. But this profession is denied to even them, because \"the engines of war\" have become so efficient that war is inconceivable and all countries are at a perpetual stalemate. Before long, Michel and Lucy are in love. Michel discusses women with Quinsonnas, who sadly explains that there are no such things as women anymore; from mindless, repetitive factory work and careful attention to finance and science, most women have become cynical, ugly, neurotic career women. In fury, Quinsonnas spills ink on The Ledger, and he and Michel are fired on the spot; Quinsonnas leaves for Germany. In a society without war, or musical and artistic progress, there is no news, so Michel can't even become a journalist. He ends up living in Quinsonnas' empty apartment while writing superb poetry, but lives in such poverty that he has to eat synthetic foods derived from coal. He eventually writes a book of poetry entitled \"Hopes\" which is rejected by every publisher in Paris. As the year 1961 draws to a close, all of Europe enters a winter of unprecedented ferocity. All agriculture is compromised and food supplies are destroyed, resulting in mass famine. The temperature drops to thirty degrees below, and every river in Europe freezes solid. In despair, Michel spends his last bit of money on violets for Lucy, but finds that she has disappeared from her apartment, evicted when her grandfather lost his job as the university's last teacher of rhetoric. He is unable to locate her amongst the thousands of starving people in Paris. He spends the entire evening stumbling around Paris in a delirious state. Michel becomes convinced that he is being hunted by the Demon of Electricity, but no matter where he goes, he is unable to escape its presence. In the climax of the story, the heartbroken Michel, bereft of friends and loved ones, wanders through the frozen, mechanized, electrical wonders of Paris. The subjective narrative becomes steadily more surreal as the suffering artist, in a final paroxysm of despair, unconsciously circles an old cemetery and finally collapses comatose in the snow.", "The book's description of the technology of 1960 was in some ways remarkably close to actual 1960s technology. The book described in detail advances such as cars powered by internal combustion engines (\"gas-cabs\") together with the necessary supporting infrastructure such as gas stations and paved asphalt roads, elevated and underground passenger train systems and high-speed trains powered by magnetism and compressed air, skyscrapers, electric lights that illuminate entire cities at night, fax machines (\"picture-telegraphs\"), elevators, primitive computers which can send messages to each other as part of a network somewhat resembling the Internet (described as sophisticated electrically powered mechanical calculators which can send information to each other across vast distances), the utilization of wind power, automated security systems, the electric chair, and remotely-controlled weapons systems, as well as weapons destructive enough to make war unthinkable. The book also predicts the growth of suburbs and mass-produced higher education (the opening scene has Dufrénoy attending a mass graduation of 250,000 students), department stores, and massive hotels. A version of feminism has also arisen in society, with women moving into the workplace and a rise in illegitimate births. It also makes accurate predictions of 20th-century music, predicting the rise of electronic music, and describes a musical instrument similar to a synthesizer, and the replacement of classical music performances with a recorded music industry. It predicts that the entertainment industry would be dominated by lewd stage plays, often involving nudity and sexually explicit scenes.", "Jules Verne's publisher, Pierre-Jules Hetzel, thought the book's pessimism would damage Verne's then-booming career, and suggested that he wait 20 years to publish it. In a scathing rebuke to Verne, Hetzel writes about a draft of the novel he has just seen: Hetzel was also critical of Verne for not covering new ground with the novel: With that, Verne put the manuscript in a safe where it was forgotten, only to be discovered by his great-grandson in 1989. The original French version was finally published in 1994, and an English translation by Richard Howard was published by Random House in 1996.", "The appearance of Verne's lost novel caused a stir among modern critics, who mostly received the book warmly, greeting it as \"prescient and plausible\". On the other hand, some saw the book every bit as unnecessarily pessimistic about the future as did Verne's editor. The book was a best seller in France, where it was heavily promoted before publication. Some critics were put off by the publisher's hype of the book, although most readily admitted it was \"a work of inestimable historical importance\". Critic Evelyn C. Leeper suggested that Verne might be a good candidate for a Hugo Award for Best Novel in 1996, noting that she had not read very many novels that were much better than Verne's work that year. The Hugo Award is given annually to honor the best science fiction of the preceding year. The work is also of importance to scholars of Verne's literary achievements, some of whom had long asserted that none of his works ever came close to prophesying the future of a whole civilization. Within two years of the novel's appearance, it had been adapted as a stage play in the Netherlands." ] }

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{ "title": [ "States.", "History.", "West Germany, 1945–90.", "Establishment of Baden-Württemberg.", "Petitions to reconstitute former states.", "Saar: the little reunification.", "Constitutional amendments.", "Reunited Germany, 1990–present.", "Politics.", "Government.", "Subdivisions.", "Area associations (\"Landschaftsverbände\").", "Governmental districts (\"Regierungsbezirke\").", "Administrative districts (\"Kreise\").", "Offices (\"Ämter\").", "Municipalities (\"Gemeinden\")." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "It is the states which formed the Federal Republic of Germany in 1949. This was in contrast to the post-war development in Austria, where the national \"Bund\" (federation) was constituted first, and then the individual states were carved out as units of this federal nation. The German use of the term \"Länder\" (‘lands’) dates back to the Weimar Constitution of 1919. Before this time, the states of the German Empire were called \"Staaten\" (states). Today, it is very common to use the term \"Bundesland\" (federal \"land\"). However, this term is not used officially, neither by the constitution of 1919 nor by the Basic Law (Constitution) of 1949. Three \"Länder\" call themselves \"Freistaaten\" (‘free states’, an older German term for ‘republic’): Bavaria (since 1919), Saxony (originally since 1919 and again since 1990), and Thuringia (since 1994). From the 17 states at the end of the Weimar Republic, six still exist (though partly with different border-lines): The other 11 pre-existing states either merged into one another or were separated into smaller entities. A new delimitation of the federal territory keeps being debated in Germany, in contrast to how there are \"significant differences among the American states and regional governments in other federations without serious calls for territorial changes\" in those other countries. Arthur B. Gunlicks summarizes the main arguments for boundary reform in Germany: \"the German system of dual federalism requires strong \"Länder\" that have the administrative and fiscal capacity to implement legislation and pay for it from own source revenues. Too many \"Länder\" also make coordination among them and with the federation more complicated\". But several proposals have failed so far; territorial reform remains a controversial topic in German politics and public perception.", "Federalism has a long tradition in German history. The Holy Roman Empire comprised many petty states, numbering more than 300 around 1796. The number of territories was greatly reduced during the Napoleonic Wars (1796–1814). After the Congress of Vienna (1815), 39 states formed the German Confederation. The Confederation was dissolved after the Austro-Prussian War in which Prussia defeated Austria and forced Austria to remove itself from the affairs of the German states. Prussia and the other states in Northern and Central Germany united as a federal state, the North German Federation, on July 1, 1867. Four of the five southern German states (Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt) entered military alliances with Prussia but Austria did not. In the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, those four states joined the North German Federation which was consequently renamed to German Empire. The parliament and Federal Council decided to give the Prussian king the title of German Emperor (since January 1, 1871). The new German Empire included 25 states (three of them, Hanseatic cities) and the imperial territory of Alsace-Lorraine. Within the empire, 65% of the territory and 62% of the population belonged to the state of Prussia. After the territorial losses of the Treaty of Versailles, the remaining states continued as republics of a new German federation. These states were gradually abolished and reduced to provinces under the Nazi regime via the process, as the states administratively were largely superseded by the Nazi \"Gau\" system. During the Allied occupation of Germany after World War II, internal borders were redrawn by the Allied military governments. No single state comprised more than 30% of either population or territory; this was intended to prevent any one state from being as dominant within Germany as Prussia had been in the past. Initially, only seven of the pre-War states remained: Baden (in part), Bavaria (reduced in size), Bremen, Hamburg, Hesse (enlarged), Saxony, and Thuringia. The states with hyphenated names, such as Rhineland-Palatinate, North Rhine-Westphalia, and Saxony-Anhalt, owed their existence to the occupation powers and were created out of mergers of former Prussian provinces and smaller states. Former German territory that lie east of the Oder-Neisse line fell under either Polish or Soviet administration but attempts were made at least symbolically not to abandon sovereignty well into the 1960s. The former provinces of Farther Pomerania, East Prussia, Silesia and Posen-West Prussia fell under Polish administration with the Soviet Union taking the area around Königsberg (now Kaliningrad), pending a final peace conference with Germany which eventually never took place. More than 8 million Germans had been expelled from these territories that had formed part of the German-speaking lands for centuries and which mostly did not have sizable Polish minorities before 1945. However, no attempts were made to establish new states in these territories, as they lay outside the jurisdiction of West Germany at that time. Upon its founding in 1949, West Germany had eleven states. These were reduced to nine in 1952 when three south-western states (South Baden, Württemberg-Hohenzollern, and Württemberg-Baden) merged to form Baden-Württemberg. From 1957, when the French-occupied Saar Protectorate was returned and formed into the Saarland, the Federal Republic consisted of ten states, which are referred to as the \"Old States\" today. West Berlin was under the sovereignty of the Western Allies and neither a Western German state nor part of one. However, it was in many ways \"de facto\" integrated with West Germany under a special status. East Germany originally consisted of five states (i.e., Brandenburg, Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, and Thuringia). In 1952, these states were abolished and the East was divided into 14 administrative districts called \"Bezirke\". Soviet-controlled East Berlin – despite officially having the same status as West Berlin – was declared East Germany's capital and its 15th district. Just prior to the German reunification on 3 October 1990, the East German states were reconstituted close to their earlier configuration as the five \"New States\". The former district of East Berlin joined West Berlin to form the new state of Berlin. Henceforth, the 10 \"old states\" plus 5 \"new states\" plus the new state Berlin add up to current 16 states of Germany. Later, the constitution was amended to state that the citizens of the 16 states had successfully achieved the unity of Germany in free self-determination and that the Basic Law thus applied to the entire German people. Article 23, which had allowed \"any other parts of Germany\" to join, was rephrased. It had been used in 1957 to reintegrate the Saar Protectorate as the Saarland into the Federal Republic, and this was used as a model for German reunification in 1990. The amended article now defines the participation of the Federal Council and the 16 German states in matters concerning the European Union. The German states can conclude treaties with foreign countries in matters within their own sphere of competence and with the consent of the Federal Government (Article 32 of the Basic Law). Typical treaties relate to cultural relationships and economic affairs. Some states call themselves a “free state” (). It is merely a historic synonym for “republic” and was a description used by most German states after the abolishment of monarchy after World War I. Today, is associated emotionally with a more independent status, especially in Bavaria. However, it has no legal significance. All sixteen states are represented at the federal level in the (Federal Council), where their voting power depends on the size of their population.", "Article 29 of the Basic Law states that \"the division of the federal territory into Länder may be revised to ensure that each be of a size and capacity to perform its functions effectively\". The somewhat complicated provisions regulate that \"revisions of the existing division into shall be effected by a federal law, which must be confirmed by referendum\". A new delimitation of the federal territory has been discussed since the Federal Republic was founded in 1949 and even before. Committees and expert commissions advocated a reduction of the number of states; academics (Rutz, Miegel, Ottnad etc.) and politicians (Döring, Apel, and others) made proposals some of them far-reaching for redrawing boundaries but hardly anything came of these public discussions. Territorial reform is sometimes propagated by the richer states as a means to avoid or reduce fiscal transfers. To date, the only successful reform was the merger of the states of Baden, Württemberg-Baden, and Württemberg-Hohenzollern to form the new state of Baden-Württemberg in 1952. Article 29 reflects a debate on territorial reform in Germany that is much older than the Basic Law. The Holy Roman Empire was a loose confederation of large and petty principalities under the nominal suzerainty of the emperor. Approximately 300 states existed at the eve of the French Revolution in 1789. Territorial boundaries were essentially redrawn as a result of military conflicts and interventions from the outside: from the Napoleonic Wars to the Congress of Vienna, the number of territories decreased from about 300 to 39; in 1866 Prussia annexed the sovereign states of Hanover, Nassau, Hesse-Kassel, and the Free City of Frankfurt; the last consolidation came about under Allied occupation after 1945. The debate on a new delimitation of the German territory started in 1919 as part of discussions about the new constitution. Hugo Preuss, the father of the Weimar Constitution, drafted a plan to divide the German Reich into 14 roughly equal-sized states. His proposal was turned down due to opposition of the states and concerns of the government. Article 18 of the constitution enabled a new delimitation of the German territory but set high hurdles: \"Three fifth of the votes handed in, and at least the majority of the population are necessary to decide on the alteration of territory\". In fact, until 1933 there were only four changes in the configuration of the German states: The 7 Thuringian states were merged in 1920, whereby Coburg opted for Bavaria, Pyrmont joined Prussia in 1922, and Waldeck did so in 1929. Any later plans to break up the dominating Prussia into smaller states failed because political circumstances were not favourable to state reforms. After the Nazi Party seized power in January 1933, the increasingly lost importance. They became administrative regions of a centralised country. Three changes are of particular note: on January 1, 1934, Mecklenburg-Schwerin was united with the neighbouring Mecklenburg-Strelitz; and, by the Greater Hamburg Act () of 1937, the area of the city-state was extended, while Lübeck lost its independence and became part of the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein. Between 1945 and 1947, new states were established in all four zones of occupation: Bremen, Hesse, Württemberg-Baden, and Bavaria in the American zone; Hamburg, Schleswig-Holstein, Lower Saxony, and North Rhine-Westphalia in the British zone; Rhineland-Palatinate, Baden, Württemberg-Hohenzollern and the Saarland which later received a special status in the French zone; Mecklenburg(-Vorpommern), Brandenburg, Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, and Thuringia in the Soviet zone. In 1948, the military governors of the three Western Allies handed over the so-called Frankfurt Documents to the minister-presidents in the Western occupation zones. Among other things, they recommended revising the boundaries of the West German states in a way that none of them should be too large or too small in comparison with the others. As the premiers did not come to an agreement on this question, the Parliamentary Council was supposed to address this issue. Its provisions are reflected in Article 29. There was a binding provision for a new delimitation of the federal territory: the Federal Territory must be revised (paragraph 1). Moreover, in territories or parts of territories whose affiliation with a had changed after 8 May 1945 without a referendum, people were allowed to petition for a revision of the current status within a year after the promulgation of the Basic Law (paragraph 2). If at least one tenth of those entitled to vote in Bundestag elections were in favour of a revision, the federal government had to include the proposal into its legislation. Then a referendum was required in each territory or part of a territory whose affiliation was to be changed (paragraph 3). The proposal should not take effect if within any of the affected territories a majority rejected the change. In this case, the bill had to be introduced again and after passing had to be confirmed by referendum in the Federal Republic as a whole (paragraph 4). The reorganization should be completed within three years after the Basic Law had come into force (paragraph 6). In their letter to Konrad Adenauer, the three western military governors approved the Basic Law but suspended Article 29 until such time as a peace treaty should be concluded. Only the special arrangement for the southwest under Article 118 could enter into force.", "In southwestern Germany, territorial revision seemed to be a top priority since the border between the French and American occupation zones was set along the Autobahn Karlsruhe-Stuttgart-Ulm (today the A8). Article 118 stated \"The division of the territory comprising Baden, Württemberg-Baden and Württemberg-Hohenzollern into may be revised, without regard to the provisions of Article 29, by agreement between the concerned. If no agreement is reached, the revision shall be effected by a federal law, which shall provide for an advisory referendum.\" Since no agreement was reached, a referendum was held on 9 December 1951 in four different voting districts, three of which approved the merger (South Baden refused but was overruled, as the result of total votes was decisive). On 25 April 1952, the three former states merged to form Baden-Württemberg.", "With the Paris Agreements, West Germany regained (limited) sovereignty. This triggered the start of the one-year period as set in paragraph 2 of Article 29. As a consequence, eight petitions for referendums were launched, six of which were successful: The last petition was originally rejected by the Federal Minister of the Interior in reference to the referendum of 1951. However, the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany ruled that the rejection was unlawful: the population of Baden had the right to a new referendum because the one of 1951 had taken place under different rules from the ones provided for by article 29. In particular, the outcome of the 1951 referendum did not reflect the wishes of the majority of Baden's population. The two Palatine petitions (for a reintegration into Bavaria and integration into Baden-Württemberg) failed with 7.6% and 9.3%. Further requests for petitions (Lübeck, Geesthacht, Lindau, Achberg, and 62 Hessian communities) had already been rejected as inadmissible by the Federal Minister of the Interior or were withdrawn as in the case of Lindau. The rejection was confirmed by the Federal Constitutional Court in the case of Lübeck.", "In the Paris Agreements of 23 October 1954, France offered to establish an independent \"Saarland\", under the auspices of the Western European Union (WEU), but on 23 October 1955 in the Saar Statute referendum the Saar electorate rejected this plan by 67.7% to 32.3% (out of a 96.5% turnout: 423,434 against, 201,975 for) despite the public support of Federal German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer for the plan. The rejection of the plan by the Saarlanders was interpreted as support for the Saar to join the Federal Republic of Germany. On October 27, 1956, the Saar Treaty established that Saarland should be allowed to join Germany, as provided by the constitution art. 23 for the Federal Republic of Germany. Saarland became part of Germany effective January 1, 1957. The Franco-Saarlander currency union ended on 6 July 1959, when the Deutsche Mark was introduced as legal tender in the Saarland.", "Paragraph 6 of Article 29 stated that, if a petition was successful, a referendum should be held within three years. Since the deadline passed on 5 May 1958 without anything happening, the Hesse state government filed a constitutional complaint with the Federal Constitutional Court in October 1958. The complaint was dismissed in July 1961 on the grounds that Article 29 had made the new delimitation of the federal territory an exclusively federal matter. At the same time, the Court reaffirmed the requirement for a territorial revision as a binding order to the relevant constitutional bodies. The grand coalition decided to settle the 1956 petitions by setting binding deadlines for the required referendums. The referendums in Lower Saxony and Rhineland-Palatinate were to be held by 31 March 1975, and the referendum in Baden was to be held by 30 June 1970. The threshold for a successful vote was set at one-quarter of those entitled to vote in Bundestag elections. Paragraph 4 stated that the vote should be disregarded if it contradicted the objectives of paragraph 1. In his investiture address, given on 28 October 1969 in Bonn, Chancellor Willy Brandt proposed that the government would consider Article 29 of the Basic Law as a binding order. An expert commission was established, named after its chairman, the former Secretary of State Professor Werner Ernst. After two years of work, the experts delivered their report in 1973. It provided an alternative proposal for the two regions: the north and center-southwest. In the north, either a single new state consisting of Schleswig-Holstein, Hamburg, Bremen and Lower Saxony should be created (solution A) or two new states, one in the northeast consisting of Schleswig-Holstein, Hamburg and the northern part of Lower Saxony (from Cuxhaven to Lüchow-Dannenberg) and one in the northwest consisting of Bremen and the rest of Lower Saxony (solution B). In the center and southwest, one alternative was that Rhineland-Palatinate (with the exception of the Germersheim district but including the Rhine-Neckar region) should be merged with Hesse and the Saarland (solution C), the district of Germersheim would then become part of Baden-Württemberg. The other alternative was that the Palatinate (including the region of Worms) could be merged with the Saarland and Baden-Württemberg, and the rest of Rhineland-Palatinate would then merge with Hesse (solution D). Both alternatives could be combined (AC, BC, AD, BD). At the same time the commission developed criteria for classifying the terms of Article 29 Paragraph 1. The capacity to perform functions effectively was considered most important, whereas regional, historical, and cultural ties were considered as hardly verifiable. To fulfill administrative duties adequately, a population of at least five million per state was considered as necessary. After a relatively brief discussion and mostly negative responses from the affected states, the proposals were shelved. Public interest was limited or nonexistent. The referendum in Baden was held on 7 June 1970. 81.9% of voters decided for Baden to remain part of Baden-Württemberg, only 18.1% opted for the reconstitution of the old state of Baden. The referendums in Lower Saxony and Rhineland-Palatinate were held on 19 January 1975 (the percentages given are the percentages of those eligible who voted in favour): The votes in Lower Saxony were successful as both proposals were supported by more than 25% of eligible voters. The Bundestag however decided that both Oldenburg and Schaumburg-Lippe should remain part of Lower Saxony. The justification was that a reconstitution of the two former states would contradict the objectives of paragraph 1 of article 29 of the constitution. An appeal against the decision was rejected as inadmissible by the Federal Constitutional Court. On 24 August 1976, the binding provision for a new delimitation of the federal territory was altered into a mere discretionary one. Paragraph 1 of Article 29 was rephrased, with the provision that any state had to be \"of a size and capacity to perform its functions effectively\" put first. The option for a referendum in the Federal Republic as a whole (paragraph 4) was abolished, which meant territorial revision was no longer possible against the will of the population affected by it.", "The debate on territorial revision restarted shortly before German reunification. While academics (Rutz and others) and politicians (Gobrecht) suggested introducing only two, three, or four states in East Germany, legislation reconstituted the five states that had existed until 1952, however, with slightly changed boundaries. Article 118a was introduced into the Basic Law and provided the possibility for Berlin and Brandenburg to merge \"without regard to the provisions of Article 29, by agreement between the two with the participation of their inhabitants who are entitled to vote\". Article 29 was again modified and provided an option for the states to \"revise the division of their existing territory or parts of their territory by agreement without regard to the provisions of paragraphs (2) through (7)\". The state treaty between Berlin and Brandenburg was approved in both parliaments with the necessary two-thirds majority, but in the popular referendum of 5 May 1996 about 63% voted against the merger.", "Germany is a federal, parliamentary, representative democratic republic. The German political system operates under a framework laid out in the 1949 constitutional document known as the \"Grundgesetz\" (Basic Law). By calling the document the \"Grundgesetz\", rather than \"Verfassung\" (constitution), the authors expressed the intention that it would be replaced by a true constitution once Germany was reunited as one state. Amendments to the \"Grundgesetz\" generally require a two-thirds majority of both chambers of the parliament; the fundamental principles of the constitution, as expressed in the articles guaranteeing human dignity, the separation of powers, the federal structure, and the rule of law are valid in perpetuity. Despite the original intention, the \"Grundgesetz\" remained in effect after the German reunification in 1990, with only minor amendments.", "The Basic Law of the Federal Republic of Germany, the federal constitution, stipulates that the structure of each Federated State's government must \"conform to the principles of republican, democratic, and social government, based on the rule of law\" (Article 28). Most of the states are governed by a cabinet led by a \"Ministerpräsident\" (minister-president), together with a unicameral legislative body known as the \"Landtag\" (State Diet). The states are parliamentary republics and the relationship between their legislative and executive branches mirrors that of the federal system: the legislatures are popularly elected for four or five years (depending on the state), and the minister-president is then chosen by a majority vote among the \"Landtag\"’s members. The minister-president is typically the head of the biggest party of a coalition. The minister-president appoints a cabinet to run the state's agencies and to carry out the executive duties of the state's government. Like in other parliamentary systems, the legislature can dismiss or replace the minister-president after a successful no-confidence vote. The governments in Berlin, Bremen and Hamburg are the \"senates\". In the three free states of Bavaria, Saxony, and Thuringia, the government is the \"state government\" \"(Staatsregierung)\"; and in the other ten states, the \"Land government\" \"(Landesregierung)\". Before January 1, 2000, Bavaria had a bicameral parliament, with a popularly elected \"Landtag\", and a Senate made up of representatives of the state's major social and economic groups. The Senate was abolished following a referendum in 1998. The states of Berlin, Bremen, and Hamburg are governed slightly differently from the other states. In each of those cities, the executive branch consists of a Senate of approximately eight, selected by the state's parliament; the senators carry out duties equivalent to those of the ministers in the larger states. The equivalent of the minister-president is the \"Senatspräsident\" (president of the senate) in Bremen, the \"Erster Bürgermeister\" (first mayor) in Hamburg, and the \"Regierender Bürgermeister\" (governing mayor) in Berlin. The parliament for Berlin is called the \"Abgeordnetenhaus\" (House of Representatives), while Bremen and Hamburg both have a \"Bürgerschaft\". The parliaments in the remaining 13 states are referred to as \"Landtag\" (State Parliament).", "The city-states of Berlin and Hamburg are subdivided into boroughs. The City of Bremen consists of two urban districts: Bremen and Bremerhaven, which are not contiguous. In the other states there are the following subdivisions:", "The most populous state of North Rhine-Westphalia is uniquely divided into two area associations (\"Landschaftsverbände\"), one for the Rhineland, and one for Westphalia-Lippe. This arrangement was meant to ease the friction caused by uniting the two culturally different regions into a single state after World War II. The \"Landschaftsverbände\" now have very little power. The constitution of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern at §75 states the right of Mecklenburg and Vorpommern to form \"Landschaftsverbände\", although these two constituent parts of the state are not represented in the current administrative division.", "The large states of Baden-Württemberg, Bavaria, Hesse, and North Rhine-Westphalia are divided into governmental districts, or \"Regierungsbezirke\". In Rhineland-Palatinate, these districts were abolished on January 1, 2000, in Saxony-Anhalt on January 1, 2004, and in Lower Saxony on January 1, 2005. From 1990 until 2012, Saxony was divided into three districts (called \"Direktionsbezirke\" since 2008). In 2012, these districts' authorities were merged into one central authority, the \"\".", "The Districts of Germany \"(Kreise)\" are administrative districts, and every state except the city-states of Berlin and Hamburg and the state of Bremen consists of \"rural districts\" \"(Landkreise),\" District-free Towns/Cities (\"Kreisfreie Städte\", in Baden-Württemberg also called \"urban districts\", or \"Stadtkreise\"), cities that are districts in their own right, or local associations of a special kind \"(Kommunalverbände besonderer Art),\" see below. The state Free Hanseatic City of Bremen consists of two urban districts, while Berlin and Hamburg are states and urban districts at the same time. As of 2011, there are 295 \"Landkreise\" and 107 \"Kreisfreie Städte\", making 402 districts altogether. Each consists of an elected council and an executive, which is chosen either by the council or by the people, depending on the state, the duties of which are comparable to those of a county executive in the United States, supervising local government administration. The \"Landkreise\" have primary administrative functions in specific areas, such as highways, hospitals, and public utilities. Local associations of a special kind are an amalgamation of one or more \"Landkreise\" with one or more \"Kreisfreie Städte\" to form a replacement of the aforementioned administrative entities at the district level. They are intended to implement simplification of administration at that level. Typically, a district-free city or town and its urban hinterland are grouped into such an association, or \"Kommunalverband besonderer Art\". Such an organization requires the issuing of special laws by the governing state, since they are not covered by the normal administrative structure of the respective states. In 2010 only three \"Kommunalverbände besonderer Art\" exist.", "Ämter (\"offices\" or \"bureaus\"): In some states there is an administrative unit between the districts and the municipalities, called \"Ämter\" (singular \"Amt\"), \"Amtsgemeinden\", \"Gemeindeverwaltungsverbände\", \"Landgemeinden\", \"Verbandsgemeinden\", \"Verwaltungsgemeinschaften\", or \"Kirchspiellandgemeinden\".", "Municipalities (\"Gemeinden\"): Every rural district and every \"Amt\" is subdivided into municipalities, while every urban district is a municipality in its own right. There are () 12,141 municipalities, which are the smallest administrative units in Germany. Cities and towns are municipalities as well, also having city rights or town rights (\"Stadtrechte\"). Nowadays, this is mostly just the right to be called a city or town. However, in former times there were many other privileges, including the right to impose local taxes or to allow industry only within city limits. The municipalities are ruled by elected councils and by an executive, the mayor, who is chosen either by the council or directly by the people, depending on the state. The \"constitution\" for the municipalities is created by the states and is uniform throughout a state (except for Bremen, which allows Bremerhaven to have its own constitution). The municipalities have two major policy responsibilities. First, they administer programs authorized by the federal or state government. Such programs typically relate to youth, schools, public health, and social assistance. Second, Article 28(2) of the Basic Law guarantees the municipalities \"the right to regulate on their own responsibility all the affairs of the local community within the limits set by law.\" Under this broad statement of competence, local governments can justify a wide range of activities. For instance, many municipalities develop and expand the economic infrastructure of their communities through the development of industrial trading estates. Local authorities foster cultural activities by supporting local artists, building arts centres, and by holding fairs. Local government also provides public utilities, such as gas and electricity, as well as public transportation. The majority of the funding for municipalities is provided by higher levels of government rather than from taxes raised and collected directly by themselves. In five of the German states, there are unincorporated areas, in many cases unpopulated forest and mountain areas, but also four Bavarian lakes that are not part of any municipality. As of January 1, 2005, there were 246 such areas, with a total area of 4167.66 km or 1.2 percent of the total area of Germany. Only four unincorporated areas are populated, with a total population of about 2,000. The following table gives an overview. In 2000, the number of unincorporated areas was 295, with a total area of. However, the unincorporated areas are continually being incorporated into neighboring municipalities, wholly or partially, most frequently in Bavaria." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Organisational history.", "Establishment.", "Organisational growth.", "Early Fabian views.", "Second generation.", "Contemporary Fabianism.", "Influence on Labour government.", "Fabianism outside the United Kingdom.", "Structure.", "Executive committee.", "Secretariat.", "Young Fabians.", "Fabian Women's Network.", "Local Fabians.", "Criticism.", "Funding." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The Fabian Society was founded on 4 January 1884 in London as an offshoot of a society, founded a year earlier called The Fellowship of the New Life, which had been a forebear of the British Ethical and humanist movements. Early Fellowship members included the visionary Victorian elite, among them poets Edward Carpenter and John Davidson, sexologist Havelock Ellis, and early socialist Edward R. Pease. They wanted to transform society by setting an example of clean simplified living for others to follow. Some members also wanted to become politically involved to aid society's transformation; they set up a separate society, the Fabian Society. All members were free to attend both societies. The Fabian Society additionally advocated renewal of Western European Renaissance ideas and their promulgation throughout the world. The Fellowship of the New Life was dissolved in 1899, but the Fabian Society grew to become a leading academic society in the United Kingdom in the Edwardian era. It was typified by the members of its vanguard Coefficients club. Public meetings of the Society were for many years held at Essex Hall, a popular location just off the Strand in central London. The Fabian Society was named—at the suggestion of Frank Podmore—in honour of the Roman general Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus (nicknamed \"Cunctator\", meaning the \"Delayer\"). His Fabian strategy sought gradual victory against the superior Carthaginian army under the renowned general Hannibal through persistence, harassment, and wearing the enemy down by attrition rather than pitched, climactic battles. An explanatory note appearing on the title page of the group's first pamphlet declared:For the right moment you must wait, as Fabius did most patiently, when warring against Hannibal, though many censured his delays; but when the time comes you must strike hard, as Fabius did, or your waiting will be in vain, and fruitless. According to author Jon Perdue, \"The logo of the Fabian Society, a tortoise, represented the group’s predilection for a slow, imperceptible transition to socialism, while its coat of arms, a 'wolf in sheep’s clothing', represented its preferred methodology for achieving its goal.\" The wolf in sheep's clothing symbolism was later abandoned, due to its obvious negative connotations. Its nine founding members were Frank Podmore, Edward R. Pease, William Clarke, Hubert Bland, Percival Chubb, Frederick Keddell, H. H. Champion, Edith Nesbit, and Rosamund Dale Owen. Havelock Ellis is sometimes also mentioned as a tenth founding member, though there is some question about this.", "Immediately upon its inception, the Fabian Society began attracting many prominent contemporary figures drawn to its socialist cause, including George Bernard Shaw, H. G. Wells, Annie Besant, Graham Wallas, Charles Marson, Sydney Olivier, Oliver Lodge, Ramsay MacDonald and Emmeline Pankhurst. Even Bertrand Russell briefly became a member, but resigned after he expressed his belief that the Society's principle of entente (in this case, between countries allying themselves against Germany) could lead to war. At the core of the Fabian Society were Sidney and Beatrice Webb. Together, they wrote numerous studies of industrial Britain, including alternative co-operative economics that applied to ownership of capital as well as land. Many Fabians participated in the formation of the Labour Representation Committee in 1900 and the group's constitution, written by Sidney Webb, borrowed heavily from the founding documents of the Fabian Society. At the meeting that founded the Labour Representation Committee in 1900, the Fabian Society claimed 861 members and sent one delegate. The years 1903 to 1908 saw a growth in popular interest in the socialist idea in Great Britain and the Fabian Society grew accordingly, tripling its membership to nearly 2500 by the end of the period, half of whom were located in London. In 1912, a student section was organised called the University Socialist Federation (USF) and by the outbreak of World War I this contingent counted its own membership of more than 500.", "The first Fabian Society pamphlets advocating tenets of social justice coincided with the zeitgeist of Liberal reforms during the early 1900s, including eugenics. The Fabian proposals however were considerably more progressive than those that were enacted in the Liberal reform legislation. The Fabians lobbied for the introduction of a minimum wage in 1906, for the creation of a universal health care system in 1911 and for the abolition of hereditary peerages in 1917. Fabian socialists were in favour of reforming Britain's imperialist foreign policy as a conduit for internationalist reform, and were in favour of a capitalist welfare state modelled on the Bismarckian German model; they criticised Gladstonian liberalism both for its individualism at home and its internationalism abroad. They favoured a national minimum wage in order to stop British industries compensating for their inefficiency by lowering wages instead of investing in capital equipment; slum clearances and a health service in order for \"the breeding of even a moderately Imperial race\" which would be more productive and better militarily than the \"stunted, anaemic, demoralised denizens... of our great cities\"; and a national education system because \"it is in the classrooms... that the future battles of the Empire for commercial prosperity are already being lost\". In 1900 the Society produced \"Fabianism and the Empire\", the first statement of its views on foreign affairs, drafted by Bernard Shaw and incorporating the suggestions of 150 Fabian members. It was directed against the liberal individualism of those such as John Morley and Sir William Harcourt. It claimed that the classical liberal political economy was outdated, and that imperialism was the new stage of the international polity. The question was whether Britain would be the centre of a world empire or whether it would lose its colonies and end up as just two islands in the North Atlantic. It expressed support for Britain in the Boer War because small nations, such as the Boers, were anachronisms in the age of empires. In order to hold onto the Empire, the British needed to fully exploit the trade opportunities secured by war; maintain the British armed forces in a high state of readiness to defend the Empire; the creation of a citizen army to replace the professional army; the Factory Acts would be amended to extend to 21 the age for half-time employment, so that the thirty hours gained would be used in \"a combination of physical exercises, technical education, education in civil citizenship... and field training in the use of modern weapons\". The Fabians also favoured the nationalisation of land rent, believing that rents collected by landowners in respect of their land's value were unearned, an idea which drew heavily from the work of American economist Henry George.", "In the period between the two World Wars, the \"Second Generation\" Fabians, including the writers R. H. Tawney, G. D. H. Cole and Harold Laski, continued to be a major influence on socialist thought. It was at this time that many of the future leaders of the Third World were exposed to Fabian thought, most notably India's Jawaharlal Nehru, who subsequently framed economic policy for India on Fabian socialism lines. After independence from Britain, Nehru's Fabian ideas committed India to an economy in which the state owned, operated and controlled means of production, in particular key heavy industrial sectors such as steel, telecommunications, transportation, electricity generation, mining and real estate development. Private activity, property rights and entrepreneurship were discouraged or regulated through permits, nationalisation of economic activity and high taxes were encouraged, rationing, control of individual choices and Mahalanobis model considered by Nehru as a means to implement the Fabian Society version of socialism. In addition to Nehru, several pre-independence leaders in colonial India such as Annie Besant—Nehru's mentor and later a president of Indian National Congress – were members of the Fabian Society. Obafemi Awolowo, who later became the premier of Nigeria's now defunct Western Region, was also a Fabian member in the late 1940s. It was the Fabian ideology that Awolowo used to run the Western Region during his premiership with great success, although he was prevented from using it in a similar fashion on the national level in Nigeria. It is less known that the founder of Pakistan, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, was an avid member of the Fabian Society in the early 1930s. Lee Kuan Yew, the first Prime Minister of Singapore, stated in his memoirs that his initial political philosophy was strongly influenced by the Fabian Society. However, he later altered his views, considering the Fabian ideal of socialism as impractical. In 1993, Lee said: In the Middle East, the theories of Fabian Society intellectual movement of early-20th-century Britain inspired the Ba'athist vision. The Middle East adaptation of Fabian socialism led the state to control big industry, transport, banks, internal and external trade. The state would direct the course of economic development, with the ultimate aim to provide a guaranteed minimum standard of living for all. Michel Aflaq, widely considered as the founder of the Ba'athist movement, was a Fabian socialist. Aflaq's ideas, with those of Salah al-Din al-Bitar and Zaki al-Arsuzi, came to fruition in the Arab world in the form of dictatorial regimes in Iraq and Syria. Salāmah Mūsā of Egypt, another prominent champion of Arab Socialism, was a keen adherent of Fabian Society, and a member since 1909. Fabian academics of the late 20th-century included the political scientist Bernard Crick, the economists Thomas Balogh and Nicholas Kaldor and the sociologist Peter Townsend.", "Through the course of the 20th century, the group has always been influential in Labour Party circles, with members including Ramsay MacDonald, Clement Attlee, Anthony Crosland, Roy Jenkins, Hugh Dalton, Richard Crossman, Ian Mikardo, Tony Benn, Harold Wilson and more recently Shirley Williams, Tony Blair, Gordon Brown, Gordon Marsden and Ed Balls. 229 Society members were elected to Parliament in the 1945 General Election. Ben Pimlott served as its chairman in the 1990s. (A Pimlott Prize for Political Writing was organised in his memory by the Fabian Society and \"The Guardian\" in 2005 and continues annually.) The Society is affiliated to the Party as a socialist society. In recent years the Young Fabian group, founded in 1960, has become an important networking and discussion organisation for younger (under 31) Labour Party activists and played a role in the 1994 election of Tony Blair as Labour Leader. Today there is also an active Fabian Women's Network and Scottish and Welsh Fabian groups. On 21 April 2009 the Society's website stated that it had 6,286 members: \"Fabian national membership now stands at a 35 year high: it is over 20% higher than when the Labour Party came to office in May 1997. It is now double what it was when Clement Attlee left office in 1951\". The latest edition of the \"Dictionary of National Biography\" (a reference work listing details of famous or significant Britons throughout history) includes 174 Fabians. Four Fabians, Beatrice and Sidney Webb, Graham Wallas, and George Bernard Shaw, founded the London School of Economics with the money left to the Fabian Society by Henry Hutchinson. Supposedly the decision was made at a breakfast party on 4 August 1894. The founders are depicted in the Fabian Window designed by George Bernard Shaw. The window was stolen in 1978 and reappeared at Sotheby's in 2005. It was restored to display in the Shaw Library at the London School of Economics in 2006 at a ceremony over which Tony Blair presided. As of 2016, the Fabian Society had about 7,000 members. In June 2019 it had 7,136 individual members.", "With the advent of a Labour Party government in 1997, the Fabian Society was a forum for New Labour ideas and for critical approaches from across the party. The most significant Fabian contribution to Labour's policy agenda in government was Ed Balls's 1992 pamphlet, advocating Bank of England independence. Balls had been a \"Financial Times\" journalist when he wrote this Fabian pamphlet, before going to work for Gordon Brown. BBC Business Editor Robert Peston, in his book \"Brown's Britain\", calls this an \"essential tract\" and concludes that Balls \"deserves as much credit – probably more – than anyone else for the creation of the modern Bank of England\"; William Keegan offered a similar analysis of Balls's Fabian pamphlet in his book on Labour's economic policy, which traces in detail the path leading up to this dramatic policy change after Labour's first week in office. The Fabian Society Tax Commission of 2000 was widely credited with influencing the Labour government's policy and political strategy for its one significant public tax increase: the National Insurance rise to raise £8 billion for National Health Service spending. (The Fabian Commission had in fact called for a directly hypothecated \"NHS tax\" to cover the full cost of NHS spending, arguing that linking taxation more directly to spending was essential to make tax rise publicly acceptable. The 2001 National Insurance rise was not formally hypothecated, but the government committed itself to using the additional funds for health spending.) Several other recommendations, including a new top rate of income tax, were to the left of government policy and not accepted, though this comprehensive review of UK taxation was influential in economic policy and political circles, and a new top rate of income tax of 50% was introduced in 2010. In early 2017 Fabian general secretary, Andrew Harrop, produced a report arguing the only feasible route for Labour to return to government would be to work with the Liberal Democrats and Scottish National Party. Based on then-current polling, it predicted Labour would win fewer than 200 seats in the next general election, the lowest since 1935, due to Brexit, lack of support in Scotland, and Labour leader Jeremy Corbyn’s purported unpopularity. This prediction was proven false in the general election later in 2017 in which Labour won 262 seats, but almost true two years later in the 2019 general election, where Labour won 202 seats.", "The major influence on the Labour Party and on the English-speaking socialist movement worldwide, has meant that Fabianism became one of the main inspirations of international social democracy. An American Fabian Society was established in Boston in February 1895 by W. D. P. Bliss, a prominent Christian socialist. The group published a periodical, \"The American Fabian\", and issued a small series of pamphlets. Around the same time a parallel organization emerged on the Pacific coast, centred in California, under the influence of socialist activist Laurence Gronlund. Direct or indirect Fabian influence may also be seen in the liberal socialism of Carlo Rosselli (founder, with his brother Nello, of the anti-fascist group's Giustizia e Libertà) and all its derivatives such as the Action Party in Italy. The Community Movement, created by the socialist entrepreneur Adriano Olivetti, was then the only Italian party which referred explicitly to Fabianism, among his main inspirations along with federalism, social liberalism, fighting partitocracy and social democracy. During 2000 the Sicilian Fabian Society was founded in Messina.", "It is written into the rules of the society that it has no policies. All the publications carry a disclaimer saying that they do not represent the collective views of the society but only the views of the authors. \"No resolution of a political character expressing an opinion or calling for action, other than in relation to the running of the Society itself, shall be put forward in the name of the Society.\"", "The Fabian Society is governed by an elected executive committee. The committee consists of 10 ordinary members elected from a national list, three members nationally elected from a list nominated by local groups, representatives from the Young Fabians, Fabians Women's Network and Scottish and Welsh Fabians. There is also one staff representative and a directly elected honorary treasurer from the membership. Elections are held every other year, with the exception of the Young Fabians and staff representation which are elected annually. The committee meet quarterly and elect a chair and at least one vice-chair annually to conduct its business. The current chair of the Fabian Society is Ivana Bartoletti.", "The Fabian Society have a number of employees based in their headquarters in London. The secretariat is led by a general secretary, who is the organisation's CEO. The staff are arranged into departments including Research, Editorial, Events and Operations.", "Since 1960 members aged under 31 years of age are also members of the Young Fabians. This group has its own elected Chair, executive committee and sub-groups. The Young Fabians are a voluntary organisation that serves as an incubator for member-led activities such as policy and social events, pamphlets and delegations. Within the group are five special interest communities called Networks that are run by voluntary steering groups and elect their own Chair and officers. The current Networks are Economy & Finance, Health, International Affairs, Education, Communications (Industry), Environment, Tech, Devolution & Local Government, Law, and Arts & Culture. It also publishes the quarterly magazine \"Anticipations\".", "All female members of the Fabian Society are also members of the Fabian Women's Network. This group has its own elected Chair and Executive Committee which organises conferences and events and works with the wider political movement to secure increased representation for women in politics and public life. It has a flagship mentoring programme that recruits on an annual basis and its president is Seema Malhotra, a Labour Party and Co-operative MP. The Network also publishes the quarterly magazine, \"Fabiana\", runs a range of public speaking events, works closely in partnership with a range of women's campaigning organisations and regularly hosts a fringe at the Labour Party conference.", "There are 45 local Fabian societies across the UK, bringing Fabian debates to communities around the country. Many of these are affiliated to their local constituency Labour party and have their own executive bodies. These local branches are affiliated to the national Fabians and local members have same voting rights as their national counterparts.", "In the early 1900s, Fabian Society members advocated the ideal of a scientifically planned society and supported eugenics by way of sterilisation. In an article published in \"The Guardian\" on 14 February 2008 (following the apology offered by Australian Prime Minister Kevin Rudd to the \"stolen generations\"), Geoffrey Robertson criticised Fabian socialists for providing the intellectual justification for the eugenics policy that led to the stolen generations scandal. Similar claims have been repeated in \"The Spectator\". However, these views on eugenics were not limited to one group of people and were widely shared throughout the political spectrum. Although H. G. Wells was a member of the Fabian Society from 1903 to 1908, he was a critic of its operations, particularly in his 1905 paper \"The Faults of the Fabian\" and parodied the society in his 1910 novel \"The New Machiavelli\". At a speech in the United States the then British MP George Galloway denounced the Fabian Society for its failure to support the uprising of Easter 1916 in Dublin where an Irish Republic had been proclaimed.", "The Fabian Society has been rated as \"broadly transparent\" in its funding by Transparify and has been a given an A grade for funding transparency by Who Funds You?" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Greek Mixolydian.", "Medieval Mixolydian and Hypomixolydian.", "Modern Mixolydian." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The idea of a Mixolydian mode comes from the music theory of ancient Greece. The invention of the ancient Greek Mixolydian mode was attributed to Sappho, the poet and musician. However, what the ancient Greeks thought of as Mixolydian was very different from the modern interpretation of the mode. In Greek theory, the Mixolydian \"tonos\" (the term \"mode\" is a later Latin term) employs a scale (or \"octave species\") corresponding to the Greek Hypolydian mode inverted. In its diatonic genus, this is a scale descending from \"paramese\" to \"hypate hypaton.\" In the diatonic genus, a whole tone (\"paramese\" to \"mese\") followed by two conjunct inverted Lydian tetrachords (each being two whole tones followed by a semitone descending). This diatonic genus of the scale is roughly the equivalent of playing all the white notes of a piano from B to B, which is also known as modern Locrian mode. \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \\relative c' { </score> In the chromatic and enharmonic genera, each tetrachord consists of a minor third plus two semitones, and a major third plus two quarter tones, respectively. \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \\relative c' { </score> \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \\relative c' { </score>", "The term \"Mixolydian\" was originally used to designate one of the traditional \"harmoniai\" of Greek theory. It was appropriated later (along with six other names) by 2nd-century theorist Ptolemy to designate his seven \"tonoi\" or transposition keys. Four centuries later, Boethius interpreted Ptolemy in Latin, still with the meaning of transposition keys, not scales. When chant theory was first being formulated in the 9th century, these seven names plus an eighth, Hypermixolydian (later changed to Hypomixolydian), were again re-appropriated in the anonymous treatise \"Alia Musica\". A commentary on that treatise, called the \"Nova expositio\", first gave it a new sense as one of a set of eight diatonic species of the octave, or scales. The name \"Mixolydian\" came to be applied to one of the eight modes of medieval church music: the seventh mode. This mode does not run from B to B on white notes, as the Greek mode, but was defined in two ways: as the diatonic octave species from G up one octave to the G above, or as a mode whose final was G and whose ambitus runs from the F below the final to the G above, with possible extensions \"by licence\" up to A above and even down to E below, and in which the note D (the tenor of the corresponding seventh psalm tone) had an important melodic function. This medieval theoretical construction led to the modern use of the term for the natural scale from G to G. The seventh mode of western church music is an authentic mode based on and encompassing the natural scale from G to G, with the perfect fifth (the D in a G to G scale) as the dominant, reciting note or \"tenor\". The plagal eighth mode was termed \"Hypomixolydian\" (or \"lower Mixolydian\") and, like the Mixolydian, was defined in two ways: as the diatonic octave species from D to the D an octave higher, divided at the mode final, G (thus D–E–F–G + G–A–B–C–D); or as a mode with a final of G and an ambitus from C below the final to E above it, in which the note C (the tenor of the corresponding eighth psalm tone) had an important melodic function.", "The modern Mixolydian scale is the fifth mode of the major scale (Ionian mode). That is, it can be constructed by starting on the fifth scale degree (the dominant) of the major scale. Because of this, the Mixolydian mode is sometimes called the \"dominant scale\". \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \\relative c\" { </score> This scale has the same series of tones and semitones as the major scale, but with a minor seventh. As a result, the seventh scale degree is a subtonic, rather than a leading-tone. The flattened seventh of the scale is a tritone away from the mediant (major-third degree) of the key. The order of whole tones and semitones in a Mixolydian scale is In the Mixolydian mode, the tonic, subdominant, and subtonic triads are all major, the mediant is diminished, and the remaining triads are minor. The Mixolydian mode is common in non-classical harmony, such as folk, jazz, funk, blues, and rock music. Klezmer musicians refer to the Mixolydian scale as the Adonai malakh mode. In Klezmer, it is usually transposed to C, where the main chords used are C, F, and G7 (sometimes Gm)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Ancient Greek Lydian.", "Medieval Lydian mode.", "Modern Lydian mode.", "Notable compositions in the Lydian mode.", "Classical (Ancient Greek).", "Medieval.", "Romantic.", "Modern.", "Jazz." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The name Lydian refers to the ancient kingdom of Lydia in Anatolia. In Greek music theory, there was a Lydian scale or \"octave species\" extending from \"parhypate hypaton\" to \"trite diezeugmenon\", equivalent in the diatonic genus to the medieval and modern Ionian mode (the major scale). \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \\relative c' { </score> In the chromatic and enharmonic genera, the Lydian scale was equivalent to C D E F G A B C, and C C E F F A B C, respectively, where signifies raising the pitch by approximately a quarter tone. \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \\relative c' { </score> \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \\relative c' { </score>", "In the Middle Ages and Renaissance, this mode was described in two ways. The first way is the diatonic octave species from F up to F an octave above, divided at C to produce two segments: \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \\relative c' { </score> The second is as a mode with a final on F and an ambitus extending to F an octave higher and in which the note C was regarded as having an important melodic function. Many theorists of the period observed that B is used more typically than B in compositions in Lydian mode.", "The Lydian scale can be described as a major scale with the fourth scale degree raised a semitone, making it an augmented fourth above the tonic, e.g., an F-major scale with a B rather than B. This mode's augmented fourth and the Locrian mode's diminished fifth are the only modes to have a tritone above the tonic. \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \\relative c' { </score> In Lydian mode, the tonic, dominant, and supertonic triads are all major. The subdominant is diminished. The triads built on the remaining three scale degrees are minor.", "", "The \"Paean and Prosodion to the God\", familiarly known as the Second Delphic Hymn, composed in 128 BC by Athénaios Athenaíou is predominantly in the Lydian \"tonos\", both diatonic and chromatic, with sections also in Hypolydian.", "The 12th-century \"Hymn to St. Magnus\" from the Orkney Islands, referencing Magnus Erlendsson, Earl of Orkney, is in Gregorian mode or church mode V (F white notes), extending from the E below to the octave above, with B's throughout, in two-part harmony of mostly parallel thirds. The Sanctus, Agnus Dei, and Ite, missa est of Guillaume de Machaut's \"Messe de Nostre Dame\" feature extensive use of F and B, as well as F and B.", "A rare, extended use of the Lydian mode in the Classical repertoire is Simon Sechter's 1822 \"Messe in der lydischen Tonart\" (Mass in the Lydian Mode). A more famous example from around the same time is the third movement of Ludwig van Beethoven's String Quartet No. 15 in A minor, Op. 132 (1825), titled by the composer \"Heiliger Dankgesang eines Genesenen an die Gottheit, in der lydischen Tonart\" (\"Holy Song of Thanksgiving by a Convalescent to the Divinity, in the Lydian Mode\"). The alternating passages in F use the Lydian scale with sharp fourth scale degree exclusively. Charles-Valentin Alkan's \"Allegro barbaro\" (Étude Op. 35, No. 5, published in 1848) is written strictly in F Lydian, with no B's present at all (,). Anton Bruckner employed the sharpened fourth of the Lydian scale in his motet \"Os justi\" (1879) more strictly than Renaissance composers ever did when writing in this mode.", "In the 20th century, composers began once again to exploit modal scales with some frequency. George Enescu, for example, includes Lydian-mode passages in the second and third movements of his 1906 Decet for Winds, Op. 14. An example from the middle of the century is the scherzo movement of Carlos Chávez's Symphony No. 3 (1951–54). The movement opens with a fugue subject, featuring extremely wide leaps, in C Lydian with following entries in F and G Lydian.", "In \"Lydian Chromatic Concept of Tonal Organization\", George Russell developed a theory that became highly influential in the jazz world, inspiring the works of people such as Miles Davis, John Coltrane, Ornette Coleman, and Woody Shaw" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Caste system in India.", "Caste systems in the rest of South Asia.", "Nepal.", "Pakistan.", "Sri Lanka.", "Caste-like stratification outside South Asia.", "Southeast Asia.", "Indonesia.", "Philippines.", "East Asia.", "China and Mongolia.", "Tibet.", "Japan.", "Korea.", "North Korea.", "West Asia.", "Iran.", "Yemen.", "Africa.", "West Africa.", "Central Africa.", "Horn of Africa.", "Europe.", "France and Spain.", "United Kingdom.", "United States." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "The English word \"caste\" derives from the Spanish and Portuguese \"casta\", which, according to the John Minsheu's Spanish dictionary (1569), means \"race, lineage, tribe or breed\". When the Spanish colonized the New World, they used the word to mean a \"clan or lineage\". It was, however, the Portuguese who first employed \"casta\" in the primary modern sense of the English word 'caste' when they applied it to the thousands of endogamous, hereditary Indian social groups they encountered upon their arrival in India in 1498. The use of the spelling \"caste\", with this latter meaning, is first attested in English in 1613.", "Modern India's caste system is based on the colonial superimposition of the Portuguese word “casta” on the four-fold theoretical classification called \"Varna\" and on natural social groupings called \"Jāti\". From 1901 onwards, for the purposes of the Decennial Census, the British classified all Jātis into one or the other of the \"Varna\" categories as described in ancient texts. Herbert Hope Risley, the Census Commissioner, noted that \"The principle suggested as a basis was that of classification by social precedence as recognized by native public opinion at the present day, and manifesting itself in the facts that particular castes are supposed to be the modern representatives of one or other of the castes of the theoretical Indian system.\" \"Varna\", as mentioned in ancient Hindu texts, describes society as divided into four categories: Brahmins (scholars and yajna priests), Kshatriyas (rulers and warriors), Vaishyas (farmers, merchants and artisans) and Shudras (workmen/service providers). The texts do not mention any hierarchy or a separate, untouchable category in \"Varna\" classification. Scholars believe that the \"Varnas\" system was never truly operational in society and there is no evidence of it ever being a reality in Indian history. The practical division of the society had always been in terms of \"Jātis\" (birth groups), which are not based on any specific religious principle, but could vary from ethnic origins to occupations to geographic areas. The \"Jātis\" have been endogamous social groups without any fixed hierarchy but subject to vague notions of rank articulated over time based on lifestyle and social, political or economic status. Many of India's major empires and dynasties like the Mauryas, Shalivahanas, Chalukyas, Kakatiyas among many others, were founded by people who would have been classified as Shudras, under the \"Varnas\" system. It is well established that by the 9th century, kings from all the four Varnas, including Brahmins and Vaishyas, had occupied the highest seat in the monarchical system in Hindu India, contrary to the Varna theory. In many instances, as in Bengal, historically the kings and rulers had been called upon, when required, to mediate on the ranks of \"Jātis\", which might number in thousands all over the subcontinent and vary by region. In practice, the \"jātis\" may or may not fit into the \"Varna\" classes and many prominent \"Jatis\", for example the Jats and Yadavs, straddled two Varnas i.e. Kshatriyas and Vaishyas, and the \"Varna\" status of \"Jātis\" itself was subject to articulation over time. Starting with the British colonial Census of 1901 led by Herbert Hope Risley, all the \"jātis\" were grouped under the theoretical \"varnas\" categories. According to political scientist Lloyd Rudolph, Risley believed that \"varna\", however ancient, could be applied to all the modern castes found in India, and \"[he] meant to identify and place several hundred million Indians within it.\" In an effort to arrange various castes in order of precedence functional grouping was based less on the occupation that prevailed in each case in the present day than on that which was traditional with it, or which gave rise to its differentiation from the rest of the community. \"This action virtually removed Indians from the progress of history and condemned them to an unchanging position and place in time. In one sense, it is rather ironic that the British, who continually accused the Indian people of having a static society, should then impose a construct that denied progress\" The terms \"varna\" (conceptual classification based on occupation) and \"jāti\" (groups) are two distinct concepts: while \"varna\" is a theoretical four-part division, \"jāti\" (community) refers to the thousands of actual endogamous social groups prevalent across the subcontinent. The classical authors scarcely speak of anything other than the \"varnas\", as it provided a convenient shorthand; but a problem arises when colonial Indologists sometimes confuse the two. Thus, starting with the 1901 Census, caste officially became India's essential institution, with an imprimatur from the British administrators, augmenting a discourse that had already dominated Indology. “Despite India's acquisition of formal political independence, it has still not regained the power to know its own past and present apart from that discourse”. Upon independence from Britain, the Indian Constitution listed 1,108 castes across the country as Scheduled Castes in 1950, for positive discrimination. The Untouchable communities are sometimes called \"Scheduled Castes\", \"Dalit\" or \"Harijan\" in contemporary literature. In 2001, Dalits were 16.2% of India's population. Most of the 15 million bonded child workers are from the lowest castes. Independent India has witnessed caste-related violence. In 2005, government recorded approximately 110,000 cases of reported violent acts, including rape and murder, against Dalits. For 2012, the government recorded 651 murders, 3,855 injuries, 1,576 rapes, 490 kidnappings, and 214 cases of arson. The socio-economic limitations of the caste system are reduced due to urbanization and affirmative action. Nevertheless, the caste system still exists in endogamy and patrimony, and thrives in the politics of democracy, where caste provides ready made constituencies to politicians. The globalization and economic opportunities from foreign businesses has influenced the growth of India's middle-class population. Some members of the Chhattisgarh Potter Caste Community (CPCC) are middle-class urban professionals and no longer potters unlike the remaining majority of traditional rural potter members. There is persistence of caste in Indian politics. Caste associations have evolved into caste-based political parties. Political parties and the state perceive caste as an important factor for mobilization of people and policy development. Studies by Bhatt and Beteille have shown changes in status, openness, mobility in the social aspects of Indian society. As a result of modern socio-economic changes in the country, India is experiencing significant changes in the dynamics And the economics of its social sphere. While arranged marriages are still the most common practice in India, the internet has provided a network for younger Indians to take control of their relationships through the use of dating apps. This remains isolated to informal terms, as marriage is not often achieved through the use of these apps. Hypergamy is still a common practice in India and Hindu culture. Men are expected to marry within their caste, or one below, with no social repercussions. If a woman marries into a higher caste, then her children will take the status of their father. If she marries down, her family is reduced to the social status of their son in law. In this case, the women are bearers of the egalitarian principle of the marriage. There would be no benefit in marrying a higher caste if the terms of the marriage did not imply equality. However, men are systematically shielded from the negative implications of the agreement. Geographical factors also determine adherence to the caste system. Many Northern villages are more likely to participate in exogamous marriage, due to a lack of eligible suitors within the same caste. Women in North India have been found to be less likely to leave or divorce their husbands since they are of a relatively lower caste system, and have higher restrictions on their freedoms. On the other hand, Pahari women, of the northern mountains, have much more freedom to leave their husbands without stigma. This often leads to better husbandry as his actions are not protected by social expectations. Chiefly among the factors influencing the rise of exogamy is the rapid urbanisation in India experienced over the last century. It is well known that urban centers tend to be less reliant on agriculture and are more progressive as a whole. As India’s cities boomed in population, the job market grew to keep pace. Prosperity and stability were now more easily attained by an individual, and the anxiety to marry quickly and effectively was reduced. Thus, younger, more progressive generations of urban Indians are less likely than ever to participate in the antiquated system of arranged endogamy. India has also implemented a form of Affirmative Action, locally known as “reservation groups”. Quota system jobs, as well as placements in publicly funded colleges, hold spots for the 8% of India’s minority, and underprivileged groups. As a result, in states such as Tamil Nadu or those in the north-east, where underprivileged populations predominate, over 80% of government jobs are set aside in quotas. In education, colleges lower the marks necessary for the Dalits to enter.", "", "The Nepalese caste system resembles in some respects the Indian \"jāti\" system, with numerous \"jāti\" divisions with a \"varna\" system superimposed. Inscriptions attest the beginnings of a caste system during the Licchavi period. Jayasthiti Malla (1382–1395) categorized Newars into 64 castes (Gellner 2001). A similar exercise was made during the reign of Mahindra Malla (1506–1575). The Hindu social code was later set up in Gorkha by Ram Shah (1603–1636).", "McKim Marriott claims a social stratification that is hierarchical, closed, endogamous and hereditary is widely prevalent, particularly in western parts of Pakistan. Frederik Barth in his review of this system of social stratification in Pakistan suggested that these are castes.", "The caste system in Sri Lanka is a division of society into strata, influenced by the textbook \"varnas\" and \"jāti\" system found in India. Ancient Sri Lankan texts such as the Pujavaliya, Sadharmaratnavaliya and Yogaratnakaraya and inscriptional evidence show that the above hierarchy prevailed throughout the feudal period. The repetition of the same caste hierarchy even as recently as the 18th century, in the British/Kandyan period Kadayimpoth – Boundary books as well indicates the continuation of the tradition right up to the end of Sri Lanka's monarchy.", "", "", "Balinese caste structure has been described as being based either on three categories--the noble triwangsa (thrice born), the middle class of \"dwijāti\" (twice born), and the lower class of \"ekajāti\" (once born)--or on four castes The Brahmana caste was further subdivided by these Dutch ethnographers into two: Siwa and Buda. The Siwa caste was subdivided into five: Kemenuh, Keniten, Mas, Manuba and Petapan. This classification was to accommodate the observed marriage between higher-caste Brahmana men with lower-caste women. The other castes were similarly further sub-classified by these 19th-century and early-20th-century ethnographers based on numerous criteria ranging from profession, endogamy or exogamy or polygamy, and a host of other factors in a manner similar to \"castas\" in Spanish colonies such as Mexico, and caste system studies in British colonies such as India.", "In the Philippines, pre-colonial societies do not have a single social structure. The class structures can be roughly categorized into four types:", "", "During the period of Yuan Dynasty, ruler Kublai Khan enforced a \"Four Class System\", which was a legal caste system. The order of four classes of people was maintained by the information of the descending order were: Today, the Hukou system is considered by various sources as the current caste system of China.", "There is significant controversy over the social classes of Tibet, especially with regards to the serfdom in Tibet controversy.", "In Japan's history, social strata based on inherited position rather than personal merit, were rigid and highly formalized in a system called \"mibunsei\" (身分制). At the top were the Emperor and Court nobles (kuge), together with the Shōgun and daimyō. Below them, the population was divided into four classes: samurai, peasants, craftsmen and merchants. Only samurai were allowed to bear arms. A samurai had a right to kill any peasants, craftsman or merchant who he felt were disrespectful. Merchants were the lowest caste because they did not produce any products. The castes were further sub-divided; for example, peasants were labelled as \"furiuri\", \"tanagari\", \"mizunomi-byakusho\" among others. As in Europe, the castes and sub-classes were of the same race, religion and culture. Howell, in his review of Japanese society notes that if a Western power had colonized Japan in the 19th century, they would have discovered and imposed a rigid four-caste hierarchy in Japan. De Vos and Wagatsuma observe that Japanese society had a systematic and extensive caste system. They discuss how alleged caste impurity and alleged racial inferiority, concepts often assumed to be different, are superficial terms, and are due to identical inner psychological processes, which expressed themselves in Japan and elsewhere. Endogamy was common because marriage across caste lines was socially unacceptable. Japan had its own untouchable caste, shunned and ostracized, historically referred to by the insulting term \"Eta\", now called \"Burakumin\". While modern law has officially abolished the class hierarchy, there are reports of discrimination against the Buraku or Burakumin underclasses. The Burakumin are regarded as \"ostracised\". The burakumin are one of the main minority groups in Japan, along with the Ainu of Hokkaidō and those of residents of Korean and Chinese descent.", "The baekjeong (백정) were an \"untouchable\" outcaste of Korea. The meaning today is that of butcher. It originates in the Khitan invasion of Korea in the 11th century. The defeated Khitans who surrendered were settled in isolated communities throughout Goryeo to forestall rebellion. They were valued for their skills in hunting, herding, butchering, and making of leather, common skill sets among nomads. Over time, their ethnic origin was forgotten, and they formed the bottom layer of Korean society. In 1392, with the foundation of the Confucian Joseon dynasty, Korea systemised its own native class system. At the top were the two official classes, the Yangban, which literally means \"two classes\". It was composed of scholars (\"munban\") and warriors (\"muban\"). Scholars had a significant social advantage over the warriors. Below were the \"jung-in\" (중인-中人: literally \"middle people\". This was a small class of specialized professions such as medicine, accounting, translators, regional bureaucrats, etc. Below that were the \"sangmin\" (상민-常民: literally 'commoner'), farmers working their own fields. Korea also had a serf population known as the \"nobi\". The nobi population could fluctuate up to about one third of the population, but on average the nobi made up about 10% of the total population. In 1801, the vast majority of government nobi were emancipated, and by 1858 the nobi population stood at about 1.5% of the total population of Korea. The hereditary nobi system was officially abolished around 1886–87 and the rest of the nobi system was abolished with the Gabo Reform of 1894, but traces remained until 1930. The opening of Korea to foreign Christian missionary activity in the late 19th century saw some improvement in the status of the \"baekjeong\". However, everyone was not equal under the Christian congregation, and even so protests erupted when missionaries tried to integrate \"baekjeong\" into worship, with non-\"baekjeong\" finding this attempt insensitive to traditional notions of hierarchical advantage. Around the same time, the \"baekjeong\" began to resist open social discrimination. They focused on social and economic injustices affecting them, hoping to create an egalitarian Korean society. Their efforts included attacking social discrimination by upper class, authorities, and \"commoners\", and the use of degrading language against children in public schools. With the Gabo reform of 1896, the class system of Korea was officially abolished. Following the collapse of the Gabo government, the new cabinet, which became the Gwangmu government after the establishment of the Korean Empire, introduced systematic measures for abolishing the traditional class system. One measure was the new household registration system, reflecting the goals of formal social equality, which was implemented by the loyalists' cabinet. Whereas the old registration system signified household members according to their hierarchical social status, the new system called for an occupation. While most Koreans by then had surnames and even bongwan, although still substantial number of cheonmin, mostly consisted of serfs and slaves, and untouchables did not. According to the new system, they were then required to fill in the blanks for surname in order to be registered as constituting separate households. Instead of creating their own family name, some cheonmins appropriated their masters' surname, while others simply took the most common surname and its bongwan in the local area. Along with this example, activists within and outside the Korean government had based their visions of a new relationship between the government and people through the concept of citizenship, employing the term \"inmin\" (\"people\") and later, \"kungmin\" (\"citizen\").", "The Committee for Human Rights in North Korea reported that \"Every North Korean citizen is assigned a heredity-based class and socio-political rank over which the individual exercises no control but which determines all aspects of his or her life.\" Called \"Songbun\", Barbara Demick describes this \"class structure\" as an updating of the hereditary \"caste system\", a combination of Confucianism and Stalinism. She claims that a bad family background is called \"tainted blood\", and that by law this \"tainted blood\" lasts three generations.", "Yezidi society is hierarchical. The secular leader is a hereditary emir or prince, whereas a chief sheikh heads the religious hierarchy. The Yazidi are strictly endogamous; members of the three Yazidi castes, the murids, sheikhs and pirs, marry only within their group.", "Pre-Islamic Sassanid society was immensely complex, with separate systems of social organization governing numerous different groups within the empire. Historians believe society comprised four social classes:", "In Yemen there exists a hereditary caste, the African-descended Al-Akhdam who are kept as perennial manual workers. Estimates put their number at over 3.5 million residents who are discriminated, out of a total Yemeni population of around 22 million.", "Various sociologists have reported caste systems in Africa. The specifics of the caste systems have varied in ethnically and culturally diverse Africa, however the following features are common – it has been a closed system of social stratification, the social status is inherited, the castes are hierarchical, certain castes are shunned while others are merely endogamous and exclusionary. In some cases, concepts of purity and impurity by birth have been prevalent in Africa. In other cases, such as the \"Nupe\" of Nigeria, the \"Beni Amer\" of East Africa, and the \"Tira\" of Sudan, the exclusionary principle has been driven by evolving social factors.", "Among the Igbo of Nigeria – especially Enugu, Anambra, Imo, Abia, Ebonyi, Edo and Delta states of the country – Obinna finds Osu caste system has been and continues to be a major social issue. The Osu caste is determined by one's birth into a particular family irrespective of the religion practised by the individual. Once born into Osu caste, this Nigerian person is an outcast, shunned and ostracized, with limited opportunities or acceptance, regardless of his or her ability or merit. Obinna discusses how this caste system-related identity and power is deployed within government, Church and indigenous communities. The \"osu\" class systems of eastern Nigeria and southern Cameroon are derived from indigenous religious beliefs and discriminate against the \"Osus\" people as \"owned by deities\" and outcasts. The Songhai economy was based on a caste system. The most common were metalworkers, fishermen, and carpenters. Lower caste participants consisted of mostly non-farm working immigrants, who at times were provided special privileges and held high positions in society. At the top were noblemen and direct descendants of the original Songhai people, followed by freemen and traders. In a review of social stratification systems in Africa, Richter reports that the term caste has been used by French and American scholars to many groups of West African artisans. These groups have been described as inferior, deprived of all political power, have a specific occupation, are hereditary and sometimes despised by others. Richter illustrates caste system in Ivory Coast, with six sub-caste categories. Unlike other parts of the world, mobility is sometimes possible within sub-castes, but not across caste lines. Farmers and artisans have been, claims Richter, distinct castes. Certain sub-castes are shunned more than others. For example, exogamy is rare for women born into families of woodcarvers. Similarly, the Mandé societies in Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Senegal and Sierra Leone have social stratification systems that divide society by ethnic ties. The Mande class system regards the \"jonow\" slaves as inferior. Similarly, the Wolof in Senegal is divided into three main groups, the \"geer\" (freeborn/nobles), \"jaam\" (slaves and slave descendants) and the underclass \"neeno\". In various parts of West Africa, Fulani societies also have class divisions. Other castes include \"Griots\", \"Forgerons\", and \"Cordonniers\". Tamari has described endogamous castes of over fifteen West African peoples, including the Tukulor, Songhay, Dogon, Senufo, Minianka, Moors, Manding, Soninke, Wolof, Serer, Fulani, and Tuareg. Castes appeared among the \"Malinke\" people no later than 14th century, and was present among the \"Wolof\" and \"Soninke\", as well as some \"Songhay\" and \"Fulani\" populations, no later than 16th century. Tamari claims that wars, such as the \"Sosso-Malinke\" war described in the \"Sunjata\" epic, led to the formation of blacksmith and bard castes among the people that ultimately became the Mali empire. As West Africa evolved over time, sub-castes emerged that acquired secondary specializations or changed occupations. Endogamy was prevalent within a caste or among a limited number of castes, yet castes did not form demographic isolates according to Tamari. Social status according to caste was inherited by off-springs automatically; but this inheritance was paternal. That is, children of higher caste men and lower caste or slave concubines would have the caste status of the father.", "Ethel M. Albert in 1960 claimed that the societies in Central Africa were caste-like social stratification systems. Similarly, in 1961, Maquet notes that the society in Rwanda and Burundi can be best described as castes. The Tutsi, noted Maquet, considered themselves as superior, with the more numerous Hutu and the least numerous Twa regarded, by birth, as respectively, second and third in the hierarchy of Rwandese society. These groups were largely endogamous, exclusionary and with limited mobility.", "In a review published in 1977, Todd reports that numerous scholars report a system of social stratification in different parts of Africa that resembles some or all aspects of caste system. Examples of such caste systems, he claims, are to be found in Ethiopia in communities such as the Gurage and Konso. He then presents the Dime of Southwestern Ethiopia, amongst whom there operates a system which Todd claims can be unequivocally labelled as caste system. The Dime have seven castes whose size varies considerably. Each broad caste level is a hierarchical order that is based on notions of purity, non-purity and impurity. It uses the concepts of defilement to limit contacts between caste categories and to preserve the purity of the upper castes. These caste categories have been exclusionary, endogamous and the social identity inherited. Alula Pankhurst has published a study of caste groups in SW Ethiopia. Among the Kafa, there were also traditionally groups labeled as castes. \"Based on research done before the Derg regime, these studies generally presume the existence of a social hierarchy similar to the caste system. At the top of this hierarchy were the Kafa, followed by occupational groups including blacksmiths (Qemmo), weavers (Shammano), bards (Shatto), potters, and tanners (Manno). In this hierarchy, the Manjo were commonly referred to as hunters, given the lowest status equal only to slaves.\" The Borana Oromo of southern Ethiopia in the Horn of Africa also have a class system, wherein the Wata, an acculturated hunter-gatherer group, represent the lowest class. Though the Wata today speak the Oromo language, they have traditions of having previously spoken another language before adopting Oromo. The traditionally nomadic Somali people are divided into clans, wherein the Rahanweyn agro-pastoral clans and the occupational clans such as the Madhiban were traditionally sometimes treated as outcasts. As Gabboye, the Madhiban along with the Yibir and Tumaal (collectively referred to as \"sab\") have since obtained political representation within Somalia, and their general social status has improved with the expansion of urban centers.", "", "For centuries, through the modern times, the majority regarded Cagots who lived primarily in the Basque region of France and Spain as an inferior caste, the untouchables. While they had the same skin color and religion as the majority, in the churches they had to use segregated doors, drink from segregated fonts, and receive communion on the end of long wooden spoons. It was a closed social system. The socially isolated Cagots were endogamous, and chances of social mobility non-existent.", "In July 2013, the UK government announced its intention to amend the Equality Act 2010, to \"introduce legislation on caste, including any necessary exceptions to the caste provisions, within the framework of domestic discrimination law\". Section 9(5) of the Equality Act 2010 provides that \"a Minister may by order amend the statutory definition of race to include caste and may provide for exceptions in the Act to apply or not to apply to caste\". From September 2013 to February 2014, Meena Dhanda led a project on \"Caste in Britain\" for the UK Equality and Human Rights Commission (EHRC).", "In W. Lloyd Warner's view, the historic relationship between Blacks and Whites in the US showed many caste-like features such as residential segregation and marriage restrictions. Discrimination based upon socio-economic factors are historically prevalent within the country. According to Gerald D. Berreman, in the two systems, there are rigid rules of avoidance and certain types of contacts are defined as contaminating. In India, there are complex religious features which make up the system, whereas in the United States race and color are the basis for differentiation. The caste systems in India and the United States have higher groups which desire to retain their positions for themselves and thus perpetuate the two systems. The process of creating a homogenized society by social engineering in both India and the US has created other institutions that have made class distinctions among different groups evident. Anthropologist James C. Scott elaborates on how “global capitalism is perhaps the most powerful force for homogenization, whereas the state may be the defender of local difference and variety in some instances.” The caste system further emphasizes differences between the socio-economic classes that arise as a product of capitalism, which makes social mobility more difficult. Parts of the United States are sometimes divided by race and class status despite the national narrative of integration. As a result of increased immigration, many Indian Americans have brought their traditional caste values to the United States. A survey commissioned by Equality Labs finds that caste discrimination is also playing out in the United States. 2/3 of the members of the lowest caste, called Dalits, said that they have faced workplace discrimination due to their caste. 41% of the Dalits who were surveyed said that they have experienced discrimination in education because the caste system is now being practiced in the United States." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Plans and budget.", "Outline.", "Funding.", "General characteristics.", "Propulsion.", "Armament.", "Armor.", "Construction.", "Assembly and commissioning.", "History.", "World War I.", "Outbreak of war.", "1914–1915.", "Bombardment of Ancona.", "1916–1917.", "1918.", "Otranto Raid.", "End of the war.", "Post-war.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Before the construction of \"Prinz Eugen\" and the other three ships of the \"Tegetthoff\" class, most of Austria-Hungary's previous battleships had been designed for the defense of the Empire's coastline. During the 19th-century, sea power had not been a priority in Austrian foreign policy. As a result, the relatively small Austro-Hungarian Navy had little public interest or support. However, the appointment of Archduke Franz Ferdinand – heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne and a prominent and influential supporter of naval expansion – to the position of admiral in September 1902 greatly increased the importance of the navy in the eyes of both the general public and the Austrian and Hungarian Parliaments. Franz Ferdinand's interest in naval affairs were largely motivated from his belief that a strong navy would be necessary to compete with Italy, which he viewed as Austria-Hungary's greatest regional threat. In 1904, the Austro-Hungarian Navy began an expansion program intended to equal that of the other Great Powers of Europe. This naval expansion program coincided with the establishment of the Austrian Naval League in September 1904 and the appointment of Vice-Admiral Rudolf Montecuccoli to the posts of Commander-in-Chief of the Navy (German: \"Marinekommandant\") and Chief of the Naval Section of the War Ministry (German: \"Chef der Marinesektion\") in October that same year. After Montecuccoli's appointment, the Admiral worked to pursued the efforts championed by his predecessor, Admiral Hermann von Spaun, and pushed for a greatly expanded and modernized navy. The origins of \"Prinz Eugen\" and the \"Tegetthoff\"-class ships can also be found in developments in the first decade of the 20th century which greatly increased the importance of sea power in Austro-Hungarian naval policy. Between 1906 and 1907, railroads linking Trieste and the Dalmatian coastline to the interior of the Empire had been constructed through Austria's Alpine passes. Additionally, lower tariffs on the port of Trieste allowed for a rapid expansion of the city and a similar growth in Austria-Hungary's merchant marine. As Austria-Hungary became more connected to naval affairs than in past decades, a new line of battleships would be necessary to match the Empire's growing naval interests. \"Prinz Eugen\" and her sister ships were first envisioned in the middle of a heated naval arms race between Austria-Hungary and its nominal ally, Italy. Since the Battle of Lissa in 1866, Italy's Regia Marina was considered the most-important naval power in the region which Austria-Hungary measured itself against, often unfavorably. The disparity between the Austro-Hungarian and Italian navies had existed since the unification of Italy; in the late 1880s Italy had the third-largest fleet in the world, behind the French Republic's Navy and the British Royal Navy. While the disparity between Italian and Austro-Hungarian naval strength had been somewhat equalized with the Russian Imperial Navy and the German Kaiserliche Marine surpassing the Italian Navy in 1893 and in 1894, Italy had once again regained the initiative by the turn of the century. In 1903, the year before Montecuccoli's appointment, Italy had 18 battleships in commission or under construction compared to 6 Austro-Hungarian battleships. Following the construction of the final two s in 1903, the Italian Navy elected to construct a series of large cruisers rather than additional battleships. Furthermore, a major scandal involving the Terni steel works' armor contracts led to a government investigation that postponed several naval construction programs for three years. These delays meant that the Italian Navy would not initiate construction on another battleship until 1909, and provided the Austro-Hungarian Navy an attempt to even the disparity between the two fleets. The construction of \"Prinz Eugen\" and the \"Tegetthoff\" class as a whole can thus be viewed in the context of the naval rivalry between Austria-Hungary and Italy, with the ship playing a role in a larger attempt by Austria-Hungary to compete with Italy's naval power.", "Montecuccoli's memorandum would eventually be leaked to Italian newspapers just three months after obtaining approval from Emperor Franz Joseph I. The Italian reaction to the Austro-Hungarian plans was swift, and in June 1909, the Italian dreadnought battleship was laid down at the naval shipyard in Castellammare di Stabia. While \"Dante Alighieri\" was being worked on in Italy, Austria-Hungary's own plans for \"Prinz Eugen\" and the other ships of her class remained on paper. Funding necessary to begin construction was not to be had either, due to the collapse of Sándor Wekerle's government in Budapest. This left the Hungarian Diet without a prime minister for nearly a year. With no government in Budapest to pass a budget, the money necessary to pay for the ships could not be obtained. As a result, the largest shipbuilding enterprises in Austria-Hungary, the Witkowitz Ironworks and the Škoda Works, offered to begin construction on the first three ships of the \"Tegetthoff\" class, \"Viribus Unitis\", \"Tegetthoff\", and \"Prinz Eugen\" at their own financial risk, in return for assurances that the Austro-Hungarian government would purchase the battleships as soon as funds were available. After negotiations which involved the Austro-Hungarian joint ministries of foreign affairs, war and finance, the offer was agreed to by Montecuccoli, but the number of dreadnoughts constructed under this arrangement was reduced to just \"Tegetthoff\" and \"Viribus Unitis\". In his memoirs, former Austrian Field Marshal and Chief of the General Staff Conrad von Hötzendorf wrote that due to his belief that a war with Italy in the near future was likely, construction on the battleships should begin as soon as possible. He also worked to secure agreements to sell both \"Tegetthoff\" and \"Viribus Unitis\" to, in his words, a \"reliable ally\" (which only Germany could claim to be) should the budget crisis in Budapest fail to be settled quickly.", "Although smaller than the contemporary dreadnought and super-dreadnought battleships of the German Kaiserliche Marine and the British Royal Navy, \"Prinz Eugen\" was part of the first class of its type in the Mediterranean and Adriatic Seas. \"Prinz Eugen\" and her sister ships were described by former Austro-Hungarian naval officer Anthony Sokol in his book \"The Imperial and Royal Austro-Hungarian Navy\" as \"excellent", "The cost to construct \"Prinz Eugen\" was enormous by the standards of the Austro-Hungarian Navy. While the,, and the \"Radetzky\"-class battleships cost the navy roughly 18, 26, and 40 million krone per ship, \"Prinz Eugen\" was projected to cost over 60 million krone. Under the previous budgets for 1907 and 1908, the navy had been allocated some 63.4 and 73.4 million krone, which at the time was considered an inflated budget due to the construction of two \"Radetzky\"s. Montecuccoli worried that the general public and the legislatures in Vienna and Budapest would reject the need for a ship as expensive as \"Prinz Eugen\", especially so soon after the political crisis in Budapest. The dramatic increase in spending meant that in 1909 the navy spent some 100.4 million krone, a huge sum at the time. This was", "Designed by naval architect Siegfried Popper, \"Prinz Eugen\" had an overall length of, with a beam of and a draught of at deep load. She was designed to displace at load, but at full combat load she displaced. \"Prinz Eugen\"s hull was built with a double bottom, deep, with a reinforced inner bottom that consisted of two layers of plates. The hull design was intended by Popper to protect the battleship from naval mines, though it ultimately failed \"Prinz Eugen\"s sister ships, \"Szent István\" and \"Viribus Unitis\", when the former was sunk by a torpedo in June 1918 and the later by a mine in November of that same year. \"Prinz Eugen\" also featured two Barr and Stroud optical rangefinder posts on both the starboard and port sides for the secondary guns of the battleship. These rangefinders were equipped with an armored cupola, which housed an Schwarzlose M.07/12 anti-aircraft machine gun. \"Prinz Eugen\" was equipped with torpedo nets, though they were removed in June 1917.", "\"Prinz Eugen\" possessed four shafts and four Parsons steam turbines, which were housed in a separate engine-room and powered by twelve Babcock & Wilcox boilers. They were designed to produce a total of, which was theoretically enough to attain a maximum designed speed of. It was reported during her", "Constructed at the Škoda Works in Plzeň, Bohemia, \"Prinz Eugen\"s main battery consisted of twelve 45-calibre Škoda K10 guns mounted in four triple turrets. Two turrets each were mounted forward and aft of the ship's main superstructure in a superfiring pair. The implementation of triple turrets aboard \"Prinz Eugen\" came about for two reasons: the need to ensure the ship had a more-compact design and smaller displacement to conform to Austro-Hungarian naval doctrine and budget constraints, and to counter the implementation of triple turrets on the Italian \"Dante Alighieri\". Having three guns on each turret rather than two made it possible", "\"Prinz Eugen\" was protected at the waterline with an armor belt which measured thick in the central citadel, where the most-important parts of the ship were located. This armor belt was located between the midpoints of the fore and aft barbettes, and thinned to further towards the bow and stern, but did not reach either. It was continued to the bow by a small patch of armor. The upper armor belt had a maximum thickness of, but it thinned to from the forward barbette all the way", "Montecuccoli's plans for the construction of \"Prinz Eugen\" and her sister ships earned the approval of Emperor Franz Joseph I in January 1909, and by April plans for the design and construction of the ship was laid out. Roughly a year after \"Prinz Eugen\"s plans were drafted, \"Arbeiter-Zeitung\", the Austrian Social Democratic Party newspaper, reported the details of the battleship to the general public. The Christian Social Party, supportive of the construction of \"Prinz Eugen\" and her sister ships, and operating on the advice of the navy, published in its own newspaper, \"Reichspost\", that the secret project to construct the ships and the related financial agreements to fund the first two were true. The \"Reichpost\" lobbied in support of the project, citing Austria-Hungary's national security concerns with an Italian dreadnought already under construction. When the story broke, Archduke Ferdinand also worked to build public support for the construction \"Prinz Eugen\" and her sister ships, as did the Austrian Naval League.", "\"Prinz Eugen\", the third ship of her class, was laid down in Trieste by Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino on 16 January 1912. The budget agreement which funded \"Prinz Eugen\" stipulated that while the armor and guns of the battleship were to be constructed within Austria, the electrical wiring and equipment aboard the battleship was to be assembled in Hungary. Additionally, half of all ammunition and shells for the guns of the ship would be purchased in Austria, while the other half was to be bought in Hungary. Despite two strikes by machinists in August 1912 and March 1913 which delayed construction of \"Prinz Eugen\"s engines, the battleship was built at a very fast pace. Following just 11 months of construction, she was launched on 30 November 1912 in Trieste. Originally referred to as \"Battleship VI\", discussion began over what to name the battleship while it was under construction in Trieste. While several proposals", "", "", "Events unfolded rapidly in the ensuing days. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia on July 28, one month after Franz Ferdinand's assassination. On 30 July 1914 Russia declared full mobilization in response to Austria-Hungary's declaration of war on Serbia. Austria-Hungary declared full mobilization the next day. On 1 August both Germany and France ordered full mobilization and Germany declared war on Russia in support of Austria-Hungary. While relations between Austria-Hungary and Italy had improved greatly in the two years following the 1912 renewal of the Triple Alliance, increased Austro-Hungarian naval spending, political disputes over influence in Albania, and Italian concerns over the potential annexation of land in the Montenegro caused the relationship between the two allies to falter in the months leading up to the war. Italy's declaration of neutrality in the war on 1 August dashed Austro-Hungarian hopes to use \"Prinz Eugen\" in major combat operations in the Mediterranean, as the navy had been relying upon coal stored in Italian ports to operate in conjunction with the Regia Marina. By 4 August, Germany was executing the Schlieffen Plan and had already occupied", "Following France and Britain's declarations of war on Austria-Hungary on 11 and 12 August respectively, the French Admiral Augustin Boué de Lapeyrère was issued orders to close off Austro-Hungarian shipping at the entrance to the Adriatic Sea and to engage any Austro-Hungarian ships his Anglo-French fleet came across. Lapeyrère chose to attack the Austro-Hungarian ships blockading Montenegro. The ensuing Battle of Antivari ended Austria-Hungary's blockade, and effectively placed the entrance of the Adriatic Sea firmly in the hands of Britain and France. After the breakout of \"Goeben\" and \"Breslau\", \"Prinz Eugen\" saw very little action, spending much of", "After failed negotiations with Germany and Austria-Hungary over Italy joining the war as a member of the Central Powers, the Italians negotiated with the Triple Entente for Italy's eventual entry into the war on their side in the Treaty of London, signed on 26 April 1915. On 4 May Italy formally renounced her alliance to Germany and Austria-Hungary, giving the Austro-Hungarians advanced warning that Italy was preparing to go to war against them. Haus made preparations for \"Prinz Eugen\" and her sister ships to sortie out into the Adriatic in a massive strike against the Italians the moment war was declared. On 23 May 1915, between two and four hours after the Italian declaration of war reached the main Austro-Hungarian naval base at Pola, the Austro-Hungarian fleet, including \"Prinz Eugen\", departed to bombard the Italian coast. While several ships bombarded secondary targets and others were deployed to the south to screen for Italian ships that could be steaming north from Taranto, the core of the Austro-Hungarian Navy, spearheaded by", "Largely unable to engage in major offensive combat operations after the Bombardment of Ancona due to the Otranto Barrage, \"Prinz Eugen\" mostly relegated to defending Austria-Hungary's coastline and of island seaboard for the next three years. The lack of combat engagements, or even instances where \"Prinz Eugen\" left port, is exemplified by the career of her sister ship, \"Szent István\". The ship was unable to join her sisters in the Bombardment of Ancona and rarely left the safety of the port except for gunnery practice in the nearby Fažana Strait. She only spent 54 days at sea during her 937 days in service and made only a single two-day trip to Pag Island. In total, only 5.7% of her life was spent at sea; and for the rest of the time she swung at anchor in Pola Harbour. Despite Haus' death from pneumonia on 8 February 1917, his strategy of keeping the Austro-Hungarian Navy, and particularly dreadnoughts like \"Prinz Eugen\", in port continued. By keeping \"Prinz Eugen\" and her sister ships as a fleet in being, the Austro-Hungarian Navy would be able to continue to defend its lengthy coastline from naval bombardment", "Following the Cattaro Mutiny in February 1918, Admiral Njegovan was fired as Commander-in-Chief of the Navy. Miklós Horthy de Nagybánya, commander of \"Prinz Eugen\", was promoted to rear admiral and named Commander-in-Chief of the Fleet. Horthy used his appointment to take the Austro-Hungarian fleet out of port for maneuvers and gunnery practice on a regular basis. The size of these operations were the largest \"Prinz Eugen\" had seen since the", "Horthy was determined to use the fleet to attack the Otranto Barrage. Planning to repeat his successful raid on the blockade in May 1917, Horthy envisioned a massive attack on the Allied forces with \"Prinz Eugen\" and her three sister ships providing the largest component of the assault. They would be accompanied by the three ships of the \"Erzherzog Karl\"-class pre-dreadnoughts, the three s, the cruiser \"Admiral Spaun\", four s, and four torpedo boats. Submarines and aircraft would also be employed in the", "On 17 July 1918, Pola was struck by the largest air raid the city would see during the war. 66 Allied planes dropped over 200 bombs, though \"Prinz Eugen\" was unharmed in the attack. By October 1918 it had become clear that Austria-Hungary was facing defeat in the war. With various attempts to quell nationalist sentiments failing, Emperor Karl I decided to sever Austria-Hungary's alliance with Germany and appeal to the Allied Powers in an attempt to preserve the empire from complete collapse. On 26 October Austria-Hungary informed Germany that their alliance was over. In Pola the Austro-Hungarian Navy was in the process of tearing itself apart along ethnic and nationalist lines. Horthy was informed on the morning of 28 October that an armistice was imminent, and used this news to maintain order and prevent a mutiny among the fleet. While a mutiny was spared, tensions remained high and morale was at an all-time low. The situation was so stressful that \"Prinz Eugen\"s captain, Alexander Milosevic, committed suicide in his quarters aboard the battleship. On 29 October the National Council in Zagreb announced Croatia's dynastic ties to Hungary had come to a formal conclusion. This new provisional government, while throwing off Hungarian rule, had not yet declared independence from Austria-Hungary. Thus Emperor Karl I's government in Vienna asked", "The Armistice of Villa Giusti, signed between Italy and Austria-Hungary on 3 November 1918, refused to recognize the transfer of Austria-Hungary's warships to the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs. As a result, on 4 November 1918, Italian ships sailed into the ports of Trieste, Pola, and Fiume. On 5 November, Italian troops occupied the naval installations at Pola. While the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs attempted to hold onto their ships, they lacked the men and officers to do so as most sailors who were not South Slavs had already gone home. The National Council did not order any men to resist the Italians, but they also condemned Italy's actions as illegitimate. On", "Following Nazi Germany's incorporation of Austria via the \"Anschluss\" of March 1938, Adolf Hitler used Austria-Hungary's naval history to appeal to the Austrian public and obtain their support. Hitler lived in Vienna during the development of much of the Austro-Hungarian Navy, and thus decided upon an \"Austrian\" sounding name for a German cruiser which was under construction at Kiel in 1938. The cruiser was originally to be named \"Tegetthoff\" by the Kriegsmarine, after Wilhelm von Tegetthoff. However, concerns over the possible insult to Italy and Benito Mussolini of naming the cruiser after the Austrian victor of the Battle of Lissa, led Hitler to adopt \"Prinz Eugen\" as the ship's namesake. \"Prinz Eugen\" was launched on 22 August 1938, in a ceremony attended by Hitler and the Governor (German: \"Reichsstatthalter\") of Ostmark, Arthur Seyss-Inquart, who made the christening speech. Also present at the launch was Regent of Hungary, Admiral Miklós Horthy, who had previously commanded \"Prinz Eugen\" from 24 November 1917 to 1 March 1918" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Political career.", "Beginnings.", "Member of the French National Assembly.", "President of the region Poitou-Charentes.", "2007 presidential candidacy.", "2008 Socialist Party leadership election.", "2011 Socialist Party presidential primary.", "Defeat in the 2012 legislative election.", "2014 return to government.", "2017–2020: Ambassador for the Arctic and Antarctic.", "Policies.", "Economy.", "Environment.", "Education.", "Family and social affairs.", "Foreign policy.", "International tours.", "Middle East.", "China.", "Canada: Support for the Quebec independence movement.", "On Afghanistan.", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "Ségolène Royal was born on 22 September 1953 in the military base of Ouakam, Dakar, French West Africa (now Senegal), the daughter of Hélène Dehaye and Jacques Royal, a former artillery officer and aide to the mayor of Chamagne (Vosges). Her parents had eight children in nine years: Marie-Odette, Marie-Nicole, Gérard, Marie-Ségolène, Antoine, Paul, Henri and Sigisbert. After secondary school in the small town of Melle, Deux-Sèvres, Marie-Ségolène attended a local university where she graduated 2nd in her class with a degree in Economics. Her eldest sister then suggested she prepare the entrance exam to the elite Institut d'études politiques de Paris popularly called \"Sciences Po\", which she attended on scholarship. There she discovered politics of class and feminism (\"Sciences Po\" at the time was 85% upper-class Parisian, mostly male). In 1972, at the age of 19, Royal sued her father because he refused to divorce her mother and pay alimony and child support to finance the children's education. She won the case after many years in court, shortly before Jacques Royal died of lung cancer in 1981. Six of the eight children had refused to see him again, Ségolène included. Royal, like the majority of France's political elite, is a graduate of the École nationale d'administration. She was in the same class as her former partner of 30 years, François Hollande, as well as Dominique de Villepin (prime minister under Jacques Chirac). Each class year at the ENA receives a nickname to distinguish it: Royal tried to get her peers to name their class after Louise Michel, a revolutionary from the 1870s, but they chose the name \"Voltaire\" instead. During her time at the ENA, Royal also dropped \"Marie\" from her hyphenated first name.", "", "After graduating in 1980, she elected to serve as a judge (\"conseiller\") of an administrative court before she was noticed by President François Mitterrand's special adviser Jacques Attali and recruited to his staff in 1982. She held the junior rank of \"chargée de mission\" from 1982 to 1988.", "She decided to become a candidate for the 1988 legislative election; she registered in the rural, Western Deux-Sèvres Département. Her candidacy was an example of the French political tradition of \"parachutage\" (parachuting), appointing promising \"Parisian\" political staffers as candidates in provincial districts to test their mettle. She was up against an entrenched UDF incumbent, and Mitterrand is said to have told her: \"You will not win, but you will next time.\" Straddling strongly Catholic and Protestant areas, that district had been held by conservatives since World War II. She did win against the odds, and remarked: \"\"Pour un parachutage, l'atterrissage est réussi.\"\" (\"As far as parachuting goes, the landing was a success\"). After this election, she served as representative in the National Assembly for the Deux-Sèvres' 2nd constituency (1988–1992, 1993–1997, 2002–2007).", "On 28 March 2004, she obtained 55% in the second round in the regional election in Poitou-Charentes, notably defeating Prime Minister Jean-Pierre Raffarin's protégée, Élisabeth Morin, in his home region. She was elected president of the region the next week. She kept her National Assembly seat until June 2007, when she chose not to run in the legislative election, in agreement with one of her presidential campaign's promises. She organised a run-off between two contenders; the winner, Delphine Batho, went on to win the district for her and Royal's party.", "On 22 September 2005 \"Paris Match\" published an interview in which she declared that she was considering running for the presidency in 2007. In 2006 the CPE (first employment contract) laws were proposed with large protests as a result. Rather than going to the organised protest, she voted a law in her \"région\" whereby no company using that type of contract would receive the Région's subsidies. The government backed down and stated that the law would be put on the statute book, but that it would not be applied. After this event Royal was tipped as the lead contender in what is dubbed the \"Sarko-Ségo\" race against Nicolas Sarkozy. Until that time, she had not been thought a likely candidate as she had stayed out of the Socialist Party's power struggles. On 7 April 2006, Royal launched an Internet-led electoral campaign at (\"Desires for the future\"), publishing the first of ten chapters of her political manifesto. By the beginning of September, her intentions had become quite clear. She has said that only widespread sexism in the Socialist Party had prevented it from rallying around her candidacy as it would have had she been a man. She announced an official team to promote her campaign on 30 August. At this point, polls showed her to be much more popular than her closest competitor, former Prime Minister Lionel Jospin, and other Socialist heavyweights Dominique Strauss-Kahn, Jack Lang, another former Prime Minister Laurent Fabius and François Hollande. Her status as a presidential candidate became more likely on 28 September 2006, when Lionel Jospin, the Socialist former Prime Minister and a fixture in French politics for nearly three decades, announced that he would not run after all. Jack Lang followed suit. On 16 November, Royal defeated Laurent Fabius and Dominique Strauss-Kahn in the French Socialist Party primary, becoming the party's candidate for the 2007 presidential election. The Socialist party's members voted 60.69% for her and gave a bit under 20% each to the more traditional contenders. She also won in 101 of 104 of the Socialist Party's \"fédérations\", losing only Haute-Corse, Mayotte and Seine-Maritime (the latter being the home region of Laurent Fabius). One of her top advisors, Éric Besson, resigned soon afterwards over a disagreement about the costs of this programme, which he believes could reach €35 billion, while others in the campaign team wanted to delay bringing out that figure.[The figure was equivalent to that of Mr. Sarkozy's but higher than Mr. Bayrou's, who was becoming a key figure in the race.] This led to an unusually bitter fall-out, and Mr Besson writing a book titled \"Qui connaît Madame Royal?\" (Who knows Mrs Royal?), published on 20 March. In it, Besson accuses Royal of being a populist, an authoritarian and a luddite and says that he will not vote for her and hopes that she is not elected. He then went on to join the Sarkozy campaign and was rewarded with a junior position in the next government on 18 May 2007. Following the first round of the presidential election, she faced Nicolas Sarkozy in the second round of voting on 6 May in a two-way runoff. In the final round of voting on Sunday, 6 May, Sarkozy won the presidency with 53% of the vote. Royal conceded defeat and wished Sarkozy the best, requesting he keep her supporters in mind. Royal later revealed she had offered defeated centrist candidate, François Bayrou, the premiership should she be elected.", "Royal entered the leadership election of the Socialist Party to replace her former common law husband François Hollande as head of the party. She garnered the largest plurality of votes in the first round of voting, but not enough to win outright; she was eventually narrowly defeated in the second round by rival Martine Aubry by the margin of 42 votes. After a vote recount, Aubry was declared the winner 25 November 2008, with the margin widening to 102 votes. Royal has announced her intentions to contest the result. Royal has blamed party leaders and her former partner for her loss in the 2007 election.", "Royal ran in the French Socialist Party presidential primary election of 2011, the party's first ever open primary. She arrived 4th in the first round on 9 October 2011 with a mere 6.95% of votes, considerably below the figures suggested by opinion polls.", "In 2012, Royal ran for office representing Charente-Maritime's 1st constituency. She lost the election to a dissident Socialist, Olivier Falorni. After her separation with Hollande, political relations between them were tense, though they have both stated that they remained friends. In the 2008 Socialist Party leadership election, Hollande backed another candidate, and Royal has blamed him and the party establishment for her 2007 Presidential defeat.", "On 2 April 2014 Royal was appointed Minister of Ecology, Sustainable Development and Energy in the second cabinet of Prime Minister Manuel Valls, In January 2015 she was third in line in governmental rank, after the Prime Minister and Foreign Minister. Increasingly, commentators have seen Royal as President François Hollande’s stand-in for some important state occasions. When Pope Francis touched down on French soil for the first time in his papacy with a visit to the European Parliament in Strasbourg in November 2014, Royal was the senior French official there to greet him. After the deadly attacks against a satirical newspaper and a kosher supermarket in January 2015, she traveled to Israel to represent France at the memorial services.", "When Emmanuel Macron was elected French President in May 2017, Royal hoped to be offered a position in his government but instead was offered the position of Ambassador for the Poles, which she accepted in June 2017. In late 2018 the publication of Royal's book \"Ce que je peux enfin vous dire\" (What I can finally tell you) detailing the sexism she had suffered throughout her political career, coincided with a decline in Macron's popularity at the time of the Gilets jaunes protests and resulted in speculation that Royal was contemplating a political comeback. After repeatedly and publicly criticizing Macron's handling of pension reform, it was announced by the Council of Ministers that the Mission to the Poles would be ended, effectively removing Royal from her position, in tandem with an official investigation being launched inquiring about alleged misuse of public funds during Royal's time in office.", "Royal has tended to campaign on family and other socially-oriented issues, rather than on economic or foreign policy issues. For instance, she has mounted campaigns against the exposure of children to violent television shows, including cartoons (see her 1989 book, listed below, \"Le Ras-le-bol des bébés zappeurs\", roughly translated as \"The Channel-Surfing Kids Are Fed Up\"), and more generally has taken a stand on several issues regarding family values and the protection of children. Royal stated as part of her 100-point platform that if elected, she would raise the lowest state pensions by five percent, increase the monthly minimum wage to €1,500, raise benefits of handicapped citizens, implement state-paid rental deposits for the poorest citizens, and guarantee a job or job training to every student within six months of graduation. She pledged to abolish a flexible work contract for small companies. She pledged free contraception for all young women and a €10,000 interest-free loan for all young people.", "Royal opposes movements of jobs between EU countries and outsourcing to developing countries. She pledged to abolish a flexible work contract for small companies. She did not directly address whether additional taxes would need to be raised to fund these programs, stating that they can be paid for by cutting waste in government. She was appointed to the vice-Chair directorship of the Banque Publique d'Investissement, from which position she stated that the \"BPI's purpose is not to do business nor to make profits\".", "The Socialist Party website states that during her tenure as \"Minister for the Environment\", 1992–1993, Royal campaigned actively and successfully for the \"Law on the treatment and recycling of Waste\" (), the \"Law to preserve the countryside\" (), a \"Save our countrysides, savour their products\" campaign to provide proper labelling for the products of 100 local areas (), and the \"Law against noise pollution\" (). She provided compensation for people adversely affected by airport noise.", "During her tenure as Minister-delegate for the Family, Children, and the Handicapped, 2000–2002, Royal was active in the re-launch of the Priority Education Zones program (ZEP / ), the creation of a government student lunch program, the implementation of language instruction as a priority in primary schools, the creation of a national home-tutoring program, Heures de Soutien Scolaire, and the creation of programs for parental involvement in schools, \"la Semaine des parents à l'école\", and national campaigns for the elections of parent-representatives. She also campaigned for the creation of local education and citizenship education contracts, the \"Initiatives citoyennes\" program for teaching children how to live together, the law on \"Defense of children's rights and campaign against violence in the schools\" (\"Loi de juin 1998 relative à la prévention et à la répression des infractions sexuelles ainsi qu'à la protection des mineurs\"), the \"Campaign against hazing rituals in higher education\" (\"Loi de juin 1998 contre le \"), the \"Campaign against violence and racketeering\" which included implementation of the \"SOS Violence\" telephone number, and the implementation of mandatory civics instruction in secondary schools. In January 2006, she criticised secondary school teachers (workers of state public service) who give private lessons outside school hours, saying that they should spend more time in school. When a bootleg video of the speech surfaced on the Internet in November 2006, the teachers' union SNES rebuffed her, requesting that she renounce her proposal.", "In 1989, Royal authored a book called \"The Channel-Surfing Kids Are Fed-Up\", where she criticised Japanese animation (then dominant in certain TV programs) as poor quality production detrimental for children. Royal favours, and has worked for, the \"Parental rights and obligations act\" (\"Loi sur l'autorité parentale\"), the \"Women's rights reform and anonymous childbirth act\" (\"l'accouchement sous X\"), the creation of paternity leave, the creation of 40,000 new spaces in French nursery schools, and \"Social housing reform\". She has been active in campaigns providing for \"Parental time-off provisions and financial support for child illness care\", Special education support (\"parents d'enfants handicapés\"), \"Benefit allocations for students starting the new school year\" (\"Allocation de rentrée scolaire\"), and the \"Prostitution of Minors Act\" (\"Loi contre la prostitution des mineurs\") which provides penal measures for clients. Royal has supported the \"Law against child pornography\", the creation of the association \"Childhood and the Media\" (\"Enfance et média\") against violence in the media, the creation of the \"Plan Handiscole\" for the education of handicapped children and adolescents and their integration into life at school, programs for mass and individual transportation, and the creation of the program \"Tourism and the Handicapped\" (\"Tourisme et handicap\"). In 2009, she declared herself to be \"profoundly shocked\" by statements of Pope Benedict XVI which claimed that the distribution of condoms will not stop the spread of AIDS. Royal added that \"the responsibility of any religious leader\" is to \"defend the principle of life, and certainly not to urge human beings towards their deaths.\" When she accepted her nomination as the Socialist presidential candidate, Royal said: \"There is a strong correlation between the status of a woman and the state of justice or injustice in a country.\" According to an article in Ms. magazine, French women currently earn 80% of a male counterpart's salary. Royal has been a long-standing critic of violence on television. She has voiced opinions in the past linking youth crime to exposure to pornography and television violence. She also described the M6 programme \"Loft Story\", imitating the internationally popular \"Big Brother TV series\", as contrary to principles of human dignity and risking transforming viewers into voyeurs instead of providing quality programming. A law passed in February 2002, introduced by Royal on behalf of the Jospin government, allows some parental authority to be granted to same-sex partners. The law amended Article 377 of the Civil Code in allowing a parent to ask a judge to share his/her parental authority with a partner. Article 377-1, added by the law, ensures that \"delegation may provide, for the needs of education of a child, that the father and mother, or one of them, shall share all or part of the exercise of parental authority with the third person delegatee\". In a June 2006 interview with LGBT publication \"Têtu\", Royal said \"opening up marriage to same-sex couples is needed in the name of equality, visibility and respect\" and said that if her party formed the next government she would introduce a bill to legalise same-sex marriage and adoption. According to her 2007 campaign website, Royal has advocated a policy of more humane prisons and supports creating better conditions inside penal institutions. The website states that she supports a system of rehabilitating offenders and reintegrating them into society.", "Royal initially appeared to have few opinions on key subjects, such as the accession of Turkey to the European Union, merely responding, \"my opinion is that of the French people.\" On the subject of the Iranian nuclear program, Royal also took conflicting positions. She initially took a very hard line in a televised debate, contending that any nuclear power programme in Iran must be prevented since it would inevitably lead to weapons production. When she was criticised by French politicians for not understanding the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty – which gives signatories the right to nuclear power for non-military purposes – Royal softened her position and, through a spokesman, said that a civil nuclear program should be allowed as long as UN inspectors were permitted to conduct spot checks.", "From December 2006 Royal began travelling abroad extensively, but her efforts were set back by a series of blunders, which her political opponents at UMP were quick to jump on.", "In early December 2006 controversy followed a brief tour of the Middle East. Meeting Hezbollah politician Ali Ammar, she took exception to his use of the euphemism \"Zionist entity\", but did not take issue with his comparison of the Palestinian territories to France under German occupation during World War II. This attracted criticism in France and in Israel which Royal visited next. However, the French ambassador to Lebanon, Bernard Emié, backed her explanation that she did not hear \"the offending remarks\" – the discussion took place via an interpreter supplied by the Lebanese parliament. In the same visit, Royal thanked the minister for being so \"frank\" when he described US foreign policy in the Middle East as \"unlimited American insanity\".", "Royal visited China in January 2007; after speaking with a lawyer in that country she noted to the press that he had pointed out to her that the Chinese legal system was \"faster\" than the French one. She was immediately reminded by her opponents at home that the Chinese system orders 10,000 executions each year, and that defence lawyers there must be authorised by the Communist Party. She however brought up with her hosts the fate of three Chinese journalists recently imprisoned, and criticised the \"meekness\" of French entrepreneurs in tackling new markets such as China. Royal was criticised by French and international media by what was called \"mangling the French language\" in a soundbite delivered on the Great Wall of China. She used the word \"bravitude\" instead of the word \"bravoure\", which means \"bravery\".", "In January 2007, during a meeting with Quebec opposition leader and Parti Québécois head André Boisclair, she declared her support for the Quebec sovereignty movement in its aim to secede from Canada. Royal said Quebec and France share common values, including \"sovereignty and Quebec's freedom\". Soon after, Royal took a phone call from comedian Gérald Dahan pretending to be Quebec Premier Jean Charest, and was tricked into making a quip about Corsica's independence: \"Not all French people would be opposed.\" She then added, \"But don't repeat that or we'll have another scandal on our hands.\"", "On 5 April 2007, when commenting on the kidnapping of two Frenchmen by the Taliban in Afghanistan, Royal called for sanctions to be imposed by the United Nations against regimes like the Taliban. This comment was widely interpreted as indicating that Royal did not understand that the Taliban no longer formed the Afghan government and that she was clueless on international matters.", "From the late 1970s, Royal was the partner of François Hollande, former President of France, whom she met at ENA. The couple had four children: Thomas (born 1984), Clémence (born 1985), Julien (born 1987) and Flora (born 1992). They were neither married (considering it too \"bourgeois\") nor bound by a PACS (pacte civil de solidarité, which provides for a civil union between two adults, regardless of gender), contrary to rumours. A news agency leaked news of their separation in June 2007, on the evening of the legislative election. According to the \"Guardian\", she had asked Hollande \"to move out of the house\" and pursue his new love interest \"which has been detailed in books and newspapers\" – a reference to a much-discussed chapter by journalists explaining how Hollande was having a long-term affair with a journalist. Royal's eldest son, Thomas Hollande, served as an adviser to her during her presidential candidacy, working on a website designed to appeal to young voters. Her brother Antoine named their brother Gérard Royal as the agent who placed the bomb that sank the Greenpeace ship \"Rainbow Warrior\". But other sources claim that this statement is exaggerated and that Gérard was part of the logistics team. Royal's cousin Anne-Christine Royal followed the paternal side of the family and has been a candidate of the far-right Front National party at a local election in Bordeaux. Royal was listed as one of the fifty best-dressed over 50 by \"The Guardian\" in March 2013." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Roman Empire.", "Roman Iron Age.", "Migration period.", "Viking Age.", "Norman swords." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The word comes from the Latin \"spatha\", which derives from Greek \"\" (\"spáthē\"), meaning \"any broad blade, of wood or metal\" but also \"broad blade of a sword\". The Greek word was used in the middle archaic period for various types of Iron Age swords. The word does not appear in Homeric Greek, but it is mentioned in the works of Alcaeus of Mytilene (sixth century BC) and Theophrastus (fourth century BC). It is likely that \"spatha\" is the romanization of a Doric Greek σπάθα (\"spáthā\"). The word survives in Modern Greek as and. The Latin word became the French \"épée\", regional Spanish Occitan espasa, Portuguese and Spanish \"espada\", Italian \"spada\", Romanian \"spadă\" and Albanian \"shpata\", all meaning \"sword\". The English word \"spatula\" comes from Latin \"spat\"(\"h\")\"ula\", the diminutive of \"spatha\". English spade, from Old English \"spadu\" or \"spædu\", is the Germanic cognate, derived from a Common Germanic \"*spadō\", ultimately from a Proto-Indo-European stem \"*sph-dh-\".", "The \"spatha\" was introduced to the Roman army in the early imperial period by Celtic cavalry auxiliaries who continued to wear their Celtic long swords, with blade lengths of 60 to 75 cm (2 to 21⁄2 feet), in Roman service. The earlier \"gladius\" sword was gradually replaced by the \"spatha\" from the late 2nd to the 3rd century. From the early 3rd century, legionaries and cavalrymen began to wear their swords on the left side, perhaps because the \"scutum\" had been abandoned and the \"spatha\" had replaced the \"gladius\". In the imperial period, the Romans adopted the original Greek term, \"spáthē\" (σπάθη), as \"spatha\", which still carried the general meaning of any object considered long and flat. \"Spatha\" appears first in Pliny and then Seneca with different meanings: a spatula, a metal-working implement, a palm-leaf and so on. There is no hint of any native Roman sword called a \"spatha\". Referring to an actual sword, the term first appears in the pages of Tacitus with reference to an incident of the early empire. The British king, Caractacus, having rebelled, found himself trapped on a rocky hill, so that if he turned one way he encountered the \"gladii\" of the legionaries, and if the other, the \"spathae\" of the auxiliaries. There is no indication in Tacitus that they were cavalry. The next mention of \"spathae\" is in the 5th century, by Vegetius, now as a weapon carried by infantry. The \"spatha\" remained in use in the Byzantine Empire and its army. In the Byzantine court, \"spatharios\" (σπαθάριος), or \"bearer of the \"spatha\"\", was a mid-level court title. Other variants deriving from it were \"protospatharios\", \"spatharokandidatos\" and \"spatharokoubikoularios\", the latter reserved for eunuchs. One of the more famous \"spatharokandidatoi\" was Harald Hardrada.", "The term \"Roman Iron Age\" refers approximately to the time of the Roman Empire in north Europe, which was outside the jurisdiction of the empire, but, judging from the imported Roman artifacts, was influenced by Roman civilization. One source of artifacts from this period are the bogs of Schleswig, Holstein and Denmark. Objects were deliberately broken and thrown into the bog in the belief that they could go with a deceased chief on his voyage to a better place. A cache of 90 swords was found at Nydam Mose in Denmark in 1858. They were in the form of the \"spatha\" and therefore have been classified as \"Roman swords\". They are dated to the 3rd to 4th centuries. Many connect the Nydam cache with the sword of Beowulf, who was supposed to be a contemporary.", "Surviving examples of these Germanic Iron Age swords have blades measuring between in length and in width. These single handed weapons of war sport a tang long and have very little taper in their blades. They usually end in a rounded tip.", "Perhaps the most recognisable descendant of the \"spathae\" were the Viking Age blades. These swords took on a much more acute distal taper and point. These blades had deep fullers running their length, yet still had single-handed hilts which sported a uniquely shaped pommel, flat at the grip side and roughly triangular early on, with the flat curving to fit the hand later. While the pattern of hilt and blade design of this type might readily be called a \"Viking sword\", to do so would be to neglect the widespread popularity it enjoyed. All over continental Europe between the 8th and 10th centuries, this design and its variations could be found. Many of the best blades were of Frankish origin, hilted in local centres. These blades had significantly better balance. During Norman times, the blade's length increased by around, and the hilt changed significantly. Instead of the Brazil-nut pommel, a thick disc-shaped pommel was attached \"on-edge\" to the bottom of the iron hilt. In addition the upper guard grew substantially from the near-absent design predating it. Also the blades tended to taper slightly less than those found in the time of the Vikings. Jan Petersen in \"De Norske Vikingsverd\" (\"The Norwegian Viking Swords\", 1919) introduced the most widely used classification of swords of the Viking Age, discriminating 26 types labelled A–Z. In 1927, R. E. M. Wheeler condensed Petersen's typology into a simplified typology of nine groups, numbered I – IX.", "The transition from the Viking age \"spatha\" to the High Medieval knightly sword took place between the 10th and 11th centuries. The main development was the growth of the front handguard into a full cross-guard, and the reduction of the typical Viking-era lobated pommel into simpler brazil nut or disc shapes. The sword of Otto III, preserved in Essen, is such an example of the emerging arming sword, although it has been encrusted with decorations during the centuries it was conserved as a relic (total length 95.5 cm)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Early modern and contemporary usage.", "Belgium.", "United Kingdom.", "Ireland.", "Use as a courtesy title.", "Coronet.", "Jersey.", "Portugal.", "Spain.", "Equivalent titles.", "Germanic counterparts.", "Non-Western counterparts.", "In fiction." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The word \"viscount\" comes from Old French (Modern French: ), itself from Medieval Latin, accusative of, from Late Latin \"deputy\" + Latin (originally \"companion\"; later Roman imperial courtier or trusted appointee, ultimately count).", "During the Carolingian Empire, the kings appointed counts to administer provinces and other smaller regions, as governors and military commanders. Viscounts were appointed to assist the counts in their running of the province, and often took on judicial responsibility. The kings strictly prevented the offices of their counts and viscounts from becoming hereditary, in order to consolidate their position and limit chance of rebellion. The title was in use in Normandy by at least the early 11th century. Similar to the Carolingian use of the title, the Norman viscounts were local administrators, working on behalf of the Duke. Their role was to administer justice and to collect taxes and revenues, often being castellan of the local castle. Under the Normans, the position developed into a hereditary one, an example of such being the viscounts in Bessin. The viscount was eventually replaced by bailiffs, and provosts. As a rank in British peerage, it was first recorded in 1440, when John Beaumont was created Viscount Beaumont by King Henry VI. The word \"viscount\" corresponds in the UK to the Anglo-Saxon \"shire reeve\" (root of the non-nobiliary, royal-appointed office of sheriff). Thus early viscounts were originally normally given their titles by the monarch, not hereditarily; but soon they too tended to establish hereditary principalities in the wider sense. They were a relatively late introduction to the British peerage, and on the evening of the Coronation of Queen Victoria in 1838, the Prime Minister Lord Melbourne explained to her why (from her journals): I spoke to Ld M. about the numbers of Peers present at the Coronation, & he said it was quite unprecedented. I observed that there were very few Viscounts, to which he replied \"There are very few Viscounts,\" that they were an old sort of title & not really English; that they came from Vice-Comites; that Dukes & Barons were the only real English titles;—that Marquises were likewise not English, & that people were mere made Marquises, when it was not wished that they should be made Dukes.", "", "In Belgium a few families are recognised as Viscounts:", "A viscount is the fourth rank in the British peerage system, standing directly below an earl and above a baron. There are approximately 270 viscountcies currently extant in the peerages of the British Isles, though most are secondary titles. In British practice, the title of a viscount may be either a place name, a surname, or a combination thereof: examples include the Viscount Falmouth, the Viscount Hardinge and the Viscount Colville of Culross, respectively. An exception exists for Viscounts in the peerage of Scotland, who were traditionally styled \"The Viscount \"of\" [X]\", such as the Viscount of Arbuthnott. In practice, however, very few maintain this style, instead using the more common version \"The Viscount [X]\" in general parlance, for example Viscount of Falkland who is referred to as Viscount Falkland. A British viscount is addressed in speech as \"Lord [X]\", while his wife is \"Lady [X]\", and he is formally styled \"The Right Honourable The Viscount [X]\". The children of a viscount are known as \"The Honourable [Forename] [Surname]\".", "The title of viscount () was introduced to the Peerage of Ireland in 1478 with the creation of the title of Viscount Gormanston, the senior viscountcy of Britain and Ireland, held today by Jenico Preston, 17th Viscount Gormanston. Other early Irish viscountcies were Viscount Baltinglass (1541), Viscount Clontarf (1541), Viscount Mountgarret (1550) and Viscount Decies (1569).", "A specifically British custom is the use of viscount as a courtesy title for the heir of an earl or marquess. The peer's heir apparent will sometimes be referred to as a viscount, if the second most senior title held by the head of the family is a viscountcy. For example, the eldest son of the Earl Howe is Viscount Curzon, because this is the second most senior title held by the Earl. However, the son of a marquess or an earl can be referred to as a viscount when the title of viscount is not the second most senior if those above it share their name with the substantive title. For example, the second most senior title of the Marquess of Salisbury is the Earl of Salisbury, so his heir uses the lower title of Viscount Cranborne. Sometimes the son of a peer can be referred to as a viscount even when he could use a more senior courtesy title which differs in name from the substantive title. Family tradition plays a role in this. For example, the eldest son of the Marquess of Londonderry is Viscount Castlereagh, even though the Marquess is also the Earl Vane. On occasion, the title of viscount may be the courtesy title used for the grandson of a duke, provided that he is the eldest son of the duke's eldest son. This is because the eldest son of the duke will be given the second highest title of his father (marquess or earl), and so the third-highest is left for his eldest son. It is possible for the great-grandson of a duke to hold the courtesy title of viscount if the duke's eldest son has the courtesy title marquess and his eldest son, in turn, uses the title of earl.", "A viscount's coronet of rank bears 16 silver balls around the rim. Like all heraldic coronets, it is mostly worn at the coronation of a sovereign, but a viscount has the right to bear his coronet of rank on his coat of arms, above the shield. In this guise, the coronet is shown face-on, featuring 9 silver balls.", "The island of Jersey still retains an officer whose function is purely to administer orders of the island's judiciary, and whose position remains non-hereditary. The role of the Viscount of Jersey (French: \"Vicomte de Jersey\") involves managing fines, bail monies, seizures, confiscations, evictions, service of process, arrests for non-appearance in court and other enforcement procedures, as well acting as coroner for sudden or unexpected deaths and managing jury selection.", "In the former kingdom of Portugal a \"visconde\" ranks above a \"barão\" (baron) and below a \"conde\" (count). The first Portuguese viscountcy, that of D. Leonel de Lima, visconde de Vila Nova de Cerveira, dates from the reign of Afonso V. A flood of viscountcies, some 86 new titles, were awarded in Portugal between 1848 and 1880.", "The Spanish title of \"vizconde\" is ranked between the title \"conde\" (count/earl) and the relatively rare title of \"barón\". In Spain, nobles are classified as either Grandee of Spain (Grandes de España), as titled nobles, or as untitled nobles. A grandee of any rank outranks a non-grandee, even if that non-grandee's title is of a higher degree, thus, a viscount-grandee enjoys higher precedence than a marquis who is not a grandee. In the kingdom of Spain the title was awarded from the reign of Felipe IV (1621–65; Habsburg dynasty) until 1846.", "", "There are non-etymological equivalents to the title of viscount (\"i.e.\", 'vice-count') in several languages, including German. However, in such case titles of the etymological Burgrave family (not in countries with a viscount-form, such as Italian \"burgravio\" alongside \"visconte\") bearers of the title could establish themselves at the same gap, thus at generally the same level. Consequently, a \"Freiherr\" (or Baron) ranks not immediately below a \"Graf\", but below a \"Burggraf\". Thus in Dutch, \"Burggraaf\" is the rank above Baron, below Graaf (\"i.e.\", Count) in the kingdoms of the Netherlands and of Belgium (by Belgian law, its equivalents in the other official languages are \"Burggraf\" in German and \"vicomte\" in French). In Welsh the title is rendered as \"Isiarll\".", "Like other major Western noble titles, viscount is sometimes used to render certain titles in non-western languages with their own traditions. Even though they are considered 'equivalent' in relative rank, they are as a rule historically unrelated and thus hard to compare. The Japanese cognate \"shishaku\" (\"shi\") (Japanese: ) was the fourth of the five peerage ranks established in the Meiji era. The Japanese system of nobility, Kazoku, which existed between 1884 and 1947 was based heavily on the British peerage. At the creation of the system, viscounts were the most numerous of all the ranks, with 324 being created compared to 11 non-imperial princes or dukes, 24 marquesses, 76 counts and 74 barons, for a total of 509 peers. Other equivalent titles existed, such as:", "Viscounts and viscountesses have occasionally appeared in works of fiction. For examples of fictional viscounts and viscountesses, see List of fictional nobility#Viscounts and viscountesses." ] }

