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Provisional Theatre (Prague)
| null |
The Prague Provisional Theatre (, ) was erected in 1862 as a temporary home for Czech drama and opera until a permanent National Theatre could be built. It opened on 18 November 1862 and functioned for 20 years, during which time over 5,000 performances were presented. Between 1866 and 1876 the theatre staged the premieres of four of Bedřich Smetana's operas, including "The Bartered Bride". The Provisional Theatre building was eventually incorporated into the structure of the National Theatre, which opened its doors on 11 June 1881.
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en-train-1097033
|
en-train-1097033
|
1097033
|
{
"title": [
"Origins.",
"History."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Before the early 1860s almost all cultural institutions in Prague, including theatre and opera, were in Austrian hands. Bohemia was a province of the Habsburg Empire, and under that regime's absolutist rule most aspects of Czech culture and national life had been discouraged or suppressed. Absolutism was formally abolished by a decree of the Emperor Franz Josef on 20 October 1860, which led to a Czech cultural revival. The Bohemian \"Diet\" (parliament) had acquired a site in Prague on the banks of the Vltava, and in 1861 announced a public subscription, which raised a sum of 106,000 gulden. This covered the costs of building a small 800-seat theatre, which would act as a home for production of Czech drama and opera while longer-term plans for a permanent National Theatre could be implemented. The Provisional Theatre opened on 18 November 1862, with a performance of Vítězslav Hálek's tragic drama \"King Vukašín\". Since there was at the time no Czech opera deemed suitable, the first opera performed at the theatre, on 20 November 1862, was Cherubini's \"Les deux journées\". For the first year or so of its life, the Provisional Theatre alternated opera with straight plays on a daily basis, but from the start of 1864 opera performances were given daily.",
"The first principal conductor (or musical director) of the Provisional Theatre, appointed in the autumn of 1862, was Jan Nepomuk Maýr – to the disappointment of Smetana, who had hoped for the position himself. Maýr held the position until September 1866; his tenure was marked by a professional rivalry with Smetana, who criticised the theatre's conservatism and failure to fulfil its mission to promote Czech opera. Maýr retaliated by refusing to conduct Smetana's \"The Brandenburgers in Bohemia\". A change in the theatre's management in 1866 led to Maýr's removal and replacement by Smetana, who held the post for eight years. Maýr's bias in favour of Italian opera was replaced by Smetana's more balanced repertoire, which mixed Italian, German and French pieces with such Slavonic and Czech works as he could find. Apart from his own compositions (\"The Bartered Bride\", \"The Brandenburgers in Bohemia\" and \"Dalibor\", Smetana introduced works by the Czech composers Lepold Eugen Měchura and Josef Rozkošný, but was nevertheless attacked by some parts of the music establishment for giving insufficient encouragement to native talent. Efforts to remove him from his post, and to reinstate Maýr, were unsuccessful. Smetana was responsible for the establishment of an independent school attached to the theatre. He became the school's director and professor of theory. However, in 1874 Smetana became afflicted with deafness, which forced him to yield his duties as principal conductor to his assistant Adolf Čech, and to resign his post later that year. Maýr was reappointed to the conductorship; he had no interest in the school, which subsequently closed. The Provisional Theatre continued as the main venue for Czech opera, several of Antonín Dvořák's works being premiered there. In 1881 the theatre was incorporated into the Czech National Theatre building, which opened on 11 June. Shortly thereafter the new building was badly damaged by fire and remained closed for two years. During this period the Provisional Theatre continued to operate, using other theatre premises. During its lifetime the Provisional theatre mounted more than 5,000 performances."
]
}
|
Halva
| null |
Halva (also halvah, halwa, and other spellings) are dense, sweet confections originating in the Middle East. It is also served in Central and South Asia, the Balkans, the Caucasus, Eastern Europe, Malta, North Africa, the Horn of Africa, and in the Jewish diaspora. Identical sweets exist in other countries, such as China, though these are not generally referred to as "halva".
| null |
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en-train-295755
|
en-train-295755
|
295755
|
{
"title": [
"Etymology.",
"History.",
"Types.",
"Flour-based.",
"Semolina.",
"Cornstarch.",
"Rice flour.",
"Nut butter-based.",
"Sesame.",
"Sunflower.",
"Other.",
"Floss halva.",
"Cultural use.",
"Azerbaijan.",
"Greece.",
"India.",
"Iran.",
"Israel.",
"United States.",
"Cultural references."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"3",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The word \"halva\" entered the English language between 1840 and 1850 from the Romanian, which came from the \"helva\", itself ultimately derived from the, a sweet confection. The root in, means \"sweet\".",
"A reference to \"halvah\" appeared in the 7th century, referring to a mixture of mashed dates with milk. By the 9th century, the term was applied to numerous kinds of sweets, including the now-familiar sweetened cooked semolina or flour paste. Many of the earlier Persian recipes were documented in the 13th century Arabic book \"Kitab al-Tabikh\" (\"The Book of Dishes\"), as well as an anonymous cookbook from 13th-century Moorish Spain. Halva was adopted and expanded by the Ottoman Turks, including a sesame-based version, and spread throughout their empire.",
"Most types of halva are relatively dense confections sweetened with sugar or honey. Their textures, however, vary. For example, semolina-based halva is gelatinous and translucent, while sesame-based halva is drier and more crumbly.",
"Flour based halva is made by frying flour (such as semolina) in oil, mixing it into a roux, and then cooking it with a sugary syrup.",
"This variety of halva is usually made with wheat semolina, sugar or honey, and butter or vegetable oil. Raisins, dates, other dried fruits, or nuts such as almonds or walnuts are often added to semolina halva. The halva is very sweet, with a gelatinous texture similar to polenta; the added butter gives it a rich mouthfeel. In India, halva recipes use flour, melted butter or ghee, sugar and optionally acacia gum (gum arabic). It comes in various colors like orange, brown, green and white; in a translucent appearance studded with raisins, cashew nuts, pistachios, almonds, etc. Technically- the term halva is used in native recipes throughout India. A prominent South Indian version of halva (or \"alvaa\" in Tamil) is from Tirunelveli, a city in the state of Tamil Nadu. Another semolina preparation widely enjoyed throughout South India called \"kesari\" or \"kesari-bath\" originates from the state of Karnataka. Alternative vegetable-based halva recipes popular in India and Pakistan use beetroots, potatoes, yams, and most commonly carrots (for \"gajar halwa\"), mung beans (for \"moong dal halwa\"), or bottle gourds (for \"doodi halwa\") instead of semolina. Prepared with condensed milk and ghee, without semolina to bind it together, the end result has a moist, yet flaky, texture when freshly prepared. Other examples include the famous Agra Petha, easily available at Taj Mahal, Agra.",
"Cornstarch-gelatinous halva is popular in Greece and has many variations.",
"This rice flour and coconut milk halva is common fare on the streets of Zanzibar. A dairy-based rice flour halva, known as Pathein halawa, is considered a Burmese delicacy native to Pathein.",
"This type of halva is made by grinding oily seeds, such as sesame or sunflower seeds, to a paste, and then mixing with hot sugar syrup cooked to hard-crack stage. This type is popular in the Mediterranean, the Balkans, Middle East, Central Asia, and Eastern Europe.",
"Sesame halva is popular in the Balkans, Poland, Middle East, and other areas surrounding the Mediterranean Sea. The primary ingredients in this confection are sesame butter or paste (tahini), and sugar, glucose or honey. Soapwort (called \"‘erq al halaweh\" in Arabic; \"çöven\" in Turkish), egg white, or marshmallow root are added in some recipes to stabilize the oils in the mixture or create a distinctive texture for the resulting confection. A version of sesame halva, called sesame crumble candy (芝麻酥糖) in China uses ground sesame and sugar, cooked to the hard ball stage because it is made crispier than other halvas. Other ingredients and flavorings, such as pistachio nuts, cocoa powder, orange juice, vanilla, or chocolate are often added to the basic tahini and sugar base.",
"Sunflower halva is popular in the countries of the former Soviet Union, but also in Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, and other Balkan countries. It is made of roasted ground sunflower seeds instead of sesame. It may include other ingredients, such as nuts, cocoa powder, or vanilla.",
"",
"\"Pişmaniye\" (Turkish) or \"floss halva\" is a traditional sweet, prepared in Kocaeli, Turkey, made by flossing thin strands of halva into a light confection. Made primarily of wheat flour and sugar, the strands are continuously wrapped into a ball shape and then compressed. The result is a halva with a light consistency, similar to cotton candy. Floss halva can be found in regular and pistachio flavors, and there are brands with halal or kosher certifications. A similar pistachio-based version of floss halva is popular in North India. It tends to be slightly denser and is often referred to as \"patisa\" or \"sohan papdi\". In Chinese cuisine, a floss-like candy similar to \"pismaniye\" or \"pashmak halva\", known as \"dragon beard candy\", is eaten as a snack or dessert. A raw version of halva also has become popular among proponents of raw food diets. In this version, a mixture of raw sesame tahini, raw almonds, raw agave nectar and salt are blended together and frozen to firm.",
"Halva can be a snack or served as part of a meal.",
"One regional variant is from Sheki where \"Şəki halvası\" halva refers to a layered bakhlava style pastry filled with spiced-nut mix and topped by crisscrossed patterns of a red syrup made from saffron, dried carrot and beetroot.",
"Halva is a traditional fasting food among Greek Orthodox who traditionally have food restrictions, especially from meat, on Wednesdays and Fridays throughout the year, for all of Great Lent and other fasting periods.",
"India has many types of halva, some unique to particular regions of the country. It is one of the popular sweets of India usually made from semolina. It is speculated that Halva (or Halwa) is associated with Muslims in India, but written records of sweets from Mānasollāsa indicate that semolina halvas, the most popular form of halvas in India, were already known in India, for instance, it mentions a sweet called \"shali-anna\" which is semolina based sweet today known as kesari bat. Various types of halva from India are distinguished by the region and the ingredients from which they are prepared. In northern India, the most famous include \"sooji \" (or \"suji\") \"halva\" (semolina), \"aate ka halva\" (wheat), \"moong dal halwa\" (mung bean halva), \"gajar halva\" (carrot) which traditionally belongs to Punjab and is referred to as \"gajrela\", \"dudhi halva\", \"chana daal halwa\" (chickpeas), and \"Satyanarayan halwa\" (variation of \"suji halwa\", with the addition of detectable traces of banana), and \"kaju halva\" (cashew nut). \"Kashi halva\", made from winter melon or ash gourd, is a famous and traditional sweet of Karnataka, and mainly makes a regular appearance in traditional Brahmin weddings. Sooji halwa is sold in many eateries in Karnataka as Kesari bhath, usually alongside pineapple. \"Aate ka Halva\" usually being served every day as \"Prashad\" after reciting hymes in Sikh Gurudwaras. Tirunelveli in Tamil Nadu is known for its wheat halwa. Its preparation is a laborious process that \"is slowly seeing this sweet disappear.\" Unlike other sweets, the extra ghee is not drained out but forms an outer layer. This increases the shelf life of the halwa. The unique taste of the halwa is attributed to the perennial Thamirabranai.",
"In Iran, \"halva\" (حلوا) usually refers to a related confection made from wheat flour and butter and flavored with rose water. The final product has a dark brown color. The halva is spread thin on a plate till it dries into a paste. Halva usually is served at funerals and other formal ceremonies, often with almonds or coconut shavings on the top. \"Halva Ardeh\" is the Iranian term for tahini-based halva, and may or may not include whole pistachios. \"Ardeh\" is processed sesame in the form of paste, usually sweetened with syrup.",
"Tahini halvah () is very popular in Israel and among Jewish people throughout the diaspora. Spelled \"halvah\" in English, it usually comes in slabs, nearly-cylindrical cakes (illustrated), or small packages, and is available in a wide variety of flavours, chocolate and vanilla being very common. The halvah is almost always parve. Israeli halvah will usually not contain wheat flour or semolina, but will contain sesame tahini, glucose, sugar, vanilla and saponaria officinalis root extracts (soapwort), which are not usually found in other recipes. It is often served as a breakfast component at Israeli hotels, though it is not usually part of an Israeli breakfast, and it is even used in specialty ice-cream.",
"Halva can be found in ethnic Indian, Jewish, Arab, Persian, Greek, and Turkish community stores and delicatessens. It is increasingly offered by upscale restaurants in some areas. Besides being imported, it is manufactured in the United States, with the largest producer being Brooklyn-originated Joyva.",
"In Afghanistan, Turkey and Iran, after the burial ceremony, on the seventh and fortieth day following the death of a Muslim, and also on the first anniversary, semolina halva or flour halva is cooked and offered to visitors and neighbours by relatives of the deceased. to commemorate the anniversary of death. For this reason, flour (\"un\") halva is also called in Turkish \"ölü helvası\", meaning \"halva of the dead\". The expression \"roasting the halva of someone\" suggests the person referred to died some time ago. In episode 46 of the Turkish TV series \"Winter Sun\" (\"Kış Güneşi\"), İsmail tells a joke: A minor planet, 518 Halawe, is named after halva."
]
}
|
Heathen Front
| null |
The Allgermanische Heidnische Front (AHF) was an international neo-Nazi organisation, active during the late 1990s and early 2000s, that espoused a form of neo-völkisch Germanic Neopaganism. It grew from the Norsk Hedensk Front (NHF), which was claimed to be led and founded by the musician Varg Vikernes in 1993, although he and the organisation denied it. The program was based on his first book, "Vargsmål" (1994), published shortly after he was convicted for church arson and the murder of fellow musician Euronymous.
| null |
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en-train-1002455
|
en-train-1002455
|
1002455
|
{
"title": [
"Formation and Vikernes association.",
"International spread.",
"Ideology.",
"Closure."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"\"Norsk Hedensk Front\" (Norwegian Heathen Front) was founded in 1993. Its program was based on \"Vargsmål\" (1994), a book by Norwegian black metal musician Varg Vikernes. It was written shortly after he was convicted for church arson and the murder of Euronymous as a rebuttal to the media. Swedish scholar Matthias Gardell states in his 2003 book \"Gods of the Blood\" that Vikernes launched the Heathen Front through which he advocated \"national socialism, anti-Semitism, eugenics and racist paganism.\" The \"Encyclopedia of White Power\" (2000) said that Vikernes was the \"self-proclaimed leader\" of the Norwegian Heathen Front and the historian Nicholas Goodrick-Clarke mentioned that Vikernes underlined \"his role as chieftain of his Norwegian Heathen Front\" with the writing of \"Vargsmål\", \"formulat[ing] his heathen ideology using material from Norse mythology combined with occult National Socialism\". As of 1999, Heathen Front's website was selling \"Vargsmål\". The Heathen Front denied that Vikernes was in charge. According to the 2003 book \"Lords of Chaos\", Vikernes' direct involvement with the group is difficult to ascertain, and speculated that the denial may have been to protect him, as Norwegian prisoners were prohibited from leading political groups. In addition, the organization's listed address was the same PO box Vikernes used in prison, which the authors state would have made it \"very hard for him [Vikernes] to do an effective job\" at leading the organization, as all letters would have been screened by the prison personnel. In a 2009 interview with Norwegian newspaper \"Dagbladet\", Vikernes stated: \"I have never formed or been a member of such organisations\".",
"The Norwegian Heathen Front soon became the Allgermanische Heidnische Front (AHF), a network of organizations in different countries. The Swedish Heathen Front (\"Svensk Hednisk Front\") was a small group formed around 1996. The German chapter, Deutsche Heidnische Front, was founded in 1998 by Hendrik Möbus. In 2001, the AHF claimed chapters in Norway, Sweden, Denmark, the Netherlands, Germany, the United States, Canada, Russia and Flanders. There was also a short-lived English Heathen Front closely associated during its inception with the British Movement but later linked by \"Searchlight\", the anti-fascist monthly, to Tom Gowers, an officer of the British National Party based in the East Midlands, and to the militant odinist group Woden's Folk.",
"The group's ideology was part of the loosely defined Neo-völkisch movement sometimes known as Odinism. The organization described its specific ideas as \"Odalism\", derived from the Germanic rune Odal (ᛟ). This movement rejects conventional academic research on history and archaeology, instead interpreting Germanic mythology as esoterically transmitted via ancestry. The Heathen Front espoused neo-Nazism, white supremacism and anti-semitism. A 2001 report by the Stephen Roth Institute for the Study of Contemporary Antisemitism and Racism describes the \"Svensk Hednisk Front\" (Swedish Heathen Front – SHF) as \"an emerging Nazi organization\" with an ideology blending \"Odinism, anti-Christianity and antisemitism.\"",
"The organisation with time became a forum for neo-Nazis and heathen nationalists. In 2005 the Allgermanische Heidnische Front was closed down. Its members spread to other organisations."
]
}
|
Overhead camshaft engine
| null |
An overhead camshaft (OHC) engine is a piston engine where the camshaft is located in the cylinder head above the combustion chamber. This contrasts with earlier overhead valve engines (OHV), where the camshaft is located below the combustion chamber in the engine block.
| null |
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en-train-1965900
|
en-train-1965900
|
1965900
|
{
"title": [
"Design.",
"Single overhead camshaft.",
"Double overhead camshaft.",
"Components.",
"Timing belt / timing chain.",
"Gear train.",
"Other camshaft drive systems.",
"History.",
"1900-1914.",
"World War I.",
"1919-1944.",
"1945-present."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2"
],
"content": [
"In an overhead camshaft engine, the camshaft is located at the top of the engine, above the combustion chamber. This contrasts the earlier overhead valve engine (OHV) and flathead engine configurations, where the camshaft is located down in the engine block. The valves in both OHC and OHV engines are located above the combustion chamber; however an OHV engine requires pushrods and rockers to transfer the motion from the camshaft up to the valves, whereas an OHC engine has the valves directly actuated by the camshaft. Compared with OHV engines with the same number of valves, there are fewer reciprocating components in an OHC engine and there is less valvetrain inertia in an OHC engine, which reduces valve float at higher engine speeds (RPM). A downside is that the system used to drive the camshaft (usually a timing chain in modern engines) is more complex in an OHC engine. The other main advantage of OHC engines is that there is greater flexibility to optimise the size, location and shape of the intake and exhaust ports, since there are no pushrods that need to be avoided. This improves the gas flow through the engine, increasing power output and fuel efficiency. During engine repairs which require the removal of the cylinder head, a disadvantage of OHC engines is that the camshaft timing needs to be reset if the cylinder head is removed. In 1920-1940 Morris and Wolseley cars with OHC engines, oil leaks in the lubrication systems were also an issue.",
"The oldest configuration of overhead camshaft engine is the \"single overhead camshaft\" (SOHC) design. A SOHC engine has one camshaft per bank of cylinders, therefore a straight engine has a total of one camshaft. A V or flat engine with a total of two camshafts (one per bank of cylinders) is a single overhead camshaft engine, not a double overhead camshaft engine. Regardless of number, the camshaft usually operates the valves indirectly via a rocker arm. Most SOHC engines have two valves per cylinder. However a few engines, such as the 1973 Triumph Dolomite Sprint engine and Honda J Series V6 Engine were an SOHC configuration with four valves per cylinder. This was achieved by the camshaft being located in the center of the cylinder head, with equal length rocker arms actuating the intake and exhaust valves. This arrangement was used to provide four valves per cylinder while minimising the valvetrain mass and minimising the overall engine size.",
"A \"double overhead camshaft\" (DOHC or \"twin-cam\") engine has two camshafts per bank of the cylinder head, one for the intake valves and the other for the exhaust valves. Therefore there are two camshafts for a straight engine and a total of four camshafts for a V engine or a flat engine. Sometimes a DOHC V engine is marketed as a \"quad cam\" engine, however the \"extra\" two camshafts are a result of the engine's layout rather than providing a benefit compared with other DOHC engines. To further confuse the terminology, some SOHC flat-twin and V-twin engines (such as by Harley-Davidson, Riley Motors, Triumph and Indian) have been marketed by their manufacturers with the misleading term \"twin-cam engine\". Most DOHC engines have four valves per cylinder, however DOHC engines with two valves per cylinder include the Alfa Romeo Twin Cam engine, the Jaguar XK6 engine, the early Ford I4 DOHC engine and the Lotus Ford Twin Cam engine. The camshaft usually operates the valves directly via a bucket tappet. A DOHC design permits a wider angle between intake and exhaust valves than in SOHC engines, which improves gas flow through the engine. A further benefit is that the spark plug can be placed at the optimum location, which in turn improves combustion efficiency.",
"",
"The rotation of the camshaft(s) are driven by the crankshaft. Many 21st century engines use a toothed \"timing belt\" made from rubber and kevlar to drive the camshaft. Timing belts are inexpensive, produce minimal noise and have no need for lubrication. A disadvantage of timing belts is the need for regular replacement of the belt; recommended belt life typically varies between approximately. The first known automotive application of timing belts to drive overhead camshafts was the 1953 Devin-Panhard racing specials built for the SCCA H-modified racing series in the United States. These engines were based on Panhard OHV flat-twin engines, which were converted to SOHC engines using components from Norton motorcycle engines. The first production car to use a timing belt was the 1962 Glas 1004 compact coupe. Another camshaft drive method commonly used on modern engines is a \"timing chain\", constructed from one or two rows of metal roller chains. By the early 1960s most production automobile overhead camshaft designs used chains to drive the camshaft(s). Timing chains do not usually require replacement at regular intervals, however the disadvantage is that they are noisier than timing belts.",
"A gear train system between the crankshaft and the camshaft is commonly used in diesel overhead camshaft engines used in heavy trucks. Gear trains are less commonly used in OHC engines for light trucks or automobiles.",
"Several OHC engines up until the 1950s used a shaft with bevel gears to drive the camshaft. Examples include the 1908-1911 Maudslay 25/30, the Bentley 3 Litre, the 1929-1932 MG Midget, the 1925-1948 Velocette K series, the 1931-1957 Norton International and the 1947-1962 Norton Manx. In more recent times, the 1950-1974 Ducati Single, 1973-1980 Ducati L-twin engine, 1999-2007 Kawasaki W650 and 2011-2016 Kawasaki W800 motorcycle engines have used bevel shafts. The Crosley four cylinder was the last automotive engine to use the shaft tower design to drive the camshaft, from 1946 to 1952; the rights to the Crosley engine format were bought by a few different companies, including General Tire in 1952, followed by Fageol in 1955, Crofton in 1959, Homelite in 1961, and Fisher Pierce in 1966, after Crosley closed the automotive factory doors, and they continued to produce the same engine for several more years. A camshaft drive using three sets of cranks and rods in parallel was used in the 1920-1923 Leyland Eight luxury car built in the United Kingdom. A similar system was used in the 1926-1930 Bentley Speed Six and the 1930-1932 Bentley 8 Litre. A two-rod system with counterweights at both ends was used by many models of the 1958-1973 NSU Prinz.",
"",
"Among the first overhead camshaft engines were the 1902 Maudslay SOHC engine built in the United Kingdom and the 1903 Marr Auto Car SOHC engine built in the United States. The first DOHC engine a Peugeot inline-four racing engine which powered the car that won the 1912 French Grand Prix. Another Peugeot with a DOHC engine won the 1913 French Grand Prix, followed by the \"Mercedes-Benz 18/100 GP\" with an SOHC engine winning the 1914 French Grand Prix. The Isotta Fraschini Tipo KM— built in Italy from 1910-1914— was one of the first production cars to use an SOHC engine.",
"During World War I, both the Allied and German air forces sought to quickly apply the overhead camshaft technology of motor racing engines to military aircraft engines. The SOHC engine from the \"Mercedes 18/100 GP\" car (which won the 1914 French Grand Prix) became the starting point for both Mercedes' and Rolls Royce's aircraft engines. Mercedes created a series of six-cylinder engines which culminated in the Mercedes D.III. Rolls Royce reversed-engineered the Mercedes cylinder head design based on a racing car left in England at the beginning of the war, leading to the Rolls-Royce Eagle V12 engine. Other SOHC designs included the Spanish Hispano-Suiza 8 V8 engine (with a fully enclosed-drivetrain), the American Liberty L-12 V12 engine and the German BMW IIIa straight-six engine. The DOHC Napier Lion W12 engine was built in Great Britain beginning in 1918. Most of these engines used a shaft to transfer drive from the crankshaft up to the camshaft at the top of the engine. Large aircraft engines— particularly air-cooled engines— experienced considerable thermal expansion, causing the height of the cylinder block to vary during operating conditions. This expansion caused difficulties for pushrod engines, so an overhead camshaft engine using a shaft drive with sliding spline was the easiest way to allow for this expansion. These bevel shafts were usually in an external tube outside the block, and were known as \"tower shafts\".",
"An early American overhead camshaft production engine was the SOHC straight-eight engine used in the 1921-1926 Duesenberg Model A luxury car. In 1926, the Sunbeam 3 litre Super Sports became the first production car to use a DOHC engine. In the United States, Duesenberg added DOHC engines (alongside their existing SOHC engines) with the 1928 release of the Duesenberg Model J, which was powered by a DOHC straight-eight engine. The 1931-1935 Stutz DV32 was another early American luxury car to use a DOHC engine. Also in the United States, the DOHC Offenhauser racing engine was introduced in 1933. This inline-four engine dominated North American open-wheel racing from 1934 until the 1970s. Other early SOHC automotive engines were the 1920-1923 Wolseley Ten, the 1928-1931 MG 18/80, the 1926-1935 Singer Junior and the 1928-1929 Alfa Romeo 6C Sport. Early overhead camshaft motorcycles included the 1925-1949 Velocette K Series and the 1927-1939 Norton CS1.",
"The 1946-1948 Crosley CC Four was arguably the first American mass-produced car to use an SOHC engine. This small mass-production engine powered the winner of the 1950 12 Hours of Sebring. Use of a DOHC configuration gradually increased after World War II, beginning with sports cars. Iconic DOHC engines of this period include the 1948-1959 Lagonda straight-six engine, the 1949–1992 Jaguar XK6 straight-six engine and the 1954-1994 Alfa Romeo Twin Cam inline-four engine. The 1966-2000 Fiat Twin Cam inline-four engine was one of the first DOHC engines to use a toothed timing belt instead of a timing chain. In the 1980s, the need for increased performance while reducing fuel consumption and exhaust emissions saw increasing use of DOHC engines in mainstream vehicles, beginning with Japanese manufacturers. By the mid-2000s, most automotive engines used a DOHC layout."