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{ "title": [ "20th century.", "Albania.", "Fascism and Nazism.", "Nazi Germany.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "At the beginning of the 20th century, anti-Slavism developed in Albania by the work of the Franciscan friars who had studied in monasteries in Austria-Hungary, after the recent massacres and expulsions of Albanians by their Slavic neighbours. The Albanian intelligentsia proudly asserted, \"We Albanians are the original and autochthonous race of the Balkans. The Slavs are conquerors and immigrants who came but yesterday from Asia\". In Soviet historiography, anti-Slavism in Albania was inspired by the Catholic clergy, which opposed the Slavic people because of the role the Catholic clergy played in preparations \"for Italian aggression against Albania\" and Slavs opposed \"rapacious plans of Austro-Hungarian imperialism in Albania\".", "Anti-Slavism was a notable component of Italian Fascism and Nazism both prior to and during World War II. In the 1920s, Italian fascists targeted Yugoslavs, especially Serbs. They accused Serbs of having \"atavistic impulses\" and they also claimed that the Yugoslavs were conspiring together on behalf of \"Grand Orient masonry and its funds\". One anti-Semitic claim was that Serbs were part of a \"social-democratic, masonic Jewish internationalist plot\". Benito Mussolini viewed the Slavic race as inferior and barbaric. He identified the Yugoslavs (Croats) as a threat to Italy and he viewed them as competitors over the region of Dalmatia, which was claimed by Italy, and he claimed that the threat rallied Italians together at the end of World War I: \"The danger of seeing the Jugo-Slavians settle along the whole Adriatic shore had caused a bringing together in Rome of the cream of our unhappy regions. Students, professors, workmen, citizens—representative men—were entreating the ministers and the professional politicians\". These claims often tended to emphasize the \"foreignness\" of the Yugoslavs as newcomers to the area, unlike the ancient Italians, whose territories the Slavs occupied.", "Anti-Slavic racism was an essential component of Nazism. Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party regarded Slavic countries (especially Poland, the Soviet Union, and Yugoslavia) and their peoples as non-Aryan \"Untermenschen\" (subhumans), they were deemed to be foreign nations that could not be considered part of the Aryan master race. Hitler in Mein Kampf stated: “One ought to cast the utmost doubt on the state-building power of the Slavs” and from beginning rejected the idea of incorporating Slavs within Greater Germany There were exceptions for some minorities in these states which were deemed by the Nazis to be the descendants of ethnic German settlers and not Slavs who were willing to be Germanized. Hitler considered the Slavs to be inferior, because the Bolshevik Revolution had put the Jews in power over the mass of Slavs, who were, by his own definition, incapable of ruling themselves but were instead being ruled by Jewish masters. He considered the development of Modern Russia to have been the work of Germanic, not Slavic, elements in the nation, but believed those achievements had been undone and destroyed by the October Revolution. Because, according to the Nazis, the German people needed more territory to sustain its surplus population, an ideology of conquest and depopulation was formulated for Central and Eastern Europe according to the principle of \"Lebensraum\", itself based on an older theme in German nationalism which maintained that Germany had a \"natural yearning\" to expand its borders eastward (\"Drang Nach Osten)\". The Nazis' policy towards Slavs was to exterminate or enslave the vast majority of the Slavic population and repopulate their lands with millions of ethnic Germans and other Germanic peoples. According to the resulting genocidal \"Generalplan Ost\", millions of German and other \"Germanic\" settlers would be moved into the conquered territories, and the original Slavic inhabitants were to be annihilated, removed or enslaved. The policy was focused especially towards the Soviet Union, as it alone was deemed capable of providing enough territory to accomplish this goal. As part of this policy, the Hunger Plan was developed, which included seizing food produced on the occupied Soviet territory and delivering it primarily to German army. This should ultimately result in the starvation and death of 20 to 30 million people (mainly Russians, Belarusians, and Ukrainians). It is estimated that in 1941–1944 over four million Soviet citizens were starved according to this plan. The resettlement policy reached a much more advanced state in Occupied Poland because of its immediate proximity to Germany. To deviate from ideological theories for strategic reasons by forging alliances with Independent State of Croatia (created after the invasion of Yugoslavia), and Bulgaria, puppet regime described the Croats officially as being \"more Germanic than Slav\", a notion made by Croatia's fascist dictator Ante Pavelić who imposed the view that the \"Croatians were the descendants of the ancient Goths\" who \"had the Panslav idea forced upon them as something artificial\". However the Nazi regime continued to classify the Croats as \"subhumans\" despite its alliance with them. Hitler also deemed the Bulgarians to be \"Turkoman\" in origin.", "Notes Further reading" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Allied offensives.", "Japanese plans.", "Allied intelligence.", "Allied tactics.", "Battle.", "Order of battle.", "First attacks.", "Further attacks.", "Aftermath.", "Game theory." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Six months after Imperial Japan attacked Pearl Harbor in December 1941, the United States won a strategic victory at the Battle of Midway in June 1942. Seizing the strategic initiative, the United States and its Allies landed on Guadalcanal in the southern Solomon Islands in August 1942, beginning the Solomon Islands Campaign. The battle for Guadalcanal ended in victory for the Allies with the withdrawal of Japanese forces from the island in early February 1943. At the same time, Australian and American forces in New Guinea repelled the Japanese land offensive along the Kokoda Track. Going on the offensive, the Allied forces captured Buna–Gona, destroying Japanese forces in that area. The ultimate goal of the Allied counter-offensives in New Guinea and the Solomons was to capture the main Japanese base at Rabaul on New Britain, later codified as Operation Cartwheel, and clear the way for the eventual reconquest of the Philippines. Recognising the threat, the Japanese continued to send land, naval, and aerial reinforcements to the area in an attempt to check the Allied advances.", "Reviewing the progress of the Battle of Guadalcanal and the Battle of Buna–Gona in December 1942, the Japanese faced the prospect that neither could be held. Accordingly, Imperial General Headquarters decided to take steps to strengthen the Japanese position in the South West Pacific by sending Lieutenant General Jusei Aoki's 20th Division from Korea to Guadalcanal and Lieutenant General Heisuke Abe's 41st Division from China to Rabaul. Lieutenant General Hitoshi Imamura, the commander of the Japanese Eighth Area Army at Rabaul, ordered Lieutenant General Hatazō Adachi's XVIII Army to secure Madang, Wewak and Tuluvu in New Guinea. On 29 December, Adachi ordered the 102nd Infantry Regiment and other units under the command of Major General Toru Okabe, the commander of the infantry group of the 51st Division, to move from Rabaul to Lae and advance inland to capture Wau. After deciding to evacuate Guadalcanal on 4 January, the Japanese switched priorities from the Solomon Islands to New Guinea, and opted to send the 20th and 41st Divisions to Wewak. On 5 January 1943, the convoy, which consisted of five destroyers and five troop transports carrying Okabe's force, set out for Lae from Rabaul. Forewarned by Ultra, United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) and Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) aircraft spotted, shadowed and attacked the convoy, which was shielded by low clouds and Japanese fighters. The Allies claimed to have shot down 69 Japanese aircraft for the loss of 10 of their own. An RAAF Consolidated PBY Catalina sank the transport. Although destroyers rescued 739 of the 1,100 troops on board, the ship took with it all of Okabe's medical supplies. Another transport,, was so badly damaged at Lae by USAAF North American B-25 Mitchells that it had to be beached. Nonetheless, the convoy succeeded in reaching Lae on 7 January and landing its troops, but Okabe was defeated in the Battle of Wau. Most of the 20th Division was landed at Wewak from naval high speed transports on 19 January 1943. The bulk of the 41st Division followed on 12 February. Imamura and Vice Admiral Gunichi Mikawa, the commander of the South East Area Fleet, developed a plan to move the command post of the headquarters of the Japanese XVIII Army and the main body of the 51st Division from Rabaul to Lae on 3 March, followed by moving the remainder of the 20th Division to Madang on 10 March. This plan was acknowledged to be risky because Allied air power in the area was strong. The XVIII Army staff held war games that predicted losses of four out of ten transports, and between 30 and 40 aircraft. They gave the operation only a 50–50 chance of success. On the other hand, if the troops were landed at Madang, they faced a march of more than over inhospitable swamp, mountain and jungle terrain without roads. To augment the three naval and two army fighter groups in the area assigned to protect the convoy, the Imperial Japanese Navy temporarily detached 18 fighters from the aircraft carrier's fighter group from Truk to Kavieng.", "The Allies soon began detecting signs of preparations for a new convoy. A Japanese floatplane of the type normally used for anti-submarine patrols in advance of convoys was sighted on 7 February 1943. The Allied Air Forces South West Pacific Area commander – Lieutenant General George Kenney – ordered an increase in reconnaissance patrols over Rabaul. On 14 February, aerial photographs were taken that showed 79 vessels in port, including 45 merchant ships and six transports. It was clear that another convoy was being prepared, but its destination was unknown. On 16 February, naval codebreakers in Melbourne (FRUMEL) and Washington, D.C. finished decrypting and translating a coded message revealing the Japanese intention to land convoys at Wewak, Madang and Lae. Subsequently, codebreakers decrypted a message from the Japanese 11th Air Fleet to the effect that destroyers and six transports would reach Lae about 5 March. Another report indicated that they would reach Lae by 12 March. On 22 February, reconnaissance aircraft reported 59 merchant vessels in the harbour at Rabaul. Kenney read this Ultra intelligence in the office of the Supreme Allied Commander, South West Pacific Area – General Douglas MacArthur – on 25 February. The prospect of an additional 6,900 Japanese troops in the Lae area greatly disturbed MacArthur, as they might seriously affect his plans to capture and develop the area. Kenney wrote out orders, which were sent by courier, for Brigadier General Ennis Whitehead, the deputy commander of the Fifth Air Force, and the commander of its Advance Echelon (ADVON) in New Guinea. Under the Fifth Air Force's unusual command arrangements, Whitehead controlled the Allied Air Forces units of all types in New Guinea. This included the RAAF units there, which were grouped as No. 9 Operational Group RAAF, under the command of Air Commodore Joe Hewitt. Kenney informed Whitehead of the proposed convoy date, and warned him about the usual Japanese pre-convoy air attack. He also urged that flying hours be cut back so as to allow for a large strike on the convoy, and instructed him to move forward as many aircraft as possible so that they could be close to the nearby captured airfields around Dobodura, where they would not be subject to the vagaries of weather over the Owen Stanley Range. Kenney flew up to Port Moresby on 26 February, where he met with Whitehead. The two generals inspected fighter and bomber units in the area, and agreed to attack the Japanese convoy in the Vitiaz Strait. Kenney returned to Brisbane on 28 February.", "In the South West Pacific, a conventional strategic bombing campaign was out of the question, as industrial targets in Japan were well beyond the range of even the largest strategic bombers operating from bases in Australia and New Guinea. Therefore, the primary mission of the Allied bomber force was interdiction of Japanese supply lines, especially the sea lanes. The results of the effort against the Japanese convoy in January were very disappointing; some 416 sorties had been flown with only two ships sunk and three damaged, so clearly, a change of tactics was in order. Group Captain Bill Garing, an RAAF officer on Kenney's staff with considerable experience in air-sea operations, including a tour of duty in Europe, recommended that Japanese convoys be subjected to simultaneous attack from different altitudes and directions. Major Paul I. \"Pappy\" Gunn and his men at the 81st Depot Repair Squadron in Townsville, Queensland, modified some USAAF Douglas A-20 Havoc light bombers by installing four machine guns in their noses in September 1942. Two fuel tanks were added, giving the aircraft more range. An attempt was then made in December 1942 to create a longer range attack aircraft by doing the same thing to a B-25 medium bomber to convert it to a \"commerce destroyer\", but this proved to be somewhat more difficult. The resulting aircraft was nose-heavy despite added lead ballast in the tail, and the vibrations caused by firing the machine guns were enough to make rivets pop out of the skin of the aircraft. The tail guns and belly turrets were removed, the latter being of little use if the aircraft was flying low. The new tactic of having the B-25 strafe ships would be tried in this battle. The Allied Air Forces also adopted other innovative tactics. In February 1942, the RAAF began experimenting with skip bombing, an anti-shipping technique used by the British and Germans. Flying only a few dozen feet above the sea toward their targets, bombers would release their bombs which would then, ideally, ricochet across the surface of the water and explode at the side of the target ship, under it, or just over it. A similar technique was mast-height bombing, in which bombers would approach the target at low altitude,, at about, and then drop down to mast height, at about from the target. They would release their bombs at around, aiming directly at the side of the ship. The Battle of the Bismarck Sea would demonstrate that this was the more successful of the two tactics. The two techniques were not mutually exclusive: a bomber could drop two bombs, skipping the first and launching the second at mast height. Practice missions were carried out against the wreck of the, a liner that had run aground in 1923. The Fifth Air Force had two heavy bomber groups. The 43rd Bombardment Group was equipped with about 55 Boeing B-17 Flying Fortresses. Most of these had seen hard war service over the previous six months and the availability rate was low. The recently arrived 90th Bombardment Group was equipped with Consolidated B-24 Liberators, but they too had maintenance problems. There were two medium groups: the 38th Bombardment Group, equipped with B-25 Mitchells, and the 22nd Bombardment Group, equipped with Martin B-26 Marauders, but two of the former's four squadrons had been diverted to the South Pacific Area, and the latter had taken so many losses that it had been withdrawn to Australia to be rebuilt. There was also a light group, the 3rd Attack Group, equipped with a mixture of Douglas A-20 Havocs and B-25 Mitchells. This group was not just short of aircraft; it was critically short of aircrew as well. To make up the numbers the USAAF turned to the RAAF for help. Australian aircrew were assigned to most of the group's aircraft, serving in every role except aircraft commander. In addition to the RAAF aircrew with the USAAF squadrons, there were RAAF units in the Port Moresby area. No. 30 Squadron RAAF, which had arrived in Port Moresby in September 1942, was equipped with the Bristol Beaufighter. Both the aircraft and the squadron proved adept at low level attacks. Also in the Port Moresby area were the 35th and 49th Fighter Groups, both equipped with Bell P-39, Curtiss P-40 Warhawk and Lockheed P-38 Lightning fighters, but only the last were suitable for long range escort missions.", "", "see Battle of the Bismarck Sea order of battle", "The Japanese convoy – comprising eight destroyers and eight troop transports with an escort of approximately 100 fighters – assembled and departed from Simpson Harbour in Rabaul on 28 February. During the January operation, a course was followed that hugged the south coast of New Britain. This had made it easy to provide air cover, but being close to the airfields also made it possible for the Allied Air Forces to attack both the convoy and the airfields at the same time. This time, a route was chosen along the north coast, in the hope that the Allies would be deceived into thinking that the convoy's objective was Madang. Allied air attacks on the convoy at this point would have to fly over New Britain, allowing interdiction from Japanese air bases there, but the final leg of the voyage would be particularly dangerous, because the convoy would have to negotiate the restricted waters of the Vitiaz Strait. The Japanese named the convoy \"Operation 81.\" The destroyers carried 958 troops while the transports took 5,954. All the ships were combat loaded to expedite unloading at Lae. The commander of the Japanese XVIII Army – Lieutenant General Hatazō Adachi – travelled on the destroyer, while that of the 51st Division – Lieutenant General Hidemitsu Nakano – was on board the destroyer. The escort commander – Rear Admiral Masatomi Kimura of the 3rd Destroyer Flotilla – flew his flag from the destroyer. The other five destroyers were,,, and. They escorted seven Army transports: (2,716 gross register tons), (950 tons), (5,493 tons), (6,494 tons), (3,793 tons), (2,883 tons) and (6,870 tons). Rounding out the force was the lone Navy transport (8,125 tons). All the ships carried troops, equipment and ammunition, except for the \"Kembu Maru\", which carried 1,000 drums of avgas and 650 drums of other fuel. The convoy, moving at, was not detected for some time, because of two tropical storms that struck the Solomon and Bismarck Seas between 27 February and 1 March, but at about 15:00 on 1 March, the crew of a patrolling B-24 Liberator heavy bomber spotted the convoy. Eight B-17 Flying Fortresses were sent to the location but failed to locate the ships. At dawn on 2 March, a force of six RAAF A-20 Bostons attacked Lae to reduce its ability to provide support. At about 10:00, another Liberator found the convoy. Eight B-17s took off to attack the ships, followed an hour later by another 20. They found the convoy and attacked with bombs from. They claimed to have sunk up to three merchant ships. \"Kyokusei Maru\" had sunk carrying 1,200 army troops, and two other transports, \"Teiyo Maru\" and \"Nojima\", were damaged. Eight Japanese fighters were destroyed and 13 damaged in the day's action. The destroyers \"Yukikaze\" and \"Asagumo\" plucked 950 survivors of \"Kyokusei Maru\" from the water. These two destroyers, being faster than the convoy since its speed was dictated by the slower transports, broke away from the group to disembark the survivors at Lae. The destroyers resumed their escort duties the next day. The convoy – without the troop transport and two destroyers – was attacked again on the evening of 2 March by 11 B-17s, with minor damage to one transport. During the night, PBY Catalina flying boats from No. 11 Squadron RAAF took over the task of shadowing the convoy.", "By 3 March, the convoy was within range of the air base at Milne Bay, and eight Bristol Beaufort torpedo bombers from No. 100 Squadron RAAF took off from there. Because of bad weather only two found the convoy, and neither scored any hits, but the weather cleared after they rounded the Huon Peninsula. A force of 90 Allied aircraft took off from Port Moresby, and headed for Cape Ward Hunt, while 22 A-20 Bostons of No. 22 Squadron RAAF attacked the Japanese fighter base at Lae, reducing the convoy's air cover. Attacks on the base continued throughout the day. At 10:00, 13 B-17s reached the convoy and bombed from medium altitude of 7,000 feet, causing the ships to maneuver, which dispersed the convoy formation and reduced their concentrated anti-aircraft firepower. The B-17s attracted Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters, which were in turn attacked by the P-38 Lightning escorts. A B-17 broke up in the air, and its crew took to their parachutes. Japanese fighter pilots machine-gunned some of the B-17 crew members as they descended and attacked others in the water after they landed. Five of the Japanese fighters strafing the B-17 aircrew were promptly engaged and shot down by three Lightnings, which were also lost. The Allied fighter pilots claimed 15 Zeros destroyed, while the B-17 crews claimed five more. Actual Japanese fighter losses for the day were seven destroyed and three damaged. B-25s arrived shortly afterward and released their 500-pound bombs between 3,000 and 6,000 feet, reportedly causing two Japanese vessels to collide. The result of the B-17 and B-25 sorties scored few hits but left the convoy ships separated making them vulnerable to strafers and masthead bombers, and with the Japanese anti-aircraft fire being focused on the medium-altitude bombers this left an opening for minimum altitude attacks. The 13 Beaufighters from No. 30 Squadron RAAF approached the convoy at low level to give the impression they were Beauforts making a torpedo attack. The ships turned to face them, the standard procedure to present a smaller target to torpedo bombers, allowing the Beaufighters to maximise the damage they inflicted on the ships' anti-aircraft guns, bridges and crews in strafing runs with their four nose cannons and six wing-mounted machine guns. On board one of the Beaufighters was cameraman Damien Parer, who shot dramatic footage of the battle; it was later published in \"The Bismarck Convoy Smashed\". Immediately afterward, seven B-25s of the 38th Bombardment Group's 71st Bombardment Squadron bombed from about, while six from the 405th Bombardment Squadron attacked at mast height. According to the official RAAF release on the Beaufighter attack, \"enemy crews were slain beside their guns, deck cargo burst into flame, superstructures toppled and burned\". Garrett Middlebrook, a co-pilot in one of the B-25s, described the ferocity of the strafing attacks: \"Shirayuki\" was the first ship to be hit, by a combination of strafing and bombing attacks. Almost all the men on the bridge became casualties, including Kimura, who was wounded. One bomb hit started a magazine explosion that caused the stern to break off, and the ship to sink. Her crew was transferred to \"Shikinami\", and \"Shirayuki\" was scuttled. The destroyer \"Tokitsukaze\" was also hit and fatally damaged. Its crew was taken off by \"Yukikaze\". The destroyer \"Arashio\" was hit, and collided with the transport \"Nojima\", disabling her. Both the destroyer and the transport were abandoned, and \"Nojima\" was later sunk by an air attack. Fourteen B-25s returned that afternoon, reportedly claiming 17 hits or near misses. By this time, a third of the transports were sunk or sinking. As the Beaufighters and B-25s had expended their munitions, some USAAF A-20 Havocs of the 3rd Attack Group joined in. Another five hits were claimed by B-17s of the 43rd Bombardment Group from higher altitudes. During the afternoon, further attacks from USAAF B-25s and Bostons of No. 22 Squadron RAAF followed. All seven of the transports were hit and most were burning or sinking about south east of Finschhafen, along with the destroyers \"Shirayuki\", \"Tokitsukaze\" and \"Arashio\". Four of the destroyers – \"Shikinami\", \"Yukikaze\", \"Uranami\" and \"Asagumo\" – picked up as many survivors as possible and then retired to Rabaul, accompanied by the destroyer, which had come from Rabaul to assist. That night, a force of ten U.S. Navy PT boats – under the command of Lieutenant Commander Barry Atkins – set out to attack the convoy. Two boats struck submerged debris and were forced to return. The other eight arrived off Lae in the early hours of 4 March. Atkins spotted a fire that turned out to be the transport \"Oigawa Maru\". \"PT-143\" and \"PT-150\" fired torpedoes at it, sinking the crippled vessel. In the morning, a fourth destroyer – \"Asashio\" – was sunk when a B-17 hit her with a bomb while she was picking up survivors from \"Arashio\". Only one destroyer, \"Yukikaze\", was undamaged among the four surviving destroyers. Some 2,700 survivors were taken to Rabaul by the destroyers. On 4 March, another 1,000 or so survivors were adrift on rafts. On the evenings of 3–5 March, PT boats and planes attacked Japanese rescue vessels, as well as the survivors from the sunken vessels on life rafts and swimming or floating in the sea. This was later justified on the grounds that rescued servicemen would have been rapidly landed at their military destination and promptly returned to active service, as well as being retaliation for the Japanese fighter planes attacking survivors of the downed B-17 bomber. While many of the Allied aircrew accepted these attacks as being necessary, others were sickened. On 6 March, the Japanese submarines and picked up 170 survivors. Two days later, \"I-26\" found another 54 and put them ashore at Lae. Hundreds made their way to various islands. One band of 18 survivors landed on Kiriwina, where they were captured by \"PT-114\". Another made its way to Guadalcanal, only to be killed by an American patrol. On 4 March the Japanese mounted a retaliatory raid on the Buna airfield, the site of a base that the Allies had captured back in January, though the fighters did little damage. Kenney wrote in his memoir that the Japanese reprisal occurred \"after the horse had been stolen from the barn. It was a good thing that the Nip air commander was stupid. Those hundred airplanes would have made our job awfully hard if they had taken part in the big fight over the convoy on March 3rd.\" On Goodenough Island, between 8 and 14 March 1943, Australian patrols from the 47th Infantry Battalion found and killed 72 Japanese, captured 42 and found another nine dead on a raft. One patrol killed eight Japanese who had landed in two flat-bottomed boats, in which were found some documents in sealed tins. On translation by the Allied Translator and Interpreter Section, one document turned out to be a copy of the Japanese Army List, with the names and postings of every officer in the Japanese Army. It therefore provided a complete order of battle of the Japanese Army, including many units that had never before been reported. A mention of any Japanese officer could now be correlated with his unit. Copies were made available to intelligence units in every theatre of war against Japan.", "The battle was a disaster for the Japanese. Out of 6,900 troops who were badly needed in New Guinea, only about 1,200 made it to Lae. Another 2,700 were saved by destroyers and submarines and returned to Rabaul. About 2,890 Japanese soldiers and sailors were killed. The Allies lost 13 aircrew, 10 of whom were lost in combat while three others died in an accident. There were also eight wounded. Aircraft losses were one B-17 and three P-38s in combat, and one B-25 and one Beaufighter in accidents. MacArthur issued a communiqué on 7 March stating that 22 ships, including twelve transports, three cruisers and seven destroyers, had been sunk along with 12,792 troops. Army Air Force Headquarters in Washington, D.C. looked into the matter in mid-1943 and concluded that there were only 16 ships involved, but GHQ SWPA considered the original account accurate. The victory was a propaganda boon for the Allies, with one United States newsreel claiming the Japanese had lost 22 ships, 15,000 troops, and 102 aircraft. The Allied Air Forces had used 233,847 rounds of ammunition, and dropped 261 500-pound and 253 thousand-pound bombs. They claimed 19 hits and 42 near misses with the former, and 59 hits and 39 near misses from the latter. Of the 137 bombs dropped in low level attacks, 48, or 35 percent, were claimed to have hit, but only 29, or 7.5 percent, of the 387 bombs dropped from medium altitude. This compared favourably with efforts in August and September 1942 when only 3 percent of bombs dropped were claimed to have scored hits. It was noted that the high and medium altitude attacks scored few hits but dispersed the convoy, while the strafing runs from the Beaufighters had knocked out many of the ships' anti-aircraft defences. Aircraft attacking from multiple directions had confused and overwhelmed the Japanese defences, resulting in lower casualties and more accurate bombing. The results therefore vindicated not just the tactics of mast height attack, but of mounting coordinated attacks from multiple directions. The Japanese estimated that at least 29 bombs had hit a ship during the battle. This was a big improvement over the Battle of Wau back in January, when Allied aircraft attacked a Japanese convoy consisting of five destroyers and five troop transports travelling from Rabaul to Lae, but managed to sink just one transport and beach another. There was no doubt that the Japanese had suffered a major defeat. Imamura's chief of staff flew to Imperial General Headquarters to report on the disaster. It was decided that there would be no more attempts to land troops at Lae. The losses incurred in the Bismarck Sea caused grave concern for the security of Lae and Rabaul. This resulted in a change of strategy. On 25 March a joint Army-Navy Central Agreement on South West Area Operations gave operations in New Guinea priority over those in the Solomon Islands campaign. The XVIII Army was allocated additional shipping, ordnance and anti-aircraft units, which were sent to Wewak or Hansa Bay. Of the defeat, Rabaul staff officer Masatake Okumiya said, \"Our losses for this single battle were fantastic. Not during the entire savage fighting at Guadalcanal did we suffer a single comparable blow. We knew we could no longer run cargo ships or even fast destroyer transports to any front on the north coast of New Guinea, east of Wewak.\" The planned movement of the 20th Division to Madang was revised in the light of events in the Bismarck Sea. The operation was postponed for two days, and the destination was altered from Madang to Hansa Bay further west. To reduce the Allied air threat, the Allied airfield at Wau was bombed on 9 March, and that at Dobodura on 11 March. Three Allied aircraft were destroyed on the ground, and one P-40 was lost in the air, but the Allied fighters claimed to have shot down nine Japanese planes. The transports reached Hansa Bay unscathed on 12 March, and the troops made their way down to Madang on foot or in barges. The 20th Division then became involved in an attempt to construct a road from Madang to Lae through the Ramu and Markham Valleys. It toiled on the road for the next few months, but its efforts were ultimately frustrated by New Guinea's weather and the rugged terrain of the Finisterre Range. Some submarines were made available for supply runs to Lae, but they did not have the capacity to support the troops there by themselves. An operation was carried out on 29 March in which four destroyers successfully delivered 800 troops to Finschhafen, but the growing threat from Allied aircraft led to the development of routes along the coast of New Guinea from Madang to Finschhafen, and along both the north and south coasts of New Britain to Finschhafen, and thence to Lae using Army landing craft. It was by this means that the remainder of the 51st Division finally made the trip to Lae in May. The necessity of delivering troops and supplies to the front in this manner caused immense difficulties for the Japanese in their attempts to halt further Allied advances. After the war, Japanese officers at Rabaul estimated that around 20,000 troops were lost in transit to New Guinea from Rabaul, a significant factor in Japan's ultimate defeat in the New Guinea campaign. In April, Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto used the additional air resources allocated to Rabaul in Operation I-Go, an air offensive designed to redress the situation by destroying Allied ships and aircraft in New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. The operation was indecisive, and Yamamoto himself became a casualty of Allied intelligence and air power in the Solomon Islands on 18 April 1943.", "In 1954, O. G. Haywood, Jr., wrote an article in the \"\" in which game theory was used to model the decision-making in the battle. Since then, the name of the battle has been applied to this particular type of two-person zero-sum game." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "Politics.", "Federalism and state powers.", "Historical development." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The majority of the land area in the states of Upper Austria, Lower Austria, Vienna, and Burgenland is situated in the Danube valley and thus consists almost completely of accessible and easily arable terrain. The other five states, in contrast, are located in the Alps and thus are comparatively unsuitable for agriculture. Their terrain is also relatively unfavourable to heavy industry and long-distance trade. Accordingly, the population of what now is the Republic of Austria has been concentrated in the former four states since prehistoric times. Austria's most densely populated state is the city-state of Vienna, the heart of what is Austria's only metropolitan area. Lower Austria ranks only fourth with regard to population density even though it contains Vienna's suburbs; this is due to large areas of land being predominantly agricultural. The alpine state of Tyrol, the less alpine but geographically more remote state of Carinthia, and the non-alpine but near-exclusively agricultural state of Burgenland are Austria's least densely populated states. The wealthy alpine state of Vorarlberg is something of an anomaly due to its small size, isolated location and distinct Alemannic culture. The following ranked list of Austrian states cites official Statistik Austria population on 1 January 2015. Areas are given in square kilometres, population density is expressed in inhabitants per square kilometre. For the purpose of the above list, a city is a community defined to be a city by Austrian law; a town is a community not defined to be a city. Many of Austria's cities have population figures on the order of ten thousand inhabitants; some are even smaller.", "The nine states (Bundesländer) of Austria, here listed alphabetically by name, are:", "Each Austrian state has an elected legislature, the \"Landtag\", a state government, the \"Landesregierung\", and a governor, the \"Landeshauptmann or Landeshauptfrau\". Elections are held every five years (six years in Upper Austria). The state constitution, among other things, determines how the seats in the state government are assigned to political parties, with most states having a system of proportional representation based on the number of delegates in the \"Landtag\" in place. The \"Landeshauptmann\" is always elected by the \"Landtag\", meaning that it may be necessary to form a coalition in order to secure the election of a particular candidate. Vienna, the capital of Austria, plays a double role as city and \"Bundesland\", meaning that the mayor serves as governor and the city council as Landtag at the same time. Austrian federalism is largely theoretical as the states are granted few legislative powers. The federal constitution initially granted all legislative powers to the states, but many powers have been subsequently taken away, and only a few remain, such as planning and zoning codes, nature protection, hunting, fishing, farming, youth protection, certain issues of public health and welfare and the right to levy certain taxes. All other matters, including but not limited to criminal law, civil law, corporate law, most aspects of economic law, defense, most educational matters and academia, telecommunications, and much of the healthcare system are regulated by federal laws. There is also no judiciary of the Länder, since the federal constitution defines the judiciary as an exclusively federal matter. This centralisation follows a historic model where central power during the time of the empire was largely concentrated in Vienna. However, the state governor (\"Landeshauptmann\") is in charge of the administration of much of federal administrative law within the respective state, which makes this post an important political position. Furthermore, state competences include zoning laws, planning issues and public procurement on the regional level, which adds considerable weight to state politics. As a practical matter, there have been cases where states have been able to block projects endorsed by the federal government, as in the case of a railway tunnel that was to be built below the Semmering. Austrian \"Länder\" are endowed formally and practically with a much smaller degree of autonomy than American or German states. Even so, Austrians tend to identify passionately with their respective \"Land\" and often defend what little independent governance their states have. It is not unheard of for Austrians to consider themselves, for instance, Tyrolean first, Austrian second.", "In terms of boundaries, the present-day states arose from the crown lands of Austria-Hungary, an extensive multiethnic realm whose German-speaking nucleus emerged as the Republic of Austria after the dissolution of the Dual Monarchy at the end of World War I. The states of Upper Austria and Lower Austria are essentially equivalent to what were since 1783/84 the two autonomous halves of the Archduchy of Austria, a principality which formed the empire's historic heartland. Salzburg is coterminous with the former Austro-Hungarian Duchy of Salzburg (the former Archbishopric). Similarly, the state of Carinthia descends from the Duchy of Carinthia, the state of Styria descends from the Duchy of Styria, and the state of Tyrol descends from the Princely County of Tyrol; these states had to cede territories to Italy and Yugoslavia when Austria emerged in its present form. Also, the state of Vorarlberg had been a semi-autonomous part of the County of Tyrol since 1861. The city-state of Vienna was a part of Lower Austria up until 1921. The state of Burgenland is made up of the predominantly German-speaking area that the Kingdom of Hungary until 1921 had to cede to the First Austrian Republic after World War I as a result of the Treaties of Trianon and Saint-Germain-en-Laye." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definitions and concepts.", "\"Varna\", \"Jāti\" and Caste.", "\"Varna\".", "\"Jati\".", "Caste.", "Origins.", "Perspectives.", "Ritual kingship model.", "Vedic \"varnas\".", "\"Jatis\".", "Untouchable outcastes and the varna system.", "History.", "Vedic period (1500–1000 BCE).", "Later Vedic period (1000–600 BCE).", "Second urbanisation (500–200 BCE).", "Classical period (320–650 CE).", "Late classical and early medieval period (650 to 1400 CE).", "Medieval era, Islamic Sultanates and Mughal empire period (1000 to 1750).", "Later-Mughal period (1700 to 1850).", "During British rule (1857 to 1947).", "Basis.", "Race science.", "Enforcement.", "Further development.", "Other theories and observations.", "Contemporary India.", "Caste politics.", "Loosening of caste system.", "Caste-related violence.", "Affirmative action.", "Recognition.", "Mandal commission.", "Other Backward Classes (OBC).", "Effects of government aid.", "Influence on other religions.", "Christians.", "Muslims.", "Sikh.", "Jains.", "Distribution.", "Criticism.", "Indian social reformers.", "Basava.", "Jyotirao Phule.", "Vivekananda.", "Gandhi.", "B. R. Ambedkar.", "Caste politics.", "Economic inequality.", "Apartheid and discrimination.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "", "\"Varna\" literally means \"type, order, colour or class\" and was a framework for grouping people into classes, first used in Vedic Indian society. It is referred to frequently in the ancient Indian texts. The four", "\"Jati\", meaning \"birth\", is mentioned much less often in ancient texts, where it is clearly distinguished from \"varna\". There are four \"varnas\" but thousands of \"jatis\". The \"jatis\" are complex social groups that lack universally applicable definition or characteristic, and have been more flexible and diverse than was previously often assumed. Certain scholars of caste have considered \"jati\" to have its basis in religion, assuming that in India the sacred elements of life envelop the secular aspects; for example, the anthropologist Louis Dumont described the ritual rankings that exist within the \"jati\"", "The term \"caste\" is not originally an Indian word, though it is now widely used, both in English and in Indian languages. According to the \"Oxford English Dictionary\", it is derived from the Portuguese \"casta\", meaning \"race, lineage, breed\" and, originally, \"'pure or unmixed (stock or breed)\". There is no exact translation in Indian languages, but \"varna\" and \"jati\" are the two most approximate terms.", "", "There are at least two perspectives for the origins of the caste system in ancient and medieval India, which focus on either ideological factors or on socio-economic factors. The first school has focused", "According to Samuel, referencing George L. Hart, central aspects of the later Indian caste system may originate from the ritual kingship system prior to the arrival of Brahmanism, Buddhism and Jainism in India. The system is seen in the South Indian Tamil literature from the Sangam period, dated to the third to sixth centuries CE. This theory discards the Indo-Aryan \"varna\"", "The \"varnas\" originated in Vedic society (c. 1500–500 BCE). The first three groups, Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishya have parallels with other Indo-European societies, while the addition of the Shudras is probably a Brahmanical invention from northern India. The \"varna\" system is propounded in revered Hindu religious texts, and understood as idealised human callings. The \"Purusha Sukta\" of the \"Rigveda\" and \"Manusmriti\"s comment on it, being the oft-cited texts. Counter to these textual classifications, many revered Hindu texts and doctrines question and disagree with this system of social classification. Scholars have questioned the \"varna\" verse in \"Rigveda\", noting that the \"varna\" therein is", "Jeaneane Fowler, a professor of philosophy and religious studies, states that it is impossible to determine how and why the \"jatis\" came in existence. Susan Bayly, on the other hand, states that \"jati\" system emerged because it offered a source of advantage in an era of pre-Independence poverty, lack of institutional human rights, volatile political environment, and economic insecurity. According to social anthropologist Dipankar Gupta, guilds developed during the Mauryan period and crystallised into \"jatis\" in post-Mauryan times with the emergence of feudalism in India, which", "The Vedic texts neither mention the concept of untouchable people nor any practice of untouchability. The rituals in the Vedas ask the noble or king to eat with the commoner from the same vessel. Later Vedic texts ridicule some professions, but the concept of untouchability is not found in them. The post-Vedic texts, particularly \"Manusmriti\" mentions outcastes and suggests that they be ostracised. Recent scholarship states that the discussion of outcastes in post-Vedic texts is different from the system widely discussed in colonial era Indian literature, and in Dumont's structural theory on caste system in India. Patrick Olivelle, a professor of Sanskrit and Indian Religions and credited with modern translations of Vedic literature, Dharma-sutras and Dharma-sastras, states that ancient and medieval Indian texts do not support the ritual pollution, purity-impurity premise implicit in", "", "During the time of the Rigveda, there were two \"varnas\": \"arya varna\" and \"dasa varna\". The distinction originally arose from tribal divisions. The Vedic tribes regarded themselves as \"arya\" (the noble ones) and the rival tribes were called \"dasa\", \"dasyu\" and \"pani\". The \"dasas\" were frequent allies of the Aryan tribes, and they were probably assimilated into the Aryan society, giving rise to a class distinction. Many \"dasas\" were however in a servile position, giving rise to the eventual meaning of \"dasa\" as servant or slave. The \"Rigvedic\" society was not", "In an early Upanishad, Shudra is referred to as \"Pūşan\" or nourisher, suggesting that Shudras were the tillers of the soil. But soon afterwards, Shudras are not counted among the tax-payers and they are said to be given away along with the", "Our knowledge of this period is supplemented by Pali Buddhist texts. Whereas the Brahmanical texts speak of the four-fold \"varna\" system, the Buddhist texts present an alternative picture of the society, stratified along the lines of \"jati\", \"kula\" and occupation. It is likely that the \"varna\" system, while being a part of the Brahmanical ideology, was not practically operative in the society. In the Buddhist texts, Brahmin and Kshatriya are described as \"jatis\" rather than \"varnas\". They were in fact the \"jatis\" of high rank. The \"jatis\" of low rank were mentioned as \"chandala\" and occupational classes like bamboo weavers, hunters, chariot-makers and sweepers. The concept of \"kulas\" was broadly similar. Along with Brahmins and Kshatriyas, a class called \"gahapatis\" (literally householders, but effectively propertied classes) was also included among high \"kulas\". The people of high \"kulas\" were engaged in occupations of high rank, \"viz\"., agriculture, trade, cattle-keeping, computing, accounting and writing, and those of low \"kulas\" were engaged", "The Mahabharata, whose final version is estimated to have been completed by the end of the fourth century, discusses the \"varna\" system in section 12.181, presenting two models. The first model describes \"varna\" as a colour-based system, through a character named Bhrigu, \"Brahmins \"varna\" was white, Kshatriyas was red, Vaishyas was yellow, and the Shudras' black\". This description is questioned by Bharadvaja who says that colors are seen among all the \"varnas\", that desire, anger, fear, greed, grief, anxiety, hunger and toil prevails over all human beings, that bile and blood flow from all human bodies, so what distinguishes the \"varnas\", he asks. The Mahabharata then declares, \"There is no distinction of \"varnas\". This whole universe is Brahman. It was created formerly by Brahma, came to be classified by acts.\" The epic then recites a behavioural model for \"varna\", that those who were inclined to anger, pleasures and boldness attained the Kshatriya \"varna\"; those who were inclined to cattle rearing and living off the plough attained the Vaishya \"varna\";", "Scholars have tried to locate historical evidence for the existence and nature of \"varna\" and \"jati\" in documents and inscriptions of medieval India. Supporting evidence for the existence of \"varna\" and \"jati\" systems in medieval India has been elusive, and contradicting evidence has emerged. \"Varna\" is rarely mentioned in the extensive medieval era records of Andhra Pradesh, for example. This has led Cynthia Talbot, a professor of History and Asian Studies, to question whether \"varna\" was socially significant in the daily lives of this region. The mention of \"jati\" is even rarer, through the 13th century. Two rare temple donor records from warrior families of the 14th century claim to be Shudras. One states that Shudras are the bravest, the other states that Shudras are the purest. Richard Eaton, a professor of History, writes, \"anyone could become warrior regardless of social origins, nor do the \"jati\"—another pillar of alleged traditional Indian society—appear as features of people's identity. Occupations were fluid.\" Evidence shows, according to Eaton, that Shudras were part of the nobility, and many \"father and sons had different professions, suggesting that social", "Early and mid 20th century Muslim historians, such as Hashimi in 1927 and Qureshi in 1962, proposed that \"caste system was established before the arrival of Islam\", and it and \"a nomadic savage lifestyle\" in the northwest Indian subcontinent were the primary cause why Sindhi non-Muslims \"embraced Islam in flocks\" when Arab Muslim armies invaded the region. According to this hypothesis, the mass conversions occurred from the lower caste Hindus and Mahayana Buddhists who had become \"corroded from within by the infiltration of Hindu beliefs and practices\". This theory is now widely believed to be baseless and false. Derryl MacLein, a professor of social history and Islamic studies, states that historical evidence does not support this theory, whatever evidence is available suggests that Muslim", "Susan Bayly, an anthropologist, notes that \"caste is not and never has been a fixed fact of Indian life\" and the caste system as we know it today, as a \"ritualised scheme of social stratification,\" developed in two stages during the post-Mughal period, in 18th and early 19th century. Three sets of value played an important role in this development: priestly hierarchy, kingship, and armed ascetics. With the Islamic Mughal empire falling apart in the 18th century, regional post-Mughal ruling elites and new dynasties from diverse religious, geographical and linguistic background attempted to assert their power in different parts of India. Bayly states that these obscure post-Mughal elites associated themselves with kings, priests and ascetics, deploying the symbols of caste and kinship to divide their populace and consolidate their power. In addition, in this fluid stateless environment, some of the previously casteless segments of society grouped themselves into caste groups. However, in 18th century writes Bayly, India-wide networks of merchants, armed ascetics and armed tribal people often ignored these ideologies of caste. Most people did not treat caste", "Although the \"varnas\" and \"jatis\" have pre-modern origins, the caste system as it exists today is the result of developments during the post-Mughal period and the British colonial regime, which made caste organisation a central mechanism of administration.", "\"Jati\" were the basis of caste ethnology during the British colonial era. In the 1881 census and thereafter, colonial ethnographers used caste (\"jati\") headings, to count and classify people in what was then British India (now India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Burma). The 1891 census included 60 sub-groups each subdivided into six occupational and racial categories, and the number increased in subsequent censuses. The British colonial era census caste tables, states Susan Bayly, \"ranked, standardised and cross-referenced jati listings for Indians on principles similar to zoology and botanical classifications, aiming to establish who was superior to whom by virtue of their supposed purity, occupational origins and collective moral worth\". While bureaucratic British officials completed reports on their zoological classification of Indian people, some British officials criticised these exercises as being little more than a caricature of the reality of caste system in India. The British colonial officials used the", "Colonial administrator Herbert Hope Risley, an exponent of race science, used the ratio of", "", "Assumptions about the caste system in Indian society, along with its nature, evolved during British rule. Corbridge concludes that British policies of divide and rule of India's numerous princely sovereign states, as well as enumeration of the population into rigid categories during the 10-year census, particularly with the 1901 and 1911 census, contributed towards the hardening of caste identities. Social unrest during 1920s led to a change in this policy. From then on, the colonial administration began a policy of positive discrimination by reserving a certain percentage of government jobs for the lower castes. In the", "Smelser and Lipset propose in their review of Hutton's study of caste system in colonial India the theory that individual mobility across caste lines may have been minimal in British India because it was ritualistic. They state that this may be because the colonial social stratification worked with the pre-existing ritual caste system. The emergence of a caste system in the modern form, during the early British colonial rule in the 18th and 19th century, was not uniform in South Asia. Claude Markovits, a French historian of colonial India, writes that Hindu society in north and west India (Sindh), in late 18th century and much of 19th century, lacked a proper caste system, their religious identities were fluid (a combination of Saivism, Vaisnavism, Sikhism), and the Brahmins were not the widespread priestly group (but the \"Bawas\" were). Markovits writes, \"if religion was not a structuring factor, neither was caste\" among the Hindu merchants group of northwest India.", "", "Societal stratification, and the inequality that comes with it, still exists in India, and has been thoroughly criticised. Government policies aim at reducing this inequality by reservation, quota for", "Leonard and Weller have surveyed marriage and genealogical records to study patterns of exogamous inter-caste and endogamous intra-caste marriages in a regional population of India in 1900–1975. They report a striking presence of exogamous marriages across caste lines over time, particularly since the 1970s. They propose education, economic development,", "Independent India has witnessed caste-related violence. According to a 2005 UN report, approximately 31,440 cases of violent acts committed against Dalits were reported in 1996. The UN report claimed 1.33 cases of violent acts per 10,000 Dalit people. For context, the UN reported between 40 and 55 cases of violent acts per 10,000 people in developed countries in 2005. One example of such violence is the Khairlanji massacre of 2006.", "Article 15 of the Constitution of India prohibits discrimination based on caste and Article 17 declared the practice of untouchability to be illegal. In 1955, India enacted the Untouchability (Offences) Act (renamed in 1976, as the Protection of Civil Rights Act). It extended the reach of law, from intent to mandatory enforcement. The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act was passed in India in 1989.", "The Indian government officially recognises historically discriminated communities of India such as the untouchables under the designation of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, and certain economically backward Shudra castes as Other Backward Class. The Scheduled Castes are sometimes referred to as Dalit in contemporary literature. In 2001, Dalits comprised 16.2 percent of India's total population. Of the one billion Hindus in India, it is estimated that Hindu Forward caste comprises 26%, Other Backward", "The Mandal Commission was established in 1979 to \"identify the socially or educationally backward\" and to consider the question of seat reservations and quotas for people to redress caste discrimination. In 1980, the commission's report affirmed the affirmative action practice under Indian law, whereby additional members of lower castes—the other backward classes—were given exclusive access to another 27 percent of government jobs and slots in public universities, in", "There is substantial debate over the exact number of OBCs in India; it is generally estimated to be sizable, but many believe that it is lower than the figures quoted by either the Mandal Commission or the National Sample Survey. The reservation system has led to widespread protests, such as the 2006 Indian anti-reservation protests, with many complaining of reverse discrimination against the Forward Castes (the castes that do not qualify for the reservation). In May 2011, the government approved a poverty, religion and caste census to identify poverty in different social backgrounds. The census would also help the government to re-examine and possibly undo some of the policies which were formed", "In a 2008 study, Desai et al. focussed on education attainments of children and young adults aged 6–29, from lowest caste and tribal populations of India. They completed a national survey of over 100,000 households for each of the four survey years between 1983 and 2000. They found a significant increase in lower caste children in their odds of completing primary school. The number of Dalit children who completed either middle-, high- or college-level education increased three times faster than the national average, and the total number were statistically same for both lower and upper castes. However, the same study found that in 2000, the percentage of Dalit males never enrolled in a school was still more than twice the percentage of upper caste males never enrolled in", "While identified with Hinduism, caste systems are found in other religions on the Indian subcontinent, including other religions such as Buddhists, Christians and Muslims.", "Social stratification is found among the Christians in India based on caste as well as by their denomination and location. The caste distinction is based on their caste at the time that they or their ancestors converted to Christianity since the 16th century, they typically do not intermarry, and sit separately during prayers in Church. Duncan Forrester observes that \"Nowhere else in India is there a large and ancient Christian community which has in time immemorial been accorded a high status in the caste hierarchy.... Syrian Christian community", "Caste system has been observed among Muslims in India. They practice endogamy, hypergamy, hereditary occupations, avoid social mixing and have been stratified. There is some controversy if these characteristics make them social groups or castes of Islam. Indian Muslims are a mix of Sunni (majority), Shia and other sects of Islam. From the earliest days of Islam's arrival in South Asia, the Arab, Persian and Afghan Muslims have been part of the upper, noble caste. Some upper caste Hindus converted to Islam and became part of the governing group of Sultanates and Mughal Empire, who along with Arabs, Persians and Afghans came to be known as Ashrafs (or nobles). Below them are the middle caste Muslims called \"Ajlafs\", and the lowest status is those of the \"Arzals\". Anti-caste activists like Ambedkar called the \"Arzal\" caste among Muslims as the equivalent of Hindu untouchables, as did the controversial colonial British ethnographer Herbert Hope Risley. In Bengal, some Muslims refer to the social stratification", "Although the Sikh Gurus criticised the hierarchy of the caste system, one does exist in Sikh community. According to Sunrinder S, Jodhka, the Sikh religion does not advocate discrimination against any caste or creed, however, in practice, Sikhs belonging to the landowning dominant castes have not shed all their prejudices against the Dalits. While Dalits would be allowed entry into the village gurudwaras they would not be permitted to cook or serve langar (the communal meal). Therefore, wherever they could mobilise resources, the Dalits of Punjab have tried to construct their own gurudwara and other local level institutions in order to attain a certain degree of cultural autonomy. In 1953, the Government of India acceded to the demands of the", "Caste system in Jainism has existed for centuries, primarily in terms of endogamy, although, per Paul Dundas, in modern", "Table 1 is the distribution of population of each Religion by Caste Categories, obtained from merged sample of Schedule 1 and Schedule 10 of available data from the National Sample Survey Organisation", "There has been criticism of the caste system from both within and outside of India. Since the 1980s, caste has become a major issue in the politics of India.", "The caste system has been criticised by many Indian social reformers.", "Basava (1105–1167) Arguably one of the first social reformers, Basava championed devotional worship that rejected temple worship and rituals, and replaced it with personalised direct worship of Shiva through practices such as", "Jyotirao Phule (1827–1890) vehemently criticised any explanations that the caste system was natural and ordained by the \"Creator\" in Hindu texts. If \"Brahma\" wanted castes, argued Phule, he would have ordained the same for other creatures. There are no castes in species of animals or birds, so why should there be one among human animals.", "Vivekananda similarly criticised caste as one of the many human institutions that bars the power of free thought and action of an individual. Caste or no caste, creed or no creed,", "In his younger years, Gandhi disagreed with some of Ambedkar's observations, rationale and interpretations about the caste system in India. \"Caste,\" he claimed, has \"saved Hinduism from disintegration. But like every other institution it has suffered from excrescences.\" He considered the four divisions of Varnas to be fundamental, natural and essential. The innumerable subcastes or Jatis he considered to be a hindrance. He advocated to fuse all the Jatis into a more global division of Varnas. In the 1930s, Gandhi began to advocate for the idea of heredity in caste to be rejected, arguing that \"Assumption of superiority by any person over any other is a sin against God and man. Thus caste, in so far as it connotes distinctions in status, is an evil.\" He claimed that Varnashrama of the shastras is today nonexistent in practice. The present caste system is theory antithesis of varnashrama. Caste in its current form, claimed Gandhi, had nothing", "B. R. Ambedkar was born in a caste that was classified as untouchable, became a leader of human rights campaigns in India, a prolific writer, and a key person in drafting modern India's constitution in the 1940s. He wrote extensively on discrimination, trauma and what he saw as the tragic effects of the caste system in India. He believed that the caste system originated in the practise of endogamy and that it spread through imitation by other groups. He wrote that initially, Brahmins, Kshatriyas,", "", "Economic inequality seems to be related to the influence of inherited social-economic stratification. A 1995 study notes that the caste system in India is a system of exploitation of poor low-ranking groups by more prosperous high-ranking groups. A report published in 2001 note that in India 36.3% of people own no land at all, 60.6% own about 15% of the land, with a very wealthy 3.1% owning 15% of the land. A study by Haque reports that India contains both the largest number of rural poor, and the largest number of landless households on the planet. Haque also reports that over 90 percent of both scheduled castes (low-ranking groups) and all other castes (high-ranking groups) either do not own land or own land area capable of producing less than $1000 per year of food and income per household. However, over 99 percent of India's farms are less than 10 hectares, and 99.9 percent of", "The maltreatment of Dalits in India has been described by some authors as \"India's hidden apartheid\". Critics of the accusations point to substantial improvements in the position of Dalits in post-independence India, consequent to the strict implementation of the rights and privileges enshrined in the Constitution of India, as implemented by the Protection of Civil rights Act, 1955. They also argue that the practise had disappeared in urban public life. Sociologists Kevin Reilly, Stephen Kaufman and Angela Bodino, while critical of caste system, conclude that modern India does not practice apartheid since there is no state-sanctioned discrimination. They write that casteism in India is presently \"not apartheid. In fact, untouchables, as", "Mulk Raj Anand's debut novel, \"Untouchable\" (1935), is based on the theme of untouchability. The Hindi film \"Achhut Kannya\" (Untouchable Maiden, 1936), starring Ashok Kumar and Devika Rani, was an early reformist film. The debut novel of Arundhati Roy, \"The God of Small Things\" (1997), also has themes surrounding the caste system across religions. A lawyer named Sabu Thomas filed a petition to have the book published without the last chapter, which had graphic description of sexual acts between members of different castes. Thomas claimed the alleged obscenity in the last chapter deeply hurts the Syrian Christian community, the basis of the novel." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Areas of study.", "History of psycholinguistics.", "Language acquisition and innateness.", "Origin of designation.", "Theories.", "Language acquisition.", "Language comprehension.", "Reading.", "Language production.", "Methodologies.", "Behavioral tasks.", "Eye-movements.", "Language production errors.", "Neuroimaging.", "Computational modeling.", "Issues and areas of research.", "Further reading." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Psycholinguistics is an interdisciplinary field. Hence, it is studied by researchers from a variety of different backgrounds, such as psychology, cognitive science, linguistics, speech and language pathology, and discourse analysis. Psycholinguists study many different topics, but these topics can generally be divided into answering the following questions: (1) how do children acquire language (language acquisition)?; (2) how do people comprehend language (language comprehension)?; (3) how do people produce language (language production)?; and (4) how do people who already know one language acquire another one(second language acquisition)? Subdivisions in psycholinguistics are also made based on the different components that make up human language. Linguistics-related areas: A researcher interested in language comprehension may study word recognition during reading to examine the processes involved in the extraction of orthographic, morphological, phonological, and semantic information from patterns in printed text. A researcher interested in language production might study how words are prepared to be spoken starting from the conceptual or semantic level (this concerns connotation, and possibly can be examined through the conceptual framework concerned with the semantic differential). Developmental psycholinguists study infants' and children's ability to learn and process language.", "", "Psycholinguistics, in seeking to understand the properties of language acquisition has roots in debates regarding innate vs acquired behaviors (both in biology and psychology). For some time the concept of an innate trait, was something that was not present in the psychology of the individual. However, with the redefining of innateness as time progressed, behaviors considered innate could once again be analyzed as behaviors that interacted with the psychological aspect of an individual. After the diminished popularity of the behaviorist model, ethology became once again a leading train of thought within psychology, and by these means language, as an innate behavior within humans, could be examined once more in the scope of psychology.", "Even though psycholinguistics originated in terms of methodology, and in theoretical framework from a time before the end of the nineteenth century it was called only \"Psychology of Language\". The nomenclature for the science as Psycholinguistics did not begin to come about until 1936 when Jacob Kantor, a prominent Psychologist of the time, used the term ‘Psycholinguistic’ as a description within the book \"An Objective Psychology of Grammar.\" The term only came to relevant usage, however in 1946 when the student of Kantor, Nicholas Pronko published an article by the title \"Psycholinguistics: A Review.\" Pronko's desire was to unify the myriad of theoretical approaches within the realm of Psycholinguistics under a single name. It was used for the first time to talk about an interdisciplinary science \"that could be coherent\" as well as in the title of \"Psycholinguistics: A Survey of Theory and Research Problems\", a 1954 book by Charles E. Osgood and Thomas A. Sebeok.", "In this section, some influential theories are discussed for each of the fundamental questions listed in the section above.", "There are essentially two schools of thought as to how children acquire or learn language, and there is still much debate as to which theory is the correct one. The first theory states that all language must be learned by the child. The second view states that the abstract system of language cannot be learned, but that humans possess an innate language faculty, or an access to what has been called universal grammar. The view that language must be learned was especially popular before 1960 and is well represented by the mentalistic theories of Jean Piaget and the empiricist Rudolf Carnap. Likewise, the school of psychology known as behaviorism (see Verbal Behavior (1957) by B.F. Skinner) puts forth the point of view that language is a behavior shaped by conditioned response, hence it is learned. The innatist perspective began with Noam Chomsky's highly critical review of Skinner's book in 1959. This review helped to start what has been termed \"the cognitive revolution\" in psychology. Chomsky posited humans possess a special, innate ability for language and that complex syntactic features, such as recursion, are \"hard-wired\" in the brain. These abilities are thought to be beyond the grasp of the most intelligent and social non-humans. According to Chomsky, children acquiring a language have a vast search space to explore among all possible human grammars, yet at the time there was no evidence that children receive sufficient input to learn all the rules of their language (see poverty of the stimulus). Hence, there must be some other innate mechanism that endows a language ability to humans. Such a language faculty is, according to the innateness hypothesis, what defines human language and makes it different from even the most sophisticated forms of animal communication. The field of linguistics and psycholinguistics since then has been defined by reactions to Chomsky, pro and con. The pro view still holds that the human ability to use language (specifically the ability to use recursion) is qualitatively different from any sort of animal ability. This ability may have resulted from a favorable mutation or from an adaptation of skills evolved for other purposes. The view that language can be learned has had a recent resurgence inspired by emergentism. This view challenges the \"innate\" view as scientifically unfalsifiable; that is to say, it can't be tested. With the amount of computer power increasing since the 1980s, researchers have been able to simulate language acquisition using neural network models. These models provide evidence that there may, in fact, be sufficient information contained in the input to learn language, even syntax. If this is true, then an innate mechanism is no longer necessary to explain language acquisition.", "The structures and uses of language are related to the formation of ontological insights. Some see this system as \"structured cooperation between language-users\" using \"conceptual difference\"\"semantic deference\" in order to exchange meaning and knowledge and give meaning to language, examining and describing \"semantic processes bound by a ‘stopping’ constraint which are not cases of ordinary deferring. Deferring is normally done for a reason, and a rational person is always disposed to defer if there is good reason. The theory of the Semantic differential supposes universal distinctions such as factors of \"Typicality\" (that included scales such as \"regular-rare\", \"typical-exclusive\"), \"Reality\" (\"imaginary-real\", \"evident-fantastic\", \"abstract-concrete\"), as well as factors of \"Complexity\" (\"complex-simple\", \"unlimited-limited\", \"mysterious-usual\"), \"Improvement\" or \"Organization\" (\"regular-spasmodic\", \"constant-changeable\", \"organized-disorganized\", \"precise-indefinite\"), Stimulation (\"interesting-boring\", \"trivial-new\"), calling it \" in the measurement of attitudes.\"", "One question in the realm of language comprehension is how people understand sentences as they read (also known as sentence processing). Experimental research has spawned a number of theories about the architecture and mechanisms of sentence comprehension. Typically these theories are concerned with what types of information contained in the sentence the reader can use to build meaning, and at what point in reading does that information become available to the reader. Issues such as \"modular\" versus \"interactive\" processing have been theoretical divides in the field. A modular view of sentence processing assumes that the stages involved in reading a sentence function independently in separate modules. These modules have limited interaction with one another. For example, one influential theory of sentence processing, the garden-path theory, states that syntactic analysis takes place first. Under this theory as the reader is reading a sentence, he or she creates the simplest structure possible in order to minimize effort and cognitive load. This is done without any input from semantic analysis or context-dependent information. Hence, in the sentence \"The evidence examined by the lawyer turned out to be unreliable,\" by the time the reader gets to the word \"examined\" he or she has committed to a reading of the sentence in which the evidence is examining something because it is the simplest parse. This commitment is made despite the fact that it results in an implausible situation; we know from experience that evidence can rarely if ever examine something. Under this \"syntax first\" theory, semantic information is processed at a later stage. It is only later that the reader will recognize that he or she needs to revise the initial parse into one in which \"the evidence\" is being examined. In this example, readers typically recognize their misparse by the time they reach \"by the lawyer\" and must go back and re-parse the sentence. This reanalysis is costly and contributes to slower reading times. In contrast to a modular account, an interactive theory of sentence processing, such as a constraint-based lexical approach assumes that all available information contained within a sentence can be processed at any time. Under an interactive account, for example, the semantics of a sentence (such as plausibility) can come into play early on in order to help determine the structure of a sentence. Hence, in the sentence above, the reader would be able to make use of plausibility information in order to assume that \"the evidence\" is being examined instead of doing the examining. There are data to support both modular and interactive accounts; which account is the correct one is still up for debate. When reading, saccades can cause the mind to skip over words because it doesn’t see them as important to the sentence, and the mind completely leaves it from the sentence or it replaces it with the wrong word. This can be seen in ‘Paris in thethe Spring’. This is a common psychological test, where the mind will often skip the second ‘the’, especially when there is a line break in between the two.", "Language production concerns how people produce language, either in written or spoken form, in a way that conveys meanings comprehensible to others. One of the most effective ways to explain the way people represent meanings using rule-governed languages is by observing and analyzing instances of speech errors. They include speech dysfluencies like false starts, repetition, reformulation and constant pauses in between words or sentences; also, slips of tongue, like blendings, substitutions, exchanges (e.g. Spoonerism), and various pronunciation errors. These speech errors yield significant implication on language production, in that they reflect that: It is useful to differentiate between three separate phases of production: conceptualization \"(determining what to say), formulation (translating the intention to say something into linguistic form), and execution (the detailed articulatory planning and articulation itself).\" Most psycholinguistic research has largely concerned itself with the study for formulation because the phase of conceptualization largely remains an elusive and mysterious period of development. For models of speech production, see.", "", "Many of the experiments conducted in psycholinguistics, especially earlier on, are behavioral in nature. In these types of studies, subjects are presented with linguistic stimuli and asked to perform an action. For example, they may be asked to make a judgment about a word (lexical decision), reproduce the stimulus, or name a visually presented word aloud. Reaction times to respond to the stimuli (usually on the order of milliseconds) and proportion of correct responses are the most often employed measures of performance in behavioral tasks. Such experiments often take advantage of priming effects, whereby a \"priming\" word or phrase appearing in the experiment can speed up the lexical decision for a related \"target\" word later. As an example of how behavioral methods can be used in psycholinguistics research, Fischler (1977) investigated word encoding using the lexical decision task. He asked participants to make decisions about whether two strings of letters were English words. Sometimes the strings would be actual English words requiring a \"yes\" response, and other times they would be nonwords requiring a \"no\" response. A subset of the licit words were related semantically (e.g., cat-dog) while others were unrelated (e.g., bread-stem). Fischler found that related word pairs were responded to faster when compared to unrelated word pairs. This facilitation suggests that semantic relatedness can facilitate word encoding.", "Recently, eye tracking has been used to study online language processing. Beginning with Rayner (1978) the importance and informativity of eye-movements during reading was established. Later, Tanenhaus et al. (1995) used the visual-world paradigm to study the cognitive processes related to spoken language. Assuming that eye movements are closely linked to the current focus of attention, language processing can be studied by monitoring eye movements while a subject is presented auditorily with linguistic input.", "The analysis of systematic errors in speech, writing and typing of language as it is produced can provide evidence of the process which has generated it. Errors of speech, in particular, grant insight into how the mind processes language production while a speaker is in the midst of an utterance. Speech errors tend to occur in the lexical, morpheme, and phoneme encoding steps of language production, as seen by the ways errors can manifest. The types of speech errors, and some examples, are: Speech errors will usually occur in the stages that involve lexical, morpheme, or phoneme encoding, and usually not the first step of semantic encoding. This can be credited to how a speaker is still conjuring the idea of what to say, and unless he changes his mind, can not be mistaken in what he wanted to say.", "Until the recent advent of non-invasive medical techniques, brain surgery was the preferred way for language researchers to discover how language works in the brain. For example, severing the corpus callosum (the bundle of nerves that connects the two hemispheres of the brain) was at one time a treatment for some forms of epilepsy. Researchers could then study the ways in which the comprehension and production of language were affected by such drastic surgery. Where an illness made brain surgery necessary, language researchers had an opportunity to pursue their research. Newer, non-invasive techniques now include brain imaging by positron emission tomography (PET); functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI); event-related potentials (ERPs) in electroencephalography (EEG) and magnetoencephalography (MEG); and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). Brain imaging techniques vary in their spatial and temporal resolutions (fMRI has a resolution of a few thousand neurons per pixel, and ERP has millisecond accuracy). Each type of methodology presents a set of advantages and disadvantages for studying a particular problem in psycholinguistics.", "Computational modelling, such as the DRC model of reading and word recognition proposed by Max Coltheart and colleagues, is another methodology and refers to the practice of setting up cognitive models in the form of executable computer programs. Such programs are useful because they require theorists to be explicit in their hypotheses and because they can be used to generate accurate predictions for theoretical models that are so complex that they render discursive analysis unreliable. Other examples of computational modelling is McClelland and Elman's TRACE model of speech perception and Franklin Chang's Dual-Path model of sentence production.", "Psycholinguistics is concerned with the nature of the computations and processes that the brain undergoes to comprehend and produce language. For example, the cohort model seeks to describe how words are retrieved from the mental lexicon when an individual hears or sees linguistic input. Recent research using new non-invasive imaging techniques seeks to shed light on just where certain language processes occur in the brain. There are a number of unanswered questions in psycholinguistics, such as whether the human ability to use syntax is based on innate mental structures or emerges from interaction with other humans, and whether some animals can be taught the syntax of human language. Two other major subfields of psycholinguistics investigate first language acquisition, the process by which infants acquire language, and second language acquisition. In addition, it is much more difficult for adults to acquire second languages than it is for infants to learn their first language (bilingual infants are able to learn both of their native languages easily). Thus, sensitive periods may exist during which language can be learned readily. A great deal of research in psycholinguistics focuses on how this ability develops and diminishes over time. It also seems to be the case that the more languages one knows, the easier it is to learn more. The field of aphasiology deals with language deficits that arise because of brain damage. Studies in aphasiology can both offer advances in therapy for individuals suffering from aphasia, and further insight into how the brain processes language. A 2016 empirical study showed that personal associations are mutually inter-related and that the concepts of self and world are internally connected via direct and mediated dependences, which reflects the structuring of perception and understanding of self and world in people's minds and discusses its implications for psycholinguistics.", "A short list of books that deal with psycholinguistics, written in language accessible to the non-expert, includes:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Personal life.", "Family background.", "Early life.", "Education.", "Marriages.", "Marie-Dominique Culioli.", "Cécilia Ciganer-Albéniz.", "Carla Bruni.", "Personal wealth.", "Early political career.", "In Government: 1993–1995.", "First term as Minister of the Interior: 2002–2004.", "Minister of Finance: 2004.", "Second term as Minister of the Interior: 2005–2007.", "UMP leader: 2004–2007.", "Presidential election: 2007.", "Presidency (2007–2012).", "Inauguration.", "Release of hostages.", "Green policy.", "Economic policy.", "Security policy.", "Constitutional reform.", "International affairs.", "Military intervention in Libya.", "2012 presidential campaign.", "After his defeat.", "Temporary retirement: 2012–2014.", "Return to politics: 2014–2016.", "Public image.", "Controversies.", "Views on religions.", "Controversial statements.", "\"Casse-toi, pauv'con\".", "Position on the Iraq war.", "Accusations of nepotism.", "Political and financial scandals.", "Alleged Libyan agent of influence.", "Background.", "Initial allegations.", "Inquiry and arrests.", "Police custody and indiction.", "Political career." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Sarkozy was born in Paris, and is the son of Pál István Ernő Sárközy de Nagy-Bócsa (; —in some sources \"Nagy-Bócsay Sárközy Pál István Ernő\"), (born 5 May 1928), a Protestant", "During Sarkozy's childhood, his father founded his own advertising agency and became wealthy. The family lived in a mansion owned by Sarkozy's maternal grandfather, Benedict Mallah, in the 17th arrondissement of Paris. The family later moved to Neuilly-sur-Seine, one of the wealthiest communes of the Île-de-France \"région\" immediately west of Paris. According to", "Sarkozy was enrolled in the \"Lycée Chaptal\", a well regarded public middle and high school in Paris' 8th arrondissement, where he failed his \"sixième\". His family then sent him to the \"Cours Saint-Louis de Monceau\", a private Catholic school in the 17th arrondissement, where he was reportedly a mediocre student, but where he nonetheless obtained his \"baccalauréat\" in 1973. Sarkozy enrolled at the \"\", where he graduated with an M.A. in private law", "", "Sarkozy married his first wife, Marie-Dominique Culioli, on 23 September 1982; her father was a pharmacist from Vico (a village north of Ajaccio, Corsica), her uncle was Achille Peretti, the mayor of Neuilly-sur-Seine from 1947–1983 and Sarkozy's political mentor. They", "As mayor of Neuilly-sur-Seine, Sarkozy met former fashion model and public relations executive Cécilia Ciganer-Albéniz (great-granddaughter of composer Isaac Albéniz and daughter of a Moldovan father), when he officiated at her wedding to television host Jacques Martin. In 1988, she left her husband for Sarkozy, and divorced one year later. She and Sarkozy married in October 1996, with witnesses Martin Bouygues and Bernard Arnault. They have one son, Louis, born 23", "Less than a month after separating from Cécilia, Sarkozy met Italian-born singer, songwriter and former fashion model Carla Bruni at a dinner party, and soon entered a relationship with her. They married on 2 February 2008 at the Élysée Palace in Paris. The couple have a daughter, Giulia, born on 19 October 2011. It was the first time a French president has publicly had a child while in office.", "Sarkozy declared to the Constitutional Council a net worth of €2 million, most of the assets being in the form of life insurance policies. As the French President, one of his first", "Sarkozy is recognized by French parties on both the Right and Left as a skilled politician and striking orator. His supporters within France emphasize his charisma, political innovation and willingness to \"make a dramatic break\" amid mounting disaffection against \"politics as usual\". Overall, he is considered more pro-American and pro-Israeli than most French politicians. From 2004 to 2007, Sarkozy was president of the Union pour un Mouvement Populaire (UMP), France's major right-wing political party, and he was Minister of the Interior in the government of Prime Minister Dominique de Villepin, with the honorific title of Minister of State, making him effectively the number three official in the French State after President Jacques Chirac and Villepin. His ministerial responsibilities included law enforcement and working to co-ordinate relationships between the national and local governments, as well as Minister of Worship (in this role he created the French Council of the Muslim Faith (CFCM). Previously, he was a deputy to the French National Assembly. He was forced to resign this position in order to accept his ministerial appointment. He previously also held several ministerial posts, including Finance Minister.", "Sarkozy's political career began when he was 23, when he became a city councillor in Neuilly-sur-Seine. A member of the Neo-Gaullist party RPR, he went on to be elected mayor of that town, after the death of the incumbent mayor Achille Peretti. Sarkozy had been close to Peretti, as his mother was Peretti's secretary. A more senior RPR councillor, Charles Pasqua, wanted to become mayor, and asked Sarkozy to organize his campaign. Instead Sarkozy took that opportunity to propel himself into the office of mayor. He was the youngest mayor of any town in France with a population of over 50,000. He served from 1983 to 2002. In", "Towards the end of his first term as Minister of the Interior, in 2004, Sarkozy was the most divisive conservative politician in France, according to polls conducted at the beginning of 2004. Sarkozy has sought to ease the sometimes tense relationships between the general French population and the Muslim community. Unlike the Catholic Church in France with their official leaders or Protestants with their umbrella organisations, the French", "During his short appointment as Minister of Finance, Sarkozy was responsible for introducing a number of policies. The degree to which", "During his second term at the Ministry of the Interior, Sarkozy was initially more discreet about his ministerial activities: instead of focusing on his own topic of law and order, many of his declarations addressed wider issues, since he was expressing his opinions as head of the UMP party. However, the civil unrest in autumn 2005 put law enforcement in the spotlight again. Sarkozy was accused of having provoked", "Before he was elected President of France, Sarkozy was president of UMP, the French conservative party, elected with 85 percent of the vote. During his presidency, the number of members has significantly increased. In 2005, he supported a \"yes\" vote in the French referendum on the European Constitution, but the \"No\" vote won. Throughout 2005, Sarkozy called for radical changes in France's economic and social policies. These calls culminated in an interview with \"Le Monde\" on 8 September 2005, during which he claimed that the French had been misled for 30 years by false promises. Among other issues: Such policies are what are called in France \"libéral\" (that is,", "Sarkozy was a likely candidate for the presidency in 2007; in an oft-repeated comment made on television channel France 2, when asked by a journalist whether he thought about the presidential election when he shaved in the morning, Sarkozy commented, \"Not just when I shave\". On 14 January 2007, Sarkozy was chosen by the UMP to be its candidate in the 2007 presidential election. Sarkozy, who was running unopposed, won 98 percent of the votes. Of the 327,000 UMP members who could vote, 69 percent participated in the online ballot. In February 2007, Sarkozy appeared on a televised debate on TF1 where he expressed his support for affirmative action and the freedom to work overtime. Despite his opposition to same-sex marriage, he advocated civil unions and the possibility for same-sex partners to inherit under the same regime as married couples. The law was voted in July 2007. On 7 February, Sarkozy decided in favour of a projected second, non-nuclear, aircraft carrier for the national Navy (adding to the nuclear \"Charles de Gaulle\"), during an official visit in Toulon with", "", "On 6 May 2007, Nicolas Sarkozy became the sixth person to be elected President of the Fifth Republic (which was established in 1958), and the 23rd President in French history. The official transfer of power from Chirac to Sarkozy took place on 16 May at 11:00 am (9:00 UTC) at the Élysée Palace, where he was given the authorization codes of the French nuclear arsenal. In the afternoon, the new President flew to Berlin to meet with German Chancellor Angela Merkel. Under Sarkozy's government, François Fillon replaced Dominique de Villepin as Prime Minister. Sarkozy appointed Bernard Kouchner, the left-wing founder of Médecins Sans Frontières, as his Foreign Minister, leading to Kouchner's expulsion from the Socialist Party. In addition to Kouchner, three more Sarkozy ministers are from the left, including Éric Besson, who served as Ségolène Royal's economic adviser at the beginning of her campaign. Sarkozy also appointed seven women to", "Shortly after taking office, Sarkozy began negotiations with Colombian president Álvaro Uribe and the left-wing guerrilla FARC, regarding the release of hostages held by the rebel group, especially Franco-Colombian politician Ingrid Betancourt. According to some sources, Sarkozy himself asked for Uribe to release FARC's \"chancellor\" Rodrigo Granda. Furthermore, he announced on 24 July 2007, that French and European representatives had obtained the extradition of the Bulgarian nurses", "On 8 June 2007, during the 33rd G8 summit in Heiligendamm, Sarkozy set a goal of reducing French CO emissions by 50 percent by 2050 in order to prevent global warming. He then pushed forward Socialist Dominique Strauss-Kahn", "The Union for a Popular Movement (UMP), Sarkozy's party, won a majority at the June 2007 legislative election, although by less than expected. In July, the UMP majority, seconded by the \"Nouveau Centre\", ratified one of Sarkozy's electoral promises, which was to partially revoke the inheritance tax. The inheritance tax formerly brought eight billion euros into state coffers. Sarkozy's UMP majority prepared a budget that reduced taxes, in particular for upper middle-class people, allegedly in an effort to boost GDP growth, but did not reduce state expenditures. He was criticised by the European Commission for doing so.", "Sarkozy's government issued a decree on 7 August 2007 to generalise a voluntary biometric profiling program of travellers in airports. The program, called 'Parafes', was to use fingerprints. The new database would be", "On 21 July 2008, the French parliament passed constitutional reforms which Sarkozy had made one of the key pledges of his presidential campaign. The vote was 539 to 357, one vote over the three-fifths majority required; the changes are not yet finalized. They would introduce a", "During his 2007 presidential campaign, Sarkozy promised a strengthening of the entente cordiale with the United Kingdom and closer cooperation with the United States. Sarkozy wielded special international power when France held the rotating EU Council Presidency from July 2008 through December 2008. Sarkozy has publicly stated his intention to attain EU approval of a progressive energy package before the end of his EU Presidency. This energy package would clearly define climate change objectives for the EU and hold members to specific reductions in emissions. In further support of his collaborative outlook on climate change, Sarkozy has led the EU into a partnership with China. On 6 December 2008, Nicolas Sarkozy, as", "Muammar Gaddafi's official visit to Nicolas Sarkozy in December 2007 triggered a strong wave of protests against the President in France. In March 2011, after having been criticized for his unwillingness to support the Egyptian and Tunisian revolutions, and persuaded by the philosopher Bernard-Henri Levy to have France actively engage against the forces of the Libyan leader, Muammar Gaddafi, Nicolas Sarkozy was amongst the first Heads of State to demand the resignation of Gaddafi and his government, which was then fighting a civil war in Libya. On 10 March 2011, Nicolas Sarkozy welcomed to the Elysee Palace, three emissaries from the Libyan National Transitional Council (NTC), brought to him by Bernard-Henri Levy who mediated at the meeting.", "Sarkozy was one of ten candidates who qualified for the first round of voting. François Hollande, the Socialist Party candidate, received the most votes in the first round", "", "After his defeat at the 2012 election, Nicolas Sarkozy asked his supporters to respect Hollande's victory. He invited his successor to attend his last 8 May Victory in Europe Day commemoration in office. His last day", "On 19 September 2014, Sarkozy announced that he was returning to politics and would run for chairman of the UMP party. and was elected to the post on 29 November 2014. Led by Sarkozy, UMP won over two-thirds of the 102 local \"departements\" in the nationwide elections on 29 March 2015. On", "Sarkozy was named the 68th best-dressed person in the world by \"Vanity Fair\", alongside David Beckham and Brad Pitt. However, Sarkozy has also been named as the third worst-dressed person in the world by \"GQ\", a listing that has been disputed. Beside publicising, at times, and at others, refusing to publicise his ex-wife Cécilia Ciganer-Albéniz's image, Sarkozy takes care of his own personal image, sometimes to the point of censorship—such as in the \"Paris Match\" affair, when he allegedly forced its director to resign following an article on his ex-wife and her affair with Publicis executive Richard Attias, or pressures exercised on the \"Journal du dimanche\", which was preparing to publish an article concerning Ciganer-Albéniz's decision not to vote in the second round of the 2007 presidential election. In its edition of 9 August 2007, \"Paris Match\" retouched a photo of Sarkozy in order to erase a love handle. His official portrait destined for all French town halls was done by Sipa Press photographer Philippe Warrin, better known for his paparazzi work. Former \"Daily Telegraph\" journalist Colin Randall has highlighted Sarkozy's tighter control of his image and frequent interventions in the media: \"he", "Sarkozy is generally disliked by the left and has been criticised by some on the right, most vocally by moderate Gaullist supporters of Jacques Chirac and Dominique de Villepin. The communist-leaning magazine \"L'Humanité\" accused Sarkozy of populism.", "In 2004 Sarkozy co-authored a book, \"La République, les religions, l'espérance\" (\"The Republic, Religions, and Hope\"), in which he argued that the young should not be brought up solely on secular or republican values. He advocated reducing the separation of church and state, arguing for the government subsidies for mosques to encourage Islamic integration into French society. He has opposed", "In the midst of a tense period and following the accidental death of an 11-year-old boy in the Paris suburb of La Courneuve in June 2005, Sarkozy quoted a local resident and vowed to clean the area out \"with a Kärcher\" (a high-pressure hose). Two days before the 2005 Paris riots he referred to young criminals of nearby housing projects as \"voyous\" (\"thugs\") and \"racaille\", a slang term which can be translated into English as \"rabble\", \"scum\" or \"riff-raff\", in answer to resident who addressed Sarkozy with \"\"Quand nous débarrassez-vous de", "On 23 February 2008, Sarkozy was filmed by a reporter for French newspaper \"Le Parisien\" having the following exchange while visiting the Paris International Agricultural Show:While quickly crossing the hall Saturday morning, in the middle of the crowd, Sarkozy encounters a recalcitrant visitor who refuses to shake his hand. \"Ah no, don't touch me!\", said the man. The president retorted immediately: \"Get lost, then.\" \"You're making me dirty\", yelled the man. With a frozen smile, Sarkozy says, his teeth glistening,", "Sarkozy opposed the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq. However, he was critical of the way Chirac and his foreign minister Dominique de Villepin expressed France's opposition to the war. Talking at the French-American Foundation in Washington, D.C. on 12", "In October 2009, Sarkozy was accused of nepotism for helping his son, Jean, try to become head of the public body running", "On 5 July 2010, following its investigations on the Bettencourt affair, online newspaper Mediapart ran an article in which Claire Thibout, a former accountant of billionairess Liliane Bettencourt, accused Sarkozy and Eric Woerth of receiving illegal campaign donations in 2007, in cash. On 1 July 2014 Sarkozy was detained for questioning by police over claims he had promised a prestigious role in Monaco to a high-ranking judge, Gilbert Azibert, in exchange for information about the investigation into alleged illegal campaign funding. Mr Azibert, one of the most senior judges at the Court of Appeal, was called in for questioning on 30 June 2014. It is believed to be the first time a former French president has", "", "Shortly after Sarkozy's inauguration as President of France in 2007, he invited Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi to France over the objections of both the political opposition, and members of his own government. The visit", "During the 2011 Libyan Civil War – a conflict in which France intervened – Saif-al-Islam Gaddafi said in an interview with euronews that the Libyan state had donated €50 million to Sarkozy's 2007 presidential campaign in exchange for access and favors by Sarkozy. Saif al-Islam Gaddafi's claim was later repeated by former Libyan prime minister Baghdadi", "A judicial investigation against then-unidentified persons was initiated in April 2013 in Paris. In January 2018, British police arrested Alexandre Djouhri on a European Arrest Warrant. Djouhri was an associate of Sarkozy and had refused to respond to a French judicial summons for questioning over allegations he had helped launder Libyan funds on behalf of Sarkozy. The following month, \"Asharq Al-Awsat\" quoted a source who alleged Sarkozy had promised Libyan representatives improved relations between France and Libya should he be elected president, and that he would wrap-up the", "On 20 and 21 March 2018, Sarkozy was put into police custody and held for questioning concerning the Libyan connection. He was formally charged with bribery and accepting illegal campaign contributions at the issue of this custody.", "Governmental functions Electoral mandates European Parliament National Assembly of France Regional Council General Council Municipal Council Political functions" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Belgium.", "Spain.", "United Kingdom.", "Equivalent non-Western titles.", "In fiction." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The word \"marquess\" entered the English language from the Old French (\"ruler of a border area\") in the late 13th or early 14th century. The French word was derived from (\"frontier\"), itself descended from the Middle Latin (\"frontier\"), from which the modern English words \"march\" and \"mark\" also descend. The distinction between governors of frontier territories and interior territories was made as early as the founding of the Roman Empire when some provinces were set aside for administration by the senate and more unpacified or vulnerable provinces were administered by the emperor. The titles \"duke\" and \"count\" were similarly distinguished as ranks in the late empire, with (literally, \"leader\") being used for a provincial military governor and the rank of (literally \"companion,\" that is, of the Emperor) given to the leader of an active army along the frontier.", "The title of marquess in Belgium predates the French Revolution and still exists today. See and.", "Currently in Spain the rank of Marquess/Marchioness (/) still exists. One hundred forty-two of them are Spanish grandees. Normally a is addressed as \"Illustrious Sir\" (), or if he/she is a grandee as \"Your Excellency\" (). Examples include the Marquess of Mondejar, Grandee of Spain.", "The honorific prefix \"The Most Honourable\" precedes the name of a marquess or marchioness of the United Kingdom. In Great Britain and historically in Ireland, the correct spelling of the aristocratic title of this rank is marquess (although on the European mainland and in Canada, the French spelling of marquis is used in English). In Scotland, the French spelling is also sometimes used. In Great Britain and historically in Ireland, the title ranks below a duke and above an earl. A woman with the rank of a marquess, or the wife of a marquess, is called a marchioness in Great Britain and Ireland, or a marquise elsewhere in Europe. The dignity, rank or position of the title is referred to as a marquisate or marquessate. The theoretical distinction between a marquess and other titles has, since the Middle Ages, faded into obscurity. In times past, the distinction between a count and a marquess was that the land of a marquess, called a march, was on the border of the country, while a count's land, called a county, often was not. As a result of this, a marquess was trusted to defend and fortify against potentially hostile neighbours and was thus more important and ranked higher than a count. The title is ranked below that of a duke, which was often largely restricted to the royal family. The rank of marquess was a relatively late introduction to the British peerage: no marcher lords had the rank of marquess, though some were earls. On the evening of the Coronation of Queen Victoria in 1838, the Prime Minister Lord Melbourne explained to her why (from her journals): I spoke to Ld M. about the numbers of Peers present at the Coronation, & he said it was quite unprecedented. I observed that there were very few Viscounts, to which he replied \"There are very few Viscounts,\" that they were an old sort of title & not really English; that they came from Vice-Comites; that Dukes & Barons were the only real English titles; — that Marquises were likewise not English, & that people were mere made Marquises, when it was not wished that they should be made Dukes.", "Like other major Western noble titles, marquess (or marquis) is sometimes used to translate certain titles from non-Western languages with their own traditions, even though they are, as a rule, historically unrelated and thus hard to compare. However, they are considered \"equivalent\" in relative rank. This is the case with:", "Marquesses and marchionesses have occasionally appeared in works of fiction. For examples of fictional marquesses and marchionesses, see List of fictional nobility#Marquesses and marchionesses." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Travels." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Although originally a native of Antioch, he appears to have traveled widely in Egypt in search of specific astrological doctrines to bolster his practice. At the time Alexandria was still home to a number of astrologers of the older Babylonian, Greek and Egyptian traditions. He published much of what he learned from the tradition and through his practice in his \"Anthology\", written in an engaging and instructional style. The \"Anthology\" is thus of great value in piecing together actual working techniques of the time. Valens' work is also important because he cites the views of a number of earlier authors and authorities, such as Teucer of Babylon, who would otherwise be unknown. The fragments from works attributed to the alleged pharaoh Nechepso and the high priest Petosiris, pseudepigraphal authors of the 2nd century BC, survive mainly through direct quotations in Valens' work. The three manuscripts of the \"Anthology\" all date from 1300 or later. The text, however, appears to be fairly reliable and complete, although disorganized in places. Although Ptolemy, the astronomer, mathematician, astrologer of ancient Alexandria and author of \"Tetrabiblos\" (the most influential astrological text ever written), was generally regarded as the colossus of Hellenistic-period astrology in the many centuries following his death, it is most likely that the actual practical astrology of the period resembled the methods elaborated in Valens' \"Anthology\". Modern scholars tend to counterpoise the two men, since both were roughly contemporary and lived in Alexandria; yet Valens' work elaborated the more practical techniques that arose from ancient tradition, while Ptolemy, very much the scientist, tended to focus more on creating a theoretically consistent model based on his Aristotelian causal framework. The balance given by Valens' \"Anthology\" is therefore very instructive. No other Hellenistic author has contributed as much to our understanding of the everyday, practical astrological methods of the early Roman/late Hellenistic era. Deciding that the traditional religion was useless, he found in fate a substitute religion. For him absolute determination gave emotional satisfaction and aroused an almost mystical feeling. Knowing that everything was already predetermined gave one a sense of freedom from anxiety and a sense of salvation." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Wedding preparations.", "Marriage.", "After the annulment.", "Death.", "Literature.", "In film, television, and theatre." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Anne was born in 1515, on either 22 September, or more probably 28 June. She was born in Düsseldorf, the second daughter of John III of the House of La Marck, Duke of Jülich \"jure uxoris\", Cleves, Berg \"jure uxoris\", Count of Mark, also known as de la Marck and Ravensberg \"jure uxoris\" (often referred to as Duke of Cleves) who died in 1538, and his wife Maria, Duchess of Julich-Berg (1491–1543). She grew up in Schloss Burg on the edge of Solingen. Anne's father was influenced by Erasmus and followed a moderate path within the Reformation. He sided with the Schmalkaldic League and opposed Emperor Charles V. After John's death, Anne's brother William became Duke of Jülich-Cleves-Berg, bearing the promising epithet \"The Rich\". In 1526, her elder sister Sibylle was married to John Frederick, Elector of Saxony, head of the Protestant Confederation of Germany and considered the \"Champion of the Reformation\". In 1527, at the age of 11, Anne was betrothed to Francis, the 10-year-old son and heir of Antoine, Duke of Lorraine. Thus the betrothal was considered unofficial and was cancelled in 1535. Her brother William was a Lutheran but the family was unaligned religiously, with her mother, the Duchess Maria, described as a \"strict Catholic\". Her father's ongoing dispute over Gelderland with Charles V made the family suitable allies for England's King Henry VIII in the wake of the Truce of Nice. The match with Anne was urged on the king by his chief minister, Thomas Cromwell.", "The artist Hans Holbein the Younger was dispatched to Düren to paint portraits of Anne and her younger sister, Amalia, each of whom Henry was considering as his fourth wife. Henry required the artist to be as accurate as possible, not to flatter the sisters. The portraits are now located in the Musée du Louvre in Paris and the Victoria and Albert Museum in London. Another 1539 portrait, by the school of Barthel Bruyn the Elder, is in the collection of Trinity College, Cambridge. Negotiations to arrange the marriage were in full swing by March 1539. Cromwell oversaw the talks and a marriage treaty was signed on 4 October of that year. Henry valued education and cultural sophistication in women, but Anne lacked these traits. She had received no formal education but was skilled in needlework and liked playing card games. She could read and write, but only in German. Nevertheless, Anne was considered gentle, virtuous and docile, which is why she was recommended as a suitable candidate for Henry. Anne was described by French ambassador Charles de Marillac as tall and slim, \"of middling beauty and of very assured and resolute countenance.\" She was fair-haired and was said to have had a lovely face. In the words of the chronicler Edward Hall, \"Her hair hanging down, which was fair, yellow and long... she was apparelled after the English fashion, with a French hood, which so set forth her beauty and good visage, that every creature rejoiced to behold her.\" She appeared rather solemn by English standards, and looked old for her age. Holbein painted her with a high forehead, heavy-lidded eyes and a pointed chin. Henry met her privately on New Year's Day 1540 at Rochester Abbey in Rochester on her journey from Dover. Henry and some of his courtiers, following a courtly-love tradition, went disguised into the room where Anne was staying. Eustace Chapuys reported: [The King] so went up into the chamber where the said Lady Anne was looking out of a window to see the bull-baiting which was going on in the courtyard, and suddenly he embraced and kissed her, and showed her a token which the king had sent her for New Year’s gift, and she being abashed and not knowing who it was thanked him, and so he spoke with her. But she regarded him little, but always looked out the window.... and when the king saw that she took so little notice of his coming he went into another chamber and took off his cloak and came in again in a coat of purple velvet. And when the lords and knights saw his grace they did him reverence. According to the testimony of Henry's companions, he was disappointed with Anne, feeling that she was not as described. According to the chronicler Charles Wriothesley, Anne \"regarded him little\", though it is unknown whether she knew this was the king. Henry then revealed his true identity to Anne, although he is said to have been put off the marriage from then on. Henry and Anne then met officially on 3 January on Blackheath outside the gates of Greenwich Park, where a grand reception was laid out. Most historians believe that Henry's misgivings about the marriage were blamed on Anne's alleged unsatisfactory appearance and her failure to inspire him to consummate the marriage. He felt that he had been misled after his advisors had praised Anne's beauty: \"She is nothing so fair as she hath been reported\", he complained. Cromwell received some blame for the Holbein portrait, which Henry believed had not been an accurate representation of Anne, and for some of the exaggerated reports of her beauty. When the king finally met Anne, he was reportedly shocked by her plain appearance, and the marriage was never consummated. Henry urged Cromwell to find a legal way to avoid the marriage but, by this point, doing so was impossible without endangering the vital alliance with the Germans. In his anger and frustration, the King turned on Cromwell, to his subsequent regret.", "Despite Henry's very vocal misgivings, the two were married on 6 January 1540 at the royal Palace of Placentia in Greenwich, London, by Archbishop Thomas Cranmer. The phrase \"God send me well to keep\" was engraved around Anne's wedding ring. Immediately after arriving in England, Anne conformed to the Anglican form of worship, which Henry expected. The couple's first night as husband and wife was not a successful one. Henry confided to Cromwell that he had not consummated the marriage, saying, \"I liked her before not well, but now I like her much worse.\" In February 1540, speaking to the Countess of Rutland, Anne praised the King as a kind husband, saying: \"When he comes to bed he kisseth me, and he taketh me by the hand, and biddeth me 'Good night, sweetheart'; and in the morning kisseth me and biddeth 'Farewell, darling. Lady Rutland responded: \"Madam, there must be more than this, or it will be long ere we have a duke of York, which all this realm most desireth.\" Anne was commanded to leave the Court on 24 June, and on 6 July she was informed of her husband's decision to reconsider the marriage. Witness statements were taken from a number of courtiers and two physicians which register the king's disappointment at her appearance. Henry had also commented to Thomas Heneage and Anthony Denny that he could not believe she was a virgin. Shortly afterwards, Anne was asked for her consent to an annulment, to which she agreed. Cromwell, the moving force behind the marriage, was attainted for treason. The marriage was annulled on 9 July 1540, on the grounds of non-consummation and her pre-contract to Francis of Lorraine. Henry VIII's physician stated that after the wedding night, Henry said he was not impotent because he experienced \"\"\"\" (two nocturnal pollutions while in sleep; i.e., two wet dreams).", "The former queen received a generous settlement, including Richmond Palace, and Hever Castle, home of Henry's former in-laws, the Boleyns. Anne of Cleves House, in Lewes, East Sussex, is just one of many properties she owned; she never lived there. Henry and Anne became good friends—she was an honorary member of the King's family and was referred to as \"the King's Beloved Sister\". She was invited to court often and, out of gratitude for her not contesting the annulment, Henry decreed that she would be given precedence over all women in England save his own wife and daughters. After Catherine Howard was beheaded, Anne and her brother, William, Duke of Jülich-Cleves-Berg, pressed the king to remarry Anne. Henry quickly refused to do so. She seems to have disliked Catherine Parr, and reportedly reacted to the news of Henry's sixth marriage with the remark \"Madam Parr is taking a great burden on herself.\" In March 1547, Edward VI's Privy Council asked her to move out of Bletchingley Palace, her usual residence, to Penshurst Place to make way for Thomas Cawarden, Master of Revels. They pointed out that Penshurst was nearer to Hever and the move had been Henry VIII's will. On 4 August 1553, Anne wrote to Mary I to congratulate her on her marriage to Philip of Spain. On 28 September 1553, when Mary left St James's Palace for Whitehall, she was accompanied by her sister Elizabeth and Anne of Cleves. Anne also took part in Mary I's coronation procession, and may have been present at her coronation at Westminster Abbey. These were her last public appearances. As the new queen was a strict Catholic, Anne yet again changed religion, now becoming a Roman Catholic. After a brief return to prominence, she lost royal favour in 1554, following Wyatt's rebellion. According to Simon Renard, the imperial ambassador, Anne's close association with Elizabeth had convinced the Queen that \"the Lady [Anne] of Cleves was of the plot and intrigued with the Duke of Cleves to obtain help for Elizabeth: matters in which the king of France was the prime mover\". There is no evidence that Anne was invited back to court after 1554. She was compelled to live a quiet and obscure life on her estates. After her arrival as the King's bride, Anne never left England. Despite occasional feelings of homesickness, Anne was generally content in England and was described by Holinshed as \"a ladie of right commendable regards, courteous, gentle, a good housekeeper and verie bountifull to her servants.\"", "When Anne's health began to fail, Mary allowed her to live at Chelsea Old Manor, where Henry's last wife, Catherine Parr, had lived after her remarriage. Here, in the middle of July 1557, Anne dictated her last will. In it, she mentions her brother, sister, and sister-in-law, as well as the future Queen Elizabeth, the Duchess of Suffolk, and the Countess of Arundel. She left some money to her servants and asked Mary and Elizabeth to employ them in their households. She was remembered by everyone who served her as a particularly generous and easy-going mistress. Anne died at Chelsea Old Manor on 16 July 1557, eight weeks before her forty-second birthday. The most likely cause of her death was cancer. She was buried in Westminster Abbey, on 3 August, in what has been described as a \"somewhat hard to find tomb\" on the opposite side of Edward the Confessor's shrine and slightly above eye level for a person of average height. Anne's epitaph in Westminster Abbey, which is in English, reads simply: ANNE OF CLEVES QUEEN OF ENGLAND BORN 1515 * DIED 1557 She also has the distinction of being the last of Henry VIII's wives to die, as she outlived Henry's last wife, Catherine Parr, by 9 years. She was not the longest-lived, however, since Catherine of Aragon was 50 at the time of her death.", "Anne is the subject of several biographies: Julia Hamilton's \"Anne of Cleves\" (1972), and Mary Saaler's \"Anne of Cleves: Fourth Wife of Henry VIII\" (1995), Elizabeth Norton's \"Anne of Cleves: Henry VIII's Discarded Bride\" (2009), and Heather Darsie's \"Anna, Duchess of Cleves: The King's Beloved Sister\" (2019). Retha Warnicke has written an academic study on Anne's marriage called \"The Marrying of Anne of Cleves. Royal Protocol in Early Modern England\" (2000). Anne of Cleves appears as a character in many historical novels about Henry's reign. In \"The Fifth Queen\" (1906) by Ford Madox Ford she is portrayed as a sensible, practical woman who happily settles for an annulment in return for the material benefits it brings. Anne of Cleves is the main character of \"My Lady of Cleves\" (1946) by Margaret Campbell Barnes. About a third of \"The Boleyn Inheritance\" (2006) by Philippa Gregory is recounted from Anne's point of view, covering the period of Henry VIII's marriages to her and to her successor Catherine Howard. The book concludes with Anne living away from court, and avoiding the execution ceremonies of Howard and of Jane Boleyn, sister-in-law to one of Henry's queens and lady-in-waiting to five of the others, including Anne. Gregory includes Anne in a non-fictional review of the period at the end of the book. Anne and her Holbein portrait in the Louvre are the focus of the novel \"Amenable Women\" (2009) by Mavis Cheek. Anne and Catherine Howard are the subject of \"The Queen's Mistake\" by Diane Haeger (2009), while Anne and Jane Seymour are covered in Volume 3 of Dixie Atkins's tetralogy \"A Golden Sorrow\" (2010). D. Lawrence-Young authored a biographical novel \"Anne of Cleves – Henry's Luckiest Wife\" published by GMTA/Celestial Press. N.C. USA, 2013. In May 2019 Alison Weir released her fourth Six Tudor Queens Novel, \"Anna of Kleve: Queen of Secrets.\" The novel follows her throughout her life, first in Germany then Tudor England.", "The role of Anne of Cleves was played by:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early years.", "Life in France.", "Paris Salon and Corot's influence.", "Use of natural outdoor settings.", "With Monet, Cézanne, and Guillaumin.", "Marriage and children.", "The London years.", "Paintings.", "French Impressionism.", "Impressionist exhibitions that shocked the critics.", "A \"revolutionary\" style.", "Neo-Impressionist period.", "Studying with Seurat and Signac.", "Abandoning Neo-Impressionism.", "Later years.", "Legacy and influence.", "Lost and found paintings.", "A family of painters.", "References.", "\"Critical Catalogue of Paintings\"." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Jacob Abraham Camille Pissarro was born on 10 July 1830 on the island of St. Thomas to Frederick and Rachel Manzano de Pissarro. His father was of Portuguese Jewish descent and held French nationality. His mother was from a French-Jewish family from the island of St. Thomas. His father was a merchant who came to the island from France to deal with the hardware store of a deceased uncle, Isaac Petit, and married his widow. The marriage caused a stir within St. Thomas' small Jewish community because she was previously married to Frederick's uncle and according to Jewish law a man is forbidden from marrying his aunt. In subsequent years his four children attended the all-black primary school. Upon his death, his will specified that his estate be split equally between the synagogue and St. Thomas' Protestant church. When Camille was twelve his father sent him to boarding school in France. He studied at the Savary Academy in Passy near Paris. While a young student, he developed an early appreciation of the French art masters. Monsieur Savary himself gave him a strong grounding in drawing and painting and suggested he draw from nature when he returned to St. Thomas, which he did when he was seventeen. However, his father preferred he work in his business, giving him a job working as a cargo clerk. He took every opportunity during those next five years at the job to practise drawing during breaks and after work. When Pissarro turned twenty-one, Danish artist Fritz Melbye, then living on St. Thomas, inspired him to take on painting as a full-time profession, becoming his teacher and friend. Pissarro then chose to leave his family and job and live in Venezuela, where he and Melbye spent the next two years working as artists in Caracas and La Guaira. He drew everything he could, including landscapes, village scenes, and numerous sketches, enough to fill up multiple sketchbooks. In 1855 he moved back to Paris where he began working as assistant to Anton Melbye, Fritz Melbye's brother.", "In Paris he worked as assistant to Danish painter Anton Melbye. He also studied paintings by other artists whose style impressed him: Courbet, Charles-François Daubigny, Jean-François Millet, and Corot. He also enrolled in various classes taught by masters, at schools such as École des Beaux-Arts and Académie Suisse. But Pissarro eventually found their teaching methods \"stifling,\" states art historian John Rewald. This prompted him to search for alternative instruction, which he requested and received from Corot.", "His initial paintings were in accord with the standards at the time to be displayed at the Paris Salon, the official body whose academic traditions dictated the kind of art that was acceptable. The Salon's annual exhibition was essentially the only marketplace for young artists to gain exposure. As a result, Pissarro worked in the traditional and prescribed manner to satisfy the tastes of its official committee. In 1859 his first painting was accepted and exhibited. His other paintings during that period were influenced by Camille Corot, who tutored him. He and Corot both shared a love of rural scenes painted from nature. It was by Corot that Pissarro was inspired to paint outdoors, also called \"plein air\" painting. Pissarro found Corot, along with the work of Gustave Courbet, to be \"statements of pictorial truth,\" writes Rewald. He discussed their work often. Jean-François Millet was another whose work he admired, especially his \"sentimental renditions of rural life\".", "During this period Pissarro began to understand and appreciate the importance of expressing on canvas the beauties of nature without adulteration. After a year in Paris, he therefore began to leave the city and paint scenes in the countryside to capture the daily reality of village life. He found the French countryside to be \"picturesque,\" and worthy of being painted. It was still mostly agricultural and sometimes called the \"golden age of the peasantry\". Pissarro later explained the technique of painting outdoors to a student: Corot would complete his paintings back in his studio, often revising them according to his preconceptions. Pissarro, however, preferred to finish his paintings outdoors, often at one sitting, which gave his work a more realistic feel. As a result, his art was sometimes criticised as being \"vulgar,\" because he painted what he saw: \"rutted and edged hodgepodge of bushes, mounds of earth, and trees in various stages of development.\" According to one source, such details were equivalent to today's art showing garbage cans or beer bottles on the side of a street. This difference in style created disagreements between Pissarro and Corot.", "In 1859, while attending the free school, the Académie Suisse, Pissarro became friends with a number of younger artists who likewise chose to paint in the more realistic style. Among them were Claude Monet, Armand Guillaumin and Paul Cézanne. What they shared in common was their dissatisfaction with the dictates of the Salon. Cézanne's work had been mocked at the time by the others in the school, and, writes Rewald, in his later years Cézanne \"never forgot the sympathy and understanding with which Pissarro encouraged him.\" As a part of the group, Pissarro was comforted from knowing he was not alone, and that others similarly struggled with their art. Pissarro agreed with the group about the importance of portraying individuals in natural settings, and expressed his dislike of any artifice or grandeur in his works, despite what the Salon demanded for its exhibits. In 1863 almost all of the group's paintings were rejected by the Salon, and French Emperor Napoleon III instead decided to place their paintings in a separate exhibit hall, the Salon des Refusés. However, only works of Pissarro and Cézanne were included, and the separate exhibit brought a hostile response from both the officials of the Salon and the public. In subsequent Salon exhibits of 1865 and 1866, Pissarro acknowledged his influences from Melbye and Corot, whom he listed as his masters in the catalogue. But in the exhibition of 1868 he no longer credited other artists as an influence, in effect declaring his independence as a painter. This was noted at the time by art critic and author Émile Zola, who offered his opinion: Another writer tries to describe elements of Pissarro's style: And though, on orders from the hanging Committee and the Marquis de Chennevières, Pissarro's paintings of Pontoise for example had been skyed, hung near the ceiling, this did not prevent Jules-Antoine Castagnary from noting that the qualities of his paintings had been observed by art lovers. At the age of thirty-eight, Pissarro had begun to win himself a reputation as a landscapist to rival Corot and Daubigny. In the late 1860s or early 1870s, Pissarro became fascinated with Japanese prints, which influenced his desire to experiment in new compositions. He described the art to his son Lucien:", "In 1871 in Croydon he married his mother's maid, Julie Vellay, a vineyard grower's daughter, with whom he would later have seven children. They lived outside Paris in Pontoise and later in Louveciennes, both of which places inspired many of his paintings including scenes of village life, along with rivers, woods, and people at work. He also kept in touch with the other artists of his earlier group, especially Monet, Renoir, Cézanne, and Frédéric Bazille.", "After the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71, having only Danish nationality and being unable to join the army, he moved his family to Norwood, then a village on the edge of London. However, his style of painting, which was a forerunner of what was later called \"Impressionism\", did not do well. He wrote to his friend, Théodore Duret, that \"my painting doesn't catch on, not at all...\" Pissarro met the Paris art dealer Paul Durand-Ruel, in London, who became the dealer who helped sell his art for most of his life. Durand-Ruel put him in touch with Monet who was likewise in London during this period. They both viewed the work of British landscape artists John Constable and J. M. W. Turner, which confirmed their belief that their style of open air painting gave the truest depiction of light and atmosphere, an effect that they felt could not be achieved in the studio alone. Pissarro's paintings also began to take on a more spontaneous look, with loosely blended brushstrokes and areas of impasto, giving more depth to the work.", "Through the paintings Pissarro completed at this time, he records Sydenham and the Norwoods at a time when they were just recently connected by railways, but prior to the expansion of suburbia. One of the largest of these paintings is a view of \"St. Bartholomew's Church\" at Lawrie Park Avenue, commonly known as \"The Avenue, Sydenham\", in the collection of the National Gallery in London. Twelve oil paintings date from his stay in Upper Norwood and are listed and illustrated in the catalogue raisonné prepared jointly by his fifth child Ludovic-Rodolphe Pissarro and Lionello Venturi and published in 1939. These paintings include \"Norwood Under the Snow\", and \"Lordship Lane Station\", views of The Crystal Palace relocated from Hyde Park, \"Dulwich College\", \"Sydenham Hill\", \"All Saints Church Upper Norwood\", and a lost painting of St. Stephen's Church. Returning to France, Pissarro lived in Pontoise from 1872 to 1884. In 1890 he again visited England and painted some ten scenes of central London. He came back again in 1892, painting in Kew Gardens and Kew Green, and also in 1897, when he produced several oils described as being of Bedford Park, Chiswick, but in fact all being of the nearby Stamford Brook area except for one of Bath Road, which runs from Stamford Brook along the south edge of Bedford Park.", "When Pissarro returned to his home in France after the war, he discovered that of the 1,500 paintings he had done over 20 years, which he was forced to leave behind when he moved to London, only 40 remained. The rest had been damaged or destroyed by the soldiers, who often used them as floor mats outside in the mud to keep their boots clean. It is assumed that many of those lost were done in the Impressionist style he was then developing, thereby \"documenting the birth of Impressionism.