]
}
|
Beryl
| null |
Beryl ( ) is a mineral composed of beryllium aluminium cyclosilicate with the chemical formula BeAlSiO. Well-known varieties of beryl include emerald and aquamarine. Naturally occurring, hexagonal crystals of beryl can be up to several meters in size, but terminated crystals are relatively rare. Pure beryl is colorless, but it is frequently tinted by impurities; possible colors are green, blue, yellow, red (the rarest), and white. Beryl is also an ore source of beryllium.
| null |
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] | null | null |
en-train-862935
|
en-train-862935
|
862935
|
{
"title": [
"Etymology.",
"Deposits.",
"Crystal habit and structure.",
"Human health impact.",
"Varieties.",
"Aquamarine and maxixe.",
"Emerald.",
"Golden beryl and heliodor.",
"Goshenite.",
"Morganite.",
"Red beryl."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2"
],
"content": [
"The name \"beryl\" is derived (via,, and ) from Greek βήρυλλος \"beryllos\" which referred to a \"precious blue-green color-of-sea-water stone\"; akin to Prakrit \"verulia\", \"veluriya\" (\"beryl\"). The term was later adopted for the mineral beryl more exclusively. When the first eyeglasses were constructed in 13th century Italy, the lenses were made of beryl (or of rock crystal) as glass could not be made clear enough. Consequently, glasses were named \"Brillen\" in German (\"bril\" in Dutch and \"briller\" in Danish).",
"Beryl of various colors is found most commonly in granitic pegmatites, but also occurs in mica schists in the Ural Mountains, and limestone in Colombia. Beryl is often associated with tin and tungsten ore bodies. Beryl is found in Europe in Norway, Austria, Germany, Sweden (especially morganite), Ireland and Russia, as well as Brazil, Colombia, Madagascar, Mozambique, Pakistan, Afghanistan, South Africa, the United States, and Zambia. US beryl locations are in California, Colorado, Connecticut, Georgia, Idaho, Maine, New Hampshire, New Mexico, North Carolina, South Dakota and Utah. New England's pegmatites have produced some of the largest beryls found, including one massive crystal from the Bumpus Quarry in Albany, Maine with dimensions with a mass of around 18 metric tons; it is New Hampshire's state mineral., the world's largest known naturally occurring crystal of any mineral is a crystal of beryl from Malakialina, Madagascar, long and in diameter, and weighing.",
"Beryl belongs to the hexagonal crystal system. Normally Beryl forms hexagonal columns but can also occur in massive habits. As a cyclosilicate beryl incorporates rings of silicate tetrahedra of that are arranged in columns along the axis and as parallel layers perpendicular to the axis, forming channels along the axis. These channels permit a variety of ions, neutral atoms, and molecules to be incorporated into the crystal thus disrupting the overall charge of the crystal permitting further substitutions in Aluminium, Silicon, and Beryllium sites in the crystal structure. These impurities give rise to the variety of colors of beryl that can be found. Increasing alkali content within the silicate ring channels causes increases to the refractive indices and birefringence.",
"Beryl is a beryllium compound that is a known carcinogen with acute toxic effects leading to pneumonitis when inhaled. Care must thus be used when mining, handling, and refining these gems.",
"",
"Aquamarine (from, \"sea water\") is a blue or cyan variety of beryl. It occurs at most localities which yield ordinary beryl. The gem-gravel placer deposits of Sri Lanka contain aquamarine. Green-yellow beryl, such as that occurring in Brazil, is sometimes called \"chrysolite aquamarine\". The deep blue version of aquamarine is called \"maxixe\". Maxixe is commonly found in the country of Madagascar. Its color fades to white when exposed to sunlight or is subjected to heat treatment, though the color returns with irradiation. The pale blue color of aquamarine is attributed to Fe. Fe ions produce golden-yellow color, and when both Fe and Fe are present, the color is a darker blue as in maxixe. Decoloration of maxixe by light or heat thus may be due to the charge transfer between Fe and Fe. Dark-blue maxixe color can be produced in green, pink or yellow beryl by irradiating it with high-energy particles (gamma rays, neutrons or even X-rays). In the United States, aquamarines can be found at the summit of Mt. Antero in the Sawatch Range in central Colorado. In Wyoming, aquamarine has been discovered in the Big Horn Mountains, near Powder River Pass. Another location within the United States is the Sawtooth Range near Stanley, Idaho, although the minerals are within a wilderness area which prevents collecting. In Brazil, there are mines in the states of Minas Gerais, Espírito Santo, and Bahia, and minorly in Rio Grande do Norte. The mines of Colombia, Zambia, Madagascar, Malawi, Tanzania and Kenya also produce aquamarine. The largest aquamarine of gemstone quality ever mined was found in Marambaia, Minas Gerais, Brazil, in 1910. It weighed over, and its dimensions were long and in diameter. The largest cut aquamarine gem is the Dom Pedro aquamarine, now housed in the Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of Natural History. The ancient Romans believed that aquamarine would protect against any dangers while travelling at sea, and that it provided energy and cured laziness.",
"Emerald is green beryl, colored by trace amounts of chromium and sometimes vanadium. Most emeralds are highly included, so their brittleness (resistance to breakage) is classified as generally poor. The modern English word \"emerald\" comes via Middle English \"Emeraude\", imported from modern French via Old French \"Ésmeraude\" and Medieval Latin \"Esmaraldus\", from Latin \"smaragdus\", from Greek σμάραγδος \"smaragdos\" meaning ‘green gem’, from Hebrew ברקת \"bareket\" (one of the twelve stones in the Hoshen pectoral pendant of the Kohen HaGadol), meaning ‘lightning flash’, referring to ‘emerald’, relating to Akkadian \"baraqtu\", meaning ‘emerald’, and possibly relating to the Sanskrit word मरकत \"marakata\", meaning ‘green’. The Semitic word אזמרגד \"izmargad\", meaning ‘emerald’, is a back-loan, deriving from Greek smaragdos. Emeralds in antiquity were mined by the Egyptians and in what is now Austria, as well as Swat in contemporary Pakistan. A rare type of emerald known as a trapiche emerald is occasionally found in the mines of Colombia. A trapiche emerald exhibits a \"star\" pattern; it has raylike spokes of dark carbon impurities that give the emerald a six-pointed radial pattern. It is named for the \"trapiche\", a grinding wheel used to process sugarcane in the region. Colombian emeralds are generally the most prized due to their transparency and fire. Some of the rarest emeralds come from the two main emerald belts in the Eastern Ranges of the Colombian Andes: Muzo and Coscuez west of the Altiplano Cundiboyacense, and Chivor and Somondoco to the east. Fine emeralds are also found in other countries, such as Zambia, Brazil, Zimbabwe, Madagascar, Pakistan, India, Afghanistan and Russia. In the US, emeralds can be found in Hiddenite, North Carolina. In 1998, emeralds were discovered in Yukon. Emerald is a rare and valuable gemstone and, as such, it has provided the incentive for developing synthetic emeralds. Both hydrothermal and \"flux-growth\" synthetics have been produced. The first commercially successful emerald synthesis process was that of Carroll Chatham. The other large producer of flux emeralds was Pierre Gilson Sr., which has been on the market since 1964. Gilson's emeralds are usually grown on natural colorless beryl seeds which become coated on both sides. Growth occurs at the rate of per month, a typical seven-month growth run producing emerald crystals of 7 mm of thickness. The green color of emeralds is widely attributed to presence of Cr ions. Intensely green beryls from Brazil, Zimbabwe and elsewhere in which the color is attributed to vanadium have also been sold and certified as emeralds.",
"\"Golden beryl\" can range in colors from pale yellow to a brilliant gold. Unlike emerald, golden beryl generally has very few flaws. The term \"golden beryl\" is sometimes synonymous with \"heliodor\" (from Greek \"hēlios – ἥλιος\" \"sun\" + \"dōron – δῶρον\" \"gift\") but golden beryl refers to pure yellow or golden yellow shades, while heliodor refers to the greenish-yellow shades. The golden yellow color is attributed to Fe ions. Both golden beryl and heliodor are used as gems. Probably the largest cut golden beryl is the flawless 2054-carat stone on display in the Hall of Gems, Washington, D.C., United States.",
"Colorless beryl is called \"goshenite\". The name originates from Goshen, Massachusetts, where it was originally discovered. In the past, goshenite was used for manufacturing eyeglasses and lenses owing to its transparency. Nowadays, it is most commonly used for gemstone purposes. The gem value of goshenite is relatively low. However, goshenite can be colored yellow, green, pink, blue and in intermediate colors by irradiating it with high-energy particles. The resulting color depends on the content of Ca, Sc, Ti, V, Fe, and Co impurities.",
"Morganite, also known as \"pink beryl\", \"rose beryl\" \"pink emerald\" (which is not a legal term according to the new Federal Trade Commission Guidelines and Regulations), and \"cesian (or \"caesian\") beryl\", is a rare light pink to rose-colored gem-quality variety of beryl. Orange/yellow varieties of morganite can also be found, and color banding is common. It can be routinely heat treated to remove patches of yellow and is occasionally treated by irradiation to improve its color. The pink color of morganite is attributed to Mn ions. Pink beryl of fine color and good sizes was first discovered on an island off the coast of Madagascar in 1910. It was also known, with other gemstone minerals, such as tourmaline and kunzite, at Pala, California. In December 1910, the New York Academy of Sciences named the pink variety of beryl \"morganite\" after financier J. P. Morgan. On October 7, 1989, one of the largest gem morganite specimens ever uncovered, eventually called \"The Rose of Maine\", was found at the Bennett Quarry in Buckfield, Maine, US. The crystal, originally somewhat orange in hue, was long and about across, and weighed (along with its matrix) just over.",
"Red beryl (formerly known as \"bixbite\" and marketed as \"red emerald\" or \"scarlet emerald\" but note that both latter terms involving \"Emerald\" terminology are now prohibited in the United States under Federal Trade Commission Regulations) is a red variety of beryl. It was first described in 1904 for an occurrence, its type locality, at Maynard's Claim (Pismire Knolls), Thomas Range, Juab County, Utah. The old synonym \"bixbite\" is deprecated from the CIBJO, because of the risk of confusion with the mineral bixbyite (both were named after the mineralogist Maynard Bixby). The dark red color is attributed to Mn ions. Red beryl is very rare and has been reported only from a handful of locations: Wah Wah Mountains, Beaver County, Utah; Paramount Canyon and Round Mountain, Sierra County, New Mexico, although the latter locality does not often produce gem grade stones; and Juab County, Utah. The greatest concentration of gem-grade red beryl comes from the Ruby-Violet Claim in the Wah Wah Mountains of mid-western Utah, discovered in 1958 by Lamar Hodges, of Fillmore, Utah, while he was prospecting for uranium. Red beryl has been known to be confused with pezzottaite, a caesium analog of beryl, that has been found in Madagascar and more recently Afghanistan; cut gems of the two varieties can be distinguished from their difference in refractive index, and rough crystals can be easily distinguished by differing crystal systems (pezzottaite trigonal, red beryl hexagonal). Synthetic red beryl is also produced. Like emerald and unlike most other varieties of beryl, red beryl is usually highly included. While gem beryls are ordinarily found in pegmatites and certain metamorphic stones, red beryl occurs in topaz-bearing rhyolites. It is formed by crystallizing under low pressure and high temperature from a pneumatolytic phase along fractures or within near-surface miarolitic cavities of the rhyolite. Associated minerals include bixbyite, quartz, orthoclase, topaz, spessartine, pseudobrookite and hematite."
]
}
|
Symphony No. 2 (Beethoven)
| null |
The Symphony No. 2 in D major, Op. 36, is a symphony in four movements written by Ludwig van Beethoven between 1801 and 1802. The work is dedicated to Karl Alois, Prince Lichnowsky.
| null |
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en-train-1856061
|
en-train-1856061
|
1856061
|
{
"title": [
"Background.",
"Instrumentation.",
"Form.",
"First movement.",
"Second movement.",
"Third movement.",
"Fourth movement."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2"
],
"content": [
"Beethoven's Second Symphony was mostly written during Beethoven's stay at Heiligenstadt in 1802, at a time when his deafness was becoming more pronounced and he began to realize that it might be incurable. The work was premiered in the Theater an der Wien in Vienna on 5 April 1803, and was conducted by the composer. During that same concert, the Third Piano Concerto and the oratorio \"Christ on the Mount of Olives\" were also debuted. It is one of the last works of Beethoven's early period. Beethoven wrote the Second Symphony without a standard minuet; instead, a scherzo took its place, giving the composition even greater scope and energy. The scherzo and the finale are filled with Beethovenian musical jokes, which shocked the sensibilities of many contemporary critics. One Viennese critic for the \"Zeitung fuer die elegante Welt\" (Newspaper for the Elegant World) famously wrote of the Symphony that it was \"a hideously writhing, wounded dragon that refuses to die, but writhing in its last agonies and, in the fourth movement, bleeding to death.\"",
"The symphony is scored for two flutes, two oboes, two clarinets in A, two bassoons, two horns in D, E and A, two trumpets in D (first, third and fourth movements only), timpani (first, third and fourth movements only) and strings. The composer also made a transcription of the entire symphony for piano trio which bears the same opus number.",
"This symphony consists of four movements: A typical performance runs 33 to 36 minutes.",
"The Introduction, \"Adagio molto\", begins in D major, changing to B major in measure 11. In measures 12-16, it briefly modulates to B major and immediately back to D. The exposition (Allegro con brio) begins in D major with the A theme lasting until measure 57. A transition towards the B theme lasts until measure 72, modulating to A minor at measure 61. The B theme begins in A major at 73, moving to A minor again at 113 with a codetta from measure 117–136 (moving to D major in measure 120). The development uses material from the A theme, going through several modulations throughout and making use of the main idea from Theme A in sequence. At measure 216, the A theme returns in the recapitulation, lasting until measure 228. There is a transition from 229–244, bringing back the B theme at measure 245, this time in the tonic key. At 327, B major returns briefly, moving back to D in 334 with a Coda from measures 340–360.",
"This movement, \"Larghetto\", is in the dominant key of A major and is one of Beethoven's longest symphonic slow movements. There are clear indications of the influence of folk music and the pastoral, presaging his Symphony No. 6 (\"Pastoral\"). The movement, like the first, is in sonata form. Franz Schubert quoted from the movement in the second movement of his Grand Duo for piano.",
"This movement, \"Scherzo: Allegro\", encloses a melodious oboe and bassoon quartet within a typical-sounding Austrian side-slapping dance.",
"The fourth movement, \"Allegro molto\", is composed of very rapid string passages. Musicologist Robert Greenberg of the San Francisco Conservatory of Music describes the highly unusual opening motif as a hiccup, belch or flatulence followed by a groan of pain. According to Greenberg: Musicologist and composer Bryan Townsend refers to this assertion by Greenberg as \"an example of musicological overreach\". Greenberg does not cite any references to reinforce this interpretation he puts forth in his courses \"The symphonies of Beethoven\" and \"How to listen to and understand great music\"."
]
}
|
Salem witch trials
| null |
The Salem witch trials were a series of hearings and prosecutions of people accused of witchcraft in colonial Massachusetts between February 1692 and May 1693. More than two hundred people were accused. Thirty were found guilty, nineteen of whom were executed by hanging (fourteen women and five men). One other man, Giles Corey, was pressed to death for refusing to plead, and at least five people died in jail.
| null |
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en-train-2371060
|
en-train-2371060
|
2371060
|
{
"title": [
"Background.",
"Accusations.",
"Recorded witchcraft executions in New England.",
"Political context.",
"Local context.",
"Religious context.",
"Gender context.",
"Publicizing Witchcraft.",
"Timeline.",
"Initial events.",
"Accusations and examinations before local magistrates.",
"Formal prosecution: The Court of Oyer and Terminer.",
"September 1692.",
"Superior Court of Judicature, 1693.",
"Legal procedures.",
"Overview.",
"Spectral evidence.",
"Witch cake.",
"Touch test.",
"Other evidence.",
"Contemporary commentary on the trials.",
"Aftermath and closure.",
"Reversals of attainder and compensation to the survivors and their families.",
"Memorials.",
"In literature, media and popular culture.",
"Medical theories about the reported afflictions."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"While witch trials had begun to fade out across much of Europe by the mid-17th century, they continued on the fringes of Europe and in the American Colonies. The events in 1692/1693 in Salem became a brief outburst of a sort of hysteria in the New World, while the practice was already waning in most of Europe. In 1668, in \"Against Modern Sadducism\", Joseph Glanvill claimed that he could prove the existence of witches and ghosts of the supernatural realm. Glanvill wrote about the \"denial of the bodily resurrection, and the [supernatural] spirits.\" In his treatise, Glanvill claimed that ingenious men should believe in witches and apparitions; if they doubted the reality of spirits, they not only denied demons but also the almighty God. Glanvill wanted to prove that the supernatural could not be denied; those who did deny apparitions were considered heretics, for it also disproved their beliefs in angels. Works by men such as Glanvill and Cotton Mather tried to prove that \"demons were alive.\"",
"The trials were started after people had been accused of witchcraft, primarily by teenage girls such",
"The earliest recorded witchcraft execution was that of Alse Young in 1647 in",
"New England had been settled by religious dissenters seeking to build a Bible-based society according to their own chosen discipline. The original 1629 Royal Charter of the Massachusetts Bay Colony was vacated in 1684, after which King James II installed Sir Edmund Andros as the governor of the Dominion of New England. Andros was ousted in 1689 after the \"Glorious Revolution\" in England replaced the Catholic James II with the Protestant co-rulers William and Mary. Simon Bradstreet and Thomas Danforth, the colony's last leaders under the old charter, resumed their posts as governor and deputy governor, but lacked constitutional authority to rule because the old charter had been vacated. A new charter for the enlarged Province of Massachusetts Bay was given final approval",
"Salem Village (present-day Danvers, Massachusetts) was known for its fractious population, who had many internal disputes, and for disputes between the village and Salem Town (present-day Salem). Arguments about property lines, grazing rights, and church privileges were rife, and neighbors considered the population as \"quarrelsome.\" In 1672, the villagers had voted to hire a minister of their own, apart from Salem Town. The first two ministers, James Bayley (1673–79) and George Burroughs (1680–83), stayed only a few years each, departing after the congregation failed to pay their full rate. (Burroughs was subsequently arrested at the height of the witchcraft hysteria and was hanged as a witch in August 1692.) Despite the ministers' rights being upheld by the General Court and the parish being admonished, each of the two ministers still chose to leave. The third minister, Deodat Lawson (1684–88), stayed for a short time, leaving after the church in Salem",
"Prior to the constitutional turmoil of the 1680s, the Massachusetts government had been dominated by conservative Puritan secular leaders. While Puritans and the Church of England both shared a common influence in Calvinism, Puritans had opposed many of the traditions of the Church of England, including use of the Book of Common Prayer, the use of clergy vestments during services, the use of sign of the cross at baptism, and kneeling to receive communion, all of which they believed constituted popery. King Charles I was hostile to this viewpoint, and Anglican church officials tried to repress these dissenting views during the 1620s and 1630s. Some Puritans and other religious minorities had sought refuge in the Netherlands but ultimately",
"An overwhelming majority of people accused and convicted of witchcraft were women (about 78%). Overall, the Puritan belief and prevailing New England culture was that women were inherently sinful and more susceptible to damnation than men were. Throughout their daily lives, Puritans, especially Puritan women, actively attempted to thwart attempts by the Devil to overtake them and their souls. Indeed, Puritans held the belief that men and women were equal in the eyes of God, but not in the eyes of the Devil. Women's souls were seen as unprotected in their weak",
"Cotton Mather, a minister of Boston's North Church was a prolific publisher of pamphlets, including some that expressed his belief in witchcraft. In his book \"Memorable Providences Relating to Witchcrafts and Possessions\" (1689), Mather describes his \"oracular observations\" and how \"stupendous witchcraft\" had affected the children of Boston mason John Goodwin. Mather illustrates how the Goodwins' eldest child had been tempted by the devil and had stolen linen from the washerwoman Goody Glover. Glover, of Irish Catholic",
"",
"In Salem Village in February 1692, Betty Parris (age nine) and her cousin Abigail Williams (age 11), the daughter and the niece, respectively, of Reverend Samuel Parris, began to have fits described as \"beyond the power of epileptic fits or natural disease to effect\" by John Hale, the minister of the nearby town of Beverly. The girls screamed, threw things about the room, uttered strange sounds, crawled under furniture, and contorted themselves into peculiar positions, according to the eyewitness account of Reverend Deodat Lawson, a former minister in Salem Village. The girls complained of being pinched and pricked with pins.",
"When Sarah Cloyce (Nurse's sister) and Elizabeth (Bassett) Proctor were arrested in April, they were brought before John Hathorne and Jonathan Corwin at a meeting in Salem Town. The men were both local magistrates and also members of the Governor's Council. Present for the examination were Deputy Governor Thomas Danforth, and Assistants Samuel Sewall, Samuel Appleton, James Russell and Isaac Addington. During the proceedings, objections by Elizabeth's husband, John Proctor, resulted in his arrest that day. Within a week, Giles Corey (Martha's husband and a covenanted church member in",
"The Court of Oyer and Terminer convened in Salem Town on June 2, 1692, with William Stoughton, the new Lieutenant Governor, as Chief Magistrate, Thomas Newton as the Crown's Attorney prosecuting the cases, and Stephen Sewall as clerk. Bridget Bishop's case was the first brought to the grand jury, who endorsed all the indictments against her. Bishop was described as not living a Puritan lifestyle, for she wore black clothing and odd costumes, which was against the Puritan code. When she was examined before her trial, Bishop was asked",
"In September, grand juries indicted 18 more people. The grand jury failed to indict William Proctor, who was re-arrested on new charges. On September 19, 1692, Giles Corey refused to plead at arraignment, and was killed by \"peine forte et dure\", a form of torture in which the subject is pressed beneath an increasingly heavy load of stones, in an attempt to make him enter a plea. Four pleaded guilty and 11 others were tried and found guilty. On September 20, Cotton Mather wrote to Stephen Sewall: \"That I may be the more capable to assist in lifting up a standard against the infernal enemy\", requesting \"a narrative of the evidence given in at the trials of half a dozen, or if you please, a dozen, of the principal witches that have been condemned.\" On September 22, 1692, eight",
"In January 1693, the new Superior Court of Judicature, Court of Assize and General Gaol [Jail] Delivery convened in Salem, Essex County, again headed by William Stoughton, as Chief Justice, with Anthony Checkley continuing as the Attorney General, and Jonathan Elatson as Clerk of the Court. The first five cases tried in January 1693 were of the five people who had been indicted but not tried in September: Sarah Buckley, Margaret Jacobs, Rebecca Jacobs, Mary Whittredge (or Witheridge) and Job Tookey. All were found not guilty. Grand juries were held for many of those remaining in jail. Charges were dismissed against many, but 16 more people were indicted and tried, three of whom were found guilty: Elizabeth Johnson Jr., Sarah",
"",
"After someone concluded that a loss, illness, or death had been caused by witchcraft, the accuser entered a complaint against the alleged witch with the local magistrates. If the complaint was deemed credible, the magistrates had the person arrested and brought in for a public examination—essentially an interrogation where the magistrates pressed the accused to confess. If the magistrates at this local level were satisfied that the complaint was well-founded, the prisoner was handed over to be dealt with by a superior court. In 1692, the magistrates opted to wait for",
"Much, but not all, of the evidence used against the accused, was \"spectral evidence,\" or the testimony of the afflicted who claimed to see the apparition or the shape of the person who was allegedly afflicting them. The theological dispute that ensued about the use of this evidence was based on whether a person had to give permission to the Devil for his/her shape to be used to afflict. Opponents claimed that the Devil was able to use anyone's shape to afflict people, but the Court contended that the Devil could not use a person's shape without that person's permission; therefore, when the afflicted claimed to see the apparition of a specific person, that was accepted as evidence that the accused had been complicit with the Devil. Cotton Mather's \"The Wonders of the Invisible World\" was written with the purpose to show how careful the court was in managing the trials.",
"According to a March 27, 1692 entry by Parris in the \"Records of the Salem-Village Church\", a church member and close neighbor of Rev. Parris, Mary Sibley (aunt of Mary Walcott), directed John Indian, a man enslaved by Parris, to make a \"witch cake.\" This may have been a superstitious attempt to ward off evil spirits. According to an account attributed to Deodat Lawson (\"collected by Deodat Lawson\") this happened around March 8, over a week after the first complaints had gone out and three women were",
"The most infamous application of the belief in effluvia was the \"touch test\" used in Andover during preliminary examinations in September 1692. Parris had explicitly warned his congregation against such examinations. If the accused witch touched the victim while the victim was having a fit, and the fit stopped, observers believed that meant the accused was the person who had afflicted the victim. As several of those accused later recounted, we were blindfolded, and our hands were laid upon",
"Other evidence included the confessions of the accused; testimony by a confessed witch who identified others as witches; the discovery of \"poppits\" (\"poppets\"), books of palmistry and horoscopes, or pots of ointments in the",
"Various accounts and opinions about the proceedings began to be published in 1692. Deodat Lawson, a former minister in Salem Village, visited Salem Village in March and April 1692. Later that year, an account of what he \"collected\" was published as \"A Brief and True Narrative of Some Remarkable Passages Relating to Sundry Persons Afflicted by Witchcraft, at Salem Village: Which happened from the Nineteenth of March, to the Fifth of April 1692.\" Rev. William Milbourne, a Baptist minister in Boston, publicly petitioned the General Assembly in early June 1692, challenging the use of spectral evidence by the Court. Milbourne had to post £200 bond (equal to £, or about US$42,000 today) or be arrested for \"contriving, writing and publishing the said scandalous Papers\". Sometime in 1692, minister of the Third Church in Boston, Samuel Willard anonymously published a",
"Although the last trial was held in May 1693, public response to the events continued. In the decades following the trials, survivors and family members (and their supporters) sought to establish the innocence of the individuals who were convicted and to gain compensation. In the following centuries, the descendants of those unjustly accused and condemned have sought to honor their memories. Events in Salem and Danvers in 1992 were used to commemorate the trials. In November 2001, years after the celebration of the 300th anniversary of the trials, the Massachusetts legislature passed an act exonerating all who had been convicted and naming each of the innocent. The trials have figured in American culture and been explored in numerous works of art, literature and film.",
"The first indication that public calls for justice were not over occurred in 1695 when Thomas Maule, a noted Quaker, publicly criticized the handling of the trials by the Puritan leaders in Chapter 29 of his book \"Truth Held Forth and Maintained\", expanding on Increase Mather by stating, \"it were better that one hundred Witches should live, than that one person be put to death for a witch, which is not a Witch\". For publishing this book, Maule was imprisoned twelve months before he was tried and found not guilty. On December 17, 1696, the General Court ruled that there would be a fast day on January 14, 1697, \"referring to the late Tragedy,",
"Rebecca Nurse's descendants erected an obelisk-shaped granite memorial in her memory in 1885 on the grounds of the Nurse Homestead in Danvers, with an inscription from John Greenleaf Whittier. In 1892, an additional monument was erected in honor of forty neighbors who signed a petition in support of Nurse. Not all the condemned had been exonerated in the early 18th century. In 1957, descendants of the six people who had been wrongly convicted and executed but who had not been included in the bill for a reversal of attainder in 1711, or added to it in 1712, demanded that the General Court formally clear the names of their ancestral family members. An act was passed pronouncing the innocence of those accused, although it listed only Ann Pudeator by name. The others were listed only as \"certain other persons\", phrasing which failed specifically to name Bridget Bishop, Susannah Martin, Alice Parker, Wilmot Redd and Margaret Scott. The 300th anniversary of the trials was marked in 1992 in Salem and Danvers by a",
"The story of the witchcraft accusations, trials and executions has captured the imagination of writers and artists in the centuries since the event took place. Their earliest impactful use as the basis for an item of popular fiction is the 1828 novel \"Rachel",
"The cause of the symptoms of those who claimed affliction continues to be a subject of interest. Various medical and psychological explanations for the observed symptoms have been explored by researchers, including psychological hysteria in response to Indian attacks, convulsive ergotism caused by eating rye bread made from grain infected by the fungus \"Claviceps purpurea\" (a natural substance from which LSD is derived), an epidemic of bird-borne encephalitis lethargica, and sleep paralysis to explain the nocturnal attacks alleged by some of the accusers. Some modern historians are less inclined to focus on biological explanations, preferring instead to explore motivations such as jealousy, spite, and a need for attention to explain the behavior."
]
}
|
Emilie Schindler
| null |
Emilie Schindler (née Pelzl; ; 22 October 1907 – 5 October 2001) was a Sudeten German-born woman who, with her husband Oskar Schindler, helped to save the lives of 1,200 Jews during World War II by employing them in his enamelware and munitions factories, providing them immunity from the Nazis. She was recognized as Righteous Among the Nations by Israel's Yad Vashem in 1994.
| null |
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] | null | null |
en-train-406831
|
en-train-406831
|
406831
|
{
"title": [
"Early life.",
"Marriage.",
"World War II.",
"Life after the war.",
"Death.",
"Legacy."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"She was born in the village of Alt Moletein, (alternate spelling: Old Moletin, in Czech: Starý Moletín, today: Maletín) Austria-Hungary (now in the Czech Republic), to Sudeten German farmers Josef and Marie Pelzl. She had an older brother, Franz, with whom she was very close. Schindler's early life in Alt Moletein was idyllic, and she was quite fond of nature and animals. She was also interested in the Gypsies who would camp near the village for a few days at a time; their nomadic lifestyle, their music, and their stories fascinated her.",
"Emilie Pelzl first met Oskar Schindler in 1928, when he came to Alt Moletein to sell electric motors to her father. After dating for six weeks, the couple married on 6 March 1928 in an inn on the outskirts of Svitavy, Schindler's hometown.",
"In 1938, the unemployed Oskar Schindler joined the Nazi Party and moved to Kraków, leaving his wife in Svitavy. There he gained ownership of an enamelware factory that had lain idle and in bankruptcy for many years and that he renamed \"Deutsche Emaillewaren-Fabrik\", where he principally employed Jewish workers because they were the cheapest. However, he soon realized the true brutalities of the Nazis, and the Schindlers started protecting his Jewish laborers. Initially, they saved the workers by bribing the SS guards; later, they listed their employees as essential factory workers, manufacturing munitions for the Reich. When conditions worsened and they started running out of money, she sold her jewels to buy food, clothes, and medicine. She looked after sick workers in a secret sanatorium in the camp in Brněnec, Czech Protectorate, with medical equipment purchased on the black market. One of the survivors, Maurice Markheim, later recalled: The Schindlers saved more than 1,200 Jews from extermination camps. In May 1945, when the Soviets moved into Brünnlitz, the Schindlers left the Jews in the factory and went into hiding, in fear of being prosecuted because of Oskar's ties with the Nazi party.",
"The Schindlers fled to Buenos Aires, Argentina, with a dozen of the Schindler Jews. In 1949, they settled there as farmers and were supported financially by a Jewish organization. In 1957, a bankrupt Oskar Schindler abandoned his wife and returned to Germany, where he died in 1974. Although they never divorced, they also never saw each other again. In 1993, during the production of the film \"Schindler's List\", Emilie Schindler and a number of surviving Schindler Jews visited her husband's grave in Jerusalem; she was accompanied by Caroline Goodall, the actress who portrayed her in the film. After the film's release, Emilie's close friend and biographer, Erika Rosenberg, quoted Emilie in her book as saying that the filmmakers had paid \"not a penny\" to Emilie for her contributions to the film. These claims were disputed by Thomas Keneally, author of \"Schindler's Ark\", who claimed he had recently sent Emilie a cheque of his own, and that he had gotten into an argument with Rosenberg over this issue before Emilie angrily told Rosenberg to drop the subject. In his 2001 film \"In Praise of Love\", filmmaker Jean-Luc Godard accuses Steven Spielberg of neglecting Emilie while she was supposedly dying, impoverished, in Argentina. In response to Godard, film critic Roger Ebert mused, \"Has Godard, having also used her, sent her any money?\" and \"Has Godard or any other director living or dead done more than Spielberg, with his Holocaust Project, to honor and preserve the memories of the survivors?\" Schindler lived with her 50 pets for many years in her small house in San Vicente, 40 kilometres south-west of Buenos Aires. She received a small pension from Israel and Germany. Uniformed Argentinian police were posted 24 hours a day to protect her from anti-Semitic extremist groups. She formed friendships with many of the soldiers.",
"In July 2001, during a visit to Berlin, Schindler told reporters that it was her \"greatest and last wish\" to spend her final years in Germany, adding that she had become increasingly homesick. She died at the age of 93 from the effects of a stroke in Märkisch-Oderland Hospital, Strausberg, on the night of 5 October 2001, 21⁄2 weeks before her 94th birthday. Her only relative was a niece in Bavaria. She is buried at the cemetery in Waldkraiburg, Germany, about an hour away from Munich. Her tombstone includes the words from the Mishnah, Sanhedrin 4:5, \"Wer einen Menschen rettet, rettet die Ganze Welt\" (\"Whoever saves one life, saves the entire world.\").",
"Schindler was honored by several Jewish organizations for her efforts during World War II. In May 1994, she and her husband received the Righteous Among the Nations award from Yad Vashem, along with Miep Gies, the woman who hid Anne Frank and her family in the Netherlands during the war. In 1995, she was decorated with the Order of May, the highest honor given to foreigners who are not heads of state in Argentina. Her life inspired Erika Rosenberg's book \"Where Light and Shadow Meet\", first published in Spanish in 1992 and now available in English and German translations. She appears in the Thomas Keneally novel \"Schindler's Ark\" and the 1993 film based on it, \"Schindler's List\", in which she is played by Caroline Goodall. She is the subject of the opera \"Frau Schindler\" by composer Thomas Morse, which premiered in 2017 at the Gärtnerplatz Theater in Munich. The following year a new production of the opera, directed by Vladimir Alenikov, was produced at the Stanislavsky Nemirovich-Danchenko Theatre for their hundredth anniversary season."
]
}
|
United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea
| null |
The United Nations Mission in Ethiopia and Eritrea (UNMEE) was established by the United Nations Security Council in July 2000 to monitor a ceasefire in the border war that began in 1998 between Ethiopia and Eritrea. First military troops Netherlands - Canadian battalion 'NECBAT' arrived and established bases in the region in December 2000.
| null |
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en-train-108353
|
en-train-108353
|
108353
|
{
"title": [
"History.",
"Staff and forces."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"On July 31, 2000, the Security Council adopted Resolution 1312 and established UNMEE. The mission was put in place in order to formally demarcate the border between the two countries. The border followed the route as declared by an international commission in The Hague but Ethiopia refused to accept the ruling, despite originally agreeing to binding arbitration. The mission maintained headquarters in Asmara (Eritrea), and Addis Ababa (Ethiopia), and consisted of 1,676 military personnel, amid high tensions between the two countries. About 1,500 of these peacekeepers were from the Indian Army. In addition, there were about 147 international civilians, 202 local civilians and 67 UN Volunteers. Their area of responsibility was a buffer zone 25 kilometers (15 miles) wide on the Eritrean side of the Ethiopian-Eritrean border. There have been recorded 20 fatalities: 13 military personnel, 3 international civilian personnel and 4 local civilian personnel. The approved budget for the mission between 1 July 2007 and 30 June 2008 was $118.99 million. The border between Ethiopia and Eritrea has remained closed and thousands of people live in refugee camps while perhaps a million people remain displaced. In October 2005, the Eritrean government restricted UNMEE helicopter flights along the border and demanded the reduction of the UNMEE force by 300 staffers. Eritrea also restricted movement of ground patrols inside the buffer zone. United Nations Security Council Resolution 1640 in November 2005 threatened sanctions on both parties if there was no resolution. In September 2007, United Nations special envoy to the Horn of Africa, Kjell Magne Bondevik, warned that war could resume between Ethiopia and Eritrea over their border conflict. In November, Eritrea accepted the border line demarcated by the international boundary commission, which was rejected by Ethiopia. In January 2008 the UN extended the mandate of peacekeepers on Ethiopia-Eritrea border for six months, and UN Security Council demanded Eritrea lift fuel restrictions imposed on UN peacekeepers at the Eritrea-Ethiopia border area. Eritrea declined, saying troops must leave border, and in February the UN began pulling out the 1,700-strong peacekeeper force due to lack of fuel supplies following Eritrean government restrictions. In April, UN Secretary-General Ban Ki Moon warned of the likelihood of new war between Ethiopia and Eritrea if peacekeeping mission is withdrawn completely, and outlines options for the future of the UN mission in the two countries. In May, Eritrea called on UN to terminate the peacekeeping mission. The mission was ended with effect from 31 July 2008 with a UNSC resolution adopted on 30 July 2008. Peacekeepers had been driven from the border zone by Eritrea by February 2008, and Ethiopia had refused to accept a binding International Court of Justice ruling on the border issue. There are fears that this may set a precedent to show that a country can force out UN peacekeepers. Analysts also fear a new war may erupt between Ethiopia and Eritrea over the border dispute. Eritrea has, however, tried to allay fears over a new war.",
"On 30 November 2007, UNMEE had a total of 1,676 military personnel, including 1,464 troops and 212 military observers, supported by 147 international civilians, 202 local civilians and 67 UN Volunteers. Contributors of military personnel:"
]
}
|
Felix Hausdorff
| null |
Felix Hausdorff (November 8, 1868 – January 26, 1942) was a German mathematician who is considered to be one of the founders of modern topology and who contributed significantly to set theory, descriptive set theory, measure theory, function theory, and functional analysis.
| null |
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en-train-1604706
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en-train-1604706
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1604706
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{
"title": [
"Life.",
"Childhood and youth.",
"Degree, doctorate and habilitation.",
"Docent in Leipzig.",
"First professorship.",
"Under the Nazi dictatorship and suicide.",
"Work and reception.",
"Hausdorff as philosopher and writer (Paul Mongré).",
"Theory of ordered sets.",
"The \"Magnum Opus\": \"Principles of set theory\".",
"Descriptive set theory, measure theory and analysis.",
"The last works.",
"Hausdorff as name-giver.",
"Writings.",
"As Paul Mongré.",
"As Felix Hausdorff.",
"Collected works."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
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],
"content": [
"",
"Hausdorff's father, the Jewish merchant Louis Hausdorff (1843–1896), moved in the autumn of 1870 with his young family to Leipzig and worked over time at various companies, including a linen-and cotton goods factory. He was an educated man and had become a Morenu at the age of 14. There are several treatises from his pen, including a long work on the Aramaic translations of the Bible from the perspective of Talmudic law. Hausdorff's mother, Hedwig (1848–1902), who is also referred to in various documents as Johanna, came from the Jewish Tietz family. From another branch of",
"From summer term 1887 to summer semester 1891 Hausdorff studied mathematics and astronomy, mainly in his native city of Leipzig, interrupted by one semester in Freiburg (summer semester 1888) and Berlin (winter semester 1888/1889). The surviving testimony of other students show him as extremely versatile interested young man, who, in addition to the mathematical and astronomical lectures, attended lectures in physics, chemistry and geography, and also lectures on philosophy and history of philosophy as well as on issues of language, literature and social sciences. In Leipzig he heard lectures on the history of music from musicologist Paul. His early love of music lasted a lifetime; in Hausdorff's house there were impressive musical evenings with the landlord at the piano, according to witness statements made by various participants. Even as a",
"With his habilitation, Hausdorff became a lecturer at the University of Leipzig and began an extensive teaching in a variety of mathematical areas. In addition to teaching and research in mathematics, he went with his literary and philosophical inclinations. A man of varied interests, educated, highly sensitive and sophisticated in thinking, feeling and experiencing, he frequented in his Leipzig period with a number of famous writers, artists and publishers such as Hermann",
"In December 1901 Hausdorff was appointed as adjunct associate professor at the University of Leipzig. The often repeated assertion that Hausdorff got a call from Göttingen and rejected it cannot be verified and is probably wrong. When applying in Leipzig, Dean Kirchner had been led to very positive vote of his colleagues, written by Heinrich Bruns, still accompanied by the following words: This quote emphasizes the undisguised anti-Semitism present, which especially took a sharp upturn after the Gründerkrach in 1873 throughout the German Reich. Leipzig",
"The National Socialist party's state doctrine established anti-Semitism and the seizure of power. Hausdorff was not initially concerned by the \"Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service\", adopted in 1933, because he had been a German official since before 1914. However, he was not completely spared, as one of his lectures was interrupted by Nazi students. He stopped his 1934/1935 winter semester Calculus III course from 20 November on. During that time, there was a working session of the National Socialist German Student Union (NSDStB) at the University of",
"",
"Hausdorff's volume of aphorisms, published in 1897, was his first work published under the pseudonym Paul Mongré. It is entitled \"Sant' Ilario. Thoughts from the landscape of Zarathustra\". The subtitle of \"Sant 'Ilario,\" \"Thoughts from the landscape of Zarathustra,\" plays first on the fact that Hausdorff had completed his book during a recovery stay on the Ligurian coast by Genoa and that in this same area, Friedrich Nietzsche wrote the first two parts of Thus Spoke Zarathustra; he also alludes to his spiritual closeness to Nietzsche. In an article on Sant 'Ilario in the weekly paper Die Zukunft, Hausdorff acknowledged in his debt to Nietzsche. Hausdorff was not trying to copy or even exceed Nietzsche. \"Of Nietzsche imitation no trace\", says a contemporary review. He follows Nietzsche in an attempt to liberate individual thinking, to take the liberty of questioning outdated standards. Hausdorff maintained critical distance to the late works of Nietzsche. In his essay on the book \"The Will to Power\" compiled from notes left in the Nietzsche Archive he says: His critical standard he took from Nietzsche himself, In 1898 appeared—also under the pseudonym",
"Hausdorff's entry into a thorough study of ordered sets was prompted in part by Cantor's continuum problem: which place does the cardinal number formula_1 take in the series formula_2. In a letter to Hilbert on 29 September 1904, he speaks of this problem, \"it has plagued almost like a monomania\". He saw in the set formula_3 a new strategy to attack the problem. Cantor had suspected formula_4, but had only shown formula_5. formula_6 is the \"number\" of possible well-orderings of a countable set ; formula_7 had now emerged as the \"number\" of all possible orders of such an amount. It was natural, therefore, to study systems that are more special than general",
"According to former notions, set theory included not only the general set theory and the theory of sets of points, but also dimension and measure theory. Hausdorff's work was the first textbook which presented all of set theory in this broad sense, systematically and with full proofs. Hausdorff was aware of how easily the human mind can err while also seeking for rigor and truth. So he proposed in the preface of the work: This book went far beyond its masterful portrayal of the known. It also contained a series of important original contributions of the author that can only be hinted at in the following. The first six chapters deal with the basic concepts of the general set theory. At the beginning Hausdorff sets forth a detailed set algebra with some pioneering new concepts (differences chains, set rings and set fields, formula_20- and formula_21-systems). These introductory paragraphs on sets and their connections included, for example,",
"In 1916, Alexandroff and Hausdorff independently solved the continuum problem for Borel sets: Every Borel set in a complete separable metric space is either countable or has the cardinality of the continuum. This result generalizes the Cantor–Bendixson theorem that such a statement holds for the closed sets of formula_22. For linear formula_27 sets William Henry Young had proved the result in 1903, for formula_28 sets Hausdorff obtained a corresponding result in 1914 in the \"Principles\". The theorem of Alexandroff and Hausdorff was a strong impetus for further development of descriptive set theory. Among the publications of Hausdorff in his time at Greifswald time the work \"Dimension and outer",
"In his last work Erweiterung einer stetigen Abbildung, Hausdorff showed in 1938 that a continuous function from a closed subset formula_32 of a metric space formula_33 can be extended to all of formula_33 (although the image may need to be extended). As a special case, every homeomorphism from formula_32 can be extended to a homeomorphism from formula_33. This work set forth results from earlier years. In 1919, in Über halbstetige Funktionen und deren Verallgemeinerung,",
"The name Hausdorff is found throughout mathematics. Among others, these concepts were named after him: In the universities of Bonn and Greifswald, these things were named in his honor: Besides these, in Bonn",
"",
"Only a selection of the",
"\"Hausdorff on Ordered Sets\". Trans. and",
"The \"Hausdorff-Edition\", edited by E. Brieskorn, F. Hirzebruch, W. Purkert (all Bonn), R. Remmert (Münster) and E. Scholz (Wuppertal) with the collaboration of over twenty mathematicians, historians, philosophers and scholars, is an ongoing project of the North Rhine-Westphalian Academy of Sciences, Humanities and the Arts to present the works of Hausdorff, with commentary and much additional material. The planned nine volumes are being published by Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg. As of 2008, five had appeared. See the Home page of the Hausdorff Project Homepage of the Hausdorff Edition (German) for its current status and further information. The projected volumes are:"
]
}
|
Salep
| null |
Salep, also spelled sahlep or sahlab, is a flour made from the tubers of the orchid genus "Orchis" (including species "Orchis mascula" and "Orchis militaris"). These tubers contain a nutritious, starchy polysaccharide called glucomannan. Salep flour is consumed in beverages and desserts, especially in the cuisines of the former Ottoman Empire, notably in the Levant where it is a traditional winter beverage. An increase in consumption is causing local extinctions of orchids in parts of Turkey and Iran.
| null |
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] | null | null |
en-train-395237
|
en-train-395237
|
395237
|
{
"title": [
"Etymology.",
"History.",
"Saloop.",
"Modern use."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The word \"salep\" comes from (). In the mid 18th century: from French, from Turkish, from (), the name of an orchid (literally ‘fox's testicles’).",
"The Ancient Romans used ground orchid bulbs to make drinks, which they called by a number of names, especially satyrion and priapiscus. As the names indicate, they likewise considered it to be a powerful aphrodisiac. Of salep, Paracelsus wrote: \"behold the \"Satyrion\" root, is it not formed like the male privy parts? No one can deny this. Accordingly, magic discovered it and revealed that it can restore a man's virility and passion\". Salep was a popular beverage in the lands of the Ottoman Empire. Its consumption spread beyond there to England and Germany before the rise of coffee and tea and it was later offered as an alternative beverage in coffee houses. In England, the drink was known as saloop. Popular in the 17th and 18th centuries in England, its preparation required that the salep powder be added to water until thickened whereupon it would be sweetened, then flavored with orange flower or rose water. Substitution of British orchid roots, known as \"dogstones\", was acceptable in the 18th century for the original Turkish variants.",
"Saloop was a hot drink that was popular in England in the 18th and 19th centuries. Initially, it was made from salep, mostly from Smyrna. Later, the roots and leaves of the North American sassafras tree were the key ingredient. This plant thickened the drink and also had a stimulating quality. This refreshing beverage was sold in place of tea and coffee, which were much more expensive, and was served in a similar way with milk and sugar. It was used as a remedy for various ailments, including \"chronic alcoholic inebriety.\" Its popularity declined when it was purported to treat venereal disease and so drinking it in public became shameful. Saloop stalls in London were replaced by coffee stalls.",
"The beverage sahlab is now often made with hot milk instead of water. Other desserts are also made from salep flour, including salep pudding and dondurma. The Kahramanmaraş region of Turkey is a major producer of sahlab known as Salepi Maraş. The popularity of sahlab in Turkey has led to a decline in the populations of wild orchids. As a result, it is illegal to export true salep. Thus, many instant sahlab mixes are made with artificial flavoring. Salep is also consumed in Greece, and it is usually sold on the streets as a hot beverage during the cold months of the year. It is very popular in many parts of the Middle East, especially the Levant. Families in Turkey drink the hot version during the winter time. It is estimated that, each year in Turkey, 30 tons of tubers from 38 species are harvested, and it takes from 1,000 to 4,000 tubers to make a kilo of flour. With the increasing rarity of some species and local extinctions, traders are harvesting wild orchids in Iran. Abdolbaset Ghorbani of Uppsala University estimates that between 7 and 11 million orchids of nineteen species and sub-species were collected from northern Iran in 2013; with the majority being exported to Turkey. Harvesting of orchid tubers is also increasing in Greece. In the Middle East, \"sahlab\" is a hot milk-based winter drink with a pudding-like consistency, sometimes garnished with nuts and cinnamon."