\" Armand Silvestre, a critic, went so far as to call Pissarro \"basically the inventor of this [Impressionist] painting\"; however, Pissarro's role in the Impressionist movement was \"less that of the great man of ideas than that of the good counselor and appeaser...\" \"Monet... could be seen as the guiding force.\" He soon reestablished his friendships with the other Impressionist artists of his earlier group, including Cézanne, Monet, Manet, Renoir, and Degas. Pissarro now expressed his opinion to the group that he wanted an alternative to the Salon so their group could display their own unique styles. To assist in that endeavour, in 1873 he helped establish a separate collective, called the \"Société Anonyme des Artistes, Peintres, Sculpteurs et Graveurs,\" which included fifteen artists. Pissarro created the group's first charter and became the \"pivotal\" figure in establishing and holding the group together. One writer noted that with his prematurely grey beard, the forty-three-year-old Pissarro was regarded as a \"wise elder and father figure\" by the group. Yet he was able to work alongside the other artists on equal terms due to his youthful temperament and creativity. Another writer said of him that \"he has unchanging spiritual youth and the look of an ancestor who remained a young man\".", "The following year, in 1874, the group held their first 'Impressionist' Exhibition, which shocked and \"horrified\" the critics, who primarily appreciated only scenes portraying religious, historical, or mythological settings. They found fault with the Impressionist paintings on many grounds:", "Pissarro showed five of his paintings, all landscapes, at the exhibit, and again Émile Zola praised his art and that of the others. In the Impressionist exhibit of 1876; however, art critic Albert Wolff complained in his review, \"Try to make M. Pissarro understand that trees are not violet, that sky is not the color of fresh butter...\" Journalist and art critic Octave Mirbeau on the other hand, writes, \"Camille Pissarro has been a revolutionary through the revitalized working methods with which he has endowed painting\". According to Rewald, Pissarro had taken on an attitude more simple and natural than the other artists. He writes: In later years, Cézanne also recalled this period and referred to Pissarro as \"the first Impressionist\". In 1906, a few years after Pissarro's death, Cézanne, then 67 and a role model for the new generation of artists, paid Pissarro a debt of gratitude by having himself listed in an exhibition catalogue as \"Paul Cézanne, pupil of Pissarro\". Pissarro, Degas, and American impressionist Mary Cassatt planned a journal of their original prints in the late 1870s, a project that nevertheless came to nothing when Degas withdrew. Art historian and the artist's great-grandson Joachim Pissarro notes that they \"professed a passionate disdain for the Salons and refused to exhibit at them.\" Together they shared an \"almost militant resolution\" against the Salon, and through their later correspondences it is clear that their mutual admiration \"was based on a kinship of ethical as well as aesthetic concerns\". Cassatt had befriended Degas and Pissarro years earlier when she joined Pissarro's newly formed French Impressionist group and gave up opportunities to exhibit in the United States. She and Pissarro were often treated as \"two outsiders\" by the Salon since neither were French or had become French citizens. However, she was \"fired up with the cause\" of promoting Impressionism and looked forward to exhibiting \"out of solidarity with her new friends\". Towards the end of the 1890s she began to distance herself from the Impressionists, avoiding Degas at times as she did not have the strength to defend herself against his \"wicked tongue\". Instead, she came to prefer the company of \"the gentle Camille Pissarro\", with whom she could speak frankly about the changing attitudes toward art. She once described him as a teacher \"that could have taught the stones to draw correctly.\"", "By the 1880s, Pissarro began to explore new themes and methods of painting to break out of what he felt was an artistic \"mire\". As a result, Pissarro went back to his earlier themes by painting the life of country people, which he had done in Venezuela in his youth. Degas described Pissarro's subjects as \"peasants working to make a living\". However, this period also marked the end of the Impressionist period due to Pissarro's leaving the movement. As Joachim Pissarro points out, \"Once such a die-hard Impressionist as Pissarro had turned his back on Impressionism, it was apparent that Impressionism had no chance of surviving...\" It was Pissarro's intention during this period to help \"educate the public\" by painting people at work or at home in realistic settings, without idealising their lives. Pierre-Auguste Renoir, in 1882, referred to Pissarro's work during this period as \"revolutionary,\" in his attempt to portray the \"common man.\" Pissarro himself did not use his art to overtly preach any kind of political message, however, although his preference for painting humble subjects was intended to be seen and purchased by his upper class clientele. He also began painting with a more unified brushwork along with pure strokes of color.", "In 1885 he met Georges Seurat and Paul Signac, both of whom relied on a more \"scientific\" theory of painting by using very small patches of pure colours to create the illusion of blended colours and shading when viewed from a distance. Pissarro then spent the years from 1885 to 1888 practising this more time-consuming and laborious technique, referred to as pointillism. The paintings that resulted were distinctly different from his Impressionist works, and were on display in the 1886 Impressionist Exhibition, but under a separate section, along with works by Seurat, Signac, and his son Lucien. All four works were considered an \"exception\" to the eighth exhibition. Joachim Pissarro notes that virtually every reviewer who commented on Pissarro's work noted \"his extraordinary capacity to change his art, revise his position and take on new challenges.\" One critic writes: Pissarro explained the new art form as a \"phase in the logical march of Impressionism\", but he was alone among the other Impressionists with this attitude, however. Joachim Pissarro states that Pissarro thereby became the \"only artist who went from Impressionism to Neo-Impressionism\". In 1884, art dealer Theo van Gogh asked Pissarro if he would take in his older brother, Vincent, as a boarder in his home. Lucien Pissarro wrote that his father was impressed by Van Gogh's work and had \"foreseen the power of this artist\", who was 23 years younger. Although Van Gogh never boarded with him, Pissarro did explain to him the various ways of finding and expressing light and color, ideas which he later used in his paintings, notes Lucien.", "Pissarro eventually turned away from Neo-Impressionism, claiming its system was too artificial. He explains in a letter to a friend: However, after reverting to his earlier style, his work became, according to Rewald, \"more subtle, his color scheme more refined, his drawing firmer... So it was that Pissarro approached old age with an increased mastery.\" But the change also added to Pissarro's continual financial hardship which he felt until his 60s. His \"headstrong courage and a tenacity to undertake and sustain the career of an artist\", writes Joachim Pissarro, was due to his \"lack of fear of the immediate repercussions\" of his stylistic decisions. In addition, his work was strong enough to \"bolster his morale and keep him going\", he writes. His Impressionist contemporaries, however, continued to view his independence as a \"mark of integrity\", and they turned to him for advice, referring to him as \"Père Pissarro\" (father Pissarro).", "In his older age Pissarro suffered from a recurring eye infection that prevented him from working outdoors except in warm weather. As a result of this disability, he began painting outdoor scenes while sitting by the window of hotel rooms. He often chose hotel rooms on upper levels to get a broader view. He moved around northern France and painted from hotels in Rouen, Paris, Le Havre and Dieppe. On his visits to London, he would do the same. Pissarro died in Paris on 13 November 1903 and was buried in Père Lachaise Cemetery.", "During the period Pissarro exhibited his works, art critic Armand Silvestre had called Pissarro the \"most real and most naive member\" of the Impressionist group. His work has also been described by art historian Diane Kelder as expressing \"the same quiet dignity, sincerity, and durability that distinguished his person.\" She adds that \"no member of the group did more to mediate the internecine disputes that threatened at times to break it apart, and no one was a more diligent proselytizer of the new painting.\" According to Pissarro's son, Lucien, his father painted regularly with Cézanne beginning in 1872. He recalls that Cézanne walked a few miles to join Pissarro at various settings in Pontoise. While they shared ideas during their work, the younger Cézanne wanted to study the countryside through Pissarro's eyes, as he admired Pissarro's landscapes from the 1860s. Cézanne, although only nine years younger than Pissarro, said that \"he was a father for me. A man to consult and a little like the good Lord.\" Lucien Pissarro was taught painting by his father, and described him as a \"splendid teacher, never imposing his personality on his pupil.\" Gauguin, who also studied under him, referred to Pissarro \"as a force with which future artists would have to reckon\". Art historian Diane Kelder notes that it was Pissarro who introduced Gauguin, who was then a young stockbroker studying to become an artist, to Degas and Cézanne. Gauguin, near the end of his career, wrote a letter to a friend in 1902, shortly before Pissarro's death: The American impressionist Mary Cassatt, who at one point lived in Paris to study art, and joined his Impressionist group, noted that he was \"such a teacher that he could have taught the stones to draw correctly.\" Caribbean author and scholar Derek Walcott based his book-length poem, \"Tiepolo's Hound\" (2000), on Pissarro's life.", "During the early 1930s throughout Europe, Jewish owners of numerous fine art masterpieces found themselves forced to give up or sell off their collections for minimal prices due to anti-Jewish laws created by the new Nazi regime. Many Jews were forced to flee Germany. When those forced into exile owned valuables, including artwork, they were often seized by officials for personal gain. In the decades after World War II, many art masterpieces were found on display in various galleries and museums in Europe and the United States. Some, as a result of legal action, were later returned to the families of the original owners. Many of the recovered paintings were then donated to the same or other museums as a gift. One such lost piece, Pissarro's 1897 oil painting, \"Rue St. Honoré, Apres Midi, Effet de Pluie\", was discovered hanging at Madrid's government-owned museum, the Museo Thyssen-Bornemisza. In January 2011 the Spanish government denied a request by the US ambassador to return the painting. At the subsequent trial in Los Angeles, the court ruled that the Thyssen-Bornemisza Collection Foundation was the rightful owner. Pissarro's \"Le Quai Malaquais, Printemps\" is said to have been similarly stolen, while in 1999, Pissarro's 1897 \"Le Boulevard de Montmartre, Matinée de Printemps\" appeared in the Israel Museum in Jerusalem, its donor having been unaware of its pre-war provenance. In January 2012, \"Le Marché aux Poissons\" (The Fish Market), a color monotype, was returned after 30 years. During his lifetime, Camille Pissarro sold few of his paintings. By the 21st century, however, his paintings were selling for millions. An auction record for the artist was set on 6 November 2007 at Christie's in New York, where a group of four paintings, \"Les Quatre Saisons\" (the Four Seasons), sold for $14,601,000 (estimate $12,000,000 – $18,000,000). In November 2009 \"Le Pont Boieldieu et la Gare d'Orléans, Rouen, Soleil\" sold for $7,026,500 at Sotheby's in New York. In February 2014 the 1897 \"Le Boulevard de Montmartre, Matinée de Printemps\", originally owned by the German industrialist and Holocaust victim Max Silberberg (), sold at Sotheby's in London for £19.9M, nearly five times the previous record.", "Camille's son Lucien was an Impressionist and Neo-impressionist painter as were his second and third sons Georges Henri Manzana Pissarro and Félix Pissarro. Lucien's daughter Orovida Pissarro was also a painter. Camille's great-grandson, Joachim Pissarro, became Head Curator of Drawing and Painting at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City and a professor in Hunter College's Art Department. Camille's great-granddaughter, Lélia Pissarro, has had her work exhibited alongside her great-grandfather. From the only daughter of Camille, Jeanne Pissarro, other painters include Henri Bonin-Pissarro (1918–2003) and Claude Bonin-Pissarro (born 1921), who is the father of the Abstract artist Frédéric Bonin-Pissarro (born 1964).", "", "In June 2006 publishers Skira/Wildenstein released \"Pissarro: Critical Catalogue of Paintings\", compiled by Joachim Pissarro (descendant of the painter) and Claire Durand-Ruel Snollaerts (descendant of the French art dealer Paul Durand-Ruel). The 1,500-page, three-volume work is the most comprehensive collection of Pissarro paintings to date, and contains accompanying images of drawings and studies, as well as photographs of Pissarro and his family that had not previously been published." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Marriage and birth of heir.", "Death and funeral.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Jane, the daughter of Sir John Seymour and Margery Wentworth was most likely born at Wulfhall, Wiltshire, although West Bower Manor in Somerset has also been suggested, Her birth date is not recorded; various accounts use anywhere from 1504 to 1509, but it is generally estimated as occurring in or around 1508. Through her maternal grandfather, she was a descendant of King Edward III's son Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke of Clarence. Because of this, she and King Henry VIII were fifth cousins. She shared a great-grandmother, Elizabeth Cheney, with his second and fifth wives, Anne Boleyn and Catherine Howard. Jane was not as highly educated as Henry's first and second wives, Catherine of Aragon and Anne Boleyn. She could read and write a little, but was much better at needlework and household management, which were considered much more necessary for women. Her needlework was reported to be beautiful and elaborate; some of her work survived as late as 1652, when it is recorded to have been given to the Seymour family. After her death, it was noted that Henry was an \"enthusiastic embroiderer.\" Jane became a maid-of-honour in 1532 to Queen Catherine, but may have served her as early as 1527, and went on to serve Queen Anne with her sister Elizabeth. The first report of Henry VIII's interest in Jane was in February 1536, about three months before Anne's execution. Jane was highly praised for her gentle, peaceful nature, being referred to as \"gentle a lady as ever I knew\" by John Russell and being named as \"the Pacific\" by the Imperial Ambassador Eustace Chapuys for her peacemaking efforts at court. According to Chapuys, she was of middling stature and very pale; he also commented that she was not of much beauty. However, John Russell stated that she was \"the fairest of all the King's wives.\" Polydore Vergil commented that she was \"a woman of the utmost charm in both character and appearance.\" She was regarded as a meek, gentle, simple, and chaste woman, whose large family made her a suitable candidate to give birth to many children.", "Henry VIII was betrothed to Jane on 20 May 1536, just one day after Anne Boleyn's execution. They were married at the Palace of Whitehall, Whitehall, London, in the Queen's closet by Bishop Gardiner on 30 May 1536. As a wedding gift he made her a grant of 104 manors in four counties as well as a number of forests and hunting chases for her jointure, the income to support her during their marriage. She was publicly proclaimed queen on 4 June 1536. Her well-publicised sympathy for the late Queen Catherine and her daughter Mary showed her to be compassionate and made her a popular figure with the common people and most of the courtiers. She was never crowned because of plague in London, where the coronation was to take place. Henry may have been reluctant to have her crowned before she had fulfilled her duty as a queen consort by bearing him a son and a male heir. As queen, Jane was said to be strict and formal. The lavish entertainments, gaiety, and extravagance of the queen's household, which had reached its peak during the time of Anne Boleyn, was replaced by a strict enforcement of decorum. For example, she banned the French fashions that Anne had introduced. Politically, Jane appears to have been conservative. Her only reported involvement in national affairs, in 1536, was when she asked for pardons for participants in the Pilgrimage of Grace. Henry is said to have rejected this, reminding her of the fate her predecessor met with when she \"meddled in his affairs\". Her motto as a queen was \"\"Bound to obey and serve\".\" Jane formed a close relationship with her stepdaughter Mary. Jane put forth much effort to restore Mary to court and to the royal succession, behind any children that she might have with Henry. She brought up the issue of Mary's restoration both before and after she became queen. While she was unable to restore Mary to the line of succession, she was able to reconcile her with Henry. Eustace Chapuys wrote to Emperor Charles V of her compassion and efforts on behalf of Mary's return to favour. A letter from Mary to her shows that Mary was grateful to her. While it was she who first pushed for the restoration, Mary and Elizabeth were not reinstated to the succession until Henry's sixth wife, Catherine Parr, convinced him to do so. By Christmas of 1536, Jane was pregnant but subsequently lost the child. In January 1537, Jane conceived again. During her pregnancy, she developed a craving for quail, which Henry ordered for her from Calais and Flanders. During the summer, she took no public engagements and led a relatively quiet life, being attended by the royal physicians and the best midwives in the kingdom. She went into confinement in September 1537 and gave birth to the coveted male heir, the future King Edward VI, at two o'clock in the morning on 12 October 1537 at Hampton Court Palace. Edward was christened on 15 October 1537, without his mother in attendance, as was the custom. He was the only legitimate son of Henry VIII to survive infancy. Both of his daughters, Mary and Elizabeth, were present and carried Edward's train during the ceremony.", "Jane's labour had been difficult, lasting two days and three nights, probably because the baby was not well positioned. After the christening, it became clear that she was seriously ill. She died on 24 October 1537 at Hampton Court Palace. Within a few weeks of her death, there were conflicting testimonies concerning the cause of her demise. In retrospect from the current day, there are various speculations that have been offered. According to King Edward's biographer, Jennifer Loach, her death may have been due to an infection from a retained placenta. According to Alison Weir, she may have succumbed to puerperal fever following a bacterial infection contracted during the birth. The same author has also speculated, after medical consultation, that the cause of her death was a pulmonary embolism. Jane was buried on 12 November 1537 in St. George's Chapel at Windsor Castle after the funeral in which her stepdaughter Mary acted as chief mourner. A procession of 29 mourners followed Mary, one for every year of Queen Jane's life. She was the only one of Henry's wives to receive a queen's funeral. After her death, Henry wore black for the next three months. He married Anne of Cleves two years later, although marriage negotiations were tentatively begun soon after Jane's death. He put on weight during his widowerhood, becoming obese and swollen and developing diabetes and gout. Historians have speculated she was his favourite wife because she gave birth to a male heir. When he died in 1547, he was buried beside her, on his request, in the grave he had made for her.", "Jane gave the King the son he so desperately desired, helped to restore Mary to the succession and her father's affections, and used her influence to bring about the advancement of her family. Two of her brothers, Thomas and Edward, used her memory to improve their own fortunes. Thomas was rumoured to have been pursuing the future Elizabeth I, but married the queen dowager Catherine Parr instead. In the reign of the young King Edward VI, Edward set himself up as Lord Protector and de facto ruler of the kingdom. Both eventually fell from power, and were executed." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Development.", "Name.", "Launch.", "Demographic.", "Hardware.", "Software.", "Wii Menu.", "Nintendo DS connectivity.", "Online connectivity.", "Media support.", "Parental controls.", "Games.", "Reception.", "Legal issues.", "Successor." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The console was conceived in 2001, as the GameCube was first released. According to an interview with Nintendo game designer Shigeru Miyamoto, the concept involved focusing on a new form of player interaction. \"The consensus was that power isn't everything for a console. Too many powerful consoles can't coexist. It's like having only ferocious dinosaurs. They might fight and hasten their own extinction.\" In 2003, game engineers and designers were brought together to develop the concept further. By 2005, the controller interface had taken form, but a public showing at that year's Electronic Entertainment Expo (E3)", "The console was known by the code name \"Revolution\" from May 11, 2004 when its codename was announced at Nintendo's 2004 pre-Electronics Entertainment Expo press conference in Los Angeles, California until April 27, 2006, immediately before E3. Before the Wii's codename was announced, the media referred to the console as \"GCNext\" or Gamecube Next and \"N5\" or Nintendo's fifth major home console. Nintendo's spelling of \"Wii\" (with two lower-case \"i\" characters) is intended to resemble two people standing side-by-side (representing players gathering together) and to represent the Wii Remote and Nunchuk. One reason the company has given for this name choice since the announcement is: Some video game developers and members of the", "On September 14, 2006, Nintendo announced release information for Japan, North and South America, Oceania, Asia and Europe including dates, prices, and projected unit-distribution figures. It was announced that the majority of the 2006 shipments would be allotted to the Americas, and 33 titles would be available at its launch. The Wii was launched in the United States on", "Nintendo has hoped to target a wider demographic with its console than that of others in the seventh generation. At a press conference for the then-upcoming Nintendo DS game \"\" in December 2006, Satoru Iwata insisted This is reflected in Nintendo's series of television advertisements in North America (directed by Academy Award winner Stephen Gaghan) and its Internet ads. The advertising slogans were \"\"Wii would", "The Wii was Nintendo's smallest home console at the time (the current smallest is hybrid home-portable console Nintendo Switch, when in portable mode); it measures 44 mm (1.73 in) wide, 157 mm (6.18 in) tall and 215.4 mm (8.48 in) deep in its vertical orientation, slightly larger than three DVD cases stacked together. The included stand measures 55.4 mm (2.18 in) wide, 44 mm (1.73 in) tall and 225.6 mm (8.88 in) deep. The system weighs 1.2 kg (2.7 lb), making it the lightest of the three major seventh-generation consoles. The Wii may stand horizontally or vertically. The prefix for the numbering scheme of the system and its parts and accessories is \"RVL-\" for its code name, \"Revolution\". The front of the console features an illuminated slot-loading optical media drive which accepts only 12 cm Wii Optical Discs and 8 cm Nintendo GameCube Game Discs. (Units sold in South Korea and later revisions do not support GameCube discs.) The blue light in the disc slot illuminates briefly when the console is turned on, and pulses when new data is received through WiiConnect24. After the update (including System Menu 3.0), the disc-slot light activates whenever a Wii disc is inserted or ejected. When there is no WiiConnect24 information, the light stays off. The disc-slot light remains off during game play or when using other features. Two USB ports are located on the back of the console. An SD-card slot is located behind the SD-card slot cover on the front of the console, where an SD-card can be inserted. The Wii launch package includes the console; a stand to allow the console to be placed vertically; a round, clear stabilizer for the main stand; a Wii Remote; a Nunchuk attachment; a Sensor Bar; a removable stand for the bar; an external power adapter; two AA batteries; a composite AV cable with RCA connectors; a SCART adapter in European countries (component video and other types of cables are available separately); operation documentation and (in Europe and the Americas) a copy of the game \"Wii Sports\". The disc reader of the Wii does not play DVD-Video, DVD-Audio or Compact Discs. A 2006 announcement stated that a new version of the Wii (capable of DVD-Video playback) would be released in 2007; however, Nintendo delayed its release to focus on meeting demand for the original console. Nintendo's initial announcement stated that it \"requires more than a firmware upgrade\" to implement, and the capability could not be made available as an upgrade option for the existing Wii; the delay later became a cancellation when production of the Wii was discontinued in 2013. However, despite the assertion, third parties have used Wii homebrew to add DVD playback to unmodified Wii units. The Wii also can be hacked to enable an owner to use the console for activities unintended by the manufacturer. Several brands of modchips are available for the Wii. Although Nintendo showed the console and the Wii Remote in white, black, silver, lime-green and red before it was released, it was only available in white for its first two-and-a-half years of sales. Black consoles were available in Japan in August 2009, in Europe in November 2009 and in North America on May 9, 2010. A red Wii system bundle was available in Japan on November 11, 2010, commemorating the 25th anniversary of \"Super Mario Bros.\" The European version of the limited-edition red Wii bundle was released on October 29, 2010, which includes the original \"Donkey Kong\" game preloaded onto the console, \"New Super Mario Bros. Wii\" and \"Wii Sports\". The bundle also features the Wii Remote Plus, with integrated Wii Motion Plus technology. The red Wii bundle was released in North America on November 7, 2010 with \"New Super Mario Bros. Wii\", Wii Sports and the Wii Remote Plus. On July 11, 2007, Nintendo unveiled the Wii Balance Board at E3 2007 with \"Wii Fit\". It is a wireless balance board accessory for the Wii, with multiple pressure sensors used to measure the user's center of balance. Namco Bandai produced a mat controller (a simpler, less-sophisticated competitor to the balance board).", "The console has a number of internal features made available from its hardware and firmware components. The hardware allows for extendability (via expansion ports), while the firmware (and some software) can receive periodic updates via the WiiConnect24 service.", "The Wii Menu interface is designed to emulate television channels. Separate channels are graphically displayed in a grid and are navigated using the pointer capability of the Wii Remote. Except for the Disc Channel, it is possible to change the arrangement by holding down the A and B buttons to \"grab\" channels and move them around. There are six primary channels: the Disc", "The Wii system supports wireless connectivity with the Nintendo DS without any additional accessories. This connectivity allows the player to use the Nintendo DS microphone and touchscreen as inputs for Wii games. The first game utilizing Nintendo DS-Wii connectivity is \"Pokémon Battle Revolution\". Players with either the \"Pokémon Diamond\" or", "The Wii console connects to the Internet through its built-in 802.11b/g Wi-Fi or through a USB-to-Ethernet adapter; either method allows players to access the Nintendo Wi-Fi Connection service. The service has several features for the console, including Virtual Console, WiiConnect24, the Internet Channel, the Forecast Channel, the Everybody Votes Channel, the News Channel and the Check Mii Out Channel. The Wii can also communicate (and connect) with other Wii systems through a self-generated wireless LAN, enabling local wireless multi-playing on different television sets. \"Battalion Wars 2\" first demonstrated this feature for non-split screen multi-playing between two (or more) televisions.", "On April 9, 2008, the BBC announced that its online BBC iPlayer would be available on the Wii via the Internet Channel browser; however, some users experienced difficulty with the service. On November 18, 2009, BBC iPlayer on the Wii was launched as the BBC iPlayer Channel, a free downloadable channel from the Wii Shop Channel; however, the service was discontinued in early 2017. Netflix was released as a downloadable channel for the Wii on October 18, 2010 in Canada and the United States. A survey conducted by Nielson revealed that 25% of Netflix subscribers used the", "The console features parental controls, which can be used to prohibit younger users from playing games with content unsuitable for their age level. When one attempts to play a Wii or Virtual Console game, it reads the content rating encoded in the game data; if this rating is greater than the system's set age level, the game will not load without a password. Parental controls may also restrict Internet access,", "Retail copies of games are supplied on proprietary, DVD-type Wii optical discs, which are packaged in keep cases with instructions. In Europe, the boxes have a triangle at the bottom corner of the paper sleeve-insert side. The triangle is color-coded to identify the region for which the title is intended and which manual languages are included. The console supports regional lockout: software available in a region can be only played on that region's hardware. New games in Nintendo's flagship franchises (including \"The Legend of Zelda\", \"Super Mario\", \"Pokémon\", and \"Metroid\") have been released, in addition to many original titles and third-party-developed games. Nintendo has received third-party support from companies such as Ubisoft, Sega, Square Enix, Activision Blizzard, Electronic Arts and Capcom, with more games being developed for Wii than for the PlayStation 3 or Xbox 360. Nintendo also launched the New Play Control! line, a selection of enhanced GameCube games for the Wii featuring updated controls. The Virtual Console service allows Wii owners to play games originally released for the Nintendo Entertainment System, Super Nintendo Entertainment System, Nintendo 64, Sega's Genesis/Mega Drive and Sega Mark III/Sega Master System, NEC's TurboGrafx-16/PC Engine, SNK's Neo Geo console, Commodore 64 and arcade games. Virtual Console games were distributed over broadband Internet via the former Wii Shop Channel, and are saved to the Wii internal flash memory or to a removable SD card. Once downloaded, Virtual Console games can be accessed from the Wii Menu (as individual channels) or from an SD card via the SD Card Menu. There is also the Wii Homebrew Channel, which can be installed by exploiting the Wii, allowing the user to run unauthorized applications built from user-generated code. The game development suite Unity can be used to create official Wii games; however, the developer must be authorized by Nintendo to develop games for the console. Games must also be accepted by Nintendo to be sold. 921.69 million Wii games had been sold worldwide, and 104 titles had surpassed the million-unit mark by March 2011. The most successful game (\"Wii Sports\", which comes bundled with the console in most regions) sold 82.90 million copies worldwide by March 31, 2020, surpassing \"Super Mario Bros.\" as the best-selling video game of all time in 2009. However, as of May 2019, \"Minecraft\" is the best selling video game of all time, having sold 176 million copies. The best-selling unbundled game, \"Mario Kart Wii\", had sold 37.32 million units worldwide by March 31, 2020. Ubisoft's \"Just Dance 2020\" is the last game to ever be released for the system, almost 13 years after the Wii's launch.", "The Wii has received generally positive reviews. The system was well received after its exhibition at E3 2006. At the event, Nintendo's console won the Game Critics Awards for Best of Show and Best Hardware. In the December 2006 issue of \"Popular Science\", the console was named a Grand Award Winner in home entertainment. Spike TV's Video Games Award cited the Wii's breakthrough technology. GameSpot chose the console as having the best hardware in its \"Best and Worst 2006\" awards. The system was also chosen as one of \"PC World\" magazine's 20 Most Innovative Products of the Year. The console received a Golden Joystick for Innovation of the Year 2007 at the Golden Joystick Awards. In the category of Engineering & Technology for Creation and Implementation of Video Games and Platforms, Nintendo was awarded an Emmy Award for Game Controller Innovation by the National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences. In 2009, IGN named the Wii the 10th greatest console of all time (out of 25). The Wii's success caught third-party developers by surprise, leading to apologies for the quality of their early games. In an interview with German news magazine \"Der Spiegel\", Ubisoft's Yves Guillemot and Alain Corre admitted that they made a mistake in rushing out their launch titles, promising to take future projects more seriously. Take-Two Interactive, which released few games for the GameCube, changed its stance towards Nintendo by placing a higher priority on the Wii. At the same time, criticism of the Wii Remote and Wii hardware specifications had surfaced. Former GameSpot editor and Giantbomb.com founder Jeff Gerstmann stated that the controller's speaker produces low-quality sound, while Factor 5 President Julian Eggebrecht criticized the hardware audio as substandard for a console of its generation. UK-based developer Free Radical Design stated that the Wii hardware lacks the power necessary to run the software it scheduled for release on other seventh-generation consoles. Online connectivity of the Wii was also criticized; Matt Casamassina of IGN compared it to the \"entirely unintuitive\" service provided for the Nintendo DS. Game designer and \"The Sims\" creator Will Wright shared his thoughts on the Wii in the context of the seventh console generation: \"The only next gen system I've seen is the Wii – the PS3 and the Xbox 360 feel like better versions of the last, but pretty much the same game with incremental improvement. But the Wii feels like a major jump – not that the graphics are more powerful, but that it hits a completely different demographic.\" The Wii is seen as more physically demanding than other game consoles. Some Wii players have experienced a form of tennis elbow, known as \"Wiiitis\". A study published in the \"British Medical Journal\" stated that Wii players use more energy than they do playing sedentary computer games. While this energy increase may be beneficial to weight management, it was not an adequate replacement for regular exercise. A case study published in the American Physical Therapy Association's journal, \"Physical Therapy\", focused on use of the Wii for rehabilitation in a teenager with cerebral palsy. It is believed to be the first published research demonstrating physical-therapy benefits from use of the gaming system. Researchers say the system complements traditional techniques through use of simultaneous gaming rehabilitation efforts. In May 2010, the American Heart Association (AHA) endorsed the Wii to encourage sedentary people to take the first step toward fitness. The AHA heart icon covers the console and two of its more-active games, Wii Fit Plus and Wii Sports Resort. By 2008, two years after the Wii's release, Nintendo acknowledged several limitations and challenges with the system (such as the perception that the system catered primarily to a \"casual\" audience and was unpopular among \"core\" gamers). Game designer Shigeru Miyamoto admitted that the lack of support for high definition video output on the Wii and its limited network infrastructure also contributed to the system being regarded separately from its competitors' systems, the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3. Miyamoto originally defended Nintendo's decision to not include HD graphics in the Wii, stating that the number of HDTV's in people's homes at the time was \"really not that high, yet. Of course I think five years down the road it would be pretty much a given that Nintendo would create an HD system, but right now the predominant television set in the world is a non-HD set.\" Miyamoto said in an interview with Japanese magazine 4Gamer in 2013 that he regretted not giving the Wii HD graphics. An executive for Frontline Studios stated that major publishers were wary of releasing exclusive titles for the Wii, due to the perception that third-party companies were not strongly supported by consumers. In his blog, 1UP.com editor Jeremy Parish stated that Nintendo was the biggest disappointment for him in 2007. Commenting on the lack of quality third-party support, he stated that \"the Wii landscape is bleak. Worse than it was on N64. Worse than on GameCube...the resulting third-party content is overwhelmingly bargain-bin trash.\" \"The Globe and Mail\" and \"Forbes\" noted that the Wii had few successful third-party titles compared to its rivals (due, in part, to its weaker hardware). Third-party developers often skipped the Wii instead of making games for all three consoles simultaneously (\"blockbusters like the \"Call of Duty\" franchise either never arrive on Nintendo hardware or show up in neutered form\"). \"Forbes\" observed that of the most successful games of 2011 (\", Mass Effect 3, Portal 2, L.A. Noire, Battlefield 3, \"), although all were released for PC, Xbox 360, and PlayStation 3, only \"Modern Warfare 3\" received a Wii version which was also the least positively received port of the game. The lack of third-party games may be exacerbated in the future, as Nintendo faces the \"dilemma of having fallen out of sync with its rivals in the console cycle\"; Microsoft and Sony would design their consoles to be more powerful than the Wii U. Strong third-party titles are seen as a key sign of a gaming console's health. \"The Globe and Mail\", in suggesting why Nintendo posted a record loss of $926 million for the initial six months of its 2011–2012 fiscal year, blamed the Wii's design for being \"short-sighted\". The Wii initially enjoyed phenomenal success because it was inexpensive (due to its being less sophisticated than its competitors) and introduced a \"gaming gimmick\". However, this approach meant that the Wii's hardware soon became outdated and could not keep up long-term (in contrast to more-advanced rivals such as Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3, which were expected to continue doing well in 2012–2013) \"as both user desires and surrounding technologies evolved\" later in the generation. Furthermore, price cuts and the introduction of motion-sensor controllers for the Xbox 360 and PS3 nullified advantages once held by the Wii. \"The Globe\" suggested that there were other reasons for Nintendo's poor financial performance, including a strong yen and a tepid reception to the Nintendo 3DS handheld as mobile gaming became popular on smartphones and tablets, such as the iPad.", "There were lawsuits concerning the Wii console, Wii Remote, and other accessories. Lonestar Inventions, L.P., a Texas-based company, sued Nintendo in June 2006, claiming that the company copied one of Lonestar's patented capacitor designs and used it in the Wii console. The two companies agreed to dismiss all claims by July 20, 2009, alongside a settlement made between Lonestar and AMD, which provided Nintendo's microprocessor technology; whether the Lonestar-Nintendo dismissal included any out-of-court settlement terms was not clear. Anascape Ltd, a Texas-based firm, filed a lawsuit in the Summer of 2006 against Nintendo for patent infringement regarding the vibrational feedback used by Nintendo's controllers. A July 2008 verdict banned Nintendo from selling the Classic Controller in the United States, in addition to the GameCube and Wavebird controllers. Following an appeal to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, on April 22, 2010 the Federal Circuit Court ruled in Nintendo's favor. Interlink Electronics Inc. filed a patent-infringement lawsuit against Nintendo in December 2006 over the pointing functionality of the Wii Remote, claiming \"loss of reasonable royalties, reduced sales and/or lost profits as a result of the infringing activities\" of Nintendo. The lawsuit was dismissed by Interlink in March 2007. In August 2008, Hillcrest Laboratories Inc. filed a complaint against Nintendo with the U.S International Trade Commission, alleging that the Wii Remote infringed on three of its patents. A fourth Hillcrest patent (for graphical interfaces displayed on television screens) was also allegedly violated. Hillcrest sought a ban on Wii consoles imported to the U.S. On August 24, 2009, Nintendo and Hillcrest reached a settlement, although the terms were not publicly disclosed. In November 2008, Motiva LLC filed a lawsuit against Nintendo in the U.S. International Trade Commission claiming that the Wii violated two of its patents for tracking body movement and position. The USITC ruled in favour of Nintendo in January 2013, claiming that \"Motiva's litigation was targeted at financial gains, not at encouraging adoption of Motiva’s patented technology,” and that “There is simply no reasonable likelihood that, after successful litigation against Nintendo, Motiva’s patented technology would have been licensed by partners who would have incorporated it.” The USITC also determined that Nintendo did not violate any of Motiva's patents. In September 2011, ThinkOptics Inc. filed a lawsuit against Nintendo in United States District Court of the Eastern District of Texas over their controller, the Wavit Remote, claiming that the Wii violated its patent for a \"handheld vision based absolute pointing system\", a \"Handheld Device for Handheld Vision Based Absolute Pointing System\", and a \"Handheld Vision Based Absolute Pointing System\", which make up the basis for the Wavit Remote. They also said that the Wii U infringes on their patents as well and claims that Nintendo was aware of the fact that the Wii allegedly violates ThinkOptics' patents. The lawsuit sought an injunction against violating products, royalties, attorney's fees, and damages for lost profits. The lawsuit was dismissed by ThinkOptics in August 2014. Starting in December 2012, iLife Technologies Inc. sued several large companies over patent infringement over a set of patents they held related to \"systems and methods for evaluating movement of a body relative to an environment\", principally aimed at the medical field; Nintendo was sued by iLife in December 2013 for the Wii Remote's infringement on their patents, with the lawsuit seeking $144 million in damages, based on a $4 fine for the 36 million Wii and Wii U units it had sold to date. A jury trial was heard in August 2017, and the jury ruled in favor of iLife Technologies and Nintendo was forced to pay in damages. While Nintendo appealed this decision, the United States Court of Appeals upheld the jury's decision in December 2017. A federal judge overturned the decision in January 2020, ruling that iLife's patent was too broad.", "Nintendo announced the successor to the Wii, Wii U, at E3 2011. The Wii U features a controller with an embedded touch screen and output 1080p high-definition graphics; it is fully backward-compatible with Wii games and peripherals for the Wii. The Wii remote, Nunchuk controller and balance board are compatible with Wii U games which include support for them. The Wii U was released on November 18, 2012 in North America, November 30, 2012 in Europe, Australia and New Zealand, December 8, 2012 in Japan and November 26, 2013 in Brazil. The Wii U was discontinued worldwide on January 31, 2017." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Demographics.", "Languages.", "Economy.", "Administrative zones." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The current regional capital of Oromia is Addis Ababa, also known as Finfinne (which is also the capital of the country). It was changed from Addis Ababa to Adama in 2000, a move that sparked considerable controversy; the government was forced to bring the regional capital back to Addis Ababa on 10 June 2005. Critics of the move believed the Ethiopian government wished to de-emphasize Addis Abeba's geographic location as an enclave surrounded by Oromia. On the other hand, the government maintained that Addis Ababa \"has been found inconvenient from the point of view of developing the language, culture and history of the Oromo people.\" Oromia shares a boundary with almost every region of Ethiopia except for the Tigray Region. This boundary has been disputed with Oromia's neighbors in a number of cases, most notably between Oromia and the Somali Region. One attempt to resolve the dispute between the two regions was the October 2004 referendum held in about 420 kebeles in 12 woredas across five zones of the Somali Region. According to the official results of the referendum, about 80% of the disputed areas have fallen under Oromia administration, though there were allegations of voting irregularities in many of them. The results led over the following weeks to minorities in these kebeles being pressured to leave. In Oromiya, estimates based on figures given by local woreda and kebele authorities suggest that 21,520 people have been displaced in border woredas, namely Mieso, Doba, and Erer in the Mirab and Misraq Hararghe Zones. Federal authorities believe that this number may be overstated by as much as 11,000. In Doba, the Ministry of Federal Affairs put the number of IDPs at 6,000. There are also more than 2,500 displaced persons in Mieso. In addition, there were reports of people being displaced in the border area of Moyale and Borena zones due to this conflict. On 12 September 2015 and continuing into 2016, protests broke out across Ethiopia and centered around the Oromia Region. Dozens of protesters were killed in the first days of the protests and internet service was cut in many parts of the region. Ethiopian Airlines Flight 302 crashed in the \"woreda\" (district) of Gimbichu on 10 March 2019.", "Based on the 2007 census conducted by the Central Statistical Agency of Ethiopia (CSA), Oromia Region has a total population of 13,993,933, consisting of 6,595,006 men and 6,398,927 women; urban inhabitants number 3,370,040 or 11.3% of the population. With an estimated area of 353,006.81 square kilometers, this region has an estimated population density of 76.93 people per square kilometer. For the entire region 5,590,530 households were counted, which results in an average for the region of 4.8 persons to a household, with urban households having on average 3.8 and rural households 5.0 people. The projected population for 2017 was 32,815,995. In the previous census, conducted in 1994, the region's population was reported to be 17,088,136; urban inhabitants number 621,210 or 14% of the population. According to the CSA,, 32% of the population had access to safe drinking water, of whom 23.7% were rural inhabitants and 91.03% were urban. Values for other reported common indicators of the standard of living for Oromia include the following: 19.9% of the inhabitants fall into the lowest wealth quintile; adult literacy for men is 61.5% and for women 29.5%; and the regional infant mortality rate is 76 infant deaths per 1,000 live births, which is about the same as the nationwide average of 77; at least half of these deaths occurred in the infants' first month of life.", "Oromo (Afaan Oromoo), which is written with Latin characters, is the most commonly spoken language, spoken by 83.5% of the population. Other major languages are Amharic (11%) (especially in eastern Welega and northern Shewa), Gurage languages (Sebat Bet Gurage, Soddo, Silt'e), Hadiya, Gedeo (0.98%), especially in western and eastern Shewa; and Tigrigna (0.25%). Omotic languages are spoken by significant minorities in Jimma, Illubabor and western Welega; and some Nilo-Saharan languages (including Komo, Majang, Gumuz, and Berta) are spoken in communities scattered in the west.", "Oromia is a major contributor to Ethiopia's main exports - gold, coffee, khat and cattle. Lega Dembi in Guji Zone, owned by Midroc has exported more than 5000 kilograms of gold followed by Tulu Kapi in Wollaga. Awoday in Hararghe is the biggest market of khat exporting to Djibouti and Somalia. Oromia has also abundant livestock than any regions in Ethiopia including camels. It is also the largest producer of cereals and coffee. The CSA reported that, from 2004 to 2005, 115,083 tons of coffee were produced in Oromia, based on inspection records from the Ethiopian Coffee and Tea Authority. This represents 50.7% of the total production in Ethiopia. Farmers in the Region had an estimated total of 17,214,540 cattle (representing 44.4% of Ethiopia's total cattle), 6,905,370 sheep (39.6), 4,849,060 goats (37.4%), 959,710 horses (63.25%), 63,460 mules (43.1%), 278,440 asses (11.1%), 139,830 camels (30.6%), 11,637,070 poultry of all species (37.7%), and 2,513,790 beehives (57.73%). According to a March 2003 World Bank publication, the average rural household has 1.14 hectares of land compared to the national average of 1.01 hectares. 24% of the population work in non-farm related jobs compared to the national average of 25%.", "The Oromia is subdivided into 20 administrative zones:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Family life.", "Early life.", "Arrival at court.", "Marriage.", "Downfall.", "Imprisonment and death.", "Historiography.", "Portraits.", "Miniatures.", "Panel portraits." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Catherine was one of the daughters of Lord Edmund Howard ( – 1539) and Joyce Culpeper ( – ). Her father's sister, Elizabeth Howard, was the mother of Anne Boleyn. Therefore, Catherine Howard was the first cousin of Anne Boleyn, and the first cousin once removed of Lady Elizabeth (later Queen Elizabeth I), Anne's daughter by Henry VIII. She also was the second cousin of Jane Seymour, as her grandmother Elizabeth Tilney was the sister of Seymour's grandmother Anne Say. As a granddaughter of Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk (1443–1524), Catherine had an aristocratic pedigree. Her father was not wealthy, being the third son among 21 children and disfavoured in the custom of primogeniture, by which the eldest son inherits all his father's estate. When Catherine's parents married, her mother already had five children from her first husband, Ralph Leigh ( – 1509); she went on to have another six with Catherine's father, Catherine being about her mother's tenth child. With little to sustain the family, her father was often reduced to begging for handouts from his more affluent relatives. After Catherine's mother died in 1528, her father married twice more. In 1531 he was appointed Controller of Calais. He was dismissed from his post in 1539, and died in March 1539. Catherine was the third of Henry VIII's wives to have been a member of the English nobility or gentry; Catherine of Aragon and Anne of Cleves were royalty from continental Europe.", "Catherine was probably born in Lambeth in about 1523, but the exact date of her birth is unknown. Soon after the death of her mother (in about 1528), Catherine was sent with some of her siblings to live in the care of her father's stepmother, the Dowager Duchess of Norfolk. The Dowager Duchess presided over large households at Chesworth House in Horsham in Sussex, and at Norfolk House in Lambeth where dozens of attendants, along with her many wards—usually the children of aristocratic but poor relatives—resided. While sending young children to be educated and trained in aristocratic households other than their own was common for centuries among European nobles, supervision at both Chesworth House and Lambeth was apparently lax. The Dowager Duchess was often at Court and seems to have had little direct involvement in the upbringing of her wards and young female attendants. As a result of the Dowager Duchess' lack of discipline, Catherine became influenced by some older girls who allowed men into the sleeping areas at night for entertainment. The girls were entertained with food, wine, and gifts stolen from the kitchens. Catherine was not as well educated as some of Henry's other wives, although, on its own, her ability to read and write was impressive enough at the time. Her character has often been described as vivacious, giggly and brisk, but never scholarly or devout. She displayed great interest in her dance lessons, but would often be distracted during them and make jokes. She also had a nurturing side for animals, particularly dogs. In the Duchess' household at Horsham, in around 1536, Catherine began music lessons with two teachers, one of whom was Henry Mannox. Mannox's exact age is unknown; although it has recently been stated that he was in his late thirties, perhaps 36, at the time, this is not supported by Catherine's biographers. Evidence exists that Mannox was not yet married, which would be highly unusual for someone from his background at the time to have reached mid-thirties without being married - he married sometime in the late 1530s, perhaps 1539, and there is also some evidence that he was of an age with two other men serving in the household, including his cousin Edward Waldegrave (who was in his late teens or early twenties from 1536-8). These pieces of evidence indicate that Mannox too was in his early to mid-twenties in 1538. This is, however, guess work, based on interpreting fragmentary surviving details about Mannox, since there are no baptismal records for him. Subsequently a relationship arose between Catherine and Mannox, the details and dates of which are debated between modern historians. The most popular theory, first put forward in 2004 by Retha M. Warnicke, was that the relationship between them was abusive, with Mannox grooming and preying on Catherine from 1536-8, and this is expanded upon in detail by Conor Byrne. Other biographers, like Gareth Russell, believe Mannox's interactions with Catherine took place over a much shorter period of time, that Mannox was of roughly the same age as her, but that \"their relationship was nonetheless inappropriate, on several levels.\" He believes Catherine was increasingly repulsed by Mannox's pressure that she lose her virginity to him and angered by his gossiping with servants about the details of what had gone on between them. Mannox and Catherine both confessed during her adultery inquisitions that they had engaged in sexual contact, but not actual coitus. When questioned Catherine was quoted as saying, \"At the flattering and fair persuasions of Mannox, being but a young girl, I suffered him at sundry times to handle and touch the secret parts of my body, which neither became me with honesty to permit nor him to require.\" Catherine severed contact with Mannox in 1538, most likely in the spring. It is not true, as is sometimes stated, that this was because she began to spend more time at the Dowager Duchess' mansion in Lambeth, as Lambeth was Manox's home parish and where he married, perhaps in later 1538-9. He was still living in Lambeth in 1541. Shortly after, Catherine was pursued by Francis Dereham, a secretary of the Dowager Duchess. They allegedly became lovers, addressing each other as \"husband\" and \"wife\". Dereham also entrusted Catherine with various wifely duties, such as keeping his money when he was away on business. Many of Catherine's roommates among the Dowager Duchess' maids of honour and attendants knew of the relationship, which apparently ended in 1539, when the Dowager Duchess found out. Despite this, Catherine and Dereham may have parted with intentions to marry upon his return from Ireland, agreeing to a precontract of marriage. If indeed they exchanged vows before having sexual intercourse, they would have been considered married in the eyes of the Church.", "Catherine's uncle, the Duke of Norfolk, found her a place at Court in the household of the King's fourth wife, Anne of Cleves. As a young and attractive lady-in-waiting, Catherine quickly caught Henry's eye. The King had displayed little interest in Anne from the beginning, but on Thomas Cromwell's failure to find a new match for Henry, Norfolk saw an opportunity. The Howards may have sought to recreate the influence gained during Anne Boleyn's reign as queen consort. According to Nicholas Sander, the religiously conservative Howard family may have seen Catherine as a figurehead for their fight by expressed determination to restore Roman Catholicism to England. Catholic Bishop Stephen Gardiner entertained the couple at Winchester Palace with \"feastings\". As the King's interest in Catherine grew, so did the house of Norfolk's influence. Her youth, prettiness and vivacity were captivating for the middle-aged sovereign, who claimed he had never known \"the like to any woman\". Within months of her arrival at court, Henry bestowed gifts of land and expensive cloth upon Catherine. Henry called her his'very jewel of womanhood' (that he called her his 'rose without a thorn' is likely a myth). The French ambassador, Charles de Marillac, thought her \"delightful\". Holbein's portrait showed a young auburn-haired girl with a characteristically hooked Howard nose; Catherine was said to have a \"gentle, earnest face.\"", "King Henry and Catherine were married by Bishop Bonner of London at Oatlands Palace on 28 July 1540, the same day Cromwell was executed. She was a teenager and he was 49. Catherine adopted the motto, \"Non autre volonté que la sienne\" or \"No other wish but his\" using the English translation from French. The marriage was made public on 8 August, and prayers were said in the Chapel Royal at Hampton Court Palace. Henry \"indulged her every whim\" thanks to her \"caprice\". Catherine was young, joyous and carefree; Mannox had taught her to play the virginals. She was too young to take part in administrative matters of State. Nevertheless, every night Sir Thomas Heneage, Groom of the Stool, came to her chamber to report on the King's well-being. No plans were made for a coronation, yet she still travelled downriver in the royal barge into the City of London to a gun salute and some acclamation. She was settled by jointure at Baynard Castle: little changed at court, other than the arrival of many Howards. Every day she dressed with new clothes in the French fashion bedecked with precious jewels. With ominous foresight the motto adopted read \"Non autre volonté que la sienne\" (No other will but his/hers), decorated in gold around her sleeves. The Queen escaped plague-ridden London in August 1540 when on progress. The royal couple's entourage travelled on honeymoon through Reading and Buckingham. After the Queen's Chamberlain got drunk and misbehaved, the King was in a bad mood when they moved on to Woking, when his health improved. The King embarked on a lavish spending spree to celebrate his marriage, with extensive refurbishments and developments at the Palace of Whitehall. This was followed by more expensive gifts for Christmas at Hampton Court Palace. That winter the King's bad moods deepened and grew more furious. Undoubtedly the pain from his ulcerous legs was agony, but did not make relations any easier at court. He accused councillors of being \"lying time-servers\", and began to regret losing Cromwell. After a dark depressed March, his mood lifted at Easter. Preparations were in place for any signs of a royal pregnancy, reported by Marillac on 15 April as \"if it be found true, to have her crowned at Whitsuntide.\"", "Catherine may have been involved during her marriage to the King with Henry's favourite male courtier, Thomas Culpeper, a young man who \"had succeeded [him] in the Queen's affections\", according to Dereham's later testimony. She had considered marrying Culpeper during her time as a maid-of-honour to Anne of Cleves. Culpeper called Catherine \"my little, sweet fool\" in a love letter. It has been alleged that in the spring of 1541 the pair were meeting secretly. Their meetings were allegedly arranged by one of Catherine's older ladies-in-waiting, Jane Boleyn, Viscountess Rochford (Lady Rochford), the widow of Catherine's executed cousin, George Boleyn, Anne Boleyn's brother. During the autumn Northern Progress, a crisis over Catherine's conduct began to loom. People who claimed to have witnessed her earlier sexual behaviour while she was still a ward at Lambeth reportedly contacted her for favours in return for their silence, and some of these blackmailers may have been appointed to her royal household. John Lascelles, the brother of Mary Lascelles, claimed that he had tried to persuade his sister to find a place within the Queen's royal chamber. However Mary had allegedly refused, stating that she had witnessed the \"light\" ways of Queen Catherine while they were living together at Lambeth. Supposedly after hearing this John Lascelles reported such news to the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Cranmer, who then interrogated Lascelles’ sister. Under the Archbishop's interrogation, Mary alleged that Catherine had had sexual relations while under the Duchess' care, before her relationship with the King. Cranmer immediately took up the case to be made to topple his rivals—the Roman Catholic Norfolk family. Lady Rochford was interrogated and from fear of being tortured agreed to talk. She told how she had watched for Catherine backstairs as Culpeper had made his escapes from the Queen's room. During the investigation a love letter written in the Queen's distinctive handwriting was found in Culpeper's chambers. This is the only letter of hers that survived (other than her later \"confession\"). On All Saints' Day, 1 November 1541, the King arranged to be found praying in the Chapel Royal. There he received a letter describing the allegations against Catherine. On 7 November 1541 Archbishop Cranmer led a delegation of councillors to Winchester Palace, Southwark, to question her. Even the staunch Cranmer found the teenage Catherine's frantic, incoherent state pitiable, saying, \"I found her in such lamentation and heaviness as I never saw no creature, so that it would have pitied any man's heart to have looked upon her.\" He ordered the guards to remove any objects that she might use to commit suicide.", "Establishing the existence of a precontract between Catherine and Dereham would have had the effect of terminating Catherine's royal union, but it would also have allowed Henry to annul their marriage and banish her from Court in poverty and disgrace instead of executing her, though there is no indication that Henry would have chosen that alternative. Yet Catherine steadfastly denied any precontract, maintaining that Dereham had raped her. Catherine was stripped of her title as queen on 23 November 1541 and imprisoned in the new Syon Abbey, Middlesex, formerly a convent, where she remained throughout the winter of 1541. She was forced by a Privy Councillor to return Anne of Cleves' ring that the King had given her; it was a symbol of her regal and lawful rights. The King would be at Hampton Court, but she would not see him again. Despite these actions taken against her, her marriage to Henry was never formally annulled. Culpeper and Dereham were arraigned at Guildhall on 1 December 1541 for high treason. They were executed at Tyburn on 10 December 1541, Culpeper being beheaded and Dereham being hanged, drawn and quartered. According to custom, their heads were placed on spikes atop London Bridge. Many of Catherine's relatives were also detained in the Tower with the exception of her uncle, the Duke of Norfolk, who had sufficiently distanced himself from the scandal by retreating to Kenninghall to write a grovelling letter of apology. The Duke of Norfolk's son Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, a poet, remained a favourite of the King. The Duke, knowing his family had fallen from grace, wrote an apology on 14 December to the King, excusing himself and laying all the blame on his niece and stepmother. All of the Howard prisoners were tried, found guilty of concealing treason and sentenced to life imprisonment and forfeiture of goods. In time they were released with their goods restored. The King sank further into morbidity and indulged his appetite for food and women. Catherine herself remained in limbo until Parliament introduced on 29 January 1542 a bill of attainder, which was passed on 7 February 1542. The Royal Assent by Commission Act 1541 made it treason, and punishable by death, for a queen consort to fail to disclose her sexual history to the king within twenty days of their marriage, or to incite someone to commit adultery with her. This measure retroactively solved the matter of Catherine's supposed precontract and made her unequivocally guilty. No formal trial was held. When the Lords of the Council came for her she allegedly panicked and screamed as they manhandled her into the barge that would escort her to the Tower on Friday 10 February 1542, her flotilla passing under London Bridge where the heads of Culpeper and Dereham were impaled (and remained until 1546). Entering through the Traitors' Gate she was led to her prison cell. The next day the bill of attainder received Royal Assent and Catherine's execution was scheduled for 7:00 am on Monday 13 February 1542. Arrangements for the execution were supervised by Sir John Gage in his role as Constable of the Tower. The night before her execution Catherine is believed to have spent many hours practising how to lay her head upon the block, which had been brought to her at her request. She died with relative composure but looked pale and terrified; she required assistance to climb the scaffold. She made a speech describing her punishment as \"worthy and just\" and asked for mercy for her family and prayers for her soul. According to popular folklore her last words were, \"I die a Queen, but I would rather have died the wife of Culpeper\". However no eyewitness accounts support this, instead reporting that she stuck to traditional final words, asking for forgiveness for her sins and acknowledging that she deserved to die 'a thousand deaths' for betraying the king, who had always treated her so graciously. This was typical of the speeches given by those executed during that period, most likely in an effort to protect their families, since the condemned's last words would be relayed to the King. Catherine was beheaded with a single stroke of the executioner's axe. Lady Rochford was executed immediately thereafter on Tower Green. Both bodies were buried in an unmarked grave in the nearby chapel of St. Peter ad Vincula, where the bodies of Catherine's cousins Anne and George Boleyn also lay. Other cousins were also in the crowd, including the Earl of Surrey. King Henry did not attend. Catherine's body was not one of those identified during restorations of the chapel during Queen Victoria's reign. She is commemorated on a plaque on the west wall dedicated to all those who died in the Tower. Upon hearing news of Catherine's execution Francis I of France wrote a letter to Henry regretting the \"lewd and naughty [evil] behaviour of the Queen\" and advising him that \"the lightness of women cannot bend the honour of men\".", "Catherine has been the subject of contention for modern biographies, \"A Tudor Tragedy\" by Lacey Baldwin Smith (1967), \"Katherine Howard: A Tudor Conspiracy\" by Joanna Denny (2006), \"Katherine Howard: Henry VIII's Slandered Queen\" by Conor Byrne (2019), and \"Young and Damned and Fair\" by Gareth Russell (2017). Each is more or less sympathetic, though they disagree on various important points involving Catherine's motivations, date of birth and overall character. Her life has also been described in the five collective studies of Henry's queens that have appeared since the publication of Alison Weir's \"The Six Wives of Henry VIII\" (1991) — such as David Starkey's \"The Six Wives: The Queens of Henry VIII\" (2003). Several of these writers have been highly critical of Catherine's conduct, if sympathetic to her eventual fate. Baldwin Smith described Catherine's life as one of hedonism and characterised her as a \"juvenile delinquent\", as did Francis Hackett in his 1929 biography of Henry. Weir had much the same judgement, describing her as an \"empty-headed wanton\". The general trend, however, has been more generous, particularly in the works of Antonia Fraser, Karen Lindsey, David Loades, Joanna Denny, Conor Byrne, Josephine Wilkinson, and Gareth Russell.", "Painters continued to include Jane Seymour in pictures of King Henry VIII long after she died, mainly because Henry continued to look back on her with favour as the only wife who gave him a son. Most of the artists copied the portrait by Hans Holbein the Younger because it was the only full-sized picture available. After Catherine Howard was executed, even the Howard family removed her picture from their family portrait gallery. Debate continues about the identity of the sitter(s) for these portraits, and there is no portrait conclusively known to be of Henry's fifth queen. Susan James, Jamie Franco, and Conor Byrne have identified the in the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art as a likely portrait of the queen. The painting is attributed to the workshop of Hans Holbein.", "Most historians believe that a portrait miniature (shown here)—which exists in two versions by Holbein (Royal Collection and Duke of Buccleuch)—is the only surviving image of Catherine painted from life (in the case of the Windsor version). The historian David Starkey dated it (from details of her dress and the technique of the miniature) to the short period when Catherine was queen. In it, she wears the as Jane Seymour in the panel portrait in the Mauritshuis, The Hague. Records show that these jewels belonged to the Crown, not to any queen personally, and there is no record that they were removed from the treasury and given to anyone else. The pearls may tie in with a gift to Catherine from Henry in 1540, and she is the only queen to fit the dating whose appearance is not already known. For female sitters, duplicate versions of miniatures only exist for queens at this period. There are no other plausible likenesses of her to compare to. Both versions have long been documented as of Catherine Howard, since 1736 for the Buccleuch version and 1739 (or at least the 1840s) for the Windsor version. A Holbein drawing (above) is also traditionally identified as being of Catherine Howard, but this is widely disputed.", "The contemporary Hans Holbein the Younger portrait of a woman in black (Toledo Museum of Art), was identified by Sir Lionel Cust in 1909 as Catherine Howard Two copies of Holbein's original are extant: one at Hever Castle and another owned by the National Portrait Gallery in London. The portrait has long been associated with Henry VIII's young queen; however, the identification of the portrait as Catherine Howard is widely but not universally discounted. The inscription on the portrait, \"ETATIS SVA 21\", indicates that the sitter was twenty-one years old, an age Catherine Howard never reached. Herbert Norris notes that the sitter is wearing a sleeve which follows a style set by Anne of Cleves, which would date the portrait to after 6 January 1540, when Anne's marriage to Henry VIII took place. The original Holbein is dated to 1535–1540, but the National Portrait Gallery dates their copy to the late 1600s. This would seem to indicate a sitter who was still a connection to be commemorated over a century later (unlike Catherine). Historians Antonia Fraser and Derek Wilson believe that the portrait is far more likely to depict Elizabeth Seymour. Antonia Fraser has argued that the sitter is Jane Seymour's sister, Elizabeth, the widow of Sir Anthony Ughtred, on the grounds that the lady bears a resemblance to Jane, especially around the nose and chin, and wears widow's black. Black clothing, however, was expensive, and did not necessarily signify mourning: it was an indication of wealth and status. Derek Wilson observed that \"In August 1537 Cromwell succeeded in marrying his son, Gregory, to Elizabeth Seymour\", the queen's younger sister. He was therefore related by marriage to the king, \"an event worth recording for posterity, by a portrait of his daughter-in-law.\" The painting was in the possession of the Cromwell family for centuries. The portrait shown on this page, attributed to Hans Holbein, dated circa 1535–1540, is exhibited at the Toledo Museum of Art as \"Portrait of a Lady, probably a Member of the Cromwell Family\" (1926.57). Another version of the portrait, now located at Hever Castle, dating from the 16th century, is exhibited as Queen Catherine Howard. The National Portrait Gallery exhibits a similar painting, \"Unknown Woman, Formerly Known as Catherine Howard\" (NPG 1119), which has been dated to the late 17th century." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "As wife and widow of Arthur.", "Queenship.", "Wedding.", "Coronation.", "Pregnancies and children.", "Influence.", "The King's great matter.", "Banishment and death.", "Faith.", "Appearance.", "Legacy, memory, and historiography.", "Spelling of her name.", "In art and media.", "Books.", "Theatre, film, stage, and TV." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Catherine was born at the Archbishop's Palace of Alcalá de Henares near Madrid, on the night of 16 December 1485. She was the youngest surviving child of King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile. Catherine was quite short in stature with long red hair, wide blue eyes, a round face, and a fair complexion. She was descended, on her maternal side, from the House of Lancaster, an English royal house; her great-grandmother Catherine of Lancaster, after whom she was named, and her great-great-grandmother Philippa of Lancaster were both daughters of John of Gaunt and granddaughters of Edward III of England. Consequently, she was third cousin of her father-in-law, Henry VII of England, and fourth cousin of her mother-in-law Elizabeth of York. Catherine was educated by a tutor, Alessandro Geraldini, who was a clerk in Holy Orders. She studied arithmetic, canon and civil law, classical literature, genealogy and heraldry, history, philosophy, religion, and theology. She had a strong religious upbringing and developed her Roman Catholic faith that would play a major role in later life. She learned to speak, read and write in Spanish and Latin, and spoke French and Greek. She was also taught domestic skills, such as cooking, dancing, drawing, embroidery, good manners, lace-making, music, needlepoint, sewing, spinning, and weaving. Scholar Erasmus later said that Catherine \"loved good literature which she had studied with success since childhood\". At an early age, Catherine was considered a suitable wife for Arthur, Prince of Wales, heir apparent to the English throne, due to the English ancestry she inherited from her mother. By means of her mother, Catherine had a stronger legitimate claim to the English throne than King Henry VII himself through the first two wives of John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster: Blanche of Lancaster and Constance of Castile. In contrast, Henry VII was the descendant of Gaunt's third marriage to Katherine Swynford, whose children were born out of wedlock and only legitimised after the death of Constance and the marriage of John to Katherine. The children of John and Katherine, while legitimised, were barred from inheriting the English throne, a stricture that was ignored in later generations. Because of Henry's descent through illegitimate children barred from succession to the English throne, the Tudor monarchy was not accepted by all European kingdoms. At the time, the House of Trastámara was the most prestigious in Europe, due to the rule of the Catholic Monarchs, so the alliance of Catherine and Arthur validated the House of Tudor in the eyes of European royalty and strengthened the Tudor claim to the English throne via Catherine of Aragon's ancestry. It would have given a male heir an indisputable claim to the throne. The two were married by proxy on 19 May 1499 and corresponded in Latin until Arthur turned fifteen, when it was decided that they were old enough to be married. Catherine was accompanied to England by the ambassadors Diego Fernández de Córdoba y Mendoza, 3rd Count of Cabra, Alonso de Fonseca, archbishop of Santiago de Compostela, and Antonio de Rojas Manrique, bishop of Mallorca. She brought a group of her African attendants with her, including one identified as the trumpeter John Blanke. They are the first Africans recorded to have arrived in London at the time, and were considered luxury servants. They caused a great impression about the princess and the power of her family. Her Spanish retinue was supervised by her duenna, Elvira Manuel.", "Then-15-year-old Catherine departed from A Coruña on 17 August 1501 and met Arthur on 4 November at Dogmersfield in Hampshire. Little is known about their first impressions of each other, but Arthur did write to his parents-in-law that he would be \"a true and loving husband\" and told his parents that he was immensely happy to \"behold the face of his lovely bride\". The couple had corresponded in Latin, but found that they could not understand each other's spoken conversation, because they had learned different Latin pronunciations. Ten days later, on 14 November 1501, they were married at Old St. Paul's Cathedral. A dowry of 200,000 ducats had been agreed, and half was paid shortly after the marriage. Once married, Arthur was sent to Ludlow Castle on the borders of Wales to preside over the Council of Wales and the Marches, as was his duty as Prince of Wales, and his bride accompanied him. The couple stayed at Castle Lodge, Ludlow. A few months later, they both became ill, possibly with the sweating sickness, which was sweeping the area. Arthur died on 2 April 1502; 16-year-old Catherine recovered to find herself a widow. At this point, Henry VII faced the challenge of avoiding the obligation to return her 200,000 ducat dowry, half of which he had not yet received, to her father, as required by her marriage contract should she return home. Following the death of Queen Elizabeth in February 1503, King Henry VII initially considered marrying Catherine himself, but the opposition of her father and potential questions over the legitimacy of the couple's issue ended the idea. To settle the matter, it was agreed that Catherine would marry Henry VII's second son, Henry, Duke of York, who was five years younger than she was. The death of Catherine's mother, however, meant that her \"value\" in the marriage market decreased. Castile was a much larger kingdom than Aragon, and it was inherited by Catherine's elder sister, Joanna. Ostensibly, the marriage was delayed until Henry was old enough, but Ferdinand II procrastinated so much over payment of the remainder of Catherine's dowry that it became doubtful that the marriage would take place. She lived as a virtual prisoner at Durham House in London. Some of the letters she wrote to her father complaining of her treatment have survived. In one of these letters she tells him that \"I choose what I believe, and say nothing. For I am not as simple as I may seem.\" She had little money and struggled to cope, as she had to support her ladies-in-waiting as well as herself. In 1507 she served as the Spanish ambassador to England, the first female ambassador in European history. While Henry VII and his councillors expected her to be easily manipulated, Catherine went on to prove them wrong. Marriage to Arthur's brother depended on the Pope granting a dispensation because canon law forbade a man to marry his brother's widow (Lev. 18:16). Catherine testified that her marriage to Arthur was never consummated as, also according to canon law, a marriage was not valid until consummated.", "", "Catherine's second wedding took place on 11 June 1509, seven years after Prince Arthur's death. She married Henry VIII, who had only just acceded to the throne, in a private ceremony in the church of the Observant Friars outside Greenwich Palace. She was 23 years of age.", "On Saturday 23 June 1509, the traditional eve-of-coronation procession to Westminster was greeted by a large and enthusiastic crowd. As was the custom, the couple spent the night before their coronation at the Tower of London. On Midsummer's Day, Sunday, 1509, Henry VIII and Catherine were anointed and crowned together by the Archbishop of Canterbury at a lavish ceremony at Westminster Abbey. The coronation was followed by a banquet in Westminster Hall. Many new Knights of the Bath were created in honour of the coronation. In that month that followed, many social occasions presented the new Queen to the English public. She made a fine impression and was well received by the people of England.", "Catherine was pregnant six times altogether: Various other children are suggested by other authors and historians; J. J. Scarisbrick in his book, (\"Henry VIII\", 1968) suggests that Catherine had \"several miscarriages, three infants who were either stillborn or died immediately after birth (two of them males), two infants who died within weeks of birth (one of them a boy) and one girl, Princess Mary\", which amounts to a total of nine pregnancies, since \"several miscarriages\" can hardly be regarded as referring to less than three; Hester W. Chapman in her book (\"Anne Boleyn\", 1974) gives the total of pregnancies as seven, with \"one live child and six that ended either in miscarriages or stillbirths.\"; Neville Williams in his book (\"Henry VIII and his court\", 1971) is imprecise about the number of pregnancies but notes that, as early as 1511, Henry was \"mindful of prior miscarriages\". Referring to 1517, A. F. Pollard in his book (\"Henry VIII\", 1925) suggests that \"it is probable that about this time the Queen had various miscarriages\". Various, like several, can hardly refer to less than three. However, John Bowle (\"Henry VIII\", 1964), rejects the 1517 miscarriages as \"inventions\" of Pollard and Sir John E. Neale agrees, describing the invention of the 1517 miscarriage as \"mischievous\". Both writers reject a son born in 1514, who was \"no sooner christened than dead\". Bowle, Chamberlain and Neale all agree as to six pregnancies for Catherine, ending with Mary in 1516, rejecting other pregnancies due to \"insufficient evidence.\" Dewhurst rejects another miscarriage stated by Pollard in June 1514 as \"impossible\" due to Catherine being eight months pregnant in August.", "On 11 June 1513, Henry appointed Catherine Regent in England with the titles \"Governor of the Realm and Captain General,\" while he went to France on a military campaign. When Louis d'Orléans, Duke of Longueville, was captured at Thérouanne, Henry sent him to stay in Catherine's household. She wrote to Wolsey that she and her council would prefer the Duke to stay in the Tower of London as the Scots were \"so busy as they now be\" and she added her prayers for \"God to sende us as good lukke against the Scotts, as the King hath ther.\" The war with Scotland occupied her subjects, and she was \"horrible busy with making standards, banners, and badges\" at Richmond Palace. The Scots invaded and on 3 September 1513, she ordered Thomas Lovell to raise an army in the midland counties. Catherine rode north in full armour to address the troops, despite being heavily pregnant at the time. Her fine speech was reported to the historian Peter Martyr d'Anghiera in Valladolid within a fortnight. Although an Italian newsletter said she was north of London when news of the victory at Battle of Flodden Field reached her, she was near Buckingham. From Woburn Abbey she sent a letter to Henry along with a piece of the bloodied coat of King James IV of Scotland, who died in the battle, for Henry to use as a banner at the siege of Tournai. Catherine's religious dedication increased as she became older, as did her interest in academics. She continued to broaden her knowledge and provide training for her daughter, Mary. Education among women became fashionable, partly because of Catherine's influence, and she donated large sums of money to several colleges. Henry, however, still considered a male heir essential. The Tudor dynasty was new, and its legitimacy might still be tested. A long civil war (1135–54) had been fought the last time a woman (Empress Matilda) had inherited the throne. The disasters of civil war were still fresh in living memory from the Wars of the Roses. In 1520, Catherine's nephew, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, paid a state visit to England, and she urged Henry to enter an alliance with Charles rather than with France. Immediately after his departure, she accompanied Henry to France on the celebrated visit to Francis I, the Field of the Cloth of Gold. Within two years, war was declared against France and the Emperor was once again welcome in England, where plans were afoot to betroth him to Catherine's daughter Mary.", "In 1525, Henry VIII became enamoured of Anne Boleyn, a lady-in-waiting to Queen Catherine; Anne was 11 years younger than Henry. Henry began pursuing her; Catherine was no longer able to bear children by this time. Henry began to believe that his marriage was cursed and sought confirmation from the Bible, which he interpreted to say that if a man marries his brother's wife, the couple will be childless. Even if her marriage to Arthur had not been consummated (and Catherine would insist to her dying day that she had come to Henry's bed a virgin), Henry's interpretation of that biblical passage meant that their marriage had been wrong in the eyes of God. Whether the pope at the time of Henry and Catherine's marriage had the right to overrule Henry's claimed scriptural impediment would become a hot topic in Henry's campaign to wrest an annulment from the present pope. It is possible that the idea of annulment had been suggested to Henry much earlier than this, and is highly probable that it was motivated by his desire for a son. Before Henry's father ascended the throne, England was beset by civil warfare over rival claims to the English crown, and Henry may have wanted to avoid a similar uncertainty over the succession. It soon became the one absorbing object of Henry's desires to secure an annulment. Catherine was defiant when it was suggested that she quietly retire to a nunnery, saying: \"God never called me to a nunnery. I am the King's true and legitimate wife.\" He set his hopes upon an appeal to the Holy See, acting independently of Cardinal Thomas Wolsey, whom he told nothing of his plans. William Knight, the King's secretary, was sent to Pope Clement VII to sue for an annulment, on the grounds that the dispensing bull of Pope Julius II was obtained by false pretenses. As the Pope was, at that time, the prisoner of Catherine's nephew Emperor Charles V following the Sack of Rome in May 1527, Knight had difficulty in obtaining access to him. In the end, Henry's envoy had to return without accomplishing much. Henry now had no choice but to put this great matter into the hands of Wolsey, who did all he could to secure a decision in Henry's favour. When Henry decided to annul his marriage to Catherine, John Fisher became her most trusted counsellor and one of her chief supporters. He appeared in the legates' court on her behalf, where he shocked people with the directness of his language, and by declaring that, like John the Baptist, he was ready to die on behalf of the indissolubility of marriage. Henry was so enraged by this that he wrote a long Latin address to the legates in answer to Fisher's speech. Fisher's copy of this still exists, with his manuscript annotations in the margin which show how little he feared Henry's anger. The removal of the cause to Rome ended Fisher's role in the matter, but Henry never forgave him. Other people who supported Catherine's case included Thomas More; Henry's own sister Mary Tudor, Queen of France (though as a member of the Tudor family and of royal blood, she was safe from any punishment and execution); María de Salinas; Holy Roman Emperor Charles V; Pope Paul III; and Protestant Reformers Martin Luther and William Tyndale.", "Upon returning to Dover from a meeting with King Francis I of France in Calais, Henry married Anne Boleyn in a secret ceremony. Some sources speculate that Anne was already pregnant at the time (and Henry did not want to risk a son being born illegitimate) but others testify that Anne (who had seen her sister Mary Boleyn taken up as the king's mistress and summarily cast aside) refused to sleep with Henry until they were married. Henry defended the legality of their union by pointing out that Catherine had previously been married. If she and Arthur had consummated their marriage, Henry by canon law had the right to remarry. On 23 May 1533, Cranmer, sitting in judgement at a special court convened at Dunstable Priory to rule on the validity of Henry's marriage to Catherine, declared the marriage illegal, even though Catherine testified she and Arthur had never had physical relations. Cranmer ruled Henry and Anne's marriage valid five days later, on 28 May 1533. Until the end of her life, Catherine would refer to herself as Henry's only lawful wedded wife and England's only rightful queen, and her servants continued to address her by that title. Henry refused her the right to any title but \"Dowager Princess of Wales\" in recognition of her position as his brother's widow. Catherine went to live at The More castle late in 1531. After that she was successively moved to the Royal Palace of Hatfield, (May to September, 1532), Elsyng Palace, Enfield (September 1532 to February 1533), Ampthill Castle (February to July, 1533) and Buckden Towers (July 1533 to May 1534). She was then finally transferred to Kimbolton Castle where, she confined herself to one room (which she left only to attend Mass), dressed only in the hair shirt of the Order of St. Francis, and fasted continuously. While she was permitted to receive occasional visitors, she was forbidden to see her daughter Mary. They were also forbidden to communicate in writing, but sympathizers discreetly ferried letters between the two. Henry offered both mother and daughter better quarters and permission to see each other if they would acknowledge Anne Boleyn as the new queen. Both refused. In late December 1535, sensing her death was near, Catherine made her will, and wrote to her nephew, the Emperor Charles V, asking him to protect her daughter. It has been alleged that she then penned one final letter to Henry, her \"most dear lord and husband\": The authenticity of the letter itself has been questioned, but not Catherine's attitude in its wording, which has been reported with variations in different sources. Catherine died at Kimbolton Castle on 1536. The following day, news of her death reached the king. At the time there were rumours that she was poisoned, possibly by Gregory di Casale. According to the chronicler Edward Hall, Anne Boleyn wore yellow for the mourning, which has been interpreted in various ways; Polydore Vergil interpreted this to mean that Anne did not mourn. Chapuys reported that it was King Henry who decked himself in yellow, celebrating the news and making a great show of his and Anne's daughter, Elizabeth, to his courtiers. This was seen as distasteful and vulgar by many. Another theory is that the dressing in yellow was out of respect for Catherine as yellow was said to be the Spanish colour of mourning. Certainly, later in the day it is reported that Henry and Anne both individually and privately wept for her death. On the day of Catherine's funeral, Anne Boleyn miscarried a boy. Rumours then circulated that Catherine had been poisoned by Anne or Henry, or both. The rumours were born after the apparent discovery during her embalming that there was a black growth on her heart that might have been caused by poisoning. Modern medical experts are in agreement that her heart's discolouration was due not to poisoning, but to cancer, something which was not understood at the time. Catherine was buried in Peterborough Cathedral with the ceremony due to her position as a Dowager Princess of Wales, and not a queen. Henry did not attend the funeral and forbade Mary to attend.", "Catherine was a member of the Third Order of Saint Francis and she was punctilious in her religious obligations in the Order, integrating without demur her necessary duties as queen with her personal piety. After her divorce, she was quoted \"I would rather be a poor beggar’s wife and be sure of heaven, than queen of all the world and stand in doubt thereof by reason of my own consent.\" The outward celebration of saints and holy relics formed no major part of her personal devotions, which she rather expressed in the Mass, prayer, confession and penance. Privately, however, she was aware of what she identified as the shortcomings of the papacy and church officialdom. Her doubts about Church improprieties certainly did not extend so far as to support the allegations of corruption made public by Martin Luther in Wittenberg in 1517, which were soon to have such far-reaching consequences in initiating the Protestant Reformation. In 1523 Alfonso de Villa Sancta, a learned friar of the Observant (reform) branch of the Friars Minor and friend of the king's old advisor Erasmus, dedicated to the queen his book \"De Liberio Arbitrio adversus Melanchthonem\" denouncing Philip Melanchthon, a supporter of Luther. Acting as her confessor, he was able to nominate her for the title of \"Defender of the Faith\" for denying Luther's arguments.", "Catherine was of a very fair complexion, had blue eyes, and had a hair colour that was between reddish-blonde and auburn. In her youth she was described as \"the most beautiful creature in the world\" and that there was \"nothing lacking in her that the most beautiful girl should have\". Thomas More and Lord Herbert would reflect later in her lifetime that in regard to her appearance \"there were few women who could compete with the Queen [Catherine] in her prime.\"", "The controversial book \"The Education of Christian Women\" by Juan Luis Vives, which claimed women have the right to an education, was dedicated to and commissioned by her. Such was Catherine's impression on people, that even her enemy, Thomas Cromwell, said of her \"If not for her sex, she could have defied all the heroes of History.\" She successfully appealed for the lives of the rebels involved in the Evil May Day for the sake of their families. Furthermore, Catherine won widespread admiration by starting an extensive programme for the relief of the poor. She was also a patron of Renaissance humanism, and a friend of the great scholars Erasmus of Rotterdam and Saint Thomas More. Some saw her as a martyr. In the reign of her daughter Mary I of England, her marriage to Henry VIII was declared \"good and valid\". Her daughter Queen Mary also had several portraits commissioned of Catherine, and it would not by any means be the last time she was painted. After her death, numerous portraits were painted of her, particularly of her speech at the Legatine Trial, a moment accurately rendered in Shakespeare's play about Henry VIII. Her tomb in Peterborough Cathedral can be seen and there is hardly ever a time when it is not decorated with flowers or pomegranates, her heraldic symbol. It bears the title \"Katharine Queen of England\". In the 20th century, George V's wife, Mary of Teck, had her grave upgraded and there are now banners there denoting Catherine as a Queen of England. Every year at Peterborough Cathedral there is a service in her memory. There are processions, prayers, and various events in the Cathedral including processions to Catherine's grave in which candles, pomegranates, flowers and other offerings are placed on her grave. On the service commemorating the 470th anniversary of her death, the Spanish Ambassador to the United Kingdom attended. During the 2010 service a rendition of Catherine of Aragon's speech before the Legatine court was read by Jane Lapotaire. There is a statue of her in her birthplace of Alcalá de Henares, as a young woman holding a book and a rose. Catherine has remained a popular biographical subject to the present day. The American historian Garrett Mattingly was the author of a popular biography \"Katherine of Aragon\" in 1942. In 1966, Catherine and her many supporters at court were the subjects of \"Catherine of Aragon and her Friends\", a biography by John E. Paul. In 1967, Mary M. Luke wrote the first book of her Tudor trilogy, \"Catherine the Queen\" which portrayed her and the controversial era of English history through which she lived.", "Her baptismal name was \"Catalina\", but \"Katherine\" was soon the accepted form in England after her marriage to Arthur. Catherine herself signed her name \"Katherine\", \"Katherina\", \"Katharine\" and sometimes \"Katharina\". In a letter to her, Arthur, her husband, addressed her as \"Princess Katerine\". Her daughter Queen Mary I called her \"Quene Kateryn\", in her will. Rarely were names, particularly first names, written in an exact manner during the sixteenth century and it is evident from Catherine's own letters that she endorsed different variations. Loveknots built into his various palaces by her husband, Henry VIII, display the initials \"H & K\", as do other items belonging to Henry and Catherine, including gold goblets, a gold salt cellar, basins of gold, and candlesticks. Her tomb in Peterborough Cathedral is marked \"Katharine Queen of England\".", "Over the years, numerous artistic and cultural works have been dedicated to Catherine, have been written about her, or have mentioned her, including some by her husband Henry VIII, who wrote \"Grene growth the holy\" about and for her, and Juan Luis Vives, who dedicated \"The Education of Christian Women\" to her. Catherine of Aragon has been portrayed in film, television, plays, novels, songs, poems, and other creative forms many times, and as a result she has stayed very much in popular memory. The first episode of \"The Six Wives of Henry VIII\", is told from her point of view (and in which she is portrayed by Annette Crosbie). Charlotte Hope plays her in the STARZ mini-series \"The Spanish Princess\", which is based on the book \"The Constant Princess\" by Philippa Gregory. William Shakespeare's play \"Henry VIII\" succeeds in recreating with great accuracy Catherine's statement about the legitimacy of her marriage at the court in Blackfriars before King Henry, and Shakespeare's portrayal of Catherine is remarkably sympathetic; however, most of the rest of the play is an attempt to absolve many, especially Henry VIII, and the timing of key incidents (including Catherine's death) is changed and other events are avoided (the play makes Henry nearly an innocent pawn in the hands of a dastardly Cardinal Wolsey, and the play stops short of Anne Boleyn's execution). In January 2013, the National Portrait Gallery in London revealed that its curators had recently discovered that a portrait at Lambeth Palace formerly believed to have been a portrait of Catherine Parr in fact shows Catherine of Aragon. The National Portrait Gallery announced that the painting, which had hung in a private sitting room of the Archbishop of Canterbury since at least the 19th century, would be paired with a portrait of Henry VIII already in the museum's collection, and would remain at the museum on loan.", "Catherine is the main character in: Catherine is a character in:", "Catherine was portrayed by:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Determining factors.", "History.", "Polis.", "Roman ideas.", "Middle Ages.", "Renaissance.", "Modern times.", "United States of America.", "Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics.", "Nazi Germany.", "Israel.", "Different senses.", "International.", "European Union.", "Mercosur.", "Commonwealth.", "Subnational.", "Education.", "Republic of Ireland.", "United Kingdom.", "Criticism of citizenship education in schools." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "A person can be recognized or granted citizenship on a number of bases. Usually citizenship based on circumstances of birth is automatic, but in other cases an application may be required. Whilst legitimate and usually limited in quota, the schemes are controversial. Costs for citizenship by investment range from as little as $100,000 (£74,900) to as much as €2.5m (£2.19m)", "", "Many thinkers point to the concept of citizenship beginning in the early city-states of ancient Greece, although others see it as primarily a modern phenomenon dating back only a few hundred years and, for humanity, that the concept of citizenship arose with the first laws. \"Polis\" meant both the political assembly of the city-state as well as the entire society. Citizenship concept has generally been identified as a western phenomenon. There is a general view that citizenship in ancient times was a simpler relation than modern forms of citizenship, although this view has come under scrutiny. The relation of citizenship has not been a fixed or static relation, but constantly changed within each society, and that according to one view, citizenship might \"really have worked\" only at select periods during certain times, such as when the Athenian politician Solon made reforms in the early Athenian state. Historian Geoffrey Hosking in his 2005 \"Modern Scholar\" lecture course suggested that citizenship in ancient Greece arose from an appreciation for the importance of freedom. Hosking explained: Slavery permitted slave-owners to have substantial free time, and enabled participation in public life. Polis citizenship was marked by exclusivity. Inequality of status was widespread; citizens (πολίτης \"politēs\" < πόλις 'city') had a higher status than non-citizens, such as women, slaves, and resident foreigners (metics). The first form of citizenship was based on the way people lived in the ancient Greek times, in small-scale organic communities of the polis. Citizenship was not seen as a separate activity from the private life of the individual person, in the sense that there was not a distinction between public and private life. The obligations of citizenship were deeply connected into one's everyday life in the polis. These small-scale organic communities were generally seen as a new development in world history, in contrast to the established ancient civilizations of Egypt or Persia, or the hunter-gatherer bands elsewhere. From the viewpoint of the ancient Greeks, a person's public life was not separated from their private life, and Greeks did not distinguish between the two worlds according to the modern western conception. The obligations of citizenship were deeply connected with everyday life. To be truly human, one had to be an active citizen to the community, which Aristotle famously expressed: \"To take no part in the running of the community's affairs is to be either a beast or a god!\" This form of citizenship was based on obligations of citizens towards the community, rather than rights given to the citizens of the community. This was not a problem because they all had a strong affinity with the polis; their own destiny and the destiny of the community were strongly linked. Also, citizens of the polis saw obligations to the community as an opportunity to be virtuous, it was a source of honour and respect. In Athens, citizens were both ruler and ruled, important political and judicial offices were rotated and all citizens had the right to speak and vote in the political assembly.", "In the Roman Empire, citizenship expanded from small-scale communities to the entirety of the empire. Romans realized that granting citizenship to people from all over the empire legitimized Roman rule over conquered areas. Roman citizenship was no longer a status of political agency, as it had been reduced to a judicial safeguard and the expression of rule and law. Rome carried forth Greek ideas of citizenship such as the principles of equality under the law, civic participation in government, and notions that \"no one citizen should have too much power for too long\", but Rome offered relatively generous terms to its captives, including chances for lesser forms of citizenship. If Greek citizenship was an \"emancipation from the world of things\", the Roman sense increasingly reflected the fact that citizens could act upon material things as well as other citizens, in the sense of buying or selling property, possessions, titles, goods. One historian explained: Roman citizenship reflected a struggle between the upper-class patrician interests against the lower-order working groups known as the plebeian class. A citizen came to be understood as a person \"free to act by law, free to ask and expect the law's protection, a citizen of such and such a legal community, of such and such a legal standing in that community\". Citizenship meant having rights to have possessions, immunities, expectations, which were \"available in many kinds and degrees, available or unavailable to many kinds of person for many kinds of reason\". The law itself was a kind of bond uniting people. Roman citizenship was more impersonal, universal, multiform, having different degrees and applications.", "During the European Middle Ages, citizenship was usually associated with cities and towns, and applied mainly to middle class folk. Titles such as burgher, grand burgher (German \"Großbürger\") and bourgeoisie denoted political affiliation and identity in relation to a particular locality, as well as membership in a mercantile or trading class; thus, individuals of respectable means and socioeconomic status were interchangeable with citizens. During this era, members of the nobility had a range of privileges above commoners (see aristocracy), though political upheavals and reforms, beginning most prominently with the French Revolution, abolished privileges and created an egalitarian concept of citizenship.", "During the Renaissance, people transitioned from being subjects of a king or queen to being citizens of a city and later to a nation. Each city had its own law, courts, and independent administration. And being a citizen often meant being subject to the city's law in addition to having power in some instances to help choose officials. City dwellers who had fought alongside nobles in battles to defend their cities were no longer content with having a subordinate social status, but demanded a greater role in the form of citizenship. Membership in guilds was an indirect form of citizenship in that it helped their members succeed financially. The rise of citizenship was linked to the rise of republicanism, according to one account, since independent citizens meant that kings had less power. Citizenship became an idealized, almost abstract, concept, and did not signify a submissive relation with a lord or count, but rather indicated the bond between a person and the state in the rather abstract sense of having rights and duties.", "The modern idea of citizenship still respects the idea of political participation, but it is usually done through \"elaborate systems of political representation at a distance\" such as representative democracy. Modern citizenship is much more passive; action is delegated to others; citizenship is often a constraint on acting, not an impetus to act. Nevertheless, citizens are usually aware of their obligations to authorities, and are aware that these bonds often limit what they can do.", "From 1790 until the mid-twentieth century, United States law used racial criteria to establish citizenship rights and regulate who was eligible to become a naturalized citizen. The Naturalization Act of 1790, the first law in U.S. history to establish rules for citizenship and naturalization, barred citizenship to all people who were not of European descent, stating that \"any alien being a free white person, who shall have resided within the limits and under the jurisdiction of the United States for the term of two years, may be admitted to become a citizen thereof.\" Under early U.S. laws, African Americans were not eligible for citizenship. In 1857, these laws were upheld in the US Supreme Court case \"Dred Scott v. Sandford\", which ruled that \"a free negro of the African race, whose ancestors were brought to this country and sold as slaves, is not a 'citizen' within the meaning of the Constitution of the United States,\" and that \"the special rights and immunities guarantied to citizens do not apply to them.\" It was not until the abolition of slavery following the American Civil War that African Americans were granted citizenship rights. The 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, ratified on July 9, 1868, stated that \"all persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside.\" Two years later, the Naturalization Act of 1870 would extend the right to become a naturalized citizen to include \"aliens of African nativity and to persons of African descent\". Despite the gains made by African Americans after the Civil War, Native Americans, Asians, and others not considered \"free white persons\" were still denied the ability to become citizens. The 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act explicitly denied naturalization rights to all people of Chinese origin, while subsequent acts passed by the US Congress, such as laws in 1906, 1917, and 1924, would include clauses that denied immigration and naturalization rights to people based on broadly defined racial categories. Supreme Court cases such as \"Ozawa v. United States\" (1922) and \"U.S. v. Bhagat Singh Thind\" (1923), would later clarify the meaning of the phrase \"free white persons,\" ruling that ethnically Japanese, Indian, and other non-European people were not \"white persons\", and were therefore ineligible for naturalization under U.S. law. Native Americans were not granted full US citizenship until the passage of the Indian Citizenship Act in 1924. However, even well into the 1960s some state laws prevented Native Americans from exercising their full rights as citizens, such as the right to vote. In 1962, New Mexico became the last state to enfranchise Native Americans. It was not until the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 that the racial and gender restrictions for naturalization were explicitly abolished. However, the act still contained restrictions regarding who was eligible for US citizenship, and retained a national quota system which limited the number of visas given to immigrants based on their national origin, to be fixed \"at a rate of one-sixth of one percent of each nationality's population in the United States in 1920\". It was not until the passage of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 that these immigration quota systems were drastically altered in favor of a less discriminatory system.", "The 1918 constitution of revolutionary Russia granted citizenship to any foreigners who were living within Russia, so long as they were \"engaged in work and [belonged] to the working class.\" It recognized \"the equal rights of all citizens, irrespective of their racial or national connections\" and declared oppression of any minority group or race \"to be contrary to the fundamental laws of the Republic.\" The 1918 constitution also established the right to vote and be elected to soviets for both men and women \"irrespective of religion, nationality, domicile, etc. [...] who shall have completed their eighteenth year by the day of election.\" The later constitutions of the USSR would grant universal Soviet citizenship to the citizens of all member republics in concord with the principles of non-discrimination laid out in the original 1918 constitution of Russia.", "Nazism, the German variant of twentieth century fascism, classified inhabitants of the country into three main hierarchical categories, each of which would have different rights in relation to the state: citizens, subjects, and aliens. The first category, citizens, were to possess full civic rights and responsibilities. Citizenship was conferred only on males of German (or so-called \"Aryan\") heritage who had completed military service, and could be revoked at any time by the state. The Reich Citizenship Law of 1935 established racial criteria for citizenship in the German Reich, and because of this law Jews and others who could not \"prove German racial heritage\" were stripped of their citizenship. The second category, subjects, referred to all others who were born within the nation's boundaries who did not fit the racial criteria for citizenship. Subjects would have no voting rights, could not hold any position within the state, and possessed none of the other rights and civic responsibilities conferred on citizens. All women were to be conferred \"subject\" status upon birth, and could only obtain \"citizen\" status if they worked independently or if they married a German citizen (see women in Nazi Germany). The final category, aliens, referred to those who were citizens of another state, who also had no rights.", "The primary principles of Israeli citizenship is \"jus sanguinis\" (citizenship by descent) for Jews and \"jus soli\" (citizenship by place of birth) for others.", "Citizenship status, under social contract theory, carries with it both rights and duties. In this sense, citizenship was described as \"a bundle of rights -- primarily, political participation in the life of the community, the right to vote, and the right to receive certain protection from the community, as well as obligations.\" Citizenship is seen by most scholars as culture-specific, in the sense that the meaning of the term varies considerably from culture to culture, and over time. In China, for example, there is a cultural politics of citizenship which could be called \"peopleship\". How citizenship is understood depends on the person making the determination. The relation of citizenship has never been fixed or static, but constantly changes within each society. While citizenship has varied considerably throughout history, and within societies over time, there are some common elements but they vary considerably as well. As a bond, citizenship extends beyond basic kinship ties to unite people of different genetic backgrounds. It usually signifies membership in a political body. It is often based on, or was a result of, some form of military service or expectation of future service. It usually involves some form of political participation, but this can vary from token acts to active service in government. Citizenship is a status in society. It is an ideal state as well. It generally describes a person with legal rights within a given political order. It almost always has an element of exclusion, meaning that some people are not citizens, and that this distinction can sometimes be very important, or not important, depending on a particular society. Citizenship as a concept is generally hard to isolate intellectually and compare with related political notions, since it relates to many other aspects of society such as the family, military service, the individual, freedom, religion, ideas of right and wrong, ethnicity, and patterns for how a person should behave in society. When there are many different groups within a nation, citizenship may be the only real bond which unites everybody as equals without discrimination—it is a \"broad bond\" linking \"a person with the state\" and gives people a universal identity as a legal member of a specific nation. Modern citizenship has often been looked at as two competing underlying ideas: Scholars suggest that the concept of citizenship contains many unresolved issues, sometimes called tensions, existing within the relation, that continue to reflect uncertainty about what citizenship is supposed to mean. Some unresolved issues regarding citizenship include questions about what is the proper balance between duties and rights. Another is a question about what is the proper balance between political citizenship versus social citizenship. Some thinkers see benefits with people being absent from public affairs, since too much participation such as revolution can be destructive, yet too little participation such as total apathy can be problematic as well. Citizenship can be seen as a special elite status, and it can also be seen as a democratizing force and something that everybody has; the concept can include both senses. According to sociologist Arthur Stinchcombe, citizenship is based on the extent that a person can control one's own destiny within the group in the sense of being able to influence the government of the group. One last distinction within citizenship is the so-called consent descent distinction, and this issue addresses whether citizenship is a fundamental matter determined by a person choosing to belong to a particular nation––by their consent––or is citizenship a matter of where a person was born––that is, by their descent.", "Some intergovernmental organizations have extended the concept and terminology associated with citizenship to the international level, where it is applied to the totality of the citizens of their constituent countries combined. Citizenship at this level is a secondary concept, with rights deriving from national citizenship.", "The Maastricht Treaty introduced the concept of citizenship of the European Union. Article 17 (1) of the Treaty on European Union stated that: Citizenship of the Union is hereby established. Every person holding the nationality of a Member State shall be a citizen of the Union. Citizenship of the Union shall be additional to and not replace national citizenship. An agreement known as the amended EC Treaty established certain minimal rights for European Union citizens. Article 12 of the amended EC Treaty guaranteed a general right of non-discrimination within the scope of the Treaty. Article 18 provided a limited right to free movement and residence in Member States other than that of which the European Union citizen is a national. Articles 18-21 and 225 provide certain political rights. Union citizens have also extensive rights to move in order to exercise economic activity in any of the Member States which predate the introduction of Union citizenship.", "Citizenship of the Mercosur is granted to eligible citizens of the Southern Common Market member states. It was approved in 2010 through the Citizenship Statute and should be fully implemented by the member countries in 2021, when the program will be transformed in an international treaty incorporated into the national legal system of the countries, under the concept of \"Mercosur Citizen\".", "The concept of \"Commonwealth Citizenship\" has been in place ever since the establishment of the Commonwealth of Nations. As with the EU, one holds Commonwealth citizenship only by being a citizen of a Commonwealth member state. This form of citizenship offers certain privileges within some Commonwealth countries: Although Ireland was excluded from the Commonwealth in 1949 because it declared itself a republic, Ireland is generally treated as if it were still a member. Legislation often specifically provides for equal treatment between Commonwealth countries and Ireland and refers to \"Commonwealth countries and Ireland\". Ireland's citizens are not classified as foreign nationals in the United Kingdom. Canada departed from the principle of nationality being defined in terms of allegiance in 1921. In 1935 the Irish Free State was the first to introduce its own citizenship. However, Irish citizens were still treated as subjects of the Crown, and they are still not regarded as foreign, even though Ireland is not a member of the Commonwealth. The Canadian Citizenship Act of 1947 provided for a distinct Canadian Citizenship, automatically conferred upon most individuals born in Canada, with some exceptions, and defined the conditions under which one could become a naturalized citizen. The concept of Commonwealth citizenship was introduced in 1948 in the British Nationality Act 1948. Other dominions adopted this principle such as New Zealand, by way of the British Nationality and New Zealand Citizenship Act of 1948.", "Citizenship most usually relates to membership of the nation state, but the term can also apply at the subnational level. Subnational entities may impose requirements, of residency or otherwise, which permit citizens to participate in the political life of that entity, or to enjoy benefits provided by the government of that entity. But in such cases, those eligible are also sometimes seen as \"citizens\" of the relevant state, province, or region. An example of this is how the fundamental basis of Swiss citizenship is citizenship of an individual commune, from which follows citizenship of a canton and of the Confederation. Another example is Åland where the residents enjoy a special provincial citizenship within Finland, \"hembygdsrätt\". The United States has a federal system in which a person is a citizen of their specific state of residence, such as New Jersey or California, as well as a citizen of the United States. State constitutions may grant certain rights above and beyond what are granted under the United States Constitution and may impose their own obligations including the sovereign right of taxation and military service; each state maintains at least one military force subject to national militia transfer service, the state's national guard, and some states maintain a second military force not subject to nationalization.", "\"Active citizenship\" is the philosophy that citizens should work towards the betterment of their community through economic participation, public, volunteer work, and other such efforts to improve life for all citizens. In this vein, citizenship education is taught in schools, as an academic subject in some countries. By the time children reach secondary education there is an emphasis on such unconventional subjects to be included in academic curriculum. While the diagram on citizenship to the right is rather facile and depth-less, it is simplified to explain the general model of citizenship that is taught to many secondary school pupils. The idea behind this model within education is to instill in young pupils that their actions (i.e. their vote) affect collective citizenship and thus in turn them.", "It is taught in the Republic of Ireland as an exam subject for the Junior Certificate. It is known as Civic, Social and Political Education (CSPE). A new Leaving Certificate exam subject with the working title 'Politics & Society' is being developed by the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NCCA) and is expected to be introduced to the curriculum sometime after 2012.", "Citizenship is offered as a General Certificate of Secondary Education (GCSE) course in many schools in the United Kingdom. As well as teaching knowledge about democracy, parliament, government, the justice system, human rights and the UK's relations with the wider world, students participate in active citizenship, often involving a social action or social enterprise in their local community.", "There are two kinds of criticism of citizenship education in schools. Firstly, some philosophers of education argue that most governments and mainstream policies stimulate and advocate questionable approaches of citizenship education. These approaches aim to develop specific dispositions in students, dispositions conducive to political participation and solidarity. But there are radically different views on the nature of good citizenship and education should involve and develop autonomy and open-mindedness. Therefore, it requires a more critical approach than is possible when political participation and solidarity are conceived of as goals of education. Secondly, some educationalists argue that merely teaching children about the theory of citizenship is ineffective, unless schools themselves reflect democratic practices by giving children the opportunity to have a say in decision making. They suggest that schools are fundamentally undemocratic institutions, and that such a setting cannot instill in children the commitment and belief in democratic values that is necessary for citizenship education to have a proper impact. Some educationalists relate this criticism to John Dewey (see critical comments on this interpretation of Dewey: Van der Ploeg, 2016)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early years.", "At the court of Henry VIII: 1522–1533.", "Queen of England: 1533–1536.", "Downfall and execution: 1536.", "Recognition and legacy.", "Faith and spirituality.", "Legends." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Anne was the daughter of Thomas Boleyn, later Earl of Wiltshire and Earl of Ormond, and his wife, Lady Elizabeth Howard, daughter of Thomas Howard, 2nd Duke of Norfolk. Thomas Boleyn was a well-respected diplomat with a gift for languages; he was also a favourite of Henry VII of England, who sent him on many diplomatic missions abroad. Anne and her siblings grew up at Hever Castle in Kent. However, the siblings were born in Norfolk at the Boleyn home at Blickling. A lack of parish records from the period has made it impossible to establish Anne's date of birth. Contemporary evidence is contradictory, with several dates having been put forward by various historians. An Italian, writing in 1600, suggested that she had been born in 1499, while Sir Thomas More's son-in-law, William Roper, indicated a much later date of 1512. Her birth is widely accepted by scholars and historians as being most likely sometime between 1501 and 1507. As with Anne herself, it is uncertain when her two siblings were born, but it seems clear that her sister Mary was older than Anne. Mary's children clearly believed their mother had been the elder sister. Mary's grandson claimed the Ormonde title in 1596 on the basis she was the elder daughter, which Elizabeth I accepted. Their brother George was born around 1504. The academic debate about Anne's birth date focuses on two key dates: 1501 and 1507. Eric Ives, a British historian and legal expert, advocates the 1501 date, while Retha Warnicke, an American scholar who has also written a biography of Anne, prefers 1507. The key piece of surviving written evidence is a letter Anne wrote sometime in 1514. She wrote it in French to her father, who was still living in England while Anne was completing her education at Mechelen, in the Burgundian Netherlands, now Belgium. Ives argues that the style of the letter and its mature handwriting prove that Anne must have been about thirteen at the time of its composition, while Warnicke argues that the numerous misspellings and grammar errors show that the letter was written by a child. In Ives' view, this would also be around the minimum age that a girl could be a maid of honour, as Anne was to the regent, Margaret of Austria. This is supported by claims of a chronicler from the late 16th century, who wrote that Anne was twenty when she returned from France. These findings are contested by Warnicke in several books and articles, and the evidence does not conclusively support either date. Two independent contemporary sources support the 1507 date. Author Gareth Russell wrote a summary of the evidence and relates that Jane Dormer, Duchess of Feria, wrote her memoirs shortly before her death in 1612. The former lady-in-waiting and confidante to Queen Mary I wrote of Anne Boleyn: \"She was convicted and condemned and was not yet twenty-nine years of age.\" William Camden wrote a history of the reign of Queen Elizabeth I and was granted access to the private papers of Lord Burghley and to the state archives. In that history, in the chapter dealing with Elizabeth's early life, he records in the margin that Anne was born in MDVII (1507). Anne's great-great-great-grandparents included a Lord Mayor of London, a duke, an earl, two aristocratic ladies, and a knight. One of them, Geoffrey Boleyn, had been a mercer and wool merchant before becoming Lord Mayor. The Boleyn family originally came from Blickling in Norfolk, north of Norwich. At the time of Anne's birth, the Boleyn family was considered one of the most respected in the English aristocracy. Among her relatives, she numbered the Howards, one of the preeminent families in the land; and one of her ancestors included King Edward I of England. According to Eric Ives, she was certainly of more noble birth than were Jane Seymour, Catherine Howard, and Catherine Parr, Henry VIII's three other English wives. The spelling of the Boleyn name was variable, as common at the time. Sometimes it was written as \"Bullen\", hence the bull heads which formed part of her family arms. At the court of Margaret of Austria in the Netherlands, Anne is listed as \"Boullan\". From there she signed the letter to her father as \"Anna de Boullan\". She is also referred to as \"Anna Bolina\"; this Latinised form is used in most portraits of her. Anne's early education was typical for women of her class. In 1513, Anne was invited to join the schoolroom of Margaret of Austria and her four wards. Her academic education was limited to arithmetic, her family genealogy, grammar, history, reading, spelling, and writing. She also developed domestic skills such as dancing, embroidery, good manners, household management, music, needlework, and singing. Anne learned to play games, such as cards, chess, and dice. She was also taught archery, falconry, horseback riding, and hunting.", "Anne was recalled to marry her Irish cousin, James Butler, a young man who was several years older than she and who was living at the English court. The marriage was intended to settle a dispute over the title and estates of the Earldom of Ormond. The 7th Earl of Ormond died in 1515, leaving his daughters, Margaret Boleyn and Anne St Leger, as co-heiresses. In Ireland, the great-great-grandson of the 3rd earl, Sir Piers Butler, contested the will and claimed the earldom himself. He was already in possession of Kilkenny Castle, the ancestral seat of the earls. Sir Thomas Boleyn, being the son of the eldest daughter, believed that the title properly belonged to him and protested to his brother-in-law, the Duke of Norfolk, who spoke to Henry about the matter. Henry, fearful the dispute could be the spark to ignite civil war in Ireland, sought to resolve the matter by arranging an alliance between Piers's son, James, and Anne Boleyn. She would bring her Ormond inheritance as dowry and thus end the dispute. The plan ended in failure, perhaps because Sir Thomas hoped for a grander marriage for his daughter or because he himself coveted the titles. Whatever the reason, the marriage negotiations came to a complete halt. James Butler later married Lady Joan Fitzgerald, daughter and heiress of James FitzGerald, 10th Earl of Desmond and Amy O'Brien. Mary Boleyn, Anne Boleyn's older sister, had earlier been recalled from France in late 1519, ostensibly to end her affairs with the French king and his courtiers. She married William Carey, a minor noble, in February 1520, at Greenwich, with Henry VIII in attendance. Soon after, Mary Boleyn became the English King's mistress. Historians dispute Henry VIII's paternity of one or both of Mary Boleyn's children born during this marriage. \"Henry VIII: The King and His Court\", by Alison Weir, questions the paternity of Henry Carey; Dr. G.W. Bernard (\"The King's Reformation\") and Joanna Denny (\"Anne Boleyn: A New Life of England's Tragic Queen\") argue that Henry VIII was their father. Henry did not acknowledge either child, but he did recognize his son Henry Fitzroy, his illegitimate son by Elizabeth Blount, Lady Talboys. Anne made her début at the \"Château Vert\" (Green Castle) pageant in honour of the imperial ambassadors on 4 March 1522, playing \"Perseverance\" (one of the characters in the play). There she took part in an elaborate dance accompanying Henry's younger sister Mary, several other ladies of the court, and her sister. All wore gowns of white satin embroidered with gold thread. She quickly established herself as one of the most stylish and accomplished women at the court, and soon a number of young men were competing for her. The American historian Retha M. Warnicke writes that Anne was \"the perfect woman courtier... her carriage was graceful and her French clothes were pleasing and stylish; she danced with ease, had a pleasant singing voice, played the lute and several other musical instruments well, and spoke French fluently... A remarkable, intelligent, quick-witted young noblewoman... that first drew people into conversation with her and then amused and entertained them. In short, her energy and vitality made her the center of attention in any social gathering.\" Henry VIII's biographer J. J. Scarisbrick adds that Anne \"revelled in\" the attention she received from her admirers. During this time, Anne was courted by Henry Percy, son of the Earl of Northumberland, and entered into a secret betrothal with the young man. Thomas Wolsey's gentleman usher, George Cavendish, maintained the two had not been lovers. If Cavendish is to be believed, their relationship was celibate. The romance was broken off when Percy's father refused to support their engagement. Cardinal Wolsey refused the match for several conjectured reasons. According to Cavendish, Anne was sent from court to her family's countryside estates, but it is not known for how long. Upon her return to court, she again entered the service of Catherine of Aragon. Percy was married to Lady Mary Talbot, to whom he had been betrothed since adolescence. Prior to her marriage to Henry VIII, Anne had befriended Sir Thomas Wyatt, who was one of the greatest poets of the Tudor reign. In 1520, Wyatt married Elizabeth Cobham, who by many accounts was not a wife of his choosing. In 1525, Wyatt charged his wife with adultery and separated from her; coincidentally, historians believe that it was also the year where his interest in Anne intensified. In 1532, Wyatt accompanied the royal couple to Calais in France. In 1526, Henry VIII became enamoured of Anne and began his pursuit. Anne was a skillful player at the game of courtly love, which was often played in the antechambers. This may have been how she caught the eye of Henry, who was also an experienced player. Some say that Anne resisted the King's attempts to seduce her, refusing to become his mistress, and often leaving court for the seclusion of Hever Castle. But within a year, he proposed marriage to her, and she accepted. Both assumed an annulment could be obtained within a matter of months. There is no evidence to suggest that they engaged in a sexual relationship until very shortly before their marriage; Henry's love letters to Anne suggest that their love affair remained unconsummated for much of their seven-year courtship.", "Catherine was formally stripped of her title as queen and Anne was consequently crowned queen consort on 1 June 1533 in a magnificent ceremony at Westminster Abbey with a banquet afterwards. She was the last queen consort of England to be crowned separately from her husband. Unlike any other queen consort, Anne was crowned with St Edward's Crown, which had previously been used to crown only a monarch. Historian Alice Hunt suggests that this was done because Anne's pregnancy was visible by then and she was carrying the heir who was presumed to be male. On the previous day, Anne had taken part in an elaborate procession through the streets of London seated in a litter of \"white cloth of gold\" that rested on two palfreys clothed to the ground in white damask, while the barons of the Cinque Ports held a canopy of cloth of gold over her head. In accordance with tradition she wore white, and on her head a gold coronet beneath which her long dark hair hung down freely. The public's response to her appearance was lukewarm. Meanwhile, the House of Commons had forbidden all appeals to Rome and exacted the penalties of \"praemunire\" against all who introduced papal bulls into England. It was only then that Pope Clement at last took the step of announcing a provisional sentence of excommunication against the King and Cranmer. He condemned the marriage to Anne, and in March 1534, he declared the marriage to Catherine legal and again ordered Henry to return to her. Henry now required his subjects to swear an oath attached to the First Succession Act, which effectively rejected papal authority in legal matters and recognised Anne Boleyn as queen. Those who refused, such as Sir Thomas More, who had resigned as Lord Chancellor, and John Fisher, Bishop of Rochester, were then placed in the Tower of London. In late 1534 parliament declared Henry \"the only supreme head on earth of the Church of England\". The Church in England was now under Henry's control, not Rome's. On 14 May 1534, in one of the realm's first official acts protecting Protestant Reformers, Anne wrote a letter to Thomas Cromwell seeking his aid in ensuring that English merchant Richard Herman be reinstated a member of the merchant adventurers in Antwerp and no longer persecuted simply because he had helped in \"setting forth of the New testament in English.\" Before and after her coronation, Anne protected and promoted evangelicals and those wishing to study the scriptures of William Tyndale. She had a decisive role in influencing the Protestant reformer Matthew Parker to attend court as her chaplain, and prior to her death entrusted her daughter to Parker's care.", "On 8 January 1536, news of Catherine of Aragon's death reached the King and Anne, who were overjoyed. The following day, Henry and Anne wore yellow, the symbol of joy and celebration in England, from head to toe, and celebrated Catherine's death with festivities. In Spain, the home country of Catherine of Aragon, yellow was the colour of mourning, in addition to black. For this reason, the wearing of yellow by Henry and Anne may have been a symbol of mourning. With Mary's mother dead, Anne attempted to make peace with her. Mary rebuffed Anne's overtures, perhaps because of rumours circulating that Catherine had been poisoned by Anne or Henry. These began after the discovery during her embalming that Catherine's heart was blackened. Modern medical experts are in agreement that this was not the result of poisoning, but of cancer of the heart, an extremely rare condition which was not understood at the time. The Queen, pregnant again, was aware of the dangers if she failed to give birth to a son. With Catherine dead, Henry would be free to marry without any taint of illegality. At this time Henry began paying court to Jane Seymour. He gave her a locket with a miniature portrait of himself inside and Jane, in the presence of Anne, began opening and shutting it. Anne responded by ripping off the locket with such force her fingers bled. Later that month, the King was unhorsed in a tournament and knocked unconscious for two hours, a worrying incident that Anne believed led to her miscarriage five days later. Another possible cause of the miscarriage was an incident in which, upon entering a room, Anne saw Jane Seymour sitting on Henry's lap and flew into a rage. Whatever the cause, on the day that Catherine of Aragon was buried at Peterborough Abbey, Anne miscarried a baby which, according to the imperial ambassador Eustace Chapuys, she had borne for about three and a half months, and which \"seemed to be a male child\". Chapuys commented \"She has miscarried of her saviour.\" In Chapuys' opinion, this loss was the beginning of the end of the royal marriage. Given Henry's desperate desire for a son, the sequence of Anne's pregnancies has attracted much interest. Author Mike Ashley speculated that Anne had two stillborn children after Elizabeth's birth and before the male child she miscarried in 1536. Most sources attest only to the birth of Elizabeth in September 1533, a possible miscarriage in the summer of 1534, and the miscarriage of a male child, of almost four months gestation, in January 1536. As Anne recovered from her miscarriage, Henry declared that he had been seduced into the marriage by means of \"sortilege\"—a French term indicating either \"deception\" or \"spells\". His new mistress, Jane Seymour, was quickly moved into royal quarters. This was followed by Anne's brother George being refused a prestigious court honour, the Order of the Garter, given instead to Sir Nicholas Carew.", "Nicholas Sander, a Catholic recusant born c. 1530, was committed to deposing Elizabeth I and re-establishing Catholicism in England. In his \"De Origine ac Progressu schismatis Anglicani\" (\"The Rise and Growth of the Anglican Schism\"), published in 1585, he was the first to write that Anne had six fingers on her right hand. Since physical deformities were generally interpreted as a sign of evil, it is unlikely that Anne Boleyn would have gained Henry's romantic attention had she had any. Upon exhumation in 1876, no abnormalities were discovered. Her frame was described as delicate, approximately 5'3\", with finely formed, tapering fingers. Anne Boleyn was described by contemporaries as intelligent and gifted in musical arts and scholarly pursuits. She was also strong-willed and", "Because of Anne's early exposure to court life, she had powerful influences around her for most of her life. These early influences were mostly women who were engaged with art, history, and religion. Eric Ives described the women around Anne as \"aristocratic women seeking spiritual fulfillment\". They included Queen Claude, of whose court Anne was a member, and Marguerite of Angoulême, who was a well known figure during the Renaissance and held strong religious views that she portrayed through poetry. These women along with Anne's immediate family members, such as her father, may have had a large influence on Anne's personal faith. Another clue into Anne's personal faith could be found in Anne's book of hours, in which she wrote, \"\"le temps viendra\"\" [\"the time will come\"]. Alongside this inscription she", "Many legends and fantastic stories about Anne Boleyn have survived over the centuries. One is that she was secretly buried in Salle Church in Norfolk under a black slab near the tombs of her ancestors. Her body was said to have rested in an Essex church on its journey to Norfolk. Another is that her heart, at her request, was buried in Erwarton (Arwarton) Church, Suffolk by her uncle Sir Philip Parker. In 18th-century Sicily, the peasants of the village of Nicolosi believed that Anne Boleyn, for having made Henry VIII a heretic, was condemned to burn for eternity inside Mount Etna. This legend was often told for the benefit of foreign travellers. A number of people have claimed to have seen Anne's ghost at Hever Castle, Blickling Hall, Salle Church, the Tower of London, and Marwell Hall. One account of her reputed sighting was given by paranormal researcher Hans Holzer. In 1864, Captain (later Major General) J. D. Dundas of the 60th Rifles regiment was quartered in the Tower of London. As he was looking out the window of his quarters, he noticed a guard below in the courtyard, in front of the lodgings where Anne had been imprisoned, behaving strangely. He appeared to challenge something, which to Dundas \"looked like a whitish, female figure sliding towards the soldier\". The guard charged through the form with his bayonet, then fainted. Only the captain's testimony and corroboration at the court-martial saved the guard from a lengthy prison sentence for having fainted while on duty. In 1960, Canon W. S. Pakenham-Walsh, vicar of Sulgrave, Northamptonshire, reported having conversations with Anne." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Lady Burgh.", "Lady Latimer.", "Queen of England and Ireland.", "Final marriage and death.", "Remains.", "Iconography.", "In media.", "Historiography." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Catherine Parr was born in 1512, probably in August. She was the eldest child (surviving to adulthood) of Sir Thomas Parr, lord of the manor of Kendal in Westmorland, (now Cumbria), and of the former Maud Green, daughter and co-heiress of Sir Thomas Green, lord of Greens Norton, Northamptonshire, and Joan Fogge. Sir Thomas Parr was a descendant of King Edward III, and the Parrs were a substantial northern family which included many knights. Catherine's paternal grandparents were Sir William Parr and Elizabeth FitzHugh, a daughter of Henry, Baron FitzHugh of Ravensworth Castle and Lady Alice Neville, sister of Richard Neville, 16th Earl of Warwick (\"Warwick, the Kingmaker\"). Catherine had a younger brother, William, later created first Marquess of Northampton, and younger sister, Anne, later Countess of Pembroke. Sir Thomas was a close companion to King Henry VIII, and was rewarded as such with responsibilities and/or incomes from his positions as Sheriff of Northamptonshire, Master of the Wards, and Comptroller to the King, in addition to being the lord of Kendal. Catherine's mother was a close friend and attendant of Katherine of Aragon, and Catherine Parr was probably named after Queen Katherine, who was her godmother. It was once thought that Catherine Parr had been born at Kendal Castle in Westmorland. However, at the time of her birth, Kendal Castle was already in very poor condition. During her pregnancy, Maud Parr remained at court, attending the Queen, and by necessity the Parr family was living in their townhouse at Blackfriars. Historians now consider it unlikely that Sir Thomas would have taken his pregnant wife on an arduous two-week journey north over bad roads to give birth in a crumbling castle in which neither of them seemed to spend much time. Catherine's father died when she was young, and she was close to her mother as she grew up. Catherine's initial education was similar to other well-born women, but she developed a passion for learning which would continue throughout her life. She was fluent in French, Latin, and Italian, and began learning Spanish after becoming queen. According to biographer Linda Porter, the story that as a child, Catherine could not tolerate sewing and often said to her mother \"my hands are ordained to touch crowns and sceptres, not spindles and needles\" is almost certainly apocryphal.", "In 1529, when she was seventeen, Catherine married Sir Edward Burgh (pronounced and sometimes written as \"Borough\"), a grandson of Edward Burgh, 2nd Baron Burgh. Earlier biographies mistakenly reported that Catherine had married the older Burgh. Following the 2nd Baron Burgh's death in December 1528, Catherine's father-in-law Sir Thomas Burgh was summoned to Parliament in 1529 as Baron Burgh. Catherine's first husband was in his twenties and may have been in poor health. He served as a feoffee for Thomas Kiddell and as a justice of the peace. His father also secured a joint patent in survivorship with his son for the office of steward of the manor of the soke of Kirton in Lindsey. The younger Sir Edward Burgh died in the spring of 1533, not surviving to inherit the title of Baron Burgh.", "Following her first husband's demise, Catherine Parr may have spent time with the Dowager Lady Strickland, Katherine Neville, who was the widow of Catherine's cousin Sir Walter Strickland, at the Stricklands' family residence of Sizergh Castle in Westmorland (now in Cumbria). In the summer of 1534, Catherine married secondly John Neville, 3rd Baron Latimer, her father's second cousin and a kinsman of Lady Strickland. With this marriage, Catherine became only the second woman in the Parr family to marry into the peerage. The twice-widowed Latimer was twice Catherine's age. From his first marriage to Dorothy de Vere, sister of John de Vere, 14th Earl of Oxford, he had two children, John and Margaret. Although Latimer was in financial difficulties after he and his brothers had pursued legal action to claim the title of Earl of Warwick, Catherine now had a home of her own, a title and a husband with a position and influence in the north. Latimer was a supporter of the Catholic Church and had opposed the king's first annulment, his subsequent marriage to Anne Boleyn, and the religious consequences. In October 1536, during the Lincolnshire Rising, Catholic rebels appeared before the Latimers' home threatening violence if Latimer did not join their efforts to reinstate the links between England and Rome. Catherine watched as her husband was dragged away. Between October 1536 and April 1537, Catherine lived alone in fear with her step-children, struggling to survive. It is probable that, in these uncertain times, Catherine's strong reaction against the rebellion strengthened her adherence to the reformed Church of England. In January 1537, during the uprising of the North, Catherine and her step-children were held hostage at Snape Castle in Yorkshire. The rebels ransacked the house and sent word to Lord Latimer, who was returning from London, that if he did not return immediately they would kill his family. When Latimer returned to the castle, he somehow talked the rebels into releasing his family and leaving, but the aftermath would prove to be taxing on the whole family. The King and Thomas Cromwell heard conflicting reports as to whether Latimer was a prisoner or a conspirator. As a conspirator, he could be found guilty of treason, forfeiting his estates and leaving Catherine and her step-children penniless. The King himself wrote to the Duke of Norfolk, pressing him to make sure Latimer would \"condemn that villain Aske and submit to our clemency\". Latimer complied. It is likely that Catherine's brother William Parr and his uncle, William Parr, 1st Baron Parr of Horton, who both fought against the rebellion, intervened to save Latimer's life. Although no charges were laid against him, Latimer's reputation, which reflected upon Catherine, was tarnished for the rest of his life. Over the next seven years, the family spent much of their time in the south. For several years, Latimer was blackmailed by Cromwell and forced to do his bidding. After Cromwell's death in 1540, the Latimers reclaimed some dignity. In 1542 the family spent time in London as Latimer attended Parliament. Catherine visited her brother William and her sister Anne at court. It was here that Catherine became acquainted with her future fourth husband, Sir Thomas Seymour. The atmosphere of the court was greatly different from that of the rural estates she knew. There, Catherine could find the latest trends, not only in religious matters, but in less weighty secular matters such as fashion and jewellery. By the winter of 1542, Lord Latimer's health had worsened. Catherine nursed her husband until his death in 1543. In his will, Catherine was named as guardian of his daughter, Margaret, and was put in charge of his affairs until his daughter's majority. Latimer left Catherine the manor of Stowe and other properties. He also bequeathed money for supporting his daughter, and in the case that his daughter did not marry within five years, Catherine was to take £30 a year out of the income to support her step-daughter. Catherine was left a rich widow, but after Lord Latimer's death she faced the possibility of having to return north. It is likely that Catherine sincerely mourned her husband; she kept a remembrance of him, his New Testament with his name inscribed inside, until her death. Using her late mother's friendship with Henry's first queen, Catherine of Aragon, Catherine took the opportunity to renew her own friendship with the former queen's daughter, Lady Mary. By 16 February 1543, Catherine had established herself as part of Mary's household, and it was there that Catherine caught the attention of the King. Although she had begun a romantic friendship with Sir Thomas Seymour, the brother of the late queen Jane Seymour, she saw it as her duty to accept Henry's proposal over Seymour's. Seymour was given a posting in Brussels to remove him from the king's court.", "Catherine married Henry VIII on 12 July 1543 at Hampton Court Palace. She was the first Queen of England also to be Queen of Ireland following Henry's adoption of the title King of Ireland. Catherine and her new husband shared several common royal and noble ancestors making them multiple cousins. By Henry's mother and Catherine's father they were third cousins once removed sharing Ralph Neville, 1st Earl of Westmorland, and Lady Joan Beaufort (granddaughter of Edward III) and by their fathers they were double fourth cousins once removed, sharing Thomas Holland, 2nd Earl of Kent (son of Joan of Kent) and Lady Alice FitzAlan (granddaughter of Henry, 3rd Earl of Lancaster) and John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster (son of Edward III) and Katherine Swynford. On becoming queen, Catherine installed her former stepdaughter, Margaret Neville, as her lady-in-waiting, and gave her stepson John's wife, Lucy Somerset, a position in her household. Catherine was partially responsible for reconciling Henry with his daughters from his first two marriages, and also developed a good relationship with Henry's son Edward. When she became queen, her uncle Lord Parr of Horton became her Lord Chamberlain. Henry went on his last, unsuccessful, campaign to France from July to September 1544, leaving Catherine as his regent. Because her regency council was composed of sympathetic members, including her uncle Thomas Cranmer (the Archbishop of Canterbury) and Lord Hertford, Catherine obtained effective control and was able to rule as she saw fit. She handled provision, finances, and musters for Henry's French campaign, signed five royal proclamations, and maintained constant contact with her lieutenant in the northern Marches, Lord Shrewsbury, over the complex and unstable situation with Scotland. It is thought that her actions as regent, together with her strength of character and noted dignity, and later religious convictions, greatly influenced her stepdaughter Lady Elizabeth (the future Elizabeth I of England). The Queen's religious views were viewed with suspicion by anti-Protestant officials such as Stephen Gardiner (the Bishop of Winchester) and Lord Wriothesley (the Lord Chancellor). Although brought up as a Catholic, she later became sympathetic to and interested in the \"New Faith\". By the mid-1540s, she came under suspicion that she was actually a Protestant. This view is supported by the strong reformed ideas that she revealed after Henry's death, when her second book, \"\" (Lamentation of a Sinner), was published in late 1547. The book promoted the Protestant concept of justification by faith alone, which the Catholic Church deemed to be heresy. It is unlikely that she developed these views in the short time between Henry's death and the publication of the book. Her sympathy with Anne Askew, the Protestant martyr who fiercely opposed the Catholic belief of transubstantiation, also suggests that she was more than merely sympathetic to the new religion. In 1546, the Bishop of Winchester and Lord Wriothesley tried to turn the king against her. An arrest warrant was drawn up for her and rumours abounded across Europe that the King was attracted to her close friend, the Duchess of Suffolk. However, she saw the warrant and managed to reconcile with the King after vowing that she had only argued about religion with him to take his mind off the suffering caused by his ulcerous leg. The following day an armed guard who was unaware of the reconciliation tried to arrest her while she walked with the King.", "Shortly before he died, Henry made provision for an allowance of £7,000 per year for Catherine to support herself. He further ordered that, after his death, Catherine, though a queen dowager, should be given the respect of a queen of England, as if he were still alive. Catherine retired from court after the coronation of her stepson, Edward VI, on 31 January 1547, to her home at Old Manor in Chelsea. Following Henry's death, Catherine's old love and the new king's uncle, Thomas Seymour (who was soon created 1st Baron Seymour of Sudeley), returned to court. Catherine was quick to accept when Seymour renewed his suit of marriage. Since only four months had passed since the death of King Henry, Seymour knew that the Regency council would not agree to a petition for the queen dowager to marry so soon. Sometime near the end of May, Catherine and Seymour married in secret. King Edward VI and council were not informed of the union for several months. When their union became public knowledge, it caused a small scandal. The King and Lady Mary were very much displeased by the union. After being censured and reprimanded by the council, Seymour wrote to the Lady Mary asking her to intervene on his behalf. Mary became furious at his forwardness and tasteless actions and refused to help. Mary even went as far as asking her half-sister, Lady Elizabeth, not to interact with Queen Catherine any further. During this time, Catherine began having altercations with her brother-in-law, Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset. Like Thomas, Edward was the King's uncle, and also was the Lord Protector. A rivalry developed between Catherine and his wife, her own former lady-in-waiting, Anne Seymour, Duchess of Somerset, which became particularly acute over the matter of Catherine's jewels. The Duchess argued that as queen dowager, Catherine, was no longer entitled to wear the jewels belonging to the wife of the king. Instead she, as the wife of the protector, should be the one to wear them. Eventually, the Duchess won the argument, which left her relationship with Catherine permanently damaged; the relationship between the two Seymour brothers also worsened as a result, since Thomas saw the whole dispute as a personal attack by his brother on his social standing. In November 1547, Catherine published her second book, \"The Lamentation of a Sinner\". The book was a success and widely praised. In March 1548, at the age of 35, Catherine became pregnant. This pregnancy was a surprise, as Catherine had not conceived during her first three marriages. During this time, Seymour began to take an interest in Lady Elizabeth. Seymour had reputedly plotted to marry her before marrying Catherine, and it was reported later that Catherine discovered the two in an embrace. On a few occasions before the situation risked getting completely out of hand, according to the deposition of Kat Ashley, Catherine appears not only to have acquiesced in episodes of horseplay, but actually to have assisted her husband. Whatever actually happened, Elizabeth was sent away in May 1548 to stay with Sir Anthony Denny's household at Cheshunt and never saw her beloved stepmother again, although the two corresponded. Elizabeth immediately wrote a letter to the Queen and Seymour after she left Chelsea. The letter demonstrates a sort of remorse. Kat Ashley, whose deposition was given after Catherine had died and Seymour had been arrested for another attempt at marrying Lady Elizabeth, had developed a crush on Seymour during her time at Chelsea and actually encouraged her charge to \"play along.\" At one point she even made a comment at how lucky Elizabeth would have been to have a husband like Seymour. Ashley even told Lady Elizabeth that Seymour had confided his sentiments to her of wanting to marry Elizabeth before Catherine. After Catherine's death, Ashley strongly encouraged Elizabeth to write to Seymour offering her condolences; to \"comfort him of his sorrow...for he would think great kindness therein.\" In June 1548, Catherine, accompanied by Lady Jane Grey, moved to Sudeley Castle in Gloucestershire. The dowager queen promised to provide education for her. It was there that Catherine would spend the last few months of her pregnancy and the last summer of her life. Catherine gave birth to her only child, a daughter, Mary Seymour, named after Catherine's stepdaughter Mary, on 30 August 1548. Catherine died on 5 September 1548, at Sudeley Castle in Gloucestershire, from what is thought to have been \"childbed fever\". This illness was common due to the lack of hygiene around childbirth. Catherine's funeral was held on 7 September 1548. It was the first Protestant funeral held in English. Her chief mourner was Lady Jane Grey. She was buried in St. Mary's Chapel on the grounds of Sudeley Castle, Gloucestershire, England. She is the only royal to be buried in a private residence. Lord Seymour was beheaded for treason on 20 March 1549, and Mary Seymour was taken to live with the Dowager Duchess of Suffolk, a close friend of Catherine's. Catherine's other jewels were kept in a coffer with five drawers at Sudeley and this was sent to the Tower of London on 20 April 1549, and her clothes and papers followed in May. After a year and a half, on 17 March 1550, Mary's property was restored to her by an Act of Parliament, easing the burden of the infant's household on the duchess. The last mention of Mary Seymour on record is on her second birthday, and although stories circulated that she eventually married and had children, most historians believe she died as a child at Grimsthorpe Castle in Lincolnshire.", "In 1782, John Locust discovered the coffin of Queen Catherine in the ruins of the Sudeley Castle chapel. The coffin was identified by a lead plate with an inscription on the coffin. He opened the coffin and observed that the body, after 234 years, was in a surprisingly good condition. Reportedly the flesh on one of her arms was still white and moist. After taking a few locks of her hair, he closed the coffin and returned it to the grave. The coffin was opened a few more times in the next ten years and in 1792 some drunken men buried it upside down and in a rough way. When the coffin was officially reopened in 1817, nothing but a skeleton remained. Her remains were then moved to the tomb of Lord Chandos whose family owned the castle at that time. The tomb was carefully restored by order of the late Duchess of Buckingham, Lady Anne Greville, daughter of the 3rd Duke of Chandos. In later years the chapel was rebuilt by Sir George Gilbert Scott, who erected a canopied tomb with a recumbent marble figure by John Birnie Philip.", "The full-length portrait of Catherine Parr by Master John in the National Portrait Gallery was for many years thought to represent Lady Jane Grey. The painting has recently been re-identified as Catherine Parr, with whose name it was originally associated. The full-length format was very rare in portraits of this date, and was usually used only for very important sitters. Lady Jane Grey, although of royal blood, was a relatively obscure child of eight when this was painted (circa 1545); it was to be another eight years before the short-lived attempt at placing her on the throne. The distinctive crown-shaped jewel the sitter wears can be traced to an inventory of jewels that belonged to Catherine Parr, and the cameo beads appear to have belonged to Catherine Howard, from whom they would have passed to her successor as queen.", "Catherine Parr first appeared as a character in cinemas in 1934, in Alexander Korda's film \"The Private Life of Henry VIII\". Charles Laughton played the king, with actress Everley Gregg appearing as Catherine. The film makes no attempt to depict the historical Parr's character, instead portraying the Queen for comic effect as a domineering and over-protective nag. In 1952, a romanticised version of Thomas Seymour's obsession with Elizabeth I saw Stewart Granger as Seymour, Jean Simmons as the young Elizabeth and screen legend Deborah Kerr as Parr in the popular film \"Young Bess\". In 1970, in \"Catherine Parr\", a 90-minute BBC television drama (the last in a 6-part series, entitled \"The Six Wives of Henry VIII\") Catherine was played by Rosalie Crutchley opposite Keith Michell's Henry. In this, Catherine's love of religion and intellectual capabilities were highlighted. Crutchley reprised her role as Catherine Parr for the first episode of the 6-part follow-up series on the life of Elizabeth I in 1971, \"Elizabeth R\". In 1972, Barbara Leigh-Hunt played a matronly Catherine in \"Henry VIII and his Six Wives\", with Keith Michell once again playing Henry. In 2000, Jennifer Wigmore played Catherine Parr in the American television drama aimed at teenagers, \"Elizabeth: Red Rose of the House of Tudor\". A year later, Caroline Lintott played Katherine in Professor David Starkey's documentary series on Henry's queens. In October 2003, in a two-part British television series on \"Henry VIII\", Catherine was played by Clare Holman. The part was relatively small, given that the drama's second part focused more on the stories of Jane Seymour and Catherine Howard. In \"The Simpsons\" episode \"Margical History Tour,\" Catherine is portrayed by Agnes Skinner as an elderly widow during Marge's retelling of Henry's reign. Henry (portrayed by Homer) regrets his marriage to her because of her age. In March 2007, Washington University in St. Louis performed the A.E. Hotchner Playwriting Competition winner \"Highness,\" which documents the life of Catherine Parr and her relationships with King Henry and his daughter, the future Queen Elizabeth I, to whom she was a stepmother. Catherine Parr was portrayed by actress Joely Richardson on the fourth and final season of Showtime's \"The Tudors\", which was first broadcast in spring 2010. Richardson's portrayal was largely faithful to what has been recorded of Parr's character. Catherine features in \"The Dark Rose\", Volume 2 of The Morland Dynasty a series of historical novels by author Cynthia Harrod-Eagles. The lead female character, Nanette Morland, is educated alongside Catherine and is later re-acquainted with her when she becomes Queen. She has been the subject of several novels, including two titled \"The Sixth Wife,\" and she is a supporting character in C. J. Sansom's \"Matthew Shardlake\" mysteries, \"Revelation\", \"Heartstone\" and \"Lamentation\". In 2015, the Stratford Festival in Stratford Ontario debuted a new play called \"The Last Wife\" about Catherine Parr and her relationships with Henry VIII, Thomas Seymour and Henry's three children. The play was written by Kate Hennig. Maev Beaty played Katherine Parr. In the retelling of Henry VIII's sixth wife by Sara Pascoe in Drunk History (UK version, series 2, episode 9) Catherine Parr is portrayed by Emma Bunton. Catherine Parr is a character in the 2017 musical \"Six\", by Toby Marlow and Lucy Moss. In the West End production, the role of Catherine Parr has been played by Izuka Hoyle, Maiya Quansah-Breed, and Danielle Steers. A United States run in Chicago in May 2019 saw Catherine played by Anna Uzele. \"Six\" was set to open on Broadway in April 2020, with Catherine to be played again by Anna Uzele. Rick Wakeman recorded the piece \"Catherine Parr\" for his 1973 album, \"The Six Wives of Henry VIII\". On his 2009 live version of the album the track's spelling is changed to \"Katherine Parr\".", "The popular myth that Catherine Parr acted more as her husband's nurse than his wife was born in the 19th century from the work of Victorian moralist and proto-feminist, Agnes Strickland. David Starkey challenged this assumption in his book \"Six Wives,\" in which he points out that such a situation would have been vaguely obscene to the Tudors—given that Henry had a huge staff of physicians waiting on him hand and foot, and Catherine was expected to live up to the heavy expectations of Queenly dignity. Parr is usually portrayed in cinema and television by actresses who are much older than the queen, who was in her early 30s when she was Henry's wife and was about 36 years old at the time of her death. This change is usually an artistic licence taken to highlight Parr's maturity in comparison to Henry's previous queens, or at least a symptom of the longer lifespans enjoyed by modern audiences (who might be confused as to why a 30-year-old is considered much older and more experienced). Catherine's good sense, moral rectitude, compassion, firm religious commitment and strong sense of loyalty and devotion have earned her many admirers among historians. These include David Starkey, feminist activist Karen Lindsey, Lady Antonia Fraser, Alison Weir, Carolly Erickson, Alison Plowden, Susan James and Linda Porter. Biographers have described her as strong-willed and outspoken, physically desirable, susceptible (like Queen Elizabeth) to roguish charm and even willing to resort to obscene language if the occasion suited. Several novels also feature Katherine Parr:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Law and government.", "Geography.", "Fauna and flora.", "Climate.", "Borders.", "Municipalities.", "Major cities and towns.", "Health.", "Economy.", "Agriculture.", "Mining.", "Industry.", "Tourism.", "Demographics.", "Ethnicity." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The current borders of the province date from 1994 when the Bantustans were abolished and reincorporated into South Africa. It is also the only one of the four original provinces of South Africa not to undergo border changes, apart from the reincorporation of Bantustans, and has had these borders since before the outbreak of the Boer War.", "The provincial government consists of a premier, an executive council of ten ministers, and a legislature. The provincial assembly and premier are elected for five-year terms, or until the next national election. Political parties are awarded assembly seats based on the percentage of votes each party receives in the province during the national elections. The assembly elects a premier, who then appoints the members of the executive council. The provincial legislature meets at the Vierde Raadsaal in Bloemfontein. The premier of Free State is Sisi Ntombela. She has been serving since her appointment in March 2018.", "The Free State is situated on a succession of flat grassy plains sprinkled with pastureland, resting on a general elevation of 3,800 feet only broken by the occasional hill or kopje. The rich soil and pleasant climate allow for a thriving agricultural industry. With more than 30,000 farms, which produce over 70% of the country's grain, it is known locally as South Africa's breadbasket. The province is high-lying, with almost all land being 1,000 metres above sea level. The Drakensberg and Maluti Mountains foothills raise the terrain to over 2,000 m in the east. The Free State lies in the heart of the Karoo Sequence of rocks, containing shales, mudstones, sandstones and the Drakensberg Basalt forming the youngest capping rocks. Mineral deposits are plentiful, with gold and diamonds being of particular importance, mostly found in the north and west of the province.", "The flats in the south of the reserve provides ideal conditions for large herds of plain game such as black wildebeest and springbok. The ridges, koppies and plains typical of the northern section are home to kudu, red hartebeest, southern white rhinoceros and buffalo. The Southern African wildcat, black wildebeest, zebra, eland, white rhinoceros and wild dog can be seen at the Soetdoring Nature Reserve near Bloemfontein. The South African cheetahs has been reintroduced in the Free State for the first time in June 2013 after a hundred years of regional extinction, at Laohu Valley Reserve near Philippolis. Following the reintroduction of an adult female South African cheetah in early 2016, three wild cheetah cubs has been born for the first time in Laohu Valley Reserve in February 2017, making the three new cubs the first cheetahs born in the wild since their disappearance from the Free State province in over a century.", "The Free State experiences a continental climate, characterised by warm to hot summers and cool to cold winters. Areas in the east experience frequent snowfalls, especially on the higher ranges, whilst the west can be extremely hot in summer. Almost all precipitation falls in the summer months as brief afternoon thunderstorms, with aridity increasing towards the west. Areas in the east around Harrismith, Bethlehem and Ficksburg are well watered. The capital, Bloemfontein, experiences hot, moist summers and cold, dry winters frequented by severe frost.", "In the southeast, the Free State borders seven districts of Lesotho: Domestically, it borders the following provinces: The Free State borders more districts of Lesotho and more provinces of South Africa than any other province. It is traversed by the northwesterly line of equal latitude and longitude.", "The Free State Province is divided into one metropolitan municipality and four district municipalities. The district municipalities are in turn divided into 19 local municipalities:", "The Free State's major towns include:", "The Free State is the only province in South Africa that operates a free 24-hour dedicated rotorwing aeromedical service from a public hospital. They are able to reach far flung areas in only 45 minutes and deliver a high level of care on scene. On 31 October 2018 Free State Emergency Medical Service launched an additional 65 road ambulances to augment the fleet. Free state has many public and private hospitals. Some of them are: As of 20 March 2020, seven people had tested positive for Covid-19 in the province.", "The province is the granary of South Africa, with agriculture central to its economy, while mining on the rich goldfields reef is its largest employer.", "Agriculture dominates the Free State landscape, with cultivated land covering 32,000 square kilometres, and natural veld and grazing a further 87,000 square kilometres of the province. It is also South Africa's leader in the production of biofuels, or fuel from agricultural crops, with a number of ethanol plants under construction in the grain-producing western region. South Africa is one of the top ten Maize producers in the world (12,365,000 tons ) whereby all of the crops come from the Free State. The Free State is well known for its \"Mielielande\" (corn-fields; the former term is in Afrikaans). Field crops yield almost two-thirds of the gross agricultural income of the province. Animal products contribute a further 30%, with the balance generated by horticulture. Ninety percent of the country's cherry crop is produced in the Ficksburg district, which is also home to the country's two largest asparagus canning factories. Soya, sorghum, sunflowers and wheat are cultivated in the eastern Free State, where farmers specialise in seed production. About 40% of the country's potato yield comes from the province's high-lying areas. The main vegetable crop is asparagus, both white and green varieties. Although horticulture is expanding and becoming increasingly export-orientated, most produce leaves the province unprocessed. The Free State's advantage in floriculture is the opposing seasons of the southern and northern hemispheres. The province exports about 1.2 million tons of cut flowers a year.", "The Free State is also rich in mineral wealth, gold representing 20% of the world's total gold production. Mining is the province's major employer. The province has 12 gold mines, producing 30% of South Africa's output and making it the fifth-largest producer of gold in the world. The Harmony Gold Refinery and Rand Refinery are the only two gold refineries in South Africa. Gold mines in the Free State also supply a substantial portion of the total silver produced in the country, while considerable concentrations of uranium occurring in the gold-bearing conglomerates of the goldfields are extracted as a byproduct. Bituminous coal is also mined, and converted to petrochemicals at Sasolburg. The Free State also produces high-quality diamonds from its kimberlite pipes and fissures, and the country's largest deposit of bentonite is found in the Koppies district.", "Since 1989, the Free State economy has moved from dependence on primary sectors such as mining and agriculture to an economy increasingly oriented towards manufacturing and export. Some 14% of the province's manufacturing is classified as being in high-technology industries – the highest of all provincial economies. The northern Free State's chemicals sector is one of the most important in the southern hemisphere. Petrochemicals company Sasol, based in the town of Sasolburg, is a world leader in the production of fuels, waxes, chemicals and low-cost feedstock from coal.", "In the northeastern Free State, nestled in the rolling foothills of the Maluti mountains, the Golden Gate Highlands National Park is the province's prime tourist attraction. The park gets its name from the brilliant shades of gold cast by the sun on the spectacular sandstone cliffs, especially the imposing Brandwag or Sentinel Rock, which keeps vigil over the park. The sandstone of this region has been used for the lovely dressed-stone buildings found on the Eastern Highlands, while decoratively painted Sotho houses dot the grasslands. Some of South Africa's most valued San (Bushman) rock art is found in the Free State, particularly in the regions around Clarens, Bethlehem, Ficksburg, Ladybrand and Wepener.", "Sesotho is the dominant home language in most of the province. isiZulu is the major language in the far eastern municipality of Phumelela. Setswana is the main language in Tokologo in the northwest, and in and around the area of Thaba Nchu. The Free State is the only province in South Africa with a Sesotho majority. Afrikaans is widely spoken throughout the province, as a first language for the majority of whites and coloureds and as a second or third language by Sesotho, Setswana and isiZulu speakers. Although the numbers of first language English speakers are relatively low, it is becoming increasingly important as the language of business and government. This is further evidenced by the shift of tertiary institutions such as the University of the Free State from Afrikaans to a dual English/Afrikaans medium of instruction.", "The majority of the population are black Africans who speak Sotho as a first language. The vast majority of white people in the Free State are Afrikaans-speaking. In 1880 the white population made up 45.7% of the total population. In 1904 this had fallen to 36.8%. Of the 142,679 people in 1904, only 60% were born in the province. Of the 2,726 European immigrants born in non-British states, 1,025 came from the Russian Empire, mainly Jews. In 1904 whites made up a majority in most settlements, namely Ficksburg (52.3%), Wepener (60.2%), Ladybrand (60.0%), and Kroonstad (51.6%), and made up a substantial minority in Bloemfontein (45.7%) and Winburg (36.3%)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Physical properties.", "Properties.", "Crystal structure.", "Hardness.", "Magnetics used in garnet series identification.", "Garnet group end member species.", "Pyralspite garnets – aluminium in \"Y\" site.", "Almandine.", "Pyrope.", "Spessartine.", "Pyrope–spessartine (blue garnet or color-change garnet).", "Ugrandite group – calcium in \"X\" site.", "Andradite.", "Grossular.", "Uvarovite.", "Less common species.", "Knorringite.", "Synthetic garnets.", "Geological importance.", "Uses.", "Gemstones.", "Industrial uses.", "Cultural significance.", "United States." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The word \"garnet\" comes from the 14th‐century Middle English word \"gernet\", meaning 'dark red'. It is borrowed from Old French \"grenate\" from Latin \"granatus,\" from \"granum\" ('grain, seed'). This is possibly a reference to \"mela granatum\" or even \"pomum granatum\" ('pomegranate', \"Punica granatum\"), a plant whose fruits contain abundant and vivid red seed covers (arils), which are similar in shape, size, and color to some garnet crystals.", "", "Garnet species are found in many colours including red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, pink, brown, black and colourless, with reddish shades most common. Garnet species' light transmission properties can range from the gemstone-quality transparent specimens to the opaque varieties used for industrial purposes as abrasives. The mineral's luster is categorized as vitreous (glass-like) or resinous (amber-like).", "Garnets are nesosilicates having the general formula \"X\"\"Y\"(). The \"X\" site is usually occupied by divalent cations (Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn) and the \"Y\" site by trivalent cations (Al, Fe, Cr) in an octahedral/tetrahedral framework with [SiO] occupying the tetrahedra. Garnets are most often found in the dodecahedral crystal habit, but are also commonly found in the trapezohedron habit as well as the hexoctahedral habit. They crystallize in the cubic system, having three axes that are all of equal length and perpendicular to each other, but are never actually cubic because despite being isometric because the {100} and {111} families of planes are depleted. Garnets do not have any cleavage planes, so when they fracture under stress, sharp, irregular (conchoidal) pieces are formed", "Because the chemical composition of garnet varies, the atomic bonds in some species are stronger than in others. As a result, this mineral group shows a range of hardness on the Mohs scale of about 6.0 to 7.5. The harder species like almandine are often used for abrasive purposes.", "For gem identification purposes, a pick-up response to a strong neodymium magnet separates garnet from all other natural transparent gemstones commonly used in the jewelry trade. Magnetic susceptibility measurements in conjunction with refractive index can be used to distinguish garnet species and varieties, and determine the composition of garnets in terms of percentages of end-member species within an individual gem.", "", "", "Almandine, sometimes incorrectly called almandite, is the modern gem known as carbuncle (though originally almost any red gemstone was known by this name). The term \"carbuncle\" is derived from the Latin meaning \"live coal\" or burning charcoal. The name \"Almandine\" is a corruption of Alabanda, a region in Asia Minor where these stones were cut in ancient times. Chemically, almandine is an iron-aluminium garnet with the formula FeAl(SiO); the deep red transparent stones are often called precious garnet and are used as gemstones (being the most common of the gem garnets). Almandine occurs in metamorphic rocks like mica schists, associated with minerals such as staurolite, kyanite, andalusite, and others. Almandine has nicknames of Oriental garnet, almandine ruby, and carbuncle.", "Pyrope (from the Greek \"pyrōpós\" meaning \"firelike\") is red in color and chemically an aluminium silicate with the formula MgAl(SiO), though the magnesium can be replaced in part by calcium and ferrous iron. The color of pyrope varies from deep red to black. Pyrope and spessartine gemstones have been recovered from the Sloan diamondiferous kimberlites in Colorado, from the Bishop Conglomerate and in a Tertiary age lamprophyre at Cedar Mountain in Wyoming. A variety of pyrope from Macon County, North Carolina is a violet-red shade and has been called \"rhodolite\", Greek for \"rose\". In chemical composition it may be considered as essentially an isomorphous mixture of pyrope and almandine, in the proportion of two parts pyrope to one part almandine. Pyrope has tradenames some of which are misnomers; \"Cape ruby\", \"Arizona ruby\", \"California ruby\", \"Rocky Mountain ruby\", and \"Bohemian garnet\" from the Czech Republic. Another intriguing find is the blue color-changing garnets from Madagascar, a pyrope-spessartine mix. The color of these blue garnets is not like sapphire blue in subdued daylight but more reminiscent of the grayish blues and greenish blues sometimes seen in spinel. However, in white LED light, the color is equal to the best cornflower blue sapphire, or D block tanzanite; this is due to the blue garnet's ability to absorb the yellow component of the emitted light. Pyrope is an indicator mineral for high-pressure rocks. The garnets from mantle-derived rocks, peridotites, and eclogites commonly contain a pyrope variety.", "Spessartine or spessartite is manganese aluminium garnet, MnAl(SiO). Its name is derived from Spessart in Bavaria. It occurs most often in granite pegmatite and allied rock types and in certain low grade metamorphic phyllites. Spessartine of an orange-yellow is found in Madagascar. Violet-red spessartines are found in rhyolites in Colorado and Maine.", "Blue pyrope–spessartine garnets were discovered in the late 1990s in Bekily, Madagascar. This type has also been found in parts of the United States, Russia, Kenya, Tanzania, and Turkey. It changes color from blue-green to purple depending on the color temperature of viewing light, as a result of the relatively high amounts of vanadium (about 1 wt.% VO). Other varieties of color-changing garnets exist. In daylight, their color ranges from shades of green, beige, brown, gray, and blue, but in incandescent light, they appear a reddish or purplish/pink color. This is the rarest type of garnet. Because of its color-changing quality, this kind of garnet resembles Alexandrite.", "", "Andradite is a calcium-iron garnet, CaFe(SiO), is of variable composition and may be red, yellow, brown, green or black. The recognized varieties are topazolite (yellow or green), demantoid (green) and melanite (black). Andradite is found both in deep-seated igneous rocks like syenite as well as serpentines, schists, and crystalline limestone. Demantoid has been called the \"emerald of the Urals\" from its occurrence there, and is one of the most prized of garnet varieties. Topazolite is a golden-yellow variety and melanite is a black variety.", "Grossular is a calcium-aluminium garnet with the formula CaAl(SiO), though the calcium may in part be replaced by ferrous iron and the aluminium by ferric iron. The name grossular is derived from the botanical name for the gooseberry, \"grossularia\", in reference to the green garnet of this composition that is found in Siberia. Other shades include cinnamon brown (cinnamon stone variety), red, and yellow. Because of its inferior hardness to zircon, which the yellow crystals resemble, they have also been called \"hessonite\" from the Greek meaning inferior. Grossular is found in skarns, contact metamorphosed limestones with vesuvianite, diopside, wollastonite and wernerite. Grossular garnet from Kenya and Tanzania has been called tsavorite. Tsavorite was first described in the 1960s in the area of Kenya, from which the gem takes its name.", "Uvarovite is a calcium chromium garnet with the formula CaCr(SiO). This is a rather rare garnet, bright green in color, usually found as small crystals associated with chromite in peridotite, serpentinite, and kimberlites. It is found in crystalline marbles and schists in the Ural mountains of Russia and Outokumpu, Finland. Uvarovite is named for Count Uvaro, a Russian imperial statesman.", "", "Knorringite is a magnesium-chromium garnet species with the formula MgCr(SiO). Pure endmember knorringite never occurs in nature. Pyrope rich in the knorringite component is only formed under high pressure and is often found in kimberlites. It is used as an indicator mineral in the search for diamonds.", "The crystallographic structure of garnets has been expanded from the prototype to include chemicals with the general formula \"A\"\"B\"(\"C\" O). Besides silicon, a large number of elements have been put on the \"C\" site, including,,, and. Yttrium aluminium garnet (YAG), YAl(AlO), is used for synthetic gemstones. Due to its fairly high refractive index, YAG was used as a diamond simulant in the 1970s until the methods of producing the more advanced simulant cubic zirconia in commercial quantities were developed. When doped with neodymium (Nd), these YAl-garnets may be used as the lasing medium in lasers. Interesting magnetic properties arise when the appropriate elements are used. In yttrium iron garnet (YIG), (Fe), the five iron(III) ions occupy two octahedral and three tetrahedral sites, with the yttrium(III) ions coordinated by eight oxygen ions in an irregular cube. The iron ions in the two coordination sites exhibit different spins, resulting in magnetic behavior. YIG is a ferrimagnetic material having a Curie temperature of 550 K. Another example is gadolinium gallium garnet, (GaO) which is synthesized for use as a substrate for liquid-phase epitaxy of magnetic garnet films for bubble memory and magneto-optical applications.", "The mineral garnet is commonly found in metamorphic and to a lesser extent, igneous rocks. Most natural garnets are compositionally zoned and contain inclusions. Its crystal lattice structure is stable at high pressures and temperatures and is thus found in green-schist facies metamorphic rocks including gneiss, hornblende schist, and mica schist. The composition that is stable at the pressure and temperature conditions of Earth's mantle is pyrope, which is often found in peridotites and kimberlites, as well as the serpentines that form from them. Garnets are unique in that they can record the pressures and temperatures of peak metamorphism and are used as geobarometers and geothermometers in the study of geothermobarometry which determines \"P-T Paths\", Pressure-Temperature Paths. Garnets are used as an index mineral in the delineation of isograds in metamorphic rocks. Compositional zoning and inclusions can mark the change from growth of the crystals at low temperatures to higher temperatures. Garnets that are not compositionally zoned more than likely experienced ultra high temperatures (above 700 °C) that led to diffusion of major elements within the crystal lattice, effectively homogenizing the crystal or they were never zoned. Garnets can also form metamorphic textures that can help interpret structural histories. In addition to being used to devolve conditions of metamorphism, garnets can be used to date certain geologic events. Garnet has been developed as a U-Pb geochronometer, to date the age of crystallization as well as a thermochronometer in the (U-Th)/He system to date timing of cooling below a closure temperature. Garnets can be chemically altered and most often alter to serpentine, talc, and chlorite.", "", "Red garnets were the most commonly used gemstones in the Late Antique Roman world, and the Migration Period art of the \"barbarian\" peoples who took over the territory of the Western Roman Empire. They were especially used inlaid in gold cells in the cloisonné technique, a style often just called garnet cloisonné, found from Anglo-Saxon England, as at Sutton Hoo, to the Black Sea. Thousands of Tamraparniyan gold, silver and red garnet shipments were made in the old world, including to Rome, Greece, the Middle East, Serica and Anglo Saxons; recent findings such as the Staffordshire Hoard and the pendant of the Winfarthing Woman skeleton of Norfolk confirm an established gem trade route with South India and Tamraparni (ancient Sri Lanka), known from antiquity for its production of gemstones. Pure crystals of garnet are still used as gemstones. The gemstone varieties occur in shades of green, red, yellow, and orange. In the US it is known as the birthstone for January. It is the state mineral of Connecticut, New York's gemstone, and star garnet (garnet with rutile asterisms) is the state gemstone of Idaho.", "Garnet sand is a good abrasive, and a common replacement for silica sand in sand blasting. Alluvial garnet grains which are rounder are more suitable for such blasting treatments. Mixed with very high pressure water, garnet is used to cut steel and other materials in water jets. For water jet cutting, garnet extracted from hard rock is suitable since it is more angular in form, therefore more efficient in cutting. Garnet paper is favored by cabinetmakers for finishing bare wood. Garnet sand is also used for water filtration media. As an abrasive, garnet can be broadly divided into two categories; blasting grade and water jet grade. The garnet, as it is mined and collected, is crushed to finer grains; all pieces which are larger than 60 mesh (250 micrometers) are normally used for sand blasting. The pieces between 60 mesh (250 micrometers) and 200 mesh (74 micrometers) are normally used for water jet cutting. The remaining garnet pieces that are finer than 200 mesh (74 micrometers) are used for glass polishing and lapping. Regardless of the application, the larger grain sizes are used for faster work and the smaller ones are used for finer finishes. There are different kinds of abrasive garnets which can be divided based on their origin. The largest source of abrasive garnet today is garnet-rich beach sand which is quite abundant on Indian and Australian coasts and the main producers today are Australia and India. This material is particularly popular due to its consistent supplies, huge quantities and clean material. The common problems with this material are the presence of ilmenite and chloride compounds. Since the material has been naturally crushed and ground on the beaches for past centuries, the material is normally available in fine sizes only. Most of the garnet at the Tuticorin beach in south India is 80 mesh, and ranges from 56 mesh to 100 mesh size. \"River garnet\" is particularly abundant in Australia. The river sand garnet occurs as a placer deposit. \"Rock garnet\" is perhaps the garnet type used for the longest period of time. This type of garnet is produced in America, China and western India. These crystals are crushed in mills and then purified by wind blowing, magnetic separation, sieving and, if required, washing. Being freshly crushed, this garnet has the sharpest edges and therefore performs far better than other kinds of garnet. Both the river and the beach garnet suffer from the tumbling effect of hundreds of thousands of years which rounds off the edges. Gore Mountain Garnet from Warren County, New York, USA is a significant source of rack garnet for use as an industrial abrasive.", "Garnet is the birthstone of January. It is also the birthstone of Aquarius in tropical astrology.", "New York has garnet as its state gemstone, Connecticut has almandine garnet as its state gemstone, Idaho has star garnet as its state gemstone, and Vermont has grossular garnet as its state gemstone." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Early career (1950–59).", "Film criticism.", "Filmmaking.", "New Wave period (1960–68).", "Films.", "\"Breathless\".", "\"The Little Soldier\".", "\"My Life to Live\".", "\"Les Carabiniers\" and \"Contempt\".", "Anouchka Films.", "\"Week-end\".", "Politics.", "Bertolt Brecht.", "Marxism.", "Revolutionary period (1968–79).", "Films.", "Jean-Pierre Gorin.", "The Dziga Vertov group.", "Sonimage.", "Recent films (1980–present).", "Personal life.", "Filmography.", "Collaboration with ECM Records." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Jean-Luc Godard was born on 3 December 1930 in the 7th arrondissement of Paris, the son of Odile (\"née\" Monod) and Paul Godard, a Swiss physician. His wealthy parents came from Protestant families of Franco–Swiss descent, and his mother was the daughter of Julien Monod, a founder of the Banque Paribas. She was the great-granddaughter of theologian Adolphe Monod. Other relatives on his mother's side include composer Jacques-Louis Monod, naturalist Théodore Monod and pastor Frédéric Monod. Four years after Jean-Luc's birth, his father moved the family to Switzerland. At the outbreak of the Second World War, Godard was in France, and returned to Switzerland with difficulty. He spent most of the war in Switzerland, although his family made clandestine trips to his grandfather's estate on the French side of Lake Geneva. Godard attended school in Nyon, Switzerland. Not a frequent", "", "In Paris, in the Latin Quarter just prior to 1950, \"ciné-clubs\" (film societies) were gaining prominence. Godard began attending these clubs—the Cinémathèque Française, Ciné-Club du Quartier Latin (CCQL), Work and Culture ciné club, and others—which became his regular haunts. The Cinémathèque had been founded by Henri Langlois and Georges Franju in 1936; Work and Culture was a workers' education group for which André Bazin had organized wartime film screenings and discussions and which had become a model for the film clubs that had risen throughout France after the Liberation; CCQL, founded in about 1947 or 1948, was animated and intellectually led by Maurice Schérer. At these clubs he met fellow film enthusiasts including Jacques Rivette, Claude Chabrol, and François Truffaut. Godard was part of a generation for whom cinema took on a special importance. He has said: \"In the 1950s cinema was as important as bread—but it isn't the case any more. We thought cinema would assert itself as an", "Having left Paris in the autumn of 1952, Godard returned to Switzerland and went to live with his mother in Lausanne. He became friendly with his mother's lover, Jean-Pierre Laubscher, who was a labourer on the Grande Dixence Dam. Through Laubscher he secured work himself as a construction worker at the Plaz Fleuri work site at the dam. He saw the possibility of making a documentary film about the dam; when his initial contract ended, in order to prolong his time at the dam, he moved to the post", "Godard's most celebrated period as a director spans roughly from his first feature, \"Breathless\" (1960), through to \"Week End\" (1967). His work during this period focused on relatively conventional films that often refer to different aspects of film history. Although Godard's work during this time is considered groundbreaking in its own right, the period stands in contrast to that which immediately followed it, during which Godard ideologically denounced much of cinema's history as \"bourgeois\" and therefore without merit.", "", "Godard's \"Breathless\" (\"À bout de souffle\", 1960), starring Jean-Paul Belmondo and Jean Seberg distinctly expressed the French New Wave's style, and incorporated quotations from several elements of popular culture—specifically American film noir. The film employed various techniques such as the innovative use of jump cuts (which were traditionally considered amateurish), character asides, and breaking the eyeline match in continuity editing. From the beginning of his career, Godard included more film references in his movies than did any of his New Wave colleagues. In \"Breathless\", his citations include a movie poster showing Humphrey Bogart—from \"The Harder They Fall\", his last film (whose expression the lead actor Jean-Paul Belmondo tries reverently to imitate)—visual quotations from films of Ingmar Bergman, Samuel Fuller, Fritz Lang, and others; and an onscreen dedication to Monogram Pictures, an American B-movie studio. Quotations from, and references to literature, include William Faulkner, Dylan Thomas, Louis Aragon, Rilke, Françoise Sagan, Maurice Sachs. The film also contains citations in images or on the soundtrack—Mozart, Picasso, J. S. Bach, Paul Klee, and Auguste Renoir. \"This first-person cinema invoked not the director's experience", "The following year Godard made \"Le Petit Soldat\" (\"The Little Soldier\"), filmed on location in Geneva, and dealing with the Algerian War of Independence. The film begins on 13 May 1958, the date of the attempted putsch in Algeria, and ends later the same month. In the film, Bruno Forestier, a photojournalist who has links with a right-wing paramilitary group working for the French government, is ordered to murder a professor accused of aiding the Algerian resistance. He is in love with Veronica Dreyer, a young woman who has worked with the Algerian fighters. He is captured by Algerian militants and tortured. His organisation captures and tortures her. The 'little soldier' was played by Michel Subor, and Veronica Dreyer by Anna Karina—his first", "Godard's next film, \"Vivre sa vie\" (My Life to Live) (1962), was one of his most popular among critics. Karina starred as Nana, an errant mother and aspiring actress whose financially strained circumstances lead her to the life of a streetwalker. It is an episodic account of her", "\"Les Carabiniers\" (1963) was about the horror of war and its inherent injustice. It was the influence and suggestion of Roberto Rossellini that led Godard to make this film which follows two peasants who join the army of a king, only to find futility in the whole thing as the king reveals the deception of war-administrating leaders. His most commercially successful film was \"Le Mépris\" (\"Contempt\") (1963), starring Michel Piccoli and one of France's", "In 1964, Godard and Karina formed a production company, Anouchka Films. He directed \"Bande à part\" (\"Band of Outsiders\"), another collaboration between the two and described by Godard as \"\"Alice in Wonderland\" meets Franz Kafka.\" It follows two young men, looking to score on a heist, who both fall in love with Karina, and quotes from several gangster film conventions. \"Une femme mariée\" (A Married Woman) (1964) followed \"Band of Outsiders\". It was a slow, deliberate, toned-down black-and-white picture without a real story. The film", "That same year, Godard made a more colorful and political film, \"Week-end\". It follows a Parisian couple as they leave on a weekend trip across the French countryside to collect an inheritance. What ensues is a confrontation with the tragic flaws of the over-consuming bourgeoisie. The film contains some of the most written-about scenes in cinema's history. One of them, an eight-minute tracking shot of the couple stuck in an unremitting traffic jam as they leave the city, is cited as a new technique Godard used to deconstruct bourgeois trends. Startlingly, a few shots contain extra footage from, as it were, before the beginning of the take (while the actors are preparing) and after the end of the take (while the actors are coming out of character). \"Week End\"'s enigmatic and audacious end title sequence, which reads \"End of Cinema\", appropriately marked an end to the narrative and cinematic period in Godard's filmmaking career.", "Politics are never far from the surface in Godard's films. One of his earliest features, \"Le Petit Soldat\", which dealt with the Algerian War of Independence, was notable for its attempt to present the complexity of the dispute rather than pursue any specific ideological agenda. Along these lines, \"Les Carabiniers\" presents a fictional war that is initially romanticized in the way its characters approach their service, but becomes a stiff anti-war metonym. In addition to the international conflicts to which Godard sought an artistic response, he was also very concerned with the social problems in France. The earliest and best example of this is Karina's potent portrayal of a prostitute in \"Vivre sa vie\". In 1960s Paris, the political milieu was not overwhelmed by one specific movement. There was, however, a distinct post-war climate shaped by various international conflicts such as the colonialism in North Africa and Southeast Asia. Godard's Marxist disposition did not become abundantly explicit until \"La Chinoise\" and \"Week End\", but is evident in several films—namely \"Pierrot\" and \"Une femme mariée\". Godard has been accused by some of harboring", "Godard's engagement with German poet and playwright Bertolt Brecht stems primarily from his attempt to transpose Brecht's theory of epic theatre and its prospect of alienating the viewer (\"Verfremdungseffekt\") through a radical separation of the elements of the medium (theatre in Brecht's case, but in Godard's, film). Brecht's influence is keenly felt through much of Godard's work, particularly before 1980, when", "A Marxist reading is possible with most if not all of Godard's early work. Godard's direct interaction with Marxism does not become explicitly apparent, however, until \"Week End\", where the name Karl Marx is cited in conjunction with figures such as Jesus Christ. A constant refrain throughout Godard's cinematic period is that of the bourgeoisie's consumerism, the commodification of daily life and activity, and man's alienation—all central features of Marx's critique of capitalism. In an essay on Godard, philosopher and aesthetics scholar Jacques Rancière states, \"When in \"Pierrot le fou\", 1965, a film without a clear political message, Belmondo played on the word'scandal' and the 'freedom' that the Scandal girdle supposedly offered women, the context of a Marxist critique of commodification, of pop art derision", "The period that spans from May 1968 indistinctly into the 1970s has been subject to an even larger volume of varying labeling. They include everything from his \"militant\" period, to his \"radical\" period, along with terms as specific as \"Maoist\" and vague as \"political\". The period saw Godard align himself with a specific revolution and employ a consistent revolutionary rhetoric.", "Amid the upheavals of the late 1960s, Godard became passionate about \"making political films politically.\" Though many of his films from 1968 to 1972 are feature-length films, they are low-budget and challenge the notion of what a film can be. In addition to abandoning mainstream filmmaking, Godard also tried to escape the cult of personality that had formed around him. He worked anonymously in collaboration with other filmmakers, most notably Jean-Pierre Gorin, with whom he formed the Dziga-Vertov cinema collective. During this period Godard made films in England, Italy, Czechoslovakia, Palestine and America, as well as France. He and Gorin toured with their work, attempting to create discussion, mainly on college campuses. This period came to a climax with the big-budget production \"Tout Va Bien\", which starred Yves Montand and Jane Fonda. Owing to a motorcycle", "After the events of May 1968, when the city of Paris saw total upheaval in response to the \"authoritarian de Gaulle\", and Godard's professional objective was reconsidered, he began to collaborate with like-minded individuals in the filmmaking arena. The most notable collaborator was Jean-Pierre Gorin, a Maoist student of Louis Althusser, Michel Foucault, and Jacques Lacan (who later became professor of Film Studies at the University of California at San Diego), with a passion for", "The small group of Maoists that Godard had brought together, which included Gorin, adopted the name Dziga Vertov Group. Godard had a specific interest in Dziga Vertov, a Soviet filmmaker—whose adopted name is derived from the verb to", "In 1972, Godard and Swiss filmmaker Anne-Marie Miéville started the alternative video production and distribution company Sonimage, based in Grenoble. Under Sonimage, Godard produced both \"Numéro", "Godard returned to somewhat more traditional fiction with \"Sauve qui peut (la vie)\" (1980), the first of a series of more mainstream films marked by autobiographical currents: it was followed by \"Passion\", \"Lettre à Freddy Buache\" (both 1982), \"Prénom Carmen\" (1984), and \"Grandeur et décadence d'un petit commerce de cinéma\" (1986). There was, though, another flurry of controversy with \"Je vous salue, Marie\" (1985), which was condemned by the Catholic Church for alleged heresy, and also with \"King Lear\" (1987), an essay on William Shakespeare and language. Also completed in 1987 was a segment in the film \"ARIA\" which was based loosely from the plot of Armide; it is set in a gym and uses several arias by Jean-Baptiste Lully from his famous \"Armide\". His later films have been marked by great formal beauty and frequently a sense of requiem—\"Nouvelle Vague\" (New Wave, 1990), the autobiographical \"JLG/JLG, autoportrait de décembre\" (\"JLG/JLG: Self-Portrait in December\", 1995), and \"For Ever Mozart\" (1996). \"Allemagne année 90 neuf zéro\" (\"Germany Year 90 Nine Zero\", 1991) is a quasi-sequel to \"Alphaville\", but done with an elegiac tone and focus on the inevitable decay of age. Between 1988 and 1998, he produced the multi-part series \"Histoire(s) du cinéma\", a monumental project which combined all the innovations of his video work with a passionate engagement in the issues of twentieth-century history and the history of film itself. In 2001, \"Éloge de l'amour\" (In Praise of Love) was released. The film is notable for its use of both film and video—the first half captured in 35 mm black and white, the latter half shot in color on", "Godard has been married twice, to two of his leading women: Anna Karina (1961–1965) and Anne Wiazemsky (1967–1979). Beginning in 1970, he collaborated personally and professionally with Anne-Marie Miéville. Godard has lived with Miéville in the municipality of Rolle since 1978, being described by his ex-wife Karina as a \"recluse\". His relationship with Karina in particular produced some of his most critically acclaimed films, and their relationship was widely", "Feature", "Godard has had a lasting friendship with Manfred Eicher, founder and head of the innovative German music label ECM Records. The label has released the soundtracks of Godard's \"Nouvelle Vague\" (ECM NewSeries 1600-01) and \"Histoire(s) du cinéma\" (ECM NewSeries 1706). This collaboration has expanded over the years, leading to Godard's granting ECM permission to use stills from his films for album covers, while Eicher took over the musical direction of Godard films such as \"Allemagne 90 neuf zéro\", \"Hélas Pour Moi\", \"JLG\", and \"For Ever Mozart\". Tracks from ECM records have been used in his films; for example, the soundtrack for \"In Praise of Love\" uses Ketil Bjørnstad and David Darling's album \"Epigraphs\" extensively. Godard also released on the label a collection of shorts he made with Anne-Marie Miéville called \"Four Short Films\" (ECM 5001). Among the ECM album covers with Godard's film stills are these:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Etymology.", "Mesopotamian mythology.", "The spirit in the tree in the Gilgamesh cycle.", "The bird-footed woman in the Burney Relief.", "The Arslan Tash amulets.", "In the Hebrew Bible.", "Hebrew text.", "Greek version.", "Latin Bible.", "English versions.", "Jewish tradition.", "Dead Sea Scrolls.", "Early Rabbinic literature.", "Incantation bowls.", "Alphabet of Ben Sira.", "Kabbalah.", "17th-century Hebrew magical amulets.", "Greco-Roman mythology.", "Arabic literature.", "In Western literature.", "In German literature.", "In English literature.", "In modern occultism and Western esotericism." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "In some Jewish folklore, such as the satirical \"Alphabet of Sirach\" (c. AD 700–1000), Lilith appears as Adam's first wife, who was created at the same time (Rosh Hashanah) and from the same clay as Adam — compare (this contrasts with Eve, who was created from one of Adam's ribs: ). The legend of Lilith developed extensively during the Middle Ages, in the tradition of Aggadah, the Zohar, and Jewish mysticism. For example, in the 13th-century writings of Isaac ben Jacob ha-Cohen, Lilith left Adam after she refused to become subservient to him and then would not return to the Garden of Eden after she had coupled with the archangel Samael. Interpretations of Lilith found in later Jewish materials are plentiful, but little information has survived relating to the Sumerian, Akkadian, Assyrian and Babylonian view", "In the Akkadian language of Assyria and Babylonia, the terms \"lili\" and \"līlītu\" mean spirits. Some uses of \"līlītu\" are listed in The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago (CAD, 1956, L.190), in Wolfram von Soden's \"Akkadisches Handwörterbuch\" (AHw,", "", "Samuel Noah Kramer (1932, published 1938) translated \"ki-sikil-lil-la-ke\" as \"Lilith\" in \"Tablet XII\" of the Epic of Gilgamesh dated c. 600 BC. \"Tablet XII\" is not part of the Epic of Gilgamesh, but is a later Assyrian Akkadian translation of the latter part of the Sumerian \"Epic of Gilgamesh\". The \"ki-sikil-lil-la-ke\" is associated with a serpent and a zu bird. In \"Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld\", a huluppu tree grows in Inanna's garden in Uruk, whose wood she plans to use to build a new throne. After ten years of growth, she comes to harvest it and finds a serpent living at its base, a Zu bird raising young in its crown, and that", "Kramer's translation of the Gilgamesh fragment was used by Henri Frankfort (1937) and Emil Kraeling (1937) to support identification of a woman with wings and bird-feet in the Burney Relief as related", "The Arslan Tash amulets are limestone plaques discovered in 1933 at Arslan Tash, the authenticity of which is disputed. William F. Albright, Theodor", "The word \"lilit\" (or \"lilith\") only appears once in the Hebrew Bible, while the other seven terms in the list appear more than once and thus are better documented. The reading of scholars and translators is often guided by a decision about the complete list of eight creatures as a whole. Quoting from Isaiah 34 (NAB):", "In the Masoretic Text: In the Dead Sea Scrolls, among the 19 fragments of Isaiah found at Qumran, the Great Isaiah Scroll (1Q1Isa) in 34:14 renders the creature as plural \"liliyyot\" (or \"liliyyoth\"). Eberhard Schrader (1875) and Moritz Abraham Levy (1885) suggest that Lilith was a goddess of", "The Septuagint translates both the reference to lilith and the word for jackals or \"wild beasts of the island\" within the same verse into Greek as \"onokentauros\", apparently assuming them as referring to the same creatures and gratuitously omitting \"wildcats/wild beasts of the", "The early 5th-century Vulgate translated the same word as \"lamia\". The translation is, \"And demons", "Wycliffe's Bible (1395) preserves the Latin rendering \"lamia\": The Bishops' Bible of Matthew Parker (1568) from the Latin: Douay–Rheims Bible (1582/1610) also preserves the Latin rendering \"lamia\": The Geneva Bible of William Madison Whittington (1587) from", "Major sources in Jewish tradition regarding Lilith in chronological order include:", "The Dead Sea Scrolls contain one indisputable reference to Lilith in \"Songs of the Sage\" (4Q510–511) fragment 1: And I, the Instructor, proclaim His glorious splendour so as to frighten and to te[rrify] all the spirits of the destroying angels, spirits of the bastards, demons, Lilith, howlers, and [desert dwellers]... and those which fall upon men without warning to lead them astray from a spirit of understanding and to make their heart and their... desolate during the present dominion of wickedness and predetermined time of humiliations for the sons of lig[ht], by the guilt of the ages of [those] smitten", "Lilith does not occur in the Mishnah. There are five references to Lilith in the Babylonian Talmud in Gemara on three separate Tractates of the Mishnah: The above statement by Hanina may be related to the belief that nocturnal emissions engendered the birth of demons: The Midrash Rabbah collection contains two references to Lilith. The first one is present in Genesis Rabbah 22:7 and 18:4: according to Rabbi Hiyya God proceeded to create a second Eve for Adam, after Lilith had to return to dust. However, to be exact the said passages do not employ the Hebrew word \"lilith\" itself and instead speak of \"the first Eve\" (Heb. \"Chavvah ha-Rishonah\", analogically to the phrase \"Adam ha-Rishon\", i.e. the first Adam). Although in the medieval Hebrew literature and folklore, especially that", "An individual Lilith, along with Bagdana \"king of the lilits\", is one of the demons to feature prominently in protective spells in the eighty surviving Jewish occult incantation bowls from Sassanid Empire Babylon (4th–6th century AD) with influence from Iranian culture. These bowls were buried upside down below the structure of the house or on the land of the house, in order to trap the demon or demoness. Almost every house was found to have such protective bowls against demons and demonesses. The centre of the inside of the bowl depicts Lilith, or the male form, Lilit. Surrounding the image is writing in spiral form; the writing often begins at the centre and works its way to the edge. The writing is most commonly scripture or references to the Talmud. The incantation bowls which have been analysed, are inscribed in the following languages, Jewish Babylonian", "The pseudepigraphical 8th–10th centuries \"Alphabet of Ben Sira\" is considered to be the oldest form of the story of Lilith as Adam's first wife. Whether this particular tradition is older is not known. Scholars tend to date the Alphabet between the 8th and 10th centuries AD. The work has been characterised as satirical. In the text an amulet is inscribed with the names of three angels (Senoy, Sansenoy, and Semangelof) and placed around the neck of newborn boys in order to protect them from the lilin until their circumcision. The amulets used against Lilith that were thought to derive from this tradition are, in fact, dated as being much older. The concept of Eve having a predecessor is not exclusive to the Alphabet, and is not a new concept, as it can be found in Genesis Rabbah. However, the idea that Lilith was the predecessor may be exclusive to the Alphabet. The idea in the text that Adam had a wife prior to Eve may have developed from an interpretation of the Book of Genesis and its dual creation accounts; while Genesis 2:22 describes God's creation of Eve from Adam's rib, an earlier passage, 1:27, already indicates that a woman had been made: \"So God created man in his own image, in the image of God created he him; male and female created he them.\" The Alphabet text places Lilith's creation after God's words in Genesis 2:18 that \"it is not good for man to be alone\"; in this text God forms Lilith out of the clay from which he made Adam but she and Adam bicker. Lilith claims that since she and Adam were created in the same way they were equal and she refuses to submit to him: After God created Adam, who was alone, He said, \"It is not good for man to be alone.\" He then created a woman for Adam, from the earth, as He had created Adam himself, and called her Lilith. Adam and Lilith immediately began to fight. She said, \"I will not lie below,\" and he said, \"I will not lie beneath you, but only on top. For you are fit only to be in the bottom position, while I am to be the superior one.\" Lilith responded, \"We are equal to each other inasmuch as we were both created from the earth.\" But they would not listen to one another. When Lilith saw this, she pronounced the Ineffable Name and flew away into the air. Adam stood in prayer before his Creator:", "Kabbalistic mysticism attempted to establish a more exact relationship between Lilith and God. With her major characteristics having been well developed by the end of the Talmudic period, after six centuries had elapsed between the Aramaic incantation texts that mention Lilith and the early Spanish Kabbalistic writings in the 13th century, she reappears, and her life history becomes known in greater mythological detail. Her creation is described in many alternative versions. One mentions her creation as being before Adam's, on the fifth day, because the \"living creatures\" with whose swarms God filled the waters included Lilith. A similar version, related to the earlier Talmudic passages, recounts how Lilith was fashioned with the same substance as Adam was, shortly before. A third alternative version states that God originally created Adam and Lilith in a manner that the female creature was contained in the male. Lilith's soul was lodged in the depths of the Great Abyss. When God called her, she joined", "A copy of Jean de Pauly's translation of the Zohar in the Ritman Library contains an inserted late 17th century printed Hebrew sheet for use in magical amulets where the prophet Elijah confronts Lilith. The sheet contains two texts within borders, which are amulets, one for a male ('lazakhar'), the other one for a female ('lanekevah'). The invocations mention Adam, Eve and Lilith, 'Chavah Rishonah' (the first Eve, who is identical with Lilith), also devils or angels: Sanoy, Sansinoy, Smangeluf, Shmari'el (the guardian) and Hasdi'el (the merciful). A few lines in Yiddish are followed by the dialogue between the prophet Elijah", "In the Latin Vulgate Book of Isaiah 34:14, Lilith is translated \"lamia\". According to Augustine Calmet, Lilith has connections with early views on vampires and sorcery: According to Siegmund Hurwitz the Talmudic Lilith is connected with the Greek Lamia, who, according to Hurwitz, likewise governed a class of child stealing lamia-demons. Lamia bore the title \"child killer\" and was feared for her malevolence, like Lilith. She has different conflicting origins and is described as having a human upper body from the waist up and a serpentine body from the waist down. One source states simply that she is a daughter", "Lilith is not found in the Quran or Hadith. The Sufi occult writer Ahmad al-Buni (d.", "", "Lilith's earliest appearance in the literature of the Romantic period (1789–1832) was in Goethe's 1808 work \"\". After Mephistopheles offers", "The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, which developed around 1848, were greatly influenced by Goethe's work on the theme of Lilith. In 1863, Dante Gabriel Rossetti of the Brotherhood began painting what would later be his first rendition of \"Lady Lilith\", a painting he expected to be his \"best picture hitherto\". Symbols appearing in the painting allude to the \"femme fatale\" reputation of the Romantic Lilith: poppies (death and cold) and white roses (sterile passion). Accompanying his \"Lady Lilith\" painting from 1866, Rossetti wrote a sonnet entitled \"Lilith\", which was first published in Swinburne's pamphlet-review (1868),", "The depiction of Lilith in Romanticism continues to be popular among Wiccans and in other modern Occultism. A few magical orders dedicated to the undercurrent of Lilith, featuring initiations specifically related to the arcana of the \"first mother\", exist. Two organisations that use initiations and magic associated with Lilith are the Ordo Antichristianus Illuminati and the Order of Phosphorus. Lilith appears as a succubus in Aleister Crowley's \"De Arte Magica.\" Lilith was also one of the middle names of Crowley's first child, Nuit Ma Ahathoor Hecate Sappho Jezebel Lilith Crowley (1904–1906), and Lilith is sometimes identified with Babalon in Thelemic writings. Many early occult writers that contributed to modern day Wicca expressed special reverence for Lilith. Charles Leland associated Aradia with Lilith: Aradia, says Leland, is Herodias, who was regarded in stregheria folklore as being associated with Diana as chief of the witches. Leland further notes that Herodias is a name that comes from west Asia, where it denoted an early form of Lilith. Gerald Gardner asserted that there was continuous historical worship of Lilith to present day, and that her name is sometimes given to the goddess being personified in the coven by the priestess. This idea was further attested by Doreen Valiente, who cited her as a presiding goddess of the Craft: \"the personification of erotic dreams, the suppressed desire for delights\". In some contemporary concepts, \"Lilith\" is viewed as the embodiment of the Goddess, a designation that is thought to be shared with what these faiths believe to be her counterparts: Inanna, Ishtar, Asherah, Anath and Isis. According to one view, Lilith was originally a Sumerian, Babylonian, or Hebrew mother goddess of childbirth, children, women, and sexuality. Raymond Buckland holds that Lilith is a dark moon goddess on par with the Hindu Kali. Many modern theistic Satanists consider Lilith as a goddess. She is considered a goddess of independence by those Satanists and is often worshipped by women, but women are not the only people who worship her. Lilith is popular among theistic Satanists because of her association with Satan. Some Satanists believe that she is the wife of Satan and thus think of her as a mother figure. Others base their reverence towards her based on her history as a succubus and praise her as a sex goddess. A different approach to a Satanic Lilith holds that she was once a fertility and agricultural goddess. The western mystery tradition associates Lilith with the Qliphoth of kabbalah. Samael Aun Weor in The \"Pistis Sophia Unveiled\" writes that homosexuals are the \"henchmen of Lilith\". Likewise, women who undergo wilful abortion, and those who support this practice are \"seen in the sphere of Lilith\". Dion Fortune writes, \"The Virgin Mary is reflected in Lilith\", and that Lilith is the source of \"lustful dreams\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Origins (until 650).", "Centre of Christianity in the Netherlands (650–1579).", "Prince-bishops.", "Clerical buildings.", "City of Utrecht.", "The end of independence.", "Republic of the Netherlands (1579–1806).", "Modern history (1815–present).", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Population.", "Demographics.", "Religion.", "Population centres and agglomeration.", "Cityscape.", "Transport.", "Public transport.", "Heavy and light rail.", "Bus transport.", "Cycling.", "Road transport.", "Shipping.", "Economy.", "Education.", "Culture.", "Sports.", "Museums.", "Music and events.", "Theatre.", "Notable people from Utrecht.", "International relations.", "Twin towns." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Although there is some evidence of earlier inhabitation in the region of Utrecht, dating back to the Stone Age (app. 2200 BCE) and settling in the Bronze Age (app. 1800–800 BCE), the founding date of the city is usually related to the construction of a Roman fortification (\"castellum\"), probably built in around 50 CE. A series of such fortresses was built after the Roman emperor Claudius decided the empire should not expand further north. To consolidate the border, the Limes Germanicus defense line was constructed along the main branch of the river Rhine, which at that time flowed through a more northern bed compared to today (what is now the Kromme Rijn). These fortresses were designed to house a cohort of about 500 Roman soldiers. Near the fort, settlements would grow housing artisans, traders and soldiers' wives and children. In Roman times, the name of the Utrecht fortress was simply \"Traiectum\", denoting its location at a possible Rhine crossing. Traiectum became Dutch Trecht; with the U from Old Dutch \"uut\" (downriver) added to distinguish U-trecht from Maas-tricht. In 11th-century official documents, it was Latinized as Ultra Traiectum. Around the year 200, the wooden walls of the fortification were replaced by sturdier tuff stone walls, remnants of which are still to be found below the buildings around Dom Square. From the middle of the 3rd century, Germanic tribes regularly invaded the Roman territories. Around 275 the Romans could no longer maintain the northern border and Utrecht was abandoned. Little is known about the next period 270–650. Utrecht is first spoken of again several centuries after the Romans left. Under the influence of the growing realms of the Franks, during Dagobert I's reign in the 7th century, a church was built within the walls of the Roman fortress. In ongoing border conflicts with the Frisians, this first church was destroyed.", "By the mid-7th century, English and Irish missionaries set out to convert the Frisians. Pope Sergius I appointed their leader, Saint Willibrordus, as bishop of the Frisians. The tenure of Willibrordus is generally considered to be the beginning of the Bishopric of Utrecht. In 723, the Frankish leader Charles Martel bestowed the fortress in Utrecht and the surrounding lands as the base of the bishops. From then on Utrecht became one of the most influential seats of power for the Roman Catholic Church in the Netherlands. The archbishops of Utrecht were based at the uneasy northern border of the Carolingian Empire. In addition, the city of Utrecht had competition from the nearby trading centre Dorestad. After the fall of Dorestad around 850, Utrecht became one of the most important cities in the Netherlands. The importance of Utrecht as a centre of Christianity is illustrated by the election of the Utrecht-born Adriaan Florenszoon Boeyens as pope in 1522 (the last non-Italian pope before John Paul II).", "When the Frankish rulers established the system of feudalism, the Bishops of Utrecht came to exercise worldly power as prince-bishops. The territory of the bishopric not only included the modern province of Utrecht (Nedersticht, 'lower Sticht'), but also extended to the northeast. The feudal conflict of the Middle Ages heavily affected Utrecht. The prince-bishopric was involved in almost continuous conflicts with the Counts of Holland and the Dukes of Guelders. The Veluwe region was seized by Guelders, but large areas in the modern province of Overijssel remained as the Oversticht.", "Several churches and monasteries were built inside, or close to, the city of Utrecht. The most dominant of these was the Cathedral of Saint Martin, inside the old Roman fortress. The construction of the present Gothic building was begun in 1254 after an earlier romanesque construction had been badly damaged by fire. The choir and transept were finished from 1320 and were followed then by the ambitious Dom tower. The last part to be constructed was the central nave, from 1420. By that time, however, the age of the great cathedrals had come to an end and declining finances prevented the ambitious project from being finished, the construction of the central nave being suspended before the planned flying buttresses could be finished. Besides the cathedral there were four collegiate churches in Utrecht: St. Salvator's Church (demolished in the 16th century), on the Dom square, dating back to the early 8th century. Saint John (Janskerk), originating in 1040; Saint Peter, building started in 1039 and Saint Mary's church building started around 1090 (demolished in the early 19th century, cloister survives). Besides these churches, the city housed St. Paul's Abbey, the 15th-century beguinage of St. Nicholas, and a 14th-century chapter house of the Teutonic Knights. Besides these buildings which belonged to the bishopric, an additional four parish churches were constructed in the city: the Jacobikerk (dedicated to Saint James), founded in the 11th century, with the current Gothic church dating back to the 14th century; the Buurkerk (Neighbourhood-church) of the 11th-century parish in the centre of the city; Nicolaichurch (dedicated to Saint Nicholas), from the 12th century and the 13th-century Geertekerk (dedicated to Saint Gertrude of Nivelles).", "Its location on the banks of the river Rhine allowed Utrecht to become an important trade centre in the Northern Netherlands. The growing town Utrecht was granted city rights by Henry V in 1122. When the main flow of the Rhine moved south, the old bed which still flowed through the heart of the town became ever more canalized; and the wharf system was built as an inner city harbour system. On the wharfs, storage facilities (\"werfkelders\") were built, on top of which the main street, including houses, was constructed. The wharfs and the cellars are accessible from a platform at water level with stairs descending from the street level to form a unique structure. The relations between the bishop, who controlled many lands outside of the city, and the citizens of Utrecht was not always easy. The bishop, for example dammed the Kromme Rijn at Wijk bij Duurstede to protect his estates from flooding. This threatened shipping for the city and led the city of Utrecht to commission a canal to ensure access to the town for shipping trade: the Vaartse Rijn, connecting Utrecht to the Hollandse IJssel at IJsselstein.", "In 1528 the bishop lost secular power over both Neder- and Oversticht – which included the city of Utrecht – to Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor. Charles V combined the Seventeen Provinces (the current Benelux and the northern parts of France) as a personal union. This ended the prince-bishopric of Utrecht, as the secular rule was now the lordship of Utrecht, with the religious power remaining with the bishop, although Charles V had gained the right to appoint new bishops. In 1559 the bishopric of Utrecht was raised to archbishopric to make it the religious centre of the Northern ecclesiastical province in the Seventeen Provinces. The transition from independence to a relatively minor part of a larger union was not easily accepted. To quell uprisings, Charles V struggled to exert his power over the city's citizens who had struggled to gain a certain level of independence from the bishops and were not willing to cede this to their new lord. The heavily fortified castle Vredenburg was built to house a large garrison whose main task was to maintain control over the city. The castle would last less than 50 years before it was demolished in an uprising in the early stages of the Dutch Revolt.", "In 1579 the northern seven provinces signed the Union of Utrecht, in which they decided to join forces against Spanish rule. The Union of Utrecht is seen as the beginning of the Dutch Republic. In 1580, the new and predominantly Protestant state abolished the bishoprics, including the archbishopric of Utrecht. The stadtholders disapproved of the independent course of the Utrecht bourgeoisie and brought the city under much more direct control of the republic, shifting the power towards its dominant province Holland. This was the start of a long period of stagnation of trade and development in Utrecht. Utrecht remained an atypical city in the new republic being about 40% Catholic in the mid-17th-century, and even more so among the elite groups, who included many rural nobility and gentry with town houses there. The fortified city temporarily fell to the French invasion in 1672 (the Disaster Year); where the French invasion was stopped just west of Utrecht at the Old Hollandic Waterline. In 1674, only two years after the French left, the centre of Utrecht was struck by a tornado. The halt to building before construction of flying buttresses in the 15th century now proved to be the undoing of the cathedral of St Martin church's central section which collapsed, creating the current Dom square between the tower and choir. In 1713, Utrecht hosted one of the first international peace negotiations when the Treaty of Utrecht settled the War of the Spanish Succession. Beginning in 1723, Utrecht became the centre of the non-Roman Old Catholic Churches in the world.", "In the early 19th century, the role of Utrecht as a fortified town had become obsolete. The fortifications of the Nieuwe Hollandse Waterlinie were moved east of Utrecht. The town walls could now be demolished to allow for expansion. The moats remained intact and formed an important feature of the Zocher plantsoen, an English style landscape park that remains largely intact today. Growth of the city increased when, in 1843, a railway connecting Utrecht to Amsterdam was opened. After that, Utrecht gradually became the main hub of the Dutch railway network. With the industrial revolution finally gathering speed in the Netherlands and the ramparts taken down, Utrecht began to grow far beyond its medieval centre. When the Dutch government allowed the bishopric of Utrecht to be reinstated by Rome in 1853, Utrecht became the centre of Dutch Catholicism once more. From the 1880s onward, neighbourhoods such as Oudwijk, Wittevrouwen, Vogelenbuurt to the East, and Lombok to the West were developed. New middle-class residential areas, such as Tuindorp and Oog in Al, were built in the 1920s and 1930s. During this period, several Jugendstil houses and office buildings were built, followed by Rietveld who built the Rietveld Schröder House (1924), and Dudok's construction of the city theater (1941). During World War II, Utrecht was held by the Germans until the general German surrender of the Netherlands on 5 May 1945. British and Canadian troops that had surrounded the city entered it after that surrender, on 7 May 1945. Following the end of World War II, the city grew considerably when new neighbourhoods such as Overvecht, Kanaleneiland, and Lunetten were built. Around 2000, the Leidsche Rijn housing area was developed as an extension of the city to the west. The area surrounding Utrecht Centraal railway station and the station itself were developed following modernist ideas of the 1960s, in a brutalist style. This development led to the construction of the shopping mall, the music centre Vredenburg (Hertzberger, 1979), and conversion of part of the ancient canal structure into a highway (Catherijnebaan). Protest against further modernisation of the city centre followed even before the last buildings were finalised. In the early 21st century, the whole area is undergoing change again. The redeveloped music centre TivoliVredenburg opened in 2014 with the original Vredenburg and Tivoli concert and rock and jazz halls brought together in a single building.", "", "Utrecht experiences a temperate oceanic climate (Köppen: \"Cfb\") similar to all of the Netherlands.", "", "Utrecht city had a population of 296,305 in 2007. It is a growing municipality and projections are that the population will surpass 392,000 by 2025. As of November 2019, the city of Utrecht has a population of 357,179. Utrecht has a young population, with many inhabitants in the age category from 20 and 30 years, due to the presence of a large university. About 52% of the population is female, 48% is male. The majority of households (52.5%) in Utrecht are single-person households. About 29% of people living in Utrecht are either married, or have another legal partnership. About 3% of the population of Utrecht is divorced. For 69% of the population of Utrecht both parents were born in the Netherlands. Approximately 10% of the population consists of people with a recent migration background from Western countries, while 21% of the population has at least one parent who is of 'non-Western origin' (9% from Morocco, 5% Turkey, 3% Surinam and Dutch Caribbean and 5% of other countries). Some of the city's boroughs have a relatively high percentage of originally people with a migration background – i.e. Kanaleneiland (83%) and Overvecht (57%). Like Rotterdam, Amsterdam, The Hague and other large Dutch cities, Utrecht faces some socio-economic problems. About 38% percent of its population either earns a minimum income or is dependent on social welfare (17% of all households). Boroughs such as Kanaleneiland, Overvecht and Hoograven consist primarily of high-rise housing developments, and are known for relatively high poverty and crime rate.", "Utrecht has been the religious centre of the Netherlands since the 8th century. Currently it is the see of the Metropolitan Archbishop of Utrecht, the most senior Dutch Roman Catholic leader. His ecclesiastical province covers the whole kingdom. Utrecht is also the see of the archbishop of the Old Catholic church, titular head of the Union of Utrecht, and the location of the offices of the Protestant Church in the Netherlands, the main Dutch Protestant church. As of 2013, the largest religion is Christianity with 28% of the population being Christian, followed by Islam with 9.5% and Hinduism with 0.8%.", "The city of Utrecht is subdivided into 10 city quarters, all of which have their own neighbourhood council and service centre for civil affairs. Utrecht is the centre of a densely populated area, a fact which makes concise definitions of its agglomeration difficult, and somewhat arbitrary. The smaller Utrecht agglomeration of continuously built-up areas counts some 420,000 inhabitants and includes Nieuwegein, IJsselstein and Maarssen. It is sometimes argued that the close by municipalities De Bilt, Zeist, Houten, Vianen, Driebergen-Rijsenburg (Utrechtse Heuvelrug), and Bunnik should also be counted towards the Utrecht agglomeration, bringing the total to 640,000 inhabitants. The larger region, including slightly more remote towns such as Woerden and Amersfoort, counts up to 820,000 inhabitants.", "Utrecht's cityscape is dominated by the Dom Tower, the tallest belfry in the Netherlands and originally part of the Cathedral of Saint Martin. An ongoing debate is over whether any building in or near the centre of town should surpass the Dom Tower in height (). Nevertheless, some tall buildings are now being constructed that will become part of the skyline of Utrecht. The second tallest building of the city, the Rabobank-tower, was completed in 2010 and stands tall. Two antennas will increase that height to. Two other buildings were constructed around the Nieuw Galgenwaard stadium (2007). These buildings, the 'Kantoortoren Galghenwert' and 'Apollo Residence', stand and high respectively. Another landmark is the old centre and the canal structure in the inner city. The Oudegracht is a curved canal, partly following the ancient main branch of the Rhine. It is lined with the unique wharf-basement structures that create a two-level street along the canals. The inner city has largely retained its medieval structure, and the moat ringing the old town is largely intact. Because of the role of Utrecht as a fortified city, construction outside the medieval centre and its city walls was restricted until the 19th century. Surrounding the medieval core there is a ring of late 19th- and early 20th-century neighbourhoods, with newer neighbourhoods positioned farther out. The eastern part of Utrecht remains fairly open. The Dutch Water Line, moved east of the city in the early 19th century, required open lines of fire, thus prohibiting all permanent constructions until the middle of the 20th century on the east side of the city. Due to the past importance of Utrecht as a religious centre, several monumental churches were erected, many of which have survived. Most prominent is the Dom Church. Other notable churches include the romanesque St Peter's and St John's churches; the gothic churches of St James and St Nicholas; and the Buurkerk, now converted into a museum for automatically playing musical instruments.", "", "Because of its central location, Utrecht is well connected to the rest of the Netherlands and has a well-developed public transport network.", "Utrecht Centraal is the main railway station of Utrecht and is the largest in the country. There are regular intercity services to all major Dutch cities; direct services to Schiphol Airport. Utrecht Centraal is a station on the night service, providing 7 days a week an all-night service to (among others) Schiphol Airport, Amsterdam and Rotterdam. International InterCityExpress (ICE) services to Germany (and further) through Arnhem call at Utrecht Centraal. Regular local trains to all areas surrounding Utrecht also depart from Utrecht Centraal; and service several smaller stations: Utrecht Lunetten; Utrecht Vaartsche Rijn; Utrecht Overvecht; Utrecht Leidsche Rijn; Utrecht Terwijde; Utrecht Zuilen and Vleuten. A former station Utrecht Maliebaan closed in 1939 and has since been converted into the Dutch Railway Museum. The Utrecht sneltram is a light rail scheme running southwards from Utrecht Centraal to the suburbs of IJsselstein, Kanaleneiland, Lombok and Nieuwegein. The sneltram began operations in 1983 and is currently operated by the private transport company Qbuzz. On the 16th of December 2019 the new tram line to the Uithof started operating, creating a direct mass transit connection from the central station to the main Utrecht university campus. Utrecht is the location of the headquarters of Nederlandse Spoorwegen (English: \"Dutch Railways\") – the largest rail operator in the Netherlands – and ProRail – the state-owned company responsible for the construction and maintenance of the country's rail infrastructure.", "The main local and regional bus station of Utrecht is located adjacent to Utrecht Centraal railway station, at the East and West entrances. Due to large-scale renovation and construction works at the railway station, the station's bus stops are changing frequently. As a general rule, westbound buses depart from the bus station on the west entrance, other buses from the east side station. Local buses in Utrecht are operated by Qbuzz – its services include a high-frequency service to the Uithof university district. The local bus fleet is one of Europe's cleanest, using only buses compliant with the Euro-VI standard as well as electric buses for inner city transport. Regional buses from the city are operated by Arriva and Connexxion. The Utrecht Centraal railway station is also served by the pan-European services of Eurolines. Furthermore, it acts as departure and arrival place of many coach companies serving holiday resorts in Spain and France – and during winter in Austria and Switzerland.", "Like most Dutch cities, Utrecht has an extensive network of cycle paths, making cycling safe and popular. 33% of journeys within the city are by bicycle, more than any other mode of transport. (Cars, for example, account for 30% of trips). Bicycles are used by young and old people, and by individuals and families. They are mostly traditional, upright, steel-framed bicycles, with few gears. There are also barrow bikes, for carrying shopping or small children. In 2014, the City Council decided to build the world's largest bicycle parking station, near the Central Railway Station. This 3-floor construction will cost an estimated 48 million Euro and will hold 12,500 bicycles. The bicycle parking station was finally opened on August 19, 2019.", "Utrecht is well-connected to the Dutch road network. Two of the most important major roads serve the city of Utrecht: the A12 and A2 motorways connect Amsterdam, Arnhem, The Hague and Maastricht, as well as Belgium and Germany. Other major motorways in the area are the Almere–Breda A27 and the Utrecht–Groningen A28. Due to the increasing traffic and the ancient city plan, traffic congestion is a common phenomenon in and around Utrecht, causing elevated levels of air pollutants. This has led to a passionate debate in the city about the best way to improve the city's air quality.", "Utrecht has an industrial port located on the Amsterdam-Rijnkanaal. The container terminal has a capacity of 80,000 containers a year. In 2003, the port facilitated the transport of four million tons of cargo; mostly sand, gravel, fertiliser and fodder. Additionally, some tourist boat trips are organised from various places on the Oudegracht; and the city is connected to touristic shipping routes through sluices.", "Production industry constitutes a small part of the economy of Utrecht. The economy of Utrecht depends for a large part on the several large institutions located in the city. It is the centre of the Dutch railroad network and the location of the head office of Nederlandse Spoorwegen. ProRail is headquartered in The \"\" (The Inkwell) – the largest brick building in the Netherlands (the \"UFO\" featured on its façade stems from an art program in 2000). Rabobank, a large bank, has its headquarters in Utrecht.", "Utrecht hosts several large institutions of higher education. The most prominent of these is Utrecht University (est. 1636), the largest university of the Netherlands with 30,449 students (). The university is partially based in the inner city as well as in the Uithof campus area, to the east of the city. According to Shanghai Jiaotong University's university ranking in 2014, it is the 57th best university in the world. Utrecht also houses the much smaller University of Humanistic Studies, which houses about 400 students. Utrecht is home of one of the locations of TIAS School for Business and Society, focused on post-experience management education and the largest management school of its kind in the Netherlands. In 2008, its executive MBA program was rated the 24th best program in the world by the \"Financial Times\". Utrecht is also home to two other large institutions of higher education: the vocational university Hogeschool Utrecht (37,000 students), with locations in the city and the Uithof campus; and the HKU Utrecht School of the Arts (3,000 students). There are many schools for primary and secondary education, allowing parents to select from different philosophies and religions in the school as is inherent in the Dutch school system.", "Utrecht city has an active cultural life, and in the Netherlands is second only to Amsterdam. There are several theatres and theatre companies. The 1941 main city theatre was built by Dudok. In addition to theatres, there is a large number of cinemas including three arthouse cinemas. Utrecht is host to the international Early Music Festival (Festival Oude Muziek, for music before 1800) and the Netherlands Film Festival. The city has an important classical music hall Vredenburg (1979 by Herman Hertzberger). Its acoustics are considered among the best of the 20th-century original music halls. The original Vredenburg music hall has been redeveloped as part of the larger station area redevelopment plan and in 2014 gained additional halls that allowed its merger with the rock club Tivoli and the SJU jazzpodium. There are several other venues for music throughout the city. Young musicians are educated in the conservatory, a department of the Utrecht School of the Arts. There is a specialised museum of automatically playing musical instruments. There are many art galleries in Utrecht. There are also several foundations to support art and artists. Training of artists is done at the Utrecht School of the Arts. The Centraal Museum has many exhibitions on the arts, including a permanent exhibition on the works of Utrecht resident illustrator Dick Bruna, who is best known for creating Miffy (\"Nijntje\", in Dutch). BAK, basis voor actuele kunst offers contemporary art exhibitions and public events, as well as a Fellowship program for practitioners involved in contemporary arts, theory and activisms. Although street art is illegal in Utrecht, the Utrechtse Kabouter, a picture of a gnome with a red hat, became a common sight in 2004. Utrecht also houses one of the landmarks of modern architecture, the 1924 Rietveld Schröder House, which is listed on UNESCO's world heritage sites. Every Saturday, a paviour adds another letter to The Letters of Utrecht, an endless poem in the cobblestones of the Oude Gracht in Utrecht. With the \"Letters\", Utrecht has a social sculpture as a growing monument created for the benefit of future people. To promote culture, Utrecht city organizes cultural Sundays. During a thematic Sunday, several organisations create a program which is open to everyone without, or with a very much reduced, admission fee. There are also initiatives for amateur artists. The city subsidises an organisation for amateur education in arts aimed at all inhabitants (Utrechts Centrum voor de Kunsten), as does the university for its staff and students. Additionally there are also several private initiatives. The city council provides coupons for discounts to inhabitants who receive welfare to be used with many of the initiatives. In 2017 Utrecht was named as a UNESCO City of Literature.", "Utrecht is home to the premier league (professional) football club FC Utrecht, which plays in Stadium Nieuw Galgenwaard. It is also the home of Kampong, the largest (amateur) sportsclub in the Netherlands (4,500 members), SV Kampong. Kampong features field hockey, association football, cricket, tennis, squash and boules. Kampong's men and women top hockey squads play in the highest Dutch hockey league, the Rabohoofdklasse. Utrecht is also home to baseball and softball club UVV, which plays in the highest Dutch baseball league: de Hoofdklasse. Utrecht's waterways are used by several rowing clubs. Viking is a large club open to the general public, and the student clubs Orca and Triton compete in the Varsity each year. In July 2013, Utrecht hosted the European Youth Olympic Festival, in which more than 2,000 young athletes competed in nine different olympic sports. In July 2015, Utrecht hosted the Grand Départ and first stage of the Tour de France.", "Utrecht has several smaller and larger museums. Many of those are located in the southern part of the old town, the Museumkwartier.", "The city has several music venues such as TivoliVredenburg, Tivoli De Helling, ACU, Moira, EKKO, DB's and RASA. Utrecht hosts the yearly Utrecht Early Music Festival (Festival Oude Muziek). In Jaarbeurs it hosts Trance Energy. Every summer there used to be the \"Summer Darkness\" festival, which celebrated goth culture and music. In November the Le Guess Who? festival, focused on indie rock, art rock and experimental rock, takes place in many of the city's venues.", "There are two main theaters in the city, the and the De parade, a travelling theatre festival, performs in Utrecht in summer. The city also hosts the yearly Festival a/d Werf which offers a selection of contemporary international theatre, together with visual arts, public art and music.", "Over the ages famous people have been born and/or raised in Utrecht. Among the most famous Utrechters are:", "", "Utrecht is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Sights." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The settlement of \"Witchendorff\" in the March of Moravia was first mentioned in a 1357 deed by the Lords of Paskov, probably named after the nobleman Witek von Wigstein, who was enfeoffed by the Bishops of Olomouc with nearby Šostýn (\"Schauenstein\") Castle in 1369. In 1435 it was given in pawn with the Lordship of Hukvaldy by Emperor Sigismund to the former Hussite leader Nikolaus Sokol of Lamberg. Vítkovice, initially agricultural village, witnessed heavy industrialization after 1828, when the Olomouc archbishop Archduke Rudolf of Austria at the instigation of geologist Franz Xaver Riepl had an iron and steel mill (\"Rudolfshütte\") built, the first in the Austrian Empire to use the puddling technique. Since then the village became an important industrial center of the region. The iron works were continuously enlarged and finally purchased by the Viennese banker Salomon Mayer von Rothschild in 1843. He also financed the extension of the Emperor Ferdinand Northern Railway from Vienna to Ostrava with a branch-off to his steel mill, which was completed in 1855. His Rothschild heirs in 1873 founded the \"Witkowitzer Bergbau- und Hüttengewerkschaft\", the largest iron and steel works in the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. After the German occupation of Czechoslovakia in 1939, their possessions were \"aryanized\" and taken over by the \"Reichswerke Hermann Göring\" conglomerate. After World War II they were socialised as the \"Vítkovické železárny Klement Gottwald n.p. (VŽKG)\" by the Czechoslovak state. Vítkovice from 1850 was an independent municipality. In 1908 it was granted town rights by Emperor Franz Joseph I of Austria, in 1924 it became a part of Greater Ostrava.", "The most important landmarks of Vítkovice are:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Marriages and children.", "Slaves and Wayles' estate.", "Temperament and appearance.", "First lady of Virginia.", "Health problems and death." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Martha Wayles was born on October 19 or 30, 1748, the daughter of Martha Eppes Wayles (1712–1748) and John Wayles (1715–1773) of The Forest plantation near Colonial Williamsburg in Charles City County, Virginia. Their only child, Martha was nicknamed \"Patty\". John Wayles was an attorney, slave trader, business agent for Bristol-based merchants Farrell & Jones, and prosperous planter. Born in Lancaster, England, he emigrated to the Colony of Virginia, probably in the 1730s. Martha Eppes Wayles was a daughter of Francis Eppes of Bermuda Hundred, an early Virginia settlement along the Appomattox River. While little is known of Martha Eppes Wayles' life, she had an appreciation for fine literature, such as her favorite novel, \"Tristram Shandy\" and \"Les Aventures de Télémaque.\" (Her rebound version of the book, \"The Adventures of Telemachus\", contains her signature on the title page and resides at the Library of Congress). Martha Wayles had two stepmothers, neither of whom lived long after their marriages to John Wayles, and through one stepmother she had four half-sisters. after which John Wayles took Betty Hemings as a mistress, and gave Martha additional half-siblings. Martha likely received her education—including literature, dance, music, French language and Bible study— from private tutors or women in the family. She became the \"Lady of the House\" after her second stepmother died when she was 13 years of age and was often a hostess to John Wayles' social events and helped manage his business and household affairs. She knew how to make candles, soap, butter and remedies for illnesses.", "Martha Wayles first married Bathurst Skelton (born 1744), an attorney, on November 20, 1766. Their son, John, was born on November 7, 1767. Bathurst Skelton died on September 30, 1768. Martha moved back to The Forest following her husband's death. Three-year-old John died on June 10, 1771. Her third cousin, Thomas Jefferson likely began courting Martha in December 1770. They shared an interest in horse-back riding, literature, and music. As part of Martha's dowry for their January 1, 1772 wedding, Thomas and Martha received property, including the Elk Hill plantation, where Martha had lived with her first husband, and a great number of slaves, which helped Thomas complete the construction of the Monticello residence and landscaping of the estate's 5,000 acres. While Monticello was undergoing construction and Thomas was away, Martha often stayed at the Elk Hill plantation. They had six children, but only two daughters reached adulthood. An unnamed son, Jane Randolph, and Lucy Elizabeth, who died of whooping cough, died as infants. Only the eldest, Martha \"Patsy\" Jefferson, survived past the age of 25:", "Martha and Thomas Jefferson acquired a number of slaves as part of her dowry for her marriage, and later from the estate of John Wayles, which made Thomas the second largest slave owner in Albemarle County. The dowry increased the number of slaves he owned from 52 to 187. Among the more than 100 slaves were Betty Hemings, of mixed-race ancestry, and her 10 mixed-race children. The youngest, an infant, was Sally Hemings. The six youngest were three-quarters white in ancestry and half-siblings of Martha Wayles Jefferson, as they were fathered by her father. Betty also had four children born before those of Wayles'. All the Hemings family members gained privileged positions among the slaves at Monticello, where they were trained and worked as domestic servants, chefs, and highly skilled artisans. Sally Hemings, who was fathered by John Wayles, was the half-sister of Martha Wayles Jefferson, and the subject of a scandal about her relationship with Thomas Jefferson. Martha's father, John Wayles, died at age 58 in 1773. He left substantial property, including slaves, but the estate was encumbered with debt. Upon Wayles' death, Betty Hemings and her six children with John Wayles were moved \"without hesitancy\" to Monticello to prevent the Hemings from being separated. The estate was worth ₤30,000, but was in debt to Farrell and Jones in Briston for ₤11,000. Wayles three sons-in-law, including Thomas Jefferson, decided to break up the estate and its debts. Martha and her husband Thomas Jefferson inherited the Willis Creek and Elk Hill plantations and a total of 135 people, including members of the Hemings family. They also inherited ₤4,000 in debt. Jefferson and other co-executors of the Wayles estate worked for years to clear the debt and the overwhelming debt led to Thomas Jefferson's financial ruin.", "There are no surviving contemporaneous portraits of Martha Jefferson, but she has been described by family members and Isaac Granger Jefferson as small, graceful, and pretty and like her daughter, Mary Jefferson Eppes. She was described by Robert Skipwith, her sister's husband, as having possessed \"... the greatest fund of good nature... that sprightliness and sensibility which promises to ensure you the greatest happiness mortals are capable of enjoying.\" As Thomas was having Monticello built, he obtained a piano forte from England for Martha as a wedding present. She played the harpsichord piano forte, while Thomas Jefferson played violins. It was said that Martha played the Harpsichord \"very skilfully and who, is in all respects a very agreeable sensible and accomplished lady,\" according to a Hessian officer, Jacob Rubsamen, who visited Monticello in 1780. According to her daughter, Martha Jefferson was highly educated and musical, a constant reader, with a good nature and a vivacious temper that sometimes bordered on tartness. She had great affection for her husband. She was a little over five feet tall, with a lithe figure, auburn hair, and hazel eyes. She was an accomplished needlewoman, some of her embroidery still exists. Martha maintained a collection of notes regarding her household duties and recipes, such as butchering and curing meat and the creation of large batches of soft and hard soap, candles, and beer. During her first year of marriage she began the practice of brewing beer, producing 170 gallons that year.", "Martha Jefferson was First Lady of Virginia from 1779 to 1781, during the American Revolution. In that capacity, and in response to a request from Martha Washington, Mrs. Jefferson led a drive among the women of Virginia to raise funds and supplies for her state's militia in the Continental Army to the extent that her health permitted. The letter to James Madison's mother, Eleanor Conway Madison, is the only letter written by Martha Jefferson known to now exist. She published an appeal in the \"Virginia Gazette\", announcing that collections would be taken in the churches. Nationally, the Ladies Association raised $300,000 to buy linen shirts for Washington's army. Mrs. Jefferson also contacted other prominent Virginians to raise funds for the troops, including Nelly Madison, mother of James Madison.", "Managing the Jefferson household became increasingly difficult for Martha Jefferson, who had endured at least one case of smallpox, may have had diabetes, and was weakened by her numerous pregnancies, which would ultimately kill her. She bore the stress of having to flee a British invasion of Richmond in early January 1781 and a raid on Monticello in June of that year, during which she had to travel with infant children, many of whom died. She was aware that the British were interested in capturing her or her husband. Thomas limited his political service due to her health. Jefferson, in Philadelphia for the Second Continental Congress of 1776 that drafted the Declaration of Independence, wished to return to her as soon as possible. Thomas served as governor and in the House of Delegates in Virginia. He rejected the offer to serve as the as a commissioner to France made by the Continental Congress while she was alive. The birth of their youngest child in May 1782 was reportedly the most difficult pregnancy for Mrs. Jefferson, having carried a very large baby. Edmond Randolph wrote in the month of her death that Thomas was \"inconsolable\" about Martha's declining health and pain.\" Mrs. Jefferson's health worsened and she died on September 6, 1782, four months after the birth of her last child. Jefferson was inconsolable. She was buried at Monticello and her tombstone included the words from Thomas' perspective: \"Torn from him by death\" and \"This monument of his love is inscribed\". So that her children would not grow up with stepmothers, Martha had asked Thomas Jefferson to never marry again, and he never did. Her request has been attributed to her own disagreeable relationships with her step-mothers. At her death, she was 33; he was 39." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Birth.", "Upbringing and education.", "\"The Rough Wooing\".", "Accession.", "Somerset Protectorate.", "Council of Regency.", "Thomas Seymour.", "War.", "Rebellion.", "Fall of Somerset.", "Northumberland's leadership.", "Reformation.", "Succession crisis.", "Devise for the succession.", "Illness and death.", "Queen Jane and Queen Mary.", "Protestant legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Edward was born on 12 October 1537 in his mother's room inside Hampton Court Palace, in Middlesex. He was the son of King Henry VIII by his third wife, Jane Seymour. Throughout the realm, the people greeted the birth of a male heir, \"whom we hungered for so long\", with joy and relief. \"Te Deums\" were sung in churches, bonfires lit, and \"their was shott at the Tower that night above two thousand gonnes\". Queen Jane,", "Edward was a healthy baby who suckled strongly from the outset. His father was delighted with him; in May 1538, Henry was observed \"dallying with him in his arms... and so holding him in a window to the sight and great comfort of the people\". That September, the Lord Chancellor, Lord Audley, reported Edward's rapid growth and vigour; and other accounts describe him as a tall and merry child. The tradition that Edward VI was a sickly boy has been challenged by more recent historians. At the age of four, he fell ill with a life-threatening \"quartan fever\", but, despite occasional illnesses and poor eyesight, he enjoyed generally good health until the last six months of his life.", "On 1 July 1543, Henry VIII signed the Treaty of Greenwich with the Scots, sealing the peace with Edward's betrothal to the seven-month-old Mary, Queen of Scots. The Scots were in a weak bargaining position after their defeat at Solway Moss the previous November, and Henry, seeking to unite the two realms, stipulated that Mary be handed over to him to be brought up in England. When the Scots repudiated", "The nine-year-old Edward wrote to his father and stepmother on 10 January 1547 from Hertford thanking them for his new year's gift of their portraits from life. By 28 January 1547, Henry VIII was dead. Those close to the throne, led by Edward Seymour and William Paget, agreed to delay the announcement of the king's death until arrangements had been made for a smooth succession. Seymour and Sir Anthony Browne, the Master of the Horse, rode to collect Edward from Hertford and brought him to Enfield, where Lady Elizabeth was living. He and Elizabeth were then told of the death of their father and heard a reading of the will. The Lord Chancellor, Thomas Wriothesley, announced Henry's death to parliament on 31 January, and general proclamations of Edward's succession were ordered. The new king was taken to the Tower of London, where he was welcomed with \"great shot of ordnance in all", "", "Henry VIII's will named sixteen executors, who were to act as Edward's Council until he reached the age of eighteen. These executors were supplemented by twelve men \"of counsail\" who would assist the executors when called on. The final state of Henry VIII's will has been the subject of controversy. Some historians suggest that those close to the king manipulated either him or the will itself to ensure a share-out of power to their benefit, both material and religious. In this reading, the composition of the Privy Chamber shifted towards the end of 1546 in favour of the reforming faction. In addition, two", "Somerset faced less manageable opposition from his younger brother Thomas Seymour, who has been described as a \"worm in the bud\". As King Edward's uncle, Thomas Seymour demanded the governorship of the king's person and a greater share of power. Somerset tried to buy his brother off with a barony, an appointment to the Lord Admiralship, and a seat on the Privy Council—but Thomas was bent on scheming for power. He began smuggling pocket money to King Edward, telling him that Somerset held the purse strings too tight, making him a \"beggarly king\". He also urged him to throw off the Protector within two years and \"bear rule as other kings do\"; but Edward, schooled to", "Somerset's only undoubted skill was as a soldier, which he had proven on expeditions to Scotland and in the defence of Boulogne-sur-Mer in 1546. From the first, his main interest as Protector was the war against Scotland. After a crushing victory at the Battle of Pinkie in September 1547, he set up a network of garrisons in Scotland, stretching as far north as", "During 1548, England was subject to social unrest. After April 1549, a series of armed revolts broke out, fuelled by various religious and agrarian grievances. The two most serious rebellions, which required major military intervention to put down, were in Devon and Cornwall and in Norfolk. The first, sometimes called the Prayer Book Rebellion, arose from the imposition of Protestantism, and the second, led by a tradesman called Robert Kett, mainly from the encroachment of landlords on common grazing ground. A complex aspect of the social unrest was that the protesters believed they were acting legitimately against enclosing landlords with the Protector's support, convinced that the landlords were the lawbreakers. The same justification for outbreaks of unrest was voiced throughout the country, not only in Norfolk and the west. The origin of the", "The sequence of events that led to Somerset's removal from power has often been called a \"coup d'état\". By 1 October 1549, Somerset had been alerted that his rule faced a serious threat. He issued a proclamation calling for assistance, took possession of the king's person, and withdrew for safety to the fortified Windsor Castle, where Edward wrote, \"Me thinks I am in prison\". Meanwhile, a united Council published details of Somerset's government mismanagement. They made clear that the Protector's power came from them, not from Henry VIII's will. On 11 October, the Council had Somerset arrested and brought the king to Richmond. Edward summarised the charges against Somerset in his \"Chronicle\": \"ambition, vainglory, entering into rash wars in mine youth, negligent looking on Newhaven, enriching himself of", "In contrast, Somerset's successor John Dudley, Earl of Warwick, made Duke of Northumberland in 1551, was once regarded by historians merely as a grasping schemer who cynically elevated and enriched himself at the expense of the crown. Since the 1970s, the administrative and economic achievements of his regime have been recognised, and he has been credited with restoring the authority of the royal Council and returning the government to an even keel after the disasters of Somerset's protectorate. The Earl of Warwick's rival for leadership of the new regime was Thomas Wriothesley, 1st Earl of Southampton, whose conservative supporters had allied with Dudley's followers to create a unanimous Council, which they, and observers such as the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V's ambassador, expected to reverse Somerset's policy of religious reform. Warwick, on the other hand, pinned his hopes on the king's strong Protestantism and, claiming that Edward was old enough to rule in person, moved himself and his people closer to the king, taking control of the Privy Chamber. Paget, accepting a barony, joined Warwick when he realised that a conservative policy would not bring the emperor onto the English side over Boulogne. Southampton prepared a case for executing Somerset, aiming to discredit Warwick through Somerset's statements that he had done all with Warwick's co-operation. As a counter-move, Warwick convinced parliament to free Somerset, which it did on 14 January 1550. Warwick then had Southampton and his followers purged from the Council after winning the support of Council members in return for titles, and was made Lord President of the Council and great master of the king's household. Although not called a Protector, he was now clearly the head of the government. As Edward was growing up, he was able to understand more and more government business. However, his actual involvement in decisions has long been a matter", "In the matter of religion, the regime of Northumberland followed the same policy as that of Somerset, supporting an increasingly vigorous programme of reform. Although Edward VI's practical influence on government was limited, his intense Protestantism made a reforming administration obligatory; his succession was managed by the reforming faction, who continued in power throughout his reign. The man Edward trusted most, Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury, introduced a series of religious reforms that revolutionised the English church from one that—while rejecting papal supremacy—remained essentially Catholic, to one that was institutionally Protestant. The confiscation of church property that had begun under Henry VIII resumed under Edward—notably with the dissolution of the chantries—to the great monetary advantage of the crown and the new owners of the seized property. Church reform was therefore as much a political as a religious policy under Edward VI. By the end of his reign, the church had been financially ruined, with much of the property of the bishops transferred into lay hands. The religious convictions of both Somerset and Northumberland have proved elusive for historians, who are divided on the sincerity of their Protestantism. There is less doubt, however, about the religious fervour of King Edward, who was said to have read twelve chapters of scripture daily and enjoyed sermons, and was commemorated by John Foxe as a \"godly imp\". Edward was depicted during his life and afterwards as a new Josiah, the biblical king who destroyed the idols of Baal. He could be priggish in his anti-Catholicism and once asked Catherine Parr to persuade Lady Mary \"to attend no longer to foreign dances and merriments which do not become a most Christian princess\". Edward's biographer Jennifer Loach cautions, however, against accepting too readily the pious image of Edward handed down by the reformers, as in John Foxe's influential \"Acts and Monuments\", where a woodcut depicts the young king listening to a sermon by Hugh Latimer. In the early part of his life, Edward conformed to the prevailing Catholic practices, including attendance at mass: but he became convinced, under the influence of Cranmer", "", "In February 1553, Edward VI became ill, and by June, after several improvements and relapses, he was in a hopeless condition. The king's death and the succession of his Catholic half-sister Mary would jeopardise the English Reformation, and Edward's Council and officers had many reasons to fear it. Edward himself opposed Mary's succession, not only on religious grounds but also on those of legitimacy and male inheritance, which also applied to Elizabeth. He composed a draft document, headed \"My devise for the succession\", in which he undertook to change the succession, most probably inspired by his father Henry VIII's precedent. He passed over the claims of his half-sisters and, at last, settled the Crown on his", "Edward became ill during January 1553 with a fever and cough that gradually worsened. The imperial ambassador, Jean Scheyfve, reported that \"he suffers a good deal when the fever is upon him, especially from a difficulty in drawing his breath, which is due to the compression of the organs on the right side\". Edward felt well enough in early April to take the air in the park at Westminster and to move to Greenwich, but by the end of the month he had weakened again. By 7 May he was \"much amended\", and the royal doctors", "Lady Mary was last seen by Edward in February, and was kept informed about the state of her half-brother's health by Northumberland and through her contacts with the imperial ambassadors. Aware of Edward's imminent death, she left Hunsdon House, near London, and sped to her estates around Kenninghall in Norfolk, where she could count on the support of her tenants. Northumberland sent ships to the Norfolk coast to prevent her escape or the arrival of reinforcements from the continent. He delayed the announcement of the king's death while he gathered his forces, and Jane Grey was taken to the Tower on 10 July. On the same day, she was proclaimed queen in the streets of London, to murmurings of discontent. The Privy Council received a message from Mary asserting her \"right and title\" to the throne and commanding that the Council proclaim her queen, as she had already proclaimed herself. The Council replied that Jane was queen by Edward's authority and that Mary, by contrast, was illegitimate and supported only by \"a few lewd,", "Although Edward reigned for only six years and died at the age of 15, his reign made a lasting contribution to the English Reformation and the structure of the Church of England. The last decade of Henry VIII's reign had seen a partial stalling of the Reformation, a drifting back to more conservative values. By contrast, Edward's reign saw radical progress in the Reformation. In those six years, the Church transferred from an essentially Catholic liturgy and structure to one that is usually identified as Protestant. In particular, the introduction of the Book of Common Prayer, the Ordinal of 1550, and Cranmer's Forty-two Articles formed the basis for English Church practices that continue to this day. Edward himself fully approved these changes, and though they were the work of reformers such as Thomas Cranmer, Hugh Latimer, and Nicholas Ridley, backed by Edward's determinedly evangelical Council, the fact of the king's religion was a catalyst in the acceleration of the Reformation during his reign. Queen" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Explanations.", "Occurrences." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Rain of flightless animals and things has been reported throughout history. In the first century AD, Roman naturalist Pliny The Elder documented storms of frogs and fish. In 1794, French soldiers saw toads fall from the sky during heavy rain at Lalain, near the French city of Lille. Rural inhabitants in Yoro, Honduras claim 'fish rain' happens there every summer, a phenomenon they call Lluvia de Peces.", "French physicist André-Marie Ampère (1775 – 1836) was among the first scientists to take seriously accounts of raining animals. Addressing the Society of Natural Sciences, Ampère suggested that at times frogs and toads roam the countryside in large numbers, and that violent winds could pick them up and carry them great distances. After a reported rain of fish in Singapore in 1861, French naturalist Francis de Laporte de Castelnau speculated that a migration of walking catfish had taken place, dragging themselves over land from one puddle to another, following the rain. The likeliest explanation for many of the supposed cases is that there is no falling happening at all and the animals are driven along by winds or a deluge of some sort. This explanation also accounts for the prevalence of reports that only a single species or type of animal is ever reported raining from the sky. A current scientific hypothesis involves tornadic waterspouts: a tornado that forms over the water. Under this hypothesis, a tornadic waterspout transports animals to relatively high altitudes, carrying them over large distances. This hypothesis appears supported by the type of animals in these rains: small and light, usually aquatic, and by the suggestion that the rain of animals is often preceded by a storm. However, the theory does not account for how all the animals involved in each individual incident would be from only one species, and not a group of similarly-sized animals from a single area. Further, the theory also does not account for a genuine tornadic waterspout not actually sucking things up and rather just sort of flinging water vapor out to the sides. In the case of birds, storms may overcome a flock in flight, especially in times of migration. The image to the right shows an example wherein a group of bats is overtaken by a thunderstorm. In the image, the bats are in the red zone, which corresponds to winds moving away from the radar station, and enter into a mesocyclone associated with a tornado (in green). These events may occur easily with birds, which can get killed in flight, or stunned and then fall (unlike flightless creatures, which first have to be lifted into the air by an outside force). Sometimes this happens in large groups, for instance, the blackbirds falling from the sky in Beebe, Arkansas, United States on December 31, 2010. It is common for birds to become disoriented (for example, because of bad weather or fireworks) and collide with objects such as trees or buildings, killing them or stunning them into falling to their death. The number of blackbirds killed in Beebe is not spectacular considering the size of their congregations, which can be in the millions. The event in Beebe, however, captured the imagination and led to more reports in the media of birds falling from the sky across the globe, such as in Sweden and Italy, though many scientists claim such mass deaths are common occurrences but usually go unnoticed. In contrast, it is harder to find a plausible explanation for rains of terrestrial animals.", "The following list is a selection of examples." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Ostrava was first mentioned in the document of Pope Gregory IX issued for Benedictine abbey in Tyniec in 1229 as \"Ostrawa\". Politically it belonged then to the Duchy of Opole and Racibórz, however it lay on the river Ostravice along which a border between the Silesia and Morava was first regulated in 1261. After founding the town of Moravská Ostrava between 1268 and 1278 on Moravian side, the village left on the Silesian side was called in contrary Slavic and later Polish. Since 1290 it belonged to the Duchy of Teschen, which in 1327 became a fee of Kingdom of Bohemia, which after 1526 became part of the Habsburg Monarchy. The village became a seat of a Catholic parish, mentioned in the register of Peter's Pence payment from 1447 among 50 parishes of Teschen deaconry as Ostravia. After 1540s Protestant Reformation prevailed in the Duchy of Teschen and a local Catholic church was taken over by Lutherans. It was taken from them (as one from around fifty buildings in the region) by a special commission and given back to the Roman Catholic Church on 26 March 1654. The settlement of Polská Ostrava gained market town rights in 1879. In 1911-1913 a town hall have been built. In 1919 it became a part of Czechoslovakia and in November of that year it was renamed to \"Slezská Ostrava\". On 17 September 1920 it gained city rights. According to the Austrian census of 1910 \"Polnisch Ostrau\" had 22,892 inhabitants, 22,693 of whom had permanent residence there. Census asked people for their native language, 1,296 (5.7%) were German-speaking, 16,927 (74.6%) were Czech-speaking and 4,467 (19.7%) were Polish-speaking. Jews were not allowed to declare Yiddish, most of them thus declared the German language as their native. Most populous religious groups were Roman Catholics with 21,604 (94.4%), followed by Protestants with 933 (4%) and the Jews with 290 (1.3%)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Role in the built environment.", "Circulation.", "Vehicular traffic.", "Parking for vehicles.", "Sidewalk and bicycle traffic.", "Tramlines.", "Vehicular amenities and roadside hardware.", "Landscaping.", "Utilities.", "Street numbering.", "Interaction.", "Identity.", "As distinct from other spaces.", "Nomenclature.", "Culture.", "Converting streets.", "Street names." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The word \"street\" has its origins in the Latin \"strata\" (meaning \"paved road\" - abbreviation from \"via strata\"); it is thus related to \"stratum\" and \"stratification\". The first recorded use of word \"stratæ\" referring to the road has been made by the Eutropius. Ancient Greek \"stratos\" means army: Greeks originally built roads to move their armies. Old English applied the word to Roman roads in Britain such as Ermine Street, Watling Street, etc. Later it acquired a dialectical meaning of \"straggling village\", which were often laid out on the verges of Roman roads and these settlements often became named Stretton. In the Middle Ages, a \"road\" was a way people travelled, with \"street\" applied specifically to paved ways.", "The street is a public easement, one of the few shared between all sorts of people. As a component of the built environment as ancient as human habitation, the street sustains a range of activities vital to civilization. Its roles are as numerous and diverse as its ever-changing cast of characters. Streets can be loosely categorized as main streets and side streets. Main streets are usually broad with a relatively high level of activity. Commerce and public interaction are more visible on main streets, and vehicles may use them for longer-distance travel. Side streets are quieter, often residential in use and character, and may be used for vehicular parking.", "Circulation, or less broadly, transportation, is perhaps a street's most visible use, and certainly among the most important. The unrestricted movement of people and goods within a city is essential to its commerce and vitality, and streets provide the physical space for this activity. In the interest of order and efficiency, an effort may be made to segregate different types of traffic. This is usually done by carving a road through the middle for motorists, reserving pavements on either side for pedestrians; other arrangements allow for streetcars, trolleys, and even wastewater and rainfall runoff ditches (common in Japan and India). In the mid-20th century, as the automobile threatened to overwhelm city streets with pollution and ghastly accidents, many urban theorists came to see this segregation as not only helpful but necessary in order to maintain mobility. Le Corbusier, for one, perceived an ever-stricter segregation of traffic as an essential affirmation of social order—a desirable, and ultimately inevitable, expression of modernity. To this end, proposals were advanced to build \"vertical streets\" where road vehicles, pedestrians, and trains would each occupy their own levels. Such an arrangement, it was said, would allow for even denser development in the future. These plans were never implemented comprehensively, a fact which today's urban theorists regard as fortunate for vitality and diversity. Rather, vertical segregation is applied on a piecemeal basis, as in sewers, utility poles, depressed highways, elevated railways, common utility ducts, the extensive complex of underground malls surrounding Tokyo Station and the Ōtemachi subway station, the elevated pedestrian skyway networks of Minneapolis and Calgary, the underground cities of Atlanta and Montreal, and the multilevel streets in Chicago. Transportation is often misunderstood to be the defining characteristic, or even the sole purpose, of a street. This has not been the case since the word \"street\" came to be limited to urban situations, and even in the automobile age, is still demonstrably false. A street may be temporarily blocked to all through traffic in order to secure the space for other uses, such as a street fair, a flea market, children at play, filming a movie, or construction work. Many streets are bracketed by bollards or Jersey barriers so as to keep out vehicles. These measures are often taken in a city's busiest areas, the \"destination\" districts, when the volume of activity outgrows the capacity of private passenger vehicles to support it. A feature universal to all streets is a human-scale design that gives its users the space and security to feel engaged in their surroundings, whatever through traffic may pass.", "Despite this, the operator of a motor vehicle may (incompletely) regard a street as merely a thoroughfare for vehicular travel or parking. As far as concerns the driver, a street can be one-way or two-way: vehicles on one-way streets may travel in only one direction, while those on two-way streets may travel both ways. One way streets typically have signs reading \"ONE WAY\" and an arrow showing the direction of allowed travel. Most two-way streets are wide enough for at least two lanes of traffic. Which lane is for which direction of traffic depends on what country the street is located in. On broader two-way streets, there is often a \"centre line\" marked down the middle of the street separating those lanes on which vehicular traffic goes in one direction from other lanes in which traffic goes in the opposite direction. Occasionally, there may be a median strip separating lanes of opposing traffic. If there is more than one lane going in one direction on a main street, these lanes may be separated by intermittent \"lane lines\", marked on the street pavement. Side streets often do not have centre lines or lane lines.", "Many streets, especially side streets in residential areas, have an extra lane's width on one or both sides for parallel parking. Most minor side streets allowing free parallel parking do not have pavement markings designating the parking lane. Main streets more often have parking lanes marked. Some streets are too busy or narrow for parking on the side. Sometimes parking on the sides of streets is allowed only at certain times. Curbside signs often state regulations about parking. Some streets, particularly in business areas, may have parking meters into which coins must be paid to allow parking in the adjacent space for a limited time. Other parking meters work on a credit card and ticket basis or pay and display. Parking lane markings on the pavement may designate the meter corresponding to a parking space. Some wide streets with light traffic allow \"angle parking\" or \"herringbone parking\".", "Sidewalks (US usage) or pavements (UK usage) are often located alongside on one or usually both sides of the street within the public land strips beyond the curbs. Sidewalks serve a traffic purpose, by making walking easier and more attractive, but they also serve a social function, allowing neighbors to meet and interact on their walks. They also can foster economic activity, such as window shopping and sidewalk cafes. Some studies have found that shops on streets with sidewalks get more customers than similar shops without sidewalks. An important element of sidewalk design is accessibility for persons with disabilities. Features that make sidewalks more accessible include curb ramps, tactile paving and accessible traffic signals. The Americans with Disabilities Act requires accessibility improvement on new and reconstructed streets within the US. In most jurisdictions, bicycles are legally allowed to use streets, and required to follow the same traffic laws as motor vehicle traffic. Where the volume of bicycle traffic warrants and available right-of-way allows, provisions may be made to separate cyclists from motor vehicle traffic. Wider lanes may be provided next to the curb, or shoulders may be provided. Bicycle lanes may be used on busy streets to provide some separation between bicycle traffic and motor vehicle traffic. The bicycle lane may be placed between the travel lanes and the parking lanes, between the parking lanes and the curb, or for increased safety for cyclists, between curb and sidewalk. These poorer designs can lead to Dooring incidents and are unsafe for cycling. A more sensible design is found in the Netherlands with a Protected Bicycle Path totally separate from the traffic which is safe for cycling.", "Trams are generally considered to be environmentally friendly with tramlines running in streets with a combination of tram lanes or separate alignments are used, sometimes on a segregated right of way. Signalling and effective braking reduce the risk of a tram accident.", "Often, a curb (British English: \"Kerb\") is used to separate the vehicle traffic lanes from the adjacent pavement area and where people on bicycles are considered properly are used to separate cycling from traffic as well. Street signs, parking meters, bicycle stands, benches, traffic signals, and street lights are often found adjacent to streets. They may be behind the sidewalk, or between the sidewalk and the curb.", "There may be a road verge (a strip of grass or other vegetation) between the carriageway (North American English: Roadway) and the pavement on either side of the street on which Grass or trees are often grown there for landscaping. These are often placed for beautification but are increasingly being used to control stormwater.", "Although primarily used for traffic, streets are important corridors for utilities such as electric power; communications such as telephone, cable television and fiber optic lines; storm and sanitary sewers; and natural gas lines.", "Practically all public streets in Western countries and the majority elsewhere (though not in Japan; see Japanese addressing system) are given a street or road name, or at least a number, to identify them and any addresses located along the streets. Alleys, in some places, do not have names. The length of a lot of land along a street is referred to as the \"frontage\" of the lot.", "A street may assume the role of a town square for its regulars. Jane Jacobs, an economist and prominent urbanist, wrote extensively on the ways that interaction among the people who live and work on a particular street—\"eyes on the street\"—can reduce crime, encourage the exchange of ideas, and generally make the world a better place.", "A street can often serve as the catalyst for the neighborhood's prosperity, culture and solidarity. New Orleans’ Bourbon Street is famous not only for its active nightlife but also for its role as the center of the city's French Quarter. Similarly, the Bowery has at various times been New York City's theater district, red-light district, skid row, restaurant supply district, and the center of the nation's underground punk scene. Madison Avenue and Fleet Street are so strongly identified with their respective most famous types of commerce, that their names are sometimes applied to firms located elsewhere. Other streets mark divisions between neighborhoods of a city. For example, Yonge Street divides Toronto into east and west sides, and East Capitol Street divides Washington, D.C. into north and south. Some streets are associated with the beautification of a town or city. Greenwood, Mississippi's Grand Boulevard was once named one of America's ten most beautiful streets by the U.S. Chambers of Commerce and the Garden Clubs of America. The 1,000 oak trees lining Grand Boulevard were planted in 1916 by Sally Humphreys Gwin, a charter member of the Greenwood Garden Club. In 1950, Gwin received a citation from the National Congress of the Daughters of the American Revolution in recognition of her work in the conservation of trees. Streets also tend to aggregate establishments of similar nature and character. East 9th Street in Manhattan, for example, offers a cluster of Japanese restaurants, clothing stores, and cultural venues. In Washington, D.C., 17th Street and P Street are well known as epicenters of the city's (relatively small) gay culture. Many cities have a Radio Row or Restaurant Row. Like in Philadelphia there is a small street called Jewelers' row giving the identity of a \"Diamond district\". This phenomenon is the subject of urban location theory in economics. In Cleveland, Ohio, East 4th Street has become restaurant row for Cleveland. On East 4th is Michael Symon's Lola Bistro and other restaurants.", "A road, like a street, is often paved and used for travel. However, a street is characterized by the degree and quality of street life it facilitates, whereas a road serves primarily as a through passage for road vehicles or (less frequently) pedestrians. Buskers, beggars, boulevardiers, patrons of pavement cafés, peoplewatchers, streetwalkers, and a diversity of other characters are habitual users of a street; the same people would not typically be found on a road. In rural and suburban environments where street life is rare, the terms \"street\" and \"road\" are frequently considered interchangeable. Still, even here, what is called a \"street\" is usually a smaller thoroughfare, such as a road within a housing development feeding directly into individual driveways. In the last half of the 20th century these streets often abandoned the tradition of a rigid, rectangular grid, and instead were designed to discourage through traffic. This and other traffic calming methods provided quiet for families and play space for children. Adolescent suburbanites find, in attenuated form, the amenities of street life in shopping malls where vehicles are forbidden. A town square or plaza is a little more like a street, but a town square is rarely paved with asphalt and may not make any concessions for through traffic at all.", "There is a haphazard relationship, at best, between a thoroughfare's function and its name. For example, London's Abbey Road serves all the vital functions of a street, despite its name, and locals are more apt to refer to the \"street\" outside than the \"road\". A desolate road in rural Montana, on the other hand, may bear a sign proclaiming it \"Davidson Street\", but this does not make it a \"street\" except in the original sense of a paved road. In the United Kingdom many towns will refer to their main thoroughfare as the High Street (in the United States and Canada it would be called the Main Street—however, occasionally \"Main Street\" in a city or town is a street other than the \"de facto\" main thoroughfare), and many of the ways leading off it will be named \"Road\" despite the urban setting. Thus the town's so-called \"Roads\" will actually be more street-like than a road. Some streets may even be called highways, even though they may carry no highway designation at all: This may arise when an historic road that was built to connect distant towns was named a \"street\" but originally never was in the truest sense. Some roads of this type which later became highways, became identified as said highway and may continue to colloquially be labelled as such from force of habit even if sections of it are subsequently urbanized and become an actual street and has its highway status decommissioned. Hurontario Street in Mississauga, Ontario, Canada (which was formerly Ontario Highway 10, but predates it), is an example of this. In some other English-speaking countries, such as Australia and New Zealand, cities are often divided by a main \"Road\", with \"Streets\" leading from this \"Road\", or the cities are divided by thoroughfares known as \"Streets\" or \"Roads\" with no apparent differentiation between the two. In Auckland, for example, the main shopping precinct is located around Queen Street and Karangahape Road. Streets have existed for as long as humans have lived in permanent settlements (see civilization). However, modern civilization in much of the New World developed around transportation provided by motor vehicles. In some parts of the English-speaking world, such as North America, many think of the street as a thoroughfare for vehicular traffic first and foremost. In this view, pedestrian traffic is incidental to the street's purpose; a street consists of a thoroughfare running through the middle (in essence, a road), and may or may not have pavements (or sidewalks) along the sides. In an even narrower sense, some may think of a street as only the vehicle-driven and parking part of the thoroughfare. Thus, sidewalks (pavements) and road verges would not be thought of as part of the street. A mother may tell her toddlers, \"Don't go out into the street, so you don't get hit by a car.\" Among urban residents of the English-speaking world, the word \"street\" appears to carry its original connotations (i.e., the facilitation of traffic as a prime purpose, and \"street life\" as an incidental benefit). For instance, a \"New York Times\" writer lets casually slip the observation that automobile-laden Houston Street, in lower Manhattan, is \"a street that can hardly be called'street' anymore, transformed years ago into an eight-lane raceway that alternately resembles a Nascar event and a parking lot.\" Published in the paper's Metro section, the article evidently presumes an audience with an innate grasp of the modern urban role of the street. To the readers of the Metro section, vehicular traffic does not reinforce, but rather detracts from, the essential \"street-ness\" of a street. At least one map has been made to illustrate the geography of naming conventions for thoroughfares; avenue, boulevard, circle, road, street, and other suffixes are compared and contrasted.", "Happy street, alternatively called open street or fun street, are open to all public celebrations organised in many European and Indian cities; mostly on some Sunday or some other specific day, initiative encourages people to use non-motorised transport and to come out onto the streets to socialize every Sunday morning through a wide array of activities; Where in families and people of all ages can simply get out in the middle of the street to walk, run, jog, dance, bicycle, sing, skate or play. According to Sandeep Nanduri, the Corporation Commissioner of Madurai, “The idea is to socialise comfortably and safely with elements of entertainment thrown in. The aim is to keep all vehicles out and allow the public in.” Happy Street comes to different areas on the some specific Sunday of every month. Several cities across India including Kolkata, Pune, Thane, Ahmedabad, Madurai, BengloreVisakhapatnam have been successfully implementing it while places like Chennai and Coimbatore have introduced car-free Sundays. Detroiters Halifax", "Rare street redesigns rarely require a change of street structure or shape.", "The street names sometimes change or move to another area for political reasons or they are completely erased." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Early employment and the Wittenberg contacts.", "Zwickau.", "Prague and months of wandering.", "Allstedt.", "Mühlhausen and Nuremberg.", "Final months.", "Theology.", "Influences and study.", "The spirit, not the letter.", "Dreams and revelations.", "Suffering and pain.", "Fear of God and man.", "Apocalyptism.", "\"\".", "Summary.", "Differences with Luther.", "Legacy.", "Müntzer's wife.", "Further reading." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Thomas Müntzer was born in late 1489 (or possibly early 1490), in the small town of Stolberg in the Harz Mountains of Germany. The legend that his father had been executed by the feudal authorities is untrue. There is every reason to suppose that Müntzer had a relatively comfortable background and upbringing, as evidenced by his lengthy education. Both his parents were still alive in 1520, his mother dying at around that time. Shortly after 1490, the family moved to the neighbouring and slightly larger town of Quedlinburg, and it was as \"Thomas Munczer de Quedlinburgk\" that he enrolled at the", "In May 1514, he took up a post as priest in the town of Braunschweig (Brunswick), where he was occupied on and off for the next few years. It was here that he began to question the practices of the Catholic Church, and to criticize, for example, the selling of indulgences. In letters of this time, he is already being addressed by friends as a \"castigator of unrighteousness\". Between 1515 and 1516, he also managed to find a job as schoolmaster at a nunnery in Frose, near Aschersleben. In the autumn of 1517, he was in Wittenberg, met with Martin Luther, and became involved in the great discussions which preceded the posting of Luther's 95 Theses. He attended lectures at the university there, and was exposed to Luther's ideas as well as other ideas originating with the humanists, among whom was Andreas Bodenstein von Karlstadt, who later became a radical opponent of Luther. Müntzer did not remain in Wittenberg for long, and was reported in various other locations", "In May 1520, Müntzer was able to capitalize on the recommendation made by Luther a year earlier, and stood in as temporary replacement for a reformist/humanist preacher named Johann Sylvanus Egranus at St Mary's Church in the busy town of Zwickau (population at that time ca. 7,000), near the border with Bohemia. Zwickau was in the middle of the important iron- and silver-mining area of the Erzgebirge, and was also home to a significant number of plebeians, primarily weavers. Money from the mining operations, and from the commercial boom which mining generated, had infiltrated the town. This led to an increasing division between rich and poor citizens, and a parallel consolidation of larger manufacturers over small-scale craftsmen. Social tensions ran high. It was a town which, although exceptional for the times, nurtured conditions which presaged the trajectory of many towns over the following two", "Müntzer initially travelled over the border into Bohemia to the town of Žatec (Saaz); this town was known as one of the five \"safe citadels\" of the radical Taborites of Bohemia. But Müntzer only used this as a stop-over en route to Prague. It was in Prague that the Hussite Church was already firmly established and Müntzer thought to find a safe home where he could develop his increasingly un-Lutheran ideas. He arrived here in late June 1521, was welcomed as a \"Martinist\" (a follower of Luther), and was allowed to preach and to give lectures. He also found the time to prepare a summary of his own beliefs, which appeared in a document known to posterity, slightly misleadingly, as the \"Prague Manifesto\". This document exists in four forms: one in Czech, one in Latin, and two in German. One of them is written on a large piece of paper, about, much like a poster, but written on both sides. However,", "His next post was both relatively permanent and productive. In early April 1523, through the patronage of Selmenitz, he was appointed as preacher at St John's Church in Allstedt in Saxony. He found himself working alongside another reformer, Simon Haferitz who preached at the church of St Wigberti. The town of Allstedt was small, barely more than a large village (population 600), with an imposing castle set on the hill above it. Elector Friedrich held the right to appoint to St John's, but the town council either forgot to advise him, or did not feel that his approval was necessary. Almost immediately on arrival, Müntzer was preaching his version of the reformed doctrines, and delivering the standard church services and masses in German. Such was the popularity of his preaching and the novelty of hearing services in German that people from the surrounding countryside and towns were soon flocking to Allstedt. Some reports suggest that upwards of two thousand people were on the move every Sunday. Within weeks, Luther heard of this and wrote to the Allstedt authorities, asking them to persuade Müntzer to come to Wittenberg for closer inspection. Müntzer refused to go. He was far too busy carrying through his Reformation and wanted no discussion \"behind closed doors\". At this time, he also married Ottilie von Gersen, a former nun; in the spring of 1524, Ottilie gave birth to a son. It was not only Luther who was concerned. The Catholic Count Ernst von Mansfeld spent the summer of 1523 trying to", "Mühlhausen was a town with a population of 8,500. During 1523 social tensions which had been brewing for several years came to a head, and the poorer inhabitants had managed to wrest some political concessions from the town council; building on this success, the radical reform movement kept up the pressure, under the leadership of a lay preacher named Heinrich Pfeiffer, who had been denouncing the practices of the old church from the pulpit of St Nikolaus Church. Thus, before Müntzer arrived, there was already considerable tension in the air. He was not appointed to any pulpit, but this did not stop him from preaching, agitating, and publishing pamphlets against Luther. His comrade-in-arms here was Pfeiffer; while the two men did not necessarily share the same beliefs (as in Zwickau with Storch) there was enough common-ground in their reformatory zeal and belief in the inspired spirit to allow them to work together closely. A minor civic coup took place in late September 1524, as a result of which, leading members of the town council fled the town, taking with them the city insignia and the municipal horse. But the coup was short-lived – partly because of divisions within the reformers", "In February 1525 Müntzer returned to Mühlhausen (via Fulda, where he was briefly arrested and then – unrecognized – released) and took over the pulpit at St Mary's Church; the town council neither gave, nor was asked for, permission to make this appointment; it would seem that a popular vote thrust Müntzer into the pulpit. Immediately, he and Pfeiffer, who had managed to return to the town some three months earlier, were at the centre of considerable activity. In early March, the citizens were called upon to elect an \"Eternal Council\" which was to replace the existing town council, but whose duties went far beyond the merely municipal. Surprisingly, neither Pfeiffer nor Müntzer were admitted to the new council, nor to its meetings. Possibly because of this, Müntzer then founded the \"Eternal League of God\" in late March (but some researchers date this League to September 1524). This was an armed militia, designed not just as a defence league, but also as a God-fearing cadre for the coming apocalypse. It met under a huge white banner which had been painted with a rainbow and decorated with the words \"The Word of God will endure forever\". In the surrounding countryside and neighbouring small towns, the events in Mühlhausen found a ready echo, for the peasantry and the urban poor had had news of the great uprising in southwest Germany, and many were ready to", "Müntzer's theology has been the subject of many studies over the years. Modern researchers agree that Müntzer was deeply read and that it was his theology, and not any socio-political dogma, which drove him to stand up to feudal authority. The short paragraphs below attempt to give a very brief summary of his theology.", "Evident from Müntzer's writings is his broad knowledge of aspects of the Christian religion. From 1514 onwards, possibly earlier, he read widely in the early Christian fathers (Tertullian and Cyprian), in the history of the early church (Eusebius and", "Despite the profusion of biblical quotations in Müntzer's writings, it was his doctrine that true belief was dictated by spiritual experience, not by written testimony. The Bible was for him evidence only of spiritual experiences of the past; the words of the Bible still had to be validated by the working of the Spirit in the believer's heart. \"If someone had never had sight or sound of", "Spiritual revelation came sometimes through dreams and visions and sometimes through suffering. In Zwickau, Müntzer's belief in the possibilities of revelation by dream matched the same belief in the sect of", "It was essential, in Müntzer's view, for a person to experience real suffering and pain – either spiritual or physical – in order to come to", "One of the principal dialectics in Müntzer's teaching is the opposition of the \"Fear of Man\" to the \"Fear of God\". Regardless of one's position in society, it was necessary for the true believer to have a fear of God and to have no fear of man. This was the thrust of his \"Sermon Before the Princes\" and", "Interwoven with Müntzer's mystical piety, as for many of his contemporaries, was a conviction that the whole cosmos stood at a tipping point. Now God would set right all the wrongs of the world, largely by destruction, but with the active assistance", "In his final confession under torture of May 1525, Müntzer stated that one of the primary aims of himself and his comrades was \"\" – \"all things are to be held in common and distribution should be to each according to his need\". This statement has often been cited as evidence of Müntzer's \"early communism\", but it stands quite alone in", "The doctrines of essential suffering, of spiritual revelation, of denial of the fear of Man - all combined with the expectation of the Apocalypse to place the \"Elect\" person in total opposition to feudal authority, and to both Catholic and Lutheran teaching. However, this was no individualistic path to salvation. The importance which Müntzer laid on communal activities – the reformed liturgies", "Müntzer was one of many preachers and theologians caught up in the extraordinary atmosphere of the early Reformation. In this period, from around 1517 to 1525, Martin Luther had no monopoly of the reforms. This was the time not only of Luther, but also of Erasmus of Rotterdam and fellow-Humanists, of the alchemists Paracelsus and Cornelius Agrippa, of localized urban and rural acts of defiance. The social upheavals triggered the Reformation - or more precisely, 'the reformations', for it was above all a time of massive dissent, and indeed dissent from dissent; in turn, the reformation of thought triggered further social and political upheavals. In this roiling pot of ideas, Müntzer quite readily respected Luther for a period and then just as readily rejected the Lutheran doctrines. Although it is clear in retrospect that Müntzer's ideas were already diverging from Luther's at least as early as the period in Zwickau, Müntzer himself may not have been aware of this. Luther, like Müntzer, had shown an avid interest in the mystic and theologian Johannes Tauler. Müntzer may even have looked at Luther's many admiring references", "During the last two years of his life, Müntzer had come into contact with a number of other radicals; prominent amongst them were Hans Hut, Hans Denck, Melchior Rinck, Hans Römer, and Balthasar Hubmaier. All of them were leaders of the emerging Anabaptist movement, which nurtured similar reformed doctrines to those of Müntzer himself. While it is not appropriate to claim that they were all or consistently \"Müntzerites\", it is possible to argue that they all shared some common teaching. A common thread links Müntzer, the early Anabaptists, the \"Kingdom of Münster\" in North Germany in 1535, the Dutch Anabaptists, the radicals of the English Revolution, and beyond. There was a short-lived legacy even within the \"official\" reformed church as well; in the towns where Müntzer had been active, his reformed liturgies were still being used some ten years after his death. Friedrich Engels and Karl Kautsky claimed him as a precursor of the revolutionaries of more modern times. They based their analysis on the", "Very little is known about Müntzer's wife Ottilie von Gersen other than the fact that she was a nun who had left a nunnery under the influence of the Reformation movement. Her family name may have been \"von Görschen\". She may have been one of a group of sixteen nuns who left the convent at Wiederstedt, some miles", "A full bibliography of articles and books on Müntzer runs to over 3000 entries - see the Dammaschke/Vogler Bibliography cited above ; and the list is growing all the time. The reading list in this Wikipedia article should therefore \"only\" contain works of academically accepted significance for the understanding of the historical reasons for Müntzer's actions and/or the theological background of the Reformation. Please reflect on this before adding further works; and bear in mind also Wikipedia's policy on" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biological, legal and social definitions.", "Development.", "Health.", "Age of responsibility.", "Child mortality.", "Education.", "Attitudes toward children.", "Emergencies and conflicts." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Biologically, a child is a person between birth and puberty, or between the developmental period of infancy and puberty. Legally, the term \"child\" may refer to anyone below the age of majority or some other age limit. The United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child defines \"child\" as \"a human being below the age of 18 years unless under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier\". This is ratified by 192 of 194 member countries. The term \"child\" may also refer to someone below another legally defined age limit unconnected to the age of majority. In Singapore, for example, a \"child\" is legally defined as someone under the age of 14 under the \"Children and Young Persons Act\" whereas the age of majority is 21. In U.S. Immigration Law, a child refers to anyone who is under the age of 21. Some English definitions of the word \"child\" include the fetus (sometimes termed \"the unborn\"). In many cultures, a child is considered an adult after undergoing a rite of passage, which may or may not correspond to the time of puberty. Children generally have fewer rights than adults and are classed as unable to make serious decisions, and legally must always be under the care of a responsible adult or child custody, whether their parents divorce or not. Recognition of childhood as a state different from adulthood began to emerge in the 16th and 17th centuries. Society began to relate to the child not as a miniature adult but as a person of a lower level of maturity needing adult protection, love and nurturing. This change can be traced in paintings: In the Middle Ages, children were portrayed in art as miniature adults with no childlike characteristics. In the 16th century, images of children began to acquire a distinct childlike appearance. From the late 17th century onwards, children were shown playing with toys and later literature for children also began to develop at this time.", "According to Professor Peter Jones of Cambridge University development of the brain continues long past legal definitions of adulthood so \"to have a definition of when you move from childhood to adulthood looks increasingly absurd. It's a much more nuanced transition that takes place over three decades.\" Children go through stages of social development. Children learn initially through play and later in most societies through formal schooling. As a child is growing they are learning how to do some tasks in chronological order. They learn how to prioritize their goals and actions. Their behavior is transcending as they learn new perspectives from other people. They learn how to represent certain things symbolically and learn new behavior.", "Children with ADHD and learning disabilities may need extra help to develop social skills. The impulsive characteristics of an ADHD child may lead to poor peer relationships. Children with poor attention spans may not tune into social cues in their environment, making it difficult for them to learn social skills through experience. Health issues affecting children are generally managed separately from those affecting adults, by pediatricians.", "The age at which children are considered responsible for their society-bound actions (e. g. marriage, voting, etc.) has also changed over time, and this is reflected in the way they are treated in courts of law. In Roman times, children were regarded as not culpable for crimes, a position later adopted by the Church. In the 19th century, children younger than seven years old were believed incapable of crime. Children from the age of seven forward were considered responsible for their actions. Therefore, they could face criminal charges, be sent to adult prison, and be punished like adults by whipping, branding or hanging. However, courts at the time would consider the offender's age when deliberating sentencing. Minimum employment age and marriage age also vary. The age limit of voluntary/involuntary military service is also disputed at the international level.", "During the early 17th century in England, about two-thirds of all children died before the age of four. During the Industrial Revolution, the life expectancy of children increased dramatically. This has continued in England, and in the 21st century child mortality rates have fallen across the world. About 12.6 million under-five infants died worldwide in 1990, which declined to 6.6 million in 2012. The infant mortality rate dropped from 90 deaths per 1,000 live births in 1990, to 48 in 2012. The highest average infant mortality rates are in sub-Saharan Africa, at 98 deaths per 1,000 live births – over double the world's average.", "Education, in the general sense, refers to the act or process of imparting or acquiring general knowledge, developing the powers of reasoning and judgment, and preparing intellectually for mature life. Formal education most often takes place through schooling. A right to education has been recognized by some governments. At the global level, Article 13 of the United Nations' 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights recognizes the right of everyone to an education. Education is compulsory in most places up to a certain age, but attendance at school may not be, with alternative options such as home-schooling or e-learning being recognized as valid forms of education in certain jurisdictions. Children in some countries (especially in parts of Africa and Asia) are often kept out of school, or attend only for short periods. Data from UNICEF indicate that in 2011, 57 million children were out of school; and more than 20% of African children have never attended primary school or have left without completing primary education. According to a UN report, warfare is preventing 28 million children worldwide from receiving an education, due to the risk of sexual violence and attacks in schools. Other factors that keep children out of school include poverty, child labor, social attitudes, and long distances to school.", "Social attitudes toward children differ around the world in various cultures and change over time. A 1988 study on European attitudes toward the centrality of children found that Italy was more child-centric and the Netherlands less child-centric, with other countries, such as Austria, Great Britain, Ireland and West Germany falling in between. In 2013, child marriage rates of female children under the age of 18 reached 75% in Niger, 68% in Central African Republic and Chad, 66% in Bangladesh, and 47% in India. According to a 2019 UNICEF report on child marriage, 37% of females were married before the age of 18 in sub-Saharan Africa, followed by South Asia at 30%. Lower levels were found in Latin America and Caribbean (25%), the Middle East and North Africa (18%), and Eastern Europe and Central Asia (11%), while rates in Western Europe and North America were minimal. Child marriage is more prevalent with girls, but also involves boys. A 2018 study in the journal Vulnerable Children and Youth Studies found that, worldwide, 4.5% of males are married before age 18, with the Central African Republic having the highest average rate at 27.9%. Protection of children from abuse is considered an important contemporary goal. This includes protecting children from exploitation such as child labor, child trafficking and selling, child sexual abuse, including child prostitution and child pornography, military use of children, and child laundering in illegal adoptions. There exist several international instruments for these purposes, such as:", "Emergencies and conflicts pose detrimental risks to the health, safety, and well-being of children. There are many different kinds of conflicts and emergencies, e.g. wars and natural disasters. As of 2010 approximately 13 million children are displaced by armed conflicts and violence around the world. Where violent conflicts are the norm, the lives of young children are significantly disrupted and their families have great difficulty in offering the sensitive and consistent care that young children need for their healthy development. Studies on the effect of emergencies and conflict on the physical and mental health of children between birth and 8 years old show that where the disaster is natural, the rate of PTSD occurs in anywhere from 3 to 87 percent of affected children. However, rates of PTSD for children living in chronic conflict conditions varies from 15 to 50 percent." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Gameplay.", "Reception." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The player's team of worms arrives at Worminkle University, where they meet Professor Worminkle, who trains the team to use various weapons. Worminkle then sets the team assignments to sneak into enemy buildings and destroy their construction sites. To flee government agents, Worminkle and the team travel back in time to the Middle Ages using Worminkle's time machine, but the machine gets damaged and they get attacked by wizards and knights. After fighting through them, the team proceed to the Wild West to find gold to keep the machine powered, fighting Boggy the Kid in the process, and to Ancient Arabia to recover jewels stolen by Ali Baboon and his pesky thieves and keep the machine's navigation controls balanced. After recovering the jewels, Worminkle fixes the machine, but accidentally drops a letter. The team reads the letter, which reveals that the government was planning to build a new research laboratory to replace Worminkle University. Worminkle quickly takes the letter back and continues the journey with the team, but after they stop in prehistoric times, Worminkle betrays the team, telling them he actually used them as part of his plan to escape from the Government. Planning to abandon the team in the Stone Age, he flees, but crashes into a mountain. Determined to catch him, the team battle through caveworms and dinoworms. After reaching Worminkle, the team, knowing of his betrayal, steals the time machine from him and travels back to the present day, leaving Worminkle trapped in the Stone Age forever and panicking.", "Gameplay follows on the traditional gameplay of the series, in which teams of worms take turns to use a variety of weapons and items in order to eliminate the opposing team(s). The game is presented in a 3D perspective. The game also has additional game modes, such as Challenge mode, which presents the player with various challenges (e.g. infecting enemy worms with a poison arrow) which the player must attempt to complete. Multiplayer mode is available via Hotseat. Online mode is also available on the PC version.", "Worms 4: Mayhem received mixed to positive reviews. Critics generally criticized Worms 4: Mayhem for its lack of difference from previous 3D Worms games, difficult controls and illogical AI. However, the range of weapons were praised for including new and existing weapons, along with the level design." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Signs and symptoms.", "Cause.", "Risk factors.", "Freediving.", "Pathophysiology.", "Oxygen deprivation.", "Water aspiration.", "Cold water immersion.", "Diagnosis.", "Forensics.", "Prevention.", "Water safety.", "Management.", "Rescue.", "First aid.", "Medical care.", "Prognosis.", "Children.", "Epidemiology.", "United States.", "Society and culture.", "Old terminology.", "Dry drowning.", "Capital punishment." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "Drowning is most often quick and unspectacular. Its media depictions as a loud, violent struggle have much more in common with distressed non-swimmers, who may well drown but have not yet begun to do so. In particular, an asphyxiating person is seldom able to call for help. The instinctive drowning response covers many signs or behaviors associated with drowning or near-drowning: Drowning begins at the point", "Drowning mainly happens due to the inability to swim in a circumstance: lack of skill, state of the waters, physical condition, loss of consciousness, and others. Anxiety can lead to exhaustion, precipitating the drowning. Approximately 90% of drownings take place in freshwater (rivers, lakes and swimming pools) and 10% in seawater. Drownings in other fluids are rare, and often relate to industrial accidents. In New Zealand's early colonial history, so many settlers died while trying to cross rivers that drowning was known as \"The New Zealand death\". People have drowned in as little as 30 mm of water lying face down. Children have drowned in baths, buckets and toilets; inebriates or those under the influence of drugs have died in puddles. Drowning can also happen after the drowning incident itself, due to further complications. The inhaled fluid can act as an irritant inside the lungs. Physiological responses to even small quantities include the extrusion of liquid into the lungs (pulmonary edema) over the following hours, but this reduces the ability to exchange air and can lead to a person \"drowning in their own body fluid\". Certain poisonous vapors or gases (as for example in chemical warfare), or vomit can have a similar effect. The reaction can take place up to 72 hours after the drowning incident, and may lead to a serious condition or death.", "Many factors, behavioral and physical, are related", "Some special causes of", "Drowning can be considered as going through four stages: Generally, in the early stages of drowning a person holds their breath to prevent water from entering their lungs. When this is no longer possible a small amount of water entering the trachea causes a muscular spasm that seals the airway and prevents further passage of water. If the process is not interrupted, loss of consciousness due to hypoxia is followed rapidly by cardiac arrest.", "A conscious person will hold his or her breath (see Apnea) and will try to access air, often resulting in panic, including rapid body movement. This uses up more oxygen in the blood stream and reduces the time to unconsciousness. The person can voluntarily hold his or her breath for some time, but the breathing reflex will increase until the person tries to breathe, even when submerged. The breathing reflex in the human body is weakly related to the amount of oxygen in the blood but strongly related to the amount of carbon dioxide (see Hypercapnia). During apnea, the oxygen in the body is used by the cells, and excreted as carbon dioxide. Thus, the level of oxygen in", "If water enters the airways of a conscious person, the person will try to cough up the water or swallow it, often inhaling more water involuntarily. When water enters the larynx or trachea, both conscious and unconscious persons experience laryngospasm, in which the vocal cords constrict, sealing the airway. This prevents water from entering the lungs. Because of this laryngospasm, in the initial phase of drowning, water generally enters the stomach and very little water enters the lungs. Though laryngospasm prevents water from entering the lungs, it also interferes with breathing. In most persons, the laryngospasm relaxes some time after unconsciousness and water can then enter the lungs causing a \"wet drowning\". However, about 7–10% of people maintain this seal until cardiac arrest. This has been called \"dry drowning\", as no water enters the lungs. In forensic pathology, water in the lungs indicates that the person was still alive at the point of submersion. Absence of water in the lungs may be either a dry drowning or indicates a death before submersion. Aspirated water that reaches the alveoli destroys the", "Submerging the face in water cooler than about triggers the diving reflex, common to air-breathing vertebrates, especially marine mammals such as whales and seals. This reflex protects the body by putting it into \"energy saving\" mode to maximize the time it can stay under water. The strength of this reflex is greater in colder water and has three principal effects: The reflex action is automatic and allows both a conscious and an unconscious person to survive longer without oxygen under water than in a comparable situation on dry land. The exact mechanism for this", "The World Health Organization in 2005 defined drowning as \"the process of experiencing respiratory impairment from submersion/immersion in liquid\". This definition does not imply death, or even the necessity for medical treatment after removal of the cause, nor that any fluid enters the lungs. The WHO further recommended that outcomes should be classified as: death, morbidity, and no morbidity. There was also consensus that the terms wet, dry, active, passive, silent, and secondary drowning should no longer be used. Experts differentiate between distress and drowning.", "Forensic diagnosis of drowning is considered one of the most difficult in forensic medicine. External examination and autopsy findings are often non-specific, and the available laboratory tests are often inconclusive or controversial. The purpose of investigation is generally to distinguish whether the death was due to immersion, or whether the body was immersed post mortem. The mechanism in acute drowning is hypoxemia and irreversible cerebral anoxia due to submersion in liquid. Drowning would be considered as a possible cause of death when the body was recovered from a body of water, or in close proximity to a fluid which could plausibly have caused drowning, or when found with the head immersed in a fluid. A medical diagnosis of death by drowning is generally made after other possible causes of death have been excluded by means of a complete autopsy and toxicology tests. Indications of drowning are seldom completely unambiguous, and may include bloody froth in the airway, water in the stomach, cerebral oedema and petrous or mastoid haemorrhage. Some evidence of immersion may be unrelated to the cause of death, and lacerations and abrasions may have occurred", "It is estimated that more than 85% of drownings could be prevented by supervision, training in water skills, normatives, technology, and public education.", "The concept of water safety involves the procedures and", "", "Many people who are drowning manage to save themselves, or are assisted by bystanders or professional rescuers. Less than 6% of people rescued by lifeguards need medical attention, and only 0.5% need CPR. The statistics are not as good for rescue by bystanders, but even there, a minority require CPR. When a drowning occurs, or a swimmer becomes missing, bystanders should immediately call for help. A lifeguard should be called, if present. If not, emergency medical services and paramedics should be contacted as soon as possible. Rescue, and where necessary, resuscitation, should be", "The checks for responsiveness and breathing are carried out with the person horizontally supine. If unconscious but breathing, the recovery position is appropriate. If not breathing, rescue ventilation is necessary. Drowning can produce a gasping pattern of apnea while the heart is still beating, and ventilation alone may be sufficient. The airway-breathing-circulation (ABC) sequence should be followed, rather than starting with compressions as is typical in cardiac arrest, because the basic problem is lack of oxygen. Five initial breaths are recommended, as the initial ventilation may be difficult because of water in the airways which can interfere with effective alveolar inflation. Thereafter a continual sequence of 2 breaths and 30 chest compressions is recommended. This alternance is repeated until vital signs are re-established, the rescuers are unable to continue,", "People with a near-drowning experience who have normal oxygen levels and no respiratory symptoms should be observed in a hospital environment for a period of time to ensure there are no delayed complications. The target of ventilation is to achieve 92% to 96% arterial saturation and adequate chest rise. Positive end-expiratory pressure will generally improve oxygenation. Drug administration", "People who have drowned who arrive at a hospital with spontaneous circulation and breathing usually recover with good outcomes. Early provision of basic and advanced life support improve probability of positive outcome. Longer duration of submersion is associated with lower probability of survival and higher probability of permanent neurological damage. Contaminants in the water can cause bronchospasm and impaired gas exchange, and can cause secondary infection with delayed severe respiratory compromise. Low water temperature can cause ventricular fibrillation, but hypothermia during immersion can also slow the metabolism, allowing a longer hypoxia before severe damage occurs. Hypothermia which reduces brain temperature significantly can improve outcome. A reduction of brain temperature by 10 °C decreases ATP consumption by approximately 50%, which can double the time that the brain can survive. The younger the person, the better the chances of survival. In one case, a child submerged in cold () water for 66 minutes was resuscitated without apparent neurological damage. However, over the long term significant deficits were noted, including a range of cognitive difficulties, particularly general memory impairment, although recent magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and magnetoencephalography (MEG) were within normal range.", "Drowning is a major worldwide cause of death and injury in children. Long term neurological outcomes of drowning cannot be predicted accurately during the early stages of treatment and although survival after long submersion times, mostly by young children, has been reported, many survivors will remain severely and permanently neurologically compromised after much shorter submersion times. Factors affecting probability of long term recovery with mild deficits or full", "In 2013, drowning was estimated to have resulted in 368,000 deaths, down from 545,000 deaths in 1990. There are more than 20 times that many non-fatal incidents. It is the third leading cause of death from unintentional trauma after traffic injuries and falls. In many countries, drowning is one of the main causes of preventable death for children under 12 years old. In the United States in 2006, 1100 people under 20 years of age died from drowning. The United Kingdom has 450 drownings per year, or 1 per 150,000, whereas in the United States, there are about 6,500 drownings yearly, around 1 per 50,000. In Asia suffocation and drowning were the leading causes of preventable death for children under five years of age; a 2008 report by the organization found that in Bangladesh, for instance, 46 children drown each day. Males, due to a generally increased likelihood for risk taking, are 4 times more likely to have submersion injuries. In the fishing industry, the largest group of drownings is associated with vessel disasters in bad weather, followed by man-overboard incidents and boarding accidents at night; either in foreign ports, or under the influence of alcohol. Scuba diving deaths are estimated at 700 to 800 per year, associated with inadequate training and experience, exhaustion, panic, carelessness and barotrauma.", "In the United States, drowning is the second leading cause of death (after motor vehicle accidents) in children 12 and younger. People who drown are more likely to be male, young, or adolescent. Surveys indicate that", "", "The word \"drowning\"—like \"electrocution\"—was previously used to describe fatal events only, and occasionally that usage is still insisted upon, though the consensus of the medical community supports the definition used in this article. Several terms related to drowning which have been used in the past are also no longer recommended. These include: Active drowning: People, such as non-swimmers and the exhausted or hypothermic at the surface, who are unable to hold their mouth above water and are suffocating due to lack of air. Instinctively, people in such cases perform well-known behaviors in the last 20–60 seconds before being submerged, representing the body's last efforts to obtain air. Notably, such people are unable to call for help, talk, reach for rescue equipment, or alert swimmers even feet away, and they may drown quickly and silently close to other swimmers or safety.", "Dry drowning is a term that has never had an accepted medical definition, and that is currently medically discredited. Following the 2002 World Congress on Drowning in Amsterdam, a consensus definition of drowning was established. Based on this definition, drowning is the \"process of experiencing respiratory impairment from submersion/immersion in liquid.\" This definition resulted in only three legitimate drowning subsets: fatal drowning, non-fatal drowning with illness/injury, and non-fatal drowning without illness/injury. In response, major medical consensus organizations have adopted this definition worldwide and have officially discouraged any medical or publication use of the term \"dry drowning\". Such organizations include the International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation, the Wilderness Medical Society, the American Heart Association, the Utstein Style system, the International Lifesaving Federation, the International Conference on Drowning,", "In Europe, drowning was used as capital punishment. During the Middle Ages, a sentence of death was read using the words \"\"cum fossa et furca\"\", or \"with pit and gallows\". Drowning survived as a method" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "1872 to 1945: École Libre des Sciences Politiques.", "1945: the École Libre des Sciences Politiques becomes Sciences Po.", "1945 to 1997.", "The Richard Descoings era (1997–2012).", "2013–2022: reorganization and development under Frédéric Mion.", "Campuses.", "Paris campus.", "Dijon campus.", "Le Havre campus.", "Menton campus.", "Nancy campus.", "Poitiers campus.", "Reims campus.", "Education.", "Undergraduate level.", "Graduate level.", "Schools.", "Research.", "Network of universities.", "Library and publishing.", "Public lectures.", "Rankings and reputation.", "Rankings.", "Reputation and criticism.", "Controversies.", "Political and financial scandals.", "Notable alumni and academics.", "Politics.", "International organisations and diplomacy.", "Business and finance.", "Literature and arts.", "Academia." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Sciences Po was established in February 1872 as the \"École Libre des Sciences Politiques\" (ELSP) by a group of French intellectuals, politicians and businessmen led by Émile Boutmy, and including Hippolyte Taine, Ernest Renan, Albert Sorel and Paul Leroy Beaulieu. The creation of the school was in response to widespread fears that the inadequacy of the French political and diplomatic corps would further diminish the country's international stature, as France grappled with a series of crises, including the defeat in the 1870 Franco-Prussian War, the demise of Napoleon III, and the upheaval and massacre resulting from Paris Commune. The founders of", "Sciences Po underwent significant reforms in the aftermath of France's liberation from Nazi occupation in 1945. The humiliation of France's surrender to Nazi Germany and the collapse of the Vichy regime provided the impetus for a major restructuring of the state's institutions. Charles de Gaulle, as leader of France's Provisional Government, appointed Michel Debré to reform the recruiting and training of public servants. Even though eight of thirteen ministers in De Gaulle's government, including Debré himself, were Sciences Po alumni, a significant reform of the university seemed inevitable, as it had been instrumental in training the class of leaders whom many accused of complacency in face of Nazi aggression. Communist politicians including Georges Cogniot proposed abolishing the ELSP entirely and founding a new state-run administration college on its premises. Debré proposed the compromise that was eventually adopted. First, the government established the Ecole Nationale d'Administration (ENA), an elite postgraduate college for training government officials. From then on, the Grands Corps de l'Etat were obliged to recruit new entrants from ENA. The change, however, had little impact on Sciences Po's central role in educating the French elite.", "Between 1952 and 1969, 77.5% of the ENA's graduate student intake were Sciences Po alumni. \"FNSP\" further strengthened its role as a scientific publication center with significant donations from the Rockefeller", "Sciences Po underwent various reforms under the directorship of Richard Descoings (1997–2012). The school began requiring all its undergraduate students to spend a year abroad, and introduced a multilingual curriculum in French, English, and other languages. Sciences Po also began to expand outside Paris, establishing regional campuses throughout France. During this period, Sciences Po also implemented reforms in its admissions process. Previously, Sciences Po recruited its students exclusively on the basis of a competitive examination. This system was seen to favor students from prestigious preparatory high schools, largely attended by the children of the French elite. In", "Frédéric Mion, a graduate of Sciences Po, ENA and École Normale Supérieure and former secretary general of Canal+, was appointed president of Sciences Po on 1 March 2013. His intention to pursue Sciences Po's development as a \"selective university of international standing\" is detailed in the policy paper \"Sciences Po 2022\", published in the spring of 2014. The restructuring of Master's study into graduate schools continued with the creation of the School of Public Affairs and the Urban School in 2015 and the School of Management and Innovation in 2016. In early 2016, Sciences Po updated its governance structure, adopting new statutes for its two constituent bodies: the \"Fondation nationale des sciences politiques\" (FNSP) and the \"Institut d'études politiques", "Sciences Po has seven campuses in France, with each specialising in different regions of the globe. Every May, at the end of the academic year, all seven campuses come together for the inter-campus Collegiades de SciencesPo tournament, also known as the MiniCrit. At the tournament, students represent each campus and compete against one another in arts and athletic competitions. Different events include athletic games such as volleyball and football, as well as artistic competitions such as music and dance.", "The Paris campus hosts undergraduate students enrolled in the general curriculum programme, the dual bachelor's degree with University College London, as well as all seven of the university's graduate schools. The Paris campus is spread across several buildings concentrated around the Boulevard Saint-Germain in the 6th and 7th arrondissements (districts). The historic centre of Sciences Po at 27 rue Saint-Guillaume houses the head office and central library since 1879. It is also home to Sciences Po's two largest teaching halls, the Amphitheatres Émile Boutmy and Jacques Chapsal. Other buildings include: The Paris campus welcomes about 3,000 undergraduate students, almost a third of whom are international exchange students. In 2016 Sciences Po purchased", "Located in the region of Burgundy in a magnificent 19th", "Located on the coast of Normandy, Le Havre has hosted the undergraduate Euro-Asian campus since 2007, recently celebrating the 10-year anniversary of the campus in September 2017. The campus welcomes 300 students each year. With a choice between 3 majors, including economics and society, politics and government and political humanities, students primarily choose to spend their third year", "Established in the French Riviera city of Menton in 2005, the campus is located in an entirely renovated 19th-century building overlooking the Mediterranean. Menton is home to the Middle Eastern and Mediterranean focus branch of Sciences Po and welcomes 300 students each year. Students study in one of two tracks (anglophone/francophone) and may take", "Established in the region of Lorraine in 2000, the Nancy campus is located in a prestigious 18th century heritage site, the", "Opened in 2010, the campus is located in the heart of the historic city of Poitiers in the", "In the heart of the Champagne region, the Reims campus opened in September 2010. It is housed in the 17th century \"College des Jesuits\". Despite being the most recent campus, it is by far the largest of the regional campuses of Sciences Po, welcoming over 1,600 undergraduate students each year. The", "The academic bodies of Sciences Po consist of the Undergraduate College, six professional schools, and the Doctoral School. The university also contains a library system, the Presses de Sciences Po, and holds ties with a number of independent academic institutions, including Bocconi University, Columbia University, King's College London, the National University of Singapore, and the Sorbonne Paris Cité alliance.", "The Sciences Po Undergraduate College offers a three-year Bachelor of Arts degree with a multidisciplinary foundation in the humanities and social sciences with emphasis on civic, linguistic, artistic, and digital training. On all campuses, students choose a multidisciplinary major – Politics & Government, Economies & Societies, or Political Humanities. In", "At the graduate level, Sciences Po's seven schools offer one- and two-year Master's programmes and PhD programmes. All graduate programmes are delivered on the", "The Undergraduate College (\"Collège universitaire\") is the home of all undergraduate students. At the graduate level, there are", "Research at Sciences Po covers economics, law, history, sociology and political science, while also taking in many interdisciplinary topics such as cities, political ecology, sustainable development, socio-economics and globalization. Sciences Po is home to a research community that includes over 200 researchers and 350 PhD candidates.", "Sciences Po has a network over 470 partner universities, including: Berkeley, Bocconi, Cambridge, Colegio de Mexico, Columbia, Copenhagen Business School, Freie Universität Berlin, Fudan, Humboldt Universität, Instituto de Empresa, King's College, Keio, London School of Economics, McGill, MGIMO, MIT, National University of Singapore, Northwestern, Oxford, Peking University, Princeton, Tsinghua, University of British Columbia, University of Cape Town, University of Chicago, University of Ghana, University of Hong Kong, University of São Paulo, University of Sydney, University of Tokyo, Uppsala, and Waseda among others. In 2002, it co-founded the Alliance program in partnership with Columbia University, École Polytechnique and Panthéon-Sorbonne University. Each year, this program facilitates dual degrees, exchanges and research projects for around 240 students and 80 professors, and organizes around 40 conferences in Paris and New York. In France it is supported by the Ministry of Foreign", "Founded in 1871, the nucleus of the school's research is the \"Bibliothèque de Sciences Po\". The library offers a collection of more than 950,000 titles in the field of social sciences. In 1982, the Ministry of National Education made the \"Bibliothèque\" the Centre for Acquisition and Dissemination of Scientific and", "Sciences Po organizes numerous public lecture events. Recent guest speakers have included Ban Ki-moon, General David Petraeus, Condoleezza Rice, former President of Brazil Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva, Eric Schmidt, Joseph Stiglitz,", "", "Sciences Po ranked 2nd in Politics & International Studies in the QS World University Ranking in 2020, right behind Harvard, and is thus the number one", "Sciences Po is broadly perceived as an elite institution. It has educated, among others, 32 heads of state or government, 7 of the past 8 French Presidents, 3 past heads of the International Monetary Fund, heads of international organizations (including the UN, UNESCO, WTO, IMF, EP and ECB), and 6 of sitting CAC 40 CEOs. In recent years, however, Sciences Po's concerted efforts, at times controversial, to promote social inclusion in higher education have taken center stage. Central to Sciences Po's policy to diversify its student body is the Equal Opportunity Programme, launched in 2001. The school has been criticized, along with the École nationale d'administration, for creating in France an oligarchy of '...blinkered, arrogant and frequently incompetent people.' The academic Gilles Devers criticized the institution for being the \"base of the conservatism, and the mold of the molluscs that make the public elite\" where \"dissenting ideas are only admitted if they strengthen the system\". Critics have accused Sciences Po of", "", "Alain Lancelot, director of Sciences Po from 1987 to 1996, was investigated for financial mismanagement by the French Court of Audit. Since 1997, the institution has been hit by a number of scandals, notably concerning the leadership of Richard Descoings, its director from 1997 to 2012. Descoings, president from 1997 to 2012, had been criticized for offering large sums of money (through salary rise, free accommodation, etc.) to diverse members of staff, including his wife, in spite of the fact that Sciences Po is partly stately funded. In February 2012, it was revealed that an inspector of the French Court of Audit, in charge of investigating the financial behaviour of Sciences Po, was at the same time employed by Sciences Po. On 3 April 2012, Descoings was found dead in his Manhattan luxury hotel room during a trip where he was representing Sciences Po in New York. The police initially concluded that his death had been caused by an overdose, but the final coronary report eventually stated that he died a natural death. Descoings' energy on this last day and", "Over 80 000 people have studied at Sciences Po. Throughout its history, a sizeable number of Sciences Po alumni have become notable in many varied fields, including political life, international organisations, multinational corporations, academic research, as well as in the media and art world.", "Six of the eight presidents of the French Fifth Republic have attended Sciences Po, including Georges Pompidou, François Mitterrand, Jacques Chirac, Nicolas Sarkozy (who did not graduate), François Hollande, and Emmanuel Macron. Eighteen French prime ministers, including Pierre Mendès France, Michel Debré, Maurice Couve de Murville, Jacques Chaban-Delmas, Raymond Barre, Laurent Fabius, Michel Rocard, Édouard Balladur, Alain Juppé, Lionel Jospin, Dominique de Villepin, and Édouard Philippe among others. In total, since the foundation of the Fifth Republic, over 60% of France's prime ministers have", "Sciences Po has also educated a considerable number of diplomats and actors in international organisations, including Simone Veil, former President of the European Parliament; Boutros Boutros-Ghali, former UN Secretary General; Pascal Lamy, former Director-General of the World Trade Organisation; Michel Camdessus and Dominique Strauss-Kahn,", "Among the alumni are CEOs of France's forty largest companies (CAC 40) (Frédéric Oudéa of banking group Société Générale, Michel Bon of France Télécom and Carrefour, Jean-Cyril Spinetta of Air France, Serge Weinberg of PPR, Gérard Mestrallet of Suez, Philippe Camus of Alcatel-Lucent, of the Hermès Group, Louis Schweitzer of Renault,, CEO of Accor ). As well as CFO's of CAC 40 companies such as Frédéric Lemoine of Capgemini, Thierry Moulonguet of Renault. Sciences Po alumni also include CEO's of F500 companies such as Hubert Joly of Best Buy. As well as regional CEO's such as Clara Gaymard, President and CEO of", "Influential cultural figures, such as the writer Marcel Proust, the founder of the modern olympics Pierre de Coubertin,", "Sciences Po is known for recruiting many former or current professionals to teach courses, allowing students to benefit from practitioners and their unique insights on current issues. Many high ranking civil servants give lectures alongside their daily job, at the beginning of the evening. Adjunct professors include former French Prime Minister Dominique de Villepin, former WTO director-general Pascal Lamy, former French President Francois Hollande, former French" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Contemporary semaphore flag system.", "Characters.", "Origin.", "Japanese semaphore.", "Practical use in communication.", "Use in popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The current flag semaphore system uses two short poles with square flags, which a signal person holds in different positions to signal letters of the alphabet and numbers. The signaller holds one pole in each hand, and extends each arm in one of eight possible directions. Except for in the rest position, the flags do not overlap. The flags are colored differently based on whether the signals are sent by sea or by land. At sea, the flags are colored red and yellow (the Oscar flag), while on land, they are white and blue (the Papa flag). Flags are not required; their purpose is to make the characters more obvious.", "The following 30 semaphore characters are presented as they would appear when facing the signalperson: Numbers can be signaled by first signaling \"Numerals\". Letters can be signaled by first signaling \"J\". The sender uses the \"Attention\" signal to request permission to begin a transmission. The receiver uses a \"Ready to receive\" signal not shown above to grant permission to begin the transmission. The receiver raises both flags vertical overhead and then drops them to the rest position, once only, to grant permission to send. The sender ends the transmission with the \"Ready to receive\" signal. The receiver can reply with the \"Attention\" signal. At this point, sender and receiver change places.", "Flag semaphore originated in 1866 as a handheld version of the optical telegraph system of Home Riggs Popham used on land, and its later improvement by Charles Pasley. The land system consisted of lines of fixed stations (substantial buildings) with two large, moveable arms pivoted on an upright member. Such a system was inconvenient to install on board a ship. Flag semaphore provided an easy method of communicating ship-to-ship or ship-to-shore when the distances were not too great. According to Alexander J. Field of Santa Clara University, \"there is evidence\" that Popham based his telegraph on the French coastal stations used for ship-to-shore communication. Many of the codepoints of flag semaphore match those of the Foy-Breguet electrical telegraph, also descended from the French optical telegraph. Although based on the optical telegraph, by the time flag semaphore was introduced the optical telegraph had been entirely replaced by the electrical telegraph some years previously.", "The Japanese merchant marine and armed services have adapted the flag semaphore system to the Japanese language. Because their writing system involves a syllabary of about twice the number of characters in the Latin alphabet, most characters take two displays of the flags to complete; others need three and a few only one. The flags are specified as a solid white square for the left hand and a solid red one for the right. The display motions chosen are not like the \"rotary dial\" system used for the Latin alphabet letters and numbers; rather, the displays represent the angles of the brush strokes used in writing in the katakana syllabary and in the order drawn. For example, the character for \"O\" [オ], which is drawn first with a horizontal line from left to right, then a vertical one from top to bottom, and finally a slant between the two; follows that form and order of the arm extensions. It is the right arm, holding the red flag, which moves as a pen would, but in mirror image so that the observer sees the pattern normally. As in telegraphy, the katakana syllabary is the one used to write down the messages as they are received. Also, the Japanese system presents the number 0 by moving flags in a circle, and those from 1 through 9 using a sort of the \"rotary dial\" system, but different from that used for European languages.", "Semaphore flags are also sometimes used as means of communication in the mountains where oral or electronic communication is difficult to perform. Although they do not carry flags, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police officers have used hand semaphore in this manner. Some surf-side rescue companies, such as the Ocean City, Maryland Beach Patrol, use semaphore flags to communicate between lifeguards. The letters of the flag semaphore are also a common artistic motif. One enduring example is the peace symbol, adopted by the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament in 1958 from the original logo created by a commercial artist named Gerald Holtom from Twickenham, London. Holtom designed the logo for use on a protest march on the Atomic Weapons Establishment at Aldermaston, near Newbury, England. On 4 April 1958, the march left Trafalgar Square for rural Berkshire, carrying Ban the Bomb placards made by Holtom's children making it the first use of the symbol. Originally, it was purple and white and signified a combination of the semaphoric letters N and D, standing for \"nuclear disarmament,\" circumscribed by a circle. Along with Morse code, flag semaphore is currently used by the Navy and also continues to be a subject of study and training for young people of Scouts. In a satirical nod to the flag semaphore's enduring use into the age of the Internet, on April Fools' Day 2007 the Internet Engineering Task Force standards organization outlined the Semaphore Flag Signaling System, a method of transmitting Internet traffic via a chain of flag semaphore operators.", "The album cover for the Beatles' 1965 album \"Help!\" was originally to have portrayed the four band members spelling \"help\" in semaphore, but the result was deemed aesthetically unpleasing, and their arms were instead positioned in a meaningless but aesthetically pleasing arrangement. The second episode in the second series of \"Monty Python's Flying Circus\" depicted famous stories retold using various communication systems, including \"Wuthering Heights\" in semaphore." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Character arc.", "Conceptual history.", "Conception.", "Development.", "Reception." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Jack O'Neill is a United States Air Force colonel with experience in special operations before joining the Stargate Program. He then joins a suicidal mission through the Stargate with a couple of airmen and Dr. Daniel Jackson who deciphers the Stargate. They are transported to another planet where O'Neill's standing order is to detonate a nuclear warhead near the Stargate at the sign of danger, but a young boy named Skaara gives him a renewed sense of life. After the defeat of Ra, O'Neill and his team return to Earth while Jackson remains on the planet. He was married to Sara O'Neill, but their marriage suffered when Jack sank into a deep depression after their son accidentally shot himself with O'Neill's pistol. Though they are still together when Jack is initially recruited for his first mission through the Stargate, by the time he returned she had left him. O'Neill returns to the Stargate Program when the Goa'uld Apophis attacks the Earth installation via its stargate. He is given command of SG-1, which consists of Samantha Carter, Teal'c and Jackson. Eventually O'Neill gets the Repository of the Ancients temporarily \"downloaded\" to his brain and becomes the first modern human to travel to another galaxy, the Asgard home galaxy. A second download of the Ancients' knowledge into his brain during the season 7 finale, allows him to lead SG-1 to an Ancient outpost in Antarctica. O'Neill possesses the ATA gene, and thus is able to operate the Ancient control chair and save Earth from Anubis' fleet. With the Ancient knowledge about to overwhelm his personality and kill him, he is placed into a stasis pod in the outpost until Thor of the Asgard is able to remove the knowledge and save his life. After that event, O'Neill is promoted to brigadier general and is given command of Stargate Command. O'Neill is promoted again off-screen and becomes the new head of the Office of Homeworld Security/Homeworld Command after the retirement of General Hammond with Major General Hank Landry taking his position as the new commander of Stargate Command. In the pilot of Stargate Atlantis, O'Neill convinces John Sheppard to join the Atlantis expedition to the Pegasus Galaxy. In 2006, he, along with Richard Woolsey, visits Atlantis to create a treaty between the humans of Earth and the Ancients. The death of O'Neill is briefly shown in an alternate timeline where Ba'al controls the Goa'uld Empire. O'Neill reappears as a lieutenant general in \"Stargate Universe\" with Nicholas Rush, where he is recruiting Eli Wallace into the Icarus Project. After the attack on the Icarus Base, he contacts Carter from The Pentagon to talk about the ongoing situation. With help from the Ancient Communication Stones, Everett Young body swaps with Colonel David Telford to tell O'Neill about a dire situation in which they find themselves.", "", "John Symes approached Michael Greenburg and Richard Dean Anderson of \"MacGyver\" fame. Although Anderson was never a real fan of the science fiction genre, he believed the original feature film to be a good vehicle for a series. Anderson agreed to become involved with the project if his character was allowed significantly more comedic leeway than Kurt Russell's character in the feature film, shown especially Anderson's flippant and utter disregard for appropriate military protocol and decorum over the series, which contrasted Russell's \"by the book\" adherence to protocol. He also requested \"Stargate SG-1\" to be more of an ensemble show, so that he would not be carrying the plot alone as on \"MacGyver\". Anderson was part of the main cast from season 1 through 8 and played a recurring role in several episodes each season thereafter. He was influential in the development of O'Neill's character and personality from the beginning. While he praised the work done by Russell in the \"Stargate\" film, he said he couldn't be that serious all the time and worked with the writers and directors to give his O'Neill a more lighthearted tone while maintaining the sense of importance the role required. Additionally, he joked that he would never be able to get his hair to stay like Russell's. This \"double personality\" was also joked in the second season, when Jack introduced himself as: \"It's \"O'Neill,\" with two L's. There's another Colonel O'Neil with only one L, and he has no sense of humor at all.\"", "In season 6, Anderson chose to have a reduced role in the series so that he could spend more time with his young daughter. When Anderson left the show as a main character in the eighth season, the producers were talking about ending the series. Instead, the series introduced two new characters in the ninth season, Ben Browder as Cameron Mitchell, the new SG-1 team leader, and Beau Bridges as Hank Landry, the new commanding officer of Stargate Command. Anderson continued to appear in a recurring status on \"Stargate SG-1\", albeit with less frequent appearances. He returned for the second straight-to-DVD film, \"\" in a brief cameo, and was expected to return for the third movie. Executive producer Brad Wright stressed the importance of O'Neill's presence in the Stargate universe even after the character went on hiatus during the last two seasons of SG-1 when Anderson took a leave from regular acting. Anderson has also had various guest appearances on the two spin off series' \"Stargate Atlantis\" and \"Stargate Universe\". Anderson had several guest cameos scattered over the first season of \"Stargate Universe\". He is mainly seen in the Pentagon but later visits the Destiny after the revelations about Telford emerge. In total, he appears in six episodes of \"Stargate Universe\", the most of any main actor from \"Stargate SG-1\".", "For his portrayal of O'Neill, Richard Dean Anderson won a Saturn Award in the category \"Best Genre TV Actor\" in 1999, and was nominated in the same category in 1998 and 2000. From 2001 to 2005, Anderson was nominated for a Saturn Award in the category \"Best Actor on Television\" but never won. Anderson was nominated in the category for \"Best Male Performance in a 2008 Science Fiction Film, TV Movie, or Mini-Series\" at the Constellation Awards in 2009 for his work in \"\" (2008), where he reprised his role as O'Neill. He was presented with an award at the Air Force Association's 57th Annual Air Force Anniversary Dinner in Washington, D.C. on September 14, 2004 because of his role as star and executive producer of \"Stargate SG-1\", a series which has portrayed the Air Force in a positive light since it first premiered. It was presented by the then-Air Force Chief-of-Staff, General John P. Jumper. Anderson was made an honorary Brigadier General. \"TV Guide\" ranked Jack O'Neill # 10 on its \"25 Greatest Sci-Fi Legends of All Time\" list." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Organization.", "OpenVMS.", "Design considerations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In an ISAM system, data is organized into records which are composed of fixed length fields, originally stored sequentially in key sequence. Secondary set(s) of records, known as \"indexes\", contain pointers to the location of each record, allowing individual records to be retrieved without having to search the entire data set. This differs from the contemporaneous navigational databases, in which the pointers to other records were stored inside the records themselves. The key improvement in ISAM is that the indexes are small and can be searched quickly, possibly entirely in memory, thereby allowing the database to access only the records it needs. Additional modifications to the data do not require changes to other data, only the table and indexes in question. When an ISAM file is created, index nodes are fixed, and their pointers do not change during inserts and deletes that occur later (only content of leaf nodes change afterwards). As a consequence of this, if inserts to some leaf node exceed the node's capacity, new records are stored in overflow chains. If there are many more inserts than deletions from a table, these overflow chains can gradually become very large, and this affects the time required for retrieval of a record. Relational databases can easily be built on an ISAM framework with the addition of logic to maintain the validity of the links between the tables. Typically the field being used as the link, the \"foreign key\", will be indexed for quick lookup. While this is slower than simply storing the pointer to the related data directly in the records, it also means that changes to the physical layout of the data do not require any updating of the pointers—the entry will still be valid. ISAM is simple to understand and implement, as it primarily consists of direct access to a database file. The tradeoff is that each client machine must manage its own connection to each file it accesses. This, in turn, leads to the possibility of conflicting inserts into those files, leading to an inconsistent database state. This is typically solved with the addition of a client-server framework which marshals client requests and maintains ordering. This is the basic concept behind a database management system (DBMS), which is a client layer over the underlying data store. ISAM was replaced at IBM with a methodology called VSAM (virtual storage access method). Still later, IBM developed DB2 which, as of 2004, IBM promotes as their primary database management system. VSAM is the physical access method used in DB2.", "The OpenVMS operating system uses the Files-11 file system in conjunction with RMS (Record Management Services). RMS provides an additional layer between the application and the files on disk that provides a consistent method of data organization and access across multiple 3GL and 4GL languages. RMS provides four different methods of accessing data; sequential, relative record number access, record file address access, and indexed access. The indexed access method of reading or writing data only provides the desired outcome if in fact the file is organized as an ISAM file with the appropriate, previously defined keys. Access to data via the previously defined key(s) is extremely fast. Multiple keys, overlapping keys and key compression within the hash tables are supported. A utility to define/redefine keys in existing files is provided. Records can be deleted, although \"garbage collection\" is done via a separate utility.", "ISAM was developed at a time when computer memory was a scarce resource. Accordingly IBM designed the system to use a minimum amount of memory. The tradeoff was that the Input/Output channel, control unit, and disk were kept busier. An ISAM file consists of a collection of data records and two or three levels of index. The \"track index\" contains the highest key for each disk track on the cylinder it indexes. The \"cylinder index\" stores the highest key on a cylinder, and the disk address of the corresponding track index. An optional \"master index\", usually used only for large files, contains the highest key on a cylinder index track and the disk address of that cylinder index. Once a file is loaded data records are not moved; inserted records are placed into a separate \"overflow area\". To locate a record by key the indexes on disk are searched by a complex self-modifying channel program. This increased the busy time of the channel, control unit, and disk. With increased physical and virtual memory sizes in later systems this was seen as inefficient, and VSAM was developed to alter the tradeoff between memory usage and disk activity. ISAM's use of self-modifying channel programs later caused difficulties for CP-67 support of OS/360, since CP-67 copied an entire channel program into fixed memory when the I/O operation was started and translated virtual addresses to real addresses." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Synopsis.", "Episodes.", "Production.", "Crossovers.", "Reception.", "Ratings and viewership.", "Critical reception.", "Cancellation.", "Home media releases.", "In other media.", "Original soundtrack.", "Comics.", "Podcast appearances." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Deputy United States Marshal Jack Carter stumbles upon Eureka while transporting a fugitive prisoner (his own rebellious teenage daughter Zoe) back to her mother's home in Los Angeles. When a faulty experiment cripples the sheriff of Eureka, Carter finds himself quickly chosen to fill the vacancy. Despite not being a genius like most members of the town, Jack Carter demonstrates a remarkable ability to connect to others, keen and practical insights, and a dedication to preserving the safety of Eureka. \"Eureka\" took place in a high tech fictional community of the same name, located in the U.S. state of Oregon (Washington in the pilot), and inhabited by brilliant scientists. Camouflaged by an electromagnetic shield, the town is operated by a corporation called Global Dynamics (GD), which is overseen by the United States Department of Defense. The town's existence and location are closely guarded secrets. In episode 1.8 (\"Right as Raynes\"), Carter and Stark are able to drive to Summerville, Oregon within an hour, give or take a few minutes. Then, in episode 2.03 (\"Unpredictable\"), the meteorologist's map shows Eureka as being on the Santiam River by the Green Peter Reservoir in Oregon. But in episode 5.06 (\"Worst Case Scenario\"), Jack is directed to place an electromagnetic field generator device at the center of Eureka's shield. The GPS coordinates given are, located in the Winema National Forest, north of the border between California and Oregon.", "", "The series was created by Andrew Cosby and Jaime Paglia and was produced by Universal Media Studios. The season one original music was composed by Mutato Muzika; season two and beyond were composed by Bear McCreary. The executive producers were Paglia, Charles Grant Craig, and Thania St. John. While initially lacking in strong critical acclaim, Eureka had been a popular success, averaging 3.2 million viewers during the second half of season three. In 2007 Eureka was nominated for the Emmy Award for Outstanding Visual Effects for a Series and won the Leo Award for Best Visual Effects in a Dramatic Series. In the United Kingdom on Sky1 the show is known as A Town Called Eureka although it is also shown under its original name on the BT Vision platform. Characters from \"Eureka\" have crossed over to \"Warehouse 13\" and vice versa, and characters from \"Warehouse 13\" have crossed over to \"Alphas\", making the triplet sister shows. On August 17, 2010, the channel, now known as Syfy, announced that the show had been picked up for a fifth season of 13 episodes.<ref name=\"Twitter / Eureka Unscripted\"></ref> Fan sites and a show writers' Twitter feed said on August 4, 2011, that the show had been picked up for a sixth and possibly final season of six episodes. It was then announced on August 8, 2011, that \"Eureka\" would not get a sixth season, but it would instead be canceled after season five. However, one additional episode of the fifth season was approved in order to give the series a proper finale. On February 16, 2012, Syfy announced that the show's fifth and final season would premiere on April 16, 2012.", "\"Eureka\" was part of Sci-Fi's developing shared fictional universe, with several characters crossing over between series: Global Dynamics researcher Douglas Fargo (played by Neil Grayston) from \"Eureka\" traveled to South Dakota to update Warehouse 13's computer system in the \"Warehouse 13\" episode \"13.1\". Warehouse 13 computer wizard Claudia Donovan (played by Allison Scagliotti) subsequently traveled to the town of Eureka, Oregon to check out the technological marvels at Global Dynamics in the \"Eureka\" episode \"Crossing Over\". Fargo again appeared in the \"Warehouse 13\" episode \"Don't Hate the Player\" when Claudia, Lattimer, and Bering traveled to Palo Alto, California to find Douglas beta testing a virtual reality simulator with the aid of a dangerous artifact. Additionally, Hugo Miller spent some time in the town of Eureka, departing with Douglas Fargo at the end of episode \"13.1\"; he returns in \"Love Sick\", commenting that, \"every week [there] something seems to go 'boom'!\" His presence there is off screen.", "", "The series premiere was watched by 4.1 million people, making it the top-rated cable program for that night; it was the highest-rated series launch in Sci-Fi's fourteen-year history. The season two premiere drew 2.5 million viewers, making it the top-rated cable program of the day. For calendar-year 2008 as a first-run, the series delivered 1.42 million viewers in the 18–49 demographic. The 3rd season premiere was viewed by 2.8 million viewers, and the season 3.5 premiere of \"Eureka\" earned 2.68 million viewers in its new time slot. The 4th season premiere was viewed by 2.5 million viewers. The 5th season premiere was viewed by 1.8 million viewers, on par with seasons 4's closing episode \"One Giant Leap\". The 5th season closer \"Just Another Day\" generated 1.58 million viewers.", "Critical reaction was mixed, with general praise for the premise, but overall middling reaction to the writing of the pilot. The \"Seattle Post-Intelligencer\": The \"New York Daily News\":", "On August 8, 2011, it was announced that \"Eureka\" would be cancelled after five seasons. Syfy decided not to order a season six of \"Eureka\": \"But \"Eureka\" is not over yet. There is a new holiday episode this December and 12 stellar episodes set to debut next year, marking its fifth season and six memorable years on Syfy. The 2012 episodes are some of the best we've seen, and will bring this great series to a satisfying end. We are very grateful to Bruce Miller and Jaime Paglia, their team of incredible writers, and an amazing cast and crew who have consistently delivered a series we continue to be very proud of. We thank the fans for their support of this show and know they will enjoy its final season in 2012.\" With the announcement of the show's cancellation, a fan campaign on social media emerged. Thousands of fans protested what they thought was the network's decision. Executive producer Amy Berg clarified that the decision to cancel the show was made by Comcast, the controlling partner at NBCUniversal, which owns Syfy.", "All five seasons of \"Eureka\" have been released in Region 1, seasons 1–4.5 have been released in region 2 and seasons 1–4 have been released in region 4, season 3 and 4 were released in two separate sets for each season in region 1 and 2. Mill Creek Entertainment will release the complete series' Blu-ray format on August 11, 2020 instead of its original date June 9.", "", "On August 26, 2008, La La Land Records released \"Eureka: Original Soundtrack From the Sci-Fi Channel Television Series\". Composed predominantly by Bear McCreary, the album consists of 28 tracks from the show's second season. It also includes two variations of the Mark Mothersbaugh and John Enroth composed main theme, as well as two songs, \"Let's Get Hitched\" and \"EurekAerobics\", written by Brendan McCreary and Captain Ahab, respectively.", "In early 2009, Boom! Studios produced a comic book based on storylines provided by Andrew Cosby (who is also the co-founder of the comic publisher), written by Brendan Hay, with art by Diego Barreto. This was followed by a second issue called \"Eureka: Dormant Gene\" written by Andrew Cosby, Jaime Paglia and Jonathan L. Davis, with art by Mark Dos Santos.", "In 2011, Colin Ferguson appeared on \"Disasterpiece Theatre\", discussing what \"Eureka\" might look like if directed by Michael Bay. In 2012, Niall Matter also made an appearance on the podcast, discussing how \"Eureka\" would function as a \"romcom\". In May 2012, Ferguson appeared on \"Tabletop\", a show on Geek and Sundry, where during the course of the episode he discusses his experiences and character in \"Eureka\". The Geek And Sundry network is co-hosted, among others, by Felicia Day and Wil Wheaton, who made various appearances on \"Eureka\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Career.", "Band formation and name.", "Growing fame and performances.", "Tours, festivals, books, and theater.", "Hiatus.", "2010 reunion tour.", "2011/2012 tour.", "2015.", "2018.", "2020.", "Musical style and influences." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The duo formed a week after Brian Viglione witnessed Amanda Palmer perform solo at a Halloween party in 2000. Their live performances soon gained them a cult following. During these performances the two band members often wore dramatic make-up and fancy clothing that pushed their cabaret/theater aesthetic. They encourage fans to become involved at their shows, with the fans' own stilt walking, living statues, fire breathers, and other performance art becoming an integral part of the show. The Dirty Business Brigade coordinated the fans' performances. The band's first name was Out of Arms. At some point, the name became The Dresden Dolls. The name, according to Palmer, was \"inspired by a combination of things\", including the firebombing of Dresden, Germany and the porcelain dolls that were a hallmark of pre-war Dresden industry; an early song of the same name by The Fall; and a reference to the V. C. Andrews novel \"Flowers in the Attic\", where the classically blond-haired and blue-eyed protagonists are called \"the Dresden dolls\". The name also evokes Weimar Germany and its cabaret culture. Additionally, Palmer \"liked the parallel between Dresden (destruction) and Dolls (innocence, delicacy), because it is very much in keeping with the dynamics of the music, which sometimes goes from a childlike whisper to a banshee scream within a few seconds\".", "The duo was featured in a webcast performance at the 2002 Ig Nobel Prize ceremony in Cambridge, Massachusetts. After a self-promoted demo recorded and released in 2001, their first release was the mostly live compilation \"A Is for Accident\" (Important Records), followed in 2003 by a self-titled debut produced and recorded by Martin Bisi (Swans, Sonic Youth) at The Old American Can Factory in Gowanus, Brooklyn after being signed to Roadrunner Records by David Bason. The album features fellow Boston-area musicians Ad Frank (guitar on \"Good Day\") and Shawn Setaro (bass on \"Good Day\", \"Gravity\", and \"Jeep Song\"). Two songs off the album ranked in the Triple J Hottest 100, 2004: \"Girl Anachronism\" at number 30 and \"Coin-Operated Boy\" at number 12. In 2003 they were crowned the winners of Boston's long-running WBCN Rock & Roll Rumble. On October 6, 2005, The Dresden Dolls were interviewed by the subject of one of their songs, Christopher Lydon, on the radio show \"Open Source\".", "In March 2005, the duo supported Nine Inch Nails on tour. On June 5, The Dresden Dolls hosted a free concert at the Paradise Rock Club in Boston. When a power outage unexpectedly delayed their performance, city streets became a temporary stage for some of the many performers (living statues, stilt-walkers, and fire-breathers) who had come from across the world to entertain audiences. The entire event—concert and street performances—was filmed and the resulting DVD, \"\", was released in Europe on October 10, 2005 and in North America on November 22, shortly after the band's fall 2005 tour. The Dresden Dolls' second studio album, \"Yes, Virginia...\", was released on April 18, 2006. Over the summer of that year, the duo performed at South by Southwest, Bonnaroo, Britain's Reading and Leeds Festivals, and Lollapalooza, in addition to touring with Panic! at the Disco as their opening act. During the support tour, the band presented \"Fuck the Back Row—A Night of Celluloid Vaudeville\". The events consisted of screenings of short films from friends and fans, performances by local artists, and a solo show by Palmer who performed mostly cover songs inspired from film soundtracks. In June 2006, \"The Dresden Dolls Companion\" was released by Amanda Palmer. The book contains a history of the band and their first album—\"The Dresden Dolls\"—as well as a partial autobiography. The book also contains the lyrics, sheet music, and notes on each song on the album, as well as a DVD featuring a 20-minute interview with Palmer about the origins of the band and the first LP. The interview was conducted by a friend while Palmer compiled the artwork for the first LP. On August 16, the East Providence Community Theatre in East Providence, Rhode Island premiered a full-length, fan-written jukebox musical, \"The Clockwork Waltz\", featuring songs from The Dresden Dolls' three albums. The show was encouraged by the band and their management. In December 2006 and January 2007, the music of The Dresden Dolls was featured in an original production—\"The Onion Cellar\"—at the American Repertory Theatre's Zero Arrow Theatre in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The play is co-authored by Amanda Palmer, from her original concept. On January 14, 2007, the duo took a temporary hiatus. Palmer worked on her solo album, \"Who Killed Amanda Palmer\", while Brian Viglione toured with Boston-based HUMANWINE and other local Boston acts, along with touring with Jesse Malin and offering drum clinics. In June 2007, they joined the True Colors Tour 2007, including their debut in New York City's Radio City Music Hall and their first review in the \"New York Times\". On July 10, 2007, the DVD, \"Live at the Roundhouse\", was released in the U.S. From December 27, 2007 to January 13, 2008, their Winter Tour started at the Sixth & I Historic Synagogue in Washington, DC, and ending at The Norva in Norfolk, Virginia. On January 15, 2008, they entered the studio to record new material for their third studio album, \"No, Virginia...\" Released on May 20, 2008, it is a collection of B-sides and rarities, along with new recordings of old favorites and cover songs that were previously only available as live versions. The album spawned the single, \"Night Reconnaissance\". July 2008 saw the release of the second Dresden Dolls book, the \"Virginia Companion\". It is a follow-up to the \"Dresden Dolls Companion\", featuring the music and lyrics from the \"Yes, Virginia...\" and \"No, Virginia...\" albums.", "In September 2008, rumors began to circulate about the future of the whole band. Viglione confirmed that the band was on hiatus but emphasized that he and Palmer are on good terms and that they will get together again when it feels right for both of them. In late July and early August 2009, a rumor began to spread that the band was \"reuniting for performances in 2010\" but Palmer clarified in her blog on August 7: \"There's been a ton of press lately re-printing an old quote from an old interview that's now blown up into a full-fledged press rumour that Brian and I have planned Dresden Dolls' shows for 2010. Not true. We aren't planning any shows. Sorry about that, blame the gossip whores.\"", "In 2010, a reunion tour to selected venues in the United States occurred. It started on Halloween in New York City and ended in San Francisco on New Year's Eve.", "The Dresden Dolls played a show in Mexico City on December 9, 2011. They had a tour of New Zealand and Australia in January 2012, supported by The Jane Austen Argument in Australia, and Hera, House of Mountain and Princess Chelsea in New Zealand.", "On April 15, 2015, they had a show in New York to celebrate Record Store Day and promote the release of \"The Virginia Monologues\".", "On October 27 (The Dome, Tuffnel Park), 30 & 31 (The Troxy), 2018, they played three shows in London (their first shows in Europe in 12 years).", "On her ‘There Will Be No Intermission’ tour in 2019, Amanda Palmer announced that the Dresden Dolls will be recording and releasing a new album in 2020. Vigilone played drums on four tracks of a charity album released by Palmer in February 2020.", "The Dresden Dolls are a dark cabaret band. Their piano and drum driven rock music, incorporated into alternative rock song structures with piano replacing the rhythm guitar, has seen them fall into the piano rock genre. In her influences, Palmer named Cyndi Lauper, Laurie Anderson and Kate Bush She was also inspired by the likes of Bauhaus, The Cure, The Legendary Pink Dots, Robyn Hitchcock and Nick Cave." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Family and background.", "Rise of the Flavian dynasty.", "Year of the Four Emperors.", "Aftermath of the war.", "Marriage.", "Ceremonial heir (71–81).", "Emperor (81–96).", "Rule.", "Economy.", "Military campaigns.", "Campaign against the Chatti.", "Conquest of Britain (77–84).", "Dacian wars (85–88).", "Religious policy.", "Opposition.", "Revolt of Governor Saturninus (89).", "Relationship with the Senate.", "Death and succession.", "Assassination.", "Succession and aftermath.", "Legacy.", "Ancient sources.", "Modern revisionism." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Domitian was born in Rome on 24 October 51, the youngest son of Titus Flavius Vespasianus—commonly known as Vespasian—and Flavia Domitilla Major. He had an older sister, Domitilla the Younger, and brother, also named Titus Flavius Vespasianus. Decades of civil war during the 1st century BC had contributed greatly to the demise of the old aristocracy of Rome, which a new Italian nobility gradually replaced in prominence during the early part of the 1st century. One such family, the Flavians, or \"gens Flavia\", rose from relative obscurity to prominence in just four generations, acquiring wealth and status under the emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Domitian's great-grandfather, Titus Flavius Petro, had served as a centurion under Pompey during Caesar's civil war. His military career ended in disgrace when he fled the battlefield at the Battle of Pharsalus in 48 BC. Nevertheless, Petro managed to improve his status by marrying the extremely wealthy Tertulla, whose fortune guaranteed the upward mobility of Petro's son Titus Flavius Sabinus I, Domitian's grandfather. Sabinus himself amassed further wealth and possible equestrian status through his services as tax collector in Asia and banker in Helvetia (modern Switzerland). By marrying Vespasia Polla he allied the Flavian family to the more prestigious \"gens Vespasia\", ensuring the elevation of his sons Titus Flavius Sabinus II and Vespasian to senatorial rank. The political career of Vespasian included the offices of quaestor, aedile, and praetor, and culminated in a consulship in 51, the year of Domitian's birth. As a military commander, Vespasian gained early renown by participating in the Roman invasion of Britain in 43. Nevertheless, ancient sources allege poverty for the Flavian family at the time of Domitian's upbringing, even claiming Vespasian had fallen into disrepute under the emperors Caligula (37–41) and Nero (54–68). Modern history has refuted these claims, suggesting these stories later circulated under Flavian rule as part of a propaganda campaign to diminish success under the less reputable Emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty and to maximize achievements under Emperor Claudius (41–54) and his son Britannicus. By all appearances, the Flavians enjoyed high imperial favour throughout the 40s and 60s. While Titus received a court education in the company of Britannicus, Vespasian pursued a successful political and military career. Following a prolonged period of retirement during the 50s, he returned to public office under Nero, serving as proconsul of the Africa Province in 63, and accompanying the emperor Nero during an official tour of Greece in 66. That same year Jews from the Province of Judaea revolted against the Roman Empire, sparking what is now known as the First Jewish-Roman War. Vespasian was assigned to lead the Roman army against the insurgents, with Titus—who had completed his military education by this time—in charge of a legion.", "", "On 9 June 68, amid growing opposition of the Senate and the army, Nero committed suicide and with him the Julio-Claudian dynasty came to an end. Chaos ensued, leading to a year of brutal civil war known as the Year of the Four Emperors, during which the four most influential generals in the Roman Empire—Galba, Otho, Vitellius and Vespasian—successively vied for imperial power. News of Nero's death reached Vespasian as he was preparing to besiege the city of Jerusalem. Almost simultaneously the Senate had declared Galba, then governor of Hispania Tarraconensis (modern northern Spain), as Emperor of Rome. Rather than continue his campaign, Vespasian decided to await further", "Although the war had officially ended, a state of anarchy and lawlessness pervaded in the first days following the demise of Vitellius. Order was properly restored by Mucianus in early 70 but Vespasian did not enter Rome until September of that year. In the meantime, Domitian acted as the representative of the Flavian family in the Roman Senate. He received the title of \"Caesar\" and was appointed praetor with consular power. The ancient historian Tacitus describes Domitian's first speech in the Senate as brief and measured, at the same time noting his ability to elude awkward questions. Domitian's authority was merely nominal, foreshadowing what was to be his role for at least ten more years. By all accounts, Mucianus held the real power in Vespasian's absence and he was careful to ensure that Domitian, still only eighteen years old, did not overstep the boundaries of his function. Strict control was also maintained over the young Caesar's entourage, promoting away", "Where his political and military career had ended in disappointment, Domitian's private affairs were more successful. In 70 Vespasian attempted to arrange a dynastic marriage between his youngest son and the daughter of Titus, Julia Flavia, but Domitian was adamant in his love for Domitia Longina, going so far as to persuade her husband, Lucius Aelius Lamia, to divorce her so that Domitian could marry her himself. Despite its initial recklessness, the alliance was very prestigious for both families. Domitia Longina was the younger daughter of Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo, a respected general and honoured politician who had distinguished himself for his leadership in Armenia. Following the failed Pisonian conspiracy against Nero in 65, he had been forced to commit suicide. She was also a granddaughter of Junia Lepida, a descendant of Emperor Augustus. The new marriage not only re-established ties to senatorial opposition, but also served the broader Flavian propaganda of the time, which sought to diminish Vespasian's political", "Before becoming Emperor, Domitian's role in the Flavian government was largely ceremonial. In June 71, Titus returned triumphant from the war in Judaea. Ultimately, the rebellion had claimed the lives of tens of thousands, perhaps hundreds of thousands, a majority of whom were Jewish. The city and temple of Jerusalem were completely destroyed, its most valuable treasures carried off by the Roman army, and nearly 100,000 people were captured and enslaved. For his victory, the Senate awarded Titus a Roman triumph. On the day of the festivities, the Flavian family rode into the capital, preceded by a lavish parade that displayed the spoils of the war. The family", "", "As Emperor, Domitian quickly dispensed with the republican facade his father and brother had maintained during their reign. By moving the centre of government (more or less formally) to the imperial court, Domitian openly rendered the Senate's powers obsolete. In his view, the Roman Empire was to be governed as a divine monarchy with himself as the benevolent despot at its head. In addition to exercising absolute political power, Domitian believed the emperor's role encompassed every aspect of daily life, guiding the Roman people as a cultural and moral authority. To usher in the new era, he embarked on ambitious economic, military, and cultural programs with the intention of restoring the Empire to the splendour it had seen under the Emperor Augustus. Despite these grand designs, Domitian was determined to govern the Empire conscientiously and scrupulously. He became personally involved in all branches of the administration: edicts were issued governing the smallest details of everyday life and law, while taxation and public morals were", "Domitian's tendency towards micromanagement was nowhere more evident than in his financial policy. The question of whether Domitian left the Roman Empire in debt or with a surplus at the time of his death has been fiercely debated. The evidence points to a balanced economy for the greater part of Domitian's reign. Upon his accession he revalued the Roman currency dramatically. He increased the silver purity of the denarius from 90% to 98% – the actual silver weight increasing from 2.87 grams to 3.26 grams. A financial crisis in 85 forced a devaluation of the silver purity and weight to 93.5% and 3.04 grams respectively. Nevertheless, the new values were still higher than the levels that Vespasian and Titus had maintained during their reigns. Domitian's rigorous taxation policy ensured that this standard was sustained for the following eleven years. Coinage from this era displays a highly consistent degree of quality including meticulous attention to Domitian's titulature and refined artwork on the reverse portraits. Jones estimates Domitian's annual income at more than 1.2 billion sestertii, of which over one-third would presumably have been spent maintaining the Roman army. The other major expense was the extensive reconstruction of", "The military campaigns undertaken during Domitian's reign were generally defensive in nature, as the Emperor rejected the idea of expansionist warfare. His most significant military contribution was the development of the Limes Germanicus, which encompassed a vast network of roads, forts and watchtowers constructed along the Rhine river to defend the Empire. Nevertheless, several important wars were fought in Gaul, against the Chatti, and across the Danube frontier against the Suebi, the Sarmatians, and the Dacians. The conquest of Britain continued under the command of Gnaeus Julius Agricola, who expanded the Roman Empire as far as Caledonia, or modern day Scotland. Domitian also founded a new legion in 82, the Legio I Minervia,", "Once Emperor, Domitian immediately sought to attain his long delayed military glory. As early as 82, or possibly 83, he went to Gaul, ostensibly to conduct a census, and suddenly ordered an attack on the Chatti. For this purpose, a new legion was founded, Legio I Minervia, which constructed some 75 kilometres (46 mi) of roads through Chattan territory to", "One of the most detailed reports of military activity under the Flavian dynasty was written by Tacitus, whose biography of his father-in-law Gnaeus Julius Agricola largely concerns the conquest of Britain between 77 and 84. Agricola arrived c. 77 as governor of Roman Britain, immediately launching campaigns into Caledonia (modern Scotland). In 82 Agricola crossed an unidentified body of water and defeated peoples unknown to the Romans until then. He fortified the coast facing Ireland, and Tacitus recalls that his father-in-law often claimed the island could be conquered with a single legion and a few auxiliaries. He had given refuge to an exiled Irish king whom he hoped he might use as the excuse for conquest. This conquest never happened, but some historians believe that the crossing referred to was in fact a small-scale exploratory or punitive expedition to Ireland. Turning his attention from Ireland, the following year Agricola raised a fleet and pushed beyond the Forth into Caledonia. To aid the advance, a large legionary fortress was constructed at Inchtuthil. In", "The most significant threat the Roman Empire faced during the reign of Domitian arose from the northern provinces of Illyricum, where the Suebi, the Sarmatians and the Dacians continuously harassed Roman settlements along the Danube river. Of these, the Sarmatians and the Dacians posed the most formidable threat. In approximately 84 or 85 the Dacians, led by King Decebalus, crossed the Danube into the province of Moesia, wreaking havoc and killing the Moesian governor Oppius Sabinus. Domitian quickly launched a counteroffensive, personally travelling to the region accompanied by a large force commanded by his praetorian prefect Cornelius Fuscus. Fuscus successfully drove the Dacians back across the border in mid-85, prompting Domitian to return to Rome and celebrate his second triumph. The victory proved short-lived, however: as early in 86 Fuscus embarked on an ill-fated expedition into Dacia. Fuscus was killed, and the battle standard of the Praetorian Guard was lost. The loss of the battle standard, or \"aquila\", was indicative of a crushing defeat and a serious affront to Roman", "Domitian firmly believed in the traditional Roman religion, and personally saw to it that ancient customs and morals were observed throughout his reign. In order to justify the divine nature of the Flavian rule, Domitian emphasized connections with the chief deity Jupiter, perhaps most significantly through the impressive restoration of the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill. A small chapel dedicated to \"Jupiter Conservator\" was also constructed near the house where Domitian had fled to safety on 20 December 69. Later in his reign, he replaced it with a more expansive building, dedicated to \"Jupiter Custos\". The goddess he worshipped the most zealously, however, was Minerva. Not only did he", "", "On 1 January 89, the governor of Germania Superior, Lucius Antonius Saturninus, and his two legions at Mainz, Legio XIV Gemina and Legio XXI Rapax, revolted against the Roman Empire with the aid of the Germanic Chatti people. The precise cause for the rebellion is uncertain, although it appears to have been planned well in advance. The Senatorial officers may have disapproved of Domitian's military strategies, such as his decision to fortify the German frontier rather than attack, as well as his recent retreat from Britain, and finally the disgraceful policy of appeasement towards Decebalus. At any rate, the uprising was strictly confined to Saturninus' province, and quickly detected once the rumour spread across the neighbouring provinces. The governor of Germania Inferior, Aulus Bucius Lappius Maximus, moved to the region at once, assisted by the procurator of Rhaetia, Titus Flavius Norbanus. From Spain, Trajan was summoned, while Domitian himself came from", "Since the fall of the Republic, the authority of the Roman Senate had largely eroded under the quasi-monarchical system of government established by Augustus, known as the Principate. The Principate allowed the existence of a \"de facto\" dictatorial regime, while maintaining the formal framework of the Roman Republic. Most Emperors upheld the public facade of democracy, and in return the Senate implicitly acknowledged the Emperor's status as a \"de facto\" monarch. Some rulers handled this arrangement with less subtlety than others. Domitian was not so subtle. From the outset of his reign, he stressed the reality of his autocracy. He disliked aristocrats and had no fear of showing it, withdrawing every decision-making power from the Senate, and instead relying on a small set of friends and equestrians to control the important offices of state. The dislike was mutual. After Domitian's assassination, the senators of Rome rushed to the Senate house, where they immediately passed a motion condemning his memory to oblivion. Under the rulers of the Nervan-Antonian dynasty, senatorial authors published histories that elaborated on the view of Domitian as a tyrant. Nevertheless, the evidence suggests that Domitian did make concessions toward senatorial opinion. Whereas his father and brother", "", "Domitian was assassinated on 18 September 96 in a conspiracy by court officials. A highly detailed account of the plot and the assassination is provided by Suetonius. He alleges that Domitian's chamberlain Parthenius played the main role in the plot, citing the recent execution of Nero's former secretary Epaphroditus as his primary motive. The act itself was carried out by a freedman of his named Maximus, and a steward of Domitian's niece Flavia Domitilla, named Stephanus. According to Suetonius, a number of omens had foretold Domitian's death. The Germanic soothsayer Larginus Proclus predicted the date of Domitian's death and was consequently sentenced to death by him. Several days prior to the assassination, Minerva had appeared to the emperor in a dream. She announced that she had been disarmed by Jupiter and could no longer give Domitian her protection. According to an auspice he had received, the Emperor believed that his death would be at midday. As a result, he was always restless around that time. On the day of the assassination, Domitian was distressed and repeatedly asked a servant to tell him what time it was.", "The \"Fasti Ostienses\", the Ostian Calendar, records that on the same day as Domitian's assasination, the Senate proclaimed Marcus Cocceius Nerva emperor. Despite his political experience, this was a remarkable choice. Nerva was old and childless, and had spent much of his career out of the public light, prompting both ancient and modern authors to speculate on his involvement in Domitian's assassination. According to Cassius Dio, the conspirators approached Nerva as a potential successor prior to the assassination, suggesting that he was", "", "The classic view of Domitian is usually negative, since most of the antique sources were related to the Senatorial or aristocratic class, with which Domitian had notoriously difficult relations. Furthermore, contemporary historians such as Pliny the Younger, Tacitus and Suetonius all wrote down the information on his reign after it had ended, and his memory had been condemned to oblivion. The work of Domitian's court poets Martial and Statius constitutes virtually the only literary evidence concurrent with his reign. Perhaps as unsurprising as the attitude of post-Domitianic historians, the poems of Martial and Statius are highly adulatory, praising Domitian's achievements as equalling those of the gods. The most extensive account of the life of Domitian to survive was written by the historian Suetonius, who was born during the reign of Vespasian, and published his works under Emperor Hadrian (117–138). His \"De Vita Caesarum\" is the source of much of what is known of Domitian. Although his text is predominantly negative, it neither exclusively condemns nor praises Domitian, and asserts that his rule started well, but gradually declined into terror. The biography is problematic, however, in that it appears to contradict itself with regards to Domitian's rule and personality, at the same time presenting him as a conscientious, moderate man, and as a decadent libertine. According to Suetonius, Domitian wholly feigned his interest in arts and literature, and never bothered to acquaint himself with classic authors. Other passages, alluding to Domitian's love of epigrammatic expression, suggest that he was in fact familiar with classic writers, while he also patronized poets and architects, founded artistic Olympics, and personally restored the library of Rome at great expense after it had burned down. \"De Vita Caesarum\" is also the", "Over the course of the 20th century, Domitian's military, administrative and economic policies were re-evaluated. Hostile views of Domitian had been propagated until archeological and numismatic advances brought renewed attention to his reign, and necessitated a revision of the literary tradition established by Tacitus and Pliny. It would be nearly a hundred years after Stéphane Gsell's 1894 \"Essai sur le règne de l'empereur Domitien\" however, before any new, book-length studies were published. The first of these was Jones' 1992 \"The Emperor Domitian\". He concludes that Domitian was a ruthless but efficient autocrat. For the majority of his reign, there was no widespread dissatisfaction with his policies. His harshness was limited to a highly vocal minority, who exaggerated his despotism in favor of the Nervan-Antonian dynasty that followed. His foreign policy was realistic, rejecting expansionist warfare and negotiating peace at a time when Roman military tradition dictated aggressive conquest. Persecution of religious minorities, such as Jews and Christians, was non-existent. In 1930, Ronald Syme argued for a complete reassessment of Domitian's" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "The concert was staged on vacant terrain between Potsdamer Platz and the Brandenburg Gate, a location that was part of the former \"no man's land\" of the Berlin Wall. \"I did an interview a couple of years ago for a guy called Redbeard...\" Waters recalled. \"He said, 'Would you ever perform \"The Wall\" again on stage?' And I said, 'No'... Indoors, it made no sense financially; it's too expensive. And, as it's partially an attack on the inherently greedy nature of stadium rock shows, it would be wrong to do it in stadiums... I said, 'Well, I might do it outdoors if they ever take the wall down in Berlin.'... The Memorial Fund was in a council meeting, and felt they needed some kind of an event to focus attention on it... So I agreed to have a meeting with Leonard Cheshire. And I was very impressed, and said I would do what I could, although I thought it was very unlikely that it would come off... Then, in November [1989], when the wall started coming down, we started negotiating.\" The show had a sell-out crowd of over 350,000 people. Right before the performance started the gates were opened which enabled at least another 100,000 people to watch. While this broke records for a paid-entry concert, seven days earlier Jean-Michel Jarre had set a new world record for concert attendance, with his free Paris la Défense show attracting a live audience of two million. The event was produced and cast by British impresario and producer Tony Hollingsworth. It was staged partly at Waters' expense. While he subsequently earned the money back from the sale of the CD and video releases of the album, the original plan was to donate all profits past his initial investment to the Memorial Fund for Disaster Relief, a UK charity founded by Leonard Cheshire. However, audio and video sales came in significantly under projections, and the trading arm of the charity (Operation Dinghy) incurred heavy losses. A few years later, the charity was wound up, and the audio and video sales rights from the concert performance returned to Waters. The production was designed by Mark Fisher and Jonathan Park. The stage design featured a and wall. Most of the wall was built before the show and the rest was built progressively through the first part of the show. The wall was then knocked down at the end of the show. Initially, Waters tried to get guest musicians like Peter Gabriel, Bruce Springsteen and Eric Clapton but they were either unavailable or turned it down. Both Rod Stewart, who was to sing \"Young Lust\", and Joe Cocker were confirmed to appear but when the original planned concert date was put back both were unavailable. Also, on the same 1989 interview with Redbeard, Waters stated that \"I might even let Dave play guitar.\" On 30 June 1990 backstage at the Knebworth Pink Floyd performance at Knebworth '90, during a pre-show interview, David Gilmour responded to Roger's statement on an interview with Kurt Loder on MTV by saying that \"he and the rest of Pink Floyd (Nick Mason and Rick Wright) had been given the legal go-ahead to perform with Roger but had not been contacted\" and \"he never asked us\" (in a fake crying voice) with Nick Mason saying \"if only that phone can ring\". Two days later, on 2 July 1990 Waters appeared on the American rock radio call-in show Rockline and contradicted his Gilmour invite by saying, \"I don't know where Dave got that idea\". Also Rush drummer Neil Peart revealed in a 2013 interview with Classic Rock Magazine that he tried to get involved to play drums but Roger turned him down in favour of Graham Broad. In the end, Hollingsworth (with Waters assisting) brought in guest artists including Rick Danko, Levon Helm and Garth Hudson of The Band, The Hooters, Van Morrison, Sinéad O'Connor, Cyndi Lauper, Marianne Faithfull, Scorpions, Joni Mitchell, Paul Carrack, Thomas Dolby and Bryan Adams, along with actors Albert Finney, Jerry Hall, Tim Curry and Ute Lemper. Leonard Cheshire opened the concert by blowing a World War II whistle. This performance had several differences from Pink Floyd's original production of The Wall show. Both \"Mother\" and \"Another Brick in the Wall, Part II\" (like in the 1980/81 concerts) were extended with solos by various instruments and the latter had a cold ending. \"In The Flesh\" (also like the 1980/81 concerts) has an extended intro, and \"Comfortably Numb\" featured dueling solos by the two guitarists as well as an additional chorus at the end of the song. \"The Show Must Go On\" is omitted completely, while both \"The Last Few Bricks\" and \"What Shall We Do Now?\" are included (\"The Last Few Bricks\" was shortened). Also, the performance of the song \"The Trial\" had live actors playing the parts, with Thomas Dolby playing the part of the teacher hanging from the wall, Tim Curry as the prosecutor, and Albert Finney as the Judge. The repeated proclamation of \"Tear down the wall!\" and subsequent destruction of the on-stage wall was for this show accompanied by a projection of a section of the actual Berlin Wall on the cardboard bricks used on stage. The show officially ended with \"The Tide Is Turning\", a song from Waters' then-recent solo album Radio K.A.O.S. The Wall's original closing number, \"Outside the Wall,\" was affixed to the end of \"The Tide is Turning.\" \"The Wall – Live in Berlin\" was released as a live recording of the concert, and the Laserdisc video in NTSC can still be found through second sourcing. A DVD was released in 2003 in the U.S. by Island/Mercury Records and internationally by Universal Music (Region-free). Hollingsworth's company Tribute, a London-based \"good causes\" campaign company, sold worldwide television rights, with 52 countries showing the two-hour event. Twenty countries showed up to five repeats of the show and 65 countries broadcast a highlights show. There was also distribution of a double music CD and post-production VHS videotape by Polygram." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Schemes.", "Sequence-based identifiers.", "Change significance.", "Degree of compatibility.", "Designating development stage.", "Incrementing sequences.", "Resetting.", "Separating sequences.", "Number of sequences.", "Using negative numbers.", "Date of release.", "Python.", "TeX.", "Apple.", "Microsoft Windows.", "Other schemes.", "Internal version numbers.", "Pre-release versions.", "Release train.", "Modifications to the numeric system.", "Odd-numbered versions for development releases.", "Apple.", "Political and cultural significance of version numbers.", "Version 1.0 as a milestone.", "Version numbers as marketing.", "Apple.", "Dropping the most significant element.", "Overcoming perceived marketing difficulties.", "Significance in software engineering.", "Significance in technical support.", "Version numbers for files and documents.", "Version number ordering systems.", "Use in other media." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A variety of version numbering schemes have been created to keep track of different versions of a piece of software. The ubiquity of computers has also led to these schemes being used in contexts outside computing.", "In sequence-based software versioning schemes, each software release is assigned a unique identifier that consists of one or more sequences of numbers or letters. This is the extent of the commonality; schemes vary widely in areas such as the quantity of sequences, the attribution of meaning to individual sequences, and the means of incrementing the sequences.", "In some schemes, sequence-based identifiers are used to convey the significance of changes between releases. Changes are classified by significance level, and the decision of which sequence to change between releases is based on the significance of the changes from the previous release, whereby the first sequence is changed for the most significant changes, and changes to sequences after the first represent changes of decreasing significance. Depending on the scheme, significance may be assessed by lines of code changed, function points added or removed, potential impact on customers in terms of work required to adopt a newer version, risk of bugs or undeclared breaking changes, degree of changes in visual layout, quantity of new features, or almost anything the product developers or marketers deem to be significant, including marketing desire to stress the \"relative goodness\" of the new version. Semantic versioning (aka SemVer), currently the best known and most widely adopted version scheme in this category, uses a sequence of three digits (Major.Minor.Patch), an optional pre-release tag and optional build meta tag. In this scheme, risk and functionality are the measures of significance. Breaking changes are indicated by increasing the major number (high risk), new non-breaking features increment the minor number (medium risk) and all other non-breaking changes increment the patch number (lowest risk). The presence of a pre-release tag (-alpha, -beta) indicates substantial risk, as does a major number of zero (0.y.z), which is used to indicate a work-in-progress that may contain any level of potentially breaking changes (highest risk). Developers may choose to jump multiple minor versions at a time to indicate significant features have been added, but are not enough to warrant incrementing a major version number; for example Internet Explorer 5 from 5.1 to 5.5, or Adobe Photoshop 5 to 5.5. This may be done to emphasize the value of the upgrade to the software user, or, as in Adobe's case, to represent a release halfway between major versions (although levels of sequence based versioning are not limited to a single digit, as in Blender version 2.79). A different approach is to use the \"major\" and \"minor\" numbers, along with an alphanumeric string denoting the release type, e.g. \"alpha\" (a), \"beta\" (b), or \"release candidate\" (rc). A software release train using this approach might look like 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, 0.9 → 1.0b1, 1.0b2 (with some fixes), 1.0b3 (with more fixes) → 1.0rc1 (which, if it is stable \"enough\"), 1.0rc2 (if more bugs are found) → 1.0. It is a common practice in this scheme to lock-out new features and breaking changes during the release candidate phases and for some teams, even betas are lock-down to bug fixes only, in order to ensure convergence on the target release. Other schemes impart meaning on individual sequences: or Again, in these examples, the definition of what constitutes a \"major\" as opposed to a \"minor\" change is entirely subjective and up to the author, as is what defines a \"build\", or how a \"revision\" differs from a \"minor\" change. Shared libraries in Solaris and Linux may use the \"<nowiki>current.revision.age</nowiki>\" format where A similar problem of relative change significance and versioning nomenclature exists in book publishing, where edition numbers or names can be chosen based on varying criteria. In most proprietary software, the first released version of a software product has version 1.", "Some projects use the major version number to indicate incompatible releases. Two examples are Apache Portable Runtime (APR) and the FarCry CMS. Semantic versioning is a formal convention for specifying compatibility using a three-part version number: major version; minor version; and patch. The patch number is incremented for minor changes and bug fixes which do not change the software's application programming interface (API). The minor version is incremented for releases which add new, but backward-compatible, API features, and the major version is incremented for API changes which are not backward-compatible. For example, software which relies on version 2.1.5 of an API is compatible with version 2.2.3, but not necessarily with 3.2.4. Often programmers write new software to be backward compatible, i.e., the new software is designed to interact correctly with older versions of the software (using old protocols and file formats) and the most recent version (using the latest protocols and file formats). For example, IBM z/OS is designed to work properly with 3 consecutive major versions of the operating system running in the same sysplex. This enables people who run a high availability computer cluster to keep most of the computers up and running while one machine at a time is shut down, upgraded, and restored to service. Often packet headers and file format include a version number – sometimes the same as the version number of the software that wrote it; other times a \"protocol version number\" independent of the software version number. The code to handle old deprecated protocols and file formats is often seen as cruft.", "Some schemes use a zero in the first sequence to designate alpha or beta status for releases that are not stable enough for general or practical deployment and are intended for testing or internal use only. It can be used in the third position: For instance:", "There are two schools of thought regarding how numeric version numbers are incremented. Most free and open-source software packages, including MediaWiki, treat versions as a series of individual numbers, separated by periods, with a progression such as 1.7.0, 1.8.0, 1.8.1, 1.9.0, 1.10.0, 1.11.0, 1.11.1, 1.11.2, and so on. On the other hand, some software packages identify releases by decimal numbers: 1.7, 1.8, 1.81, 1.82, 1.9, etc. Decimal versions were common in the 1980s, for example with NetWare, DOS, and Microsoft Windows, but even in the 2000s have been for example used by Opera and Movable Type. In the decimal scheme, 1.81 is the minor version following 1.8, while maintenance releases (i.e. bug fixes only) may be denoted with an alphabetic suffix, such as 1.81a or 1.81b. The standard GNU version numbering scheme is major.minor.revision, but Emacs is a notable example using another scheme where the major number (1) was dropped and a \"user site\" revision was added which is always zero in original Emacs packages but increased by distributors. Similarly, Debian package numbers are prefixed with an optional \"epoch\", which is used to allow the versioning scheme to be changed.", "In some cases, developers may decide to reset the major version number. This is sometimes used to denote a new development phase being released. For example, \"Minecraft\" Alpha ran from version 1.0.0 to 1.2.6, and when Beta was released, it reset the major version number, and ran from 1.0 to 1.8. Once the game was fully released, the major version number again reset to 1.0.0.", "When printed, the sequences may be separated with characters. The choice of characters and their usage varies by scheme. The following list shows hypothetical examples of separation schemes for the same release (the thirteenth third-level revision to the fourth second-level revision to the second first-level revision): When a period is used to separate sequences, it \"may\" or \"may not\" represent a decimal point, — see “Incrementing sequences” section for various interpretation styles.", "There is sometimes a fourth, unpublished number which denotes the software build (as used by Microsoft). Adobe Flash is a notable case where a four-part version number is indicated publicly, as in 10.1.53.64. Some companies also include the build date. Version numbers may also include letters and other characters, such as Lotus 1-2-3 Release 1a.", "Some projects use negative version numbers. One example is the SmartEiffel compiler which started from -1.0 and counted upwards to 0.0.", "Many projects use a date-based versioning scheme called Calendar Versioning (aka CalVer). Ubuntu Linux is one example of a project using calendar versioning; Ubuntu 18.04, for example, was released April 2018. This has the advantage of being easily relatable to development schedules and support timelines. Some video games also use date as versioning, for example the arcade game Street Fighter EX. At startup it displays the version number as a date plus a region code, for example \"961219 ASIA\". When using dates in versioning, for instance, file names, it is common to use the ISO 8601 scheme: YYYY-MM-DD, as this is easily string sorted to increasing/decreasing order. The hyphens are sometimes omitted. The Wine project formerly used a date versioning scheme, which used the year followed by the month followed by the day of the release; for example, \"Wine 20040505\". Microsoft Office build numbers are an encoded date: the first two digits indicate the number of months that have passed from the January of the year in which the project started (with each major Office release being a different project), while the last two digits indicate the day of that month. So 3419 is the 19th day of the 34th month after the month of January of the year the project started. Other examples that identify versions by year include Adobe Illustrator 88 and WordPerfect Office 2003. When a date is used to denote version, it is generally for marketing purposes, and an actual version number also exists. For example, Microsoft Windows 95 is internally versioned as MS-DOS 7.00 and Windows 4.00; likewise, Microsoft Windows 2000 Server is internally versioned as Windows NT 5.0 (\"NT\" being a reference to the original product name).", "The Python Software Foundation has published PEP 440 -- Version Identification and Dependency Specification, outlining their own flexible scheme, that defines an epoch segment, a release segment, pre-release and post-release segments and a development release segment.", "TeX has an idiosyncratic version numbering system. Since version 3, updates have been indicated by adding an extra digit at the end, so that the version number asymptotically approaches π; this is a form of unary numbering – the version number is the number of digits. The current version is 3.14159265. This is a reflection of TeX being very stable, and only minor updates are anticipated. TeX developer Donald Knuth has stated that the \"\"absolutely final change (to be made after [his] death)\"\" will be to change the version number to π, at which point all remaining bugs will become permanent features. In a similar way, the version number of METAFONT asymptotically approaches e.", "Apple has a formalized version number structure based around the NumVersion struct, which specifies a one- or two-digit major version, a one-digit minor version, a one-digit \"bug\" (i.e. revision) version, a stage indicator (drawn from the set development/prealpha, alpha, beta and final/release), and a one-byte (i.e. having values in the range 0–255) pre-release version, which is only used at stages prior to final. In writing these version numbers as strings, the convention is to omit any parts after the minor version whose value are zero (with \"final\" being considered the zero stage), thus writing 1.0.2 (rather than 1.0.2b12), 1.0.2 (rather than 1.0.2f0), and 1.1 (rather than 1.1.0f0).", "The Microsoft Windows operating system was first labelled with standard version numbers for Windows 1.0 through Windows 3.11. After this Microsoft excluded the version number from the product name. For Windows 95 (version 4.0), Windows 98 (4.10) and Windows 2000 (5.0), year of the release was included in the product title. After Windows 2000, Microsoft created the Windows Server family which continued the year-based style with a difference: For minor releases, Microsoft suffixed \"R2\" to the title, e.g., Windows Server 2008 R2 (version 6.1). This style had remained consistent to this date. The client versions of Windows however did not adopt a consistent style. First, they received names with arbitrary alphanumeric suffixes as with Windows ME (4.90), Windows XP (5.1) and Windows Vista (6.0). Then, once again Microsoft adopted incremental numbers in the title, but this time, they were not version numbers; the version numbers of Windows 7, Windows 8 and Windows 8.1 are respectively 6.1, 6.2 and 6.3. In Windows 10, the version number leaped to 10.0 and subsequent updates to the OS only incremented build number and update build revision (UBR) number.", "Some software producers use different schemes to denote releases of their software. The Debian project uses a major/minor versioning scheme for releases of its operating system, but uses code names from the movie \"Toy Story\" during development to refer to stable, unstable and testing releases. BLAG Linux and GNU features very large version numbers: major releases have numbers such as 50000 and 60000, while minor releases increase the number by 1 (e.g. 50001, 50002). Alpha and beta releases are given decimal version numbers slightly less than the major release number, such as 19999.00071 for alpha 1 of version 20000, and 29999.50000 for beta 2 of version 30000. Starting at 9001 in 2003, the most recent version is 140000.", "Software may have an \"internal\" version number which differs from the version number shown in the product name (and which typically follows version numbering rules more consistently). Java SE 5.0, for example, has the internal version number of 1.5.0, and versions of Windows from NT 4 on have continued the standard numerical versions internally: Windows 2000 is NT 5.0, XP is Windows NT 5.1, Windows Server 2003 and Windows XP Professional x64 Edition are NT 5.2, Windows Server 2008 and Vista are NT 6.0, Windows Server 2008 R2 and Windows 7 are NT 6.1, Windows Server 2012 and Windows 8 are NT 6.2, and Windows Server 2012 R2 and Windows 8.1 are NT 6.3, however the first version of Windows 10 was 10.0 (10.0.10240). Note, however, that Windows NT is only on its fifth major revision, as its first release was numbered 3.1 (to match the then-current Windows release number) and the Windows 10 launching made a version leap from 6.3 to 10.0.", "In conjunction with the various versioning schemes listed above, a system for denoting pre-release versions is generally used, as the program makes its way through the stages of the software release life cycle. Programs that are in an early stage are often called \"alpha\" software, after the first letter in the Greek alphabet. After they mature but are not yet ready for release, they may be called \"beta\" software, after the second letter in the Greek alphabet. Generally alpha software is tested by developers only, while beta software is distributed for community testing. Some systems use numerical versions less than 1 (such as 0.9), to suggest their approach toward a final \"1.0\" release. This is a common convention in open source software. However, if the pre-release version is for an existing software package (e.g. version 2.5), then an \"a\" or \"alpha\" may be appended to the version number. So the alpha version of the 2.5 release might be identified as 2.5a or 2.5.a. An alternative is to refer to pre-release versions as \"release candidates\", so that software packages which are soon to be released as a particular version may carry that version tag followed by \"rc-#\", indicating the number of the release candidate; when the final version is released, the \"rc\" tag is removed.", "A software release train is a form of software release schedule in which a number of distinct series of versioned software releases for multiple products are released as a number of different \"trains\" on a regular schedule. Generally, for each product line, a number of different release trains are running at a given time, with each train moving from initial release to eventual maturity and retirement on a planned schedule. Users may experiment with a newer release train before adopting it for production, allowing them to experiment with newer, \"raw\", releases early, while continuing to follow the previous train's point releases for their production systems prior to moving to the new release train as it becomes mature. Cisco's IOS software platform used a release train schedule with many distinct trains for many years. More recently, a number of other platforms including Firefox and Fenix for Android, Eclipse, LibreOffice, Ubuntu, Fedora, Python, digiKam and VMware have adopted the release train model.", "", "Between the 1.0 and the 2.6.x series, the Linux kernel used odd minor version numbers to denote development releases and even minor version numbers to denote stable releases; see. For example, Linux 2.3 was a development family of the second major design of the Linux kernel, and Linux 2.4 was the stable release family that Linux 2.3 matured into. After the minor version number in the Linux kernel is the release number, in ascending order; for example, Linux 2.4.0 → Linux 2.4.22. Since the 2004 release of the 2.6 kernel, Linux no longer uses this system, and has a much shorter release cycle. The same odd-even system is used by some other software with long release cycles, such as Node.js up to version 0.12.", "Apple had their own twist on this habit during the era of the classic Mac OS. Unlike traditional version numbering (where 1.5 is \"not\" half-way between 1.0 and 2.0, given there could be any number of minor releases, e.g. 1.22), Apple's classic Mac OS minor versions rarely went beyond point-1. When they did, they twice jumped straight to point-5, suggesting the release was \"more significant\". The complete sequence of classic Mac OS versions (not including patches) is: 1.0, 1.1, 2.0, 2.1, 3.0, 3.2 (skipping 3.1), 4.0, 4.1, 5.0, 5.1, 6.0, 7.0, 7.1, 7.5, 7.6, 8.0, 8.1, 8.5 (jumped), 8.6, 9.0, 9.1, 9.2. Thus, \"8.5\" became its own marketed release to mean \"eight and a half\", and 8.6 effectively \"8.5.1\". Mac OS X (since renamed to macOS) departed from this trend, in large part because \"X\" (the Roman numeral for 10) is in the name of the product. As a result, all versions of begin with the number 10. The first major release of OS X was given the version number 10.0, but the next major release was not 11.0. Instead, it was named version 10.1, followed by 10.2, 10.3, and so on for each subsequent major release. In this system, the third number (instead of the second) denotes a minor release, and a fourth number (instead of the third) denotes bug-fix/revision releases. Because the first number is always 10, and because the subsequent numbers are not decimal, but integer values, the 11th major version of is labeled \"10.10\" (rather than 11.0). This number scheme continues above point-10, with Apple releasing macOS 10.14 in 2018.", "", "The free-software and open source communities tend to release software early and often. Initial versions are numbers less than 1, with these 0.x version used to convey that the software is incomplete and remains a work in progress. Version 1.0 is used as a major milestone, indicating that the software is \"complete\", that it has all major features, and is considered reliable enough for general release. A good example of this is the Linux kernel, which was first released as version 0.01 in 1991, and took until 1994 to reach version 1.0.0. The developers of the arcade game emulator MAME do not ever intend to release a version 1.0 of the program because there will always be more arcade games to emulate and thus the project can never be truly completed. Accordingly, version 0.99 was followed by version 0.100. Some commercial software vendors bypass the 1.0 release or quickly release a release with a subsequent version number because 1.0 software is considered by many customers too immature to trust with production deployments.", "A relatively common practice is to make major jumps in version numbers for marketing reasons. Sometimes, as in the case of dBase II, a product is launched with a version number that implies that it is more mature than it is; but other times version numbers are increased to match those of competitors. This can be seen in many examples of product version numbering by Microsoft, America Online, Sun Solaris, Java Virtual Machine, SCO Unix, WordPerfect. Microsoft Access jumped from version 2.0 to version 7.0, to match the version number of Microsoft Word. Microsoft has also been the target of 'catch-up' versioning, with the Netscape browsers skipping version 5 to 6, in line with Microsoft's Internet Explorer, but also because the Mozilla application suite inherited version 5 in its user agent string during pre-1.0 development and Netscape 6.x was built upon Mozilla's code base. Another example of keeping up with competitors is when Slackware Linux jumped from version 4 to version 7 in 1999.", "Apple has a particular form of version number skipping, in that it has leveraged its use of the Roman numeral X in its marketing across multiple product lines. Both QuickTime and Final Cut Pro jumped from versions 7 directly to version 10. Like with Mac OS X, the products were not upgrades to previous versions, but brand new programs, branded as QuickTime X and Final Cut Pro X, but unlike Apple's desktop operating systems, there were no major versions 8 or 9. As with, however, minor releases are denoted using a third digit, rather than a second digit. Consequently, major releases for these programs also employ the second digit, as Apple does with OS X. In WWDC 2016, they announced that Mac OS X was renamed to macOS.", "Sun's Java has at times had a hybrid system, where the internal version number has always been 1.