]
}
|
PPSh-41
| null |
The PPSh-41 ("pistolet-pulemyot Shpagina"; ; "Shpagin machine pistol") is a Soviet submachine gun designed by Georgy Shpagin as a cheap, reliable, and simplified alternative to the PPD-40. Common nickname is ""papasha"" (), meaning "daddy".
| null |
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en-train-2321054
|
en-train-2321054
|
2321054
|
{
"title": [
"History.",
"World War II.",
"Korean War.",
"Features."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1"
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"content": [
"",
"The impetus for the development of the PPSh came partly from the Winter War against Finland, where the Finnish Army employed the Suomi KP/-31 submachine gun as a highly effective tool for close-quarter fighting in forests and built-up urban areas. Its 71-round drum magazine was later copied and adopted by the Soviets for their PPD-40 and PPSh-41 submachine guns. The PPD-40 was subsequently rushed into mass production in 1940, but it was expensive to manufacture, both in terms of materials and labor, because it used numerous milled metal parts, particularly its receiver. Shpagin's main idea for cost reduction was to use metal stamping for the production of most parts; that concept was revolutionary in the Soviet Union at the time. Shpagin created a prototype PPSh in September 1940, which also featured a simple gas compensator designed to prevent the muzzle from rising during bursts; this improved shot grouping by about 70% relative to the PPD. The new weapon was produced in a network of factories in Moscow, with high-level local Party members made directly responsible for meeting production targets. A few hundred weapons were produced in November 1941 and another 155,000 were made during the next five months. By spring 1942, the PPSh factories were producing roughly 3,000 units a day. Soviet production figures for 1942 indicate that almost 1.5 million units were produced. The PPSh-41 is a classic example of a design adapted for mass production (other examples of such wartime design are the M3 submachine gun, MP 40, PPS submachine gun, and the Sten). Its parts (excluding the barrel) could be produced by a relatively unskilled workforce with simple equipment available in an auto repair garage or tin shop, freeing more skilled workers for other tasks. The PPSh-41 uses 87 components compared to 95 for the PPD-40 and the PPSh could be manufactured with an estimated 5.6 machining hours (later revised to 7.3 hours) compared with 13.7 hours for the PPD. Barrel production was often simplified by using barrels for the 7.62mm Mosin–Nagant: the rifle barrel was cut in half and two PPSh barrels were made from it after machining the chamber for the 7.62×25mm Tokarev cartridge. After the German Army captured large numbers of the PPSh-41 during World War II, a program was instituted to convert the weapon to the standard German submachine gun cartridge – 9×19mm Parabellum. The \"Wehrmacht\" officially adopted the converted PPSh-41 as the \"MP41(r)\"; unconverted PPSh-41s were designated \"MP717(r)\" and supplied with 7.63×25mm Mauser ammunition (which is dimensionally identical to 7.62×25mm Tokarev, but slightly less powerful). German-language manuals for the use of captured PPShs were printed and distributed in the \"Wehrmacht\". In addition to barrel replacement, converted PPSh-41s also had a magazine adapter installed, allowing them to use MP-40 magazines. The less powerful 9mm round generally reduces the cyclic rate of fire down to 800 to 750 RPM. Modern aftermarket conversion kits based on the original Wehrmacht one also exist using a variety of magazines, including Sten mags. Some enthusiasts have been able to make them work with the original Soviet drum and stick magazines, eliminating the adapter, as well as use of the more powerful 9×23mm Winchester ammo. As standard each PPSh-41 came with two factory fitted drum magazines that were matched to the weapon with marked serial numbers. If drum magazines were mixed and used with different serial numbered PPSh-41, a loose fitting could result in poor retention and failure to feed. Drum magazines were superseded by a simpler PPS-42 box-type magazine holding 35 rounds, although an improved drum magazine made from 1 mm thick steel was also introduced in 1944. The PPS submachine gun, an even simpler submachine gun, was later introduced in Soviet service in 1943, although it did not replace the PPSh-41 during the war. The Soviet Union also experimented with the PPSh-41 in a close air support antipersonnel role, mounting dozens of the submachine guns in forward fuselage racks on the Tu-2sh variant of the Tupolev Tu-2 bomber. More than five million PPSh submachine guns were produced by the end of the war. The Soviets would often equip platoons and sometimes entire companies with the weapon, giving them excellent short-range firepower. Thousands more were dropped behind enemy lines in order to equip Soviet partisans to disrupt German supply lines and communications.",
"After the Second World War, the PPSh was supplied in large quantities to Soviet-aligned states and Communist guerrilla forces. The weapon was widely used during the Korean War. The Korean People's Army (KPA) and the Chinese People's Volunteer Army (PVA) fighting in Korea received massive numbers of the PPSh-41, in addition to the North Korean Type 49 and the Chinese Type 50, which were both licensed copies of the PPSh-41 with small mechanical revisions. Though relatively inaccurate, the Chinese PPSh has a high rate of fire and was well-suited to the close-range firefights that typically occurred in that conflict, especially at night. United Nations forces in defensive outposts or on patrol often had trouble returning a sufficient volume of fire when attacked by companies of infantry armed with the PPSh. Some U.S. infantry officers ranked the PPSh as the best combat weapon of the war: while lacking the accuracy of the U.S. M1 Garand and M1 carbine, it provided more firepower at short distances. As infantry Captain (later General) Hal Moore, stated: \"on full automatic it sprayed a lot of bullets and most of the killing in Korea was done at very close ranges and it was done quickly – a matter of who responded faster. In situations like that it outclassed and outgunned what we had. A close-in patrol fight was over very quickly and usually we lost because of it.\" U.S. servicemen, however, felt that their M2 carbines were superior to the PPSh-41 at the typical engagement range of 100–150 meters.",
"The PPSh-41 fires the standard Soviet pistol and submachine gun cartridge, the 7.62×25mm (Tokarev). Weighing approximately 12 pounds (5.45 kg) with a loaded 71-round drum and 9.5 pounds (4.32 kg) with a loaded 35-round box magazine, the PPSh is capable of a rate of about 1000 rounds per minute, a very high rate of fire in comparison to most other military submachine guns of World War II. It is a durable, low-maintenance weapon made of low-cost, easily obtained components, primarily stamped sheet metal and wood. The final production PPShs have top ejection and an \"L\" type rear sight that can be adjusted for ranges of 100 and 200 meters. A crude compensator is built into the barrel jacket, intended to reduce muzzle climb during automatic fire. The compensator was moderately successful in this respect, but it greatly increased the muzzle flash and report of the weapon. The PPSh also has a hinged receiver to facilitate field-stripping and cleaning the weapon. A chrome-lined bore enables the PPSh to withstand both corrosive ammunition and long intervals between cleaning. No forward grip or forearm was provided, and the operator generally has to grasp the weapon behind the drum magazine with the supporting hand, or else hold the lower edge of the drum magazine. Though 35-round curved box magazines were available from 1942, the average Soviet infantryman in World War II carried the PPSh with the original 71-round drum magazine. The PPSh drum magazine holds 71 rounds. In practice, misfeeding is likely to occur with more than about 65. In addition to feed issues, the drum magazine is slower and more complicated to load with ammunition than the later 35-round box magazine that increasingly supplemented the drum after 1942. While holding fewer rounds, the box magazine does have the advantage of providing a superior hold for the supporting hand. Although the PPSh is equipped with a sliding bolt safety, the weapon's open-bolt design still presents a risk of accidental discharge if the gun is dropped on a hard surface."
]
}
|
H.P. Baxxter
| null |
Hans Peter Geerdes, professionally known by his stage name H.P. Baxxter, is a German musician who is best known as the lead vocalist of the German techno band Scooter. He founded Scooter with his friend Rick J. Jordan in 1993.
| null |
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en-train-1674071
|
en-train-1674071
|
1674071
|
{
"title": [
"Biography.",
"Early life.",
"Music career.",
"Personal life."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2"
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"content": [
"",
"Baxxter studied accountancy for one term in Hannover, but he ultimately completed a scholarship in Birmingham, England, as a mechanic.",
"In 1985, Baxxter founded the band Celebrate the Nun, together with Rick J. Jordan and his sister Britt Maxime. Their single \"Will You Be There\" from the album \"Meanwhile\" reached No. 2 on the \"autobahn\" Dance/Club Play chart on June 23, 1990, whereas the single \"She's a Secretary\"/\"Strange\" reached No. 12 on Dance/Club Play chart on December 8 of the same year. In 1993, former Celebrate the Nun members joined Baxxter's cousin Orion, aka. Ferris Bueller to form a remix team known as The Loop. The Loop ceased in 1998. In December 1993, Baxxter, along with Celebrate the Nun member Rick J. Jordan and Baxxter's cousin and The Loop member Ferris Bueller, formed the group Scooter. Baxxter joined Guildo Horn, Jeanette Biedermann, Sylvia Kollek and Tobias Künzel on the German jury for Eurovision Song Contest 2009. In 2010, he was announced to be the official German representative for the 2010 IIHF World Championship. Baxxter was one of the judges on the German version of the \"X Factor\" in season 3.",
"Baxxter is an automotive enthusiast. Many music videos for Scooter include old models, such as a 1961 Jaguar Mark 2 and a 1973 Jaguar E-Type V12. He owns and collects many old British cars. On 6 May 2006, he married his girlfriend Simone Mostert. In 2011, H.P. and Simone got divorced on the morning of The Stadium Techno Inferno."
]
}
|
Termoli
| null |
Termoli (Molisano: "Térmëlë") is a town and "comune" (municipality) on the south Adriatic coast of Italy, in the province of Campobasso, region of Molise. It has a population of around 32,000, having expanded quickly after World War II, and it is a local resort town known for its beaches and old fortifications. Once it was known only as a fishing port, but in the new millennium it is a favourite resort for Italian families.
| null |
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] | null | null |
en-train-769195
|
en-train-769195
|
769195
|
{
"title": [
"Geography.",
"Location.",
"Climate."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2"
],
"content": [
"",
"Termoli is located in centre-south of Italy, on the Adriatic Coast of Molise Region. The original settlement developed on the promontory where now there's the ancient village, featured by old white and colorful fisherman houses, narrow streets, Trabucchi on the sea, the romanic pugliese cathedral (\"Duomo\"), Castello Svevo (\"Frederick's Castle of 1200\") and high walls. The centre of the city is developed on the nearby ancient village, here you can find many avenues and streets full of life, especially in summer. On the seafront there are several restaurants, hotels and beaches; out of suburbs there are countrysides cultivated with olive trees and wine.",
"Termoli has a Mediterranean climate (\"CSa\") tending to semi-arid (\"BSk\") according to Köppen climate classification because precipitation is about 350 mm annual with the autumn as wettest season and a minimum in summer (less 20 mm in July and August). Winters are mild but the city may experience windy days because of Maestrale (\"Mistral\") which occasionally can bring snow, even if it is a rare phenomenon that occurs in the whole south Italy. Daily mean is about 10 °C (50 °F) with a maximum that can reach from 12 °C (54 °F) to 15 °C (59 °F), above all in days with winds from south and a minimum of 7 °C (46 °F). Summers are long (they lasts 4 months) and quite hot but thanks to winds they are tolerable with an average high that can generally reach 29/30 °C (85/86 °F); in latest years, as a result of African anticyclone, temperatures were very high reaching 35/40 °C (95/104 °F) also due to southern hot winds from Africa. In July and August nights are considered \"\"tropicals\"\" because the average low is about 24 °C. Rains are rare but sometimes there can be thunderstorms which doesn't contribute well to the dry situation of summer."
]
}
|
Military aircraft
| null |
A military aircraft is any fixed-wing or rotary-wing aircraft that is operated by a legal or insurrectionary armed service of any type. Military aircraft can be either combat or non-combat:
| null |
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en-train-2053533
|
en-train-2053533
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2053533
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{
"title": [
"History.",
"Lighter-than-air.",
"Heavier-than-air.",
"Combat.",
"Fighters.",
"Bombers.",
"Attack.",
"Electronic warfare.",
"Maritime patrol.",
"Multirole.",
"Non-combat.",
"Military transport.",
"Airborne early warning and control.",
"Reconnaissance and surveillance.",
"Experimental."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2"
],
"content": [
"",
"In 1783, when the first practical aircraft (hot-air and hydrogen balloons) were established, they were quickly adopted for military duties. The first military balloon unit was the French Aerostatic Corps, who in 1794 flew an observation balloon during the Battle of Fleurus, the first major battle to feature aerial observation. Balloons continued to be used throughout the 19th Century, including in the Napoleonic Wars and the Franco-Prussian war, for observation and propaganda distribution. During the First World War, German Zeppelin airships carried out multiple air raids on British cities, as well as being used for observation. In the 1920s, the US Navy acquired several non-rigid airships, the first one to see service being the K-1 in 1931. Use by the US as well as other countries continued into the Second World War, the US Navy finally retiring its last balloons in 1962.",
"Soon after the first flight of the Wright Flyer, several militaries became interested in powered aircraft. In 1909 the US Army purchased the Wright Military Flyer, a two-seat observation aircraft, for the Aeronautical Division, U.S. Signal Corps. It served until 1911, by which time powered aircraft had become an important feature in several armies around the world. Airplanes performed reconnaissance and tactical bombing missions in the Italo-Turkish war, and the First Balkan War saw the first naval-air operations. Photoreconnaissance and propaganda leaflet drops followed in the Second Balkan War. Air combat was a notable component of World War I, as fighter aircraft were developed during the war, long-range strategic bombing became a possibility, and airplanes were deployed from aircraft carriers. Airplanes also took on a greater variety of support roles, notably medical evacuation, and deployed new weapons like air-to-air rockets for use against reconnaissance balloons. Aviation technology advanced rapidly in the interwar period, and military aircraft became increasingly capable. Autogyros and helicopters were also developed at this time. During World War II, military aviation reached new heights. Decisive air battles influenced the outcome of the war, early jet aircraft flew combat missions, cruise missiles and ballistic missiles were deployed for the first time, airborne troops and cargo parachuted into battle, and the nuclear weapons that ended the war were delivered by air. In the Cold War era, aviation technology continued to advance at an extremely rapid pace. Jet aircraft exceeded Mach 1 and Mach 2, armament focus switched mainly to missiles, aircraft began carrying more sophisticated avionics, air-to-air refueling matured into practicality, and transport aircraft grew in size. Stealth aircraft entered development during the 1970s and saw combat in the 1980s.",
"Combat aircraft, or \"Warplanes\", are divided broadly into \"multi-role\", \"fighters\", \"bombers\", \"attackers\", and \"electronic warfare support\". Variations exist between them, including fighter-bombers, such as the MiG-23 ground-attack aircraft and the Soviet Ilyushin Il-2 Shturmovik. Also included among combat aircraft are long-range maritime patrol aircraft, such as the Hawker Siddeley Nimrod and the S-3 Viking that are often equipped to attack with anti-ship missiles and anti-submarine weapons.",
"The primary role of fighters is destroying enemy aircraft in air-to-air combat, as part of both offensive and defensive counter air operations. Many fighters also possess a degree of ground attack capability, allowing them to perform surface attack and close air support missions. In addition to their counter air duties they are tasked to perform escort mission for bombers or other aircraft. Fighters are capable of carrying a variety of weapons, including machine guns, cannons, rockets, guided missiles, and bombs. Many modern fighters can attack enemy fighters from a great distance, before the enemy even sees or detects them. Examples of fighters include the F-22 Raptor, F-15 Eagle, and Su-27.",
"Bombers are normally larger, heavier, and less maneuverable than fighter aircraft. They are capable of carrying large payloads of bombs, torpedoes or cruise missiles. Bombers are used almost exclusively for ground attacks and not fast or agile enough to take on enemy fighters head-to-head. Some have a single engine and require one pilot to operate, while others have two or more engines and require crews of two or more. A limited number of bombers, such as the B-2 Spirit, have stealth capabilities that keep them from being detected by enemy radar. An example of a conventional modern bomber would be the B-52 Stratofortress. An example of a World War II bomber would be a B-17 Flying Fortress. Bombers include light bombers, medium bombers, heavy bombers, dive bombers, and torpedo bombers.",
"Attack aircraft can be used to provide support for friendly ground troops. Some are able to carry conventional or nuclear weapons far behind enemy lines to strike priority ground targets. Attack helicopters attack enemy armor and provide close air support for ground troops. An example historical ground-attack aircraft is the Soviet Ilyushin Il-2 Shturmovik. Several types of transport airplanes have been armed with sideways firing weapons as gunships for ground attack. These include the AC-47 and AC-130 aircraft.",
"An electronic warfare aircraft is a military aircraft equipped for electronic warfare (EW) - i.e. degrading the effectiveness of enemy radar and radio systems. They are generally modified versions of other pre-existing aircraft. A recent example would be the Boeing EA-18G Growler, which is a modified version of the Boeing F/A-18F Super Hornet.",
"A maritime patrol aircraft fixed-wing military aircraft designed to operate for long durations over water in maritime patrol roles—in particular anti-submarine, anti-ship and search and rescue. Some patrol aircraft were designed for this purpose, like the Kawasaki P-1. Many others are modified designs of pre-existing aircraft, such as the Boeing P-8 Poseidon, which is based on the Boeing 737-800 airliner.",
"Many combat aircraft today have a multirole ability. Normally only applied to fixed-wing aircraft, this term signifies that the plane in question can be a fighter or a bomber, depending on what the mission calls for. An example of a multirole design is the F-15E Strike Eagle, F/A-18 Hornet, F-35 Lightning II. A World War II example would be the P-38 Lightning.",
"Non-combat roles of military aircraft include search and rescue, reconnaissance, observation/surveillance, Airborne Early Warning and Control, transport, training, and aerial refueling. Many civil aircraft, both fixed wing and rotary wing, have been produced in separate models for military use, such as the civilian Douglas DC-3 airliner, which became the military C-47 Skytrain, and British \"Dakota\" transport planes, and decades later, the USAF's AC-47 aerial gunships. Even the fabric-covered two-seat Piper J3 Cub had a military version. Gliders and balloons have also been used as military aircraft; for example, balloons were used for observation during the American Civil War and during World War I, and military gliders were used during World War II to deliver ground troops in airborne assaults.",
"Military transport (logistics) aircraft are primarily used to transport troops and war supplies. Cargo can be attached to pallets, which are easily loaded, secured for flight, and quickly unloaded for delivery. Cargo also may be discharged from flying aircraft on parachutes, eliminating the need for landing. Also included in this category are aerial tankers; these planes can refuel other aircraft while in flight. An example of a transport aircraft is the C-17 Globemaster III. A World War II example would be the C-47. An example of a tanker craft would be the KC-135 Stratotanker. Helicopters and gliders can transport troops and supplies to areas where other aircraft would be unable to land. Calling a military aircraft a \"cargo plane\" is incorrect, because military \"transport planes\" also carry paratroopers and other soldiers.",
"An airborne early warning and control (AEW&C) system is an airborne radar system designed to detect aircraft, ships and ground vehicles at long ranges and control and command the battle space in an air engagement by directing fighter and attack aircraft strikes. AEW&C units are also used to carry out surveillance, including over ground targets and frequently perform C2BM (command and control, battle management) functions similar to an Airport Traffic Controller given military command over other forces. Used at a high altitude, the radars on the aircraft allow the operators to distinguish between friendly and hostile aircraft hundreds of miles away. AEW&C aircraft are used for both defensive and offensive air operations, and are to the NATO and USA forces trained or integrated Air Forces what the Command Information Center is to a Navy Warship, plus a highly mobile and powerful radar platform. The system is used offensively to direct fighters to their target locations, and defensively in order to counterattacks by enemy forces, both air and ground. So useful is the advantage of command and control from a high altitude, the United States Navy operates AEW&C aircraft off its Supercarriers to augment and protect its carrier Command Information Centers (CICs). AEW&C is also known by the older terms \"airborne early warning\" (AEW) and \"airborne warning and control system\" (AWACS, /ˈeɪwæks/ ay-waks) although AWACS is the name of a specific system currently used by NATO and the USAF and is often used in error to describe similar systems.",
"Reconnaissance aircraft are primarily used to gather intelligence. They are equipped with cameras and other sensors. These aircraft may be specially designed or may be modified from a basic fighter or bomber type. This role is increasingly being filled by satellites and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). Surveillance and observation aircraft use radar and other sensors for battlefield surveillance, airspace surveillance, maritime patrol and artillery spotting. They include modified civil aircraft designs, moored balloons and UAVs.",
"Experimental aircraft are designed in order to test advanced aerodynamic, structural, avionic, or propulsion concepts. These are usually well instrumented, with performance data telemetered on radio-frequency data links to ground stations located at the test ranges where they are flown. An example of an experimental aircraft is the Bristol 188."
]
}
|
Alfons Heck
| null |
Alfons Heck (3 November 1928 – 12 April 2005) was a Hitler Youth member who eventually became a Hitler Youth Officer and a fanatical adherent of Nazism during the Third Reich.
| null |
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en-train-305012
|
en-train-305012
|
305012
|
{
"title": [
"Early life.",
"Flying Hitler Youth.",
"Later life.",
"Works."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Heck was born in the Rhineland. He was raised by his grandparents at their farm in the crossroads wine country community of Wittlich, Germany. When he entered school at the age of 6, he and his classmates were first exposed to effective Nazi indoctrination by their virulently-nationalistic teacher. Four years later, Heck and his classmates joined the five million in the Hitler Youth. Heck was a good student and found learning easy. He was appointed leader of about ten other boys. By then, his indoctrination and his devotion to the proud future of Hitler's Third Reich were nearly complete. He understood that the first rule of service to a greater Germany was to follow orders without question, and he was willing to report \"suspicious actions\" or comments, even by friends or family, to his leader.",
"At 14, all Deutsches Jungvolk were required to join the senior Hitler Youth branch, the Hitlerjugend. In part to avoid becoming an infantry officer, Heck applied to the elite Flying Hitler Youth (Flieger Hitlerjugend), although he was apprehensive about its year-long glider plane training. But within weeks he became obsessed with flying and landing gliders. His life course had changed. He would not study to be a priest, as his grandmother had hoped. Heck devoted himself to the task of becoming a Luftwaffe fighter pilot. He had been taught to believe that living under Bolshevik-Jewish slavery was too horrible to contemplate, leaving German victory as the only alternative. Capture seemed to him worse than death. He thought that only a glorious death over the battlefield stood in the way of his sharing in Germany's inevitable triumph. His final transformation to fanaticism had begun. He described this extended period of glider training from late 1942 until early 1944 as the happiest of his life. At 16, Heck became the youngest scholar to receive a diploma from Aeronaut's Certificate in Sailplane Flying. Heck recalls the audience response to Hitler: However, the Allied invasion of France in 1944 caused his group of 180 Flying Hitler Youth, of which Heck had become the officer in charge, to be returned to the Wittlich area to organise the excavation of large anti-tank barriers on the nearby defensive Westwall. Battlefield losses raised Heck's Hitler Youth rank to Bannführer, nominally in charge of 3,000 Hitler Youth workers in the town and its 50 surrounding villages. One of his antiaircraft crews shot down a damaged B-17 bomber trying to return to its base. Later, he gave orders in a combat engagement against advancing Americans in which participants on both sides were killed. He was considered by friends and superiors to be ambitious and ruthless. At one point, he gave orders to have an elderly Luxembourg priest shot if he dared return to the school that Heck had commandeered for his workers. The priest did not return. In another incident, he drew his pistol to shoot a Hitler Youth deserter but was prevented from doing so by a Wehrmacht sergeant. Heck admitted at the time, as well as afterwards, that he had become intoxicated by the power he wielded. As the approaching Americans consolidated their gains, the 16-year-old Bannführer was ordered back to his Luftwaffe training base. Once there, with the suspension of training, flight candidates were being ordered to the front lines to face the American infantry. However, a Luftwaffe officer, likely for the purpose of preserving Heck's life, ordered Heck to organise the retrieval of needed radar equipment near Wittlich and then to take a four-day leave in his home town. This enabled Heck to don civilian clothes before surrendering to the advancing Americans. Unaware of his Hitler Youth rank, the American soldiers used Heck as a translator until French military authorities began occupying the area. The French arrested Heck, who served six months of hard labor before finally being released. Heck was awarded an Iron Cross for his war efforts as a Hitler Youth member.",
"Heck was unable to believe that the atrocities perpetrated by the Nazi regime had actually taken place. Despite the difficulty of traveling within occupied Germany, he made his way to Nuremberg to witness what he could of the trials of former Nazi officers and officials. He later emigrated to Canada, working in several British Columbia sawmills. He then moved to the US, where, living in San Diego, he became a Greyhound long-distance bus driver. During the 1950s and 1960s, Alfons Heck remained silent about his wartime activities and his involvement in the Hitler Youth, but he read hundreds of books about the Third Reich, tracing the lives of surviving Nazi leaders and maintaining an interest in West German politics. He came to feel that his generation of young Germans had been callously betrayed by Nazi strategists. Of the nine and a half million German war dead, two million were teenagers, both civilians and Hitler Youth. In 1971, at the age of 43, he became disabled by heart disease. Without a productive future and increasingly frustrated by his contemporaries' failure to speak out, Heck began attending writing classes so that he might record what it was like to have been a pawn of Nazi militarism. Heck died of heart failure at the age of 76 on April 12, 2005.",
"In 1985, he published \"A Child of Hitler: Germany in the Days When God Wore a Swastika\" (Arizona: Renaissance House, 1985), an account of his life under Nazism. He continued with \"The Burden of Hitler's Legacy\" (Frederick, Colorado: Renaissance House, 1988). Heck began touring with Waterford in 1980 to talk about their experiences before, during, and after the war. The aligned speakers became friends as they visited more than 150 universities over nine years, urging youths to avoid Hitler-type brainwashing. Colorado publisher Eleanor Ayer, who published Waterford's autobiography \"Commitment to the Dead\" in 1987, wrote Waterford and Heck's intertwined stories in her 1995 book \"Parallel Journeys.\" In 1989, Heck appeared in the BBC Documentary \"The Fatal Attraction of Adolf Hitler\". In 1991, he featured in HBO's documentary \"Heil Hitler Confessions Of A Hitler Youth\". The film won an ACE for best documentary. In 1992, Heck was awarded an Emmy for \"outstanding historical programming.\" In 1991, an HBO documentary based on his books titled \"Heil Hitler! Confessions of a Hitler Youth\" was released. With Heck's narration and using archived footage, it attempted to explain how millions of the German youth of the Third Reich followed Nazi propaganda and became some of the most extreme Hitler followers. Heck also provided testimony on parallels between the attraction of Nazism and Islamism and was featured in the documentary \"\"."
]
}
|
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation
| null |
The Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) is an inter-governmental forum for 21 member economies in the Pacific Rim that promotes free trade throughout the Asia-Pacific region. Following the success of ASEAN's series of post-ministerial conferences launched in the mid-1980s, APEC started in 1989, in response to the growing interdependence of Asia-Pacific economies and the advent of regional trade blocs in other parts of the world; it aimed to establish new markets for agricultural products and raw materials beyond Europe. Headquartered in Singapore, APEC is recognized as one of the highest-level multilateral blocs and oldest forums in the Asia-Pacific region, and exerts a significant global influence.
| null |
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en-train-1482080
|
en-train-1482080
|
1482080
|
{
"title": [
"History.",
"Meeting locations.",
"Member economies.",
"Possible enlargement.",
"Business facilitation.",
"Proposed FTAAP.",
"APEC Study Centre Consortium.",
"APEC Business Advisory Council.",
"Annual APEC economic leaders' meetings.",
"Meeting developments.",
"APEC leaders' group photo.",
"Criticism."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The APEC was initially inspired when ASEAN’s series of post-ministerial conferences, launched in the mid-1980s, had demonstrated the feasibility and value of regular conferences among ministerial-level representatives of both developed and developing economies. By 1996, the post ministerial conferences had expanded to embrace 12 members (the then six members of ASEAN and its six dialogue partners). The developments led Australian Prime Minister Bob Hawke to believe the necessity of region-wide co-operation on economic matters. In January 1989, Bob Hawke called for more effective economic co-operation across the Pacific Rim region. This led to the first meeting of APEC in the Australian capital of Canberra in November, chaired by Australian Foreign Affairs Minister Gareth Evans. Attended by ministers from twelve countries, the meeting concluded with commitments for future annual meetings in Singapore and South Korea. Ten months later, 12 Asia-Pacific economies met in Canberra, Australia, to establish APEC. The APEC Secretariat, based in Singapore, was established to co-ordinate the activities of the organisation. During the meeting in 1994 in Bogor, Indonesia, APEC leaders adopted the Bogor Goals that aim for free and open trade and investment in the Asia-Pacific by 2010 for industrialised economies and by 2020 for developing economies. In 1995, APEC established a business advisory body named the APEC Business Advisory Council (ABAC), composed of three business executives from each member's economy. In April 2001, the APEC, in collaboration with five other international organisations (Eurostat, IEA, OLADE, OPEC and the UNSD) launched the Joint Oil Data Exercise, which in 2005 became the Joint Organisations Data Initiative (JODI).",
"The location of the meeting is rotated annually among the members.",
"APEC currently has 21 members. However, the criterion for membership is that the member is a separate \"economy\", rather than a state. As a result, APEC uses the term \"member economies\" rather than \"member countries\" to refer to its members. One result of this criterion is that membership of the forum includes Taiwan (officially the Republic of China, participating under the name \"Chinese Taipei\") alongside People's Republic of China (see Cross-Strait relations), as well as Hong Kong, which entered APEC as a British colony but it is now a Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China. APEC also includes three official observers: ASEAN, the Pacific Islands Forum and the Pacific Economic Cooperation Council.",
"India has requested membership in APEC, and received initial support from the United States, Japan, Australia and Papua New Guinea. Officials have decided not to allow India to join for various reasons, considering that India does not border the Pacific Ocean, which all current members do. However, India was invited to be an observer for the first time in November 2011. Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Macau, Mongolia, Laos, Cambodia, Costa Rica, Colombia, Panama, and Ecuador, are among a dozen other economies that have applied for membership in APEC. Colombia applied for APEC's membership as early as in 1995, but its bid was halted as the organisation stopped accepting new members from 1993 to 1996, and the moratorium was further prolonged to 2007 due to the 1997 Asian Financial Crisis. Guam has also been actively seeking a separate membership, citing the example of Hong Kong, but the request is opposed by the United States, which currently represents Guam.",
"APEC has long been at the forefront of reform efforts in the area of business facilitation. Between 2002 and 2006 the costs of business transactions across the region was reduced by 6%, thanks to the APEC Trade Facilitation Action Plan (TFAPI). Between 2007 and 2010, APEC hopes to achieve an additional 5% reduction in business transaction costs. To this end, a new Trade Facilitation Action Plan has been endorsed. According to a 2008 research brief published by the World Bank as part of its Trade Costs and Facilitation Project, increasing transparency in the region's trading system is critical if APEC is to meet its Bogor Goal targets. The APEC Business Travel Card, a travel document for visa-free business travel within the region is one of the concrete measures to facilitate business. In May 2010 Russia joined the scheme, thus completing the circle.",
"APEC first formally started discussing the concept of a Free Trade Area of the Asia-Pacific (FTAAP) at its summit in 2006 in Hanoi. However, the proposal for such an area has been around since at least 1966 and Japanese economist's proposal for a Pacific Free Trade agreement proposal. While it gained little traction, the idea led to the formation of Pacific Trade and Development Conference and then the Pacific Economic Cooperation Council in 1980 and then APEC in 1989. In the wake of the 2006 summit, economist C. Fred Bergsten advocated a Free Trade Agreement of Asia-Pacific, including the United States amongst the proposed parties to any agreement at that time. His ideas convinced the APEC Business Advisory Council to support this concept. Relatedly, ASEAN and existing free trade agreement (FTA) partners are negotiating as Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP), not officially including Russia. The Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) without China or Russia involved has become the US-promoted trade negotiation in the region. At the APEC summit in Beijing in 2014, the three plans were all in discussion. President Obama hosted a TPP meeting at the US Embassy in Beijing in advance of the APEC gathering. The proposal for a FTAAP arose due to the lack of progress in the Doha round of World Trade Organization negotiations, and as a way to overcome the \"noodle bowl\" effect created by overlapping and conflicting elements of the copious free trade agreements – there were approximately 60 free trade agreements in 2007, with an additional 117 in the process of negotiation in Southeast Asia and the Asia-Pacific region. In 2012, ASEAN+6 countries alone had 339 free trade agreements – many of which were bilateral. The FTAAP is more ambitious in scope than the Doha round, which limits itself to reducing trade restrictions. The FTAAP would create a free trade zone that would considerably expand commerce and economic growth in the region. The economic expansion and growth in trade could exceed the expectations of other regional free trade areas such as the ASEAN Plus Three (ASEAN + China, South Korea and Japan). Some criticisms include that the diversion of trade within APEC members would create trade imbalances, market conflicts and complications with nations of other regions. The development of the FTAAP is expected to take many years, involving essential studies, evaluations and negotiations between member economies. It is also affected by the absence of political will and popular agitations and lobbying against free trade in domestic politics. At the 2014 APEC summit in Beijing, APEC leaders agreed to launch \"a collective strategic study\" on the FTAAP and instruct officials to undertake the study, consult stakeholders and report the result by the end of 2016. APEC Executive Director Alan Bollard revealed in the Elite Talk show that FTAAP will be APEC's big goal out into the future. The Trans-Pacific Partnership includes 12 of the 21 APEC members and has provisions for the accession of other APEC members, five of which have expressed interest in membership.",
"In 1993, APEC Leaders decided to establish a network of APEC Study Centres (APCs) among universities and research institutions in member economies. The purpose is to foster cooperation among tertiary and research institutes of member economies, thus having better academic collaboration on key regional economic challenges. To encourage independence from the APEC conference, the APCs are funded independently and choose their own research topics. As of December 2018, there are 70 APCs among the member economies. An annual conference is usually held in the host economy for that year.",
"The APEC Business Advisory Council (ABAC) was created by the APEC Economic Leaders in November 1995 with the aim of providing advice to the APEC Economic Leaders on ways to achieve the Bogor Goals and other specific business sector priorities, and to provide the business perspective on specific areas of co-operation. Each economy nominates up to three members from the private sector to ABAC. These business leaders represent a wide range of industry sectors. ABAC provides an annual report to APEC Economic Leaders containing recommendations to improve the business and investment environment in the Asia-Pacific region, and outlining business views about priority regional issues. ABAC is also the only non-governmental organisation that is on the official agenda of the APEC Economic Leader's Meeting.",
"Since its formation in 1989, APEC has held annual meetings with representatives from all member economies. The first four annual meetings were attended by ministerial-level officials. Beginning in 1993, the annual meetings are named APEC Economic Leaders' Meetings and are attended by the heads of government from all member economies except Taiwan, which is represented by a ministerial-level official. The annual Leaders' Meetings are not called summits.",
"In 1997, the APEC meeting was held in Vancouver. Controversy arose after officers of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police used pepper spray against protesters. The protesters objected to the presence of autocratic leaders such as Indonesian president Suharto. At the 2001 Leaders' Meeting in Shanghai, APEC leaders pushed for a new round of trade negotiations and support for a program of trade capacity-building assistance, leading to the launch of the Doha Development Agenda a few weeks later. The meeting also endorsed the Shanghai Accord proposed by the United States, emphasising the implementation of open markets, structural reform, and capacity building. As part of the accord, the meeting committed to develop and implement APEC transparency standards, reduce trade transaction costs in the Asia-Pacific region by 5 percent over 5 years, and pursue trade liberalisation policies relating to information technology goods and services. In 2003, Jemaah Islamiah leader Riduan Isamuddin had planned to attack the APEC Leaders Meeting to be held in Bangkok in October. He was captured in the city of Ayutthaya, Thailand by Thai police on 11 August 2003, before he could finish planning the attack. Chile became the first South American nation to host the Leaders' Meeting in 2004. The agenda of that year was focused on terrorism and commerce, small and medium enterprise development, and contemplation of free agreements and regional trade agreements. The 2005 Leaders' Meeting was held in Busan, South Korea. The meeting focused on the Doha round of World Trade Organization (WTO) negotiations, leading up to the WTO Ministerial Conference of 2005 held in Hong Kong in December. Weeks earlier, trade negotiations in Paris were held between several WTO members, including the United States and the European Union, centred on reducing agricultural trade barriers. APEC leaders at the summit urged the European Union to agree to reduce farm subsidies. In a continuation of the climate information sharing initiative established by the APEC Climate Network working group, it was decided by the leaders to install the APEC Climate Center in Busan. Peaceful protests against APEC were staged in Busan, but the meeting schedule was not affected. At the Leaders' Meeting held on 19 November 2006 in Hanoi, APEC leaders called for a new start to global free-trade negotiations while condemning terrorism and other threats to security. APEC also criticised North Korea for conducting a nuclear test and a missile test launch that year, urging the country to take \"concrete and effective\" steps toward nuclear disarmament. Concerns about nuclear proliferation in the region was discussed in addition to economic topics. The United States and Russia signed an agreement as part of Russia's bid to join the World Trade Organization. The APEC Australia 2007 Leaders' Meeting was held in Sydney from 2–9 September 2007. The political leaders agreed to an \"aspirational goal\" of a 25% reduction of energy intensity correlative with economic development. Extreme security measures including airborne sharpshooters and extensive steel-and-concrete barricades were deployed against anticipated protesters and potential terrorists. However, protest activities were peaceful and the security envelope was penetrated with ease by a spoof diplomatic motorcade manned by members of the Australian television program \"The Chaser\", one of whom was dressed to resemble the Al-Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden. The APEC Chile 2019, originally to be held 16–17 November 2019 in Chile, was cancelled due to ongoing protests by sections of its population over inequality, the cost of living and police repression.",
"At the end of the APEC Economic Leaders' Meeting, the leaders gather for the official APEC Leaders' Family Photo. A tradition has the leaders dressing to reflect the culture of the host member. The tradition dates to the first such meeting in 1993 when then-U.S. President Bill Clinton insisted on informal attire and gave the leaders leather bomber jackets. At the 2010 meeting, Japan had the leaders dress in smart casual rather than the traditional kimono. Similarly, when Honolulu was selected in 2009 as the site for the 2011 APEC meeting, U.S. President Barack Obama joked that he looked forward to seeing the leaders dressed in \"flowered shirts and grass skirts\". After viewing previous photos, and concerned that having the leaders dress in aloha shirts might give the wrong impression during a period of economic austerity, Obama instead decided it might be time to end the tradition. Leaders were given a specially designed aloha shirt as a gift but were not expected to wear it for the photo. Leaders in Bali, Indonesia at the 2013 conference wore a batik outfit; in China 2014 Tang suit jackets; in the Philippines 2015 Barong Tagalogs; in Peru 2016 vicuna wool shawls; in 2017 Vietnamese silk shirts.",
"APEC has been criticised for promoting free trade agreements that would impose restrictions on national and local laws, which regulate and ensure labour rights, environmental protection and safe and affordable access to medicine. According to the organisation, it is \"the premier forum for facilitating economic growth, cooperation, trade and investment in the Asia-Pacific region\" established to \"further enhance economic growth and prosperity for the region and to strengthen the Asia-Pacific community\". The effectiveness and fairness of its role has been questioned, especially from the viewpoints of European countries that cannot take part in APEC and Pacific Island nations that cannot participate but stand to be affected by its decisions."
]
}
|
Battle of Leyte Gulf
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The Battle of Leyte Gulf (Filipino: "Labanan sa Look ng Leyte") is considered to have been the largest naval battle of World War II and is, by some criteria, a contender for the title "largest naval battle in history", with over 200,000 naval personnel involved. It was fought in waters near the Philippine islands of Leyte, Samar, and Luzon, from 23–26 October 1944, between combined American and Australian forces and the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN), as part of the invasion of Leyte, which aimed to isolate Japan from the countries it had occupied in Southeast Asia which were a vital source of industrial and oil supplies.
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en-train-209225
|
en-train-209225
|
209225
|
{
"title": [
"Background.",
"Formosa vs. Philippines as invasion target.",
"Decision to invade the Philippines.",
"Setup for the battle.",
"Lack of unified command structures.",
"Japanese plans.",
"Submarine action in Palawan Passage (23 October 1944).",
"Battle of the Sibuyan Sea (24 October 1944).",
"Task Force 34 / San Bernardino Strait.",
"Halsey's decision (24 October 1944).",
"Warning signs ignored.",
"Battle of Surigao Strait (25 October 1944).",
"Japanese Forces.",
"Engagement.",
"Sinking of the \"Fusō\".",
"Battle continues.",
"Results.",
"Battle off Samar (25 October 1944).",
"Prelude.",
"Battle.",
"Admiral Kurita withdraws.",
"Battle off Cape Engaño (25–26 October 1944).",
"Weighing the decisions of Halsey.",
"Criticism.",
"Halsey's defense.",
"Potential mitigating factors.",
"Losses.",
"American losses.",
"Japanese losses.",
"Aftermath.",
"Memorials.",
"Battle of Surigao Strait Memorial."