\"x\" but has been marketed by reference only to the \"x\": Sun also dropped the first digit for Solaris, where Solaris 2.8 (or 2.9) is referred to as Solaris 8 (or 9) in marketing materials. A similar jump took place with the Asterisk open-source PBX construction kit in the early 2010s, whose project leads announced that the current version 1.8.x would soon be followed by version 10. This approach, panned by many because it breaks the semantic significance of the sections of the version number, has been adopted by an increasing number of vendors including Mozilla (for Firefox).", "In the mid-1990s, the rapidly growing CMMS, Maximo, moved from Maximo Series 3 directly to Series 5, skipping Series 4 due to that number's perceived marketing difficulties in the Chinese market, where the number 4 is associated with \"death\" (see tetraphobia). This did not, however, stop Maximo Series 5 version 4.0 being released. (The \"Series\" versioning has since been dropped, effectively resetting version numbers after Series 5 version 1.0's release.)", "Version numbers are used in practical terms by the consumer, or client, to identify or compare their copy of the software product against another copy, such as the newest version released by the developer. For the programmer or company, versioning is often used on a revision-by-revision basis, where individual parts of the software are compared and contrasted with newer or older revisions of those same parts, often in a collaborative version control system. In the 21st century, more programmers started to use a formalized version policy, such as the semantic versioning policy. The purpose of such policies is to make it easier for other programmers to know when code changes are likely to break things they have written. Such policies are especially important for software libraries and frameworks, but may also be very useful to follow for command-line applications (which may be called from other applications) and indeed any other applications (which may be scripted and/or extended by third parties). Versioning is also a required practice to enable many schemes of patching and upgrading software, especially to automatically decide what and where to upgrade to.", "Version numbers allow people providing support to ascertain \"exactly\" which code a user is running, so that they can rule out bugs that have already been fixed as a cause of an issue, and the like. This is especially important when a program has a substantial user community, especially when that community is large enough that the people providing technical support are \"not\" the people who wrote the code. The semantic meaning of version.revision.change style numbering is also important to information technology staff, who often use it to determine how much attention and research they need to pay to a new release before deploying it in their facility. As a rule of thumb, the bigger the changes, the larger the chances that something might break (although examining the Changelog, if any, may reveal only superficial or irrelevant changes). This is one reason for some of the distaste expressed in the \"drop the major release\" approach taken by Asterisk et alia: now, staff must (or at least should) do a full regression test for every update.", "Some computer file systems, such as the OpenVMS Filesystem, also keep versions for files. Versioning amongst documents is relatively similar to the routine used with computers and software engineering, where with each small change in the structure, contents, or conditions, the version number is incremented by 1, or a smaller or larger value, again depending on the personal preference of the author and the size or importance of changes made.", "Version numbers very quickly evolve from simple integers (1, 2,...) to rational numbers (2.08, 2.09, 2.10) and then to non-numeric \"numbers\" such as 4:3.4.3-2. These complex version numbers are therefore better treated as character strings. Operating systems that include package management facilities (such as all non-trivial Linux or BSD distributions) will use a distribution-specific algorithm for comparing version numbers of different software packages. For example, the ordering algorithms of Red Hat and derived distributions differ to those of the Debian-like distributions. As an example of surprising version number ordering implementation behavior, in Debian, leading zeroes are ignored in chunks, so that 5.0005 and 5.5 are considered as equal, and 5.5<5.0006. This can confuse users; string-matching tools may fail to find a given version number; and this can cause subtle bugs in package management if the programmers use string-indexed data structures such as version-number indexed hash tables. In order to ease sorting, some software packages will represent each component of the \"major.minor.release\" scheme with a fixed width. Perl represents its version numbers as a floating-point number, for example, Perl's 5.8.7 release can also be represented as 5.008007. This allows a theoretical version of 5.8.10 to be represented as 5.008010. Other software packages will pack each segment into a fixed bit width, for example, on Windows, version number 6.3.9600.16384 would be represented as hexadecimal 0x0006000325804000. The floating-point scheme will break down if any segment of the version number exceeds 999; a packed-binary scheme employing 16 bits apiece breaks down after 65535.", "Software-style version numbers can be found in other media. In some cases, the use is a direct analogy (for example: Jackass 2.5, a version of Jackass Number Two with additional special features; the second album by Garbage, titled \"Version 2.0\"; or \"Dungeons & Dragons\" 3.5, where the rules were revised from the third edition, but not so much as to be considered the fourth). More often it's used to play on an association with high technology, and doesn't literally indicate a'version' (e.g., \"Tron 2.0\", a video game followup to the film \"Tron\", or the television series \"The IT Crowd\", which refers to the second season as Version 2.0). A particularly notable usage is Web 2.0, referring to websites from the early 2000s that emphasized user-generated content, usability and interoperability." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Evolutionary history and taxonomy.", "Anatomy and morphology.", "Behaviour and lifestyle.", "Diet and foraging.", "Social systems.", "Distribution and habitat.", "Conservation.", "Folk belief.", "Captive breeding." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The genus \"Daubentonia\" was named after the French naturalist Louis-Jean-Marie Daubenton by his student, Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, in 1795. Initially, Geoffroy considered using the Greek name \"Scolecophagus\" (\"worm-eater\") in reference to its eating habits, but he decided against it because he was uncertain about the aye-aye's habits and whether other related species might eventually be discovered. In 1863, British zoologist John Edward Gray coined the family name Daubentoniidae. The French naturalist Pierre Sonnerat was the first to use the vernacular name \"aye-aye\" in 1782 when he described and illustrated the lemur, though it was also called the \"long-fingered lemur\" by English zoologist George Shaw in 1800—a name that did not stick. According to Sonnerat, the name \"aye-aye\" was a \"\"cri d'exclamation & d'étonnement\"\" (cry of exclamation and astonishment). However, American paleoanthropologist Ian Tattersall noted in 1982 that the name resembles the Malagasy name \"hai hai\" or \"hay hay\", which refers to the animal and is used around the island. According to Dunkel \"et al.\" (2012), the widespread use of the Malagasy name indicates that the name could not have come from Sonnerat. Another hypothesis proposed by Simons and Meyers (2001) is that it derives from \"\"heh heh\"\", which is Malagasy for \"I don't know\". If correct, then the name might have originated from Malagasy people saying \"\"heh heh\"\" to avoid saying the name of a feared, magical animal.", "Due to its derived morphological features, the classification of the aye-aye was debated following its discovery. The possession of continually growing incisors (front teeth) parallels those of rodents, leading early naturalists to mistakenly classify the aye-aye within the mammalian order Rodentia and as a squirrel, due to its toes, hair coloring, and tail. However, the aye-aye is also similar to felines in its head shape, eyes, ears and nostrils. The aye-aye's classification with the order Primates has been just as uncertain. It has been considered a highly derived member of the family Indridae, a basal branch of the strepsirrhine suborder, and of indeterminate relation to all living primates. In 1931, Anthony and Coupin classified the aye-aye under infraorder Chiromyiformes, a sister group to the other strepsirrhines. Colin Groves upheld this classification in 2005 because he was not entirely convinced the aye-aye formed a clade with the rest of the Malagasy lemurs. However, molecular results have consistently placed \"Daubentonia\" as the most basal of lemurs. The most parsimonious explanation for this is that all lemurs are derived from a single ancestor that rafted from Africa to Madagascar during the Paleogene. Similarities in dentition between aye-ayes and several African primate fossils (\"Plesiopithecus\" and \"Propotto\") have led to the alternate theory that the ancestors of aye-ayes colonized Madagascar separately from other lemurs. In 2008, Russell Mittermeier, Colin Groves, and others ignored addressing higher-level taxonomy by defining lemurs as monophyletic and containing five living families, including Daubentoniidae. Further evidence indicating that the aye-aye belongs in the superfamily Lemuroidea can be inferred from the presence of petrosal bullae encasing the ossicles of the ear. The aye-ayes are also similar to lemurs in their shorter back legs.", "A full-grown aye-aye is typically about three feet long with a tail longer than its body. The species has an average head and body length of plus a tail of, and weighs around. Young aye-ayes typically are silver colored on their front and have a stripe down their back. However, as the aye-ayes begin to reach maturity, their bodies will be completely covered in thick fur and are typically not one solid color. On the head and back, the ends of the hair are typically tipped with white while the rest of the body will ordinarily be a yellow and/or brown color. Among the aye-aye's signature traits are its fingers. The third finger, which is thinner than the others, is used for tapping, while the fourth finger, the longest, is used for pulling bugs out of trees, using the hooked nail. The middle finger is unique in that it possesses a ball-and-socket metacarpophalangeal joint. The aye-aye has also evolved a sixth digit, a pseudothumb, to aid in gripping. The complex geometry of ridges on the inner surface of aye-aye ears helps to sharply focus not only echolocation signals from the tapping of its finger, but also to passively listen for any other sound produced by the prey. These ridges can be regarded as the acoustic equivalent of a Fresnel lens, and may be seen in a large variety of unrelated animals, such as lesser galago, bat-eared fox, mouse lemur, and others. Females have two nipples located in the region of the groin.", "The aye-aye is a nocturnal and arboreal animal meaning that it spends most of its life high in the trees. Although they are known to come down to the ground on occasion, aye-ayes sleep, eat, travel and mate in the trees and are most commonly found close to the canopy where there is plenty of cover from the dense foliage. During the day, aye-ayes sleep in spherical nests in the forks of tree branches that are constructed out of leaves, branches and vines before emerging after dark to begin their hunt for food. Aye-aye are solitary animals that mark their large home range with scent. The smaller territories of females often overlap those of at least a couple of males. Male aye-ayes tend to share their territories with other males and are even known to share the same nests (although not at the same time), and can seemingly tolerate each other until they hear the call of a female that is looking for a mate.", "The aye-aye is an omnivore and commonly eats seeds, fruits, nectar and fungi, but also insect larvae and honey. Aye-ayes tap on the trunks and branches of trees at a rate of up to eight times per second, and listen to the echo produced to find hollow chambers. Studies have suggested that the acoustic properties associated with the foraging cavity have no effect on excavation behavior. Once a chamber is found, they chew a hole into the wood and get grubs out of that hole with their highly adapted narrow and bony middle fingers. The aye-aye begins foraging between 30 minutes before and three hours after sunset. Up to 80% of the night is spent foraging in the canopy, separated by occasional rest periods. It climbs trees by making successive vertical leaps, much like a squirrel. Horizontal movement is more difficult, but the aye-aye rarely descends to jump to another tree, and can often travel up to a night. Though foraging is usually solitary, they occasionally forage in groups. Individual movements within the group are coordinated using both vocalisations and scent signals.", "The aye-aye is classically considered'solitary' as they have not been observed to groom each other. However, recent research suggests that it is more social than once thought. It usually sticks to foraging in its own personal home range, or territory. The home ranges of males often overlap, and the males can be very social with each other. Female home ranges never overlap, though a male's home range often overlaps that of several females. The male aye-ayes live in large areas up to, while females have smaller living spaces that goes up to. It is difficult for the males to defend a singular female because of the large home range. They are seen exhibiting polygyny because of this. Regular scent marking with their cheeks and neck is how aye-ayes let others know of their presence and repel intruders from their territory. Like many other prosimians, the female aye-aye is dominant to the male. They are not typically monogamous, and will often challenge each other for mates. Male aye-ayes are very assertive in this way, and sometimes even pull other males away from a female during mating. Males are normally locked to females during mating in sessions that may last up to an hour. Outside of mating, males and females interact only occasionally, usually while foraging. The aye-aye is thought to be the only primate which uses echolocation to find its prey.", "The aye-aye lives primarily on the east coast of Madagascar. Its natural habitat is rainforest or deciduous forest, but many live in cultivated areas due to deforestation. Rainforest aye-ayes, the most common, dwell in canopy areas, and are usually sighted above 70 meters altitude. They sleep during the day in nests built from interwoven twigs and dead leaves up in the canopy among the vines and branches.", "The aye-aye was thought to be extinct in 1933, but was rediscovered in 1957. Nine individuals were transported to Nosy Mangabe, an island near Maroantsetra off eastern Madagascar, in 1966. Recent research shows the aye-aye is more widespread than was previously thought, but its conservation status was changed to Endangered in 2014. This is for three main reasons: the aye-aye is considered evil, the forests of Madagascar are being destroyed, and the farmers will kill aye-ayes to protect their crops and for poaching. However, there is no direct evidence to suggest aye-ayes pose any legitimate threat to crops and therefore are killed based on superstition. As many as 50 aye-ayes can be found in zoological facilities worldwide.", "The aye-aye is often viewed as a harbinger of evil and killed on sight. Others believe, if one points its narrowest finger at someone, they are marked for death. Some say that the appearance of an aye-aye in a village predicts the death of a villager, and the only way to prevent this is to kill it. The Sakalava people go so far as to claim aye-ayes sneak into houses through the thatched roofs and murder the sleeping occupants by using their middle finger to puncture the victim's aorta.", "The conservation of this species has been aided by captive breeding, primarily at the Duke Lemur Center in Durham, North Carolina. This center has been influential in keeping, researching and breeding aye-ayes and other lemurs. They have sent multiple teams to capture lemurs in Madagascar and have since created captive breeding groups for their lemurs. Specifically, they were responsible for the first aye-aye born into captivity and studied how he and the other aye-aye infants born at the center develop through infancy. They have also revolutionized the understanding of the aye-aye diet." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and career.", "World War II.", "Battle of Britain.", "Arrival in North Africa.", "The \"Star of Africa\".", "Death.", "In propaganda and popular culture.", "National Socialism.", "MGFA.", "Biographies.", "Summary of career.", "Victory claims.", "Dispute over claims.", "Decorations.", "Dates of rank." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Hans-Joachim \"Jochen\" Walter Rudolf Siegfried Marseille was born to Charlotte (maiden name: Charlotte Marie Johanna Pauline Gertrud Riemer) and \"Hauptmann\" Siegfried Georg Martin Marseille, a family with paternal French ancestry, in Berlin-Charlottenburg on 13 December 1919. As a child, he was physically weak, and he nearly died from a serious case of influenza. His father was an Army officer during World War I, and later left the armed forces to join the Berlin police force. Hans-Joachim also had a younger sister, Ingeborg. While on sick leave in Athens at the end of December 1941, he was summoned to Berlin by a telegram from his mother. Upon arriving home, he learned his sister had been killed by a jealous lover while living in Vienna. Hans-Joachim reportedly never recovered emotionally from this blow. When Marseille was still a young child his parents divorced and his mother subsequently married a police official named Reuter. Marseille initially assumed the name of his stepfather at school (a matter he had a difficult time accepting) but he reverted to his father's name of Marseille in adulthood. A lack", "", "In his first dogfight over England on 24 August 1940, Marseille engaged in a four-minute battle with a skilled opponent while flying Messerschmitt Bf 109 E-3 W.Nr. 3579. He defeated his opponent by pulling up into a tight chandelle, to gain an altitude advantage before diving and firing. The British fighter was struck in the engine, pitched over and dove into the English Channel; this was Marseille's first victory. Marseille was then engaged from above by more Allied fighters. By pushing his aircraft into a steep dive, then pulling up metres above the water, Marseille escaped from the machine gun fire of his opponents: \"skipping away over the waves, I made a clean", "Marseille's unit briefly saw action during the invasion of Yugoslavia, deployed to Zagreb on 10 April 1941, before transferring to Africa. On 20 April on his flight from Tripoli to his front airstrip Marseille's Bf 109 E-7 (\"Werknummer\" 1259) developed engine trouble and he had to make a forced landing in the desert short of his destination. His squadron departed the scene after they had ensured that he had got down safely. Marseille continued his journey, first hitchhiking on an Italian truck, then, finding this too slow; he tried his luck at an airstrip in vain. Finally he made his way to the General in charge of a supply depot on the main route to the front, and convinced him that he should be available for operations next day. Marseille's character appealed to the General and he put at his disposal his own Opel Admiral, complete with chauffeur. \"You can pay me back by getting fifty", "Marseille always strove to improve his abilities. He worked to strengthen his legs and abdominal muscles, to help him tolerate the extreme g forces of air combat. Marseille also drank an abnormal amount of milk and shunned sunglasses, in the belief that doing so would improve his eyesight. To counter German fighter attacks, the Allied pilots flew \"Lufbery circles\" (in which each aircraft's tail was covered by the friendly aircraft behind). The tactic was effective and dangerous as a pilot attacking this formation could find himself constantly in the sights of the opposing pilots. Marseille often dived at high speed into the middle of these defensive formations from either above or below, executing a tight turn and firing a two-second deflection shot to destroy an enemy aircraft. Marseille's successes had begun to become readily apparent by early 1942. He claimed his 37–40th victories on 8 February 1942 and 41–44th victories four days later which earned him the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross that same month for 46 victories. Marseille attacked under conditions many considered unfavourable, but his marksmanship allowed him to make an approach fast enough to escape the return fire of the two aircraft flying on either flank of the target. Marseille's excellent eyesight made it possible for him to spot the opponent before he was spotted, allowing him to take the appropriate action and manoeuvre into position for an attack. He was credited with outstanding situational awareness. In combat, Marseille's unorthodox methods led him to operate in a small leader/wingman unit, which he believed to be the safest and most effective way of fighting in the high-visibility conditions of the North African skies. Marseille \"worked\" alone in combat keeping his wingman at a safe distance so he would not collide or fire on him in error. In a dogfight, particularly when attacking Allied aircraft in a Lufbery circle, Marseille would often favour dramatically reducing the throttle and even lowering the flaps to reduce speed and shorten his turn", "The two missions of 26 September 1942 had been flown in Bf 109 G-2/trop, in one of which Marseille had shot down seven Allied aircraft. The first six of these machines were to replace the \"Gruppe\"'s Bf 109 Fs. All had been allocated to Marseille's 3. \"Staffel\". Marseille had previously ignored orders to use these new aircraft because of its high engine failure rate, but on the orders of Generalfeldmarschall Albert Kesselring, Marseille reluctantly obeyed. One of these machines, WK-Nr. 14256 (Engine: Daimler-Benz DB 605 A-1, W.Nr. 77 411), was to be the final aircraft Marseille flew. Over the next three days Marseille's \"Staffel\" was rested and taken off flying duties. On 28 September Marseille received a telephone call from \"Generalfeldmarschall\" Erwin Rommel asking to return with him to Berlin. Hitler was to make a speech at the Berlin Sportpalast on 30 September and Rommel and Marseille were to attend. Marseille rejected this offer, citing that he was needed at the front and had already taken three months' vacation that year. Marseille also said he wanted to take leave at Christmas, to marry his fiancée Hanne-Lies Küpper. On 30 September 1942, \"Hauptmann\" Marseille was leading his \"Staffel\" on a \"Stuka\" escort mission covering the withdrawal of the group and relieving the outward escort, III./\"Jagdgeschwader 53\"", "Marseille appeared four times in the \"Deutsche Wochenschau\", the German propaganda newsreel. The first time on Wednesday 17 February 1942 when Oberst Galland, the \"General der Jagdflieger\", visited an airport in the desert. The second time on Wednesday 1 July 1942 when Marseille travelled to Rastenburg to receive the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords from Adolf Hitler. The third time on Wednesday 9 September 1942 announcing Marseille's 17 aerial victories from 1 September 1942 and that he", "", "The German Military History Research Office (MGFA) published a brief evaluation of Marseille in early 2013, stating that \"occasional attempts in the popular literature to suggest Marseille's unsoldierly bravado and honest character points to an ideological distance to National Socialism are misleading\". MGFA concluded that, since there is no academic biography of Marseille, \"it is not known that Hans-Joachim Marseille has, through his overall actions or through a single outstanding deed, earned praise in the service for freedom and justice [as defined in the", "Several biographies of Hans-Joachim Marseille have described his disdain for authority and for the National Socialist movement in general. Some biographers, such as Colin Heaton, describe him as \"openly anti-Nazi.\" When Marseille first met Hitler in 1942, he did not form a positive impression. After returning to Africa, Eduard Neumman recalled, \"After his first visit with Hitler, Marseille returned and said that he thought 'the Führer was a rather odd sort'.\" On the visit, Marseille also said some unflattering things about Hitler and the Nazi Party. Several senior officers, which included Adolf Galland and Nicolaus von Below, overheard his remarks during one of the award ceremonies. Von Below asked Marseille if he would join the Nazi Party and within earshot of others, Marseille responded, \"that if he saw a party worth joining, he would consider it, but there would have to be plenty of", "", "Marseille was transferred to his first combat assignment with the I.(\"Jagd\")/\"Lehrgeschwader\" 2 at the time stationed at Calais-Marck on Sunday 10 August 1940. Two days later he arrived at this unit on 12 August 1940. He was assigned to the 1. \"Staffel\" of this \"Gruppe\". \"Staffelkapitän\" was \"Oberleutnant\" Adolf Buhl. One of the \"Schwarmführer\" was \"Oberfeldwebel\" Helmut Goedert, to whom Marseille was assigned as wingman. Marseille flew his first combat mission on the next day,", "Some serious discrepancies between Allied squadron records and German claims have caused some historians and Allied veterans to question the accuracy of Marseille's official victories, in addition to those of \"JG 27\" as a whole. Attention is often focused on the 26 claims made by \"JG 27\" on 1 September 1942, of which 17 were claimed by Marseille alone. A USAF historian, Major Robert Tate states: \"[f]or years, many British historians and militarists refused to admit that they had lost any aircraft that day in North Africa. Careful review of records however do show that the British [and South Africans] did lose more than 17 aircraft that day, and in the area that Marseille operated.\" Tate also reveals 20 RAF single-engined fighters and one twin engined fighter were destroyed and several others severely damaged, as well as a further USAAF P-40 shot down. However, overall Tate reveals that Marseille's kill total comes close to 65–70 percent corroboration, indicating as many as 50 of his claims may not have actually been kills. Tate also compares Marseilles rate of corroboration with the top six P-40 pilots. While only the Canadian James Francis Edwards'", "Sometime in the early 1990s, one of Marseille's biographers, Robert Tate, visited the former Marseille-Kaserne base and Museum", "Marseille joined the military service in Wehrmacht on 7 November 1938. His" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "Structure.", "Graph structure.", "Specialized strategies.", "Source-management models.", "Atomic operations.", "File locking.", "Version merging.", "Baselines, labels and tags.", "Distributed revision control.", "Integration.", "Common terminology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In computer software engineering, revision control is any kind of practice that tracks and provides control over changes to source code. Software developers sometimes use revision control software to maintain documentation and configuration files as well as source code. As teams design, develop and deploy software, it is common for multiple versions of the same software to be deployed in different sites and for the software's developers to be working simultaneously on updates. Bugs or features of the software are often only present in certain versions (because of the fixing of some problems and the introduction of others as the program develops). Therefore, for the purposes of locating and fixing bugs, it is vitally important to be able to retrieve and run different versions of the software to determine in which version(s) the problem occurs. It may also be necessary to develop two versions of the software concurrently: for instance, where one version has bugs fixed, but no new features (branch), while the other version is where new features are worked on (trunk). At the simplest level, developers could simply retain multiple copies of the different versions of the program, and label them appropriately. This simple approach has been used in many large software projects. While this method can work, it is inefficient as many near-identical copies of the program have to be maintained. This requires a lot of self-discipline on the part of developers and often leads to mistakes. Since the code base is the same, it also requires granting read-write-execute permission to a set of developers, and this adds the pressure of someone managing permissions so that the code base is not compromised, which adds more complexity. Consequently, systems to automate some or all of the revision control process have been developed. This ensures that the majority of management of version control steps is hidden behind the scenes. Moreover, in software development, legal and business practice and other environments, it has become increasingly common for a single document or snippet of code to be edited by a team, the members of which may be geographically dispersed and may pursue different and even contrary interests. Sophisticated revision control that tracks and accounts for ownership of changes to documents and code may be extremely helpful or even indispensable in such situations. Revision control may also track changes to configuration files, such as those typically stored in codice_1 or codice_2 on Unix systems. This gives system administrators another way to easily track changes made and a way to roll back to earlier versions should the need arise.", "Revision control manages changes to a set of data over time. These changes can be structured in various ways. Often the data is thought of as a collection of many individual items, such as files or documents, and changes to individual files are tracked. This accords with intuitions about separate files but causes problems when identity changes, such as during renaming, splitting or merging of files. Accordingly, some systems such as Git, instead consider changes to the data as a whole, which is less intuitive for simple changes but simplifies more complex changes. When data that is under revision control is modified, after being retrieved by \"checking out,\" this is not in general immediately reflected in the revision control system (in the \"repository\"), but must instead be \"checked in\" or \"committed.\" A copy outside revision control is known as a \"working copy\". As a simple example, when editing a computer file, the data stored in memory by the editing program is the working copy, which is committed by saving. Concretely, one may print out a document, edit it by hand, and only later manually input the changes into a computer and save it. For source code control, the working copy is instead a copy of all files in a particular revision, generally stored locally on the developer's computer; in this case saving the file only changes the working copy, and checking into the repository is a separate step. If multiple people are working on a single data set or document, they are implicitly creating branches of the data (in their working copies), and thus issues of merging arise, as discussed below. For simple collaborative document editing, this can be prevented by using file locking or simply avoiding working on the same document that someone else is working on. Revision control systems are often centralized, with a single authoritative data store, the \"repository,\" and check-outs and check-ins done with reference to this central repository. Alternatively, in distributed revision control, no single repository is authoritative, and data can be checked out and checked into any repository. When checking into a different repository, this is interpreted as a merge or patch.", "In terms of graph theory, revisions are generally thought of as a line of development (the \"trunk\") with branches off of this, forming a directed tree, visualized as one or more parallel lines of development (the \"mainlines\" of the branches) branching off a trunk. In reality the structure is more complicated, forming a directed acyclic graph, but for many purposes \"tree with merges\" is an adequate approximation. Revisions occur in sequence over time, and thus can be arranged in order, either by revision number or timestamp. Revisions are based on past revisions, though it is possible to largely or completely replace an earlier revision, such as \"delete all existing text, insert new text\". In the simplest case, with no branching or undoing, each revision is based on its immediate predecessor alone, and they form a simple line, with a single latest version, the \"HEAD\" revision or \"tip\". In graph theory terms, drawing each revision as a point and each \"derived revision\" relationship as an arrow (conventionally pointing from older to newer, in the same direction as time), this is a linear graph. If there is branching, so multiple future revisions are based on a past revision, or undoing, so a revision can depend on a revision older than its immediate predecessor, then the resulting graph is instead a directed tree (each node can have more than one child), and has multiple tips, corresponding to the revisions without children (\"latest revision on each branch\"). In principle the resulting tree need not have a preferred tip (\"main\" latest revision) – just various different revisions – but in practice one tip is generally identified as HEAD. When a new revision is based on HEAD, it is either identified as the new HEAD, or considered a new branch. The list of revisions from the start to HEAD (in graph theory terms, the unique path in the tree, which forms a linear graph as before) is the \"trunk\" or \"mainline.\" Conversely, when a revision can be based on more than one previous revision (when a node can have more than one \"parent\"), the resulting process is called a \"merge,\" and is one of the most complex aspects of revision control. This most often occurs when changes occur in multiple branches (most often two, but more are possible), which are then merged into a single branch incorporating both changes. If these changes overlap, it may be difficult or impossible to merge, and require manual intervention or rewriting. In the presence of merges, the resulting graph is no longer a tree, as nodes can have multiple parents, but is instead a rooted directed acyclic graph (DAG). The graph is acyclic since parents are always backwards in time, and rooted because there is an oldest version. However, assuming that there is a trunk, merges from branches can be considered as \"external\" to the tree – the changes in the branch are packaged up as a \"patch,\" which is applied to HEAD (of the trunk), creating a new revision without any explicit reference to the branch, and preserving the tree structure. Thus, while the actual relations between versions form a DAG, this can be considered a tree plus merges, and the trunk itself is a line. In distributed revision control, in the presence of multiple repositories these may be based on a single original version (a root of the tree), but there need not be an original root, and thus only a separate root (oldest revision) for each repository, for example, if two people starting working on a project separately. Similarly in the presence of multiple data sets (multiple projects) that exchange data or merge, there isn't a single root, though for simplicity one may think of one project as primary and the other as secondary, merged into the first with or without its own revision history.", "Engineering revision control developed from formalized processes based on tracking revisions of early blueprints or bluelines. This system of control implicitly allowed returning to an earlier state of the design, for cases in which an engineering dead-end was reached in the development of the design. A revision table was used to keep track of the changes made. Additionally, the modified areas of the drawing were highlighted using revision clouds. Version control is widespread in business and law. Indeed, \"contract redline\" and \"legal blackline\" are some of the earliest forms of revision control, and are still employed in business and law with varying degrees of sophistication. The most sophisticated techniques are beginning to be used for the electronic tracking of changes to CAD files (see product data management), supplanting the \"manual\" electronic implementation of traditional revision control.", "Traditional revision control systems use a centralized model where all the revision control functions take place on a shared server. If two developers try to change the same file at the same time, without some method of managing access the developers may end up overwriting each other's work. Centralized revision control systems solve this problem in one of two different \"source management models\": file locking and version merging.", "An operation is \"atomic\" if the system is left in a consistent state even if the operation is interrupted. The \"commit\" operation is usually the most critical in this sense. Commits tell the revision control system to make a group of changes final, and available to all users. Not all revision control systems have atomic commits; notably, CVS lacks this feature.", "The simplest method of preventing \"concurrent access\" problems involves locking files so that only one developer at a time has write access to the central \"repository\" copies of those files. Once one developer \"checks out\" a file, others can read that file, but no one else may change that file until that developer \"checks in\" the updated version (or cancels the checkout). File locking has both merits and drawbacks. It can provide some protection against difficult merge conflicts when a user is making radical changes to many sections of a large file (or group of files). However, if the files are left exclusively locked for too long, other developers may be tempted to bypass the revision control software and change the files locally, forcing a difficult manual merge when the other changes are finally checked in. In a large organization, files can be left \"checked out\" and locked and forgotten about as developers move between projects - these tools may or may not make it easy to see who has a file checked out.", "Most version control systems allow multiple developers to edit the same file at the same time. The first developer to \"check in\" changes to the central repository always succeeds. The system may provide facilities to merge further changes into the central repository, and preserve the changes from the first developer when other developers check in. Merging two files can be a very delicate operation, and usually possible only if the data structure is simple, as in text files. The result of a merge of two image files might not result in an image file at all. The second developer checking in the code will need to take care with the merge, to make sure that the changes are compatible and that the merge operation does not introduce its own logic errors within the files. These problems limit the availability of automatic or semi-automatic merge operations mainly to simple text-based documents, unless a specific merge plugin is available for the file types. The concept of a \"reserved edit\" can provide an optional means to explicitly lock a file for exclusive write access, even when a merging capability exists.", "Most revision control tools will use only one of these similar terms (baseline, label, tag) to refer to the action of identifying a snapshot (\"label the project\") or the record of the snapshot (\"try it with baseline \"X\"\"). Typically only one of the terms \"baseline\", \"label\", or \"tag\" is used in documentation or discussion; they can be considered synonyms. In most projects, some snapshots are more significant than others, such as those used to indicate published releases, branches, or milestones. When both the term \"baseline\" and either of \"label\" or \"tag\" are used together in the same context, \"label\" and \"tag\" usually refer to the mechanism within the tool of identifying or making the record of the snapshot, and \"baseline\" indicates the increased significance of any given label or tag. Most formal discussion of configuration management uses the term \"baseline\".", "Distributed revision control systems (DRCS) take a peer-to-peer approach, as opposed to the client-server approach of centralized systems. Rather than a single, central repository on which clients synchronize, each peer's working copy of the codebase is a bona-fide repository. Distributed revision control conducts synchronization by exchanging patches (change-sets) from peer to peer. This results in some important differences from a centralized system: Rather, communication is only necessary when pushing or pulling changes to or from other peers.", "Some of the more advanced revision-control tools offer many other facilities, allowing deeper integration with other tools and software-engineering processes. Plugins are often available for IDEs such as Oracle JDeveloper, IntelliJ IDEA, Eclipse and Visual Studio. Delphi, NetBeans IDE, Xcode, and GNU Emacs (via vc.el).", "Terminology can vary from system to system, but some terms in common usage include:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Location.", "Geology.", "Climate.", "Summit.", "History.", "Origin of the name.", "Fichtelberg House.", "Weather station.", "Cable car.", "Fichtelberg Railway.", "Fichtelberg Inn.", "Flora and fauna.", "Forest history.", "Botanical specialities.", "Protected areas.", "Views.", "Ascents." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Fichtelberg rises within the Central Ore Mountains in the Ore Mountains/Vogtland Nature Park around 1.5 kilometres north of the German-Czech border. At the southern foot of the mountain lies the highest town in Germany: the resort of Oberwiesenthal in the Pöhlbach valley. About 750 metres south-southwest is the less prominent subpeak of the Fichtelberg, known as the Kleiner Fichtelberg (\"Little Fichtelberg\") also called the \"Hinterer Fichtelberg\" (\"Rear Fichtelberg\"); 1,205.6 m). About 4 kilometres south-southeast is the highest peak in the Ore Mountains: the Klínovec (\"Keilberg\"; 1,244 m) on the Czech side of the border. In the wet valley heads and raised bogs on the Fichtelberg, numerous streams have their sources. The most important of these is the River Zschopau.", "The Fichtelberg consists predominantly of light-coloured, crystalline rocks, especially a variety of muscovite slate (\"Muskovitschiefer\"). In the main, this rock only comprises quartz and muscovite; although it sometimes contains orthoclase and biotite as well. Additional components include rutile, garnet, tourmaline, hematite and ilmenite.", "Located in the interior of Central Europe, in the eastern half of Germany and at an altitude above 1200 m, Fichtelberg has a humid continental subarctic climate (Köppen: \"Dfc\"). Winters are cold though mild for latitude/elevation reason, snow can occur in large quantity and remains throughout the winter due to the low temperatures. Although unusual temperatures at or near 30 °C are not impossible (unlike places in the Alps), but summer is usually cool. Together with mild temperatures, abundant precipitation above 1100 mm gives the climate some oceanic characteristics, except for the cold season. Normally the mountain is hazy, but the difference in sunshine between summer and winter is less than London, for example. Since the 1891 data, there was a tendency for temperature to rise, although the years 1950-1980 were particularly cold. By 2003 the increase was less than one tenth of a degree per year, but considerable for a large scale, the speed increased from 1980 to 2004 when the increase was half a degree per year.", "On the Summit of the Fichtelberg stands the Fichtelberg House (\"Fichtelberghaus\") with its observation tower, a weather station and a prominent triangulation station of the Royal Saxon Survey (\"Königlich-Sächsischen Triangulation\") from 1864, where measurements of regional and national significance were carried out. The Fichtelberg Cable Car runs up the eastern slope of the mountain from Oberwiesenthal to a point near the summit.", "", "The mountain was given its name thanks to the existing natural forests of spruce that covered it (see section on forest history). In the 16th century Georgius Agricola used the Latinised form, \"Pinifer\" (\"Fichtelberg\")", "The first albeit unreferenced evidence of a building on the summit of the Fichtelberg is found in the \"Historischen Schauplatz\" published in 1699 by Christian Lehmann, where it says: The first definitely confirmed Fichtelberg house was built on the Fichtelberg in 1888/89 by Oskar Puschmann. It was opened on 21 July 1889 and extended for the first time in 1899. In 1910 the house was expanded again as a result of the popularity of the highest mountain in Saxony. With the construction of the Fichtelberg Cable Car in 1924 the visitor numbers climbed still further. On the even of 25 February 1963 a fire broke out in the Fichtelberg House. 180 firemen from across the county of Annaberg were called out and took part in the firefighting. Heavy snowdrifts on the access road meant that all the firefighting equipment had to be transported up the mountain on the cable car. Hoses that had been laid from Oberwiesenthal up to the top of the mountain froze in temperatures of −15 °C and the lack of water meant that they could not put the fire out. The building was razed to its foundation walls. On 22 June 1965 the foundation stone for a new building was laid. By 1967, a modern Fichtelberg House with an austere, typically East German concrete architecture and integrated, plain, 42 metre-high observation tower had been completed. The GDR made 12 million marks available for its construction. The new Fichtelberg House had seating for around 600. On the ground floor was a large self-service restaurant, on the upper floor was a grill bar, a concert café and a conference room. Well known artists helped design the interior. The wooden walls of the vestibule and the room dividers in the self-service area were by Hans Brockhage. Carl-Heinz Westenburger created a mural for the end wall of the conference room, on which he depicted sporting life on the Fichtelberg. At the end of the 1990 the Fichtelberg House was converted to resemble the old building and re-opened on 18 July 1999. The newly built observation tower is only 31 metres high.", "In 1890 the publican of the Fichtelberg House recorded the first regular weather observations. On 1 January 1916 meteorologists began work in the new weather station. It was founded by Paul Schreiber and expanded into a mountain observatory in 1950.", "The Fichtelberg rises above the holiday and winter sports resort of Oberwiesenthal, both connected by the Fichtelberg Cable Car (\"Fichtelberg-Schwebebahn\"). This cable car was opened in 1924, the cable is 1,175 m long with a height difference of 305 m. It takes six minutes to travel from the valley to the top of the mountain. Large car parks are available on the lower half of the mountain, but parking near the top is limited. Bus transportation is available in addition to the cable car.", "The Fichtelberg Railway (\"Fichtelbergbahn\") terminates at the southeastern foot of the mountain. This narrow gauge line, which runs from Cranzahl to Oberwiesenthal, was opened in 1897 and is 17.349 km long.", "The Fichtelberg Inn (\"Fichtelbergbaude\"), a building used as a guest house on the road leading up the Fichtelberg, caught fire on 21 November 2009 in a suspected arson attack.", "", "The extensive spruce forests in the area surrounding the Fichtelberg have been constantly utilised since man first settled here and have thus undergone much change. The original vegetation of the highlands and mountain ridges was fundamentally different. Pollen analyses from the Gottesgaber Moor revealed useful information about the former composition of the forest. The main tree species of the Hercynian mixed forest of the highlands - the silver fir (\"Abies alba\"), European beech (\"Fagus sylvatica\") and Norway spruce (\"Picea abies\") - occurred in roughly equal proportions of around 30% on the ridgelines. Old church records and forest assessments contain descriptions of the original condition of the forest, showing that the Fichtelberg was covered by mixed forest consisting of the aforementioned tree species. The present dominance of the spruce is primarily a result of human influence. Improper management such as deforestation and high populations of game steadily reduced the proportion of fir and beech trees in favour of spruce. With the beginning of state forestry in Saxony in the early 19th century, the composition of species changed drastically. Forest management, which was focussed on achieving the highest net yield, saw the spruce as the perfect timber resource. Gradually other tree species were planted again.", "The exposed situations of the Fichtelberg near the natural treeline provides a good habitat for many rare montane plants. Of particular note is the occurrence of numerous species that are normally found in the Alps or the Tundra of Northern Europe, including the small white orchid, common moonwort, frog orchid, Alpine clubmoss und Alpine coltsfoot.", "The following protected areas are found on the Fichtelberg: These areas overlap with the Fichtelberg Meadows (\"Fichtelbergwiesen\") Habitat Area (FFH No. 5543-304).", "On clear days, one can see to the mountains in the northern Czech Republic (the Central Bohemian Uplands, Lusatian Mountains, Jizera Mountains and Giant Mountains) and to the Bohemian Forest to the south. The area around Fichtelberg and the neighbouring Klínovec mountain is famous for winter sport facilities, providing many ski lifts and cross-country ski tracks.", "The journey time to the top of the mountain on the Fichtelberg Cable Car is 31⁄2 minutes. There is also a bus service from Oberwiesenthal. At the summit and just below it are several parking areas for cars and busses. The mountain is also accessible on numerous footpaths. Some are part of the E3 European long distance path and the Zittau to Wernigerode long distance path. The mountain is a magnet for cyclists and bikers. From the Pöhlbach valley, two long winding roads, starting at a height of 830 m, head towards the Czech border. After a short section on the level, it turns right towards the summit. The road runs through forested countryside that gives a strong impression that one is above 1,000 m. The total length of this ascent is 6,600 metres and it climbs through around 380 metres in heigh. The less well known and more difficult ascent starts in Rittersgrün and climbs through 556 metres in 13.64 kilometres. The road runs through Ehrenzipfel, Zweibach and Tellerhäuser. After passing through these villages there is a long steep climb that flattens out as it makes its way up to a junction signed \"Fichtelberg\". After a further 2 kilometres of uphill climbing it reaches the summit of the Fichtelberg." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Opus.", "Thallium-activated sodium iodide gamma ray detector.", "Coining of the fermi (unit) and 1961 Nobel Lecture.", "Compton Gamma Ray Observatory and EGRET Telescope.", "Publication list." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Hofstadter was born into a Jewish family in New York City on February 5, 1915, to Polish immigrants, Louis Hofstadter, a salesman, and née Henrietta Koenigsberg. He attended elementary and high schools in New York City and entered City College of New York, graduating with a B.S. degree \"magna cum laude\" in 1935 at the age of 20, and was awarded the Kenyon Prize in Mathematics and Physics. He also received a Charles A. Coffin Foundation Fellowship from the General Electric Company, which enabled him to attend graduate school at Princeton University, where he earned his M.S. and Ph.D. degrees at the age of 23. His doctoral dissertation was titled \"Infra-red absorption by light and heavy formic and acetic acids.\" He did his post-doctoral research at the University of Pennsylvania and was an assistant professor at Princeton before joining Stanford University. Hofstadter taught at Stanford from 1950 to 1985. In 1942 he married Nancy Givan (1920–2007), a native of Baltimore. They had three children: Laura, Molly (who was disabled and not able to communicate), and Pulitzer Prize-winner Douglas Hofstadter.", "", "In 1948 Hofstadter filed a patent on this for the detection of ionizing radiation by this crystal. These detectors are widely used for gamma ray detection to this day.", "Robert Hofstadter coined the term fermi, symbol fm, in honor of the Italian physicist Enrico Fermi (1901–1954), one of the founders of nuclear physics, in Hofstadter's 1956 paper published in the \"Reviews of Modern Physics\" journal, \"Electron Scattering and Nuclear Structure\". The term is widely used by nuclear and particle physicists. When Hofstadter was awarded the 1961 Nobel Prize in Physics, it subsequently appears in the text of his 1961 Nobel Lecture, \"The electron-scattering method and its application to the structure of nuclei and nucleons\" (December 11, 1961).", "In his last few years, Hofstadter became interested in astrophysics and applied his knowledge of scintillators to the design of the EGRET gamma-ray telescope of the Compton Gamma Ray Observatory named for fellow Nobel Laureate in Physics (1927), Arthur Holly Compton. Stanford University's Department of Physics credits Hofstadter with being \"one of the principal scientists who developed the Compton Observatory.\"", "Technical reports:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Early air warfare.", "Synchronisation gear.", "Operational service.", "Service début.", "The Scourge begins.", "End of the Scourge.", "End of the \"Eindecker\".", "Aftermath.", "Analysis.", "Subsequent operations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "As aerial warfare developed, the Allies gained a lead over the Germans by introducing machine-gun armed types such as the Vickers F.B.5 Gunbus fighter and the Morane-Saulnier L. By early 1915, the German \"Oberste Heeresleitung\" (\"OHL\", Army supreme command) had ordered the development of machine-gun-armed aircraft, to counter those of the Allies. The new \"C\" class armed two-seaters and twin-engined \"K\" (later \"G\") class aircraft such as the AEG G.I were attached in ones and twos to \"Feldflieger Abteilungen\" (artillery-observation and reconnaissance detachments) for \"fighter\" sorties, mostly the escort of unarmed aircraft. On 18 April 1915, the Morane-Saulnier L of Roland Garros was captured, after he was forced to land behind the German lines. From 1April, Garros had destroyed three German aircraft in the Morane, which carried a machine-gun firing through the propeller arc. Bullets that hit the blades were deflected by small metal wedges. Garros burned his aircraft but this failed to conceal the nature of the device and the significance of the deflector blades. The German authorities requested several aircraft manufacturers, including that of Anthony Fokker, to produce a copy.", "The Fokker company produced the (push rod controller), a genuine synchronisation gear. Impulses from a cam driven by the engine controlled the firing of the machine-gun so it could fire forwards without damaging the propeller. Unlike earlier proposed gears the was fitted to an aircraft and proved in flight. In a postwar biography, Fokker claimed that he produced the gear in 48hours but it was probably designed by Heinrich Lübbe, a \"Fokker Flugzeugbau\" engineer. Among several pre-war patents for similar devices was that of Franz Schneider, a Swiss engineer who had worked for Nieuport and the German \"LVG\" company. The device was fitted to the most suitable Fokker type, the Fokker M.5K (military designation Fokker A.III), of which \"A.16/15\", assigned to Otto Parschau, became the prototype of the Fokker E.I. Fokker demonstrated \"A.16/15\" to German fighter pilots, including Kurt Wintgens, Oswald Boelcke and Max Immelmann in May and June 1915. The Fokker, with its \"Morane\" controls, including the over-sensitive balanced elevator and dubious lateral control, was difficult to fly; Parschau, who was experienced on FokkerA types, converted pilots to the new fighter. The early \"Eindeckers\" were attached to the normal \"FFA\" in ones and twos, to protect reconnaissance machines from Allied machine-gun-armed aircraft.", "", "Fokker \"Eindecker\" E.5/15, the last of the pre-production series, is believed to have been first flown in action by Kurt Wintgens of \"FFA\"6. On 1and 4July 1915, he reported combats with French Morane-SaulnierL (Parasols), each time well over the French lines. These victories were never confirmed, although later research has shown that the first claim matches French records of a Morane forced down on 1July near Lunéville with a wounded crew and a damaged engine, followed three days later by another. By 15July, Wintgens had moved to \"FFA\"48 and scored his first recognised victory, another MoraneL. Parschau had received the new E.1/15, which became the prototype for the Fokker \"Eindecker\" line of aircraft, when it was returned to the \"Fokker Flugzeugbau\" factory in Schwerin–Gorries, for development. By the end of July 1915, about fifteen \"Eindeckers\" were operational with various units, including the five M.5K/MGs and about ten early production E.I airframes. At first, the pilots flew the new aircraft as a sideline, when not flying normal operations in two-seater reconnaissance aircraft. Boelcke, in \"FFA\"62, scored his first victory in an Albatros C.I on 4July. M.5K/MG prototype airframe E.3/15, the first \"Eindecker\" delivered to \"FFA\"62, was armed with a Parabellum MG14 gun, synchronised by the troublesome first version of the Fokker gear. At first, E.3/15 was jointly allocated to him and Immelmann when their \"official\" duties permitted, allowing them to master the type's difficult handling characteristics and to practice shooting at ground targets. Immelmann was soon allocated a very early production Fokker E.I, \"E.13/15\", one of the first armed with an lMG 08 \"Spandau\" machine gun, using the more reliable production version of the Fokker gear.", "The Fokker Scourge is usually considered to have begun on 1August, when B.E.2c aircraft of No. 2 Squadron bombed the base of \"FFA\"62 at 5:00a.m., waking the German pilots, including Boelcke and Immelmann, who were quickly into the air after the raiders. Boelcke suffered a jammed gun but Immelmann caught up with a B.E.2c and shot it down. This aircraft was flown as a bomber, without an observer or Lewis gun, the pilot armed only with an automatic pistol. After about ten minutes of manoeuvring (giving the lie to exaggerated accounts of the stability of B.E.2 aircraft) Immelmann had fired 450rounds, which riddled the B.E. and wounded the pilot in the arm. By late October, towards the end of the Battle of Loos, more Fokkers (including the similar Pfalz E-type fighters, which were also called \"Fokkers\" by Allied airmen) were encountered by RFC pilots and by December, forty Fokkers were in service. The new fighters could make long, steep dives and the fixed, synchronised machine gun was aimed by aiming the aircraft. The machine gun was belt-fed, unlike the drum-fed Lewis guns of their opponents, who had to change drums when in action. The Fokker pilots took to flying high and diving on their quarry, usually out of the sun, firing a long burst and continuing the dive until well out of range. If the British aircraft had not been shot down, the German pilot could climb again and repeat the process. Immelmann invented the Immelmann turn, a zoom after the dive, followed by a roll when vertical to face the opposite way, after which he could turn to attack again. The mystique acquired by the Fokker was greater than its material effect and in October, RFC HQ expressed concern at the willingness of pilots to avoid combat. RFC losses were exacerbated by the increase in the number of aircraft at the front from 85 to 161 between March and September, the hard winter of 1915–1916 and some aggressive flying by the new German \"C\" type two-seaters. Boelcke and Immelmann continued to score, as did Hans Joachim Buddecke, Ernst von Althaus and Rudolph Berthold from \"FFA\"23 and Kurt vonCrailshein of \"FFA\"53. The \"official\" list of claims by Fokker pilots for the second half of 1915 was no more than 28, many of them over French aircraft. Thirteen aeroplanes had been shot down by Immelmann or Boelcke and the rest by seven other Fokker pilots. January 1916 brought thirteen claims, most of them against the French, followed by twenty more in February, the last month of the \"scourge\" proper. Most of the victories had been scored by aces rather than the newer pilots flying the increased number of Fokkers. Allied casualties had been light by later standards but the loss of air superiority to the Germans, flying a new and supposedly invincible aircraft, caused dismay among the Allied commanders and lowered the morale of Allied airmen. In his memoir \"Sagittarius Rising\" (1936), Cecil Lewis wrote, The RFC changed tactics for the sedate B.E. types and the newer F.E.2b pusher fighters. On 14 January, RFC HQ issued orders that until better aircraft arrived, long and short-range reconnaissance aircraft must have three escorts flying in close formation. If contact with the escorts was lost, the reconnaissance must be cancelled, as would photographic reconnaissance to any great distance beyond the front line. Sending the B.E.2c into action without an observer armed with a machine gun also became less prevalent. The new tactic of concentrating aircraft in time and space had the effect of reducing the number of reconnaissance sorties the RFC could fly in support of the army. New defensive formations were devised; a IIWing RFC method was for the reconnaissance aircraft to lead, escorted on each side higher, with another escort behind and above. On 7 February, on a IIWing long-range reconnaissance, the observation pilot flew at ; a German aircraft appeared over Roulers and seven more closed in behind the formation. West of Thourout, two Fokkers arrived and attacked at once, one diving on the reconnaissance machine and the other on an escort. Six more German aircraft appeared over Courtemarck and formed a procession of 14 aeroplanes stalking the British formation. None of the German pilots attacked and all the British aircraft returned, only to meet two German aircraft coming back from a bombing raid, which opened fire and mortally wounded the pilot of one the British escort aircraft. The British ascribed their immunity to attack during the 55-minute flight to the rigid formation, which the two Fokkers were unable to disrupt. On 7 February, a No. 12 Squadron B.E.2c. was to be escorted by three B.E.2c, two F.E.2 aircraft and a Bristol Scout from 12 Squadron and two more F.E. and four R.E. aeroplanes from No. 21 Squadron. The flight was cancelled due to bad weather but twelve escorts for one reconnaissance aircraft demonstrated the effect of the Fokkers in reducing the efficiency of RFC operations. British and French reconnaissance flights to get aerial photographs for intelligence and ranging data for their artillery had become riskier, in spite of German fighters being forbidden to fly over Allied lines (in an attempt to keep the synchronisation gear secret). This policy, for various reasons, prevailed for most of the war; the rarity of German fighters appearing behind the Allied lines limited the degree of air superiority they were able to attain.", "The beginning of the end of the scourge came at the Battle of Verdun (21February20December). An attempt to impose an air barrage () had largely concealed the German preparations for the offensive from French aerial reconnaissance. During March and April increasing numbers of the new French Nieuport 11 fighters were sent to Verdun. Organised in specialist fighter squadrons () the Nieuports could operate in formations larger than the singletons or pairs normally flown by the Fokkers, quickly regaining air superiority for the. British F.E.2b pusher aircraft had been arriving in France from late 1915 and in the New Year began to replace the older F.B.5s. The pilot and observer had a good view forwards from their cockpits and the observer could also fire backwards over the tail. No. 20 Squadron, the first full F.E. unit, arrived in France on 23January 1916, for long-range reconnaissance and escort flying. The Fokker pilots attacked the F.E.s without hesitation but soon found that the new aircraft could be formidable opponents, particularly when flying in formation. What the F.E. lacked was sufficient speed and manoeuvrability to pursue and attack the Fokkers. Another pusher, the Airco DH.2 single-seat fighter, began to arrive at the front in February 1916. This aircraft had a modest performance but its superior manoeuvrability gave it an advantage over the \"Eindecker\", especially once a clamp was fitted to its Lewis gun so it could be fixed to fire forwards. On 8 February, No. 24 Squadron (Major Lanoe Hawker) arrived with D.H.2s and began patrols north of the Somme; another six D.H.2 squadrons followed. On 25 April, two of the D.H. pilots were attacked and found that they could out-manoeuvre the Fokkers; a few days later, without opening fire, a D.H. pilot caused a Fokker to crash onto a roof at Bapaume. The Nieuports proved even more effective when the first Nieuport 16s in British service were issued to No. 1 and No. 11 Squadrons in April. By March 1916, despite frequent encounters with Fokkers and the continued success of the German \"Eindecker\" aces, the scourge was over. The bogey of the Fokker \"Eindecker\" as a fighter was finally laid in April, when an E.III landed by mistake on a British aerodrome. The captured aircraft was found not to have the superior performance it had been credited with. The first British aircraft with a synchronisation gear was a Bristol Scout, which arrived on 25 March 1916 and on 24 May the first Sopwith 11⁄2 Strutter aircraft were flown to France by a flight of No. 70 Squadron.", "The impact of the new Allied types, especially the Nieuport, was of considerable concern to the Fokker pilots; some even took to flying captured examples. \"Idflieg\" was sufficiently desperate to order German firms to build Nieuport copies, of which the Euler D.I and the Siemens-Schuckert D.I were built in quantity. New D type single-seat biplane fighters, particularly the Fokker D.II and Halberstadt D.II, had been under test since late 1915 and the replacement of the monoplanes with these types had begun by mid-1916. In February 1916, \"Inspektor-Major\" Friedrich Stempel began to assemble (\"KEK\", single-seat battle units). The \"KEK\" were units mostly of two to four fighters, equipped with \"Eindeckers\" and other types which had served with \"FFA\" units during the winter of 1915–1916. By July 1916, \"KEK\" had been formed at Vaux, Avillers, Jametz and Cunel near Verdun as well as other places on the Western Front, as (aerial guard service) units, consisting only of fighters. In the second half of May, German air activity on the British front decreased markedly, while the commander of the new, \"Oberst\" Hermann von der Lieth-Thomsen, reorganised the German air service. The fighters of the \"KEK\" were concentrated into fighter squadrons (\"Jagdstaffeln\") the first of which, \"Jagdstaffel 2\" (\"Jasta 2\") went into action on the Somme on 17 September. By this time, the last of the \"Eindeckers\", long outmoded as front line fighters, had been retired from the front line.", "", "Among British politicians and journalists who grossly exaggerated the material effects of the \"Scourge\" were the eminent pioneering aviation journalist C.G. Grey, founder of \"The Aeroplane\", one of the first aviation magazines and Noel Pemberton Billing M.P., a notably unsuccessful aircraft designer and manufacturer. Their supposed object was the replacement of the B.E.2c with better aircraft but it took the form of an attack on the RFC command and the Royal Aircraft Factory. C.G. Grey had orchestrated a campaign against the Royal Aircraft Factory in the pages of \"The Aeroplane\", going back to its period as the Balloon Factory, well before it had produced any heavier-than-air aircraft. Before the unsuitability of the B.E.2c for air combat was exposed by the first Fokker aces, criticism was not primarily aimed at the technical quality of Royal Aircraft Factory aircraft but because a government body was competing with private industry. When the news of the Fokker monoplane fighters reached him in late 1915, Grey was quick to blame the problem on orders for equipment that the latest developments had rendered obsolete. Grey did not suggest what aircraft might have been ordered instead, even supposing that the rapid development of aviation technology during the war could have been foreseen. Pemberton Billing also blamed the initially poor performance of British aircraft manufacturers on what he saw as the favouritism shown by the RFC, an arm of the British Army, towards the Royal Aircraft Factory, which, while nominally civilian, was also part of the army. Pemberton Billing claimed that, Even among writers who recognised the hysteria of this version of events, this picture of the Fokker scourge gained considerable currency during the war and afterwards. In 1996 Peter Grosz wrote,", "The period of Allied air superiority that followed the Fokker Scourge was brief. By mid-September 1916, the first Albatros D.I fighters were coming into service. The new aircraft were again able to challenge Allied aircraft, culminating in \"Bloody April\" during the Battle of Arras In the next two years, the Allied air forces gradually overwhelmed the in quality and quantity, until the Germans were only able to gain temporary control over small areas of the Western Front. When this tactic became untenable, development of new aircraft began, which led to the Fokker D.VII. The new aircraft created another \"Fokker Scourge\" in the summer of 1918 and as a condition of the Armistice, Germany was required to surrender all Fokker D.VII aircraft to the Allies." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Historical background.", "Prior to 1918.", "Austria during the First Austrian Republic 1918–1934.", "Nazi Germany and Austria.", "Austrian Civil War to \"Anschluss\".", "End of an independent Austria.", "Actions against the Jews.", "Plebiscite.", "Banking and assets.", "Reactions to the \"Anschluss\".", "Legacy.", "\"Anschluss\": annexation or union?", "Changes in Central Europe.", "Second Republic.", "Moscow Declaration.", "Austrian identity and the \"victim theory\".", "Political events.", "Literature.", "Historical Commission and outstanding legal issues.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The idea of grouping all Germans into one nation-state had been the subject of debate in the 19th century from the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806 until the break-up of the German Confederation in 1866. Austria had wanted a \"Großdeutsche Lösung\" (greater Germany solution), whereby the German states would unite under the leadership of German Austrians (Habsburgs). This solution would have included all the German states (including the non-German regions of Austria), but Prussia would have had to accept a secondary role. This controversy, called dualism, dominated Prusso-Austrian diplomacy and the politics of the German states in the mid-nineteenth century. In 1866 the feud finally came to an end during the German war in which the Prussians defeated the Austrians and thereby excluded Austria and German Austrians from Germany. The Prussian statesman Otto von Bismarck formed the North German Confederation, which included most of the remaining German states, aside from a few in", "By the end of World War I in 1918, Austria had not officially participated in internal German affairs for more than fifty years - since the Peace of Prague that concluded the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. Elite and popular opinion in rump Austria after 1918 largely favored some sort of union with Germany, but the 1919 peace treaties explicitly forbade this. The Austro-Hungarian Empire had collapsed in 1918, and on 12 November that year German Austria was declared a republic. An Austrian provisional national assembly drafted a provisional constitution that stated that \"German Austria is a democratic republic\" (Article 1) and \"German Austria is a component of the German Republic\" (Article 2). Later plebiscites in the German border provinces of Tyrol and Salzburg yielded majorities of 98% and 99% in favor of a unification with the German (i.e. Weimar) Republic. In", "When the Nazis, led by Adolf Hitler, rose to power in the Weimar Republic, the Austrian government withdrew from economic ties. Like Germany, Austria experienced the economic turbulence which was a result of the Great Depression, with a high unemployment rate, and unstable commerce and industry. During the 1920s it was a target for German investment capital. By 1937, rapid German rearmament increased Berlin's interest in annexing Austria, rich in raw materials and labour. It supplied Germany with magnesium and the products of the iron, textile and machine industries. It had gold and foreign currency reserves, many unemployed skilled workers,", "The Austrian Nazi Party failed to win any seats in the November 1930 general election, but its popularity grew in Austria after Hitler came to power in Germany. The idea of the country joining Germany also grew in popularity, thanks in part to a Nazi propaganda campaign which used slogans such as \"Ein Volk, ein Reich, ein Führer\" (\"One People, One Empire, One Leader\") to try to convince Austrians to advocate for an \"Anschluss\" to the German Reich. \"Anschluss\" might have occurred by democratic process had Austrian Nazis not begun a terrorism campaign. According to John Gunther in 1936, \"In 1932 Austria was probably eighty percent pro-\"Anschluss\"\". When Germany permitted residents of Austria to vote on 5 March 1933, three special trains, boats and trucks brought such masses to Passau that the SS staged a ceremonial welcome. Gunther wrote that by the end of 1933 Austrian public opinion", "Hitler told Goebbels in the late summer of 1937 that eventually Austria would have to be taken \"by force\". On 5 November 1937, Hitler called a meeting with the Foreign Minister Konstantin von Neurath, the War Minister Field Marshal Werner von Blomberg, the Army commander General Werner von Fritsch, the Kriegsmarine commander Admiral Erich Raeder and the Luftwaffe commander Herman Göring recorded in the Hossbach Memorandum. At the conference, Hitler stated that economic problems were causing Germany to fall behind in the arms race with Britain and France, and that the only solution was to launch in the near-future a series of wars to seize Austria and Czechoslovakia, whose economies would be plundered to give Germany the lead in the arms race. In early 1938, Hitler was seriously considering replacing Papen as ambassador to Austria with either Colonel Hermann Kriebel, the German consul in Shanghai or Albert Forster, the \"Gauleiter\" of Danzig. Significantly, neither Kriebel nor Forster were professional diplomats with Kriebel being one of the leaders of the 1923 Munich Beerhall \"putsch\" who had been appointed consul in Shanghai to facilitate his work as an arms dealer in China while Forster was a \"Gauleiter\" who had proven he could get along with the Poles in his position in the Free City of Danzig; both men were Nazis who had shown some diplomatic skill. On 25 January 1938, the Austrian police raided the Vienna headquarters of the Austrian Nazi Party, arresting \"Gauleiter\" Leopold Tavs, the deputy to Captain Josef Leopold, discovered a cache of arms and plans for a \"putsch\". Following increasing violence and demands from Hitler that Austria agree to a union, Schuschnigg met Hitler at Berchtesgaden on 12 February 1938, in an attempt to avoid the takeover of Austria. Hitler presented Schuschnigg with a set of demands that included appointing Nazi sympathizers to positions of power in the government. The key appointment was that of Arthur Seyss-Inquart as Minister of Public Security, with full, unlimited control of the police. In return Hitler would publicly reaffirm the treaty of 11 July 1936 and reaffirm his support for Austria's national sovereignty. Browbeaten and threatened by Hitler, Schuschnigg agreed to these demands and put them into effect. Seyss-Inquart was a long-time supporter of the Nazis who sought the union of all Germans in one state. Leopold argues he was a moderate who favoured an evolutionary approach to union. He opposed the violent tactics of the Austrian Nazis, cooperated with Catholic groups, and wanted to preserve a measure of Austrian identity within Nazi Germany. On 20 February, Hitler made a speech before the Reichstag which was broadcast live and which for the first time was relayed also by the Austrian radio network. A key phrase in the speech which was aimed at the Germans living in Austria and Czechoslovakia was: \"...The German Reich is no longer willing to tolerate the suppression of ten million Germans across its borders.\"", "The campaign against the Jews began immediately after the \"Anschluss\". They were driven through the streets of Vienna, their homes and shops were plundered. Jewish men and women were forced to wash away pro-independence slogans painted on the streets of Vienna ahead of the failed 13 March plebiscite. Jewish actresses from the Theater in der Josefstadt were forced to clean toilets by the SA. The process of Aryanisation began, and Jews were driven out of public life within months. These events reached a climax in the Kristallnacht pogrom of 9–10 November 1938. All synagogues and prayer houses in Vienna were destroyed, as well as in other Austrian cities such as Salzburg. The Stadttempel was the sole survivor due to its location in", "The \"Anschluss\" was given immediate effect by legislative act on 13 March, subject to ratification by a plebiscite. Austria became the province of Ostmark, and Seyss-Inquart was appointed governor. The plebiscite was held on 10 April and officially recorded a support of 99.7% of the voters. While historians concur that the votes were accurately counted, the process was neither free nor secret. Officials were present directly beside the voting booths and received the voting ballot by hand (in contrast to a secret vote where the voting ballot is inserted into a closed box). In some remote areas of Austria, people", "Germany, which had a shortage of steel and a weak balance of payments, gained iron ore mines in the Erzberg and 748 million", "Austria in the first days of Nazi Germany's control had many contradictions: at one and the same time, Hitler's regime began to tighten its grip on every aspect of society, beginning with mass arrests as thousands of Austrians tried to escape; yet other Austrians cheered and welcomed the German troops entering their territory. In March 1938 the local Gauleiter of Gmunden, Upper Austria, gave a speech to the local Austrians and told them in plain terms that all \"traitors\" of Austria were to be thrown into the newly opened concentration camp at Mauthausen-Gusen. The camp became notorious for its cruelty and barbarism. During its existence an estimated 200,000 people died, half of whom were directly killed. The antigypsy sentiment was implemented initially most harshly in Austria when between 1938-1939 the Nazis arrested around 2,000 Gypsy men who were sent to Dachau and 1,000 Gypsy women who were sent to Ravensbrück. Starting in 1939, Austrian Gypsies had to register themselves to local authorities. The Nazis began to publish articles linking the Gypsies with criminality. Until 1942, the Nazis had made a distinction between \"pure Gypsies\" and \"Gypsy \"Mischlinges\". However, Nazi racial research claimed that 90% of Gypsies were of mixed ancestry. Subsequently, the Nazis ordered that the Gypsies were to be treated on the same level as the Jews. Many Austrian political figures announced their support of the \"Anschluss\" and their relief that it happened without violence. Cardinal Theodor Innitzer (a political figure of the CS) declared as early as 12 March: \"The Viennese Catholics should thank the Lord for the bloodless way this great political change has", "", "The word \"Anschluss\" is properly translated as \"joinder,\" \"connection,\" \"unification,\" or \"political union.\" In contrast, the German word \"Annektierung\" (military annexation) was not, and is not commonly used now, to describe the union of Austria and Germany in 1938. The word \"Anschluss\" had been widespread before 1938 describing an incorporation of Austria into Germany. Calling", "The \"Anschluss\" was among the first major steps in Austrian-born Hitler's desire to create a Greater German Reich that was to include all ethnic Germans and all the lands and territories that the German Empire had lost after the First World War. Although Austria was predominantly ethnically German and had been part of the Holy Roman Empire until it dissolved in 1806 and the German Confederation until 1866 after the defeat in the Austro-Prussian War, it had never been a part of the German Empire. The unification of Germany brought about by Otto von Bismarck created that Prussian-dominated entity in 1871, with Austria, Prussia's rival for dominance of the German states, explicitly excluded. Prior", "", "The Moscow Declaration of 1943, signed by the United States, the Soviet Union and the United Kingdom, included a \"Declaration on Austria\", which stated: The governments of the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States of America are agreed that Austria, the first free country to fall a victim to Hitlerite aggression, shall be liberated from German domination. They regard the annexation imposed on Austria by Germany on 15 March 1938, as null and void. They consider themselves as in no way bound by any changes effected in Austria since that date. They declare that they wish to see re-established a free and independent Austria and thereby to open the way for the Austrian people themselves, as well as those neighbouring States which will be faced with similar problems, to find that political and economic security which is the only basis for lasting peace. Austria is reminded, however, that she has a responsibility, which she cannot evade, for participation in the war", "After World War II many Austrians sought comfort in the idea of Austria as being the first victim of the Nazis. Although the Nazi party was promptly banned, Austria did not have the same thorough process of denazification that was imposed on Germany. Lacking outside pressure for political reform, factions of Austrian society tried for a long time to advance the view that the \"Anschluss\" was only an annexation at the point of a bayonet. This view of the events of 1938 has deep roots in the 10 years of Allied occupation and the struggle to regain Austrian sovereignty: the \"victim theory\" played an essential role in the negotiations for the Austrian State Treaty with the Soviets, and by pointing to the Moscow Declaration, Austrian politicians heavily relied on it to achieve a solution for Austria different from the division of Germany into separate Eastern and Western states.", "For decades, the victim theory remained largely undisputed in Austria. The public was rarely forced to confront the legacy of Nazi Germany. One of those occasions arose in 1965, when Taras Borodajkewycz, a professor of economic history, made anti-Semitic remarks following the death of Ernst Kirchweger, a concentration camp survivor killed by a right-wing protester during riots. It was not until the 1980s that Austrians confronted their mixed past on a large scale. The catalyst for the \"Vergangenheitsbewältigung\" (struggle to come to terms with the past) was the Waldheim affair. Kurt Waldheim, a candidate in the presidential election and former UN Secretary-General, was accused of having been a member of the Nazi party and of the infamous SA (he was later absolved of direct involvement in war crimes). The Waldheim affair started the first", "The political discussions and soul-searching were reflected in other aspects of culture. Thomas Bernhard's last play, \"Heldenplatz\" (1988), generated controversy even before it was produced, fifty years after Hitler's entrance to the city. Bernhard made the historic elimination of references to Hitler's reception in Vienna emblematic of Austrian attempts to claim its history and culture under questionable criteria. Many politicians called Bernhard a \"Nestbeschmutzer\" (damaging the reputation of his country) and openly demanded that the play should not be staged in Vienna's Burgtheater. Waldheim, still president, called the play \"a crude insult to the Austrian people\".", "In the Federal Republic of Germany the \"Vergangenheitsbewältigung\" (\"struggle to come to terms with the past\") has been partially institutionalised in literary, cultural, political, and educational contexts. Austria formed a \"Historikerkommission\" (\"Historian's Commission\" or \"Historical Commission\") in 1998 with a mandate to review Austria's role in the Nazi expropriation of Jewish property from a scholarly rather than legal perspective, partly in response to continuing criticism of its handling of property claims. Its membership was based on recommendations from various quarters, including Simon Wiesenthal and Yad Vashem. The Commission delivered its report in 2003. Noted Holocaust historian Raul Hilberg refused to participate in the Commission and in an interview he stated his strenuous objections in terms both personal and in reference to larger questions about Austrian culpability and liability, comparing what he thought to be relative inattention by the World Jewish Congress to the settlement governing the Swiss bank holdings of those who died or were displaced by the Holocaust. The Simon Wiesenthal Center continues to criticise Austria (as recently as June 2005) for its alleged historical and ongoing unwillingness aggressively to pursue investigations and trials", "Informational notes Citations Bibliography Further reading" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Athletes' Oath.", "The Officials' Oath.", "The Coaches' Oath.", "Unified Oath.", "Speakers." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "An oath was an idea taken from the Ancient Olympic Games where competitors swore an oath beside a statue of Zeus. A call for an oath was announced as early as 1906 by International Olympic Committee (IOC) president and founder Pierre de Coubertin in the \"Revue Olympique\" (\"Olympic Review\" in French). This was done in an effort to ensure fairness and impartiality. The Olympic Oath was first taken at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp by the fencer Victor Boin. Boin's oath in 1920 was: At a winter sports week in Chamonix in 1924, which were retrospectively call the Olympic Games in 1926, all the competitors took an Olympic style oath and were led by Camille Mandrillon. Rudolf Ismayr was the first Olympic Champion to take the oath, doing so at the 1936 Games in Berlin. In 1956 Giuliana Chenal-Minuzzo became the first woman to recite the oath. In 1961, \"swear\" was replaced by \"promise\" and \"the honour of our countries\" by \"the honour of our teams\" in an effort to eliminate nationalism at the Olympic Games. Therefore the oath was as follows: An oath for the officials had been discussed since the 1950s when the International Amateur Boxing Association asked all its officials to undertake an oath. In 1970 the IOC amended rule 57 of the charter and decreed that a judge from the host nation would also take an oath. The first judges' oath was taken at the 1972 Winter Olympics in Sapporo by Fumio Asaki and Heinz Pollay performed the task at that year's summer games in Munich. The Munich games saw Heidi Schüller become the first female athlete to take the oath at the Summer Games; women had been competing at the games since 1900. At the 1988 Games the athletes' oath for the first time was undertaken by more than one person, when Hur Jae and Shon Mi-Na took the oath in unison. All persons up until the 1980 Games swore the oath on their country's flag. In an attempt to eliminate nationalism from the oath ceremony all have sworn on the Olympic Flag since the 1984 games. The oaths are usually spoken in the language of the host nation (or athlete's mother tongue – Bojan Krizaj represented Yugoslavia but spoke Slovenian), but in 1994 both of the oaths were conducted in English rather than Norwegian. In 1999, the IOC created the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) in an effort to form a more organized battle against doping. Thus, the Athletes Oath was amended to include references to doping and drugs. In 2010 the IOC recognised that younger athletes, in particular, are influenced by their coaches. At the first Youth Olympic Games, coaches were also required to undertake an oath for this reason. With effect from the 2018 Winter Olympics, the three oaths were combined into one, led by an athlete, although representatives of judges and coaches are still involved in the taking of the oath.", "The chosen athlete, a representative of all the participating Olympic competitors, recited the following from 2000 until 2016:", "The judge/official, also from the host nation, likewise held a corner of the flag and said the following:", "At the 2010 Summer Youth Olympics, an additional oath was taken by a coach; this was added to the protocol for the 2012 Games:", "Beginning in PyeongChang at the 2018 Winter Olympics, there was only one oath. A representative for the athletes, judges, and coaches each recites the following lines respectively: The athletes' representative then completes the oath:", "The athletes, judges and coaches that have delivered the Olympic Oath are listed below." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Education.", "Early years.", "Later years.", "Research.", "Personal life.", "Awards and honours.", "Awards.", "Selected bibliography." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Alfvén received his PhD from the University of Uppsala in 1934. His thesis was titled \"Investigations of High-frequency Electromagnetic Waves.\"", "In 1934, Alfvén taught physics at both the University of Uppsala and the Nobel Institute for Physics (later renamed the Manne Siegbahn Institute of Physics) in Stockholm, Sweden. In 1940, he became professor of electromagnetic theory and electrical measurements at the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm. In 1945, he acquired the nonappointive position of Chair of Electronics. His title was changed to Chair of Plasma Physics in 1963. From 1954 to 1955, Alfvén was a Fulbright Scholar at the University of Maryland, College Park. In 1967, after leaving Sweden and spending time in the Soviet Union, he moved to the United States. Alfvén worked in the departments of electrical engineering at both the University of California, San Diego and the University of Southern California.", "In 1991, Alfvén retired as professor of electrical engineering at the University of California, San Diego and professor of plasma physics at the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm. Alfvén spent his later adult life alternating between California and Sweden. He died at the age of 86.", "In 1937, Alfvén argued that if plasma pervaded the universe, it could then carry electric currents capable of generating a galactic magnetic field. After winning the Nobel Prize for his works in magnetohydrodynamics, he emphasized that: In order to understand the phenomena in a certain plasma region, it is necessary to map not only the magnetic but also the electric field and the electric currents. Space is filled with a network of currents which transfer energy and momentum over large or very large distances. The currents often pinch to filamentary or surface currents. The latter are likely to give space, as also interstellar and intergalactic space, a cellular structure. His theoretical work on field-aligned electric currents in the aurora (based on earlier work by Kristian Birkeland) was confirmed in 1967, these currents now being known as Birkeland currents. Alfvén's work was disputed for many years by the senior scientist in space physics, the British mathematician and geophysicist Sydney Chapman. Alfvén's disagreements with Chapman stemmed in large part from trouble with the peer review system. Alfvén rarely benefited from the acceptance generally afforded senior scientists in scientific journals. He once submitted a paper on the theory of magnetic storms and auroras to the American journal \"Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity\" only to have his paper rejected on the ground that it did not agree with the theoretical calculations of conventional physics of the time. He was regarded as a person with unorthodox opinions in the field by many physicists, R. H. Stuewer noting that \"... he remained an embittered outsider, winning little respect from other scientists even after he received the Nobel Prize...\" and was often forced to publish his papers in obscure journals. Alfvén recalled: When I describe [plasma phenomena] according to this formalism most referees do not understand what I say and turn down my papers. With the referee system which rules US science today, this means that my papers are rarely accepted by the leading US journals. Alfvén played a central role in the development of: In 1939, Alfvén proposed the theory of magnetic storms and auroras and the theory of plasma dynamics in the earth's magnetosphere. This was the paper rejected by the U.S. journal \"Terrestrial Magnetism and Atmospheric Electricity\". Applications of Alfvén's research in space science include: Alfvén's views followed those of the founder of magnetospheric physics, Kristian Birkeland. At the end of the nineteenth century, Birkeland proposed (backed by extensive data) that electric currents flowing down along the Earth's magnetic fields into the atmosphere caused the aurora and polar magnetic disturbances. Areas of technology benefiting from Alfvén's contributions include: Contributions to astrophysics: Alfvén waves (low frequency hydromagnetic plasma oscillations) are named in his honor, and propagate at the Alfvén speed. Many of his theories about the solar system were verified as late as the 1980s through external measurements of cometary and planetary magnetospheres. But Alfvén himself noted that astrophysical textbooks poorly represented known plasma phenomena: A study of how a number of the most used textbooks in astrophysics treat important concepts such as double layers, critical velocity, pinch effects, and circuits is made. It is found that students using these textbooks remain essentially ignorant of even the existence of these concepts, despite the fact that some of them have been well known for half a century (e.g, double layers, Langmuir, 1929; pinch effect, Bennet, 1934). Alfvén reported that of 17 of the most used textbooks on astrophysics, none mention the pinch effect, none mentioned critical ionization velocity, only two mentioned circuits, and three mentioned double layers. Alfvén believed the problem with the Big Bang was that astrophysicists tried to extrapolate the origin of the universe from mathematical theories developed on the blackboard, rather than starting from known observable phenomena. He also considered the Big Bang to be a myth devised to explain creation. Alfvén and colleagues proposed the Alfvén–Klein model as an alternative cosmological theory to both the Big Bang and steady state theory cosmologies.", "Alfvén had a good sense of humor, and he participated in a variety of social issues and worldwide disarmament movements. He had a long-standing distrust of computers. Alfvén studied the history of science, oriental philosophy, and religion. On his religious views, Alfven was irreligious and critical of religion. He spoke Swedish, English, German, French, and Russian, and some Spanish and Chinese. He expressed great concern about the difficulties of permanent high-level radioactive waste management.\" Alfvén was also interested in problems in cosmology and all aspects of auroral physics, and used Schröder's well known book on aurora, \"Das Phänomen des Polarlichts\". Letters of Alfvén, Treder, and Schröder were published on the occasion of Treder's 70th birthday. The relationships between Hans-Jürgen Treder, Hannes Alfvén and Wilfried Schröder were discussed in detail by Schröder in his publications. Alfvén was married for 67 years to his wife Kerstin (1910–1992). They raised five children, one boy and four girls. His son became a physician, while one daughter became a writer and another a lawyer in Sweden. The composer Hugo Alfvén was Hannes Alfvén's uncle.", "The Hannes Alfvén Prize, awarded annually by the European Physical Society for outstanding contributions in plasma physics, is named after him. The asteroid 1778 Alfvén is named in his honour.", "Alfvén was one of the few scientists who was a foreign member of both the United States and Soviet Academies of Sciences.", "For full list of publications see." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Mandate.", "History.", "Publications and surveys.", "Survey: Violence against Women.", "Survey: EU-MIDIS (Minorities and Discrimination).", "Survey: European Union lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender survey.", "Methodology.", "Survey: Roma.", "Publications of the EUMC.", "Report: Working Definition of Antisemitism.", "Report: Rise in antisemitic attacks in the EU.", "Report: Rise of Islamophobic attacks in the EU following 9/11.", "Reception." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The FRA is an EU body tasked with \"collecting and analysing data on fundamental rights with reference to, in principle, all rights listed in the Charter\"; however, it is intended to focus particularly on \"the thematic areas within the scope of EU law\". Those nine thematic areas are defined by Council Decision No 252/2013/EU of 11 March 2013, establishing a Multiannual Framework for 2013–2017 for the Agency. They are: access to justice; victims of crime; information society; Roma integration; judicial co-operation; rights of the child; discrimination; immigration and integration of migrants; and racism and xenophobia. The FRA's primary methods of operation are surveys, reports, provision of expert assistance to EU bodies, member states, and EU candidate countries and potential candidate countries, and raising awareness about fundamental rights. The FRA is not mandated to intervene in individual cases but rather to investigate broad issues and trends.", "The FRA was established in 2007 as the successor to the European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia (EUMC), which was also based in Vienna. The EUMC's mandate was narrower than that of the FRA, as it was restricted to issues of racism and xenophobia. The EUMC grew from the Commission on Racism and Xenophobia (CRX), established in 1994, and also known as the Kahn Commission. The CRX was transformed into the EUMC in June 1998; officially established by Council Regulation (EC) No 1035/97 of 2 June 1997.", "Since its inception, the FRA has carried out surveys and published reports which are available online. A full list of publications is given on Publications & resources > Publications. This section discusses reports that have seen significant attention from outside observers.", "In March 2014, FRA published a major survey on violence against women, based on face-to-face interviews with over 42,000 women from across the 28 Member States of the EU. The survey asked about their experiences of physical, sexual and psychological violence including incidents of intimate partner violence ('domestic violence'). Questions also asked about incidents of stalking, sexual harassment and online harassment as well as their experience of violence in childhood. According to the responses of the report some of the key findings indicated that:", "In 2009, FRA released a survey on the experiences of discrimination, racist crime, and policing of minority group and immigration groups in the EU. The survey was based on the responses of 23,000 individuals from selected ethnic minority and immigrant groups, and additionally, 5,000 people from the majority population living in the same areas as minorities in 10 Member States. Key findings of the survey include that: A second round of the survey (EU-MIDIS II) is currently underway, and the results will be published in 2016. This will collect comparable data, and assess the impact of national anti-discrimination and equality legislation and policies in the EU.", "In 2013, FRA conducted an online survey to identify how lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) people living in the European Union experience the fulfilment of their fundamental rights. This followed a 2009 report on homophobia and discrimination on grounds of sexual orientation or gender identity which identified the need for comparative data on this issue. The results reflect the experiences of more than 93,000 individuals who completed the online survey across Europe. The aim was to support the development of more effective laws and policies to fight discrimination, violence and harassment, improving equal treatment across society. From the findings, it was noted that: A second round of the survey (EU-LGBTI II) is currently underway, and the results will be published in 2020. This will collect comparable data in order to compare the results with the prior survey.", "The online survey methodology was chosen to ensure the anonymity of ‘hard-to-reach’ or ‘closeted’ LGBT populations, to encourage reporting of sensitive or negative experiences, such as criminal victimisation, and eliminate bias, which could have been introduced by telephone or face-to-face interview approaches. Multiple responses were discouraged through the length (approximately 30 minutes) and complexity of the survey, while the input process in the different countries was closely monitored for falsifications. The results are not intended to be representative of all LGBT people in the EU, but provide the largest collection of empirical evidence on the experiences of LGBT people in Europe to date. Data about the perceptions of discrimination on grounds of sexual orientation or gender identity of the general public was not included in the survey, as it is already collected by Eurobarometer. The analysis of the results in the EU LGBT survey – Main results report compares some Eurobarometer data with the EU LGBT survey results.", "The Agency has a multi-annual Roma programme to allow it \"to make regular reports on progress made and provide evidence based advice to the EU institutions and Member States based on data systematically collected across the EU\". Data from the 2011 Roma survey is available via an online data explorer tool.", "EUMC published reports are available from the website here of the FRA, the EUMC successor agency. A selection is given below.", "In 2005, the EUMC published a working definition of antisemitism, whose stated purpose was to \"provide a guide for identifying incidents, collecting data and supporting the implementation and enforcement of legislation dealing with antisemitism\". In November 2013 the definition was removed from the organisation's website in 'a clear-out of non-official documents'. A spokesperson stated that the document had never been viewed as a valid definition and that \"We are not aware of any official definition\".", "In May 2004, a report labeled 'Manifestations of antisemitism in the EU 2002 – 2003' was published. It detailed a rise in attacks targeting Jewish businesses, synagogues, cemeteries and individuals. The countries with the most significant number of attacks were Belgium, France, Germany, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom. A second report, on perceptions of antisemitism, was also published.", "The largest monitoring project ever to be commissioned regarding Islamophobia was undertaken following 9/11 by the European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia (EUMC). From a total of 75 reports, 15 from each member state, a synthesis report, entitled \"Summary report on Islamophobia in the EU after 11 September 2001\", was published in May 2002. The report highlighted occasions in which citizens abused and sometimes violently attacked Muslims. Discrimination included verbal abuse, indiscriminately accusing Muslims of responsibility for the attacks, removing women's hijab, spitting, using the name \"Usama\" as a pejorative epithet, and assaults. The report concluded that \"a greater receptivity towards anti-Muslim and other xenophobic ideas and sentiments has, and may well continue, to become more tolerated\".", "The need for a new human rights institution was questioned given that human rights policy was a principal concern of the Council of Europe (CoE), of which all EU member states were also members. In 2007 the British Conservative MEP Syed Kamall said: \"The Fundamental Rights Agency will take £20m (30m euros) of taxpayers' money and use it to advance a partisan agenda with little accountability to anyone\". In 2010 the German newspaper \"Die Welt\" reported that the centre-right French politician Pierre Lellouche, then EU minister in the Sarkozy government, questioned \"the added value\" of the FRA when the Council of Europe already took care of human rights. A Resolution adopted in September 2009, in which the EP condemned a \"Law on the Protection of Minors\", which was then under discussion in Lithuania, as \"homophobic\" and requested the FRA to issue a legal opinion on whether the draft law was compatible with the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights. The Lithuanian Parliament, however, responded by adopting a Resolution that condemned the EP's Resolution as an \"illegal act\" (pointing to the fact that the FRA explicitly has no mandate to examine the legislation adopted by Member States) and requesting the Lithuanian Government to take legal action against the EP before the European Court of Justice." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Before the Postal Union.", "General Postal Union.", "Universal Postal Union.", "Terminal dues.", "Origin.", "Modifications.", "Shifting balances and the United States.", "2019 Extraordinary Congress.", "Standards.", "Member countries.", "Observers.", "States with limited recognition.", "Congresses.", "Philatelic activities.", "Electronic telecommunication." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Before the establishment of the UPU, every pair of countries that exchanged mail had to negotiate a postal treaty with each other. In the absence of a treaty providing for direct delivery of letters, senders sometimes resorted to mail forwarders who would transfer the mail through an intermediate country. Negotiations for postal treaties could drag on for years. When Elihu Washburne arrived in Paris in 1869 as the new United States Minister to France, he found \"the singular spectacle... of no postal arrangements between two countries connected by so many business and social relations.\" At the last grand dinner given by Emperor Napoleon III before the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, the first topic he discussed with Washburne was the postal treaty. After Napoleon III was defeated at the Battle of Sedan, the United States became the first country to recognize the French Third Republic, an event that brought thousands of Parisians into the street shouting \"Vive l'Amérique.\" However, such sentiments did not lead to the signing of a postal treaty between the United States and France. There would be no relief until the Postal Union was established in 1874. Washburne wrote, \"There is no nation in the world more difficult to make treaties with than France.\" Faced with such difficulties, the United States took the lead in calling for improvements to international mail arrangements. United States Postmaster General Montgomery Blair called for an International Postal Congress in 1863. Meeting in Paris, the delegates laid down some general principles for postal cooperation but failed to come to an agreement.", "The task was taken up by Heinrich von Stephan, the Postmaster-General of the German Reichspost. After defeating Napoleon III in 1870, the North German Confederation and the South German states united to form the German Empire. The Reichspost established a uniform set of postage rates and regulations for the new country. However, the uniformity ended at the German border. Mailing a letter from Berlin to New York required different amounts of postage, depending on which ship carried the letter across the Atlantic Ocean. To bring order to the system of international mail, von Stephan called for another International Postal Congress in 1874. Meeting in Bern, Switzerland, the delegates agreed to all of von Stephan's proposals. The Treaty of Bern was signed on October 9, 1874, establishing what was then known as the General Postal Union. The treaty provided that: One important result of the Treaty was that it was no longer necessary to affix postage stamps of countries that a mailpiece passed through in transit. The UPU provides that stamps from member nations are accepted along the entire international route.", "The Treaty of Bern had been signed by 21 countries, 19 of which were located in Europe.</ref> After the General Postal Union was established, its membership grew rapidly as other countries joined. At the second Postal Union Congress in 1878, it was renamed the Universal Postal Union. French was the sole official language of the UPU. English was added as a working language in 1994. The majority of the UPU's documents and publications – including its flagship magazine, \"Union Postale\" – are available in the United Nations' six official languages French, English, Arabic, Chinese, Russian, and Spanish. Toward the end of the 19th century, the UPU issued rules concerning stamp design, intended to ensure maximum efficiency in handling international mail. One rule specified that stamp values be given in numerals, as denominations written out in letters were not universally comprehensible. Another required member nations to use the same colors on their stamps issued for post cards (green), normal letters (red) and international mail (blue), a system that remained in use for several decades. After the foundation of the United Nations, the UPU became a specialized agency of the UN in 1948. It is currently the third oldest international organization after the Rhine Commission and the International Telecommunication Union.", "", "The 1874 treaty provided for the originating country to keep all of the postage revenue, without compensating the destination country for delivery. The idea was that each letter would generate a reply, so the postal flows would be in balance. However, other classes of mail had imbalanced flows. In 1906, the Italian postal service was delivering 325,000 periodicals mailed from other countries to Italy, while Italian publishers were mailing no periodicals to other countries. The system also encouraged countries to remail through another country, forcing the intermediate postal service to bear the costs of transport to the final destination. Remailing was banned in 1924, but the UPU took no action on imbalanced flows until 1969. The problem of imbalanced flows became acute after decolonization, as dozens of former European colonies entered the UPU as independent states. The developing countries received more mail than they sent, so they wanted to be paid for delivery. In 1969, the UPU introduced a system of terminal dues. When two countries had imbalanced mail flows, the country that sent more mail would have to pay a fee to the country that received more mail. The amount was based on the difference in the weight of mail sent and received. Since the Executive Council had been unable to come up with a cost-based compensation scheme after five years of study, terminal dues were set arbitrarily at half a gold franc (0.163 SDR) per kilogram.", "Once terminal dues had been established, they became a topic of discussion at every future Postal Union Congress. The 1974 Congress tripled the terminal dues to 1.5 gold francs, and the 1979 Congress tripled them again to 4.5 gold francs. The 1984 Congress increased terminal dues by another 45%. The system of terminal dues also created new winners and losers. Since the terminal dues were fixed, low-cost countries that were net recipients would turn a profit on delivering international mail. Developing countries were low-cost recipients, but so were developed countries like the United States and the United Kingdom. Since the dues were payable based on weight, periodicals would be assessed much higher terminal dues than letters. The continuing fiscal imbalances required repeated changes to the system of terminal dues. In 1988 a per-item charge was included in terminal dues to drive up the cost of remailing, an old scourge that had returned. To resolve the problem with periodicals, the UPU adopted a \"threshold\" system in 1991 that set separate letter and periodical rates for countries which receive at least 150 tonnes of mail annually. The 1999 Postal Congress established \"country-specific\" terminal dues for industrialized countries, offering a lower rate to developing countries.", "In 2010, the United States was a net sender because it was mailing goods to other countries. That year, the United States Postal Service made a $275 million surplus on international mail. In addition, the UPU system was only available to state-run postal services. Low terminal dues gave the United States Postal Service an advantage over private postal services such as DHL and FedEx. To protect its profits on sending international mail, the United States voted with the developing countries to keep terminal dues low. They were opposed by the German Bundespost and the Norwegian Post, which wanted to increase terminal dues. However, the low terminal dues backfired on the United States due to shifts in mail flows. With the growth of e-commerce, the United States began to import more goods through the mail. In 2015, the United States Postal Service made a net deficit on international mail for the first time. The deficits increased to $80 million in 2017. The UPU established a new remuneration system in 2016, a move that the United States Department of State said would \"dramatically improv[e] USPS's cost coverage for the delivery of... packets from China and other developing countries.\" However, the Chairman of the Postal Regulatory Commission disagreed.", "With the outbreak of the China–United States trade war in 2018, the issue of terminal dues was pushed into the forefront. Americans complained that mailing a package from China to the United States cost less than mailing the same package within the United States. At the time, the UPU's Postal Development Indicator scale was used to classify countries into four groups from richest to poorest. The United States was a Group I country, while China was a Group III country, alongside countries like Mexico and Turkey that had similar GDP per capita. As a result, China paid lower terminal dues than the United States. The Donald Trump administration complained that it was \"being forced to heavily subsidize small parcels coming into our country.\" On 17 October 2018, the United States declared its withdrawal from the UPU, effective one year later, when it would self-declare the rates charged to other postal services. The Universal Postal Union responded in May 2019 by calling, for only the third time in its history, an Extraordinary Congress for 24–26 September 2019. The members voted down a proposal submitted by the United States and Canada, which would have allowed immediate self-declaration of terminal dues. The UPU then passed a Franco-German compromise to allow self-declared terminal dues of up to 70% of the domestic postage rate, phasing them in from 2021 to 2025. However, countries receiving more than 75,000 metric tons of letter mail could move to self-declared rates on 1 July 2020. Trump adviser Peter Navarro declared that the agreement \"more than achieved the President's goal,\" and UPU Director Siva Somasundram called it \"a landmark decision for multilateralism and the Union.\"", "Standards are important prerequisites for effective postal operations and for interconnecting the global network. The UPU's Standards Board develops and maintains a growing number of international standards to improve the exchange of postal-related information between postal operators. It also promotes the compatibility of UPU and international postal initiatives. The organization works closely with postal handling organizations, customers, suppliers and other partners, including various international organizations. The Standards Board ensures that coherent regulations are developed in areas such as electronic data interchange (EDI), mail encoding, postal forms and meters. UPU standards are drafted in accordance with the rules given in Part V of the \"General information on UPU Standards\" and are published by the UPU International Bureau in accordance with Part VII of that publication.", "All United Nations member states are allowed to become members of the UPU. A non-member state of the United Nations may also become a member if two-thirds of the UPU member countries approve its request. The UPU currently has 192 members (190 states and two joint memberships of dependent territories groups). Member states of the UPU are the Vatican City and every UN member except Andorra, Marshall Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia, and Palau. These four states have their mail delivered through another UPU member (France and Spain for Andorra, and the United States for the Compact of Free Association states). The overseas constituent countries of the Kingdom of the Netherlands (Aruba, Curaçao and Sint Maarten) are represented as a single UPU member, as are the entire British overseas territories. These members were originally listed separately as \"Colonies, Protectorates, etc.\" in the Universal Postal Convention and they were grandfathered in when membership was restricted to sovereign states.", "Palestine is an observer state in the UN, and it was granted special observer status to the UPU in 1999. In 2008 Israel agreed for Palestine's mail to be routed through Jordan, although this had not been implemented as of November 2012. As of 2016, Palestine will begin receiving direct mail. In November 2018, Palestine signed papers of accession to the UPU. However, its bid for membership was defeated in September 2019 by a vote of 56-23-7, with 106 countries not voting, which fell short of the required two-third majority of the UPU membership.", "States with limited recognition must route their mail through third parties, since the UPU does not allow direct deliveries.", "The Universal Postal Congress is the most important body of the UPU. The main purpose of the quadrennial Congress is to examine proposals to amend the Acts of the UPU, including the UPU Constitution, General Regulations, Convention and Postal Payment Services Agreement. The Congress also serves as a forum for participating member countries to discuss a broad range of issues impacting international postal services, such as market trends, regulation and other strategic issues. The first UPU Congress was held in Bern, Switzerland in 1874. Delegates from 22 countries participated. UPU Congresses are held every four years and delegates often receive special philatelic albums produced by member countries covering the period since the previous Congress.", "The Universal Postal Union, in conjunction with the World Association for the Development of Philately, developed the WADP Numbering System (WNS). It was launched on 1 January 2002. The website displays entries for 160 countries and issuing postal entities, with over 25,000 stamps registered since 2002. Many of them have images, which generally remain copyrighted by the issuing country, but the UPU and WADP permit them to be downloaded.", "In some countries, telegraph and later telephones came under the same government department as the postal system. Similarly there was an International Telegraph Bureau, based in Bern, akin to the UPU. The International Telecommunication Union currently facilitates international electronic communication. In order to integrate postal services and the Internet, the UPU sponsors.post. Developing their own standards, the UPU expects to unveil a whole new range of international digital postal services, including \"e-post\". They have appointed a body, the \".post group (DPG)\" to oversee the development of that platform." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Nomenclature.", "Use.", "Culinary use.", "Drug precursor.", "Toxicity.", "Standardization of its products and services.", "Differentiation from other species." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "\"Illicium\" comes from the Latin \"illicio\" meaning \"entice\". The name \"badian\" appears to derive, via French \"badiane\", from the apparently descriptive Chinese name for it, 八角, pinyin: \"bājiǎo\", lit. \"eight horns\". However, a derivation from the Persian \"bādiyān,\" \"fennel\", exists, with the Oxford English Dictionary indicating that its origin before that is unknown.", "", "Star anise contains anethole, the same compound that gives the unrelated anise its flavor. Recently, star anise has come into use in the West as a less expensive substitute for anise in baking, as well as in liquor production, most distinctively in the production of the liqueur Galliano. Star anise enhances the flavour of meat. It is used as a spice in preparation of \"biryani\" and \"masala chai\" all over the Indian subcontinent. It is widely used in Chinese cuisine, and in Malay and Indonesian cuisines. It is widely grown for commercial use in China, India, and most other countries in Asia. Star anise is an ingredient of the traditional five-spice powder of Chinese cooking. It is also a major ingredient in the making of \"phở\", a Vietnamese noodle soup. It is also used in the French recipe of mulled wine, called \"vin chaud\" (hot wine). If allowed to steep in coffee, it deepens and enriches the flavor. The pods can be used in this manner multiple times by the pot-full or cup, as the ease of extraction of the taste components increases with the permeation of hot water.", "Star anise is the major source of the chemical compound shikimic acid, a primary precursor in the pharmaceutical synthesis of the antiinfluenza drug oseltamivir (Tamiflu). An industrial method for the production of shikimic acid using fermentation of \"E. coli\" bacteria was discovered in 2005, and applied in the 2009 swine flu pandemic to address Tamiflu shortages, also causing price increases for star anise as a raw material of shikimic acid. As of 2018, fermentation of \"E. coli\" was the manufacturing process of choice to produce shikimic acid for synthesis of Tamiflu. Study shows Star Anise can be used as anti quorum sensing and anti-biofilm agent in food matrix.", "Japanese star anise (\"Illicium anisatum\"), a similar tree, is highly toxic and inedible; in Japan, it has instead been burned as incense. Cases of illness, including \"serious neurological effects, such as seizures\", reported after using star anise tea, may be a result of deliberate economically motivated adulteration with this species. Japanese star anise contains the neurotoxin anisatin, which also causes severe inflammation of the kidneys (nephritis), urinary tract, and digestive organs when ingested. Swamp star anise \"Illicium parviflorum\" is a similar tree found in the Southern United States, and due to its toxicity, it should not be used for folk remedies or as a cooking ingredient.", "", "Joshi \"et al.\" have used fluorescent microscopy and gas chromatography to distinguish the species, while Lederer \"et al.\" employed thin layer chromatography with HPLC-MS/MS." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life and career.", "Personal life.", "Awards and honors." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Gabor was born as Günszberg Dénes, into a Jewish family in Budapest, Hungary. In 1918, his family converted to Lutheranism. Dennis was the first-born son of Günszberg Bernát and Jakobovits Adél. Despite having a religious background, religion played a minor role in his later life and he considered himself agnostic. In 1902, the family received permission to change their surname from Günszberg to Gábor. He served with the Hungarian artillery in northern Italy during World War I. He began his studies in engineering at the Technical University of Budapest in 1918, later in Germany, at the Charlottenburg Technical University in Berlin, now known as the Technical University of Berlin. At the start of his career, he analysed the properties of high voltage electric transmission lines by using cathode-beam oscillographs, which led to his interest in electron optics. Studying the fundamental processes of the oscillograph, Gabor was led to other electron-beam devices such as electron microscopes and TV tubes. He eventually wrote his PhD thesis on Recording of Transients in Electric Circuits with the Cathode Ray Oscillograph in 1927, and worked on plasma lamps. In 1933 Gabor fled from Nazi Germany, where he was considered Jewish, and was invited to Britain to work at the development department of the British Thomson-Houston company in Rugby, Warwickshire. During his time in Rugby, he met Marjorie Louise Butler, and they married in 1936. He became a British citizen in 1946, and it was while working at British Thomson-Houston that he invented holography, in 1947. He experimented with a heavily filtered mercury arc light source. However, the earliest hologram was only realised in 1964 following the 1960 invention of the laser, the first coherent light source. After this, holography became commercially available. Gabor's research focused on electron inputs and outputs, which led him to the invention of re-holography. The basic idea was that for perfect optical imaging, the total of all the information has to be used; not only the amplitude, as in usual optical imaging, but also the phase. In this manner a complete holo-spatial picture can be obtained. Gabor published his theories of re-holography in a series of papers between 1946 and 1951. Gabor also researched how human beings communicate and hear; the result of his investigations was the theory of granular synthesis, although Greek composer Iannis Xenakis claimed that he was actually the first inventor of this synthesis technique. Gabor's work in this and related areas was foundational in the development of time–frequency analysis. In 1948 Gabor moved from Rugby to Imperial College London, and in 1958 became professor of Applied Physics until his retirement in 1967. His inaugural lecture on 3 March 1959, 'Electronic Inventions and their Impact on Civilisation' provided inspiration for Norbert Wiener's treatment of self-reproducing machines in the penultimate chapter in the 1961 edition of his book. In 1963 Gabor published \"Inventing the Future\" which discussed the three major threats Gabor saw to modern society: war, overpopulation and the Age of Leisure. The book contained the now well-known expression that \"the future cannot be predicted, but futures can be invented.\" Reviewer Nigel Calder described his concept as, \"His basic approach is that we cannot predict the future, but we can invent it...\" Others such as Alan Kay, Peter Drucker, and Forrest Shaklee have used various forms of similar quotes. His next book, \"Innovations: scientific, technological, and social\" which was published in 1970, expanded on some of the topics he had already earlier touched upon, and also pointed to his interest in technological innovation as mechanism of both liberation and destruction. In 1971 he was the single recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physics with the motivation \"for his invention and development of the holographic method\" and presented the history of the development of holography from 1948 in his Nobel lecture. While spending much of his retirement in Italy at Lavinio Rome, he remained connected with Imperial College as a senior research fellow and also became staff scientist of CBS Laboratories, in Stamford, Connecticut; there, he collaborated with his lifelong friend, CBS Labs' president Dr. Peter C. Goldmark in many new schemes of communication and display. One of Imperial College's new halls of residence in Prince's Gardens, Knightsbridge is named Gabor Hall in honour of Gabor's contribution to Imperial College. He developed an interest in social analysis and published \"The Mature Society: a view of the future\" in 1972. He also joined the Club of Rome and supervised a working group studying energy sources and technical change. The findings of this group was published in the report \"Beyond the Age of Waste\" in 1978, a report which was an early warning of several issues that only later received widespread attention. Following the rapid development of lasers and a wide variety of holographic applications (e.g., art, information storage, and the recognition of patterns), Gabor achieved acknowledged success and worldwide attention during his lifetime. He received numerous awards besides the Nobel Prize. Gabor died in a nursing home in South Kensington, London, on 9 February 1979. In 2006 a blue plaque was put up on No. 79 Queen's Gate in Kensington, where he lived from 1949 until the early 1960s.", "On 8 August 1936 he married Marjorie Louise Butler with whom he lived in a harmonious marriage. They did not have any children.", "Gabor won numerous awards including: The International Society for Optical Engineering (SPIE) presents its Dennis Gabor Award annually, \"in recognition of outstanding accomplishments in diffractive wavefront technologies, especially those which further the development of holography and metrology applications.\" The NOVOFER Foundation of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences annually presents its International Dennis Gabor Award, for outstanding young scientists researching in the fields of physics and applied technology. The Gabor Medal is awarded by the Royal Society of London for \"acknowledged distinction of interdisciplinary work between the life sciences with other disciplines\". The Institute of Physics also offers a Dennis Gabor Medal and Prize." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Early career.", "Naval War College and writings.", "Origin and limitation of strategic views.", "Sea power.", "Impact.", "Germany.", "United Kingdom.", "France.", "Japan.", "United States.", "Later career.", "Religious life.", "Death and commemoration.", "Family.", "In fiction.", "References.", "Bibliography." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Mahan was born on September 27, 1840, at West Point, New York, to Dennis Hart Mahan (a professor at the United States Military Academy) and Mary Helena Okill Mahan (1815–1893), daughter of John Okill and Mary Jay (daughter of Sir James Jay). Mahan's middle name honors \"the father of West Point\", Sylvanus Thayer. Mahan attended Saint James School, an Episcopal college preparatory academy in western Maryland. He then studied at Columbia for two years, where he was a member of the Philolexian Society debating club. Against the better judgment of his father, Mahan then entered the Naval Academy, where he graduated second in his class in 1859.", "After graduation he was assigned to the frigate from 9 June 1859 until 1861. He then joined the steam-corvette of the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron and participated in the attack on Port Royal, South Carolina, early in the American Civil War. Commissioned as a lieutenant in 1861, Mahan served as an officer on and and as an instructor at the Naval Academy. In 1865, he was promoted to lieutenant commander, and then to commander (1872), and captain (1885). As commander of the he was stationed at Callao, Peru, protecting US interests during the final stages of the War of the Pacific. While in actual command of a ship, his skills were not exemplary; and a number of vessels under his command were involved in collisions with both moving and stationary objects. He had an affection for old square-rigged vessels rather than the smoky, noisy steamships of his own day; and he tried to avoid active sea duty.", "In 1885, he was appointed as a lecturer in naval history and tactics at the Naval War College. Before entering on his duties, College President Rear Admiral Stephen B. Luce pointed Mahan in the direction of writing his future studies on the influence of sea power. During his first year on the faculty, he remained at his home in New York City researching and writing his lectures. Though he was prepared to become a professor in 1886, Luce was given command of the North Atlantic Squadron, and Mahan became President of the Naval War College by default (June 22, 1886 – January 12, 1889, July 22, 1892 – May 10, 1893). There, in 1888, he met and befriended future president Theodore Roosevelt, then a visiting lecturer. Mahan's lectures, based on secondary sources and the military theories of Jomini, became his sea-power studies: \"The Influence of Sea Power upon History, 1660–1783\" (1890); \"The Influence of Sea Power upon the French Revolution and Empire, 1793–1812\" (2 vols., 1892); \"Sea Power in Relation to the War of 1812\" (2 vols., 1905), and \"The Life of Nelson: The Embodiment of the Sea Power of Great Britain\" (2 vols., 1897). Mahan stressed the importance of the individual in shaping history and extolled the traditional values of loyalty, courage, and service to the state. Mahan sought to resurrect Horatio Nelson as a national hero in Britain and used his biography as a platform for expressing his views on naval strategy and tactics. Mahan was criticized for so strongly condemning Nelson's love affair with Lady Emma Hamilton, but it remained the standard biography until the appearance of Carola Oman's \"Nelson\", 50 years later. Mahan struck up a friendship with pioneering British naval historian Sir John Knox Laughton, the pair maintaining the relationship through correspondence and visits when Mahan was in London. Mahan was later described as a \"disciple\" of Laughton, but the two were at pains to distinguish between each other's line of work. Laughton saw Mahan as a theorist while Mahan called Laughton \"the historian\".", "Mahan's views were shaped by 17th-century conflicts between the Dutch Republic, England, France and Spain, and by the nineteenth-century naval wars between France and Great Britain. British naval superiority eventually defeated France, consistently preventing invasion and an effective blockade. Mahan emphasized that naval operations were chiefly to be won by decisive battles and blockades. In the 19th-century the United States sought greater control over its seaborne commerce in order to protect its economic interests which relied heavily on exports bound mainly for Europe. According to Peter Paret's \"Makers of Modern Strategy from Machiavelli to the Nuclear Age\", Mahan's emphasis on sea power as the most important cause of Britain's rise to world power neglected diplomacy and land arms. Furthermore, theories of sea power do not explain the rise of land empires, such as Bismarck's Germany or the Russian Empire.", "Mahan believed that national greatness was inextricably associated with the sea, with its commercial use in peace and its control in war; and he used history as a stock of examples to exemplify his theories, arguing that the education of naval officers should be based on a rigorous study of history. Mahan's framework derived from Antoine-Henri Jomini, and emphasized strategic locations (such as choke points, canals, and coaling stations), as well as quantifiable levels of fighting power in a fleet. Mahan also believed that in peacetime, states should increase production and shipping capacities and acquire overseas possessions, though he stressed that the number of coal fueling stations and strategic bases should be limited to avoid draining too many resources from the mother country. The primary mission of a navy was to secure the command of the sea, which would permit the maintenance of sea communications for one's own ships while denying their use to the enemy and, if necessary, closely supervise neutral trade. Control of the sea could be achieved not by destruction of commerce but only by destroying or neutralizing the enemy fleet. Such a strategy called for the concentration of naval forces composed of capital ships, not too large but numerous, well-manned with crews thoroughly trained, and operating under the principle that the best defense is an aggressive offense. Mahan contended that with a command of the sea, even if local and temporary, naval operations in support of land forces could be of decisive importance. He also believed that naval supremacy could be exercised by a transnational consortium acting in defense of a multinational system of free trade. His theories, expounded before the submarine became a serious factor in warfare, delayed the introduction of convoys as a defense against German U-boats during World War I. By the 1930s, the US Navy had built long-range submarines to raid Japanese shipping; but in World War II, the Japanese, still tied to Mahan, designed their submarines as ancillaries to the fleet and failed to attack American supply lines in the Pacific. Mahan believed first, that good political and naval leadership was no less important than geography when it came to the development of sea power. Second, Mahan's unit of political analysis insofar as sea power was concerned was a transnational consortium, rather than a single nation state. Third, his economic ideal was free trade rather than autarky. Fourth, his recognition of the influence of geography on strategy was tempered by a strong appreciation of the power of contingency to affect outcomes. In 1890 Mahan prepared a secret contingency plan for war between Britain and the United States. Mahan believed that if the British blockaded the eastern ports, the US Navy should be concentrated in one of them, preferably New York, with its two widely separated exits, and employ torpedo boats to defend the other harbors. This concentration of the US fleet would force the British to tie down such a large proportion of their navy to watch the New York exits that other American ports would be relatively safe. Detached American cruisers should wage \"constant offensive action\" against the enemy's exposed positions; and if the British were to weaken their blockade force off New York to attack another American port, the concentrated US fleet could capture British coaling ports in Nova Scotia, thereby seriously weakening British ability to engage in naval operations off the American coast. This contingency plan was a clear example of Mahan's application of his principles of naval war, with a clear reliance on Jomini's principle of controlling strategic points.", "Timeliness contributed no small part to the widespread acceptance of Mahan's theories. Although his history was relatively thin, based as it was on secondary sources, his vigorous style, and clear theory won widespread acceptance of navalists and supporters of the New Imperialism in Africa and Asia. Given the rapid technological changes underway in propulsion (from coal to oil and from reciprocating engines to turbines), ordnance (with better fire directors, and new high explosives), and armor and the emergence of new craft such as destroyers and submarines, Mahan's emphasis on the capital ship and the command of the sea came at an opportune moment.", "Mahan's name became a household word in the German navy after Kaiser Wilhelm II ordered his officers to read Mahan, and Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz (1849–1930) used Mahan's reputation to finance a powerful surface fleet. Tirpitz, an intense navalist who believed ardently in Mahan's dictum that whatever power rules the sea also ruled the world, had \"The Influence of Sea Power Upon History\" translated into German in 1898 and had 8,000 copies distributed for free as a way of pressuring the \"Reichstag\" to vote for the First Navy Bill. Tirpitz used Mahan not only as a way of winning over German public opinion but also as a guide to strategic thinking. Before 1914, Tirpitz completely rejected commerce raiding as a strategy and instead embraced Mahan's ideal of a decisive battle of annihilation between two fleets as the way to win command of the seas. Tirpitz always planned for the German High Seas Fleet to win the \"Entscheidungsschlacht\" (decisive battle) against the British Royal Navy somewhere in \"the waters between Helgoland and the Thames\", a strategy he based on his reading of \"The Influence of Sea Power Upon History\".", "Mahan and British admiral John Fisher (1841–1920) both addressed the problem of how to dominate home waters and distant seas with naval forces unable to do both. Mahan argued for a universal principle of concentration of powerful ships in home waters with minimized strength in distant seas. Fisher instead decided to use submarines to defend home waters and mobile battlecruisers to protect British interests.", "Though in 1914 French naval doctrine was dominated by Mahan's theory of sea power, the course of World War I changed ideas about the place of the navy. The refusal of the German fleet to engage in a decisive battle, the Dardanelles expedition of 1915, the development of submarine warfare, and the organization of convoys all showed the Navy's new role in combined operations with the army. The Navy's part in securing victory was not fully understood by French public opinion in 1918, but a synthesis of old and new ideas arose from the lessons of the war, especially by Admiral Raoul Castex (1878–1968) who synthesized in his five-volume \"Théories Stratégiques\" the classical and materialist schools of naval theory. He reversed Mahan's theory that command of the sea precedes maritime communications and foresaw the enlarged roles of aircraft and submarines in naval warfare.", "\"The Influence of Seapower Upon History, 1660–1783\" was translated into Japanese and was used as a textbook in the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN). That usage strongly affected the IJN's plan to end Russian naval expansion in the Far East, which culminated in the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905). It has been argued that the IJN's pursuit of the \"decisive battle\" contributed to Imperial Japan's defeat in World War II, because the development of the submarine and the aircraft carrier, combined with advances in technology, largely rendered obsolete the doctrine of the decisive battle between fleets. Nevertheless, the IJN did not adhere strictly to Mahanian doctrine because its forces were often tactically divided, particularly during the attack on Pearl Harbor and the Battle of Midway.", "Mahan believed that if the United States were to build an Isthmian canal, it would become a Pacific power, and therefore it should take possession of Hawaii to protect the West Coast. Nevertheless, his support for American imperialism was more ambivalent than is often stated, and he remained lukewarm about American annexation of the Philippines.", "Between 1889 and 1892, Mahan was engaged in special service for the Bureau of Navigation, and in 1893 he was appointed to command the powerful new protected cruiser on a visit to Europe, where he was feted. He returned to lecture at the War College and then, in 1896, he retired from active service, returning briefly to duty in 1898 to consult on naval strategy during the Spanish–American War. Mahan continued to write, and he received honorary degrees from Oxford, Cambridge, Harvard, Yale, Columbia, Dartmouth, and McGill. In 1902, Mahan popularized the term \"Middle East,\" which he used in the article \"The Persian Gulf and International Relations,\" published in September in the \"National Review\". As a delegate to the 1899 Hague Convention, Mahan argued against prohibiting the use of asphyxiating gases in warfare on the ground that such weapons would inflict such terrible casualties that belligerents would be forced to end wars more quickly, thus providing a net advantage for world peace. In 1902 Mahan was elected president of the American Historical Association, and his address, \"Subordination in Historical Treatment\", is his most explicit explanation of his philosophy of history. In 1906, Mahan became rear admiral by an act of Congress that promoted all retired captains who had served in the American Civil War. At the outbreak of World War I, he published statements favorable to the cause of Great Britain, but in an attempt to enforce American neutrality, President Woodrow Wilson ordered that all active and retired officers refrain from publicly commenting on the war.", "Mahan was reared as an Episcopalian and became a devout churchman with High Church sympathies. For instance, late in life he strongly opposed revision of the Book of Common Prayer. Nevertheless, Mahan also appears to have undergone a conversion experience about 1871, when he realized that he could experience God's favor, not through his own merits, but only through \"trust in the completed work of Christ on the cross.\" Geissler called one of his religious addresses almost \"evangelical, albeit of the dignified stiff-upper-lip variety.\" And Mahan never mentioned a conversion experience in his autobiography. In later life, Mahan often spoke to Episcopal parishes. In 1899, at Holy Trinity Church in Brooklyn, Mahan emphasized his own religious experience and declared that one needed a personal relationship with God given through the work of the Holy Spirit. In 1909, Mahan published \"The Harvest Within: Thoughts on the Life of the Christian\", which was \"part personal testimony, part biblical analysis, part expository sermon.\"", "Mahan died in Washington, D.C., of heart failure on December 1, 1914, a few months after the outbreak of World War I.", "Alfred Thayer Mahan married Ellen Lyle Evans in June 1872. They had two daughters and one son.", "In \"1901\", an alternate history by Robert Conroy, the main character is a young United States Army officer named Patrick Mahan, a fictitious nephew of Admiral Mahan, who himself appears briefly in the story as well. In Harry Turtledove's \"Southern Victory\", another alternate history, Mahan is frequently mentioned but never appears. He is spoken of as having been President of the United States from 1889 to 1897, and the Mahan Bedroom is a famous room in the Powel House in Philadelphia, analogous to the actual Lincoln Bedroom in the White House. The protagonist in G.C. Edmondson's novel \"The Ship that Sailed the Time Stream\" frequently mentions Mahan and/or Mahan's ghost as an exclamation.", "Notes", "Primary sources" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Foundation.", "French Revolution.", "Growth.", "Charism.", "United States.", "Contemporary status.", "Activities.", "Axis collaboration.", "Child abuse inquiry in Scotland." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The institute was founded by Vincent de Paul, a French priest, and Louise de Marillac, a widow. The need for organization in working with the poor suggested to De Paul the forming of a confraternity among the women of his parish in Châtillon-les-Dombes. It was so successful that it spread from the rural districts to Paris, where the noble ladies often found it hard to give personal care to the needs of the poor and sent their servants to minister to those in need; but the work was often slighted as unimportant. Vincent de Paul remedied this by referring interested young women from the countryside to work with the \"Ladies of Charity\" in Paris. These young women formed the nucleus of the Company of the Daughters of Charity now spread over the world. On 29 November 1633, the eve of St. Andrew, de Marillac began a more systematic training of the women, particularly for the care of the sick. The sisters lived in community in order to better develop the spiritual life so as to more effectively carry out their mission of service. The Daughters of Charity differed from other religious congregations of that time in that they were not cloistered. They maintained the necessary mobility and availability, and lived among those whom they served. From the beginning, the community motto was: \"The charity of Christ impels us!\" The newly formed Daughters of Charity set up soup kitchens, organized community hospitals, established schools and homes for orphaned children, offered job training, taught the young to read and write, and improved prison conditions. The hospital of St John the Evangelist in the province of Angers was the first hospital entrusted to the care of the Daughters of Charity. Louise de Marillac and Vincent de Paul both died in 1660, and by this time there were more than forty houses of the Daughters of Charity in France, and the sick poor were cared for in their own dwellings in twenty-six parishes in Paris.", "Anticlerical forces in the French Revolution were determined to shut down all convents. In 1789 France had 426 houses; the sisters numbered about 6000 in Europe. In 1792, the sisters were ordered to quit the motherhouse; the community was officially disbanded in 1793. An oath to support the Revolution was imposed on all former members of religious orders who performed a service that was remunerated by the state. Taking this oath was seen as breaking off with the Church while those who refused to do so were considered counter-revolutionaries. In Angers, revolutionary authorities decided to make an example of sisters Marie-Anne Vaillot and Odile Baumgarten in order to demonstrate what refusal to take the oath would mean. In early 1794 they were publicly executed. At a ceremony in Rome on 19 February 1984 Pope John Paul II beatified ninety-nine persons who died for the faith in Angers, including Vaillot and Baumgarten. Their feast day is February 1. Sister Marguerite Rutan was Superior of the community that staffed the hospital at Dax. The six sisters had refused to take the revolutionary oath. The Revolutionary committee wanted to remove the Superior of the Sisters and looked for a motive to arrest her. A false testimony allowed them to say that Sr. Marguerite was unpatriotic, a fanatic against the principles of the Revolution and that she tried to convince the wounded soldiers to desert and join the royalist army of Vendéens. On 9 April 1794 Sister Marguerite Rutan was condemned to death and guillotined at Poyanne Place not far from the prison. She was beatified Sunday, 19 June 2011 in Dax, France. Her feast day is June 26. Sisters Marie-Madeleine Fontaine, Marie-Françoise Lanel, Thérèse Fantou, and Jeanne Gérard from the House of Charity in Arras were guillotined in Cambrai 26 June 1794. Waiting for the cart to take them to the guillotine, the guards took their chaplets and, not knowing what to do, put them on their heads like a crown. They were beatified on 13 June 1920. Their feast day is June 26. The order was restored in 1801, many former sisters returned, and it grew very rapidly throughout the 19th century.", "From that time and through the 19th century, the community spread to Austria, Australia, Hungary, Ireland, Israel, Portugal, Turkey, Britain and the Americas. During this period, the ministry of the Daughters developed to caring for others in need such as orphans and those with physical disabilities. The first house in Ireland was opened in Drogheda, in 1855. By 1907 there were 46 houses and 407 sisters in England; 13 houses and 134 sisters in Ireland; 8 houses and 62 sisters in Scotland. They operated 23 orphanages; 7 industrial schools; 24 public elementary schools; 1 normal school to train teachers; 3 homes for working girls or women ex-convicts; and 8 hospitals. The Convent of Saint Vincent de Paul was the first building established on Mamilla Street in Jerusalem, near Jaffa Gate, in 1886. Precipitating the future growth of that street as a commercial thoroughfare, the sisters put up a series of shops in front of the building and used the rent money for convent operations. The convent was integrated into the design of the Mamilla Mall pedestrian promenade, which opened in 2007. The motherhouse of the Daughters of Charity is located at 140 rue du Bac, in Paris, France. The remains of de Marillac and those of St. Catherine Labouré lie preserved in the chapel of the motherhouse. Labouré was the Daughter of Charity to whom, in 1830, the Blessed Virgin Mary is said to have appeared, commissioning her to spread devotion to the Medal of Mary Immaculate, commonly called the Miraculous Medal. The traditional habit of the Daughters of Charity was one of the most conspicuous of Catholic Sisters, as it included a large starched cornette on the head. This was the dress of peasant women of the neighborhood of Paris at the date of the foundation, a grey habit with wide sleeves and a long grey apron. The head-dress was at first a small linen cap, but to this was added in the early days the white linen cornette, from which they became affectionately known as \"God's Geese\". At first it was used only in the country, being in fact the headdress of the Ile de France district, but in 1685 its use became general. The institute adopted a more simple modern dress and blue veil on 20 September 1964.", "The Charism of a religious society is the characteristic impetus which distinguishes it from other similar groups. Religious communities frequently describe it as a grace or gift given by God as inspiration to the founder, which lives on in the organization. The charism of the Daughters of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul is that of service to the poor.", "In the United States, St. Elizabeth Ann Seton, a recent convert to the Catholic Church, had hoped to establish a community of Daughters of Charity. Unable to do so because of the political situation during the Napoleonic Wars, on 31 July 1809 she founded the Sisters of Charity of St. Joseph at Emmitsburg, Maryland. The nucleus of the little community consisted of five Sisters who were soon joined by others. Her desire to consecrate her life to works of charity led Mother Seton to request the Rules of the Daughters of Charity founded by St. Vincent de Paul in 1633. Bishop Benedict J. Flaget presented the request to superiors in Paris and in 1810 brought to Mother Seton the Rules by which she guided her community during her lifetime. At the time of her death in 1821, the community numbered fifty Sisters. In 1850, the community at Emmitsburg affiliated with the Mother House of the Daughters of Charity in Paris and at that time adopted the blue habit and the white collar and cornette. The community in Emmitsburg became the first American province of the Daughters of Charity. By then, other communities had been established elsewhere in the United States. In 1817, Mother Seton sent three Sisters to New York at the invitation of Bishop Connolly to open a home for dependent children. Their services were urgently needed, for many parents were victims of the epidemics that frequently invaded the city, where there was as yet no system of sanitation. In 1846, the New York congregation incorporated as a separate order, the Sisters of Charity of New York. The Sisters in New York retained the rule, customs, and spiritual exercises originally established by Mother Seton: the black habit, cape and cap. During the American Civil War, the congregation provided nursing services to soldiers in field hospitals and in depots for prisoners of war. The Spanish–American War of 1898 quickly demonstrated the important need for trained nurses, as hastily constructed army camps for more than twenty-eight thousand members of the regular army were devastated by diarrhea, dysentery, typhoid fever, and malaria – all of which took a much greater toll than did enemy gunfire. The United States government called for women to volunteer as nurses. Thousands did so, but few were professionally trained. Among the latter were 250 Catholic nurses, most of them from the Daughters of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul. Reverend Mother Mariana Flynn, head of the Daughters of Charity, recalled their service during the Civil War and said her sisters were proud to be \"back in the army again, caring for our sick and wounded.\" In 1910, the jurisdiction of Emmitsburg was divided into two Provinces with the Eastern Provincial House in Emmitsburg and the Western Provincial House in Normandy, Missouri, a suburb of St. Louis.", "As of 2019, 14,000 serve in ninety countries, addressing needs of food, water, sanitation and shelter, besides their work with health care, HIV/AIDS, migrant and refugee assistance, and education. In July 2011 the Daughters of Charity merged four of the five existing U.S. provinces – Emmitsburg, Maryland; Albany, New York; St. Louis, Missouri; and Evansville, Indiana. The process of unification began at a 2007 gathering in Buffalo, N.Y. The Province of the West, based in Los Altos Hills, Calif., was not involved in the merger. The newly constituted province is named for St. Louise de Marillac, who founded the congregation in France in 1633 along with St. Vincent de Paul to “serve Christ in persons who are poor.” Administrative offices for the Province of St. Louise are located in St. Louis, Mo. The archival collections of the former provinces will be consolidated in a new facility located within the former St. Joseph’s Provincial House, adjacent to The Basilica of the National Shrine of St. Elizabeth Ann Seton and the Seton Heritage Center, in Emmitsburg, Maryland. The new province covers 34 states, the District of Columbia and the Canadian province of Quebec. In Spain, they have run orphanages, soup kitchens and hospitals. In recent times, they were accused of abusing power in maternity wards run by them both in private and public hospitals, stealing children from their mothers. A particular Sor Maria was accused and indicted but never fully judged or found guilty due to old age. This was denounced by Asociación Nacional de Afectados por Adopciones Irregulares, ANADIR", "Many hospitals, orphanages, and educational institutions were established and operated by the Daughters of Charity over the years, including Saint Joseph College, Emmitsburg, Maryland, Marillac College in Missouri, Santa Isabel College Manila, St Louise's Comprehensive College in Belfast, Northern Ireland, and Saint Louise de Marillac High School in Illinois. Though no longer staffed and run by the Daughters, five of the hospitals which were founded by them in the USA continue to operate within the St. Vincent's Health Care System. Marillac St. Vincent Family Services in Chicago is a social service agency offering accredited early childhood education, programs for youth, comprehensive services to isolated seniors, access to food, and outreach to adults and families. The current nonprofit organization evolved from the merger of Marillac Social Center (est. 1914) and St. Vincent de Paul Center (est. 1915). In Mayagüez, Puerto Rico, they help run the Asilo De Pobres and in the Philippines they run the College of the Immaculate Conception. In the United Kingdom, the Daughters of Charity are based at Mill Hill, north London, and have registered charity status. Daughters operate St. Ann's Infant and Maternity Home near Washington, D.C.", "During WW2, members of the order, led by Sister Barta Pulherija, operated a children's concentration camp on behalf of the Axis puppet state Independent State of Croatia known as Jastrebarsko children's camp. Children arrived in an emaciated and weak condition from other camps within the Ustaše camp system, with a total of 3,336 children passing through the camp. Between 449 and 1,500 children died, mainly from disease and malnutrition. According to Fumić, the alleged inhumane actions of Pulherija and other nuns and their role in the deaths of many children has never been addressed, much less condemned, by the Catholic Church. Pulherija died in Austria in 1981.", "The second phase of the Scottish Child Abuse Inquiry focused on orphanages run by the Daughters of Charity: Smyllum Park in Lanark (1864-1981), Bellevue House in Rutherglen (1912-1961), St Joseph's Hospital in Rosewell, St Vincent's School for the Deaf/Blind in Glasgow (1911-1985) and Roseangle Orphanage (St Vincent's) in Dundee (1905-1974). Smyllum Park was founded in 1864 and closed in 1981 due to a move from institutional establishments to small family group living for children in care. During its years of operation it took in more than 11,600 children. \"The Scottish Child Abuse Inquiry, which is investigating allegations of abuse against children in care across Scotland, has heard from former residents at the Smyllum Park home, who described suffering beatings, abuse and mistreatment.\" When opened, the aim was to support homeless Catholic children from Scotland. In 2018 the Scottish Child Abuse Inquiry found that there had been physical, sexual, and emotional abuse at Scottish orphanages run by the Daughters at Smyllum Park (closed in 1981) and Bellevue House (closed in 1961). Peter Kearney of the Peter Kearney, director of the Scottish Catholic Media Office, said \"During the 60-year period the inquiry covered, over 400,000 children experienced residential care in Scotland, the vast majority in non-Catholic homes. Catholics represent only 16 percent of Scotland's population, and Catholic religious orders didn't supply most residential care in the past. That was provided by local authorities.Putting Catholic religious orders at the top of the inquiry's agenda has thus created a skewed perspective.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Career and research.", "Awards and honours.", "Nobel Prize.", "Personal life.", "Religious views." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Hewish attended King's College, Taunton. His undergraduate degree at Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, was interrupted by war service at the Royal Aircraft Establishment, and at the Telecommunications Research Establishment where he worked with Martin Ryle. Returning to Cambridge in 1946, Hewish completed his degree and immediately joined Ryle's research team at the Cavendish Laboratory, obtaining his PhD in 1952. Hewish made both practical and theoretical advances in the observation and exploitation of the apparent scintillations of radio sources due to their radiation impinging upon plasma. This led him to propose, and secure funding for, the construction of the Interplanetary Scintillation Array, a large array radio telescope at the Mullard Radio Astronomy Observatory (MRAO), Cambridge to conduct a high time-resolution radio survey of interplanetary scintillation.", "Hewish was professor of radio astronomy in the Cavendish Laboratory from 1971 to 1989 and head of the MRAO from 1982 to 1988. He developed an association with the Royal Institution in London when it was directed by Sir Lawrence Bragg. In 1965 he was invited to co-deliver the Royal Institution Christmas Lecture on \"Exploration of the Universe\". He subsequently gave several Friday Evening Discourses and was made a Professor of the Royal Institution in 1977. Hewish is a Fellow of Churchill College, Cambridge. He is also a member of the Advisory Council for the Campaign for Science and Engineering.", "Hewish has Honorary degrees from six universities including Manchester, Exeter and Cambridge, is a Foreign Member of the Belgian Royal Academy and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the Indian National Science Academy. Other awards and honours include:", "One of his PhD students, Jocelyn Bell (later known as Jocelyn Bell Burnell), discovered a radio source which was ultimately recognised as the first pulsar. The paper announcing the discovery had five authors, Hewish's name being listed first, Bell's second. Hewish and Martin Ryle were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1974 for work on the development of radio aperture synthesis and its role in the discovery of pulsars. The exclusion of Bell from the Nobel prize was controversial and condemned by Hewish's fellow astronomer Fred Hoyle. See Nobel prize controversies.", "Hewish married Marjorie Elizabeth Catherine Richards in 1950. They have a son, a physicist, and a daughter, a language teacher.", "Hewish has argued that religion and science are complementary. In the foreword to \"Questions of Truth\" Hewish writes, \"The ghostly presence of virtual particles defies rational common sense and is non-intuitive for those unacquainted with physics. Religious belief in God, and Christian belief... may seem strange to common-sense thinking. But when the most elementary physical things behave in this way, we should be prepared to accept that the deepest aspects of our existence go beyond our common-sense understanding.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Early work.", "World War II.", "Radiation Laboratory.", "Manhattan Project.", "Bubble chamber.", "Scientific detective.", "Dinosaur extinction.", "Aviation.", "Death." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Luis Walter Alvarez was born in San Francisco on June 13, 1911, the second child and oldest son of Walter C. Alvarez, a physician, and his wife Harriet née Smyth, and a grandson of Luis F. Álvarez, a Spanish physician, born in Asturias, Spain, who lived in Cuba for a while and finally settled in the United States, who found a better method for diagnosing macular leprosy. He had an older sister, Gladys, a younger brother, Bob, and a younger sister, Bernice. His aunt, Mabel Alvarez, was a California artist specializing in oil painting. He attended Madison School in San Francisco from 1918 to 1924, and then San Francisco Polytechnic High School. In 1926, his father became a researcher at the Mayo Clinic, and the family moved to Rochester, Minnesota, where Alvarez attended Rochester High School. He had always expected to attend the University of California, Berkeley, but at the urging of his teachers at Rochester, he instead went to the University of Chicago, where he received his bachelor's degree in 1932, his master's degree in 1934, and his PhD in 1936. As an undergraduate, he belonged to the Phi Gamma Delta fraternity. As a postgraduate he moved to Gamma Alpha. In 1932, as a graduate student at Chicago, he discovered physics there and had the rare opportunity to use the equipment of legendary physicist Albert A. Michelson. Alvarez also constructed an apparatus of Geiger counter tubes arranged as a cosmic ray telescope, and under the aegis of his faculty advisor Arthur Compton, conducted an experiment in Mexico City to measure the so-called East–West effect of cosmic rays. Observing more incoming radiation from the west, Alvarez concluded that primary cosmic rays were positively charged. Compton submitted the resulting paper to the \"Physical Review\", with Alvarez's name at the top. Alvarez was an agnostic.", "Alvarez's sister, Gladys, worked for Ernest Lawrence as a part-time secretary, and mentioned Alvarez to Lawrence. Lawrence then invited Alvarez to tour the Century of Progress exhibition in Chicago with him. After he completed his oral exams in 1936, Alvarez, now engaged to be married to Geraldine Smithwick, asked his sister to see if Lawrence had any jobs available at the Radiation Laboratory. A telegram soon arrived from Gladys with a job offer from Lawrence. This started a long association with the University of California, Berkeley. Alvarez and Smithwick were married in one of the chapels at the University of Chicago and then headed for California. They had two children, Walter and Jean. They were divorced in 1957. On December 28, 1958, he married Janet L. Landis, and had two more children, Donald and Helen. At the Radiation Laboratory he worked with Lawrence's experimental team, which was supported by a group of theoretical physicists headed by Robert Oppenheimer. Alvarez devised a set of experiments to observe K-electron capture in radioactive nuclei, predicted by the beta decay theory but never observed. Using magnets to sweep aside the positrons and electrons emanating from his radioactive sources, he designed a special purpose Geiger counter to detect only the \"soft\" X-rays coming from K capture. He published his results in the \"Physical Review\" in 1937. When deuterium (hydrogen-2) is bombarded with deuterium, the fusion reaction yields either tritium (hydrogen-3) plus a proton or helium-3 plus a neutron (). This is one of the most basic fusion reactions, and the foundation of the thermonuclear weapon and the current research on controlled nuclear fusion. At that time the stability of these two reaction products was unknown, but based on existing theories Hans Bethe thought that tritium would be stable and helium-3 unstable. Alvarez proved the reverse by using his knowledge of the details of the 60-inch cyclotron operation. He tuned the machine to accelerate doubly ionized helium-3 nuclei and was able to get a beam of accelerated ions, thus using the cyclotron as a kind of super mass spectrometer. As the accelerated helium came from deep gas wells where it had been for millions of years, the helium-3 component had to be stable. Afterwards Alvarez produced the radioactive tritium using the cyclotron and the reaction and measured its lifetime. In 1938, again using his knowledge of the cyclotron and inventing what are now known as time-of-flight techniques, Alvarez created a mono-energetic beam of thermal neutrons. With this he began a long series of experiments, collaborating with Felix Bloch, to measure the magnetic moment of the neutron. Their result of, published in 1940, was a major advance over earlier work.", "", "The British Tizard Mission to the United States in 1940 demonstrated to leading American scientists the successful application of the cavity magnetron to produce short wavelength pulsed radar. The National Defense Research Committee, established only months earlier by President Franklin Roosevelt, created a central national laboratory at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) for the purpose of developing military applications of microwave radar. Lawrence immediately recruited his best \"cyclotroneers\", among them Alvarez, who joined this new laboratory, known as the Radiation Laboratory, on November 11, 1940. Alvarez contributed to a number of radar projects, from early improvements to Identification Friend or Foe (IFF) radar beacons, now called transponders, to a system known as VIXEN for preventing enemy submarines from realizing that they had been found by the new airborne microwave radars. One of the first projects was to build equipment to transition from the British long-wave radar to the new microwave centimeter-band radar made possible by the cavity magnetron. In working on the Microwave Early Warning system (MEW), Alvarez invented a linear dipole array antenna that not only suppressed the unwanted side lobes of the radiation field, but also could be electronically scanned without the need for mechanical scanning. This was the first microwave phased-array antenna, and Alvarez used it not only in MEW but in two additional radar systems. The antenna enabled the Eagle precision bombing radar to support precision bombing in bad weather or through clouds. It was completed rather late in the war; although a number of B-29s were equipped with Eagle and it worked well, it came too late to make much difference. The radar system for which Alvarez is best known and which has played a major role in aviation, most particularly in the post war Berlin airlift, was Ground Controlled Approach (GCA). Using Alvarez's dipole antenna to achieve a very high angular resolution, GCA allows ground-based radar operators watching special precision displays to guide a landing airplane to the runway by transmitting verbal commands to the pilot. The system was simple, direct, and worked well, even with previously untrained pilots. It was so successful that the military continued to use it for many years after the war, and it was still in use in some countries in the 1980s. Alvarez was awarded the National Aeronautic Association's Collier Trophy in 1945 \"for his conspicuous and outstanding initiative in the concept and development of the Ground Control Approach system for safe landing of aircraft under all weather and traffic conditions\". Alvarez spent the summer of 1943 in England testing GCA, landing planes returning from battle in bad weather, and also training the British in the use of the system. While there he encountered the young Arthur C. Clarke, who was an RAF radar technician. Clarke subsequently used his experiences at the radar research station as the basis for his novel \"Glide Path\", which contains a thinly disguised version of Alvarez. Clarke and Alvarez developed a long-term friendship.", "In the fall of 1943, Alvarez returned to the United States with an offer from Robert Oppenheimer to work at Los Alamos on the Manhattan project. But Oppenheimer suggested that he first spend a few months at the University of Chicago working with Enrico Fermi before coming to Los Alamos. During these months, General Leslie Groves asked Alvarez to think of a way that the US could find out if the Germans were operating any nuclear reactors, and, if so, where they were. Alvarez suggested that an airplane could carry a system to detect the radioactive gases that a reactor produces, particularly xenon 133. The equipment did fly over Germany, but detected no radioactive xenon because the Germans had not built a reactor capable of a chain reaction. This was the first idea of monitoring fission products for intelligence gathering. It would become extremely important after the war. As a result of his radar work and the few months spent with Fermi, Alvarez arrived at Los Alamos in the spring of 1944, later than many of his contemporaries. The work on the \"Little Boy\" (a uranium bomb) was far along so Alvarez became involved in the design of the \"Fat Man\" (a plutonium bomb). The technique used for uranium, that of forcing the two sub-critical masses together using a type of gun, would not work with plutonium because the high level of background spontaneous neutrons would cause fissions as soon as the two parts approached each other, so heat and expansion would force the system apart before much energy has been released. It was decided to use a nearly critical sphere of plutonium and compress it quickly by explosives into a much smaller and denser core, a technical challenge at the time. To create the symmetrical implosion required to compress the plutonium core to the required density, thirty two explosive charges were to be simultaneously detonated around the spherical core. Using conventional explosive techniques with blasting caps, progress towards achieving simultaneity to within a small fraction of a microsecond was discouraging. Alvarez directed his graduate student, Lawrence H. Johnston, to use a large capacitor to deliver a high voltage charge directly to each explosive lens, replacing blasting caps with exploding-bridgewire detonators. The exploding wire detonated the thirty two charges to within a few tenths of a microsecond. The invention was critical to the success of the implosion-type nuclear weapon. He also supervised the RaLa Experiments. Alvarez later wrote that: Again working with Johnston, Alvarez's last task for the Manhattan Project was to develop a set of calibrated microphone/transmitters to be parachuted from an aircraft to measure the strength of the blast wave from the atomic explosion, so as to allow the scientists to calculate the bomb's energy. After being commissioned as a lieutenant colonel in the United States Army, he observed the Trinity nuclear test from a B-29 Superfortress that also carried fellow Project Alberta members Harold Agnew and Deak Parsons (who were respectively commissioned at the rank of captain). Flying in the B-29 Superfortress \"The Great Artiste\" in formation with the \"Enola Gay\", Alvarez and Johnston measured the blast effect of the Little Boy bomb which was dropped on Hiroshima. A few days later, again flying in \"The Great Artiste\", Johnston used the same equipment to measure the strength of the Nagasaki explosion.", "Returning to the University of California, Berkeley as a full professor, Alvarez had many ideas about how to use his wartime radar knowledge to improve particle accelerators. Though some of these were to bear fruit, the \"big idea\" of this time would come from Edwin McMillan with his concept of phase stability which led to the synchrocyclotron. Refining and extending this concept, the Lawrence team would build the world's then-largest proton accelerator, the Bevatron, which began operating in 1954. Though the Bevatron could produce copious amounts of interesting particles, particularly in secondary collisions, these complex interactions were hard to detect and analyze at the time. Seizing upon a new development to visualize particle tracks, created by Donald Glaser and known as a bubble chamber, Alvarez realized the device was just what was needed, if only it could be made to function with liquid hydrogen. Hydrogen nuclei, which are protons, made the simplest and most desirable target for interactions with the particles produced by the Bevatron. He began a development program to build a series of small chambers, and championed the device to Ernest Lawrence. The Glaser device was a small glass cylinder () filled with ether. By suddenly reducing the pressure in the device, the liquid could be placed into a temporary superheated state, which would boil along the disturbed track of a particle passing through. Glaser was able to maintain the superheated state for a few seconds before spontaneous boiling took place. The Alvarez team built chambers of 1.5 in, 2.5 in, 4 in, 10 in, and 15 in using liquid hydrogen, and constructed of metal with glass windows, so that the tracks could be photographed. The chamber could be cycled in synchronization with the accelerator beam, a picture could be taken, and the chamber recompressed in time for the next beam cycle. This program built a liquid hydrogen bubble chamber almost 7 feet (2 meters) long, employed dozens of physicists and graduate students together with hundreds of engineers and technicians, took millions of photographs of particle interactions, developed computer systems to measure and analyze the interactions, and discovered families of new particles and resonance states. This work resulted in the Nobel Prize in Physics for Alvarez in 1968, \"For his decisive contributions to elementary particle physics, in particular the discovery of a large number of resonant states, made possible through his development of the technique of using hydrogen bubble chambers and data analysis.\"", "In 1964 Alvarez proposed what became known as the High Altitude Particle Physics Experiment (HAPPE), originally conceived as a large superconducting magnet carried to high altitude by a balloon in order to study extremely high-energy particle interactions. In time the focus of the experiment changed toward the study of cosmology and the role of both particles and radiation in the early universe. This work was a large effort, carrying detectors aloft with high-altitude balloon flights and high-flying U-2 aircraft, and an early precursor of the COBE satellite-born experiments on the cosmic background radiation (which resulted in the award of the 2006 Nobel Prize, shared by George Smoot and John Mather.) Alvarez proposed Muon tomography in 1965 to search the Egyptian pyramids for unknown chambers. Using naturally occurring cosmic rays, his plan was to place spark chambers, standard equipment in the high-energy particle physics of this time, beneath the second pyramid of Chephren in a known chamber. By measuring the counting rate of the cosmic rays in different directions the detector would reveal the existence of any void in the overlaying rock structure. Alvarez assembled a team of physicists and archeologists from the United States and Egypt, the recording equipment was constructed and the experiment carried out, though it was interrupted by the 1967 Six-Day War. Restarted after the war, the effort continued, recording and analyzing the penetrating cosmic rays until 1969 when Alvarez reported to the American Physical Society that no chambers had been found in the 19% of the pyramid surveyed. In November 1966 \"Life\" published a series of photographs from the film that Abraham Zapruder took of the Kennedy assassination. Alvarez, an expert in optics and photoanalysis, became intrigued by the pictures and began to study what could be learned from the film. Alvarez demonstrated both in theory and experiment that the backward snap of the President's head was fully consistent with his being shot from behind. He also investigated the timing of the gunshots and the shockwave which disturbed the camera, and the speed of the camera, pointing out a number of things which the FBI photo analysts either overlooked or got wrong. He produced a paper intended as a tutorial, with informal advice for the physicist intent on arriving at the truth.", "In 1980 Alvarez and his son, geologist Walter Alvarez, along with nuclear chemists Frank Asaro and Helen Michel, \"uncovered a calamity that literally shook the Earth and is one of the great discoveries about Earth's history\". During the 1970s, Walter Alvarez was doing geologic research in central Italy. There he had located an outcrop on the walls of a gorge whose limestone layers included strata both above and below the Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary. Exactly at the boundary is a thin layer of clay. Walter told his father that the layer marked where the dinosaurs and much else became extinct and that nobody knew why, or what the clay was about — it was a big mystery and he intended to solve it. Alvarez had access to the nuclear chemists at the Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory and was able to work with Frank Asaro and Helen Michel, who used the technique of neutron activation analysis. In 1980, Alvarez, Alvarez, Asaro, and Michel published a seminal paper proposing an extraterrestrial cause for the Cretaceous-Paleogene extinction (then called the Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction). In the years following the publication of their article, the clay was also found to contain soot, glassy spherules, shocked quartz crystals, microscopic diamonds, and rare minerals formed only under conditions of great temperature and pressure. Publication of the 1980 paper brought criticism from the geologic community, and an often acrimonious scientific debate ensued. Ten years later, and after Alvarez's death, evidence of a large impact crater called Chicxulub was found off the coast of Mexico, providing support for the theory. Other researchers later found that the end-Cretaceous extinction of the dinosaurs may have occurred rapidly in geologic terms, over thousands of years, rather than millions of years as had previously been supposed. Others continue to study alternative extinction causes such as increased volcanism, particularly the massive Deccan Traps eruptions that occurred around the same time, and climate change, checking against the fossil record. However, on March 4, 2010, a panel of 41 scientists agreed that the Chicxulub asteroid impact triggered the mass extinction.", "In his autobiography, Alvarez said, \"I think of myself as having had two separate careers, one in science and one in aviation. I've found the two almost equally rewarding.\" An important contributor to this was his enjoyment of flying. He learned to fly in 1933, later earning instrument and multi-engine ratings. Over the next 50 years he accumulated over 1000 hours of flight time, most of it as pilot in command. He said, \"I found few activities as satisfying as being pilot in command with responsibility for my passengers' lives.\" Alvarez made numerous professional contributions to aviation. During World War II he led the development of multiple aviation-related technologies. Several of his projects are described above, including Ground Controlled Approach (GCA) for which he was awarded the Collier Trophy in 1945. He also held the basic patent for the radar transponder, for which he assigned rights to the U.S. government for $1. Later in his career Alvarez served on multiple high level advisory committees related to civilian and military aviation. These included a Federal Aviation Administration task group on future air navigation and air traffic control systems, the President's Science Advisory Committee Military Aircraft Panel, and a committee studying how the scientific community could help improve the United States' capabilities for fighting a nonnuclear war. Alvarez's aviation responsibilities led to many adventures. For example, while working on GCA he became the first civilian to fly a low approach with his view outside the cockpit obstructed. He also flew many military aircraft from the co-pilot's seat, including a B-29 Superfortress and a Lockheed F-104 Starfighter. In addition, he survived a crash during World War II as a passenger in a Miles Master.", "Alvarez died on September 1, 1988, due to complications from a succession of recent operations for esophageal cancer. His remains were cremated, and his ashes were scattered over Monterey Bay. His papers are in The Bancroft Library at the University of California, Berkeley." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Aeolian harmony.", "Songs that use Aeolian mode." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The word \"Aeolian\", like the names for the other ancient Greek \"tonoi\" and \"harmoniai\", is an ethnic designation: in this case, for the inhabitants of Aeolis (Αἰολίς)—the Aeolian Islands and adjacent coastal district of Asia Minor. In the music theory of ancient Greece, it was an alternative name (used by some later writers, such as Cleonides) for what Aristoxenus called the Low Lydian \"tonos\" (in the sense of a particular overall pitching of the musical system—not a scale), nine semitones higher than the lowest \"position of the voice\", which was called Hypodorian. In the mid-16th century, this name was given by Heinrich Glarean to his newly defined ninth mode, with the diatonic octave species of the natural notes extending one octave from A to A—corresponding to the modern natural minor scale. Up until this time, chant theory recognized eight musical modes: the relative natural scales in D, E, F and G, each with their authentic and plagal counterparts, and with the option of B instead of B in several modes. In 1547, Heinrich Petri published Heinrich Glarean's \"Dodecachordon\" in Basel. His premise had as its central idea the existence of twelve diatonic modes rather than eight, including a separate pair of modes each on the finals A and C. Finals on these notes, as well as on B, had been recognized in chant theory at least since Hucbald in the early tenth century, but they were regarded as merely transpositions from the regular finals a fifth lower. In the eleventh century, Guido d'Arezzo, in chapter 8 of his \"Micrologus\", designated these transposed finals A, B, and C as \"affinals\", and later still the term \"confinal\" was used in the same way. In 1525, Pietro Aaron was the first theorist to explain polyphonic modal usage in terms of the eightfold system, including these transpositions. As late as 1581, Illuminato Aiguino da Brescia published the most elaborate theory defending the eightfold system for polyphonic music against Glarean's innovations, in which he regarded the traditional plainchant modes 1 and 2 (Dorian and Hypodorian) at the affinal position (that is, with their finals on A instead of D) as a composite of species from two modes, which he described as \"mixed modes\". Glarean added \"Aeolian\" as the name of the \"new\" ninth mode: the relative natural mode in A with the perfect fifth as its dominant, reciting tone, reciting note, or \"tenor\". The tenth mode, the plagal version of the Aeolian mode, Glarean called \"Hypoaeolian\" (\"under Aeolian\"), based on the same relative scale, but with the minor third as its tenor, and having a melodic range from a perfect fourth below the tonic to a perfect fifth above it. Although scholars for the past three centuries have regarded the modes added by Glarean as the basis of the minor/major division of classical European music, as homophonic music replaced Renaissance polyphony, this is an oversimplification. Even the key of A minor is as closely related to the old transposed modes 1 and 2 (Dorian and Hypodorian) with finals on A—as well as to mode 3 (Phrygian)—as it is to Glarean's Aeolian. In modern usage, the Aeolian mode is the sixth mode of the major scale and has the following formula: The Aeolian mode is the sixth mode of the major scale, that is, it is formed by starting on the sixth degree (submediant) of the major scale. For example, if the Aeolian mode is used in its all-white-note pitch based on A, this would be an A-minor triad, which would be the submediant in the relative major key of C major.", "\"Aeolian harmony\" is harmony or chord progression created from chords of the Aeolian mode. Commonly known as the \"natural minor\" scale, it allows for the construction of the following triads (three note chords built from major or minor thirds), in popular music symbols: i, III, iv, v, VI, and VII. The scale also produces ii, which is avoided since it is diminished. The leading-tone and major V which contains it are also not used, as they are not part of the Aeolian mode (natural minor scale). However, Aeolian harmony may be used with mode mixture. For example, VII is a major chord built on the seventh scale degree, indicated by capital Roman numerals for seven. There are common subsets including i–VII–VI, i–iv–v and blues minor pentatonic derived chord sequences such as I–III–IV, I–IV, VII (The verse of \"I'm Your Man\"). All these lack perfect cadences (V–I) and may be thought of as derived from rewrite rules using recursive fourth structures (repeated progression by perfect fourth, see circle progression). Middleton suggests of modal and fourth-oriented structures that, rather than being, \"distortions or surface transformations of Schenker's favoured V–I kernel, it is more likely that both are branches of a deeper principle, that of tonic/not-tonic differentiation.\"", "The Aeolian mode is identical with the natural minor scale. Thus, it is ubiquitous in minor-key music. The following is a list of some examples that are distinguishable from ordinary minor tonality, which also uses the melodic minor scale and the harmonic minor scale as required." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "Climate." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The Khibiny Massif are the highest mountains of the Kola Peninsula, a large peninsula extending from northern Russia into the Barents and White seas. The total land area of the peninsula is approximately. It is rich in minerals due to the removal of a layer of soil during the last ice age. The Khibiny Massif is of oval shape of about 1,300 km. and occupies the central part of the peninsula at a relative elevation of 900–1000 m above the surrounding plain. The mountains are not particularly high; the two highest peaks are the Yudychvumchorr, which stands, and the Chasnachorr, which stands. The average elevation is. The mountains form the shape of a horseshoe topped by a high plateau, drained by a series of deep canyons. The peaks are of plateau type, with steep slopes, with glaciers, icefields and snowfields in some places. The overall terrain is alpine tundra. The second, and similar mountain range of the Kola Peninsula, the Lovozero Tundras, is located about 5 km east from the easternmost point of Khibiny, separated from it by Lake Umbozero. The Khibiny range is extremely rich in minerals, mainly apatite and nepheline ores. 477 valid minerals have been reported and 108 of those are type localities or minerals first described in the Khibiny. The range is also seismically active. Khibiny mountains are mostly uninhabited, except for one of the world's richest mineral quarries. One of the minerals discovered there is reported to have a potential as a nuclear waste radioactivity absorbent. By the foot of the massif the cities of Apatity and Kirovsk are situated.", "Khibiny have an Arctic-moderate climate, with an average winter temperature of −5 °C (23 °F). However, the temperature can potentially drop to −30 °C (−22 °F) during the night. The Gulf Stream, which brings warmer water to the Kolsky Peninsula from the north, moderates the climate, making it slightly warmer than other Arctic regions." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Middle years.", "Manhattan Project.", "Later years." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Wigner Jenő Pál was born in Budapest, Austria-Hungary on November 17, 1902, to middle class Jewish parents, Elisabeth (Einhorn) and Anthony Wigner, a leather tanner. He had an older sister, Bertha, known as Biri, and a younger sister Margit, known as Manci, who later married British theoretical physicist Paul Dirac. He was home schooled by a professional teacher until the age of 9, when he started school at the third grade. During this period, Wigner developed an interest in mathematical problems. At the age of 11, Wigner contracted what his doctors believed to be tuberculosis. His parents sent him to live for six weeks in a sanatorium in the Austrian mountains, before the doctors concluded that the diagnosis was mistaken. Wigner's family was Jewish, but not religiously observant, and his Bar Mitzvah was a secular one. From 1915 through 1919, he studied at the secondary grammar school called Fasori Evangélikus Gimnázium, the school his father had attended. Religious education was compulsory, and he attended classes in Judaism taught by a rabbi. A fellow student was János von Neumann, who was a year behind Wigner. They both benefited from the instruction of the noted mathematics teacher László Rátz. In 1919, to escape the Béla Kun communist regime, the Wigner family briefly fled to Austria, returning to Hungary after Kun's downfall. Partly as a reaction to the prominence of Jews in the Kun regime, the family converted to Lutheranism. Wigner explained later in his life that his family decision to convert to Lutheranism \"was not at heart a religious decision but an anti-communist one\". On religious views, Wigner was an atheist. After graduating from the secondary school in 1920, Wigner enrolled at the Budapest University of Technical Sciences, known as the \"Műegyetem\". He was not happy with the courses on offer, and in 1921 enrolled at the \"Technische Hochschule Berlin\" (now Technical University of Berlin), where he studied chemical engineering. He also attended the Wednesday afternoon colloquia of the German Physical Society. These colloquia featured such luminaries as Max Planck, Max von Laue, Rudolf Ladenburg, Werner Heisenberg, Walther Nernst, Wolfgang Pauli, and Albert Einstein. Wigner also met the physicist Leó Szilárd, who at once became Wigner's closest friend. A third experience in Berlin was formative. Wigner worked at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry (now the Fritz Haber Institute), and there he met Michael Polanyi, who became, after László Rátz, Wigner's greatest teacher. Polanyi supervised Wigner's DSc thesis, \"Bildung und Zerfall von Molekülen\" (\"Formation and Decay of Molecules\").", "Wigner returned to Budapest, where he went to work at his father's tannery, but in 1926, he accepted an offer from Karl Weissenberg at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in Berlin. Weissenberg wanted someone to assist him with his work on x-ray crystallography, and Polanyi had recommended Wigner. After six months as Weissenberg's assistant, Wigner went to work for Richard Becker for two semesters. Wigner explored quantum mechanics, studying the work of Erwin Schrödinger. He also delved into the group theory of Ferdinand Frobenius and Eduard Ritter von Weber. Wigner received a request from Arnold Sommerfeld to work at the University of Göttingen as an assistant to the great mathematician David Hilbert. This proved a disappointment, as the aged Hilbert's abilities were failing, and his interests had shifted to logic. Wigner nonetheless studied independently. He laid the foundation for the theory of symmetries in quantum mechanics and in 1927 introduced what is now known as the Wigner D-matrix. Wigner and Hermann Weyl were responsible for introducing group theory into quantum mechanics. The latter had written a standard text, \"Group Theory and Quantum Mechanics\" (1928), but it was not easy to understand, especially for younger physicists. Wigner's \"Group Theory and Its Application to the Quantum Mechanics of Atomic Spectra\" (1931) made group theory accessible to a wider audience. In these works, Wigner laid the foundation for the theory of symmetries in quantum mechanics. Wigner's theorem proved by Wigner in 1931, is a cornerstone of the mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics. The theorem specifies how physical symmetries such as rotations, translations, and CPT symmetry are represented on the Hilbert space of states. According to the theorem, any symmetry transformation is represented by a linear and unitary or antilinear and antiunitary transformation of Hilbert space. The representation of a symmetry group on a Hilbert space is either an ordinary representation or a projective representation. In the late 1930s, Wigner extended his research into atomic nuclei. By 1929, his papers were drawing notice in the world of physics. In 1930, Princeton University recruited Wigner for a one-year lectureship, at 7 times the salary that he had been drawing in Europe. Princeton recruited von Neumann at the same time. Jenő Pál Wigner and János von Neumann had collaborated on three papers together in 1928 and two in 1929. They anglicized their first names to \"Eugene\" and \"John\", respectively. When their year was up, Princeton offered a five-year contract as visiting professors for half the year. The Technische Hochschule responded with a teaching assignment for the other half of the year. This was very timely, since the Nazis soon rose to power in Germany. At Princeton in 1934, Wigner introduced his sister Manci to the physicist Paul Dirac, whom she married. Princeton did not rehire Wigner when his contract ran out in 1936. Through Gregory Breit, Wigner found new employment at the University of Wisconsin. There he met his first wife, Amelia Frank, who was a physics student there. However she died unexpectedly in 1937, leaving Wigner distraught. He therefore accepted a 1938 offer from Princeton to return there. Wigner became a naturalized citizen of the United States on January 8, 1937, and he brought his parents to the United States.", "Although he was a professed political amateur, on August 2, 1939, he participated in a meeting with Leó Szilárd and Albert Einstein that resulted in the Einstein–Szilárd letter, which prompted President Franklin D. Roosevelt to initiate the Manhattan Project to develop atomic bombs. Wigner was afraid that the German nuclear weapon project would develop an atomic bomb first, and even refused to have his fingerprints taken because they could be used to track him down if Germany won. \"Thoughts of being murdered,\" he later recalled, \"focus your mind wonderfully.\" On June 4, 1941, Wigner married his second wife, Mary Annette Wheeler, a professor of physics at Vassar College, who had completed her Ph.D. at Yale University in 1932. After the war she taught physics on the faculty of Rutgers University's Douglass College in New Jersey until her retirement in 1964. They remained married until her death in November 1977. They had two children, David Wigner and Martha Wigner Upton. During the Manhattan Project, Wigner led a team that included Alvin M. Weinberg, Katharine Way, Gale Young and Edward Creutz. The group's task was to design the production nuclear reactors that would convert uranium into weapons grade plutonium. At the time, reactors existed only on paper, and no reactor had yet gone critical. In July 1942, Wigner chose a conservative 100 MW design, with a graphite neutron moderator and water cooling. Wigner was present at a converted rackets court under the stands at the University of Chicago's abandoned Stagg Field on December 2, 1942, when the world's first atomic reactor, Chicago Pile One (CP-1) achieved a controlled nuclear chain reaction. Wigner was disappointed that DuPont was given responsibility for the detailed design of the reactors, not just their construction. He threatened to resign in February 1943, but was talked out of it by the head of the Metallurgical Laboratory, Arthur Compton, who sent him on vacation instead. As it turned out, a design decision by DuPont to give the reactor additional load tubes for more uranium saved the project when neutron poisoning became a problem. Without the additional tubes, the reactor could have been run at 35% power until the boron impurities in the graphite were burned up and enough plutonium produced to run the reactor at full power; but this would have set the project back a year. During the 1950s, he would even work for DuPont on the Savannah River Site. Wigner did not regret working on the Manhattan Project, and sometimes wished the atomic bomb had been ready a year earlier. An important discovery Wigner made during the project was the Wigner effect. This is a swelling of the graphite moderator caused by the displacement of atoms by neutron radiation. The Wigner effect was a serious problem for the reactors at the Hanford Site in the immediate post-war period, and resulted in production cutbacks and a reactor being shut down entirely. It was eventually discovered that it could be overcome by controlled heating and annealing. Through Manhattan project funding, Wigner and Leonard Eisenbud also developed an important general approach to nuclear reactions, the Wigner–Eisenbud R-matrix theory, which was published in 1947.", "Wigner accepted a position as the Director of Research and Development at the Clinton Laboratory (now the Oak Ridge National Laboratory) in Oak Ridge, Tennessee in early 1946. Because he did not want to be involved in administrative duties, he became co-director of the laboratory, with James Lum handling the administrative chores as executive director. When the newly created Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) took charge of the laboratory's operations at the start of 1947, Wigner feared that many of the technical decisions would be made in Washington. He also saw the Army's continuation of wartime security policies at the laboratory as a \"meddlesome oversight\", interfering with research. One such incident occurred in March 1947, when the AEC discovered that Wigner's scientists were conducting experiments with a critical mass of uranium-235 when the Director of the Manhattan Project, Major General Leslie R. Groves, Jr., had forbidden such experiments in August 1946 after the death of Louis Slotin at the Los Alamos Laboratory. Wigner argued that Groves's order had been superseded, but was forced to terminate the experiments, which were completely different from the one that killed Slotin. Feeling unsuited to a managerial role in such an environment, he left Oak Ridge in 1947 and returned to Princeton University, although he maintained a consulting role with the facility for many years. In the postwar period he served on a number of government bodies, including the National Bureau of Standards from 1947 to 1951, the mathematics panel of the National Research Council from 1951 to 1954, the physics panel of the National Science Foundation, and the influential General Advisory Committee of the Atomic Energy Commission from 1952 to 1957 and again from 1959 to 1964. He also contributed to civil defense. Near the end of his life, Wigner's thoughts turned more philosophical. In 1960, he published a now classic article on the philosophy of mathematics and of physics, which has become his best-known work outside technical mathematics and physics, \"The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences\". He argued that biology and cognition could be the origin of physical concepts, as we humans perceive them, and that the happy coincidence that mathematics and physics were so well matched, seemed to be \"unreasonable\" and hard to explain. His original paper has provoked and inspired many responses across a wide range of disciplines. These included Richard Hamming in Computer Science, Arthur Lesk in Molecular Biology, Peter Norvig in data mining, Max Tegmark in Physics, Ivor Grattan-Guinness in Mathematics, and Vela Velupillai in Economics. In November 1963, Wigner called for the allocation of 10% of the national defense budget to be spent on nuclear blast shelters and survival resources, arguing that such an expenditure would be less costly than disarmament. Wigner considered a recent Woods Hole study's conclusion that a nuclear strike would kill 20% of Americans to be a very modest projection and that the country could recover from such an attack more quickly than Germany had recovered from the devastation of World War II. Wigner was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1963 \"for his contributions to the theory of the atomic nucleus and the elementary particles, particularly through the discovery and application of fundamental symmetry principles\". The prize was shared that year, with the other half of the award divided between Maria Goeppert-Mayer and J. Hans D. Jensen. Wigner professed that he had never considered the possibility that this might occur, and added: \"I never expected to get my name in the newspapers without doing something wicked.\" He also won the Franklin Medal in 1950, the Enrico Fermi award in 1958, the Atoms for Peace Award in 1959, the Max Planck Medal in 1961, the National Medal of Science in 1969, the Albert Einstein Award in 1972, the Golden Plate Award of the American Academy of Achievement in 1974, and the eponymous Wigner Medal in 1978. In 1968 he gave the Josiah Willard Gibbs lecture. Mary died in November 1977. In 1979, Wigner married his third wife, Eileen Clare-Patton (Pat) Hamilton, the widow of physicist Donald Ross Hamilton, the Dean of the Graduate School at Princeton University, who had died in 1972. In 1992, at the age of 90, he published his memoirs, \"The Recollections of Eugene P. Wigner\" with Andrew Szanton. In it, Wigner said: \"The full meaning of life, the collective meaning of all human desires, is fundamentally a mystery beyond our grasp. As a young man, I chafed at this state of affairs. But by now I have made peace with it. I even feel a certain honor to be associated with such a mystery.\" In his collection of essays 'Philosophical Reflections and Syntheses' (1995), he commented: \"It was not possible to formulate the laws of quantum mechanics in a fully consistent way without reference to consciousness.\" Wigner died of pneumonia at the University Medical Center in Princeton, New Jersey on 1 January 1995. He was survived by his wife Eileen (died 2010) and children Erika, David and Martha, and his sisters Bertha and Margit." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Stern was born into a Jewish family in Sohrau (now Żory) in the Province of Silesia, the German Empire's Kingdom of Prussia. His father was Oskar Stern (1850-1919), a mill owner, who had been living in Breslau (now Wrocław) since 1892. His mother Eugenia née Rosenthal (1863-1907) was from Rawitsch (now Rawicz) in the Prussian Province of Posen. Otto Stern had a brother, Kurt, who became a noted botanist in Frankfurt, and three sisters. He studied in Freiburg im Breisgau, Munich and Breslau. Stern completed his studies at the University of Breslau in 1912 with a doctoral dissertation in physical chemistry under supervision of Otto Sackur on the kinetic theory of osmotic pressure in concentrated solutions. He then followed Albert Einstein to Charles University in Prague and in 1913 to ETH Zurich. Stern served in World War I doing meteorological work on the Russian front while still continuing his studies and in 1915 received his Habilitation at the University of Frankfurt. In 1921 he became a professor at the University of Rostock which he left in 1923 to become director of the newly founded \"Institut für Physikalische Chemie\" at the University of Hamburg. After resigning from his post at the University of Hamburg in 1933 because of the Nazis' Machtergreifung (seizure of power), he found refuge in the city of Pittsburgh becoming a professor of physics at the Carnegie Institute of Technology. During the 1930s, he was a visiting professor at the University of California, Berkeley. As an experimental physicist Stern contributed to the discovery of spin quantization in the Stern–Gerlach experiment with Walther Gerlach in February 1922 at the Physikalischer Verein in Frankfurt am Main; demonstration of the wave nature of atoms and molecules; measurement of atomic magnetic moments; discovery of the proton's magnetic moment; and development of the molecular beam method which is utilized for the technique of molecular beam epitaxy. He was awarded the 1943 Nobel Prize in Physics, the first to be awarded since 1939. It was awarded to Stern alone, \"for his contribution to the development of the molecular ray method and his discovery of the magnetic moment of the proton\" (not for the Stern–Gerlach experiment). The 1943 prize was actually awarded in 1944. After Stern retired from the Carnegie Institute of Technology, he moved to Berkeley, California. He was a regular visitor to the Physics colloquium at UC Berkeley. He died of a heart attack in Berkeley on 17 August 1969. The Stern-Gerlach-Medaille of the Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft awarded for excellence in experimental physics is named after him and Gerlach. His niece was the crystallographer Lieselotte Templeton." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Ancient Greek Phrygian.", "Medieval Phrygian mode.", "Modern Phrygian mode.", "Phrygian dominant scale." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The Phrygian \"tonos\" or \"harmonia\" is named after the ancient kingdom of Phrygia in Anatolia. The octave species (scale) underlying the ancient-Greek Phrygian \"tonos\" (in its diatonic genus) corresponds to the medieval and modern Dorian mode. In Greek music theory, the \"harmonia\" given this name was based on a \"tonos\", in turn based on a scale or octave species built from a tetrachord which, in its diatonic genus, consisted of a series of rising intervals of a whole tone, followed by a semitone, followed by a whole tone. \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \\relative c' { </score> In the chromatic genus, this is a minor third followed by two semitones. \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \\relative c' { </score> In the enharmonic genus, it is a major third and two quarter tones. \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \\relative c' { </score> A diatonic-genus octave species built upon D is roughly equivalent to playing all the white notes on a piano keyboard from D to D: \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \\relative c' { </score> This scale, combined with a set of characteristic melodic behaviours and associated ethoi, constituted the \"harmonia\" which was given the ethnic name \"Phrygian\", after the \"unbounded, ecstatic peoples of the wild, mountainous regions of the Anatolian highlands\". This ethnic name was also confusingly applied by theorists such as Cleonides to one of thirteen chromatic transposition levels, regardless of the intervallic makeup of the scale.", "The early Catholic Church developed a system of eight musical modes that medieval music scholars gave names drawn from the ones used to describe the ancient Greek \"harmoniai\". The name \"Phrygian\" was applied to the third of these eight church modes, the authentic mode on E, described as the diatonic octave extending from E to the E an octave higher and divided at B, therefore beginning with a semitone-tone-tone-tone pentachord, followed by a semitone-tone-tone tetrachord : \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \\relative c' { </score> The ambitus of this mode extended one tone lower, to D. The sixth degree, C, which is the tenor of the corresponding third psalm tone, was regarded by most theorists as the most important note after the final, though the fifteenth-century theorist Johannes Tinctoris implied that the fourth degree, A, could be so regarded instead. Placing the two tetrachords together, and the single tone at bottom of the scale produces the Hypophrygian mode (below Phrygian): \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \\relative c\" { </score>", "In modern western music (from the 18th century onward), the Phrygian mode is related to the modern natural minor scale, also known as the Aeolian mode, but with the second scale degree lowered by a semitone, making it a minor second above the tonic, rather than a major second. \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \\relative c' { </score> The following is the Phrygian mode starting on E, or E Phrygian, with corresponding tonal scale degrees illustrating how the modern major mode and natural minor mode can be altered to produce the Phrygian mode: Therefore, the Phrygian mode consists of: root, minor second, minor third, perfect fourth, perfect fifth, minor sixth, minor seventh, and octave. Alternatively, it can be written as the pattern In contemporary jazz, the Phrygian mode is used over chords and sonorities built on the mode, such as the sus4(9) chord (see Suspended chord), which is sometimes called a \"Phrygian suspended chord\". For example, a soloist might play an E Phrygian over an Esus4(9) chord (E–A–B–D–F).", "A Phrygian dominant scale is produced by raising the third scale degree of the mode: The Phrygian dominant is also known as the Spanish gypsy scale, because it resembles the scales found in flamenco music (see Flamenco mode). It is the fifth mode of the harmonic minor scale. Flamenco music uses the Phrygian scale together with a modified scale resembling the Arab \"maqām Ḥijāzī\" (like the Phrygian dominant but with a major sixth scale degree), and a bimodal configuration using both major and minor second and third scale degrees." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Modern Locrian.", "Overview.", "Usage." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Locrian\" is the word used to describe the inhabitants of the ancient Greek regions of Locris. Although the term occurs in several classical authors on music theory, including Cleonides (as an octave species) and Athenaeus (as an obsolete \"harmonia\"), there is no warrant for the modern usage of Locrian as equivalent to Glarean's Hyperaeolian mode, in either classical, Renaissance, or later phases of modal theory through the 18th century, or modern scholarship on ancient Greek musical theory and practice. The name first came to be applied to modal chant theory after the 18th century, when it was used to describe the mode newly-numbered as mode 11, with final on B, ambitus from that note to the octave above, and with semitones therefore between the first and second, and fourth and fifth degrees. Its reciting tone (or tenor) is G, its mediant D, and it has two participants: E and F. The final, as its name implies, is the tone on which the chant eventually settles, and corresponds to the tonic in tonal music. The reciting tone is the tone around which the melody principally centres, the mediant is named from its position between the final and reciting tone, and the participant is an auxiliary note, generally adjacent to the mediant in authentic modes and, in the plagal forms, coincident with the reciting tone of the corresponding authentic mode.", "In modern practice, the Locrian may be considered to be a minor scale with the second and fifth scale degrees lowered a semitone. The Locrian mode may also be considered to be a scale beginning on the seventh scale degree of any Ionian, or major scale. The Locrian mode has the formula: Its tonic chord is a diminished triad (B in the Locrian mode of the diatonic scale corresponding to C major). This mode's diminished fifth and the Lydian mode's augmented fourth are the only modes to have a tritone above the tonic.", "The Locrian mode is the only modern diatonic mode in which the tonic triad is a diminished chord, which is considered dissonant. This is because the interval between the root and fifth of the chord is a diminished fifth. For example, the tonic triad of B Locrian is made from the notes B, D, F. The root is B and the fifth is F. The diminished-fifth interval between them is the cause for the chord's dissonance. \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \\relative c' { </score> The name \"Locrian\" is borrowed from music theory of ancient Greece. However, what is now called the Locrian mode was what the Greeks called the Diatonic Mixolydian tonos. The Greeks used the term \"Locrian\" as an alternative name for their \"Hypodorian\", or \"Common\" tonos, with a scale running from \"mese\" to \"nete hyperbolaion\", which in its diatonic genus corresponds to the modern Aeolian mode. In his reform of modal theory in the \"Dodecachordon\" (1547), Heinrich Glarean named this division of the octave \"Hyperaeolian\" and printed some musical examples (a three-part polyphonic example specially commissioned from his friend Sixtus Dietrich, and the Christe from a mass by Pierre de La Rue), though he did not accept Hyperaeolian as one of his twelve modes. The usage of the term \"Locrian\" as equivalent to Glarean's Hyperaeolian or the ancient Greek (diatonic) Mixolydian, however, has no authority before the 19th century.", "There are brief passages in works by Sergei Rachmaninov (Prelude in B minor, op. 32, no. 10), Paul Hindemith (\"Ludus Tonalis\"), and Jean Sibelius (Symphony No. 4 in A minor, op. 63) that have been, or may be, regarded as in the Locrian mode. Claude Debussy's \"Jeux\" has three extended passages in the Locrian mode. The theme of the second movement (\"Turandot Scherzo\") of Hindemith's \"Symphonic Metamorphosis of Themes by Carl Maria von Weber\" (1943) alternates sections in Mixolydian and Locrian modes, ending in Locrian. English folk musician John Kirkpatrick's song \"Dust to Dust\" was written in the Locrian mode, backed by his concertina. The Locrian mode is not at all traditional in English music, but was used by Kirkpatrick as a musical innovation." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "Tribute." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Nosov N.N. was born in a family of an entertainer actor. From 1927 to 1929 he was a student of Kiev Institute of Art, from where he moved to Moscow Institute of Cinematography, from which he graduated in 1932.", "The literary debut of Nosov was in 1938. In 1932 – 1951 he worked as a producer of animated and educational films, including ones for the Red Army, having earned the Order of the Red Star in 1943. In 1938 Nosov began to publish his stories, including \"Zatejniki\" (, roughly translates as \"Jokers\"); \"Alive Hat\", \"Cucumbers\", \"Miraculous Trousers\", and \"Dreamers\". These stories were published mainly in the magazine for children \"Murzilka\" and many of them make up the foundation of the Nosov's first collection \"Rat-tat-tat\", 1945). Nosov introduced a new hero, naïve and sensible, naughty and curious fidget obsessed by craving for activities and always getting into unusual, often comic situations – into children's literature. The most popular works became his stories for teenagers \"Merry Family\" (1949), \"The Kolya Sinitsyn's Diary\" (1950), \"Vitya Maleev at School and at Home\" (1951). This last one received State Stalin Prize\" in 1952. Long-term fame and love of readers were gained by his fairy stories about \"Dunno\" (\"Neznaika\"). The first of those is the fairy tale \"Vintik, Shpuntik and vacuum cleaner\". Further the hero appeared in the famous trilogy consisting of fairy tale novels \"The Adventures of Dunno and His Friends\" (1953–1954), \"Dunno in Sun City\" (1958), and \"Dunno on the Moon\" (1964–1965). He received the RSFSR State Prize in 1969; the award is commemorated to Nadezhda Krupskaya. The writer is also the author of an autobiographical work \"Story about My Friend Igor\" (1971–1972) and a memoirs narrative \"Mystery on a Well Bottom\" (1977).", "On November 23, 2018, a Google Doodle was displayed to celebrate his 110th birthday." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Family.", "Speed of light.", "Early measurements.", "Mount Wilson and Lookout Mountain.", "Michelson, Pease, and Pearson.", "Application of Basic Statistical Principles in Michelson’s Study of Speed of Light.", "Michelson–Morley interferometry experiment.", "Astronomical interferometry.", "Michelson in popular culture.", "Honors and awards." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Michelson was born in Strzelno, Province of Posen in now Poland (under German occupation), the son of Samuel Michelson, a Jewish merchant and his wife, Rozalia Przyłubska, a daughter of a Polish merchant. He moved to the US with his parents in 1855, at the age of two. He grew up in the mining towns of Murphy's Camp, California and Virginia City, Nevada, where his father was a merchant. His family was Jewish by birth but non-religious, and Michelson himself was a lifelong agnostic. He spent his high school years in San Francisco in the home of his aunt, Henriette Levy (née Michelson), who was the mother of author Harriet Lane Levy. President Ulysses S. Grant awarded Michelson a special appointment to the U.S. Naval Academy in 1869. During his four years as a midshipman at the Academy, Michelson excelled in optics, heat, climatology and drawing. After graduating in 1873 and two years at sea, he returned to the Naval Academy in 1875 to become an instructor in physics and chemistry until 1879. In 1879, he was posted to the Nautical Almanac Office, Washington (part of the United States Naval Observatory), to work with Simon Newcomb. In the following year he obtained leave of absence to continue his studies in Europe. He visited the Universities of Berlin and Heidelberg, and the Collège de France and École Polytechnique in Paris. Michelson was fascinated with the sciences, and the problem of measuring the speed of light in particular. While at Annapolis, he conducted his first experiments on the speed of light, as part of a class demonstration in 1877. His Annapolis experiment was refined, and in 1879, he measured the speed of light in air to be 299,864 ± 51 kilometres per second, and estimated the speed of light in vacuum as 299,940 km/s, or 186,380 mi/s. After two years of studies in Europe, he resigned from the Navy in 1881. In 1883 he accepted a position as professor of physics at the Case School of Applied Science in Cleveland, Ohio and concentrated on developing an improved interferometer. In 1887 he and Edward Morley carried out the famous Michelson–Morley experiment which failed to detect evidence of the existence of the luminiferous ether. He later moved on to use astronomical interferometers in the measurement of stellar diameters and in measuring the separations of binary stars. In 1889 Michelson became a professor at Clark University at Worcester, Massachusetts and in 1892 was appointed professor and the first head of the department of physics at the newly organized University of Chicago. In 1898, he noted the Gibbs phenomenon in Fourier analysis on a mechanical computer that was constructed by him. In 1907, Michelson had the honor of being the first American to receive a Nobel Prize in Physics \"for his optical precision instruments and the spectroscopic and metrological investigations carried out with their aid\". He also won the Copley Medal in 1907, the Henry Draper Medal in 1916 and the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1923. A crater on the Moon is named after him. Michelson died in Pasadena, California at the age of 78. The University of Chicago Residence Halls remembered Michelson and his achievements by dedicating 'Michelson House' in his honor. Case Western Reserve has dedicated a Michelson House to him, and Michelson Hall (an academic building of science classrooms, laboratories and offices) at the United States Naval Academy also bears his name. Michelson Laboratory at Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake in Ridgecrest, California is named for him. There is a display in the publicly accessible area of the Lab which includes facsimiles of Michelson's Nobel Prize medal, the prize document, and examples of his diffraction gratings. Numerous awards, lectures, and honors have been created in Albert A. Michelson's name. Some of the current awards and lectures named for Michelson include the following: the Bomem-Michelson Award and Lecture annually presented until 2017 by the Coblentz Society; the Michelson–Morley Award and Lecture, along with the Michelson Lecture Series, and the Michelson Postdoctoral Prize Lectureship, all of which are given annually by Case Western Reserve University; the A.A. Michelson Award presented every year by the Computer Measurement Group; the Albert A. Michelson Award given by the Navy League of the United States; and the Michelson Memorial Lecture Series presented annually by the Division of Mathematics and Science at the U.S. Naval Academy.", "In 1877 Michelson married Margaret Hemingway, daughter of a wealthy New York stockbroker and lawyer and the niece of his commander William T. Sampson. They had two sons and a daughter. In 1899, he married Edna Stanton. They raised three daughters.", "", "Michelson was fascinated by light all his life. Once asked why he studied light, he said, ‘’because it’s so much fun.’’ As early as 1869, while serving as an officer in the United States Navy, Michelson started planning a repeat of the rotating-mirror method of Léon Foucault for measuring the speed of light, using improved optics and a longer baseline. He conducted some preliminary measurements using largely improvised equipment in 1878, about the same time that his work came to the attention of Simon Newcomb, director of the Nautical Almanac Office who was already advanced in planning his own study. Michelson's formal experiments took place in June and July 1879. He constructed a frame building along the north sea wall of the Naval Academy to house the machinery. Michelson published his result of 299,910 ± 50 km/s in 1879 before joining Newcomb in Washington DC to assist with his measurements there. Thus began a long professional collaboration and friendship between the two. Simon Newcomb, with his more adequately funded project, obtained a value of 299,860 ± 30 km/s, just at the extreme edge of consistency with Michelson's. Michelson continued to \"refine\" his method and in 1883 published a measurement of 299,853 ± 60 km/s, rather closer to that of his mentor.", "In 1906, a novel electrical method was used by E. B. Rosa and the National Bureau of Standards to obtain a value for the speed of light of 299,781 ± 10 km/s. Though this result has subsequently been shown to be severely biased by the poor electrical standards in use at the time, it seems to have set a fashion for rather lower measured values. From 1920, Michelson started planning a definitive measurement from the Mount Wilson Observatory, using a baseline to Lookout Mountain, a prominent bump on the south ridge of Mount San Antonio (\"Old Baldy\"), some 22 miles distant. In 1922, the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey began two years of painstaking measurement of the baseline using the recently available invar tapes. With the baseline length established in 1924, measurements were carried out over the next two years to obtain the published value of 299,796 ± 4 km/s. Famous as the measurement is, it was beset by problems, not least of which was the haze created by the smoke from forest fires which blurred the mirror image. It is also probable that the intensively detailed work of the geodetic survey, with an estimated error of less than one part in 1 million, was compromised by a shift in the baseline arising from the Santa Barbara earthquake of June 29, 1925, which was an estimated magnitude of 6.3 on the Richter scale. The now-famous Michelson–Morley experiment also influenced the affirmation attempts of peer Albert Einstein's theory of general relativity and special relativity, using similar optical instrumentation. These instruments and related collaborations included the participation of fellow physicists Dayton Miller, Hendrik Lorentz, and Robert Shankland.", "The period after 1927 marked the advent of new measurements of the speed of light using novel electro-optic devices, all substantially lower than Michelson's 1926 value. Michelson sought another measurement, but this time in an evacuated tube to avoid difficulties in interpreting the image owing to atmospheric effects. In 1929, he began a collaboration with Francis G. Pease and Fred Pearson to perform a measurement in a 1.6 km tube 3 feet in diameter at the Irvine Ranch near Santa Ana, California. In multiple reflections the light path was increased to 5 miles. For the first time in history the speed of light was measured in an almost perfect vacuum of 0.5 mm of mercury. Michelson died with only 36 of the 233 measurement series completed and the experiment was subsequently beset by geological instability and condensation problems before the result of 299,774 ± 11 km/s, consistent with the prevailing electro-optic values, was published posthumously in 1935.", "During June and early July 1879, Michelson refined experimental arrangements from those developed by Hippolyte Fizeau and Léon Foucault. The experimental setup was as follows: Light generated from a source is directed towards a rotating mirror through a slit on a fixed plate; the rotating mirror reflects the incoming light and at a certain angle, towards the direction where another fixed flat mirror is placed whose surface is perpendicular to the incoming ray of light; the rotating mirror should have rotated by an angle α by the time the ray of light travels back and is reflected again towards the fixed plate (the distance between the fixed mirror and the rotating one is recorded as D); a displacement from the slit is detected on the plate which measures d; the distance from the rotating mirror to the fixed plate is designated as the radius r while the number of revolutions per second of the mirror is recorded as ω. In this way, tan(2α) = d/r; Δt = (α/2π)/ω; speed of light can be derived as c = 2D/Δt. While at plain sight, four measured quantities are involved: distance D, radius r, displacement d and rotating mirror revolution per second ω, which seems simple; yet based on the limitation of the measurement technology at that time, great efforts were made by Michelson to reduce systematic errors and apply subsequent corrections. For instance, he adopted a steel measuring tape with a said length of 100 feet and he intended to measure tens of times across the distance; still, he measured its length against a copy of the official standard yard to find out it as 100.006 feet, thus eliminating a systematic error, albeit small. Aside from the efforts to reduce as much as possible the systematic errors, repeated measurements were performed at multiple levels to obtain more accurate results. As R.J.MacKay and R.W.Oldford remarked in their article, ‘It is clear that Michelson appreciated the power of averaging to reduce variability in measurement’, it is clear that Michelson had in mind the property that averages vary less which should be formally described as: the standard deviation of the average of n independent random variables is less than that of a single random variable by a factor of the square root of n. To realize that, he also strived to have each measurement not influencing each other, thus being mutually independent random variables. It should also be noted about the statistical model for repeated measurements where the assumption of independence or identical distributions is unrealistic. In the case of light speed study, each measurement is approached as the sum of quantity of interest and measurement error. In the absence of systematic error, the measurement error of speed of light can be modeled by a random sample from a distribution with unknown expectation and finite variance; thus, the speed of light is represented by the expectation of the model distribution and the ultimate goal is to estimate the expectation of the model distribution on the acquired dataset. The law of large numbers suggests to estimate the expectation by the sample mean.", "In 1887 he collaborated with colleague Edward Williams Morley of Western Reserve University, now part of Case Western Reserve University, in the Michelson–Morley experiment. Their experiment for the expected motion of the Earth relative to the aether, the hypothetical medium in which light was supposed to travel, resulted in a null result. Surprised, Michelson repeated the experiment with greater and greater precision over the next years, but continued to find no ability to measure the aether. The Michelson–Morley results were immensely influential in the physics community, leading Hendrik Lorentz to devise his now-famous Lorentz contraction equations as a means of explaining the null result. There has been some historical controversy over whether Albert Einstein was aware of the Michelson–Morley results when he developed his theory of special relativity, which pronounced the aether to be \"superfluous.\" In a later interview, Einstein said of the Michelson–Morley experiment, \"I was not conscious it had influenced me directly... I guess I just took it for granted that it was true.\" Regardless of Einstein's specific knowledge, the experiment is today considered the canonical experiment in regards to showing the lack of a detectable aether. The precision of their equipment allowed Michelson and Morley to be the first to get precise values for the fine structure in the atomic spectral lines for which in 1916 Arnold Sommerfeld gave a theoretical explanation, introducing the fine-structure constant.", "In 1920 Michelson and Francis G. Pease made the first measurement of the diameter of a star other than the Sun. Michelson had invented astronomical interferometry and built such an instrument at the Mount Wilson Observatory which was used to measure the diameter of the red giant Betelgeuse. A periscope arrangement was used to direct light from two subpupils, separated by up to 20 feet (6m), into the main pupil of the 100 inch (2.5m) Hooker Telescope, producing interference fringes observed through the eyepiece. The measurement of stellar diameters and the separations of binary stars took up an increasing amount of Michelson's life after this. Beginning in the 1970s, astronomical interferometry has been revived, with the configuration using two (or more) separate apertures (with diameters small compared to their separation) being often referred to as \"Michelson Stellar Interferometry.\" This was to distinguish it from speckle interferometry, but should not be confused with the Michelson interferometer which is one common \"laboratory\" interferometer configuration of which the interferometer used in the Michelson–Morley experiment was an instance. Michelson's concept of interfering light from two relatively small apertures separated by a substantial distance (but with that distance, or \"baseline\", now often as long as hundreds of meters) is employed at modern operational observatories such as VLTI, CHARA and the U.S. Navy's NPOI.", "In an episode of the television series \"Bonanza\" (\"Look to the Stars\", broadcast March 18, 1962), Ben Cartwright (Lorne Greene) helps the 16-year-old Michelson (portrayed by 25-year-old Douglas Lambert (1936–1986)) obtain an appointment to the U.S. Naval Academy, despite the opposition of the bigoted town schoolteacher (played by William Schallert). \"Bonanza\" was set in and around Virginia City, Nevada, where Michelson lived with his parents prior to leaving for the Naval Academy. In a voice-over at the end of the episode, Greene mentions Michelson's 1907 Nobel Prize. The home in which Michelson lived as a child in Murphys Camp, California is now occupied by a tasting room for Hovey Wine, and craft beer specialty bar, Murphys Pourhouse. New Beast Theater Works in collaboration with High Concept Laboratories produced a'semi-opera' about Michelson, his obsessive working style and its effect on his family life. The production ran from February 11 to February 26, 2011 in Chicago at The Building Stage. Michelson was portrayed by Jon Stutzman. The play was directed by David Maral with music composed by Joshua Dumas. Norman Fitzroy Maclean wrote an essay \"Billiards is a Good Game\"; published in \"The Norman Maclean Reader\" (ed. O. Alan Weltzien, 2008), it is an appreciation of Michelson from Maclean's vantage point as a graduate student regularly watching him play billiards.", "Michelson was a member of the Royal Society, the National Academy of Sciences, the American Physical Society and the American Association for the Advancement of Science. The Computer Measurement Group gives an annual A. A. Michelson Award." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origins.", "Plot summary.", "Reception.", "Later references." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A year before he started to write \"Nana\", Zola knew nothing about the Théâtre des Variétés. Ludovic Halévy invited him to attend an operetta with him there on February 15, 1878, and took him backstage. Halévy told him innumerable stories about the amorous life of the star, Anna Judic, whose ménage à trois served as the model for the relationships of Rose Mignon, her husband, and Steiner in Zola's novel. Halévy also provided Zola with stories about famous prostitutes such as Blanche d'Antigny, Anna Deslions, Delphine de Lizy, and Hortense Schneider, upon which Zola drew in developing the character of his title character.", "\"Nana\" tells the story of Nana Coupeau's rise from streetwalker to high-class prostitute during the last three years of the French Second Empire. Nana first appeared near the end of Zola's earlier novel Rougon-Macquart series, \"L'Assommoir\" (1877), where she is the daughter of an abusive drunk. At the conclusion of that novel, she is living in the streets and just beginning a life of prostitution. \"Nana\" opens with a night at the Théâtre des Variétés in April 1867 just after the Exposition Universelle has opened. Nana is eighteen years old, though she would have been fifteen according to the family tree of the Rougon-Macquarts Zola had published years before starting work on this novel. Zola describes in detail the performance of \"La blonde Vénus\", a fictional operetta modeled after Offenbach's \"La belle Hélène\", in which Nana is cast as the lead. All of Paris is talking about her, though this is her first stage appearance. When asked to say something about her talents, Bordenave, the manager of the theatre, explains that a star does not need to know how to sing or act: \"Nana has something else, dammit, and something that takes the place of everything else. I scented it out, and it smells damnably strong in her, or else I lost my sense of smell.\" Just as the crowd is about to dismiss her performance as terrible, young Georges Hugon shouts: \"Très chic!\" From then on, she owns the audience. Zola describes her appearance only thinly veiled in the third act: \"All of a sudden, in the good-natured child the woman stood revealed, a disturbing woman with all the impulsive madness of her sex, opening the gates of the unknown world of desire. Nana was still smiling, but with the deadly smile of a man-eater.\" In the course of the novel Nana destroys every man who pursues her: Philippe Hugon is imprisoned after stealing from the army to lend Nana money; the wealthy banker Steiner bankrupts himself trying to please her; Georges Hugon stabs himself with scissors in anguish over her; Vandeuvres incinerates himself after Nana ruins him financially; Fauchery, a journalist and publisher who falls for Nana early on, writes a scathing article about her later, and falls for her again and is ruined financially; and Count Muffat, whose faithfulness to Nana brings him back for humiliation after humiliation until he finds her in bed with his elderly father-in-law. In George Becker's words: \"What emerges from \"[Nana]\" is the completeness of Nana's destructive force, brought to a culmination in the thirteenth chapter by a kind of roll call of the victims of her voracity\". Zola has Nana die a horrible death in July 1870 from smallpox. She disappears, her belongings are auctioned and no one knows where she is. It comes out that she has been living with a Russian prince, leaving her infant son in the care of an aunt near Paris, but when a smallpox epidemic breaks out she returns to nurse him; he dies, and she catches the disease. Zola suggests that her true nature, concealed by her physical beauty, has come to the surface. \"What lay on the pillow was a charnel house, a heap of pus and blood, a shovelful of putrid flesh. The pustules had invaded the whole face, so that one pock touched the next\". Outside her window the crowd is madly cheering \"To Berlin! To Berlin!\" to greet the start of the Franco-Prussian War, which will end in defeat for France and the end of the Second Empire.", "The novel was an immediate success. \"Le Voltaire\", the French newspaper that was planning to publish it in installments beginning in October 1879, launched a gigantic advertising campaign, raising the curiosity of the reading public to a fever pitch. When Charpentier finally published \"Nana\" in book form in February 1880, the first edition of 55,000 copies was sold out in one day. Flaubert and Edmond de Goncourt were full of praise for \"Nana\". On the other hand, a part of the public and some critics reacted to the book with outrage, which may have contributed to its popularity. Flaubert wrote Zola an effusive letter praising the novel in detail. He reported which pages he had marked by turning down their corners and praising specific passages (\"everything about Fontane, perfect!\"). In summation he wrote: \"\"Nana tourne au mythe, sans cesser d'être réelle\"\". (Nana turns into myth, without ceasing to be real.) As a counterargument to Zola's depiction of the significance of heredity and environment, Alfred Sirven (1838-1900) and Henri Leverdier (1840- ) wrote a novel called \"Nana's Daughter: A Story of Parisian Life\" (1880). Published in both French and English versions, it told the story of Nana's daughter, who rises from \"the gutter\" and overcomes her background to become a respectable lady.", "Édouard Manet, who was much taken with the description of the \"precociously immoral\" Nana in Zola's \"L'Assommoir\" gave the title \"Nana\" to his portrait of Henriette Hauser before \"Nana\" was published. The word \"nana\" has become, in contemporary French, \"a mildly rude French term for woman, comparable to broad\". Niki de Saint Phalle called a series of her sculptures \"Nanas\". They were \" bulbous, archetypal maternal figures like Mexican piñatas painted in bold colors and decorated with crisp, cartoon outlines\". She explained that her title evoked the prototype of the female: \"Eve! Aphrodite! Nana de Zola! Inusable! Increvable!\" (Eve! Aphrodite! Zola's Nana! Everlasting! Indestructible!)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "Variations of the experiment.", "Interference of individual particles.", "\"Which-way\" experiments and the principle of complementarity.", "Delayed choice and quantum eraser variations.", "Weak measurement.", "Other variations.", "Hydrodynamic pilot wave analogs.", "Classical wave-optics formulation.", "Interpretations of the experiment.", "Copenhagen interpretation.", "Path-integral formulation.", "Relational interpretation.", "Many-worlds interpretation.", "De Broglie–Bohm theory." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "If light consisted strictly of ordinary or classical particles, and these particles were fired in a straight line through a slit and allowed to strike a screen on the other side, we would expect to see a pattern corresponding to the size and shape of the slit. However, when this \"single-slit experiment\" is actually performed, the pattern on the screen is a diffraction pattern in which the light is spread out. The smaller the slit, the greater the angle of spread. The top portion of the image shows the central portion of the pattern formed when a red laser illuminates a slit and, if one looks carefully, two faint side bands. More bands can be seen with a more highly refined apparatus. Diffraction explains the pattern as being the result of the interference of light waves from the slit. If one illuminates two parallel slits, the light from the two slits again interferes. Here the interference is a more pronounced pattern with a series of alternating light and dark bands. The width of the bands is a property of the frequency of the illuminating light. (See the bottom photograph to the right.) When Thomas Young (1773–1829) first demonstrated this phenomenon, it indicated that light consists of waves, as the distribution of brightness can be explained by the alternately additive and subtractive interference of wavefronts. Young's experiment, performed in the early 1800s, played a vital part in the acceptance of the wave theory of light, vanquishing the corpuscular theory of light proposed by Isaac Newton, which had been the accepted model of light propagation in the 17th and 18th centuries. However, the later discovery of the photoelectric effect demonstrated that under different circumstances, light can behave as if it is composed of discrete particles. These seemingly contradictory discoveries made it necessary to go beyond classical physics and take the quantum nature of light into account. Feynman was fond of saying that all of quantum mechanics can be gleaned from carefully thinking through the implications of this single experiment. He also proposed (as a thought experiment) that if detectors were placed before each slit, the interference pattern would disappear. The Englert–Greenberger duality relation provides a detailed treatment of the mathematics of double-slit interference in the context of quantum mechanics. A low-intensity double-slit experiment was first performed by G. I. Taylor in 1909, by reducing the level of incident light until photon emission/absorption events were mostly non-overlapping. A double-slit experiment was not performed with anything other than light until 1961, when Claus Jönsson of the University of Tübingen performed it with electron beams. In 1974, the Italian physicists Pier Giorgio Merli, Gian Franco Missiroli, and Giulio Pozzi repeated the experiment using single electrons and biprism (instead of slits), showing that each electron interferes with itself as predicted by quantum theory. In 2002, the single-electron version of the experiment was voted \"the most beautiful experiment\" by readers of \"Physics World.\" In 2012, Stefano Frabboni and co-workers eventually performed the double-slit experiment with electrons and real slits, following the original scheme proposed by Feynman. They sent single electrons onto nanofabricated slits (about 100 nm wide) and, by collecting the transmitted electrons with a single-electron detector, they could show the build-up of a double-slit interference pattern. In 2019, single particle interference was demonstrated for antimatter by Marco Giammarchi and coworkers.", "", "An important version of this experiment involves single particles (or waves—for consistency, they are called particles here). Sending particles through a double-slit apparatus one at a time results in single particles appearing on the screen, as expected. Remarkably, however, an interference pattern emerges when these particles are allowed to build up one by one (see the adjacent image). This demonstrates the wave–particle duality, which states that all matter exhibits both wave and particle properties: the particle is measured as a single pulse at a single position, while the wave describes the probability of absorbing the particle at a specific place on the screen. This phenomenon has been shown to occur with photons, electrons, atoms and even some molecules, including buckyballs. So experiments with electrons add confirmatory evidence to the view that electrons, protons, neutrons, and even larger entities that are ordinarily called particles nevertheless have their own wave nature and even a wavelength (related to their momentum). The probability of detection is the square of the amplitude of the wave and can be calculated with classical waves (see below). The particles do not arrive at the screen in a predictable order, so knowing where all the previous particles appeared on the screen and in what order tells nothing about where a future particle will be detected. If there is a cancellation of waves at some point, that does not mean that a particle disappears; it will appear somewhere else. Ever since the origination of quantum mechanics, some theorists have searched for ways to incorporate additional determinants or \"hidden variables\" that, were they to become known, would account for the location of each individual impact with the target. More complicated systems that involve two or more particles in superposition are not amenable to the above explanation.", "A well-known thought experiment predicts that if particle detectors are positioned at the slits, showing through which slit a photon goes, the interference pattern will disappear. This which-way experiment illustrates the complementarity principle that photons can behave as either particles or waves, but cannot be observed as both at the same time. Despite the importance of this thought experiment in the history of quantum mechanics (for example, see the discussion on ), technically feasible realizations of this experiment were not proposed until the 1970s. (Naive implementations of the textbook \"gedanken\" experiment are not possible because photons cannot be detected without absorbing the photon.) Currently, multiple experiments have been performed illustrating various aspects of complementarity. An experiment performed in 1987 produced results that demonstrated that information could be obtained regarding which path a particle had taken without destroying the interference altogether. This showed the effect of measurements that disturbed the particles in transit to a lesser degree and thereby influenced the interference pattern only to a comparable extent. In other words, if one does not insist that the method used to determine which slit each photon passes through be completely reliable, one can still detect a (degraded) interference pattern.", "Wheeler's delayed choice experiments demonstrate that extracting \"which path\" information after a particle passes through the slits can seem to retroactively alter its previous behavior at the slits. Quantum eraser experiments demonstrate that wave behavior can be restored by erasing or otherwise making permanently unavailable the \"which path\" information. A simple do-it-at-home illustration of the quantum eraser phenomenon was given in an article in \"Scientific American\". If one sets polarizers before each slit with their axes orthogonal to each other, the interference pattern will be eliminated. The polarizers can be considered as introducing which-path information to each beam. Introducing a third polarizer in front of the detector with an axis of 45° relative to the other polarizers \"erases\" this information, allowing the interference pattern to reappear. This can also be accounted for by considering the light to be a classical wave, and also when using circular polarizers and single photons. Implementations of the polarizers using entangled photon pairs have no classical explanation.", "In a highly publicized experiment in 2012, researchers claimed to have identified the path each particle had taken without any adverse effects at all on the interference pattern generated by the particles. In order to do this, they used a setup such that particles coming to the screen were not from a point-like source, but from a source with two intensity maxima. However, commentators such as Svensson have pointed out that there is in fact no conflict between the weak measurements performed in this variant of the double-slit experiment and the Heisenberg uncertainty principle. Weak measurement followed by post-selection did not allow simultaneous position and momentum measurements for each individual particle, but rather allowed measurement of the average trajectory of the particles that arrived at different positions. In other words, the experimenters were creating a statistical map of the full trajectory landscape.", "In 1967, Pfleegor and Mandel demonstrated two-source interference using two separate lasers as light sources. It was shown experimentally in 1972 that in a double-slit system where only one slit was open at any time, interference was nonetheless observed provided the path difference was such that the detected photon could have come from either slit. The experimental conditions were such that the photon density in the system was much less than unity. In 1999, the double-slit experiment was successfully performed with buckyball molecules (each of which comprises 60 carbon atoms). A buckyball is large enough (diameter about 0.7 nm, nearly half a million times larger than a proton) to be seen under an electron microscope. In 2005, E. R. Eliel presented an experimental and theoretical study of the optical transmission of a thin metal screen perforated by two subwavelength slits, separated by many optical wavelengths. The total intensity of the far-field double-slit pattern is shown to be reduced or enhanced as a function of the wavelength of the incident light beam. In 2012, researchers at the University of Nebraska–Lincoln performed the double-slit experiment with electrons as described by Richard Feynman, using new instruments that allowed control of the transmission of the two slits and the monitoring of single-electron detection events. Electrons were fired by an electron gun and passed through one or two slits of 62 nm wide × 4 μm tall. In 2013, the double-slit experiment was successfully performed with molecules that each comprised 810 atoms (whose total mass was over 10,000 atomic mass units). The record was raised to 2000 atoms (25,000 amu) in 2019.", "Hydrodynamic analogs have been developed that can recreate various aspects of quantum mechanical systems, including single-particle interference through a double-slit. A silicone oil droplet, bouncing along the surface of a liquid, self-propels via resonant interactions with its own wave field. The droplet gently sloshes the liquid with every bounce. At the same time, ripples from past bounces affect its course. The droplet's interaction with its own ripples, which form what is known as a pilot wave, causes it to exhibit behaviors previously thought to be peculiar to elementary particles – including behaviors customarily taken as evidence that elementary particles are spread through space like waves, without any specific location, until they are measured. Behaviors mimicked via this hydrodynamic pilot-wave system include quantum single particle diffraction, tunneling, quantized orbits, orbital level splitting, spin, and multimodal statistics. It is also possible to infer uncertainty relations and exclusion principles. Videos are available illustrating various features of this system. (See the External links.) However, more complicated systems that involve two or more particles in superposition are not amenable to such a simple, classically intuitive explanation. Accordingly, no hydrodynamic analog of entanglement has been developed. Nevertheless, optical analogs are possible.", "Much of the behaviour of light can be modelled using classical wave theory. The Huygens–Fresnel principle is one such model; it states that each point on a wavefront generates a secondary wavelet, and that the disturbance at any subsequent point can be found by summing the contributions of the individual wavelets at that point. This summation needs to take into account the phase as well as the amplitude of the individual wavelets. Only the intensity of a light field can be measured—this is proportional to the square of the amplitude. In the double-slit experiment, the two slits are illuminated by a single laser beam. If the width of the slits is small enough (less than the wavelength of the laser light), the slits diffract the light into cylindrical waves. These two cylindrical wavefronts are superimposed, and the amplitude, and therefore the intensity, at any point in the combined wavefronts depends on both the magnitude and the phase of the two wavefronts. The difference in phase between the two waves is determined by the difference in the distance travelled by the two waves. If the viewing distance is large compared with the separation of the slits (the far field), the phase difference can be found using the geometry shown in the figure below right. The path difference between two waves travelling at an angle is given by: Where d is the distance between the two slits. When the two waves are in phase, i.e. the path difference is equal to an integral number of wavelengths, the summed amplitude, and therefore the summed intensity is maximum, and when they are in anti-phase, i.e. the path difference is equal to half a wavelength, one and a half wavelengths, etc., then the two waves cancel and the summed intensity is zero. This effect is known as interference. The interference fringe maxima occur at angles where λ is the wavelength of the light. The angular spacing of the fringes,, is given by The spacing of the fringes at a distance from the slits is given by For example, if two slits are separated by 0.5 mm (), and are illuminated with a 0.6μm wavelength laser (), then at a distance of 1m (), the spacing of the fringes will be 1.2 mm. If the width of the slits is greater than the wavelength, the Fraunhofer diffraction equation gives the intensity of the diffracted light as: Where the sinc function is defined as sinc(\"x\") = sin(\"x\")/\"x\" for \"x\" ≠ 0, and sinc(0) = 1. This is illustrated in the figure above, where the first pattern is the diffraction pattern of a single slit, given by the function in this equation, and the second figure shows the combined intensity of the light diffracted from the two slits, where the function represent the fine structure, and the coarser structure represents diffraction by the individual slits as described by the function. Similar calculations for the near field can be done using the Fresnel diffraction equation. As the plane of observation gets closer to the plane in which the slits are located, the diffraction patterns associated with each slit decrease in size, so that the area in which interference occurs is reduced, and may vanish altogether when there is no overlap in the two diffracted patterns.", "Like the Schrödinger's cat thought experiment, the double-slit experiment is often used to highlight the differences and similarities between the various interpretations of quantum mechanics.", "The Copenhagen interpretation, put forth by some of the pioneers in the field of quantum mechanics, asserts that it is undesirable to posit anything that goes beyond the mathematical formulae and the kinds of physical apparatus and reactions that enable us to gain some knowledge of what goes on at the atomic scale. One of the mathematical constructs that enables experimenters to predict very accurately certain experimental results is sometimes called a probability wave. In its mathematical form it is analogous to the description of a physical wave, but its \"crests\" and \"troughs\" indicate levels of probability for the occurrence of certain phenomena (e.g., a spark of light at a certain point on a detector screen) that can be observed in the macro world of ordinary human experience. The probability \"wave\" can be said to \"pass through space\" because the probability values that one can compute from its mathematical representation are dependent on time. One cannot speak of the location of any particle such as a photon between the time it is emitted and the time it is detected simply because in order to say that something is located somewhere at a certain time one has to detect it. The requirement for the eventual appearance of an interference pattern is that particles be emitted, and that there be a screen with at least two distinct paths for the particle to take from the emitter to the detection screen. Experiments observe nothing whatsoever between the time of emission of the particle and its arrival at the detection screen. If a ray tracing is next made as if a light wave (as understood in classical physics) is wide enough to take both paths, then that ray tracing will accurately predict the appearance of maxima and minima on the detector screen when many particles pass through the apparatus and gradually \"paint\" the expected interference pattern.", "The Copenhagen interpretation is similar to the path integral formulation of quantum mechanics provided by Feynman. The path integral formulation replaces the classical notion of a single, unique trajectory for a system, with a sum over all possible trajectories. The trajectories are added together by using functional integration. Each path is considered equally likely, and thus contributes the same amount. However, the phase of this contribution at any given point along the path is determined by the action along the path: All these contributions are then added together, and the magnitude of the final result is squared, to get the probability distribution for the position of a particle: As is always the case when calculating probability, the results must then be normalized by imposing: To summarize, the probability distribution of the outcome is the normalized square of the norm of the superposition, over all paths from the point of origin to the final point, of waves propagating proportionally to the action along each path. The differences in the cumulative action along the different paths (and thus the relative phases of the contributions) produces the interference pattern observed by the double-slit experiment. Feynman stressed that his formulation is merely a mathematical description, not an attempt to describe a real process that we can measure.", "According to the relational interpretation of quantum mechanics, first proposed by Carlo Rovelli, observations such as those in the double-slit experiment result specifically from the interaction between the observer (measuring device) and the object being observed (physically interacted with), not any absolute property possessed by the object. In the case of an electron, if it is initially \"observed\" at a particular slit, then the observer–particle (photon–electron) interaction includes information about the electron's position. This partially constrains the particle's eventual location at the screen. If it is \"observed\" (measured with a photon) not at a particular slit but rather at the screen, then there is no \"which path\" information as part of the interaction, so the electron's \"observed\" position on the screen is determined strictly by its probability function. This makes the resulting pattern on the screen the same as if each individual electron had passed through both slits. It has also been suggested that space and distance themselves are relational, and that an electron can appear to be in \"two places at once\"—for example, at both slits—because its spatial relations to particular points on the screen remain identical from both slit locations.", "Physicist David Deutsch argues in his book \"The Fabric of Reality\" that the double-slit experiment is evidence for the many-worlds interpretation. However, since every interpretation of quantum mechanics is empirically indistinguishable, some scientists are skeptical of this claim.", "An alternative to the standard understanding of quantum mechanics, the De Broglie–Bohm theory states that particles have precise locations at all times, and that their velocities are influenced by the wave-function. So while a single particle will travel through one particular slit in the double-slit experiment, the so-called \"pilot wave\" that influences it will travel through both. The two slit de Broglie-Bohm trajectories were first calculated by Chris Dewdney whilst working with Chris Philippidis and Basil Hiley at Birkbeck College (London). The de Broglie-Bohm theory produces the same statistical results as standard quantum mechanics, but dispenses with many of its conceptual difficulties." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Types.", "Synchronous.", "Induction.", "Homopolar.", "Piezo electric.", "History.", "Low acceleration.", "High acceleration.", "Usage.", "Train propulsion.", "Conventional rails.", "Bombardier Innovia Metro.", "Japanese Linear Metro.", "Amusement rides." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "4", "4", "3" ], "content": [ "", "In this design the rate of movement of the magnetic field is controlled, usually electronically, to track the motion of the rotor. For cost reasons synchronous linear motors rarely use commutators, so the rotor often contains permanent magnets, or soft iron. Examples include coilguns and the motors used on some maglev systems, as well as many other linear motors.", "In this design, the force is produced by a moving linear magnetic field acting on conductors in the field. Any conductor, be it a loop, a coil or simply a piece of plate metal, that is placed in this field will have eddy currents induced in it thus creating an opposing magnetic field, in accordance with Lenz's law. The two opposing fields will repel each other, thus creating motion as the magnetic field sweeps through the metal.", "In this design a large current is passed through a metal sabot across sliding contacts that are fed from two rails. The magnetic field this generates causes the metal to be projected along the rails.", "Piezoelectric drive is often used to drive small linear motors.", "", "The history of linear electric motors can be traced back at least as far as the 1840s, to the work of Charles Wheatstone at King's College in London, but Wheatstone's model was too inefficient to be practical. A feasible linear induction motor is described in the (1905 - inventor Alfred Zehden of Frankfurt-am-Main), for driving trains or lifts. The German engineer Hermann Kemper built a working model in 1935. In the late 1940s, Dr. Eric Laithwaite of Manchester University, later Professor of Heavy Electrical Engineering at Imperial College in London developed the first full-size working model. In a single sided version the magnetic repulsion forces the conductor away from the stator, levitating it, and carrying it along in the direction of the moving magnetic field. He called the later versions of it magnetic river. Because of these properties, linear motors are often used in maglev propulsion, as in the Japanese Linimo magnetic levitation train line near Nagoya. However, linear motors have been used independently of magnetic levitation, as in Bombardier's Advanced Rapid Transit systems worldwide and a number of modern Japanese subways, including Tokyo's Toei Oedo Line. Similar technology is also used in some roller coasters with modifications but, at present, is still impractical on street running trams, although this, in theory, could be done by burying it in a slotted conduit. Outside of public transportation, vertical linear motors have been proposed as lifting mechanisms in deep mines, and the use of linear motors is growing in motion control applications. They are also often used on sliding doors, such as those of low floor trams such as the Citadis and the Eurotram. Dual axis linear motors also exist. These specialized devices have been used to provide direct \"X\"-\"Y\" motion for precision laser cutting of cloth and sheet metal, automated drafting, and cable forming. Most linear motors in use are LIM (linear induction motor), or LSM (linear synchronous motor). Linear DC motors are not used due to higher cost and linear SRM suffers from poor thrust. So for long run in traction LIM is mostly preferred and for short run LSM is mostly preferred.", "High-acceleration linear motors have been suggested for a number of uses. They have been considered for use as weapons, since current armour-piercing ammunition tends to consist of small rounds with very high kinetic energy, for which just such motors are suitable. Many amusement park launched roller coasters now use linear induction motors to propel the train at a high speed, as an alternative to using a lift hill. The United States Navy is also using linear induction motors in the Electromagnetic Aircraft Launch System that will replace traditional steam catapults on future aircraft carriers. They have also been suggested for use in spacecraft propulsion. In this context they are usually called mass drivers. The simplest way to use mass drivers for spacecraft propulsion would be to build a large mass driver that can accelerate cargo up to escape velocity, though RLV launch assist like StarTram to low earth orbit has also been investigated. High-acceleration linear motors are difficult to design for a number of reasons. They require large amounts of energy in very short periods of time. One rocket launcher design calls for 300 GJ for each launch in the space of less than a second. Normal electrical generators are not designed for this kind of load, but short-term electrical energy storage methods can be used. Capacitors are bulky and expensive but can supply large amounts of energy quickly. Homopolar generators can be used to convert the kinetic energy of a flywheel into electric energy very rapidly. High-acceleration linear motors also require very strong magnetic fields; in fact, the magnetic fields are often too strong to permit the use of superconductors. However, with careful design, this need not be a major problem. Two different basic designs have been invented for high-acceleration linear motors: railguns and coilguns.", "Linear motors are widely used. One of the major uses of linear motors is for propelling the shuttle in looms. Linear motors have been used for sliding doors and various similar actuators. Also, they have been used for baggage handing and even large-scale bulk materials transport. Linear motors are sometimes used to create rotary motion, for example, they have been used at observatories to deal with the large radius of curvature. Linear motors may also be used as an alternative to conventional chain-run lift hills for roller coasters. The coaster Maverick at Cedar Point uses one such linear motor in place of a chain lift. A linear motor has been used for accelerating cars for crash tests.", "", "All of the following applications are in rapid transit and have the active part of the motor in the cars.", "Originally developed in the late 1970s by UTDC in Canada as the Intermediate Capacity Transit System (ICTS). A test track was constructed in Millhaven, Ontario, for extensive testing of prototype cars, after which three lines were constructed: ICTS was sold to Bombardier Transportation in 1991 and later known as Advanced Rapid Transit (ART) before adopting its current branding in 2011. Since then, several more installations have been made: All Innovia Metro systems use third rail electrification.", "One of the biggest challenges faced by Japanese railway engineers in the 1970s to the 1980s was the ever increasing construction costs of subways. In response, the Japan Subway Association began studying on the feasibility of the \"mini-metro\" for meeting urban traffic demand in 1979. In 1981, the Japan Railway Engineering Association studied on the use of linear induction motors for such small-profile subways and by 1984 was investigating on the practical applications of linear motors for urban rail with the Japanese Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism. In 1988, a successful demonstration was made with the Limtrain at Saitama and influenced the eventual adoption of the linear motor for the Nagahori Tsurumi-ryokuchi Line in Osaka and Toei Line 12 (present-day Toei Oedo Line) in Tokyo. To date, the following subway lines in Japan use linear motors and use overhead lines for power collection: In addition, Kawasaki Heavy Industries has also exported the Linear Metro to the Guangzhou Metro in China; all of the Linear Metro lines in Guangzhou use third rail electrification:", "There are many roller coasters throughout the world that use LIMs to accelerate the ride vehicles. The first being \"Flight of Fear\" at Kings Island and Kings Dominion, both opening in 1996." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Career." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Schwarz was born in Neustadt an der Aisch in Franken in 1963 and debuted in rallying in 1983. After having won the German Rally Championship for two years in a row, he made his debut in the World Rally Championship in 1988 and was signed by Toyota Team Europe, Toyota's factory WRC team, for the 1990 season. Driving a Toyota Celica GT-Four, Schwarz led a world championship rally for the first time at the 1990 Rally Portugal, took his first podium finish at the 1991 Rally Australia and his first and only win at the 1991 Rally Catalunya. In 1996, due to Toyota's 12-month ban from the WRC, Schwarz drove for the team in the European Rally Championship. He won the Manx International Rally and the Cyprus Rally and captured the overall title. Later that same year, he drove to victory in the RAC Rally, then part of the 2-Litre World Championship (\"Formula 2\"). In 1997 Schwarz drove for the now Cumbria based M-Sport Ford rally team but was later replaced by Juha Kankkunen after a series of disappointing performances. In the 1999 season, after stints with Mitsubishi and Ford, Schwarz started his long partnership with the debuting Škoda works team. His best result with the team was third place at the 2001 Safari Rally. Schwarz retired from the world championship after the 2005 season, during which he took his first points finish in over a year at the season-ending Rally Australia. Following the successful completion of its Red Bull Young Rally Driver's Search Program, Schwarz joined forces in 2006 with Global Sport Licensing Ltd. (“GSL”) and Mr. Baumschlage to create the WRC designated Red Bull Škoda Team. Simultaneously, Schwarz started in 2007 to race, as a GSL racing driver with the support of California-based All German Motorsport team, in the American SCORE International off-road championship which includes among others the internationally famous races Baja 1000. Schwarz now lives in Austria. He is married with two children." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Cultivation.", "Bonsai.", "Cultivars." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "It is a small to medium-sized deciduous tree reaching a height of 5–20 m with a trunk up to 50 cm diameter. The leaves are in opposite pairs, 2.5–8 cm long (excluding the 2–5 cm petiole) and 3.5–6.5 cm broad, hard, glossy dark green above, paler below, usually with three lobes; on mature trees the lobes forward-pointing and with smooth margins, on young trees with more spreading lobes and serrated margins. The flowers are produced in spring, yellow-green, in pendulous corymbs; they are small, with five greenish sepals and five yellow-white petals about 2 mm long, and eight stamens. The fruit is a samara with two winged seeds, each seed 4–7 mm diameter, with a 15 mm wing; the wings are forward-pointing and often overlapping each other. The species is variable, and a number of varieties have been described: A few trees have consistently unlobed leaves; these were first described as a variety \"A. trifidum\" var. \"integrifolium\" Makino (\"A. trifidum\" is an old synonym of \"A. buergerianum\"), but are now not distinguished from the species. Occasional unlobed leaves also occur on most trees with otherwise normal three-lobed leaves.", "It is widely grown in temperate regions as an ornamental tree. It was introduced very early to Japan, where its name translates as \"China maple\". More recently, it was introduced to Europe and North America in 1896, and is now occasionally grown in parks and large gardens there. Mature examples may be seen at Westonbirt Arboretum in England, the Esveld Aceretum in Boskoop, Netherlands, Arnold Arboretum in Boston, Massachusetts and many other locations.", "Trident maple is a popular choice for the art of bonsai and responds well to techniques that create leaf reduction and ramification. It is suitable for many style and sizes of bonsai.", "Several interesting cultivars have been developed, many of these bear Japanese names. Notable cultivars include 'Goshiki Kaede' (striking pink and green variegation), 'Kifu Nishiki' (roundish, almost un-lobed leaves), 'Mino Yatsubusa' (dwarf with long, narrow leaves) 'Mitsubato Kaede' (distinctive cork-like trunk) and 'Naruto' (strongly incurved leaf surface)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "As informal proceedings in sport.", "Examples." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The term \"kangaroo court\" is often erroneously believed to have its origin from the courts of Australia's penal colonies. The \"Oxford English Dictionary\" cites the first published instance of the term as from an American source, \"A Stray Yankee in Texas\" by Philip Paxton, published in the year 1853. There are, however, earlier instances of the term including an 1841 article in \"The Daily\" \"Picayune\" in New Orleans that quotes another publication, the \"Concordia Intelligencer\" reporting several lynchings instituted \"on charges of the Kangaroo court.\" The \"Picayune\" article also asks \"What is a Kangaroo court, neighbor?\" Some sources suggest that it may have been popularized during the California Gold Rush of 1849 to which many thousands of Australians flocked. In consequence of the Australian miners' presence, it may have come about as a description of the hastily carried-out proceedings used to deal with the issue of claim jumping miners. Ostensibly, the term comes from the notion of justice proceeding \"by leaps\", like a kangaroo – in other words, \"jumping over\" (intentionally ignoring) evidence that would be in favour of the defendant. An alternative theory is that as these courts are often convened quickly to deal with an immediate issue, they are called kangaroo courts as they have \"jumped up\" out of nowhere like a kangaroo. Another possibility is that the phrase could refer to the pouch of a kangaroo, meaning the court is in someone's pocket. Etymologist Philologos argues that the term arose \"because a place named Kangaroo sounded comical to its hearers, just as place names like Kalamazoo and Booger Hole and Okefenokee Swamp strike us as comical.\" The phrase is popular in the UK, US, Australia and New Zealand and is still in common use. In South Korea, the equivalent term for a kangaroo court is \"people's trial\", originating from the time of the Korean War when such courts operated in South Korea during North Korean occupation. Similar trials during early stage of the communist rule in Czechoslovakia (roughly 1948-1960), which resulted in executions of innocent people (most notably Milada Horáková group, gen. Heliodor Píka and others), were later nicknamed'monstrprocesy' (singular monstrproces = literally \"monstrous trial\").", "The term is sometimes used without any negative connotation. For example, many Major League Baseball and Minor League Baseball teams have a kangaroo court to punish players for errors and other mistakes on the field, as well as for being late for a game or practice, not wearing proper attire to road games, or having a messy locker in the clubhouse. Fines are allotted, and at the end of the year, the money collected is given to charity. The organization may also use the money for a team party at the end of the season.", "Some examples of adjudication venues described as kangaroo courts are the People's Court (\"Volksgerichtshof\") of Nazi Germany that convicted people who were suspected of being involved with the failed plot to assassinate Hitler on July 20, 1944. In the late 1930s, Stalin used the state legal apparatus of the USSR to fabricate charges against his political rivals, and to subsequently eliminate any challenge to his absolute rule. The show trials in the Soviet Union resulted in the wrongful conviction of Stalin's former Old Bolshevik revolutionary colleagues. Another example is the trial of Pol Pot and his brother Ieng San by the People's Revolutionary Tribunal in Cambodia in August 1979. After a lengthy trial with a duration of five days, both were sentenced to death \"in absentia\" on August 19, 1979. Conclusive evidence showed that the verdicts and the sentencing papers had been prepared in advance of the trial. Relying on this evidence the United Nations proceeded to delegitimize the tribunal stating that it did not comply with standards of international law. During the Romanian Revolution in 1989, President and Communist Party General Secretary Nicolae Ceausescu and his wife Elena were sentenced to death by a kangaroo court consisting in members of the military: two military judges, two colonels and three other officers of lesser ranks. The prosecutor was Dan Voinea. Two lawyers represented the defendant. All the members of the court represented the Romanian People's Army, which had recently switched to the side of the revolutionaries." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Properties.", "Preparation and reactions.", "Calomel electrode.", "Photochemistry.", "Related mercury(I) compounds.", "Safety considerations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The name calomel is thought to come from the Greek καλός \"beautiful\", and μέλας \"black\"; or καλός and μέλι \"honey\" from its sweet taste. The \"black\" name (somewhat surprising for a white compound) is probably due to its characteristic disproportionation reaction with ammonia, which gives a “spectacular” black coloration due to the finely dispersed metallic mercury formed. It is also referred to as the mineral \"horn quicksilver\" or \"horn mercury\". Calomel was taken internally and used as a laxative, for example to treat George III in 1801, and disinfectant, as well as in the treatment of syphilis, until the early 20th century. Until fairly recently, it was also used as a horticultural fungicide, most notably as a root dip to help prevent the occurrence of clubroot amongst crops of the family Brassicaceae. Mercury became a popular remedy for a variety of physical and mental ailments during the age of \"heroic medicine\". It was used by doctors in America throughout the 18th century, and during the revolution, to make patients regurgitate and release their body from \"impurities\". Benjamin Rush was one particular well-known advocate of mercury in medicine and used calomel to treat sufferers of yellow fever during its outbreak in Philadelphia in 1793. Calomel was given to patients as a purgative or cathartic until they began to salivate and was often administered to patients in such great quantities that their hair and teeth fell out. Shortly after yellow fever struck Philadelphia, the disease broke out in Jamaica. A war of words erupted in the press concerning the best treatment for yellow fever: bleeding; or calomel. Anecdotal evidence indicates calomel was more effective than bleeding. Mormon prophet Joseph Smith's eldest brother Alvin Smith died in 1823 from mercury poisoning from calomel. Lewis and Clark brought along the wonder drug of the day, mercury chloride (otherwise known as calomel), as a pill, a tincture, \"and\" an ointment. Modern researchers used that same mercury, found deep in latrine pits, to retrace the locations of their respective locations and campsites.", "Mercury is unique among the group 12 metals for its ability to form the M–M bond so readily. HgCl is a linear molecule. The mineral calomel crystallizes in the tetragonal system, with space group I4/m 2/m 2/m. The unit cell of the crystal structure is shown below: The Hg–Hg bond length of 253 pm (Hg–Hg in the metal is 300 pm) and the Hg–Cl bond length in the linear HgCl unit is 243 pm. The overall coordination of each Hg atom is octahedral as, in addition to the two nearest neighbours, there are four other Cl atoms at 321 pm. Longer mercury polycations exist.", "Mercurous chloride forms by the reaction of elemental mercury and mercuric chloride: It can be prepared via metathesis reaction involving aqueous mercury(I) nitrate using various chloride sources including NaCl or HCl. Ammonia causes HgCl to disproportionate:", "Mercurous chloride is employed extensively in electrochemistry, taking advantage of the ease of its oxidation and reduction reactions. The calomel electrode is a reference electrode, especially in older publications. Over the past 50 years, it has been superseded by the silver/silver chloride (Ag/AgCl) electrode. Although the mercury electrodes have been widely abandoned due to the dangerous nature of mercury, many chemists believe they are still more accurate and are not dangerous as long as they are handled properly. The differences in experimental potentials vary little from literature values. Other electrodes can vary by 70 to 100 millivolts.", "Mercurous chloride decomposes into mercury(II) chloride and elemental mercury upon exposure to UV light. The formation of Hg can be used to calculate the number of photons in the light beam, by the technique of actinometry. By utilizing a light reaction in the presence of mercury(II) chloride and ammonium oxalate, mercury(I) chloride, ammonium chloride and carbon dioxide are produced. This particular reaction was discovered by J. M. Eder (hence the name Eder reaction) in 1880 and reinvestigated by W. E. Rosevaere in 1929.", "Mercury(I) bromide, HgBr, is light yellow, whereas mercury(I) iodide, HgI, is greenish in colour. Both are poorly soluble. Mercury(I) fluoride is unstable in the absence of a strong acid.", "Mercurous chloride is toxic, although due to its low solubility in water it is generally less dangerous than its mercuric chloride counterpart. It was used in medicine as a diuretic and purgative (laxative) in the United States from the late 1700s through the 1860s. Calomel was also a common ingredient in teething powders in Britain up until 1954, causing widespread mercury poisoning in the form of pink disease, which at the time had a mortality rate of 1 in 10. These medicinal uses were later discontinued when the compound's toxicity was discovered. It has also found uses in cosmetics as soaps and skin lightening creams, but these preparations are now illegal to manufacture or import in many countries including the US, Canada, Japan and the European Union. A study of workers involved in the production of these preparations showed that the sodium salt of 2,3-dimercapto-1-propanesulfonic acid (DMPS) was effective in lowering the body burden of mercury and in decreasing the urinary mercury concentration to normal levels." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Schnitger was born near Schmalenfleth in Oldenburg, Germany and was baptized on 9 July 1648 in Golzwarden. Schnitger was born into a family of woodworkers and wood carvers. He was apprenticed at the age of 18. Between 1666 and 1671, Schnitger studied organ building with his cousin Berendt Huss ( 1630-1676) in Glückstadt. In 1682, he moved to Hamburg with his workshop. In 1708, he was appointed Prussian court organ builder. In 1684, Schnitger was married to Gertrude Otte (1665-1707). His sons Franz Caspar and Johann Jürgen Schnitger trained with their father and continued his work after his death. His burial was recorded in the parish of St. Pancratiuskirche at Neuenfelde-Hamburg on 28 July 1719. Schnitger was one of the most prolific builders of his time, having built approximately 95 new instruments, rebuilt about 30, and repaired or renovated another 30. He ran several shops and had a team in Magdeburg, in Bremen and in Groningen. His organ designs typify the essential North German organ: multiple divisions, usually with a \"rückpositif\" (division on the gallery rail, behind the player's back); large, independent pedal divisions, often placed in towers on either side of the main case; well-developed principal choruses in each division with abundant reeds, flutes, and mutation stops; and meantone temperament. All of these features could be found on North German organs prior to Schnitger's activity; Schnitger's genius lay in his ability to synthesize these elements into a prototypical style of organ building, and in his prolific output. The latter was made possible by his good business sense: Schnitger was one of the first builders to use cost-cutting measures on a large scale to ensure the affordability of organs for small village churches. One of Schnitger's landmark instruments, the organ at St. Jacobikirche, Hamburg, was a renovation and enlargement of an instrument previously rebuilt in 1636 by Gottfried Fritzsche (1578–1638).", "Organs like these are credited with inspiring the renaissance in organ building during the early twentieth century, with a return to tracker action and smaller, more cohesive instruments, as distinct from the late-Romantic trend of extremely large symphonic organs. In particular, the organ at the Jacobikirche, Hamburg, played a pivotal role in the organ reform movement beginning in 1925, as a series of conferences taking place at historical organ sites in Germany and Alsace was inaugurated there. A number of Schnitger's organs were featured on recordings by E. Power Biggs, who is generally credited with reintroducing them to modern listeners. More recently, Schnitger's organs can be heard on several recordings by German organist Harald Vogel. Schnitger's instruments in Groningen, Uithuizen, Noordbroek and Nieuw Scheemda were featured in the documentary \"Martinikerk Rondeau\", in which Jurgen Ahrend, Cor Edskes and Bernhardt H. Edskes detail Schnitger's life and demonstrate his working methods. Schnitger's organs have also served as inspiration for many modern builders; GOArt, a Swedish organ building consortium, has even gone so far as to build an exact copy of a Schnitger organ for research purposes." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Childhood and early reign.", "Treaty of Greenwich.", "Life in France.", "Claim to the English throne.", "Return to Scotland.", "Marriage to Lord Darnley.", "Imprisonment in Scotland and abdication.", "Escape and imprisonment in England.", "Casket letters.", "Plots.", "Trial.", "Execution.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Mary was born on 8 December 1542 at Linlithgow Palace, Scotland, to King James V and his French second wife, Mary of Guise. She was said to have been born prematurely and was the only legitimate child of James to survive him. She was the great-niece of King Henry VIII of England, as her paternal grandmother, Margaret Tudor, was Henry VIII's sister. On 14 December, six days after her birth, she became Queen of Scotland when her father died, perhaps from the effects of a nervous collapse following the Battle of Solway Moss or from drinking contaminated water while on campaign. A popular tale, first recorded by John Knox, states that James, upon hearing on his deathbed that his wife had given birth to a daughter, ruefully exclaimed, \"It cam wi' a lass and it will gang wi' a lass!\" His House of Stuart had gained the throne of Scotland in the 14th century via the marriage of Marjorie Bruce, daughter of Robert the Bruce, to Walter Stewart, 6th High Steward of Scotland. The crown had come to his family through a woman, and would be lost from his family through a woman. This legendary statement came true much later—not through Mary, but through her descendant Anne, Queen of Great Britain. Mary was christened at the nearby Church of St Michael shortly after she was born. Rumours spread that she was weak and frail, but an English diplomat, Ralph Sadler, saw the infant at Linlithgow Palace in March 1543, unwrapped by her nurse, and wrote, \"it is as goodly a child as I have seen of her age, and as like to live.\" As Mary was an infant when she inherited the throne, Scotland was ruled by regents until she became an adult. From the outset, there were two claims to the regency: one from the Catholic Cardinal Beaton, and the other from the Protestant Earl of Arran, who was next in line to the throne. Beaton's claim was based on a version of the king's will that his opponents dismissed as a forgery. Arran, with the support of his friends and relations, became the regent until 1554 when Mary's mother managed to remove and succeed him.", "King Henry VIII of England took the opportunity of the regency to propose marriage between Mary and his own son and heir, Edward, hoping for a union of Scotland and England. On 1 July 1543, when Mary was six months old, the Treaty of Greenwich was signed, which promised that, at the age of ten, Mary would marry Edward and move to England, where Henry could oversee her upbringing. The treaty provided that the two countries would remain legally separate and, if the couple should fail to have children, the temporary union would dissolve. Cardinal Beaton rose to power again and began to push a pro-Catholic pro-French agenda, angering Henry, who wanted to break the Scottish alliance with France. Beaton wanted to move Mary away from the coast to the safety of Stirling Castle. Regent Arran resisted the move, but backed down when Beaton's armed supporters gathered at Linlithgow. The Earl of Lennox escorted Mary and her mother to Stirling on 27 July 1543 with 3,500 armed men. Mary was crowned in the castle chapel on 9 September 1543, with \"such solemnity as they do use in this country, which is not", "With her marriage agreement in place, five-year-old Mary was sent to France to spend the next thirteen years at the French court. The French fleet sent by Henry II, commanded by Nicolas de Villegagnon, sailed with Mary from Dumbarton on 7 August 1548 and arrived a week or more later at Roscoff or Saint-Pol-de-Léon in Brittany. Mary was accompanied by her own court including two illegitimate half-brothers, and the \"four Marys\" (four girls her own age, all named Mary), who were the daughters of some of the noblest families in Scotland: Beaton, Seton, Fleming, and Livingston. Janet, Lady Fleming, who was Mary Fleming's mother and James V's half-sister, was appointed governess. When Lady Fleming left France in 1551, she was succeeded by a French governess, Françoise de Paroy. Vivacious, beautiful, and clever (according to contemporary accounts), Mary had a promising childhood. At the French court, she was a favourite with everyone, except Henry II's wife Catherine de' Medici. Mary learned to", "In November 1558, Henry VIII's elder daughter, Mary I of England, was succeeded by her only surviving sibling, Elizabeth I. Under the Third Succession Act, passed in 1543 by the Parliament of England, Elizabeth was recognised as her sister's heir, and Henry VIII's last will and testament had excluded the Stuarts from succeeding to the English throne. Yet, in the eyes of many Catholics, Elizabeth was illegitimate and Mary Stuart was the rightful queen of England, as the senior surviving legitimate descendant of Henry VII through her grandmother, Margaret Tudor. Henry II of France proclaimed his eldest son and daughter-in-law king and queen of England. In France the royal arms of England were quartered with those of Francis and Mary. Mary's claim to the English throne was a perennial sticking point between herself and Elizabeth.", "King Francis II died on 5 December 1560, of a middle ear infection that led to an abscess in his brain. Mary was grief-stricken. Her mother-in-law, Catherine de' Medici, became regent for the late king's ten-year-old brother Charles IX, who inherited the French throne. Mary returned to Scotland nine months later, arriving in Leith on 19 August 1561. Having lived in France since the age of five, Mary had little direct experience of the dangerous and complex political situation in Scotland. As a devout Catholic, she was regarded with suspicion by many of her subjects, as well as by the Queen of England. Scotland was torn between Catholic and Protestant factions. Mary's illegitimate half-brother, the Earl of Moray, was a leader of the Protestants. The Protestant reformer John Knox preached against Mary, condemning her for hearing Mass, dancing, and dressing too elaborately. She summoned him to her presence to remonstrate with him but was unsuccessful. She later charged him with treason but he was acquitted and released. To the surprise and dismay of the Catholic party, Mary tolerated the newly established Protestant ascendancy, and kept her half-brother Moray as her chief advisor. Her privy council of 16 men, appointed on 6 September 1561, retained those who already held the offices of state. The council was dominated by the Protestant leaders from the reformation crisis of 1559–1560: the Earls of Argyll, Glencairn, and Moray. Only four of the councillors were Catholic: the Earls of Atholl, Erroll, Montrose, and Huntly, who was Lord Chancellor. Modern historian Jenny Wormald found this remarkable and suggested that Mary's failure to appoint a council sympathetic to Catholic and French interests was an indication of her focus on the English throne, over the internal problems of Scotland. Even the one significant later addition to the council, Lord Ruthven in December 1563,", "Mary had briefly met her English-born half-cousin Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, in February 1561 when she was in mourning for Francis. Darnley's parents, the Earl and Countess of Lennox, were Scottish aristocrats as well as English landowners. They sent him to France ostensibly to extend their condolences, while hoping for a potential match between their son and Mary. Both Mary and Darnley were grandchildren of Margaret Tudor, sister of Henry VIII of England, and patrilineal descendants of the High Stewards of Scotland. Darnley shared a more recent Stewart lineage with the Hamilton family as a descendant of Mary Stewart, Countess of Arran, a daughter of James II of Scotland. They next met on Saturday 17 February 1565 at Wemyss Castle in Scotland. Mary fell in love with the \"long lad\", as Queen Elizabeth called him since he was over six feet tall. They married at Holyrood Palace on 29 July 1565, even though both were Catholic and a papal dispensation for the marriage of first cousins had not been obtained. English statesmen William Cecil and the Earl of Leicester had worked to obtain Darnley's licence to travel to Scotland from his home in England. Although her advisors had brought the couple together, Elizabeth felt threatened by the marriage because as descendants of her aunt, both Mary and Darnley were claimants to the English throne. Their children, if any, would inherit an even stronger, combined claim. Mary's insistence on the marriage seems to have stemmed from passion rather than calculation; the English ambassador Nicholas Throckmorton stated \"the saying is that surely she [Queen Mary] is bewitched\", adding that the marriage could only be averted \"by violence\". The union infuriated Elizabeth, who felt the marriage should not have gone ahead without her permission, as Darnley was both her cousin and an English subject. Mary's marriage to a leading Catholic precipitated Mary's half-brother, the Earl of Moray, to join with other Protestant lords, including Lords Argyll and Glencairn, in open rebellion. Mary set out from Edinburgh on 26 August 1565 to confront them. On the 30th, Moray entered Edinburgh but left soon afterward, having failed to take the castle. Mary returned to Edinburgh the following month to raise more troops. In what became known as the Chaseabout Raid, Mary and her forces and Moray and the rebellious lords roamed around Scotland without ever engaging in direct combat. Mary's numbers were boosted by the release and restoration to favour of Lord Huntly's son and the return of James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell, from exile in France. Unable to muster sufficient support, Moray left Scotland in October for asylum in England. Mary broadened her privy council, bringing in both Catholics (Bishop of Ross John Lesley and provost of Edinburgh Simon Preston of Craigmillar) and Protestants (the new Lord Huntly, Bishop of Galloway Alexander Gordon, John Maxwell of Terregles and Sir James Balfour). Before long, Darnley grew arrogant. Not content with his position as king consort, he demanded the Crown Matrimonial, which would have made him a co-sovereign of Scotland with the right to keep the Scottish throne for himself, if he outlived his wife. Mary refused his request and their marriage grew strained, although they conceived by October 1565. He was jealous of her friendship with her Catholic private secretary, David Rizzio, who was rumoured to be the father of her child. By March 1566, Darnley had entered into a secret conspiracy with Protestant lords, including the nobles who had rebelled against Mary in the Chaseabout Raid. On 9 March, a group of the conspirators accompanied by Darnley murdered Rizzio in front of the pregnant Mary at a dinner party in Holyrood Palace. Over the next two days, a disillusioned Darnley switched sides and Mary received Moray at Holyrood. On the night of 11–12 March, Darnley and Mary escaped from the palace. They took temporary refuge in Dunbar Castle before returning to Edinburgh on 18 March. The former rebels Lords Moray, Argyll and Glencairn were restored to the council.", "Between 21 and 23 April 1567, Mary visited her son at Stirling for the last time. On her way back to Edinburgh on 24 April, Mary was abducted, willingly or not, by Lord Bothwell and his men and taken to Dunbar Castle, where he may have raped her. On 6 May, Mary and Bothwell returned to Edinburgh. On 15 May, at either Holyrood Palace or Holyrood Abbey, they were married according to Protestant rites. Bothwell and his first wife, Jean Gordon, who was the sister of Lord Huntly, had divorced twelve days previously. Originally, Mary believed that many nobles supported her marriage, but relations quickly soured between the newly elevated Bothwell (created Duke of Orkney) and his former peers and the", "On 2 May 1568, Mary escaped from Loch Leven Castle with the aid of George Douglas, brother of Sir William Douglas, the castle's owner. Managing to raise an army of 6,000 men, she met Moray's smaller forces at the Battle of Langside on 13 May. Defeated, she fled south. After spending the night at Dundrennan Abbey, she crossed the Solway Firth into England by fishing boat on 16 May. She landed at Workington in Cumberland in the north of England and stayed overnight at Workington Hall. On 18 May, local officials took her into protective custody at Carlisle Castle. Mary apparently expected Elizabeth to help her regain her throne. Elizabeth was cautious, ordering an inquiry into the conduct of the confederate lords and the question of whether Mary was guilty of Darnley's murder. In mid-July 1568, English authorities moved Mary to Bolton Castle, because it was further from the Scottish border but not too close to London. Mary's clothes, sent from Lochleven Castle, arrived on 20 July. A commission of inquiry, or conference, as it was known, was held in York and later Westminster between October 1568 and January 1569. In Scotland, her supporters fought a civil war against Regent Moray and his successors.", "As an anointed queen, Mary refused to acknowledge the power of any court to try her. She refused to attend the inquiry at York personally but sent representatives. Elizabeth forbade her attendance anyway. As evidence against Mary, Moray presented the so-called casket letters—eight unsigned letters purportedly from Mary to Bothwell, two marriage contracts, and a love sonnet or sonnets. All were said to have been found in a silver-gilt casket just less than one foot (30 cm) long and decorated with the monogram of King Francis II. Mary denied writing them and insisted they were forgeries, arguing that her handwriting was not difficult to imitate. They are widely", "On 26 January 1569, Mary was moved to Tutbury Castle and placed in the custody of the Earl of Shrewsbury and his formidable wife Bess of Hardwick. Elizabeth considered Mary's designs on the English throne to be a serious threat and so confined her to Shrewsbury's properties, including Tutbury, Sheffield Castle, Sheffield Manor Lodge, Wingfield Manor, and Chatsworth House, all located in the interior of England, halfway between Scotland and London and distant from the sea. Mary was permitted her own domestic staff, which never numbered fewer than sixteen. She needed 30 carts to transport her belongings from house to house. Her chambers were", "On 11 August 1586, after being implicated in the Babington Plot, Mary was arrested while out riding and taken to Tixall. In a successful attempt to entrap her, Walsingham had deliberately arranged for Mary's letters to be smuggled out of Chartley. Mary was misled into thinking her letters were secure, while in reality they were deciphered and read by Walsingham. From these letters it was clear that Mary had sanctioned the attempted assassination of Elizabeth. Mary was moved to Fotheringhay Castle in a four-day journey ending on 25 September. In October, she was put on trial for treason under the Act for the Queen's Safety before a court of 36 noblemen, including Cecil, Shrewsbury, and Walsingham. Spirited in her defence, Mary denied the charges. She told her triers, \"Look to your consciences and remember that the theatre of the whole world is wider than the kingdom of England\".", "At Fotheringhay, on the evening of 7 February 1587, Mary was told she was to be executed the next morning. She spent the last hours of her life in prayer, distributing her belongings to her household, and writing her will and a letter to the King of France. The scaffold that was erected in the Great Hall was draped in black cloth. It was reached by two or three steps, and furnished with the block, a cushion for her to kneel on, and three stools for her and the earls of Shrewsbury and Kent, who were there to witness the execution. The executioner Bull and his assistant", "Assessments of Mary in the sixteenth century divided between Protestant reformers such as George Buchanan and John Knox, who vilified her mercilessly, and Catholic apologists such as Adam Blackwood, who praised, defended and eulogised her. After the accession of James I in England, historian William Camden wrote an officially sanctioned biography that drew from original documents. It condemned Buchanan's work as an invention, and \"emphasized Mary's evil fortunes rather than her evil character\". Differing interpretations persisted into the eighteenth century: William Robertson and David Hume argued that the casket letters were genuine and that Mary was guilty of adultery and murder, while William Tytler argued the reverse. In the latter half of the twentieth century, the work of Antonia Fraser was acclaimed as \"more objective... free from the excesses of adulation or attack\" that had characterised older biographies, and her contemporaries Gordon Donaldson and Ian B. Cowan also produced more balanced works. Historian Jenny Wormald concluded that Mary was a tragic failure, who was unable to cope with the demands placed on her, but hers was a rare dissenting view in a post-Fraser tradition that Mary was a pawn in the hands of scheming noblemen. There is no concrete proof of her complicity in Darnley's murder or of a conspiracy with Bothwell. Such accusations rest on assumptions, and Buchanan's biography is today discredited as \"almost complete fantasy\". Mary's courage at her execution helped establish her popular image as the heroic victim in a dramatic tragedy." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Influences.", "Drews's views on religion.", "Eduard von Hartmann.", "Influence of Albert Kalthoff and Bauer.", "Critique of liberal theology.", "Studies of monism.", "Astromythical views related to early Christianity.", "Other books on early Christianity.", "Drews's activism for free religion and monism.", "The need for a modern reform of religion.", "The Free Religion movement.", "The Völkish movement.", "The new popular myth of the superior German race.", "German nationalism and repudiation of Christianity.", "Berdyaev's critique.", "The German Faith movement.", "\"German Religion\".", "Against anti-Semitism.", "Death.", "Re-evaluation of Drews by Bernhard Hoffers." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Drews became a professor of philosophy and German language at the Technische Hochschule in Karlsruhe. During his career he wrote widely on the histories of philosophy, religions and mythology. He was a disciple of Eduard von Hartmann who claimed that reality is the \"unconscious World Spirit\", also expressed in history through religions and the formation of consciousness in the minds of philosophers. Drews often provoked controversy, in part because of his unorthodox ideas on religion and in part because of his attacks on Nietzsche and passionate support of Wagner. He rose to international prominence with his book \"The Christ Myth\" (1909), by amplifying and publicizing the thesis initially advanced by Bruno Bauer, which denies the historicity of Jesus. The international controversy provoked by the \"Christ Myth\" was an early part of Drews's lifelong advocacy of the abandonment of Judaism and Christianity, both of which he regarded as based on ancient beliefs from antiquity, and shaped by religious dualism. He", "During Drews's life, Germany was going through turbulent times, both politically and culturally. Friedrich Nietzsche had become a prominent cultural icon while Richard Wagner was a highly controversial personality. Nietzsche was a strong critic of Christianity and its morality, which he perceived as glorifying weakness and death. At first he was a friend and admirer of Wagner, but soon became a disgruntled critic, turning against his previous friend. He reproached Wagner for his conversion to anti-semitic Christianity and his glorification of medieval sagas and spiritual chastity as the sign of a decadent, dying culture. He posited that Wagner's \"unending melody\" only dramatizes theatrical posing and is hostile to the affirmation of vital Dionysian life forces. Nietzsche claimed that Wagner's art was not Germanic, but closer to Italy's Roman Catholicism. Nietzsche passionately critiqued Wagner's ideas, detailed in \"Nietzsche contra Wagner\". Drews was a staunch supporter of Wagner and wrote many books and articles on Wagner's religious and nationalistic ideas, which are still considered by some scholars to be important works on the subject. He also embarked on a critique of Nietzsche, who was a lifelong critic of Christianity and Christian morality. Drews reproached Nietzsche for being an apostle of unbridled individualism — a stance which put Drews in an awkward position in the German establishment. His criticisms were never well received by academics nor by German society as a whole, since Nietzsche had become a national figure.", "", "Drews, unsatisfied by the abstract rationality of Kantian philosophy, was attracted to religion, but was put off by what he regarded as the spiritual dryness (geistige Dürre) of Christianity. Drews found his anchor in the monism of Eduard von Hartmann (1842–1906), professor of philosophy in Berlin. Hartmann had been strongly influenced by Schopenhauer and his pessimism and had embraced Darwinism and history. Hartmann published his work \"Philosophy of the Unconscious\", in 1869. The concept of the unconscious mind (\"das Unbewusstsein\") became the new form of the ultimate reality, the Absolute, or the Geist, or World Spirit of Hegel, combining pantheism with rational idealism (with the double attributes of will and reason). In his view the human mind is not separate from this unconscious reality, but exists as it approaches self-consciousness (\"Selbstbewusstsein\"), especially in the opinion of the philosophical community. Drews expanded his views in \"Die Religion als Selbst-bewusstsein Gottes: eine philosophische Untersuchung über", "Drews derived additional key ideas from Albert Kalthoff (1850–1906). Kalthoff was an active minister who managed to marry three times in his short life, and revived Bruno Bauer's Christ Myth thesis in his \"Das Christus-Problem. Grundlinien zu einer Sozialtheologie\" (\"The Problem of Christ: Principles of a Social Theology\", 1902) and \"Die Entstehung des Christentums, Neue Beiträge zum Christusproblem\" (\"The Rise of", "Drews did become an acerbic critic of what he called the \"faulty historical method\" of academic liberal theologians. His primary critique of Judaism and Christianity was that they were ancient, archaic myths from antiquity that had become obsolete, and \"their concepts [are] foreign to our mindsets in the modern scientific age\". He opposed the Romanticist cult of personality applied to Jesus in what he referred to as the Christ myth. He rejected the attempt of liberal theologians like Albert Schweitzer to idolize a historical Jesus as a unique personality, which he asserted was the result of The Great Man Theory subjected to modern manipulations by scholars of the Historical Theology school. This view had been already advanced by Schweitzer himself in his review of historical criticism in Germany with his book \"The Quest of the Historical Jesus\" (1906). In \"Die Religion als Selbst-bewusstsein Gottes : eine philosophische Untersuchung über das Wesen der Religion\" (\"Religion as Self-Consciousness of God: a Philosophical Inquiry in the Essence of", "Drews believed that religion was intimately linked to the prevalent beliefs of the social group and not just the expression of individual beliefs and faith. He reflected on the history of the great faiths of the world, the European history of the 19th century, and nationalism. His own mysticism, as a modern form of monism, glamorized the German idealism of the great German thinkers and poets as the superior form of future religion for mankind. It also was related to Spinoza's pantheism, which also rejected Judaism and Christianity as ancient superstition no longer valid", "Drews was intrigued by the alleged influence of ancient astronomy on the origins of religion, developed by the French Volney and Dupuis and promoted throughout the 19th century. He included modern considerations on astromythical topics in some pages of his major books. The \"Appendix\" to his 1912 book \"The Witnesses to the Historicity of Jesus\" was an essay on the astral speculations of the Ancients in relation to Psalm 22. Hoffers notes", "Drews also wrote a few more books on various aspects of Christianity where he systematically analyzes what he regarded as the mythical nature of the personages involved with Jesus Christ. Klaus Schilling wrote in his \"English summary\" to \"The Denial of the Historicity of Jesus in Past and Present\": Drews was involved too deep into the subject to stop there, and went boldly further, exploring how Christianity could \"become a world religion without a historical founder\" or core group described in scripture... During the [First World] war, Schweitzer published more essays in a weak attempt to justify theology, which strengthened Drews' attitude and endeavor. [emphasis added] In \"The Legend of Peter\" (1910, translated into English in 1997 by Frank Zindler), Drews complains that \"the confusion in educated circles...is so great and the posture of Rome so impudent\", and exposes the completely legendary character of the figure of Peter, both in the Gospels and the fantastical history of Peter in Rome. According to Drews (in Klaus Schilling's \"English Summary\" of \"The Denial of the Historicity of Jesus\"): The Gospel is a poetic retelling of the astral", "", "One consequence of the success of the German school of historical criticism had been to instill an overt skepticism towards the Christian religion among the German population. A search for a German, non-Christian religion dated to pre-World War I times. Arthur Drews himself was a product of this emerging opposition to Christianity, expressed in his lifelong concern about the state of the Christian churches. After World War I, Germany became \"radicalized\", the skepticism towards the two established Christian churches and the search for a new kind of worship attuned to the national culture became a latent national preoccupation, as alluded to by Leonard Foster in his 1938 article on \"The New Paganism and the Old Teutonic Religion\". One of Drews's concerns was about restoring the authenticity of religion in mankind. Both", "Drews was one of those scholars and intellectuals who were not averse to bringing their ideas to the public, especially, in his case, if it was for the cause of countering the influence of Christian churches. He was a religious activist, willing to descend into the public forum, stand up for his views, and harangue the crowds. The concern about a renewal of religion had been Drews's preoccupation all his life, along with many other Germans. Germany was going through a craze of forming all kinds of associations for matters of public concern, including religion. Alongside the established churches, Germany had seen a few important movements emerge with a liberated attitude", "In opposition to the religious movements, a non-religious cultural current had gained some impetus: the so-called \"\" (Völkish movement), which dated back to the Romanticist movement of the 1850s, when the German revolutionary drives had been crushed by the arrival of Bismarck. is a well-known historian of this movement. This movement had a popular base and combined various elements:", "Drews had been a philosopher and an historian of philosophy, with a proselytizing drive for promoting his brand of idealistic monism. His interest in religion and mythology made him sensitive to the religious \"essence\" of social cultural beliefs. Romantic Nordic mysticism had become a prevalent fascination among the 19th-century German elite, such as Richard Wagner and contemporary artists, historians, and writers. It had unavoidably aroused Drews' attention for the old Teutonic beliefs that were much in vogue in Northern Europe. Drews had seen in early Christianity a religion of promise of rebirth and transfiguration for a defeated and oppressed country (announcing the coming of the", "With the National Socialist Party's propaganda overwhelming the country, Drews's language in his last theological writings became increasingly focused on the concepts of glorified Germanness by opposition to the people of the Ancient Near East, whose cultures had given rise to Greco-Roman classicism (including Drews' beloved Plotinus), but also Christianity — now all devalued and labeled as foreign races. Drews thus seemed convinced that the unconscious World Spirit had moved from the Mediterranean to Germany, and the philosopher had to go along. Feeling in touch with the new cultural spirit of national rebirth and exalted hope in the future then prevailing in Germany, Drews started evangelizing on the theme of German nationalism, using it as another argument against Christianity. Thus, he wrote in \"Das Wort Gottes\" (\"The Word of God\", 1933, p. 11): [Free Religion", "Nikolai Berdyaev (1874–1948) was a Russian philosopher of religion and politics. Writing in 1927 as a refugee from the Bolsheviks in a Paris threatened by Germany, he contends that Drews, as a religious anti-Semite, argues against the historical existence of Jesus for the religious life of Aryanism. Drews -- is a philosopher of the Hartmann school. In his capacity as an Hartmannist, he preaches a \"religion of pure spirit\". And he fights against the historicity of Jesus Christ in the name of a religion of spirit, he contends \"against the religious materialism\" which he detests. He is prepared to admit the existence of Christ, as the Logos. But for him \"the Logos never could have been incarnated into a man\" upon the earth, within earthly history. The \"religious materialism of Christianity is a legacy inherited from Judaism\", it is a Semitic graft, and Drews in his capacity \"as a religious anti-Semite\", struggles against this materialistic Semitic graft \"for", "A thorough description of this religious movement was presented by Ulrich Nanko in his 1993 book on the movement. Many adventurers were trying to ride the coattails of the Nazi success to establish new spiritual/religious movements. Among them were the founders of the new German Faith Movement (\"Deutsche Glaubensbewegung\"), founded by Jakob W. Hauer (1881–1962), and Ernst Graf zu Reventlow (1869–1943). Hauer had been a Protestant missionary in India, who had turned into a Sanskrit scholar imbued with the spirituality of Hinduism and a professor at the University of Tübingen. His friend Ernst Graf zu Reventlow had been a navy officer, a journalist, and a Reichstag deputy who had joined the NSDAP in 1927. He was an influential Nazi party member, but one who never gained the trust of Hitler and never received a position from the Nazi", "Drews had been all his life opposed to any cult of a historical personality. It was one of his major criticisms of Christianity. The unconscious World-Spirit was larger than any individual — as he felt that great personalities were not godly, but simply its agents and expressions. Similarly, no modern form of religion could be based on the cult of a contemporary leader, even though it was the tendency of the NSDAP ideology. But the NSDAP never went all the way, and didn't try to impose a new religion to displace Christianity, which was still a strong force in Germany and which", "Among the many reservations about the German Faith Movement, one reason for abandoning it was what Drews and others perceived as blatant antisemitism. Drews objected to the racist assumption in antisemitism in an article, Jesus the Aryan (\"Jesus der Arier,\" 1934) where he paid homage to the courage and moral fiber of the Jews through history", "Drews died on 19 July 1935 in", "Germany has been struggling with the legacy of the Nazi era and is still in the process of rehabilitating its exceptional scholars. Bernhardt Hoffers, in his 2003 biographical eulogy, took up the challenge of restoring Drews's reputation that he felt had been unfairly tarnished. He stressed the following facts: He highlighted that Drews, during his life, had been an irritant, continually encroaching on the turf of many specialists in German universities: in theology, philology, astronomy, mythology, music criticism, and psychology. Specialists didn't welcome his interference and even resented him as an outsider. Drews had been regarded as a maverick; his philosophy stood outside of academia, which didn't accept his dilettantism (\"Abweichungen von der communis opinio\"). Hartmann was not in vogue, either, and Drews' dependence on this old professor was another hindrance. Drews created no school and had no followers in Germany. He had to remain a teacher in his Technische Hochschule in Karlsruhe for the rest of his life. Drews' support of Wagner and opposition to Nietzsche did nothing to improve his standing. He met with the studied indifference [\"das Ignorieren\"] and the silence [\"das Totschweigen\"] of the academic pundits, while his international public popularity and press coverage were increasing. Even the University of Karlsruhe, in the very town where he lived and taught, didn't want to mention his name. His treatment at the hands of academics was similar to those of William B. Smith in the US, John M. Robertson and later George A. Wells in England, and Paul-Louis Couchoud in France. After his death his name was largely forgotten. He was mentioned in the German media mostly for having advocated the need for a religion renewal, and in the literature about Wagner and Nietzsche. His work was omitted or grossly misrepresented and discredited in major German reference books. His books in Germany are now hard to find. However, his book on Plotinus is still in demand, the \"Christ Myth\" is widely available in the English-speaking world, and Hermann Detering of \"Radikalkritik\" continues to make the \"Denial of the Historicity of Jesus\" still available.. Drews had been fighting all his life for acceptance and recognition in Germany and for tenure at a university. In spite of his enormous scholarly output, and his popularity, he never was able to obtain a university position. One has to understand why, at the end of his life, Drews was expressing a hope for a renewal of Germany. Hoffers, for the sake of fairness, remarked that Drews never was a member of the Nazi party, and spoke out early against growing antisemitism in the 1920s. He never was involved in any action against Jewish intellectuals, artists, and academics. Whereas, for instance, a philosopher like Heidegger was more visibly active in the Nazi movement, as Rüdiger Safranski has described in detail in \"Martin Heidegger: Between Good and Evil\" (1999). Hoffers emphasized that \"As a scholar, Drews had always been objective and honest’‘.\" In spite of scholarly differences, he maintained a friendship with Schweitzer for a while. He was a polyglot and collected Japanese art prints. He was a gifted, energetic man, with a tremendous capacity for work. He gained the esteem of van den Bergh van Eysinga, the leader of the Dutch Radical school, who viewed him as a\" good guy\" (\"ein netter Kerl\"). In conclusion, Hoffers urged scholars to renew an acquaintance with Drews' books. Claiming that the arguments developed in his work were outmoded or refuted [\"überholt\"] is unjustified. As a parting shot, Hoffers asks a pertinent question: \"Is it really true that the question of Jesus's historicity has been absolutely clarified and is moreover uninteresting, as can be heard in discussions with theologians? (\"Ist es wirklich so, dass die Frage nach der Historizität Jesu absolut geklärt und obendrein noch so nebensächlich ist, wie man in Gesprächen mit Theologen zu hören bekommt?\").\" Hoffers concludes that Drews's life was a fascinating chapter of the \"zeitgeschichte\" (history of our times)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot summary.", "Act I.", "Act II.", "Act III.", "Original New York cast.", "Adaptations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The setting is in the Fall of 1777, during the Saratoga Campaign.", "Dick Dudgeon is an outcast from his family in colonial Websterbridge, New Hampshire. He returns their hatred with scorn. After the death of his father, Dick returns to his childhood home to hear the reading of his father's will, much to his family's dismay. Anthony Anderson, the local minister, treats him with courtesy despite Dick's self-proclaimed apostasy, but Dick's \"wickedness\" appalls Anderson's wife Judith. To everyone's surprise, it is revealed that Dick's father secretly changed his will just before he died, leaving the bulk of his estate to Dick. Dick promptly evicts his mother from her home, but also invites his cousin Essie (the illegitimate daughter of Dick's never-do-well uncle Peter), orphaned by the hanging of her father as a rebel by the British, to stay as long as she wants. At the end of the Act, Dick proclaims himself also a rebel against the British and scorns his family as cowards when they flee his home. He warns Anderson that the approaching army hanged his uncle in error, believing him to be a man of highest respect, unaware of his ill repute, and that Anderson will be the example set in Websterbridge.", "While visiting Anderson's home at the Reverend's invitation, Dick is left alone with Judith while Anderson is called out to Mrs. Dudgeon's deathbed. Perceiving Judith's distaste for him, Dick attempts to leave, but Judith insists he stay until Anderson returns. While they are waiting, British soldiers enter Anderson's home and arrest Dick, mistaking him for Anderson. Dick allows them to take him away without revealing his actual identity. He swears Judith to secrecy lest her husband give the secret away and expose himself to arrest. Anderson returns and finds his wife in a state of great agitation. He demands to know if Dick has harmed her. Breaking her promise to Dick, Judith reveals that soldiers came to arrest Anderson but Dick went in his place. Anderson is stunned. He grabs all his money and a gun and quickly rides away, ignoring Judith's appeals. Judith believes her husband to be a coward, while Dick, whom she despised, is a hero.", "Dick is being held for court martial at the local British Army headquarters. Judith visits Dick and asks to be present at his trial. He allows it as long as she promises not to speak up. The proceedings are run by the charming British General Burgoyne. After some back and forth, where, among other things, Dick makes treasonous statements, it is decided the prisoner will be hanged at noon. Judith can no longer hold her tongue and tells the court Dick is not her husband, but this makes no difference—the sentence will still be carried out. The action moves to the gallows at the Websterbridge market place, where Dick is soon to be hanged. He is saved at the last second, however, by Anderson, now the commander of a militia that has won the day.", "Fifth Avenue Theatre October 4, 1897", "A television adaptation was broadcast in 1955 starring Ralph Bellamy as Anthony Anderson, Maurice Evans (who also co-wrote the screenplay) as Dick Dudgeon, Teresa Wright as Judith Anderson, Dennis King as General Burgoyne and Margaret Hamilton as Mrs. Dudgeon. A film adaptation was in 1959 starring Burt Lancaster as Reverend Anthony Anderson, Kirk Douglas as Dick Dudgeon, Janette Scott as Judith Anderson and Laurence Olivier as General Burgoyne. In 1976, BBC Radio 3 broadcast an adaptation starring Tony Church as General Burgoyne, James Laurenson as Dick Dudgeon, Tenniel Evans as Anthony Anderson and Lucy Fleming as Judith Anderson. The programme was subsequently re-broadcast on BBC Radio 7, later BBC Radio 4 Extra, in 2009, 2010 and 2011. On 17 May 1987, BBC's \"Theatre Night\" broadcast a production of \"The Devil's Disciple\" with Patrick Stewart as Anthony Anderson, Mike Gwilym as Dick Dudgeon, Susan Wooldridge as Judith Anderson and Ian Richardson as General Burgoyne." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Themes.", "Film, television and audio versions of the play.", "Musical adaptation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The play has a prologue and an \"Alternative to the Prologue\". The prologue consists of the Egyptian god Ra addressing the audience directly, as if he could see them in the theater (i.e., breaking the fourth wall). He says that Pompey represents the old Rome and Caesar represents the new Rome. The gods favored Caesar, according to Ra, because he \"lived the life they had given him boldly\". Ra recounts the conflict between Caesar and Pompey, their battle at Pharsalia, and Pompey's eventual assassination in Egypt at the hands of Lucius Septimius. In \"An Alternative to the Prologue\", the captain of Cleopatra's guard is warned that Caesar has landed and is invading Egypt. Cleopatra has been driven into Syria by her brother, Ptolemy, with whom she is vying for the Egyptian throne. The messenger warns that Caesar's conquest is inevitable and irresistible. A Nubian watchman flees to Cleopatra's palace and warns those inside that Caesar and his armies are less than an hour away. The guards, knowing of Caesar's weakness for women, plan to persuade him to proclaim Cleopatra—who may be controllable—Egypt's ruler instead of Ptolemy. They try to locate her, but are told by Cleopatra's nurse, Ftatateeta, that she has run away. Act I opens with Cleopatra sleeping between the paws of a Sphinx. Caesar, wandering lonely in the desert night, comes upon the sphinx and speaks to it profoundly. Cleopatra wakes and, still unseen, replies. At first Caesar imagines the sphinx is speaking in a girlish voice, then, when Cleopatra appears, that he is experiencing a dream or, if he is awake, a touch of madness. She, not recognizing Caesar, thinks him a nice old man and tells him of her childish fear of Caesar and the Romans. Caesar urges bravery when she must face the conquerors, then escorts her to her palace. Cleopatra reluctantly agrees to maintain a queenly presence, but greatly fears that Caesar will eat her anyway. When the Roman guards arrive and hail Caesar, Cleopatra suddenly realizes he has been with her all along. She sobs in relief, and falls into his arms. Act II. In a hall on the first floor of the royal palace in Alexandria, Caesar meets King Ptolemy (aged ten), his tutor Theodotus (very aged), Achillas (general of Ptolemy's troops), and Pothinus (his guardian). Caesar greets all with courtesy and kindness, but inflexibly demands a tribute whose amount disconcerts the Egyptians. As an inducement, Caesar says he will settle the dispute between the claimants for the Egyptian throne by letting Cleopatra and Ptolemy reign jointly. However, the rivalry exists because, even though the two are siblings and already married in accordance with the royal law, they detest each other with a mutual antipathy no less murderous for being childish. Each claims sole rulership. Caesar's solution is acceptable to none and his concern for Ptolemy makes Cleopatra fiercely jealous. The conference deteriorates into a dispute, with the Egyptians threatening military action. Caesar, with two legions (three thousand soldiers and a thousand horsemen), has no fear of the Egyptian army but learns Achillas also commands a Roman army of occupation, left after a previous Roman incursion, which could overwhelm his relatively small contingent. As a defensive measure, Caesar orders Rufio, his military aide, to take over the palace, a theatre adjacent to it, and Pharos, an island in the harbour accessible from the palace via a causeway that divides the harbour into eastern and western sections. From Pharos, which has a defensible lighthouse at its eastmost tip, those of Caesar's ships anchored on the east side of the harbour can return to Rome. His ships on the west side are to be burnt at once. Britannus, Caesar's secretary, proclaims the king and courtiers prisoners of war, but Caesar, to the dismay of Rufio, allows the captives to depart. Only Cleopatra (with her retinue), fearing Ptolemy's associates, and Pothinus (for reasons of his own), choose to remain with Caesar. The others all depart. Caesar, intent on developing his strategy, tries to dismiss all other matters but is interrupted by Cleopatra's nagging for attention. He indulges her briefly while she speaks amorously of Mark Antony, who restored her father to his throne when she was twelve years old. Her gushing about the youth and beauty of Mark Antony are unflattering to Caesar, who is middle-aged and balding. Caesar nevertheless, impervious to jealousy, makes Cleopatra happy by promising to send Mark Antony back to Egypt. As she leaves, a wounded soldier comes to report that Achillas, with his Roman army, is at hand and that the citizenry is attacking Caesar's soldiers. A siege is imminent. Watching from a balcony, Rufio discovers the ships he was ordered to destroy have been torched by Achillas' forces and are already burning. Meanwhile, Theodotus, the savant, arrives distraught, anguished because fire from the blazing ships has spread to the Alexandrian library. Caesar does not sympathize, saying it is better that the Egyptians should live their lives than dream them away with the help of books. As a practicality, he notes the Egyptian firefighters will be diverted from attacking Caesar's soldiers. At scene's end, Cleopatra and Britannus help Caesar don his armor and he goes forth to battle. Act III. A Roman sentinel stationed on the quay in front of the palace looks intently, across the eastern harbour, to the west, for activity at the Pharos lighthouse, now captured and occupied by Caesar. He is watching for signs of an impending counter-attack by Egyptian forces arriving via ship and by way of the Heptastadion (a stone causeway spanning the five miles of open water between the mainland and Pharos Island). The sentinel's vigil is interrupted by Ftatateeta (Cleopatra's nurse) and Apollodorus the Sicilian (a patrician amateur of the arts), accompanied by a retinue of porters carrying a bale of carpets, from which Cleopatra is to select a gift appropriate for Caesar. Cleopatra emerges from the palace, shows little interest in the carpets, and expresses a desire to visit Caesar at the lighthouse. The sentinel tells her she is a prisoner and orders her back inside the palace. Cleopatra is enraged, and Apollodorus, as her champion, engages in swordplay with the sentinel. A centurion intervenes and avers Cleopatra will not be allowed outside the palace until Caesar gives the order. She is sent back to the palace, where she may select a carpet for delivery to Caesar. Apollodorus, who is not a prisoner, will deliver it since he is free to travel in areas behind the Roman lines. He hires a small boat, with a single boatmen, for the purpose. The porters leave the palace bearing a rolled carpet. They complain about its weight, but only Ftatateeta, suffering paroxysms of anxiety, knows that Cleopatra is hidden in the bundle. The sentinel, however, alerted by Ftatateeta's distress, becomes suspicious and attempts, unsuccessfully, to recall the boat after it departs. Meanwhile, Rufio, eating dates and resting after the day's battle, hears Caesar speaking somberly of his personal misgivings and predicting they will lose the battle because age has rendered him inept. Rufio diagnoses Caesar's woes as signs of hunger and gives him dates to eat. Caesar's outlook brightens as he eats them. He is himself again when Britannus exultantly approaches bearing a heavy bag containing incriminating letters that have passed between Pompey's associates and their army, now occupying Egypt. Caesar scorns to read them, deeming it better to convert his enemies to friends than to waste his time with prosecutions; he casts the bag into the sea. As Cleopatra's boat arrives, the falling bag breaks its prow and it quickly sinks, barely allowing time for Apollodorus to drag the carpet and its queenly contents safe ashore. Caesar unrolls the carpet and discovers Cleopatra, who is distressed because of the rigors of her journey and even more so when she finds Caesar too preoccupied with military matters to accord her much attention. Matters worsen when Britannus, who has been observing the movements of the Egyptian army, reports that the enemy now controls the causeway and is also approaching rapidly across the island. Swimming to a Roman ship in the eastern harbour becomes the sole possibility for escape. Apollodorus dives in readily and Caesar follows, after privately instructing Rufio and Britannus to toss Cleopatra into the water so she can hang on while he swims to safety. They do so with great relish, she screaming mightily, then Rufio takes the plunge. Britannus cannot swim, so he is instructed to defend himself as well as possible until a rescue can be arranged. A friendly craft soon rescues all the swimmers. Act IV. Six months elapse with Romans and Cleopatra besieged in the palace in Alexandria. Cleopatra and Pothinus, who is a prisoner of war, discuss what will happen when Caesar eventually leaves and disagree over whether Cleopatra or Ptolemy should rule. They part; Cleopatra to be hostess at a feast prepared for Caesar and his lieutenants, and Pothinus to tell Caesar that Cleopatra is a traitress who is only using Caesar to help her gain the Egyptian throne. Caesar considers that a natural motive and is not offended. But Cleopatra is enraged at Pothinus' allegation and secretly orders her nurse, Ftatateeta, to kill him. At the feast the mood is considerably restrained by Caesar's ascetic preference for simple fare and barley water versus exotic foods and wines. However, conversation grows lively when world-weary Caesar suggests to Cleopatra they both leave political life, search out the Nile's source and a city there. Cleopatra enthusiastically agrees and, to name the city, seeks help from the God of the Nile, who is her favorite god. The festivities are interrupted by a scream, followed by a thud: Pothinus has been murdered and his body thrown from the roof down to the beach. The besieging Egyptians, both army and civilian, are enraged by the killing of Pothinus, who was a popular hero, and they begin to storm the palace. Cleopatra claims responsibility for the slaying and Caesar reproaches her for taking shortsighted vengeance, pointing out that his clemency towards Pothinus and the other prisoners has kept the enemy at bay. Doom seems inevitable, but then they learn that reinforcements, commanded by Mithridates of Pergamos have engaged the Egyptian army. With the threat diminished, Caesar draws up a battle plan and leaves to speak to the troops. Meanwhile, Rufio realizes Ftatateeta was Pothinus' killer, so he kills her in turn. Cleopatra, left alone and utterly forlorn discovers the bloodied body concealed behind a curtain. Act V is an epilogue. Amidst great pomp and ceremony, Caesar prepares to leave for Rome. His forces have swept Ptolemy's armies into the Nile, and Ptolemy himself was drowned when his barge sank. Caesar appoints Rufio governor of the province and considers freedom for Britannus, who declines the offer in favor of remaining Caesar's servant. A conversation ensues that foreshadows Caesar's eventual assassination. As the gangplank is being extended from the quay to Caesar's ship, Cleopatra, dressed in mourning for her nurse, arrives. She accuses Rufio of murdering Ftatateeta. Rufio admits the slaying, but says it was not for the sake of punishment, revenge or justice: he killed her without malice because she was a potential menace. Caesar approves the execution because it was not influenced by spurious moralism. Cleopatra remains unforgiving until Caesar renews his promise to send Mark Antony to Egypt. That renders her ecstatic as the ship starts moving out to sea.", "Shaw wanted to prove that it was not love but politics that drew Cleopatra to Julius Caesar. He sees the Roman occupation of ancient Egypt as similar to the British occupation that was occurring during his time. Caesar understands the importance of good government, and values these things above art and love. Shaw's philosophy has often been compared to that of Nietzsche. Their shared admiration for men of action shows itself in Shaw's description of Caesar's struggle with Pompey. In the prologue, the god Ra says, \"the blood and iron ye pin your faith on fell before the spirit of man; for the spirit of man is the will of the gods.\" A second theme, apparent both from the text of the play itself and from Shaw's lengthy notes after the play, is Shaw's belief that people have not been morally improved by civilization and technology. A line from the prologue clearly illustrates this point. The god Ra addresses the audience and says, \"ye shall marvel, after your ignorant manner, that men twenty centuries ago were already just such as you, and spoke and lived as ye speak and live, no worse and no better, no wiser and no sillier.\" Another theme is the value of clemency. Caesar remarks that he will not stoop to vengeance when confronted with Septimius, the murderer of Pompey. Caesar throws away letters that would have identified his enemies in Rome, instead choosing to try to win them to his side. Pothinus remarks that Caesar doesn't torture his captives. At several points in the play, Caesar lets his enemies go instead of killing them. The wisdom of this approach is revealed when Cleopatra orders her nurse to kill Pothinus because of his \"treachery and disloyalty\" (but really because of his insults to her). This probably contrasts with historical fact. The murder enrages the Egyptian crowd, and but for Mithridates' reinforcements would have meant the death of all the protagonists. Caesar only endorses the retaliatory murder of Cleopatra's nurse because it was necessary and humane.", "\"Caesar and Cleopatra\" was the basis for the lavish 1945 motion picture \"Caesar and Cleopatra\", starring Claude Rains as Caesar and Vivien Leigh as Cleopatra and produced by Gabriel Pascal. Shaw collaborated closely on this production. After seeing part of the filming of the movie at Denham Studios in London, Shaw remarked, \"What scope! What limitless possibilities!... Here you have the whole world to play with!\" There have also been two major television productions of the play. The first was in 1956, produced as part of the anthology series \"Producers' Showcase\", on NBC. It starred Claire Bloom as Cleopatra, Cedric Hardwicke as Caesar, Farley Granger, Jack Hawkins and Judith Anderson. The second version, shown in 1976, was also telecast by NBC, and starred Geneviève Bujold as Cleopatra, Alec Guinness as Caesar, Clive Francis, Margaret Courtenay, and Iain Cuthbertson. It was telecast on the \"Hallmark Hall of Fame\". The 2008 Stratford Festival production starring Christopher Plummer in the role of Caesar, and Nikki M. James as Cleopatra was shown in very limited release in cinemas on January 31, 2009. It was subsequently shown on Bravo in Canada and released on a DVD, which is available from the Festival. The BBC broadcast a radio production on 27 August 1980 starring the father-daughter acting team of Alan Badel (Caesar) and Sarah Badel (Cleopatra). Also in the cast were Beatrix Lehmann as Ftatateeta, Peter Woodthorpe as Pothinus and Alan Rowe as Lucius Septimius. There has also been an audio adaptation of the play produced on Caedmon Records (Caedmon TRS 304M) and directed by Anthony Quayle, starring Max Adrian as Caesar, Claire Bloom as Cleopatra, Judith Anderson as Ftatateeta, Corin Redgrave as Apollodorus, Laurence Hardy as Britannus and Jack Gwillim as Rufio \"(this version used the Alternate Prologue)\".", "\"Caesar and Cleopatra\" was adapted for the 1968 Broadway musical \"Her First Roman\" by Ervin Drake." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Types.", "Uses and applications.", "Industry.", "Basics.", "Raw material producer.", "Polyester processing.", "Synthesis.", "Azeotrope esterification.", "Acylation (HCl method).", "Ring-opening polymerization.", "History.", "Biodegradation.", "Cross-linking.", "Environmental concerns.", "Pollution of freshwater and seawater habitats.", "Non-renewable." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Depending on the chemical structure, polyester can be a thermoplastic or thermoset. There are also polyester resins cured by hardeners; however, the most common polyesters are thermoplastics. Examples of thermoset polyesters include some of the Desmophen brand from Bayer. The OH group is reacted with an Isocyanate functional compound in a 2 component system producing coatings which may optionally be pigmented. Polyesters as thermoplastics may change shape after the application of heat. While combustible at high temperatures, polyesters tend to shrink away from flames and self-extinguish upon ignition. Polyester fibers have high tenacity and E-modulus as well as low water absorption and minimal shrinkage in comparison with other industrial fibers. Unsaturated polyesters (UPR) are thermosetting resins. They are used in the liquid state as casting materials, in sheet molding compounds, as fiberglass laminating resins and in non-metallic auto-body fillers. They are also used as the thermoset polymer matrix in pre-pregs. Fiberglass-reinforced unsaturated polyesters find wide application in bodies of yachts and as body parts of cars. According to the composition of their main chain, polyesters can be: Increasing the aromatic parts of polyesters increases their glass transition temperature, melting temperature, thermal stability, chemical stability... Polyesters can also be telechelic oligomers like the polycaprolactone diol (PCL) and the polyethylene adipate diol (PEA). They are then used as prepolymers.", "Fabrics woven or knitted from polyester thread or yarn are used extensively in apparel and home furnishings, from shirts and pants to jackets and hats, bed sheets, blankets, upholstered furniture and computer mouse mats. Industrial polyester fibers, yarns and ropes are used in car tire reinforcements, fabrics for conveyor belts, safety belts, coated fabrics and plastic reinforcements with high-energy absorption. Polyester fiber is used as cushioning and insulating material in pillows, comforters and upholstery padding. Polyester fabrics are highly stain-resistant—in fact, the only class of dyes which \"can\" be used to alter the color of polyester fabric are what are known as disperse dyes. Polyesters are also used to make bottles, films, tarpaulin, canoes, liquid crystal displays, holograms, filters, dielectric film for capacitors, film insulation for wire and insulating tapes. Polyesters are widely used as a finish on high-quality wood products such as guitars, pianos and vehicle/yacht interiors. Thixotropic properties of spray-applicable polyesters make them ideal for use on open-grain timbers, as they can quickly fill wood grain, with a high-build film thickness per coat. Cured polyesters can be sanded and polished to a high-gloss, durable finish.", "", "Polyester is a synthetic polymer made of purified terephthalic acid (PTA) or its dimethyl ester dimethyl terephthalate (DMT) and monoethylene glycol (MEG). With 18% market share of all plastic materials produced, it ranges third after polyethylene (33.5%) and polypropylene (19.5%). The main raw materials are described as follows: To make a polymer of high molecular weight a catalyst is needed. The most common catalyst is antimony trioxide (or antimony tri-acetate): In 2008, about 10,000 tonnes SbO were used to produce around 49 million tonnes polyethylene terephthalate. Polyester is described as follows: There are several reasons for the importance of polyester: In the following table, the estimated world polyester production is shown. Main applications are textile polyester, bottle polyester resin, film polyester mainly for packaging and specialty polyesters for engineering plastics. According to this table, the world's total polyester production might exceed 50 million tons per annum before the year 2010.", "The raw materials PTA, DMT, and MEG are mainly produced by large chemical companies which are sometimes integrated down to the crude oil refinery where \"p\"-Xylene is the base material to produce PTA and liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is the base material to produce MEG.", "After the first stage of polymer production in the melt phase, the product stream divides into two different application areas which are mainly textile applications and packaging applications. In the following table, the main applications of textile and packaging of polyester are listed. Abbreviations: A comparable small market segment (much less than 1 million tonnes/year) of polyester is used to produce engineering plastics and masterbatch. In order to produce the polyester melt with a high efficiency, high-output processing steps like staple fiber (50–300 tonnes/day per spinning line) or POY /FDY (up to 600 tonnes/day split into about 10 spinning machines) are meanwhile more and more vertically integrated direct processes. This means the polymer melt is directly converted into the textile fibers or filaments without the common step of pelletizing. We are talking about full vertical integration when polyester is produced at one site starting from crude oil or distillation products in the chain oil → benzene → PX → PTA → PET melt → fiber/filament or bottle-grade resin. Such integrated processes are meanwhile established in more or less interrupted processes at one production site. Eastman Chemicals were the first to introduce the idea of closing the chain from PX to PET resin with their so-called INTEGREX process. The capacity of such vertically integrated production sites is >1000 tonnes/day and can easily reach 2500 tonnes/day. Besides the above-mentioned large processing units to produce staple fiber or yarns, there are ten thousands of small and very small processing plants, so that one can estimate that polyester is processed and recycled in more than 10 000 plants around the globe. This is without counting all the companies involved in the supply industry, beginning with engineering and processing machines and ending with special additives, stabilizers and colors. This is a gigantic industry complex and it is still growing by 4–8% per year, depending on the world region.", "Synthesis of polyesters is generally achieved by a polycondensation reaction. See \"condensation reactions in polymer chemistry\". The general equation for the reaction of a diol with a diacid is :", "In this classical method, an alcohol and a carboxylic acid react to form a carboxylic ester. To assemble a polymer, the water formed by the reaction must be continually removed by azeotrope distillation.", "The acid begins as an acid chloride, and thus the polycondensation proceeds with emission of hydrochloric acid (HCl) instead of water. This method can be carried out in solution or as an enamel.", "Aliphatic polyesters can be assembled from lactones under very mild conditions, catalyzed anionically, cationically or metallorganically. A number of catalytic methods for the copolymerization of epoxides with cyclic anhydrides have also recently been shown to provide a wide array of functionalized polyesters, both saturated and unsaturated.", "In 1926, United States-based E.I. du Pont de Nemours and Co. began research on large molecules and synthetic fibers. This early research, headed by W.H. Carothers, centered on what became nylon, which was the first synthetic fiber. Carothers was working for duPont at the time. Carother’s research was incomplete and had not advanced to investigating the polyester formed from mixing ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid. The project was revived by British scientists Whinfield and Dickson, who patented polyethylene terephthalate (PET) or PETE in 1941. Polyethylene terephthalate forms the basis for synthetic fibers like Dacron, Terylene and polyester. In 1946, duPont bought all legal rights from Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI).", "The futuro house was made of fibreglass-reinforced polyester plastic; polyester-polyurethane, and poly(methylmethacrylate) one of them was found to be degrading by Cyanobacteria and Archaea.", "Unsaturated polyesters are thermosetting resins. They are generally copolymers prepared by polymerizing one or more diol with saturated and unsaturated dicarboxylic acids (maleic acid, fumaric acid...) or their anhydrides. The double bond of unsaturated polyesters reacts with a vinyl monomer, usually styrene, resulting in a 3-D cross-linked structure. This structure acts as a thermoset. The exothermic cross-linking reaction is initiated through a catalyst, usually an organic peroxide such as methyl ethyl ketone peroxide or benzoyl peroxide.", "", "A team at Plymouth University in the UK spent 12 months analysing what happened when a number of synthetic materials were washed at different temperatures in domestic washing machines, using different combinations of detergents, to quantify the microfibres shed. They found that an average washing load of 6 kg could release an estimated 137,951 fibres from polyester-cotton blend fabric, 496,030 fibres from polyester and 728,789 from acrylic. Those fibers add to the general microplastics pollution.", "Polyester is a synthetic petroleum-based fibre, and is therefore a non-renewable carbon-intensive resource. Nearly 70 million barrels of oil are used each year to make polyester around the world, which is now the most commonly used fiber in making clothes. But it takes more than 200 years to decompose." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Types.", "Mechanical actuators.", "Hydraulic actuators.", "Pneumatic actuators.", "Piezoelectric actuators.", "Twisted and coiled polymer (TCP) actuators.", "Electromechanical actuators.", "Simplified design.", "Standard vs compact construction.", "Principles.", "Variations.", "Static load capacity.", "Dynamic load capacity.", "Speed control.", "Duty cycle.", "Linear motors.", "Telescoping linear actuator." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Mechanical linear actuators typically operate by conversion of rotary motion into linear motion. Conversion is commonly made via a few simple types of mechanism: Some mechanical linear actuators only pull, such as hoists, chain drive and belt drives. Others only push (such as a cam actuator). Pneumatic and hydraulic cylinders, or lead screws can be designed to generate force in both directions. Mechanical actuators typically convert rotary motion of a control knob or handle into linear displacement via screws and/or gears to which the knob or handle is attached. A jackscrew or car jack is a familiar mechanical actuator. Another family of actuators are based on the segmented spindle. Rotation of the jack handle is converted mechanically into the linear motion of the jack head. Mechanical actuators are also frequently used in the field of lasers and optics to manipulate the position of linear stages, rotary stages, mirror mounts, goniometers and other positioning instruments. For accurate and repeatable positioning, index marks may be used on control knobs. Some actuators include an encoder and digital position readout. These are similar to the adjustment knobs used on micrometers except their purpose is position adjustment rather than position measurement.", "Hydraulic actuators or hydraulic cylinders typically involve a hollow cylinder having a piston inserted in it. An unbalanced pressure applied to the piston generates force that can move an external object. Since liquids are nearly incompressible, a hydraulic cylinder can provide controlled precise linear displacement of the piston. The displacement is only along the axis of the piston. A familiar example of a manually operated hydraulic actuator is a hydraulic car jack. Typically though, the term \"hydraulic actuator\" refers to a device controlled by a hydraulic pump.", "Pneumatic actuators, or pneumatic cylinders, are similar to hydraulic actuators except they use compressed gas to generate force instead of a liquid. They work similarly to a piston in which air is pumped inside a chamber and pushed out of the other side of the chamber. Air actuators are not necessarily used for heavy duty machinery and instances where large amounts of weight are present. One of the reasons pneumatic linear actuators are preferred to other types is the fact that the power source is simply an air compressor. Because air is the input source, pneumatic actuators are able to be used in many places of mechanical activity. The downside is, most air compressors are large, bulky, and loud. They are hard to transport to other areas once installed. Pneumatic linear actuators are likely to leak and this makes them less efficient than mechanical linear actuators.", "The piezoelectric effect is a property of certain materials in which application of a voltage to the material causes it to expand. Very high voltages correspond to only tiny expansions. As a result, piezoelectric actuators can achieve extremely fine positioning resolution, but also have a very short range of motion. In addition, piezoelectric materials exhibit hysteresis which makes it difficult to control their expansion in a repeatable manner.", "Twisted and coiled polymer (TCP) actuator also known as supercoiled polymer (SCP) actuator is a coiled polymer that can be actuated through resistive heating.. A TCP actuator look like a helical spring. TCP actuators are usually made from silver coated Nylon. TCP actuators can also be made from other electrical conductance coat such as gold. Twist induced TCP actuators should be under a load to keep the muscle extended. The electrical energy transforms to thermal energy due to electrical resistance, which also known as Joule heating, Ohmic heating, and resistive heating. As the temperature of the TCP actuator increases by Joule heating, the polymer contracts and it causes the actuator contraction.", "Electro-mechanical actuators are similar to mechanical actuators except that the control knob or handle is replaced with an electric motor. Rotary motion of the motor is converted to linear displacement. There are many designs of modern linear actuators and every company that manufactures them tends to have a proprietary method. The following is a generalized description of a very simple electro-mechanical linear actuator.", "Typically, an electric motor is mechanically connected to rotate a lead screw. A lead screw has a continuous helical thread machined on its circumference running along the length (similar to the thread on a bolt). Threaded onto the lead screw is a lead nut or ball nut with corresponding helical threads. The nut is prevented from rotating with the lead screw (typically the nut interlocks with a non-rotating part of the actuator body). Therefore, when the lead screw is rotated, the nut will be driven along the threads. The direction of motion of the nut depends on the direction of rotation of the lead screw. By connecting linkages to the nut, the motion can be converted to usable linear displacement. Most current actuators are built for high speed, high force, or a compromise between the two. When considering an actuator for a particular application, the most important specifications are typically travel, speed, force, accuracy, and lifetime. Most varieties are mounted on dampers or butterfly valves. There are many types of motors that can be used in a linear actuator system. These include dc brush, dc brushless, stepper, or in some cases, even induction motors. It all depends on the application requirements and the loads the actuator is designed to move. For example, a linear actuator using an integral horsepower AC induction motor driving a lead screw can be used to operate a large valve in a refinery. In this case, accuracy and high movement resolution aren't needed, but high force and speed are. For electromechanical linear actuators used in laboratory instrumentation robotics, optical and laser equipment, or X-Y tables, fine resolution in the micron range and high accuracy may require the use of a fractional horsepower stepper motor linear actuator with a fine pitch lead screw. There are many variations in the electromechanical linear actuator system. It is critical to understand the design requirements and application constraints to know which one would be best.", "A linear actuator using standard motors will commonly have the motor as a separate cylinder attached to the side of the actuator, either parallel with the actuator or perpendicular to the actuator. The motor may be attached to the end of the actuator. The drive motor is of typical construction with a solid drive shaft that is geared to the drive nut or drive screw of the actuator. Compact linear actuators use specially designed motors that try to fit the motor and actuator into the smallest possible shape.", "In the majority of linear actuator designs, the basic principle of operation is that of an inclined plane. The threads of a lead screw act as a continuous ramp that allows a small rotational force to be used over a long distance to accomplish movement of a large load over a short distance.", "Many variations on the basic design have been created. Most focus on providing general improvements such as a higher mechanical efficiency, speed, or load capacity. There is also a large engineering movement towards actuator miniaturization. Most electro-mechanical designs incorporate a lead screw and lead nut. Some use a ball screw and ball nut. In either case the screw may be connected to a motor or manual control knob either directly or through a series of gears. Gears are typically used to allow a smaller (and weaker) motor spinning at a higher rpm to be geared down to provide the torque necessary to spin the screw under a heavier load than the motor would otherwise be capable of driving directly. Effectively this sacrifices actuator speed in favor of increased actuator thrust. In some applications the use of worm gear is common as this allow a smaller built in dimension still allowing great travel length. A traveling-nut linear actuator has a motor that stays attached to one end of the lead screw (perhaps indirectly through a gear box), the motor spins the lead screw, and the lead nut is restrained from spinning so it travels up and down the lead screw. A traveling-screw linear actuator has a lead screw that passes entirely through the motor. In a traveling-screw linear actuator, the motor \"crawls\" up and down a lead screw that is restrained from spinning. The only spinning parts are inside the motor, and may not be visible from the outside. Some lead screws have multiple \"starts\". This means they have multiple threads alternating on the same shaft. One way of visualizing this is in comparison to the multiple color stripes on a candy cane. This allows for more adjustment between thread pitch and nut/screw thread contact area, which determines the extension speed and load carrying capacity (of the threads), respectively.", "Linear screw actuators can have a static loading capacity, meaning that when the motor stops the actuator essentially locks in place and can support a load that is either pulling or pushing on the actuator. This static load capacity increases mobility and speed. The braking force of the actuator varies with the angular pitch of the screw threads and the specific design of the threads. Acme threads have a very high static load capacity, while ball screws have an extremely low load capacity and can be nearly free-floating. Generally it is not possible to vary the static load capacity of screw actuators without additional technology. The screw thread pitch and drive nut design defines a specific load capacity that cannot be dynamically adjusted. In some cases, high viscosity grease can be added to linear screw actuators to increase the static load. Some manufacturers use this to alter the load for specific needs. Static load capacity can be added to a linear screw actuator using an electromagnetic brake system, which applies friction to the spinning drive nut. For example, a spring may be used to apply brake pads to the drive nut, holding it in position when power is turned off. When the actuator needs to be moved, an electromagnet counteracts the spring and releases the braking force on the drive nut. Similarly an electromagnetic ratchet mechanism can be used with a linear screw actuator so that the drive system lifting a load will lock in position when power to the actuator is turned off. To lower the actuator, an electromagnet is used to counteract the spring force and unlock the ratchet.", "Dynamic load capacity is typically referred to as the amount of force the linear actuator is capable of providing during operation. This force will vary with screw type (amount of friction restricting movement) and the motor driving the movement. Dynamic load is the figure which most actuators are classified by, and is a good indication of what applications it would suit best.", "In most cases when using an electro-mechanical actuator, it is preferred to have some type of speed control. Such controllers vary the voltage supplied to the motor, which in turn changes the speed at which the lead screw turns. Adjusting the gear ratio is another way to adjust speed. Some actuators are available with several different gearing options.", "The duty cycle of a motor refers to the amount of time the actuator can be run before it needs to cool down. Staying within this guideline when operating an actuator is key to its longevity and performance. If the duty cycle rating is exceeded, then overheating, loss of power, and eventual burning of the motor is risked.", "A linear motor is functionally the same as a rotary electric motor with the rotor and stator circular magnetic field components laid out in a straight line. Where a rotary motor would spin around and re-use the same magnetic pole faces again, the magnetic field structures of a linear motor are physically repeated across the length of the actuator. Since the motor moves in a linear fashion, no lead screw is needed to convert rotary motion to linear. While high capacity is possible, the material and/or motor limitations on most designs are surpassed relatively quickly due to a reliance solely on magnetic attraction and repulsion forces. Most linear motors have a low load capacity compared to other types of linear actuators. Linear motors have an advantage in outdoor or dirty environments in that the two halves do not need to contact each other, and so the electromagnetic drive coils can be waterproofed and sealed against moisture and corrosion, allowing for a very long service life.", "Telescoping linear actuators are specialized linear actuators used where space restrictions exist. Their range of motion is many times greater than the unextended length of the actuating member. A common form is made of concentric tubes of approximately equal length that extend and retract like sleeves, one inside the other, such as the telescopic cylinder. Other more specialized telescoping actuators use actuating members that act as rigid linear shafts when extended, but break that line by folding, separating into pieces and/or uncoiling when retracted. Examples of telescoping linear actuators include:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Subspecies.", "Cultivation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Acer monspessulanum\" is a medium-sized deciduous tree or densely branched shrub that grows to a height of 10–15 m (rarely to 20 m). The trunk is up to 75 cm diameter, with smooth, dark grey bark on young trees, becoming finely fissured on old trees. Among similar maples is most easily distinguished by its small three-lobed leaves, 3–6 cm long and 3–7 cm wide, glossy dark green, sometimes a bit leathery, and with a smooth margin, with a 2–5 cm petiole. The leaves fall very late in autumn, typically in November. The flowers are produced in spring, in pendulous, yellow to white corymbs 2–3 cm long. The samaras are 2–3 cm long with rounded nutlets.", "It is variable, and a number of subspecies and varieties have been described, but few are widely accepted as distinct. The most widely accepted as distinct is \"Acer monspessulanum\" subsp. \"microphyllum\" (Boiss.) Bornmueller, from Turkey and Lebanon, with smaller leaves not over 3 cm broad. The species can be mistaken for \"Acer campestre\" (field maple), another maple native to Europe, from which it is best distinguished by the clear sap in the leaves (milk-white in field maple), and the much narrower angle between the samara wings.", "Among maples not endemic to Japan, \"A. monspessulanum\" (and the similar \"A. campestre\") are popular among bonsai enthusiasts. In both cases, the smallish leaves and shrubby habit of the maple respond well to techniques to encourage leaf reduction and ramification. These bonsai have an appearance distinct from those created from maples such as \"Acer palmatum\" whose leaves are more frilly and translucent. Otherwise, \"Acer monspessulanum\" is rarely seen in cultivation outside of arboreta. In the United States, a mature specimen may be seen at Arnold Arboretum in Boston, Massachusetts. A specimen can also be found in the arboretum of the Montreal Botanical Gardens." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "During Jesus's ministry.", "Witness to Jesus's crucifixion and burial.", "Resurrection of Jesus.", "Apocryphal early Christian writings.", "Dialogue of the Savior.", "\"Pistis Sophia\".", "Gospel of Thomas.", "Gospel of Philip.", "Gospel of Mary.", "Borborite scriptures.", "Legacy.", "Patristic era.", "Early Middle Ages.", "High Middle Ages.", "Late Middle Ages and Renaissance.", "Reformation and Counter-Reformation.", "Modern era.", "In Western art.", "Religious views.", "Eastern Orthodox.", "Roman Catholicism.", "Protestantism.", "Bahá'í Faith.", "Speculations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "It is widely accepted among secular historians that, like Jesus, Mary Magdalene was a real historical figure. Nonetheless, very little is known about her life. Unlike Paul the Apostle, Mary Magdalene has left behind no writings of her own, nor were any works later forged under her name, as was common for the other disciples. She is never mentioned in any of the Pauline epistles or in any of the general epistles. The earliest and most reliable sources about her life are the three Synoptic Gospels of Mark, Matthew, and Luke, which were all written during the first century AD.", "Mary Magdalene's epithet \"Magdalene\" (ἡ Μαγδαληνή; literally \"the Magdalene\") most likely means that she came from Magdala, a village on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee that was primarily known in antiquity as a fishing town. \"Mary\" was, by far, the most common Jewish given name for females during the first century, so it was necessary for the authors of the gospels to call her \"Magdalene\" in order to distinguish her from the other women named Mary who followed Jesus. Although the Gospel of Mark, the earliest surviving gospel, does not mention Mary Magdalene until Jesus's crucifixion, the Gospel of Luke provides a brief summary of", "All four canonical gospels agree that Mary Magdalene, along with several other women, watched Jesus's crucifixion from a distance. lists the names of the women present as Mary Magdalene; Mary, mother of James; and Salome. lists Mary Magdalene, Mary mother of James and Joseph, and the unnamed mother of the sons of Zebedee (who may be the same person Mark calls Salome). mentions a group of women watching the crucifixion, but does not give any of their names. lists Mary, mother of Jesus, her sister, Mary wife of Cleopas, and Mary Magdalene as witnesses to the", "The earliest description of Jesus's post-resurrection appearances is a quotation of a pre-Pauline creed preserved by Paul the Apostle in, which was written roughly 20 years before any of the gospels. This passage makes no mention of Mary Magdalene, the other women, or the story of the empty tomb at all, but rather credits Simon Peter with having been the first to see the risen Jesus. Despite this, all four canonical gospels, as well as the apocryphal Gospel of Peter, agree that Mary Magdalene, either alone or as a member of a group, was the first person to discover that Jesus's tomb was empty. Nonetheless, the details of the accounts differ drastically. According to, the earliest account of the discovery of the empty tomb, Mary Magdalene, Mary the mother of James, and Salome went to the tomb just after sunrise a day and half after Jesus's burial and found that the stone had already been rolled away. They went inside and saw a young man dressed in white, who told them that Jesus had risen from the dead and instructed them to tell the male disciples that he would meet them in Galilee. Instead, the women ran away and told no", "In apocryphal texts Mary Magdalene is portrayed as a visionary and leader of the early movement whom Jesus loved more than he loved the other disciples. These texts were largely written long after the death of the historical Mary Magdalene and are generally not regarded by scholars as reliable sources of information about her life. Sanders summarizes the scholarly consensus \"that very, very little in the apocryphal gospels could conceivably go back to the time of Jesus. They are legendary and mythological. Of all the apocryphal material, only some of the sayings in the Gospel of Thomas are worth consideration.\" Nonetheless, the apocryphal gospels have been frequently promoted in works addressed to popular audiences as though they were reliable, often to support sensationalist claims about Jesus and Mary Magdalene's relationship.", "The earliest dialogue between Jesus and Mary Magdalene is probably the Dialogue of the Savior, a badly damaged Gnostic text discovered in the Nag Hammadi library in 1945. The dialogue consists of a conversation between Jesus and three disciples: Judas Thomas, Matthew, and Mary. The fact that the", "The \"Pistis Sophia\", possibly dating as early as the second century, is the best surviving of the Gnostic writings. It was discovered in the eighteenth century in a large volume containing numerous early Gnostic treatises. The document takes the form of a long dialogue in which Jesus answers his followers' questions. Of the sixty-four questions, thirty-nine are presented by a woman who is referred to as Mary or Mary Magdalene. At one point, Jesus tells Mary, \"Mary, thou blessed one, whom I will perfect in all mysteries of those of the height, discourse in openness, thou, whose heart is raised to", "The Gospel of Thomas, usually dated to the late first or early second century, was among the ancient texts discovered in the Nag Hammadi library in 1945. The Gospel of Thomas consists entirely of 114 sayings attributed to Jesus. Many of these sayings are similar to ones in the canonical gospels, but others are completely unlike anything found in the New Testament. Some scholars believe that at least a few of these sayings may authentically be traced back to the historical Jesus. Two of the sayings reference a woman named \"Mary\", who is generally regarded as Mary Magdalene. In saying 21, Mary herself asks Jesus the perfectly innocuous question, \"Whom are your disciples like?\" Jesus responds, \"They are like children who have settled in a field which is not theirs. When the owners of the field come, they will say, 'Let us have back our field.' They", "The Gospel of Philip, dating from the second or third century, survives in part among the texts found in Nag Hammadi in 1945. In a manner very similar to, the Gospel of Philip presents Mary Magdalene among Jesus' female entourage, adding that she was his \"koinônos\", a Greek word variously translated in contemporary versions as partner, associate, comrade, companion: There were three who always walked with the Lord: Mary, his mother, and her sister, and Magdalene, who was called his companion. His sister, his mother and his companion were each a Mary. The Gospel of Philip uses cognates of \"koinônos\" and Coptic equivalents to refer to the literal pairing of men and women in marriage and sexual intercourse, but also metaphorically, referring to a spiritual partnership, and the reunification of the Gnostic Christian with the divine realm. The Gospel of Philip also contains another", "The Gospel of Mary is the only surviving gospel named after a woman and it provides important information about the role of women in the early church. The Gospel of Mary was probably written over a century after the historical Mary Magdalene's death. The gospel does not claim to have been written by her and its author is, in fact, anonymous. Instead, it received its title because it is \"about\" her. The main surviving text of the gospel comes from a Coptic translation preserved in", "The Borborites, also known as the Phibionites, were an early Christian Gnostic sect during the late fourth century who had numerous scriptures involving Mary Magdalene, including \"The Questions of Mary\", \"The Greater Questions of Mary\", \"The Lesser Questions of Mary\", and \"The Birth of Mary\". None of these texts have survived to the present, but they are mentioned by the early Christian heretic-hunter Epiphanius of Salamis in his \"Panarion\". Epiphanius claims that the \"Greater Questions of Mary\" contained an episode in which, during a post-resurrection appearance, Jesus took Mary to", "", "Most of the earliest Church Fathers do not mention Mary Magdalene at all, and those who do mention her usually only discuss her very briefly. In his anti-Christian polemic \"The True Word\", written between 170 and 180, the pagan philosopher Celsus declared that Mary Magdalene was nothing more than \"a hysterical female... who either dreamt in a certain state of mind and through wishful thinking had a hallucination due to some mistaken notion (an experience which has happened to thousands), or, which is more likely, wanted to impress others by telling this fantastic tale, and so by this cock-and-bull story", "The unnamed \"sinful woman\" in is never identified as a prostitute and, in Jewish society at the time the gospel was written, \"sinful\" could have simply meant that she \"did not assiduously observe the law of Moses\". The notion of Mary Magdalene specifically being a former prostitute or loose woman dates to a claim by Pope Gregory I (\"Gregory the Great\") made in an influential homily in around 591, in which he not only identifies Magdalene with the anonymous sinner with the perfume in Luke's gospel and", "Starting in early High Middle Ages, writers in western Europe began developing elaborate fictional biographies of Mary Magdalene's life, in which they heavily embellished upon the vague details given in the gospels. Stories about noble saints were popular during this time period; accordingly, tales of Mary Magdalene's wealth and social status became heavily exaggerated. In the tenth century, Odo of Cluny ( 880 – 942) wrote a sermon in which he described Mary as an extraordinarily wealthy noblewoman of royal descent. Some manuscripts of the sermon record that Mary's parents were named Syrus and Eucharia and one manuscript goes into great detail describing her family's purported land holdings in Bethany, Jerusalem, and Magdala. The theologian Honorius Augustodunensis ( 1080 – 1151) embellished this tale even further, reporting that Mary was a wealthy noblewoman who was married in \"Magdalum\", but that she committed adultery, so she fled to Jerusalem and became a \"public sinner\" (\"vulgaris", "The thirteenth-century Cistercian monk and chronicler Peter of Vaux de Cernay claimed it was part of Catharist belief that the earthly Jesus Christ had a relationship with Mary Magdalene, described as his concubine: \"Further, in their secret meetings they said that the Christ who was born in the earthly and visible Bethlehem and crucified at Jerusalem was \"evil\", and that Mary Magdalene was his concubine – and that she was the woman taken in adultery who is referred to in the Scriptures.\" A document, possibly written by Ermengaud of Béziers, undated and anonymous and attached to his \"Treatise against Heretics\", makes a", "In 1517, on the brink of the Protestant Reformation, the leading French Renaissance humanist Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples published his book \"De Maria Magdalena et triduo Christi disceptatio\" (\"Disputation on Mary Magdalene and the Three Days of Christ\"), in which he argued against the conflation of Mary Magdalene, Mary of Bethany, and the unnamed sinner in Luke. Various authors published a flurry of books and pamphlets in response, the vast majority of which opposed Lefèvre d'Étaples. In 1521, the theology faculty of the Sorbonne formally condemned the idea that the three women were separate people as heretical, and debate died down, overtaken by the larger issues raised by Martin Luther. Luther and Huldrych Zwingli (1484 – 1531) both supported the composite Magdalene. Luther, whose views on sexuality were much more liberal than those of his fellow reformers, reportedly once joked to a group of friends that \"even pious Christ himself\" had committed adultery three times:", "Because of the legends claiming that Mary Magdalene had been a prostitute, she became the patroness of \"wayward women\", and, in the eighteenth century, moral reformers established Magdalene asylums to help save women from prostitution. Edgar Saltus's historical fiction novel \"Mary Magdalene: A Chronicle\" (1891) depicts her as a heroine living in a castle at Magdala, who moves to Rome becoming the \"toast of the tetrarchy\", telling John the Baptist she will \"drink pearls... sup on peacock's tongues\". The common identification of Mary Magdalene with other New Testament figures", "The early notion of Mary Magdalene as a sinner and adulteress was reflected in Western medieval Christian art, where she was the most commonly depicted female figure after the Virgin Mary. She may be shown either as very extravagantly and fashionably dressed, unlike other female figures wearing contemporary styles of clothes, or alternatively as completely naked but covered by very long blonde or reddish-blonde hair. The latter depictions represent the \"Penitent Magdalene\", according to the medieval legend that she had spent a period of repentance as a desert hermit after leaving her life as a", "", "The Eastern Orthodox Church has never identified Mary Magdalene with Mary of Bethany or the \"sinful woman\" who anoints Jesus in Luke 7:36–50 and has always taught that Mary was a virtuous woman her entire life, even before her conversion. They have never celebrated her as a penitent. Mary Magdalene's image did not become conflated with other women mentioned in Biblical texts until Pope Gregory the Great's sermon in the sixth century, and even then this only occurred in Western traditions. Instead, she has traditionally been honored as a \"Myrrhbearer\" (Μυροφόρος; the equivalent of the western Three Marys) and \"Equal", "During the Counter Reformation and Baroque periods (late 16th and 17th centuries), the description \"penitent\" was added to the indication of her name on her feast day, July 22. It had not yet been added at the time of the Tridentine Calendar of 1569 and is no longer found in the present General Roman Calendar but, once added, it remained until the General Roman Calendar of 1960. The Gospel reading in the Tridentine Mass was (the sinful woman anointing the feet of Jesus), while in the present version of the Roman Rite of Mass it is (meeting of Mary Magdalene with Jesus after his resurrection). According to Darrell Bock, the title of \"apostola apostolorum\" first appears in the 10th century, but Katherine Ludwig Jansen says she found no reference to it earlier than the 12th, by which time it was already commonplace. She mentions in particular Hugh of Cluny (1024–1109), Peter Abelard (1079–1142), and Bernard of Clairvaux (1090–1153)", "The 1549 \"Book of Common Prayer\" had on July 22 a feast of Saint Mary Magdalene, with the same Scripture readings as in the Tridentine Mass and with a newly composed collect: \"Merciful father geue us grace, that we neuer presume to synne through the example of anye creature, but if it shall chaunce vs at any tyme to offende thy dyuine maiestie: that then we maye truly repent, and lament the same, after the example of Mary Magdalene, and by lyuelye faythe obtayne remission of all oure sinnes: throughe the onely", "There are many references to Mary Magdalene in the writings of the Bahá'í Faith, where she enjoys an exalted status as a heroine of faith and the \"archetypal woman of all cycles\". `Abdu'l-Bahá, the son of the founder of the religion, said that she was \"the channel of confirmation\" to Jesus' disciples, a \"heroine\" who \"re-established the faith of the apostles\" and was \"a light of nearness in his kingdom\". `Abdu'l-Bahá also wrote that \"her reality is ever shining from the horizon of Christ\", \"her face is shining and beaming forth on the horizon of the universe forevermore\" and that \"her candle is, in the assemblage of the world, lighted till eternity\". `Abdu'l-Bahá considered her to be the supreme example of how women are completely equal with men in the sight", "Ehrman states that the historical sources reveal absolutely nothing about Jesus's sexuality and that there is no evidence whatsoever to support the idea that Jesus and Mary Magdalene were married or that they had any kind of sexual or romantic relationship. None of the canonical gospels imply such a thing and, even in the late Gnostic gospels, where Mary is shown as Jesus's closest disciple, the love between them is not sexual. The extremely late \"Greater Questions of Mary\", which is not extant, allegedly portrayed Mary not as Jesus's wife or partner, but rather as an unwilling voyeur. Furthermore, Ehrman points out that the Essenes, a contemporary Jewish sect who shared many views with Jesus, and the apostle Paul, Jesus's later follower, both lived in unmarried celibacy, so it is not unreasonable to conclude that Jesus did as well. According to, Jesus taught that marriage would not exist at all in the coming kingdom of God. Since Jesus taught that people should live as though the kingdom had already arrived, this teaching implied a life of unmarried celibacy. Finally, Ehrman points out that, if Jesus had been married to Mary Magdalene, the authors of the gospels would definitely have mentioned it, since they mention all his other family members, including his mother Mary, his father Joseph, his four brothers, and his at least two sisters. Casey rejects the idea of Mary Magdalene as Jesus's wife as nothing more than wild popular sensationalism." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Coordinate representation.", "Maps to the dual space.", "Symmetric, skew-symmetric and alternating forms.", "Derived quadratic form.", "Reflexivity and orthogonality.", "Different spaces.", "Relation to tensor products.", "On normed vector spaces.", "Generalization to modules." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Let be an -dimensional vector space with basis The matrix \"A\", defined by is called the \"matrix of the bilinear form\" on the basis If the matrix represents a vector with respect to this basis, and analogously, represents another vector, then: A bilinear form has different matrices on different bases. However, the matrices of a bilinear on different bases are all congruent. More precisely, if is another basis of, then where the formula_3 form an invertible matrix. Then, the matrix of the bilinear form on the new basis is.", "Every bilinear form \"B\" on \"V\" defines a pair of linear maps from \"V\" to its dual space \"V\". Define by This is often denoted as where the dot ( ⋅ ) indicates the slot into which the argument for the resulting linear functional is to be placed (see Currying). For a finite-dimensional vector space \"V\", if either of \"B\" or \"B\" is an isomorphism, then both are, and the bilinear form \"B\" is said to be nondegenerate. More concretely, for a finite-dimensional vector space, non-degenerate means that every non-zero element pairs non-trivially with some other element: The corresponding notion for a module over a commutative ring is that a bilinear form is if is an isomorphism. Given a finitely generated module over a commutative ring, the pairing may be injective (hence \"nondegenerate\" in the above sense) but not unimodular. For example, over the integers, the pairing is nondegenerate but not unimodular, as the induced map from to is multiplication by 2. If \"V\" is finite-dimensional then one can identify \"V\" with its double dual \"V\". One can then show that \"B\" is the transpose of the linear map \"B\" (if \"V\" is infinite-dimensional then \"B\" is the transpose of \"B\" restricted to the image of \"V\" in \"V\"). Given \"B\" one can define the \"transpose\" of \"B\" to be the bilinear form given by The left radical and right radical of the form \"B\" are the kernels of \"B\" and \"B\" respectively; they are the vectors orthogonal to the whole space on the left and on the right. If \"V\" is finite-dimensional then the rank of \"B\" is equal to the rank of \"B\". If this number is equal to dim(\"V\") then \"B\" and \"B\" are linear isomorphisms from \"V\" to \"V\". In this case \"B\" is nondegenerate. By the rank–nullity theorem, this is equivalent to the condition that the left and equivalently right radicals be trivial. For finite-dimensional spaces, this is often taken as the \"definition\" of nondegeneracy: Given any linear map one can obtain a bilinear form \"B\" on \"V\" via This form will be nondegenerate if and only if \"A\" is an isomorphism. If \"V\" is finite-dimensional then, relative to some basis for \"V\", a bilinear form is degenerate if and only if the determinant of the associated matrix is zero. Likewise, a nondegenerate form is one for which the determinant of the associated matrix is non-zero (the matrix is non-singular). These statements are independent of the chosen basis. For a module over a commutative ring, a unimodular form is one for which the determinant of the associate matrix is a unit (for example 1), hence the term; note that a form whose matrix is non-zero but not a unit will be nondegenerate but not unimodular, for example over the integers.", "We define a bilinear form to be If the characteristic of \"K\" is not 2 then the converse is also true: every skew-symmetric form is alternating. If, however, then a skew-symmetric form is the same as a symmetric form and there exist symmetric/skew-symmetric forms that are not alternating. A bilinear form is symmetric (resp. skew-symmetric) if and only if its coordinate matrix (relative to any basis) is symmetric (resp. skew-symmetric). A bilinear form is alternating if and only if its coordinate matrix is skew-symmetric and the diagonal entries are all zero (which follows from skew-symmetry when ). A bilinear form is symmetric if and only if the maps are equal, and skew-symmetric if and only if they are negatives of one another. If then one can decompose a bilinear form into a symmetric and a skew-symmetric part as follows where \"B\" is the transpose of \"B\" (defined above).", "For any bilinear form, there exists an associated quadratic form defined by. When, the quadratic form \"Q\" is determined by the symmetric part of the bilinear form \"B\" and is independent of the antisymmetric part. In this case there is a one-to-one correspondence between the symmetric part of the bilinear form and the quadratic form, and it makes sense to speak of the symmetric bilinear form associated with a quadratic form. When and, this correspondence between quadratic forms and symmetric bilinear forms breaks down.", "A bilinear form \"B\" is reflexive if and only if it is either symmetric or alternating. In the absence of reflexivity we have to distinguish left and right orthogonality. In a reflexive space the left and right radicals agree and are termed the \"kernel\" or the \"radical\" of the bilinear form: the subspace of all vectors orthogonal with every other vector. A vector v, with matrix representation \"x\", is in the radical of a bilinear form with matrix representation \"A\", if and only if. The radical is always a subspace of \"V\". It is trivial if and only if the matrix \"A\" is nonsingular, and thus if and only if the bilinear form is nondegenerate. Suppose \"W\" is a subspace. Define the \"orthogonal complement\" For a non-degenerate form on a finite dimensional space, the map is bijective, and the dimension of \"W\" is.", "Much of the theory is available for a bilinear mapping from two vector spaces over the same base field to that field Here we still have induced linear mappings from \"V\" to \"W\", and from \"W\" to \"V\". It may happen that these mappings are isomorphisms; assuming finite dimensions, if one is an isomorphism, the other must be. When this occurs, \"B\" is said to be a perfect pairing. In finite dimensions, this is equivalent to the pairing being nondegenerate (the spaces necessarily having the same dimensions). For modules (instead of vector spaces), just as how a nondegenerate form is weaker than a unimodular form, a nondegenerate pairing is a weaker notion than a perfect pairing. A pairing can be nondegenerate without being a perfect pairing, for instance via is nondegenerate, but induces multiplication by 2 on the map. Terminology varies in coverage of bilinear forms. For example, F. Reese Harvey discusses \"eight types of inner product\". To define them he uses diagonal matrices \"A\" having only +1 or −1 for non-zero elements. Some of the \"inner products\" are symplectic forms and some are sesquilinear forms or Hermitian forms. Rather than a general field \"K\", the instances with real numbers R, complex numbers C, and quaternions H are spelled out. The bilinear form is called the real symmetric case and labeled, where. Then he articulates the connection to traditional terminology:", "By the universal property of the tensor product, there is a canonical correspondence between bilinear forms on \"V\" and linear maps. If \"B\" is a bilinear form on \"V\" the corresponding linear map is given by In the other direction, if is a linear map the corresponding bilinear form is given by composing \"F\" with the bilinear map that sends to. The set of all linear maps is the dual space of, so bilinear forms may be thought of as elements of which (when \"V\" is finite-dimensional) is canonically isomorphic to. Likewise, symmetric bilinear forms may be thought of as elements of Sym(\"V\") (the second symmetric power of \"V\"), and alternating bilinear forms as elements of Λ\"V\" (the second exterior power of \"V\").", "Definition: A bilinear form on a normed vector space is bounded, if there is a constant \"C\" such that for all, Definition: A bilinear form on a normed vector space is elliptic, or coercive, if there is a constant such that for all,", "Given a ring \"R\" and a right \"R\"-module \"M\" and its dual module \"M\", a mapping is called a bilinear form if for all, all and all. The mapping is known as the \"natural pairing\", also called the \"canonical bilinear form\" on. A linear map induces the bilinear form, and a linear map induces the bilinear form. Conversely, a bilinear form induces the \"R\"-linear maps and. Here, \"M\" denotes the double dual of \"M\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Battle.", "Prelude.", "Carrier action on 24 August.", "Actions on 25 August.", "Aftermath." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "On 7 August 1942, Allied forces (primarily U.S. Marine Corps units) landed on Guadalcanal, Tulagi, and the Florida Islands in the Solomon Islands. The landings on the islands were meant to deny their use by the Japanese as bases to threaten supply routes between the U.S. and Australia, and secure the islands as launching points for a campaign with an eventual goal of isolating the major Japanese base at Rabaul while also supporting the Allied New Guinea campaign. The landings initiated the six-month-long Guadalcanal campaign. The Allied landings were directly supported by three U.S. aircraft carrier task forces (TFs): TF 11 (), TF 16 (), and TF 18 (), their respective air groups, and supporting surface warships, including a battleship, cruisers, and destroyers. The overall commander of the three carrier task forces was Vice Admiral Frank Jack Fletcher, who flew his flag on \"Saratoga\". The aircraft from the three carriers provided close air support for the invasion forces and defended against Japanese air attacks from Rabaul. After a successful landing, they remained in the South Pacific area charged with four main objectives: guarding the line of communication between the major Allied bases at New Caledonia and Espiritu Santo; giving support to Allied ground forces at Guadalcanal and Tulagi against possible Japanese counteroffensives; covering the movement of supply ships aiding Guadalcanal; and engaging and destroying any Japanese warships that came within range. Between 15 and 20 August, the U.S. carriers covered the delivery of fighter and bomber aircraft to the newly opened Henderson Field on Guadalcanal. This small, hard-won airfield was a critical point in the entire island chain, and both sides considered that control of the airbase offered potential control of the local airspace. In fact, Henderson Field and the aircraft based there soon limited the movement of Japanese forces in the Solomon Islands and in the attrition of Japanese air forces in the South Pacific Area. Allied control of Henderson Field became the key factor in the entire battle for Guadalcanal. Surprised by the Allied offensive in the Solomons, Japanese naval forces (under Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto) and army forces prepared a counteroffensive, with the goal of driving the Allies out of Guadalcanal and Tulagi. The counteroffensive was called \"Operation Ka\", from the first syllable in the Japanese name for Guadalcanal.) The naval forces had the additional objective of destroying Allied warship forces in the South Pacific area, specifically the U.S. carriers.", "", "On 16 August 1942, a convoy of three slow transport ships loaded with 1,411 Japanese soldiers from the 28th \"Ichiki\" Infantry Regiment, as well as several hundred naval troops from the 5th Yokosuka Special Naval Landing Force (SNLF), departed the major Japanese base at Truk Lagoon (Chuuk) and headed towards Guadalcanal. The transports were guarded by the light cruiser, eight destroyers, and four patrol boats, led by Rear Admiral Raizō Tanaka (flag in \"Jintsū\") Also departing from Rabaul to help protect the convoy was a \"close cover force\" of four heavy cruisers from the 8th Fleet, commanded by Vice Admiral Gunichi Mikawa. These were the same, relatively old, heavy cruisers that had defeated an Allied naval surface force in the earlier Battle of Savo Island (with the subtraction of the, which had been sunk by an American submarine). Tanaka planned to land the troops from his convoy on Guadalcanal on 24 August. On 21 August, the rest of the Japanese \"Ka\" naval force departed Truk, heading for the southern Solomons. These ships were basically divided into three groups: the \"main body\" contained the Japanese carriers and, light carrier, and a screening force of one heavy cruiser and eight destroyers, commanded by Vice Admiral Chūichi Nagumo in \"Shōkaku\"; the \"vanguard force\" consisted of two battleships, three heavy cruisers, one light cruiser, and three destroyers, commanded by Rear Admiral Hiroaki Abe; and the \"advanced force\" contained five heavy cruisers, one light cruiser, six destroyers, and the seaplane carrier, commanded by Vice Admiral Nobutake Kondō. Finally, a force of about 100 IJN land-based bombers, fighters, and reconnaissance aircraft at Rabaul and nearby islands were positioned for operational support. Nagumo's main body positioned itself behind the \"vanguard\" and \"advanced\" forces in an attempt to more easily remain hidden from U.S. reconnaissance aircraft. The \"Ka\" plan dictated that once U.S. carriers were located, either by Japanese scout aircraft or an attack on one of the Japanese surface forces, Nagumo's carriers would immediately launch a strike force to destroy them. With the U.S. carriers destroyed or disabled, Abe's \"vanguard\" and Kondo's \"advanced\" forces would close with and destroy the remaining Allied naval forces in a warship surface action. This would then allow Japanese naval forces the freedom to neutralize Henderson Field through bombardment while covering the landing of the Japanese army troops to retake Guadalcanal and Tulagi. In response to an unanticipated land battle fought between U.S. Marines on Guadalcanal and Japanese forces on 19–20 August, the U.S. carrier task forces under Fletcher reversed towards Guadalcanal from their positions to the south on 21 August. The U.S. carriers were to support the Marines, protect Henderson Field, engage the enemy and destroy any Japanese naval forces that arrived to support Japanese troops in the land battle on Guadalcanal. Both Allied and Japanese naval forces continued to converge on 22 August and both sides conducted intense aircraft scouting efforts, however neither side spotted its adversary. The disappearance of at least one of their scouting aircraft (shot down by aircraft from \"Enterprise\" before it could send a radio report), caused the Japanese to strongly suspect that U.S. carriers were in the immediate area. The U.S., however, was unaware of the disposition and strength of approaching Japanese surface warship forces. At 09:50 on 23 August, a U.S. PBY Catalina flying boat (based at Ndeni in the Santa Cruz Islands) initially sighted Tanaka's convoy. By late afternoon, with no further sightings of Japanese ships, two aircraft strike forces from \"Saratoga\" and Henderson Field took off to attack the convoy. However, Tanaka, knowing that an attack would be forthcoming following the PBY sighting, reversed course once he had departed the area, and eluded the strike aircraft. After Tanaka reported to his superiors his loss of time by turning north to avoid the expected Allied airstrike, the landings of his troops on Guadalcanal was pushed back to 25 August. By 18:23 on 23 August, with no Japanese carriers sighted and no new intelligence reporting of their presence in the area, Fletcher detached \"Wasp\" (which was getting low on fuel) and the rest of TF 18 for the two-day trip south toward Efate Island to refuel. Thus, \"Wasp\" and her escorting warships missed the upcoming battle.", "At 01:45 on 24 August 1942, Nagumo ordered Rear Admiral Chūichi Hara (with the light carrier \"Ryūjō\", the heavy cruiser and destroyers and ) to proceed ahead of the main Japanese force and send an aircraft attack force against Henderson Field at daybreak. The \"Ryūjō\" mission was most likely in response to a request from Nishizō Tsukahara (the naval commander at Rabaul) for help from the combined fleet in neutralizing Henderson Field. The mission may also have been intended by Nagumo as a feint maneuver to divert U.S. attention allowing the rest of the Japanese force to approach the U.S. naval forces undetected as well as to help provide protection and cover for Tanaka's convoy. Most of the aircraft on \"Shōkaku\" and \"Zuikaku\" were readied to launch on short notice if the U.S. carriers were located. Between 05:55 and 06:30, the U.S. carriers (mainly \"Enterprise\" augmented by PBY Catalinas from Ndeni) launched their own scout aircraft to search for the Japanese naval forces. At 09:35, a Catalina made the first sighting of the \"Ryūjō\" force. Later that morning, several more sightings of \"Ryūjō\" and ships of Kondo's and Mikawa's forces by carrier and other U.S. reconnaissance aircraft followed. Throughout the morning and early afternoon, U.S. aircraft also sighted several Japanese scout aircraft and submarines, leading Fletcher to believe that the Japanese knew where his carriers were, which actually was not yet the case. Still, Fletcher hesitated to order a strike against the \"Ryūjō\" group until he was sure there were no other Japanese carriers in the area. Finally, with no firm word on the presence or location of other Japanese carriers, at 13:40 Fletcher launched a strike of 38 aircraft from \"Saratoga\" to attack \"Ryūjō\". However, he kept aircraft in reserve from both U.S. carriers potentially ready should any Japanese fleet carriers be sighted. Meanwhile, at 12:20, \"Ryūjō\" launched six Nakajima B5N2 \"Kate\" bombers and 15 A6M3 Zero fighters to attack Henderson Field in conjunction with an attack by 24 Mitsubishi G4M2 \"Betty\" bombers and 14 Zeros from Rabaul. However, unknown to the \"Ryūjō\" aircraft, the Rabaul aircraft had encountered severe weather and returned to their base earlier at 11:30. The \"Ryūjō\" aircraft were detected on radar by \"Saratoga\" as they flew toward Guadalcanal, further fixing the location of their ship for the impending U.S. attack. The \"Ryūjō\" aircraft arrived over Henderson Field at 14:23, and tangled with Henderson's fighters (members of the Cactus Air Force) while bombing the airfield. In the resulting engagement, three \"Kates\", three Zeros, and three U.S. fighters were shot down, and no significant damage was done to Henderson Field. Almost simultaneously, at 14:25 a Japanese scout aircraft from the cruiser sighted the U.S. carriers. Although the aircraft was shot down, its report was transmitted in time, and Nagumo immediately ordered his strike force launched from \"Shōkaku\" and \"Zuikaku\". The first wave of aircraft (27 Aichi D3A2 \"Val\" dive bombers and 15 Zeros), under the command of Lieutenant Commander Mamoru Seki, was off by 14:50 and on its way toward \"Enterprise\" and \"Saratoga\". Coincidentally about this same time, two U.S. scout aircraft finally sighted the main Japanese force. However, due to communication problems, these sighting reports never reached Fletcher. Before leaving the area, the two U.S. scout aircraft attacked \"Shōkaku\", causing negligible damage, but forcing five of the first wave Zeros to give chase, thus aborting their mission. At 16:00 a second wave of 27 Vals and nine Zeros was launched by the Japanese carriers and headed south toward the U.S. carriers. Abe's \"Vanguard\" force also surged ahead in anticipation of meeting the U.S. ships in a surface action after nightfall. Again coincidentally about this same time, the \"Saratoga\" strike force arrived and attacked \"Ryūjō\", hitting and heavily damaging her with three to five bombs and perhaps one torpedo, and killing 120 of her crew. Also during this time, several U.S. B-17 heavy bombers attacked the crippled \"Ryūjō\" but caused no additional damage. The crew abandoned the heavily damaged Japanese carrier at nightfall and she sank soon after. \"Amatsukaze\" and \"Tokitsukaze\" rescued \"Ryūjō\"s survivors and the aircrews from her returning strike force, who ditched their aircraft in the ocean nearby. After the rescue operations were complete, both Japanese destroyers and \"Tone\" rejoined Nagumo's main force. At 16:02, still waiting for a definitive report on the location of the Japanese fleet carriers, the U.S. carriers' radar detected the first incoming wave of Japanese strike aircraft. Fifty-three F4F-4 Wildcat fighters from the two U.S. carriers were directed by radar control towards the attackers. However, communication problems, limitations of the aircraft identification capabilities of the radar, primitive control procedures, and effective screening of the Japanese dive bombers by their escorting Zeros, prevented all but a few of the U.S. fighters from engaging the Vals before they began their attacks on the U.S. carriers. Just before the Japanese dive bombers began their attacks, \"Enterprise\" and \"Saratoga\" cleared their decks for the impending action by launching the aircraft that they had been holding ready in case the Japanese fleet carriers were sighted. These aircraft were told to fly north and attack anything they could find, or else to circle outside the battle zone, until it was safe to return. At 16:29, the Japanese dive bombers began their attacks. Although several attempted to set up to attack the \"Saratoga\", they quickly shifted back to the nearer carrier, \"Enterprise\". Thus, \"Enterprise\" was the target of almost the entire Japanese air attack. Several Wildcats followed the Vals into their attack dives, despite the intense anti-aircraft artillery fire from \"Enterprise\" and her screening warships, in a desperate attempt to disrupt their attacks. As many as four Wildcats were shot down by U.S. anti-aircraft fire, as well as several Vals. Because of the effective anti-aircraft fire from the U.S. ships, plus evasive maneuvers, the bombs from the first nine Vals missed \"Enterprise\". However, one of Vals from the second division (led by Lieutenant Keiichi Arima) managed to score a hit with armor-piercing, delayed-action bomb that penetrated the flight deck near the aft elevator and passed through three decks before detonating below the waterline, killing 35 men and wounding 70 more. Incoming sea water caused \"Enterprise\" to develop a slight list, but it was not a major breach of hull integrity. Just 30 seconds later, the next Val planted its bomb only away from where the first bomb hit. The resulting detonation ignited a large secondary explosion from one of the nearby guns' ready powder casings, killing 35 members of the nearby gun crews and starting a large fire. About a minute later, at 16:46, the third and last bomb hit \"Enterprise\" on the flight deck forward of where the first two bombs hit. This bomb exploded on contact, creating a hole in the deck, but caused no further damage. Seven Vals (three from \"Shokaku\", four from \"Zuikaku\") then broke off from the attack on \"Enterprise\" to attack the U.S. battleship \"North Carolina\". However, all of their bombs missed and all the Vals involved were shot down by either anti-aircraft fire or U.S. fighters. The attack was over at 16:48, and the surviving Japanese aircraft reassembled in small groups and returned to their ships. Both sides thought that they had inflicted more damage than was the case. The U.S. claimed to have shot down 70 Japanese aircraft, even though there were only 37 aircraft in all. Actual Japanese losses—from all causes—in the engagement were 25 aircraft, with most of the crews of the lost aircraft not being recovered or rescued. The Japanese, for their part, mistakenly believed that they had heavily damaged two U.S. carriers, instead of just one. The U.S. lost six aircraft in the engagement, with five pilots lost. Although \"Enterprise\" was heavily damaged and on fire, her damage-control teams were able to make sufficient repairs for the ship to resume flight operations at 17:46, only one hour after the engagement ended. At 18:05, the \"Saratoga\" strike force returned from sinking \"Ryūjō\" and landed without major incident. The second wave of Japanese aircraft approached the U.S. carriers at 18:15 but was unable to locate the U.S. formation because of communication problems and had to return to their carriers without attacking any U.S. ships, losing five aircraft in the process from operational mishaps. Most of the U.S. carrier aircraft launched just before the first wave of Japanese aircraft attacked failed to find any targets. However, two SBD Dauntlesses from \"Saratoga\" sighted Kondo's advanced force and attacked the seaplane tender \"Chitose\", scoring two near-hits which heavily damaged the unarmored ship. The U.S. carrier aircraft either landed at Henderson Field or were able to return to their carriers after dusk. The U.S. ships retired to the south to get out of range of any approaching Japanese warships. In fact, Abe's \"Vanguard\" force and Kondō's \"Advance\" force were steaming south to try to catch the U.S. carrier task forces in a surface battle, but they turned around at midnight without having made contact with the U.S. warships. Nagumo's main body, having taken heavy aircraft losses in the engagement and being low on fuel, also retreated northward.", "Believing that two U.S. carriers had been taken out of action with heavy damage, Tanaka's reinforcement convoy again headed toward Guadalcanal, and by 08:00 on 25 August they were within of their destination. At this time, Tanaka's convoy was joined by five destroyers which had shelled Henderson Field the night before, causing slight damage. At 08:05, 18 U.S. aircraft from Henderson Field attacked Tanaka's convoy, causing heavy damage to \"Jintsu\", killing 24 crewmen, and knocking Tanaka unconscious. The troop transport \"Kinryu Maru\" was also hit and eventually sank. Just as the destroyer pulled alongside \"Kinryu Maru\" to rescue her crew and embarked troops, she was attacked by four U.S. B-17s from Espiritu Santo, which landed five bombs on or around \"Mutsuki\", sinking her immediately. An uninjured but shaken Tanaka transferred to the destroyer, sent \"Jintsu\" back to Truk, and took the convoy to the Japanese base in the Shortland Islands. Both the Japanese and the U.S. elected to completely withdraw their warships from the area, ending the battle. The Japanese naval forces lingered near the northern Solomons, out of range of the U.S. aircraft based at Henderson Field, before finally returning to Truk on 5 September.", "The battle is generally considered to be a tactical and strategic victory for the U.S. because the Japanese lost more ships, aircraft, and aircrew, and Japanese troop reinforcements for Guadalcanal were delayed. Summing up the significance of the battle, historian Richard B. Frank states: The Battle of the Eastern Solomons was unquestionably an American victory, but it had little long-term result, apart from a further reduction in the corps of trained Japanese carrier aviators. The (Japanese) reinforcements that could not come by slow transport would soon reach Guadalcanal by other means. The U.S. lost only seven aircrew members in the battle. However, the Japanese lost 61 veteran aircrew, who were hard for the Japanese to replace because of an institutionalized limited capacity in their naval aircrew training programs and an absence of trained reserves. The troops in Tanaka's convoy were later loaded onto destroyers at the Shortland Islands and delivered piecemeal, without most of their heavy equipment, to Guadalcanal beginning on 29 August 1942. The Japanese claimed considerably more damage than they had inflicted, including that —not in the battle—had been sunk, thus avenging its part in the Doolittle Raid. Emphasizing the strategic value of Henderson Field, in a separate reinforcement effort, the Japanese destroyer was sunk and two other Japanese destroyers heavily damaged on 28 August, north of Guadalcanal in \"The Slot\" by U.S. aircraft based at the airfield. \"Enterprise\" traveled to Pearl Harbor for extensive repairs, which were completed on 15 October 1942. She returned to the South Pacific on 24 October, just in time for the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands and her rematch with \"Shōkaku\" and \"Zuikaku\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Nomenclature.", "Stellar system." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"β Centauri\" (Latinised to \"Beta Centauri\") is the star system's Bayer designation. It bore the traditional names \"Hadar\" and \"Agena\". \"Hadar\" comes from the Arabic حضار (the root's meaning is \"to be present\" or \"on the ground\" or \"settled, civilized area\"), while the name \"Agena\" is thought to be derived from the Latin \"genua\", meaning \"knees\", from the star's position on the left knee of the centaur depicted in the constellation Centaurus. In 2016, the International Astronomical Union organized a Working Group on Star Names (WGSN) to catalog and standardize proper names for stars. The WGSN approved the name \"Hadar\" for the star β Centauri Aa on 21 August 2016 and it is now so entered in the IAU Catalog of Star Names. The Chinese name for the star is 马腹一 (Mandarin: mǎ fù yī, \"the First Star of the Horse's Abdomen\"). The indigenous Boorong people of what is now northwestern Victoria, Australia named it as \"Bermbermgle\" (together with α Centauri), two brothers who were noted for their courage and destructiveness, and who spear and kill Tchingal, \"The Emu\" (Coalsack Nebula). The two brothers in Wotjobaluk people is \"Bram-bram-bult\".", "The Beta Centauri system is made up of three stars: Beta Centauri Aa, Beta Centauri Ab, and Beta Centauri B. All the spectral lines detected are consistent with a B1 type star, with only the line profiles varying, so it is thought that all three stars have the same spectral type. In 1935, Joan Voûte identified Beta Centauri B, giving it the identifier VOU 31. The companion is separated from the primary by 1.3 seconds of arc, and has remained so since the discovery, although the position angle has changed six degrees since. Beta Centauri B is a B1 dwarf with an apparent magnitude of 4. In 1967, Beta Centauri's observed periodic variation in radial velocity suggested that Beta Centauri A is a double-lined spectroscopic binary. This was confirmed in 1999. The primary consists of a pair of stars, β Centauri Aa and β Centauri Ab, of similar mass that orbit each other over a period of 357 days with a large eccentricity of about 0.8245. The pair were calculated to be separated by a mean distance of roughly 4 astronomical units (based on a distance to the system of 161 parsecs) in 2005. Both Aa and Ab apparently have a stellar classification of B1 III, with the luminosity class of III indicating giant stars that are evolving away from the main sequence. They are both Beta Cephei variable stars with multiple pulsation periods of just a few hours. The full range of variability has not been identified, but is no more than a few hundredths of a magnitude. Aa is 12.02 ± 0.13 times as massive as the Sun, while Ab is 10.58 ± 0.18 times as massive. The radius of β Centauri as a single star was calculated to be and its luminosity." ] }