],
"section_level": [
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"2",
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"2",
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"content": [
"The campaigns of August 1942 to early 1944 had driven Japanese forces from many of their island bases in the south and the central Pacific Ocean, while isolating many of their other bases (most notably in the Solomon Islands, Bismarck Archipelago, Admiralty Islands, New Guinea, Marshall Islands, and Wake Island), and in June 1944, a series of American amphibious landings supported by the Fifth Fleet's Fast Carrier Task Force captured most of the Mariana Islands (bypassing Rota). This offensive breached Japan's strategic inner defense ring and gave the Americans a base from which long-range Boeing B-29 Superfortress bombers could attack the Japanese home islands. The Japanese counterattacked in the Battle of the Philippine Sea. The U.S. Navy destroyed three Japanese aircraft carriers, damaged other ships, and shot down approximately 600 Japanese aircraft, leaving the IJN with very little carrier-borne air power and few experienced pilots. However, the considerable land-based air power the Japanese had amassed in the Philippines was thought too dangerous to bypass by many high-ranking officers outside the Joint Chiefs of Staff, including Admiral Chester Nimitz.",
"The next logical step was to cut Japan's supply lines to Southeast Asia, depriving them of fuel and other necessities of war, but there were two different plans for doing so. Admiral Ernest J. King, other members of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and Admiral Nimitz favored blockading Japanese forces in the Philippines and invading Formosa (Taiwan), while U.S. Army General Douglas MacArthur, wanting to make good on",
"A meeting between MacArthur, Nimitz, and President Roosevelt helped confirm the Philippines as a strategic target but did not reach a decision, and the debate continued for two months. Eventually Nimitz",
"The Seventh Fleet at this time contained units of the U.S. Navy and the Royal Australian Navy. Before the major naval actions in Leyte Gulf had begun, and were severely damaged by air attacks; during the battle proper these two cruisers were retiring, escorted by, for repairs at the major Allied base at Manus Island, away.",
"The U.S. 3rd Fleet, commanded by Admiral William F. Halsey Jr., with Task Force 38 (TF 38, the Fast Carrier Task Force, commanded by Vice Admiral Marc Mitscher), as its main component would provide more distant cover and support for the invasion. A fundamental defect in this plan was",
"The American options were apparent to the IJN. Combined Fleet Chief Soemu Toyoda prepared four \"victory\" plans: \"Shō-Gō\" 1 ( \"\") was a major naval operation in the Philippines, while \"Shō-Gō\" 2, \"Shō-Gō\" 3 and \"Shō-Gō\" 4 were responses to attacks on Formosa, the Ryukyu Islands, and the Kurile Islands, respectively. The plans were for complex offensive operations committing nearly all available forces to a decisive battle, despite substantially depleting Japan's slender reserves of fuel oil. On 12 October 1944, Halsey began a series of carrier raids against Formosa and the Ryukyu Islands with a view to ensuring that the aircraft based there could not intervene in the Leyte landings. The Japanese command, therefore, put \"Shō-Gō\" 2 into action launching waves of air attacks against Third Fleet's carriers. In what Morison refers to as a \"knock-down, drag-out fight between carrier-based and land-based air\", the Japanese were routed losing 600 aircraft in three",
"As it sortied from its base in Brunei, Kurita's powerful \"Center Force\" consisted of five battleships (,,,, and ), ten heavy cruisers (,,,,,,,, and ), two light cruisers ( and ) and 15 destroyers. Kurita's ships passed Palawan Island around midnight on 22–23 October. The American submarines and were positioned together on the surface close by. At 00:16 on 23 October, \"Darter\"s radar detected the Japanese formation at a range of. Her captain promptly made visual contact. The two submarines quickly moved off in pursuit of the ships, while \"Darter\" made the first of three contact reports. At least one of these was picked up by a radio operator on \"Yamato\", but Kurita failed to take appropriate antisubmarine precautions. \"Darter\" and \"Dace\" traveled on the surface at full power for several hours and gained a position ahead of Kurita's formation, with the intention of making a submerged attack at first light. This",
"Despite its great strength, the U.S. 3rd Fleet was not well-placed to deal with the threat. On 22 October, Halsey had detached two of his carrier groups to the fleet base at Ulithi to provision and rearm. When \"Darter\"s contact report came in, Halsey recalled Davison's group, but allowed Vice Admiral John S. McCain, with the strongest of TF 38's carrier groups, to continue towards Ulithi. Halsey finally recalled McCain on 24 October—but the delay meant the most powerful American carrier group played little part in the coming battle and the 3rd Fleet was therefore effectively deprived of nearly 40% of its air strength for most of the engagement. On the morning of 24 October, only three groups were available to strike Kurita's force, and the one best positioned to do so—Gerald F. Bogan's Task Group 38.2 (TG 38.2)—was by mischance the weakest of the groups, containing only one large carrier——and two light carriers. Meanwhile, Vice Admiral Takijirō Ōnishi directed three waves of aircraft from his First Air Fleet based on Luzon against the carriers of Rear Admiral Frederick Sherman's TG 38.3 (whose aircraft were also being used to strike airfields in Luzon to prevent Japanese land-based air attacks on Allied shipping in Leyte Gulf). Each of Ōnishi's strike waves consisted of some 50 to 60 aircraft. Most of the attacking Japanese planes were intercepted and shot down or driven off by Hellcats of Sherman's combat air patrol, most notably by two fighter sections from led by Commander David McCampbell (who shot down a record nine of the attacking planes in this one action, after which he managed to return and land \"in extremis\" on because the \"Essex\"s deck was too busy to accommodate him although he had run short of fuel). However, one Japanese aircraft (a Yokosuka D4Y3 \"Judy\") slipped through the defences, and at 09:38 hit the light carrier with a armor-piercing bomb. The resulting explosion caused a severe fire in \"Princeton\"s hangar and her emergency sprinkler system failed to operate. As the",
"After the Japanese Southern and Center forces had been detected, but before it had been engaged or Ozawa's carriers had been located, Halsey and the staff of 3rd Fleet, aboard the battleship, prepared a contingency plan to deal with the threat from Kurita's Center Force. Their intention was to cover the San Bernardino Strait with a powerful task force of fast battleships supported by two of the 3rd Fleet's equally swift carrier groups. The battleship force was to be designated Task Force 34 (TF 34) and to consist of four battleships, five cruisers, and 14 destroyers under the command of Vice Admiral Willis A. Lee. Rear Admiral Ralph E. Davison of TG 38.4 was to be in overall command of the supporting carrier groups. At 15:12 on 24 October, Halsey sent an ambiguously worded telegraphic radio message to his subordinate task group commanders giving details of this contingency plan: Halsey sent information copies of this message to Admiral Nimitz at Pacific Fleet headquarters and Admiral King in Washington, but he did not include Admiral Kinkaid (7th Fleet) as an information addressee.",
"The 3rd Fleet's aircraft failed to locate Ozawa's Northern Force until 16:40 on 24 October. This was largely because 3rd Fleet had been preoccupied with attacking Kurita's sizeable Center Force and defending itself against the Japanese air strikes from Luzon. Thus the one Japanese force that wanted to be discovered – Ozawa's tempting decoy of a large carrier group, which actually had only 108 aircraft – was the only force the Americans had not been able to find. On the evening of 24 October, Ozawa intercepted a (mistaken) American communication describing Kurita's withdrawal; he therefore began to withdraw, too. However, at 20:00, IJN Combined Fleet Admiral Soemu Toyoda ordered all his forces to attack \"counting on divine assistance.\" Trying to draw 3rd Fleet's attention to his decoy force, Ozawa reversed course again and headed southward towards Leyte. Halsey fell for the Japanese decoy, convinced the Northern Force constituted the main Japanese threat, and he was determined to seize what he saw as a golden opportunity to destroy Japan's last remaining carrier strength. Believing the Center Force had been neutralized by 3rd Fleet's air strikes earlier in the day in the Sibuyan Sea, and its remnants were retiring, Halsey radioed (to Nimitz and Kinkaid): The words \"with three groups\" proved dangerously misleading. In the light of the intercepted 15:12 24 October \"...will be formed as Task Force 34\" message from Halsey, Admiral Kinkaid and his staff assumed, as did Admiral Nimitz at Pacific Fleet headquarters, that TF 34—commanded by Lee—had now been formed as a separate entity. They assumed that Halsey was leaving this powerful surface force guarding the San Bernardino Strait (and covering the Seventh Fleet's northern flank), while he took his three available carrier groups northwards in pursuit of the Japanese carriers. But Task Force 34 had not been detached from his other forces, and Lee's battleships were on their way northwards with the 3rd Fleet's carriers. As Woodward wrote: \"Everything was pulled out from San Bernardino Strait. Not so much as a picket destroyer was left\".",
"Halsey and his staff officers ignored information from a night reconnaissance aircraft operating from the light carrier that Kurita's powerful surface force had turned back towards the San Bernardino Strait, and that after a long blackout, the navigation lights in the strait had been turned on. When Rear Admiral Gerald F. Bogan—commanding TG 38.2—radioed this information to Halsey's flagship, he was rebuffed by a staff officer, who tersely replied \"Yes, yes, we have that information.\" Vice Admiral Lee, who had correctly deduced that Ozawa's force was",
"The Battle of Surigao Strait is significant as the last battleship-to-battleship action in history. The Battle of Surigao Strait was one of only two battleship-versus-battleship naval battles in the entire Pacific campaign of World War II (the other being the naval battle during the Guadalcanal Campaign, where the and sank the ). It was also the last battle in which one force (in this case, the U.S. Navy) was able to \"cross the T\" of its opponent. However, by the time that the battleship action was joined, the Japanese line was very ragged and consisted of only one battleship (\"Yamashiro\"), one heavy cruiser, and one destroyer, so that the \"crossing of the T\" was notional and had little effect on the outcome of the battle.",
"Nishimura's \"Southern Force\" consisted of the old battleships and, the heavy cruiser, and four destroyers,,, and. This task force left Brunei after Kurita at 15:00 on 22 October, turning eastward into the Sulu Sea and then northeasterly past the southern tip of Negros Island into the Mindanao Sea. Nishimura then proceeded northeastward with Mindanao Island to starboard and into the south entrance to the Surigao Strait, intending to exit the north entrance of the",
"As the Japanese Southern Force approached the Surigao Strait, it ran into a deadly trap set by the U.S. 7th Fleet Support Force. Rear Admiral Jesse Oldendorf had a substantial force comprising Five of the six battleships had been sunk or damaged in the attack on Pearl Harbor and subsequently repaired or, in the cases of \"Tennessee\", \"California\", and \"West Virginia\", rebuilt. The sole exception was \"Mississippi\" which had been in Iceland on convoy-escort duty at that time. To pass through the narrows and reach the invasion shipping, Nishimura would have to run the gauntlet of torpedoes from the PT boats and destroyers before advancing into the concentrated",
"The traditional account of the sinking of the \"Fusō\" was that she exploded into two halves that remained floating for some time. However, \"Fusō\" survivor Hideo Ogawa, interrogated in 1945, in an article on the battleship's last voyage, stated: \"Shortly after 0400 the ship capsized slowly to starboard and Ogawa and others were washed away,\" without specifically mentioning the dissection. \"Fusō\" was",
"At 03:16, \"West Virginia\"s radar picked up the surviving ships of Nishimura's force at a range of. \"West Virginia\" tracked them as they approached in the pitch black night. At 03:53, she fired the eight guns of her main battery at a range of or 12.9 miles, striking \"Yamashiro\" with her first salvo. She went on to fire a total of 93 shells. At 03:55, \"California\" and \"Tennessee\" joined in, firing a total of 63 and 69 shells, respectively. Radar fire control allowed these American battleships to hit targets from a distance at which the Japanese battleships with their inferior fire control systems could not return fire. The other three U.S. battleships also had difficulty, equipped with less advanced gunnery radar. \"Maryland\" eventually succeeded in visually ranging on the splashes of the other battleships' shells, and then fired a total of 48 projectiles. \"Pennsylvania\" was unable to find a target and her guns remained silent. \"Mississippi\" only fired once in the battle-line action, a full salvo of 12 14-in shells. This was the last salvo ever fired by a battleship against another battleship in history, closing a significant chapter in naval warfare. \"Yamashiro\" and \"Mogami\" were",
"Of Nishimura's seven ships, only \"Shigure\" survived long enough to escape the debacle, but eventually succumbed to the American submarine on 24 January 1945, which",
"",
"Halsey's decision to take all the available strength of 3rd Fleet northwards to attack the carriers of the Japanese Northern Force had left San Bernardino Strait completely unguarded. Senior officers in 7th Fleet (including Kinkaid and his staff) generally assumed Halsey was taking his three available carrier groups northwards (McCain's group, the strongest in 3rd Fleet, was still returning from the direction of Ulithi), but leaving the battleships of TF 34 covering the San Bernardino Strait against the Japanese Center Force. In fact, Halsey had not yet formed TF 34, and all six",
"Kurita's force caught Rear Admiral Clifton Sprague's Task Unit 77.4.3 ('Taffy 3') by surprise. Sprague directed his carriers to launch their planes, then run for the cover of a rain squall to the east. He ordered the destroyers and DEs to make a smoke screen to conceal the retreating carriers. Kurita, unaware that Ozawa's decoy plan had succeeded, assumed he had found a carrier group from Halsey's 3rd Fleet. Having just redeployed his ships into anti-aircraft formation, he further complicated matters by ordering a \"General Attack\", which called for his fleet to split",
"The ferocity of the American defense seemingly confirmed the Japanese assumption that they were engaging major fleet units rather than merely escort carriers and destroyers. The confusion of the \"General Attack\" order was compounded by the air and torpedo attacks, when Kurita's flagship \"Yamato\" turned north to evade torpedoes and lost contact with the battle. Kurita abruptly broke off the fight and gave the order 'all ships, my course north, speed 20', apparently to regroup his disorganized fleet. Kurita's battle report stated he had received a message indicating a group of American carriers was steaming north of him. Preferring to expend his fleet against capital ships rather than transports, Kurita set out in pursuit and thereby lost his opportunity to destroy the shipping fleet in Leyte Gulf, and disrupt the vital landings at Leyte. After failing to intercept the non-existent carriers, which were much farther north, Kurita finally retreated towards San Bernardino Strait. Three of his heavy cruisers had been sunk, and the determined resistance had convinced him that",
"Vice-Admial Jisaburō Ozawa's \"Northern Force\", built around the four aircraft carriers of the 3rd Carrier Division (—the last survivor of the six carriers that had attacked Pearl Harbor in 1941—and the light carriers,, and ), included two World War I battleships partially converted to carriers ( and —the two aft turrets had been replaced by a hangar, aircraft handling deck and catapult, but neither ship carried any aircraft in this battle), three light cruisers (,, and ), and nine destroyers. Ozawa's carrier group was a decoy force, divested of all but 108 aircraft, intended to lure the American fleet away from protecting the transports at the landing beaches on Leyte island. Ozawa's force was not located until 16:40 on 24 October, largely because Sherman's TG 38.3—which was the northernmost of Halsey's groups—was responsible for searches in this sector. The force that Halsey was taking north with him—three groups of Mitscher's TF 38—was overwhelmingly stronger than the Japanese Northern Force. Between them, these groups had five large fleet carriers (,,,, and ), five light carriers (,,,, and ), six modern battleships (,,,,, and ), eight cruisers (two heavy and six light), and more than 40 destroyers. The air groups of the ten U.S. carriers present contained 600–1,000 aircraft. At 02:40 on 25 October, Halsey detached TF 34, built around the 3rd Fleet's six battleships and commanded by Vice Admiral Willis \"Ching\" Lee. As dawn approached, the ships of Task Force 34 drew ahead of the carrier groups. Halsey intended Mitscher to make air strikes followed by the heavy gunfire of Lee's battleships. Around dawn on 25 October, Ozawa launched 75 aircraft, the bulk of his few aircraft, to attack the 3rd Fleet. Most were shot down by American combat air patrols, and no damage was done to the U.S. ships. A few Japanese planes survived and made their way to land bases on Luzon. During the night, Halsey had passed tactical command of TF 38 to Admiral Mitscher, who ordered the American carrier groups to launch their first strike wave, of 180 aircraft, at dawn—before the Northern Force had been located. When the search aircraft made contact at 07:10, this strike wave was orbiting ahead of the task force. At 08:00, as the attack went in, its escorting fighters destroyed Ozawa's combat air patrol of about 30 planes. The U.S. air strikes continued until the evening, by which time TF 38 had flown 527 sorties against the Northern Force, sinking \"Zuikaku\", the light carriers \"Chitose\" and \"Zuihō\", and the destroyer \"Akizuki\", all with heavy loss of life. The light carrier \"Chiyoda\" and the cruiser \"Tama\" were crippled. Ozawa transferred his flag to the light cruiser \"Ōyodo\".",
"",
"Halsey was questioned for his decision to take TF 34 north in pursuit of Ozawa, and for failing to detach it when Kinkaid first appealed for help. A piece of U.S. Navy slang for Halsey's actions is \"Bull's Run\", a phrase combining Halsey's newspaper nickname \"Bull\" (he was known as \"Bill\" Halsey) with an allusion to the Battle of Bull Run in the American Civil War, where Union troops lost the battle due to poor organization and",
"In his dispatch after the battle, Halsey justified the decision to go North as follows: Halsey also argued that he had feared leaving TF 34 to defend the strait without carrier support as that would have left it vulnerable to attack from land-based aircraft, while leaving one of the fast carrier groups behind",
"The fact that Halsey was aboard one of the two fast battleships (\"New Jersey\"), and \"would have had to remain behind\" with TF 34 while the bulk of his fleet charged northwards, may have influenced his decision, but it would have been perfectly feasible to have taken one or both of 3rd Fleet's two fastest battleships with some or all of the large carriers in the pursuit of Ozawa, while leaving the rest of the battle line off the San Bernardino Strait. Halsey's original plan for TF 34 was for four, not all six, of the 3rd Fleet's battleships. Halsey was certainly philosophically against dividing his forces. He believed strongly in the current naval doctrine of concentration, as indicated by his writings both before World War II and in his subsequent articles and interviews defending his actions. In addition, Halsey may well have been influenced by the recent criticisms of Admiral",
"More than 1,000 sailors and aircrewmen of the Allied escort carrier units were killed. The losses in the battle of Leyte Gulf were not evenly distributed throughout all forces. At the mismatched Battle off Samar alone 5 of the 7 ships of the combined actions were lost along with 23 aircraft lost and 1,583 killed and missing and 913 wounded, comparable to the combined losses at the Battle of Midway and Battle of Coral Sea. The destroyer —despite her unequal fight with the enemy—finished the battle with only six of her crew dead. As a result of communication errors and other failures, a large number of survivors from Taffy 3 were unable to be rescued for several days, and died unnecessarily as a consequence. suffered 30 officers and sailors dead, and another 62 servicemen wounded in a kamikaze-like attack 21 October 1944 at the start of the battle. Due to the long duration and size of the battle, accounts vary as to the losses that occurred as a part of the Battle of Leyte Gulf and losses that occurred shortly before and shortly after. One account of the losses lists the following vessels:",
"The United States lost 7",
"The Japanese lost 26 warships during the Battle of Leyte Gulf: Listed Japanese losses include only those ships sunk in the battle. After the nominal end of the battle, several damaged ships were faced with the option of either making their way to",
"The Battle of Leyte Gulf secured the beachheads of the U.S. Sixth Army on Leyte against attack from the sea. However, much hard fighting would be required before the island was completely in Allied hands at the end of December 1944: the Battle of Leyte on land was fought in parallel with an air and sea campaign in which the Japanese reinforced and resupplied their troops on Leyte while the Allies attempted to interdict them and establish air-sea superiority for a series of amphibious landings in Ormoc Bay—engagements collectively referred to as the Battle of Ormoc Bay. The Imperial Japanese Navy had suffered its greatest loss of ships and crew ever. Its failure to dislodge the Allied invaders from Leyte meant the inevitable loss of the Philippines, which in turn meant Japan would be all but",
"",
"On October 25, 2019, during the 75th anniversary of the battle, the Surigao City government and private partners opened the Battle of Surigao Strait Memorial overlooking the strait. On the memorial grounds is a museum showcasing several World War II"
]
}
|
Morihei Ueshiba
| null |
The son of a landowner from Tanabe, Ueshiba studied a number of martial arts in his youth, and served in the Japanese Army during the Russo-Japanese War. After being discharged in 1907, he moved to Hokkaidō as the head of a pioneer settlement; here he met and studied with Takeda Sōkaku, the founder of Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu. On leaving Hokkaido in 1919, Ueshiba joined the Ōmoto-kyō movement, a Shinto sect, in Ayabe, where he served as a martial arts instructor and opened his first dojo. He accompanied the head of the Ōmoto-kyō group, Onisaburo Deguchi, on an expedition to Mongolia in 1924, where they were captured by Chinese troops and returned to Japan. The following year, he had a profound spiritual experience, stating that, "a golden spirit sprang up from the ground, veiled my body, and changed my body into a golden one." After this experience, his martial arts skill appeared to be greatly increased.
| null |
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en-train-31612
|
en-train-31612
|
31612
|
{
"title": [
"Tanabe, 1883–1912.",
"Hokkaidō, 1912–1920.",
"Ayabe, 1920–1927.",
"Tokyo, 1927–1942.",
"Iwama, 1942–1969.",
"Development of aikido."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Morihei Ueshiba was born in Nishinotani village (now part of the city of Tanabe), Wakayama Prefecture, Japan, on December 14, 1883, the fourth child (and only son) born to Yoroku Ueshiba and his wife Yuki. The young Ueshiba was raised in a somewhat privileged setting. His father Yoroku was a wealthy gentleman farmer and minor politician, being an elected member of the Nishinotani village council for 22 consecutive years. His mother Yuki was from the Itokawa clan, a prominent local family who could trace their lineage back to the Heian period. Ueshiba was a rather weak, sickly child and bookish in his inclinations. At a young age his father encouraged him to take up sumo wrestling and swimming and entertained him with stories of his great-grandfather Kichiemon, who was considered a very strong samurai in his era. The need for such strength was further emphasized when the young Ueshiba witnessed his father being attacked by followers of a competing politician. A major influence on Ueshiba's early education was his elementary schoolteacher Tasaburo Nasu, who was a Shinto priest and who introduced Ueshiba to the religion. At the age of six Ueshiba was sent to study at the Jizōderu Temple, but had little interest in the rote learning of Confucian education. However, his schoolmaster Mitsujo Fujimoto was also a priest of Shingon Buddhism, and taught the young Ueshiba some of the esoteric chants and ritual observances of the sect, which Ueshiba found intriguing. His interest in Buddhism was sufficiently great that his mother considered enrolling him in the priesthood, but his father Yoroku vetoed the idea. Ueshiba went to Tanabe Higher Elementary School and then to Tanabe Prefectural Middle School, but left formal education in his early teens, enrolling instead at a private abacus academy, the Yoshida Institute, to study accountancy. On graduating from the academy, he worked at a local tax office for a few months, but the job did not suit him and in 1901 he left for Tokyo, funded by his father. Ueshiba Trading, the stationery business which he opened there, was short-lived; unhappy with life in the capital, he returned to Tanabe less than a year later after suffering a bout of beri-beri. Shortly thereafter he married his childhood acquaintance Hatsu Itokawa. In 1903, Ueshiba was called up for military service. He failed the initial physical examination, being shorter than the regulation. To overcome this, he stretched his spine by attaching heavy weights to his legs and suspending himself from tree branches; when he re-took the physical exam he had increased his height by the necessary half-inch to pass. He was assigned to the Osaka Fourth Division, 37th Regiment, and was promoted to corporal of the 61st Wakayama regiment by the following year; after serving on the front lines during the Russo-Japanese War he was promoted to sergeant. He was discharged in 1907, and again returned to his father's farm in Tanabe. Here he befriended the writer and philosopher Minakata Kumagusu, becoming involved with Minakata's opposition to the Meiji government's Shrine Consolidation Policy. He and his wife had their first child, a daughter named Matsuko, in 1911. Ueshiba studied several martial arts during his early life, and was renowned for his physical strength during his youth. During his sojourn in Tokyo he studied Kitō-ryū jujutsu under Takisaburo Tobari, and briefly enrolled in a school teaching Shinkage-ryū. His training in Gotō-ha Yagyū-ryu under Masakatsu Nakai was sporadic due to his military service, although he was granted a diploma in the art within a few years. In 1901 he received some instruction from Tozawa Tokusaburōin in Tenjin Shin'yō-ryū jujutsu and he studied judo with Kiyoichi Takagi in Tanabe in 1911, after his father had a dojo built on the family compound to encourage his son's training. In 1907, after his return from the war, he was also presented with a certificate of enlightenment (\"shingon inkyo\") by his childhood teacher Mitsujo Fujimoto.",
"In the early part of the 20th century, the prefectural government of Hokkaidō, Japan's northernmost island, were offering various grants and incentives for mainland Japanese groups willing to relocate there. At the time, Hokkaidō was still largely unsettled by the Japanese, being occupied primarily by the indigenous Ainu. In 1910, Ueshiba travelled to Hokkaidō in the company of his acquaintance Denzaburo Kurahashi, who had lived on the northern island before. His intent was to scout out a propitious location for a new settlement, and he found the site at Shirataki suitable for his plans. Despite the hardships he suffered on this journey (which included getting lost in snowstorms several times and an incident in which he nearly drowned in a freezing river), Ueshiba returned to Tanabe filled with enthusiasm for the project, and began recruiting families to join him. He became the leader of the Kishū Settlement Group, a collective of eighty-five pioneers who intended to settle in the Shirataki district and live as farmers; the group founded the village of Yubetsu (later Shirataki village) in August, 1912. Much of the funding for this project came from Ueshiba's father and his brothers-in-law Zenzo and Koshiro Inoue. Zenzo's son Noriaki was also a member of the settlement group. Poor soil conditions and bad weather led to crop failures during the first three years of the project, but the group still managed to cultivate mint and farm livestock. The burgeoning timber industry provided a boost to the settlement's economy, and by 1918 there were over 500 families residing there. A fire in 1917 razed the entire village, leading to the departure of around twenty families. Ueshiba was attending a meeting over railway construction around 50 miles away, but on learning of the fire travelled back the entire distance on foot. He was elected to the village council that year, and took a prominent role in leading the reconstruction efforts. In the summer of 1918, Hatsu gave birth to their first son, Takemori. The young Ueshiba met Takeda Sōkaku, the founder of Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu, at the Hisada Inn in Engaru, in March 1915. Ueshiba was deeply impressed with Takeda's martial art, and despite being on an important mission for his village at the time, abandoned his journey to spend the next month studying with Takeda. He requested formal instruction and began studying Takeda's style of jūjutsu in earnest, going so far as to construct a dojo at his home and inviting his new teacher to be a permanent house guest. He received a \"kyōju dairi\" certificate, a teaching license, for the system from Takeda in 1922, when Takeda visited him in Ayabe. Takeda also gave him a Yagyū Shinkage-ryū sword transmission scroll. Ueshiba then became a representative of Daitō-ryū, toured with Takeda as a teaching assistant and taught the system to others. The relationship between Ueshiba and Takeda was a complicated one. Ueshiba was an extremely dedicated student, dutifully attending to his teacher's needs and displaying great respect. However, Takeda overshadowed him throughout his early martial arts career, and Ueshiba's own students recorded the need to address what they referred to as \"the Takeda problem\".",
"In November 1919, Ueshiba learned that his father Yoroku was ill, and was not expected to survive. Leaving most of his possessions to Takeda, Ueshiba left Shirataki with the apparent intention of returning to Tanabe to visit his ailing parent. En route he made a detour to Ayabe, near Kyoto, intending to visit Onisaburo Deguchi, the spiritual leader of the Ōmoto-kyō religion (Ueshiba's nephew Noriaki Inoue had already joined the religion and may have recommended it to his uncle). Ueshiba stayed at the Ōmoto-kyō headquarters for several days, and met with Deguchi, who told him that, \"There is nothing to worry about with your father\". On his return to Tanabe, Ueshiba found that Yoroku had died. Criticised by family and friends for arriving too late to see his father, Ueshiba went into the mountains with a sword and practised solo sword exercises for several days; this almost led to his arrest when the police were informed of a sword-wielding madman on the loose. Within a few months, Ueshiba was back in Ayabe, having decided to become a full-time student of Ōmoto-kyō. In 1920 he moved his entire family, including his mother, to the Ōmoto compound; at the same time he also purchased enough rice to feed himself and his family for several years. That same year, Deguchi asked Ueshiba to become the group's martial arts instructor, and a dojo—the first of several that Ueshiba was to lead—was constructed on the centre's grounds. Ueshiba also taught Takeda's Daitō-ryū in neighbouring Hyōgo Prefecture during this period. His second son, Kuniharu, was born in 1920 in Ayabe, but died from illness the same year, along with three-year-old Takemori. Takeda visited Ueshiba in Ayabe to provide instruction, although he was not a follower of Ōmoto and did not get along with Deguchi, which led to a cooling of the relationship between him and Ueshiba. Ueshiba continued to teach his martial art under the name \"Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu\", at the behest of his teacher. However, Deguchi encouraged Ueshiba to create his own style of martial arts, \"Ueshiba-ryū\", and sent many Ōmoto followers to study at the dojo. He also brought Ueshiba into the highest levels of the group's bureaucracy, making Ueshiba his executive assistant and putting him in charge of the Showa Seinenkai (Ōmoto-kyō's national youth organisation) and the Ōmoto Shobotai, a volunteer fire service. His close relationship with Deguchi introduced Ueshiba to various members of Japan's far-right; members of the ultranationalist group the Sakurakai would hold meetings at Ueshiba's dojo, and he developed a friendship with the philosopher Shūmei Ōkawa during this period, as well as meeting with Nisshō Inoue and Kozaburō Tachibana. Deguchi also offered Ueshiba's services as a bodyguard to Kingoro Hashimoto, the Sakurakai's founder. Ueshiba's commitment to the goal of world peace, stressed by many biographers, must be viewed in the light of these relationships and his Ōmoto-kyō beliefs. His association with the extreme right-wing is understandable when one considers that Ōmoto-kyō's view of world peace was of a benevolent dictatorship by the Emperor of Japan, with other nations being subjugated under Japanese rule. In 1921, in an event known as the, the Japanese authorities raided the compound, destroying the main buildings on the site and arresting Deguchi on charges of lèse-majesté. Ueshiba's dojo was undamaged and over the following two years he worked closely with Deguchi to reconstruct the group's centre, becoming heavily involved in farming work and serving as the group's \"Caretaker of Forms\", a role which placed him in charge of overseeing Ōmoto's move towards self-sufficiency. His son Kisshomaru was born in the summer of 1921. Three years later, in 1924, Deguchi led a small group of Ōmoto-kyō disciples, including Ueshiba, on a journey to Mongolia at the invitation of retired naval captain Yutaro Yano and his associates within the ultra-nationalist Black Dragon Society. Deguchi's intent was to establish a new religious kingdom in Mongolia, and to this end he had distributed propaganda suggesting that he was the reincarnation of Genghis Khan. Allied with the Mongolian bandit Lu Zhankui, Deguchi's group were arrested in Tongliao by the Chinese authorities—fortunately for Ueshiba, whilst Lu and his men were executed by firing squad, the Japanese group were released into the custody of the Japanese consul. They were returned under guard to Japan, where Deguchi was imprisoned for breaking the terms of his bail. During this expedition Ueshiba was given the Chinese alias Wang Shou-gao, rendered in Japanese as \"Moritaka\" – he was reportedly very taken with this name and continued to use it intermittently for the rest of his life. After returning to Ayabe, Ueshiba began a regimen of spiritual training, regularly retreating to the mountains or performing \"misogi\" in the Nachi Falls. As his prowess as a martial artist increased, his fame began to spread. He was challenged by many established martial artists, some of whom later became his students after being defeated by him. In the autumn of 1925 he was asked to give a demonstration of his art in Tokyo, at the behest of Admiral Isamu Takeshita; one of the spectators was Yamamoto Gonnohyōe, who requested that Ueshiba stay in the capital to instruct the Imperial Guard in his martial art. After a couple of weeks, however, Ueshiba took issue with several government officials who voiced concerns about his connections to Deguchi; he cancelled the training and returned to Ayabe.",
"In 1926 Takeshita invited Ueshiba to visit Tokyo again. Ueshiba relented and returned to the capital, but while residing there was stricken with a serious illness. Deguchi visited his ailing student and, concerned for his health, commanded Ueshiba to return to Ayabe. The appeal of returning increased after Ueshiba was questioned by the police following his meeting with Deguchi; the authorities were keeping the Ōmoto-kyō leader under close surveillance. Angered at the treatment he had received, Ueshiba went back to Ayabe again. Six months later, this time with Deguchi's blessing, he and his family moved permanently to Tokyo. This move allowed Ueshiba to teach politicians, high-ranking military personnel, and members of the Imperial household; suddenly he was no longer an obscure provincial martial artist, but a sensei to some of Japan's most important citizens. Arriving in October 1927, the Ueshiba family set up home in the Shirokane district. The building proved too small to house the growing number of aikido students, and so the Ueshibas moved to larger premises, first in Mita district, then in Takanawa, and finally to a purpose-built hall in Shinjuku. This last location, originally named the Kobukan (), would eventually become the Aikikai Hombu Dojo. During its construction, Ueshiba rented a property nearby, where he was visited by Kanō Jigorō, the founder of judo. During this period, Ueshiba was invited to teach at a number of military institutes, due to his close personal relationships with key figures in the military (among them Sadao Araki, the Japanese Minister of War). He accepted an invitation from Admiral Sankichi Takahashi to be the martial arts instructor at the Imperial Japanese Naval Academy, and also taught at the Nakano Spy School, although aikido was later judged to be too technical for the students there and karate was adopted instead. He also became a visiting instructor at the Imperial Japanese Army Academy after being challenged by (and defeating) General Makoto Miura, another student of Takeda Sōkaku's Daitō-ryū. Takeda himself met Ueshiba for the last time around 1935, while Ueshiba was teaching at the Osaka headquarters of the \"Asahi Shimbun\" newspaper. Frustrated by the appearance of his teacher, who was openly critical of Ueshiba's martial arts and who appeared intent on taking over the classes there, Ueshiba left Osaka during the night, bowing to the residence in which Takeda was staying and thereafter avoiding all contact with him. Between 1940 and 1942 he made several visits to Manchukuo (Japanese occupied Manchuria) where he was the principal martial arts instructor at Kenkoku University. Whilst in Manchuria, he met and defeated the sumo wrestler Tenryū Saburō during a demonstration. The \"Second Ōmoto Incident\" in 1935 saw another government crackdown on Deguchi's sect, in which the Ayabe compound was destroyed and most of the group's leaders imprisoned. Although he had relocated to Tokyo, Ueshiba had retained links with the Ōmoto-kyō group (he had in fact helped Deguchi to establish a paramilitary branch of the sect only three years earlier) and expected to be arrested as one of its senior members. However, he had a good relationship with the local police commissioner Kenji Tomita and the chief of police Gīchi Morita, both of whom had been his students. As a result, although he was taken in for interrogation, he was released without charge on Morita's authority. In 1932, Ueshiba's daughter Matsuko was married to the swordsman Kiyoshi Nakakura, who was adopted as Ueshiba's heir under the name Morihiro Ueshiba. The marriage ended after a few years, and Nakakura left the family in 1937. Ueshiba later designated his son Kisshomaru as the heir to his martial art. The 1930s saw Japan's invasion of mainland Asia and increased military activity in Europe. Ueshiba was concerned about the prospect of war, and became involved in a number of efforts to try and forestall the conflict that would eventually become World War II. He was part of a group, along with Shūmei Ōkawa and several wealthy Japanese backers, that tried to broker a deal with Harry Chandler to export aviation fuel from the United States to Japan (in contravention of the ), although this effort ultimately failed. In 1941 Ueshiba also undertook a secret diplomatic mission to China at the behest of Prince Fumimaro Konoe. The intended goal was a meeting with Chiang Kai-shek to establish peace talks, but Ueshiba was unable to meet with the Chinese leader, arriving too late to fulfil his mission.",
"From 1935 onwards, Ueshiba had been purchasing land in Iwama in Ibaraki Prefecture, and by the early 1940s had acquired around of farmland there. In 1942, disenchanted with the war-mongering and political manoeuvring in the capital, he left Tokyo and moved to Iwama permanently, settling in a small farmer's cottage. Here he founded the Aiki Shuren Dojo, also known as the Iwama dojo, and the Aiki Shrine, a devotional shrine to the \"Great Spirit of Aiki\". During this time he travelled extensively in Japan, particularly in the Kansai region, teaching his aikido. Despite the prohibition on the teaching of martial arts after World War II, Ueshiba and his students continued to practice in secret at the Iwama dojo; the Hombu dojo in Tokyo was in any case being used as a refugee centre for citizens displaced by the severe firebombing. It was during this period that Ueshiba met and befriended Koun Nakanishi, an expert in kotodama. The study of kotodama was to become one of Ueshiba's passions in later life, and Nakanishi's work inspired Ueshiba's concept of \"takemusu aiki\". The rural nature of his new home in Iwama allowed Ueshiba to concentrate on the second great passion of his life: farming. He had been born into a farming family and spent much of his life cultivating the land, from his settlement days in Hokkaidō to his work in Ayabe trying to make the Ōmoto-kyō compound self-sufficient. He viewed farming as a logical complement to martial arts; both were physically demanding and required single-minded dedication. Not only did his farming activities provide a useful cover for martial arts training under the government's restrictions, it also provided food for Ueshiba, his students and other local families at a time when food shortages were commonplace. The government prohibition (on aikido, at least) was lifted in 1948 with the creation of the Aiki Foundation, established by the Japanese Ministry of Education with permission from the Occupation forces. The Hombu dojo re-opened the following year. After the war Ueshiba effectively retired from aikido. He delegated most of the work of running the Hombu dojo and the Aiki Federation to his son Kisshomaru, and instead chose to spend much of his time in prayer, meditation, calligraphy and farming. He still travelled extensively to promote aikido, even visiting Hawaii in 1961. He also appeared in a television documentary on aikido: NTV's \"The Master of Aikido\", broadcast in January 1960. Ueshiba maintained links with the Japanese nationalist movement even in later life; his student Kanshu Sunadomari reported that Ueshiba temporarily sheltered Mikami Taku, one of the naval officers involved in the May 15 Incident, at Iwama. In 1969, Ueshiba became ill. He led his last training session on March 10, and was taken to hospital where he was diagnosed with cancer of the liver. He died suddenly on April 26, 1969. His body was buried at Kōzan-ji, and he was given the posthumous Buddhist title \"Aiki-in Moritake En'yū Daidōshi\" (); parts of his hair were enshrined at Ayabe, Iwama and Kumano. Two months later, his wife Hatsu ( \"Ueshiba Hatsu\", née \"Itokawa Hatsu\"; 1881–1969) also died.",
"Aikido—usually translated as the \"Way of Unifying Spirit\" or the \"Way of Spiritual Harmony\"—is a fighting system that focuses on throws, pins and joint locks together with some striking techniques. It emphasises protecting the opponent and promotes spiritual and social development. The technical curriculum of aikido was derived from the teachings of Takeda Sōkaku; the basic techniques of aikido stem from his Daitō-ryū system. In the earlier years of his teaching, from the 1920s to the mid-1930s, Ueshiba taught the Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu system; his early students' documents bear the term Daitō-ryū. Indeed, Ueshiba trained one of the future highest grade earners in Daitō-ryū, Takuma Hisa, in the art before Takeda took charge of Hisa's training. The early form of training under Ueshiba was noticeably different from later forms of aikido. It had a larger curriculum, increased use of strikes to vital points (\"atemi\") and a greater use of weapons. The schools of aikido developed by Ueshiba's students from the pre-war period tend to reflect the harder style of the early training. These students included Kenji Tomiki (who founded the Shodokan Aikido sometimes called Tomiki-ryū), Noriaki Inoue (who founded Shin'ei Taidō), Minoru Mochizuki (who founded Yoseikan Budo) and Gozo Shioda (who founded Yoshinkan Aikido). Many of these styles are therefore considered \"pre-war styles\", although some of these teachers continued to train with Ueshiba in the years after World War II. During his lifetime, Ueshiba had three spiritual experiences that impacted greatly on his understanding of the martial arts. The first occurred in 1925, after Ueshiba had defeated a naval officer's \"bokken\" (wooden katana) attacks unarmed and without hurting the officer. Ueshiba then walked to his garden, where he had the following realisation: His second experience occurred in 1940 when engaged in the ritual purification process of \"misogi\". His third experience was in 1942 during the worst fighting of World War II, when Ueshiba had a vision of the \"Great Spirit of Peace\". After these events, Ueshiba seemed to slowly grow away from Takeda, and he began to change his art. These changes are reflected in the differing names with which he referred to his system, first as \"aiki-jūjutsu\", then Ueshiba-ryū, Asahi-ryū, and \"aiki budō\". In 1942, when Ueshiba's group joined the Dai Nippon Butoku Kai, the martial art that Ueshiba developed finally came to be known as aikido. As Ueshiba grew older, more skilled, and more spiritual in his outlook, his art also changed and became softer and more gentle. Martial techniques became less important, and more focus was given to the control of ki. In his own expression of the art there was a greater emphasis on what is referred to as \"kokyū-nage\", or \"breath throws\" which are soft and blending, utilizing the opponent's movement in order to throw them. Ueshiba regularly practiced cold water \"misogi\", as well as other spiritual and religious rites, and viewed his studies of aikido as part of this spiritual training. Over the years, Ueshiba trained a large number of students, many of whom later became famous teachers in their own right and developed their own styles of aikido. Some of them were \"uchi-deshi\", live-in students. Ueshiba placed many demands on his \"uchi-deshi\", expecting them to attend him at all times, act as training partners (even in the middle of the night), arrange his travel plans, massage and bathe him, and assist with household chores. There were roughly four generations of students, comprising the pre-war students (training 1921–1935), students who trained during the Second World War (c.1936–1945), the post-war students in Iwama (c.1946–1955) and the students who trained with Ueshiba during his final years (c.1956–c.1969). As a result of Ueshiba's martial development throughout his life, students from each of these generations tend to have markedly different approaches to aikido. These variations are compounded by the fact that few students trained with Ueshiba for a protracted period; only Yoichiro Inoue, Kenji Tomiki, Gozo Shioda, Morihiro Saito, Tsutomu Yukawa and Mitsugi Saotome studied directly under Ueshiba for more than five or six years. After the war, Ueshiba and the Hombu Dojo dispatched some of their students to various other countries, resulting in aikido spreading around the world."
]
}
|
Nimrod (album)
| null |
Nimrod (stylized as nimrod.) is the fifth studio album by American rock band Green Day, released on October 14, 1997 by Reprise Records. The band began work on the album in the wake of the cancellation of a European tour after the release of their previous album, "Insomniac". Recorded at Conway Recording Studios in Los Angeles, the album was written with the intent of creating a set of standalone songs as opposed to a cohesive album. Retrospectively, "Nimrod" is noted for its musical diversity and experimentation, containing elements of folk, surf rock, and ska. Lyrical themes discussed include maturity, personal reflection, and fatherhood.
| null |
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en-train-921441
|
en-train-921441
|
921441
|
{
"title": [
"Background.",
"Recording and production.",
"Composition.",
"Music.",
"Lyrics.",
"Album title and artwork.",
"Release and promotion.",
"Reception.",
"Critical response.",
"Commercial performance.",
"Personnel.",
"References."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"In 1995, Green Day released \"Insomniac\", which did not perform as well commercially as the band's breakthrough major-label debut \"Dookie\". Speaking of \"Insomniac\", lead vocalist/guitarist Billie Joe Armstrong noted, \"It did a lot better than I thought it was going to do...From the sound of it, we knew it wasn't going to sell as much as \"Dookie\".\" The group embarked on an extensive world tour to promote \"Insomniac\" in early 1996, which saw the band performing in sports arenas that contrasted with the small clubs the group was accustomed to playing. The members became increasingly uncomfortable with the level of stardom they had attained; Armstrong recalled, \"We were becoming the things we hated, playing those big arenas. It was beginning to be not fun anymore.\" Green Day also became homesick as touring forced the members to leave behind their families. The band eventually decided to cancel the late 1996 European leg of the \"Insomniac\" tour to take time off to spend at home. During this time, the band continued to write, and eventually completed over three dozen new songs by the beginning of 1997. Although the group's last effort with producer Rob Cavallo was considered a disappointment, the band did not contemplate choosing anyone else to work with on \"Nimrod\", as the members viewed Cavallo as a \"mentor\".",
"The album was recorded at Conway Studios in Los Angeles, and the band stayed at the Sunset Marquis Hotel during the sessions. \"Nimrod\" took four months to record; Armstrong partially attributed the lengthy recording time to spending \"a little too much time\" playing pool and foosball during the sessions. The recording schedule, which lasted from noon to two in the morning every day, became frustrating for the group members, who began drinking heavily. Bassist Mike Dirnt recalled, \"One night one of us was walking down the halls knocking on people's doors while naked.\" Another incident involved drummer Tre Cool throwing his hotel room television set out of his window. Armstrong noted, \"There was a lot of glass. You have to live that arrogant lifestyle every now and then.\" To keep the band focused, Cavallo enlisted his father and manager Pat Magnarella to supervise the group. While working on \"Nimrod\", Green Day explained to Cavallo their desire to create a more experimental album as the band had grown tired of its traditional three chord song structure. Armstrong drew inspiration from The Clash's landmark record \"London Calling\", and referred to \"Nimrod\" as \"the record I've wanted to make since the band started.\" The album was intended to break the constraints of typical punk rock music. To preserve the quality of his songwriting, Armstrong began writing each song on acoustic guitar, to which the rest of the band would later add heavier instrumentation and faster tempos. Green Day recorded around 30 songs for \"Nimrod\" and picked 18 of them for the record. Dirnt explained that the recording was much more loosely structured than previous albums, and that creating songs was the focus as opposed to making a cohesive record. He observed, \"We've always screwed around with different types of music during our jams, but we'd say, 'OK let's stop and get back to the album.' This time we just let them come up.\" Reprise Records president Howie Klein spent a lot of time in the studio with the band during recording, and recalled that, \"What I realized immediately is that they had seemed to mature in their musical direction. It wasn't just more of the same. There was so much growth in the band.\" The musical maturation displayed on \"Nimrod\" was partially inspired by Bikini Kill's \"Reject All American\" (1996), which encouraged Armstrong to balance \"rough punk rock songs\" and \"delicate pretty songs\". Armstrong wrote \"Good Riddance (Time of Your Life)\" in 1993 and showed the song to his bandmates during the \"Dookie\" recording sessions. During the sessions, the song was determined to be too different from the rest of the songs on \"Dookie\", and producer Rob Cavallo was unsure of how to structure the recording. When the time came to record \"Nimrod\", Armstrong decided to use the song, and Cavallo suggested they add strings to the track. He sent the band to play foosball in another room while he recorded the strings, which took \"like fifteen, twenty minutes, maybe a half an hour at the most.\" Cavallo reflected on his decision to add the strings \"I knew we had done the right thing. I knew it was a hit the second I heard it.\" In addition to the strings on \"Good Riddance (Time of Your Life)\", the music of \"Nimrod\" contains a variety of other instruments that were not featured on previous Green Day albums. \"Walking Alone\" features Armstrong playing the harmonica, despite the fact that he did not \"know how to play it at all\". \"Hitchin' a Ride\" opens with a Middle Eastern-inspired violin performed by Petra Haden of That Dog. The band invited Gabrial McNair and Stephen Bradley of No Doubt's horn section to play on the ska-influenced \"King for a Day\".",
"",
"\"Nimrod\" is more musically varied than previous Green Day albums. Armstrong noted that with the album, Green Day went down \"different avenues,\" adding: \"Each song has its own character and identity so we wanted to be able to bring that out as much as possible.\" \"Nice Guys Finish Last\" has been considered a song that \"eases the transition\" from \"Insomniac\" to \"Nimrod\". Sandy Masuo of the \"Los Angeles Times\" likened \"Worry Rock\" to the music of Elvis Costello. \"Good Riddance (Time of Your Life)\" has been referred to as a \"pop-punk campfire singalong ballad\". After opening with Haden's violin solo, \"Hitchin' a Ride\" evolves into a bass-driven rock song with a \"Stray Cats vibe\". Cool referred to \"Take Back\" (which features a more upfront hardcore-style, both musically and vocally) and \"Platypus (I Hate You)\" as \"some of the most punk songs we've ever done\". \"Last Ride In\" is a surf rock-influenced instrumental, and \"King for a Day\" is a ska punk song featuring a horn section. Armstrong compared the song to the Oi! genre, and noted \"It would be funny for a bunch of macho fraternity guys to be singing along and, little do they know, the song's about being in drag.\" The \"chiming\" guitar riffs of \"Redundant\" have been compared to those of The Byrds.",
"Lyrically, \"Nimrod\" touches upon more reflective themes not present on earlier Green Day albums. Much of the album illustrates Armstrong's sentiments on growing up and his role as a husband and father. \"The Grouch\" centers on Armstrong's fears of \"wasting away, getting fat, becoming impotent, and losing his ideals.\" On \"Walking Alone\", he reflects on old friends from his childhood, and notes that he is \"too drunk to figure out they're fading away.\" Armstrong discusses the struggle to stay sober on \"Hitchin' a Ride\". \"Good Riddance (Time of Your Life)\" was inspired by Armstrong's failed relationship with a woman that ended when she joined the Peace Corps in 1993. The same woman is also the subject of \"She\" from \"Dookie\", \"Whatsername\" from \"American Idiot\" (2004) and \"Amanda\" from \"¡Tré!\". However, other songs contain subject matter and themes more typical of Green Day's previous work. Armstrong wrote \"Nice Guys Finish Last\" about the band's interactions with the band's lawyers and managers and how \"everybody thinks they know what's best for you.\" \"Jinx\" contains self-deprecating lyrics characteristic of many of the band's songs, while \"Prosthetic Head\" has been referred to as a \"typical ticked-off kiss-off\". \"King for a Day\" tells the story of a cross-dresser. \"Uptight\" contains repeated mentions of suicide; Armstrong explained, \"I think the word'suicide' just sounded really good. And the line, 'I'm a son of a gun'. It made sense, but I can't really explain why it made sense. It just sort of does.\"",
"The album's title, \"Nimrod\", is the name of a character from the Bible that in American English became a term for a stupid or dimwitted person. After three art directors were rejected by the band and pressing was behind schedule, Green Day asked the help of Chris Bilheimer, a friend of Armstrong who had done covers for another group signed by Warner Bros. Records, R.E.M. Having just the album title to work on, Bilheimer had some ideas, with the one that went through being inspired by a photograph Bilheimer saw, where a politician's poster had his face removed. He felt the image was \"striking\" and seemed to fit the band by featuring \"a typical middle-age male, corporate politician American kind of guy, and someone had completely taken his identity away through vandalism.\" Following that line of thought, Bilheimer took an encyclopedia picture of men in suits and ties and put colored circles reading \"nimrod.\" on their faces, \"using that to take away the people's identity\". The back cover had the same being done to a yearbook Bilheimer found in a Los Angeles bookstore, \"from the era of the \"Leave it to Beaver\" 1950's idyllic America\", with the label \"break[ing] down that image of people’s perceptions of a happy polite idyllic society.\" The booklet features the lyrics presented as if they were a secret document that had been redacted with black ink, \"so they seemed like they were part of something else\". Two versions of the cover were made: one version with the circles yellow and one with the circles orange (used for the Australian edition). The portraits covered on the album cover are Frederick Banting and Charles Best, two American-Canadian medical scientists most well known for co-discovering insulin.",
"The \"Nimrod\" promotional tour began in the fall of 1997, and opened with an in-store record signing at a Tower Records in Manhattan. The band was upset upon reading reviews that suggested the band had lost its punk edge, and started a riot during its scheduled eight-song set at the store. Armstrong then wrote the words \"fuck\" and \"nimrod\" in black spray paint on the storefront windows, and proceeded to moon the audience of 1,400 people. After the riot settled down, Cool threw his bass drum into the crowd while Armstrong attempted the same with a monitor, which was wrestled away from him by a store manager. No charges were filed and no injuries were reported, but the store was closed for the day to repair damages caused. On the tour in promotion of the album, Green Day aimed for simplicity and decided not to bring new instrumentalists to play for the new songs. Armstrong commented, \"Right now we're refraining from pulling out a lot of that 'Nimrod' stuff. We want to make things small. We don't want to bring a horn section or a violin player out with us. A lot of people want to hear the old stuff, and that stuff is still just as significant to us.\" The band also decided to play small theaters instead of stadiums and festivals, as Armstrong explained that they felt better to \"go to a place like The Fillmore and The Warfield and know it's actually going to sell out\" instead of playing to half-empty large venues. The \"Nimrod\" tour marked the first time the band performed its now-routine ritual of inviting audience members onstage to play instruments. During the tour, Armstrong felt that he became a better performer, noting, \"I think some people walk away from a Green Day concert with the emotions you would get from some kind of theater performance where the crowd feels involved — where it's not just about the singer. It's not just about the band.\" While performing at the 1998 KROQ Weenie Roast in Irvine, California, Third Eye Blind bassist Arion Salazar ran onstage and \"bear-hugged\" Dirnt, who was caught off-guard. The incident escalated into an on-stage scuffle before Salazar was taken away by security. After the performance, Dirnt confronted Salazar backstage, and as the two were arguing, a beer bottle struck Dirnt in the head, causing a small fracture in his skull. Eyewitnesses later attributed the bottle throwing to a fan of Third Eye Blind. Salazar and the band's management soon released a statement: \"I am sorry that my attempt at doing something I thought would be funny escalated into Mike getting hurt. That was never my intention. I simply had too much to drink and made a very bad decision. If I had been in Mike's place, I am sure I would have acted similarly. My heart goes out to him and I hope he recovers quickly.\" \"Good Riddance (Time of Your Life)\" appeared in numerous events of popular culture, including a scene involving the death of a cancer patient on the medical drama \"ER\" and the series finale of the sitcom \"Seinfeld\" in 1998.",
"",
"The album received generally positive reviews from critics. Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic gave \"Nimrod\" three and a half stars out of five, calling it an \"invigorating, if occasionally frustrating listen\", and although he praised Armstrong's \"gift for hooky, instantly memorable melodies\", he noted that \"the 18 tracks whip by at such a breakneck speed that it leaves you somewhat dazed.\" Greg Kot of \"Rolling Stone\" enjoyed the album's melodic nature as well as the \"measure of sincerity\" present in Armstrong's vocals. Kot appreciated the return of the band's \"juvenile sense of humor\" that he felt was lacking on \"Insomniac\", and praised the musical diversity on the record, remarking, \"This music is a long way from Green Day's apprenticeship at the Gilman Street punk clubs, in Berkeley, Calif. But now that the band has seen the world, it's only fitting that Green Day should finally make an album that sounds as if it has.\" A group of editors writing for \"People\" also praised the record's \"fresh and original\" melodies and \"quick-tempoed cool\", adding, \"Kudos to Green Day, young punk's reigning purists, for sticking with what they know best.\" Sandy Masuo of the \"Los Angeles Times\" enjoyed the \"mature songwriting that really makes this album tick\", noting that \"Naturally, a couple of thrash 'n' bash hard-core paeans are included, but they're surrounded by songs that are surprisingly varied in character and grounded in a pop aesthetic that evokes a gaggle of great tunesmiths.\" Stephen Thompson of \"The A.V. Club\" wrote, \"If Green Day still has a loyal following, its fans are bound to find something to like on Nimrod; for all the attempts at diversity, the record is packed with mile-wide hooks and sing-along anthems.\"",
"\"Nimrod\" debuted at number ten on the \"Billboard\" 200, selling 81,000 copies in its first week of release, and remained on the chart for 70 weeks. On March 16, 2000, \"Nimrod\" was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for shipments of over two million copies. In Canada, the album peaked at number four, remaining on the chart for four weeks. On July 6, 1998, the record was certified double platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association for shipments of over 200,000 copies. In Australia, the album debuted at number twelve and later peaked at number three on the country's chart. The record was later certified triple platinum in Australia.",
"Adapted from \"Nimrod\" liner notes. Green Day Additional musicians Production",
"Works cited"
]
}
|
Conformity
| null |
Conformity is the act of matching attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to group norms, politics or being like minded. Norms are implicit, specific rules, shared by a group of individuals, that guide their interactions with others. People often choose to conform to society rather than to pursue personal desires because it is often easier to follow the path others have made already, rather than creating a new one. This tendency to conform occurs in small groups and/or society as a whole, and may result from subtle unconscious influences (predisposed state of mind), or direct and overt social pressure. Conformity can occur in the presence of others, or when an individual is alone. For example, people tend to follow social norms when eating or watching television, even when alone.
| null |
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en-train-1172090
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en-train-1172090
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1172090
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{
"title": [
"Peer.",
"Social responses.",
"Main experiments.",
"Sherif's experiment (1936).",
"Asch's experiment (1951).",
"Varieties.",
"Informational influence.",
"Normative influence.",
"Minority influence.",
"Specific predictors.",
"Culture.",
"Gender.",
"Age.",
"Size of the group.",
"Different stimuli.",
"Neural correlates."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
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"2",
"2",
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"2",
"2",
"1",
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"content": [
"Some adolescents gain acceptance and recognition from their peers by conformity. This peer moderated conformity increases from the transition of childhood to adolescence. It follows a U-shaped age pattern wherein conformity increases through childhood, peaking at sixth and ninth grades and then declines. Adolescents often follow the logic that if everyone is doing it, then it must be good and right. However, it is found that they are more likely to conform if peer pressure involves neutral activities such as those in sports, entertainment, and prosocial behaviors rather than anti-social behaviors. Researchers have found that peer conformity is strongest for individuals who reported strong identification with their friends or groups, making them more likely to adopt beliefs and behaviors accepted in such circle.",
"According to Donelson Forsyth, after submitting to group pressures, individuals may find themselves facing one of several responses to conformity. These types of responses to conformity vary in their degree of public agreement versus private agreement. When an individual finds themselves in a position where they publicly agree with the group's decision yet privately disagrees with the group's consensus, they are experiencing \"compliance\" or \"acquiescence\". In turn, \"conversion\", otherwise known as \"private acceptance\", involves both publicly and privately agreeing with the group's decision. Thus, this represents a true change of opinion to match the majority. Another type of social response, which does not involve conformity with the majority of the group, is called \"convergence\". In this type of social response, the group member agrees with the group's decision from the outset and thus does not need to shift their opinion on the matter at hand. In addition, Forsyth shows that nonconformity can also fall into one of two response categories. Firstly, an individual who does not conform to the majority can display \"independence\". \"Independence\", or \"dissent\", can be defined as the unwillingness to bend to group pressures. Thus, this individual stays true to his or her personal standards instead of the swaying toward group standards. Secondly, a nonconformist could be displaying \"anticonformity\" or \"counterconformity\" which involves the taking of opinions that are opposite to what the group believes. This type of nonconformity can be motivated by a need to rebel against the status quo instead of the need to be accurate in one's opinion. To conclude, social responses to conformity can be seen to vary along a continuum from conversion to anticonformity. For example, a popular experiment in conformity research, known as the \"Asch situation\" or Asch conformity experiments, primarily includes \"compliance\" and \"independence\". Also, other responses to conformity can be identified in groups such as juries, sports teams and work teams.",
"",
"Muzafer Sherif was interested in knowing how many people would change their opinions to bring them in line with the opinion of a group. In his experiment, participants were placed in a dark room and asked to stare at a small dot of light 15 feet away. They were then asked to estimate the amount it moved. The trick was there was no movement, it was caused by a visual illusion known as the autokinetic effect. On the first day, each person perceived different amounts of movement, but from the second to the fourth day, the same estimate was agreed on and others conformed to it. Sherif suggested this was a simulation for how social norms develop in a society, providing a common frame of reference for people. Subsequent experiments were based on more realistic situations. In an eyewitness identification task, participants were shown a suspect individually and then in a lineup of other suspects. They were given one second to identify him, making it a difficult task. One group was told that their input was very important and would be used by the legal community. To the other it was simply a trial. Being more motivated to get the right answer increased the tendency to conform. Those who wanted to be more accurate conformed 51% of the time as opposed to 35% in the other group.",
"Solomon E. Asch conducted a modification of Sherif's study, assuming that when the situation was very clear, conformity would be drastically reduced. He exposed people in a group to a series of lines, and the participants were asked to match one line with a standard line. All participants except one were accomplices and gave the wrong answer in 12 of the 18 trials. The results showed a surprisingly high degree of conformity: 74% of the participants conformed on at least one trial. On average people conformed one third of the time. A question is how the group would affect individuals in a situation where the correct answer is less obvious. After his first test, Asch wanted to investigate whether the size or unanimity of the majority had greater influence on test subjects. \"Which aspect of the influence of a majority is more important – the size of the majority or its unanimity? The experiment was modified to examine this question. In one series the size of the opposition was varied from one to 15 persons.\" The results clearly showed that as more people opposed the subject, the subject became more likely to conform. However, the increasing majority was only influential up to a point: from three or more opponents, there is more than 30% of conformity.",
"Harvard psychologist Herbert Kelman identified three major types of conformity. Although Kelman's distinction has been influential, research in social psychology has focused primarily on two varieties of conformity. These are \"informational\" conformity, or informational social influence, and \"normative\" conformity, also called normative social influence. In Kelman's terminology, these correspond to internalization and compliance, respectively. There are naturally more than two or three variables in society influential on human psychology and conformity; the notion of \"varieties\" of conformity based upon \"social influence\" is ambiguous and indefinable in this context. For Deutsch and Gérard (1955), conformity results from a motivational conflict (between the fear of being socially rejected and the wish to say what we think is correct) that leads to the normative influence, and a cognitive conflict (others create doubts in what we think) which leads to the informational influence.",
"Informational social influence occurs when one turns to the members of one's group to obtain and accept accurate information about reality. A person is most likely to use informational social influence in certain situations: when a situation is ambiguous, people become uncertain about what to do and they are more likely to depend on others for the answer; and during a crisis when immediate action is necessary, in spite of panic. Looking to other people can help ease fears, but unfortunately they are not always right. The more knowledgeable a person is, the more valuable they are as a resource. Thus people often turn to experts for help. But once again people must be careful, as experts can make mistakes too. Informational social influence often results in \"internalization\" or \"private acceptance\", where a person genuinely believes that the information is right.",
"Normative social influence occurs when one conforms to be liked or accepted by the members of the group. This need of social approval and acceptance is part of our state of humans. In addition to this, we know that when people do not conform with their group and therefore are deviants, they are less liked and even punished by the group. Normative influence usually results in \"public compliance\", doing or saying something without believing in it. The experiment of Asch in 1951 is one example of normative influence. Even though John Turner et al argued that the post experimental interviews showed that the respondents were uncertain about the correct answers in some cases. The answers might have been evident to the experimenters but the participants did not have the same experience. Subsequent studies pointed out the fact that the participants were not known to each other and therefore did not pose a threat against social rejection. See: Normative influence vs. referent informational influence In a reinterpretation of the original data from these experiments Hodges and Geyer (2006) found that Asch's subjects were not so conformist after all: The experiments provide powerful evidence for people's tendency to tell the truth even when others do not. They also provide compelling evidence of people's concern for others and their views. By closely examining the situation in which Asch's subjects find themselves they find that the situation places multiple demands on participants: They include truth (i.e., expressing one's own view accurately), trust (i.e., taking seriously the value of others' claims), and social solidarity (i.e., a commitment to integrate the views of self and others without deprecating either). In addition to these epistemic values, there are multiple moral claims as well: These include the need for participants to care for the integrity and well-being of other participants, the experimenter, themselves, and the worth of scientific research. Deutsch & Gérard (1955) designed different situations that variated from Asch' experiment and found that when participants were writing their answer privately, they were giving the correct one Normative influence, a function of social impact theory, has three components. The \"number of people\" in the group has a surprising effect. As the number increases, each person has less of an impact. A group's \"strength\" is how important the group is to a person. Groups we value generally have more social influence. \"Immediacy\" is how close the group is in time and space when the influence is taking place. Psychologists have constructed a mathematical model using these three factors and are able to predict the amount of conformity that occurs with some degree of accuracy. Baron and his colleagues conducted a second \"eyewitness study\" that focused on normative influence. In this version, the task was easier. Each participant had five seconds to look at a slide instead of just one second. Once again, there were both high and low motives to be accurate, but the results were the reverse of the first study. The low motivation group conformed 33% of the time (similar to Asch's findings). The high motivation group conformed less at 16%. These results show that when accuracy is not very important, it is better to get the wrong answer than to risk social disapproval. An experiment using procedures similar to Asch's found that there was significantly less conformity in six-person groups of friends as compared to six-person groups of strangers. Because friends already know and accept each other, there may be less normative pressure to conform in some situations. Field studies on cigarette and alcohol abuse, however, generally demonstrate evidence of friends exerting normative social influence on each other.",
"Although conformity generally leads individuals to think and act more like groups, individuals are occasionally able to reverse this tendency and change the people around them. This is known as \"minority influence\", a special case of informational influence. Minority influence is most likely when people can make a clear and consistent case for their point of view. If the minority fluctuates and shows uncertainty, the chance of influence is small. However, a minority that makes a strong, convincing case increases the probability of changing the majority's beliefs and behaviors. Minority members who are perceived as experts, are high in status, or have benefited the group in the past are also more likely to succeed. Another form of minority influence can sometimes override conformity effects and lead to unhealthy group dynamics. A 2007 review of two dozen studies by the University of Washington found that a single \"bad apple\" (an inconsiderate or negligent group member) can substantially increase conflicts and reduce performance in work groups. Bad apples often create a negative emotional climate that interferes with healthy group functioning. They can be avoided by careful selection procedures and managed by reassigning them to positions that require less social interaction.",
"",
"Stanley Milgram found that individuals in Norway (from a collectivistic culture) exhibited a higher degree of conformity than individuals in France (from an individualistic culture). Similarly, Berry studied two different populations: the Temne (collectivists) and the Inuit (individualists) and found that the Temne conformed more than the Inuit when exposed to a conformity task. Bond and Smith compared 134 studies in a meta-analysis and found that there is a positive correlation between a country's level of collectivistic values and conformity rates in the Asch paradigm. Bond and Smith also reported that conformity has declined in the United States over time. Influenced by the writings of late-19th- and early-20th-century Western travelers, scholars or diplomats who visited Japan, such as Basil Hall Chamberlain, George Trumbull Ladd and Percival Lowell, as well as by Ruth Benedict's influential book \"The Chrysanthemum and the Sword\", many scholars of Japanese studies speculated that there would be a higher propensity to conform in Japanese culture than in American culture. However, this view was not formed on the basis of empirical evidence collected in a systematic way, but rather on the basis of anecdotes and casual observations, which are subject to a variety of cognitive biases. Modern scientific studies comparing conformity in Japan and the United States show that Americans conform in general as much than the Japanese and, in some situations, even more. Psychology professor from the University of Tokyo, along with Eiko Osaka reviewed four behavioral studies and found that the rate of conformity errors that the Japanese subjects manifested in the Asch paradigm was similar with that manifested by Americans. The study published in 1970 by Robert Frager from the University of California, Santa Cruz found that the percentage of conformity errors within the Asch paradigm was significantly lower in Japan than in the United States, especially in the prize condition. Another study published in 2008, which compared the level of conformity among Japanese in-groups (peers from the same college clubs) with that found among Americans found no substantial difference in the level of conformity manifested by the two nations, even in the case of in-groups.",
"Societal norms often establish gender differences and researchers have reported differences in the way men and women conform to social influence. For example, Alice Eagly and Linda Carli performed a meta-analysis of 148 studies of influenceability. They found that women are more persuadable and more conforming than men in group pressure situations that involve surveillance. Eagly has proposed that this sex difference may be due to different sex roles in society. Women are generally taught to be more agreeable whereas men are taught to be more independent. The composition of the group plays a role in conformity as well. In a study by Reitan and Shaw, it was found that men and women conformed more when there were participants of both sexes involved versus participants of the same sex. Subjects in the groups with both sexes were more apprehensive when there was a discrepancy amongst group members, and thus the subjects reported that they doubted their own judgments. Sistrunk and McDavid made the argument that women conformed more because of a methodological bias. They argued that because stereotypes used in studies are generally male ones (sports, cars..) more than female ones (cooking, fashion..), women are feeling uncertain and conformed more, which was confirmed by their results.",
"Research has noted age differences in conformity. For example, research with Australian children and adolescents ages 3 to 17 discovered that conformity decreases with age. Another study examined individuals that were ranged from ages 18 to 91. The results revealed a similar trend – older participants displayed less conformity when compared to younger participants. In the same way that gender has been viewed as corresponding to status, age has also been argued to have status implications. Berger, Rosenholtz and Zelditch suggest that age as a status role can be observed among college students. Younger students, such as those in their first year in college, are treated as lower-status individuals and older college students are treated as higher-status individuals. Therefore, given these status roles, it would be expected that younger individuals (low status) conform to the majority whereas older individuals (high status) would be expected not to conform Researchers have also reported an interaction of gender and age on conformity. Eagly and Chrvala examined the role of age (under 19 years vs. 19 years and older), gender and surveillance (anticipating responses to be shared with group members vs. not anticipating responses being shared) on conformity to group opinions. They discovered that among participants that were 19 years or older, females conformed to group opinions more so than males when under surveillance (i.e., anticipated that their responses would be shared with group members). However, there were no gender differences in conformity among participants who were under 19 years of age and in surveillance conditions. There were also no gender differences when participants were not under surveillance. In a subsequent research article, Eagly suggests that women are more likely to conform than men because of lower status roles of women in society. She suggests that more submissive roles (i.e., conforming) are expected of individuals that hold low status roles. Still, Eagly and Chrvala's results do conflict with previous research which have found higher conformity levels among younger rather than older individuals.",
"Although conformity pressures generally increase as the size of the majority increases, a meta-analysis suggests that conformity pressures in Asch's experiment peak once the majority reaches about four or five in number. Moreover, a study suggests that the effects of group size depend on the type of social influence operating. This means that in situations where the group is clearly wrong, conformity will be motivated by normative influence; the participants will conform in order to be accepted by the group. A participant may not feel much pressure to conform when the first person gives an incorrect response. However, conformity pressure will increase as each additional group member also gives the same incorrect response.",
"In 1961 Stanley Milgram published a study in which he utilized Asch's conformity paradigm using audio tones instead of lines; he conducted his study in Norway and France. He found substantially higher levels of conformity than Asch, with participants conforming 50% of the time in France and 62% of the time in Norway during critical trials. Milgram also conducted the same experiment once more, but told participants that the results of the study would be applied to the design of aircraft safety signals. His conformity estimates were 56% in Norway and 46% in France, suggesting that individuals conformed slightly less when the task was linked to an important issue. Stanley Milgram's study demonstrated that Asch's study could be replicated with other stimuli, and that in the case of tones, there was a high degree of conformity.",
"Evidence has been found for the involvement of the posterior medial frontal cortex (pMFC) in conformity, an area associated with memory and decision-making. For example, Klucharev et al. revealed in their study that by using repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation on the pMFC, participants reduced their tendency to conform to the group, suggesting a causal role for the brain region in social conformity. In another study, the mPFC was linked to normative social influence, whilst the activity in the caudate was regarded as an index of informational influence. The amygdala and hippocampus have also been found to be recruited when individuals participated in a social manipulation experiment involving long-term memory. Several other areas have further been suggested to play a role in conformity, including the insula, the temporoparietal junction, the ventral striatum, and the anterior and posterior cingulate cortices. More recent work stresses the role of orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) in conformity not only at the time of social influence, but also later on, when participants are given an opportunity to conform by selecting an action. In particular, Charpentier et al. found that the OFC mirrors the exposure to social influence at a subsequent time point, when a decision is being made without the social influence being present. The tendency to conform has also been observed in the structure of the OFC, with a greater grey matter volume in high conformers."
]
}
|
Yann Martel
| null |
Yann Martel (born 25 June 1963) is a Spanish-born Canadian author of French Canadian descent best known for the Man Booker Prize-winning novel "Life of Pi", an international bestseller published in more than 50 territories. It has sold more than 12 million copies worldwide and spent more than a year on the bestseller lists of the "New York Times" and "The Globe and Mail", among many other best-selling lists. It was adapted for a film directed by Ang Lee, garnering four Oscars including Best Director and winning the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score.
| null |
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] | null | null |
en-train-1406675
|
en-train-1406675
|
1406675
|
{
"title": [
"Early life.",
"Career.",
"Influences."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Martel was born in Salamanca, Spain in 1963 to French-Canadians Nicole Perron and Émile Martel who were studying at the University of Salamanca. His mother was enrolled in Hispanic studies while his father was working on a PhD on Spanish writer Miguel de Unamuno. The family moved to Coimbra, Portugal soon after his birth, then to Madrid, Spain, then to Fairbanks, Alaska, and finally to Victoria, British Columbia; his father taught at the Universities of Alaska and Victoria. His parents joined the Canadian foreign service, and he was raised in San José, Costa Rica, Paris, France, and Madrid, Spain, with stints in Ottawa, Ontario in between postings. Martel completed his final two years of high school at Trinity College School in Port Hope, Ontario, and he completed an undergraduate degree in philosophy at Trent University in Peterborough, Ontario. Martel worked at odd jobs as an adult, including parking lot attendant in Ottawa, dishwasher in a tree-planting camp in northern Ontario, and security guard at the Canadian embassy in Paris. He also travelled through Mexico, South America, Iran, Turkey, and India. He started writing while he was at university, writing plays and short stories that were \"blighted by immaturity and dreadful\", as he describes them. Martel moved to Saskatoon, Canada with Kuipers in 2003.",
"Martel's work first appeared in print in 1988 in \"The Malahat Review\" with his short story \"Mister Ali and the Barrelmaker\". The Malahat Review also published in 1990 his short story \"The Facts Behind the Helsinki Roccamatios\", for which he won the 1991 Journey Prize and which was included in the 1991–1992 Pushcart Prize Anthology. In 1992, the Malahat brought out his short story \"The Time I Heard the Private Donald J. Rankin String Concerto with One Discordant Violin, by the American Composer John Morton\", for which he won a National Magazine Award gold. The cultural magazine \"Border Crossings\" published his short story \"Industrial Grandeur\" in 1993. That same year, a bookstore in Ottawa that hosted Martel for a reading issued a handcrafted, limited edition of some of his stories, \"Seven Stories\". Martel credits The Canada Council for the Arts for playing a key role in fostering his career, awarding him writing grants in 1991 and 1997. In the Author's Note of his novel \"Life of Pi\", he wrote: \"I would like to express my sincere gratitude to that great institution, the Canada Council for the Arts, without whose grant I could not have brought together [Life of Pi].... If we, citizens, do not support our artists, then we sacrifice our imagination on the altar of crude reality and we end up believing in nothing and having worthless dreams.\" In 1993, Knopf Canada published a collection of four of Martel's short stories: \"The Facts Behind the Helsinki Roccamatios\", the eponymous story, as well as \"The Time I Heard the Private Donald J. Rankin String Concerto...\", \"Manners of Dying\", and The Vita Aeterna Mirror Company. On first publication, the collection appeared in Canada, Quebec, the UK, France, Netherlands, Italy, and Germany. Martel's first novel, \"Self\", appeared in 1996. It was published in Canada, Quebec, the UK, the Netherlands, and Germany. Martel's second novel \"Life of Pi\", was published on 11 September 2001, and was awarded the Man Booker Prize in 2002, among other prizes, and became a bestseller in many countries, including spending 61 weeks on The New York Times Bestseller List. Martel had been in New York the previous day, leaving on the evening of the 10th for Toronto to make the publication of his novel the next morning. He was inspired in part to write a story about sharing a lifeboat with a wild animal after reading a review of the novella \"Max and the Cats\" by Brazilian author [Moacyr Scliar] in The New York Times Book Review. Martel initially received some criticism from Brazilian press for failing to consult with Scliar. Martel pointed out that he could not have stolen from a work he had not at the time read, and he willingly acknowledged being influenced by the New York Times review of Scliar's work and thanked him in the Author's Note of Life of Pi. \"Life of Pi\" was later chosen for the 2003 edition of CBC Radio's \"Canada Reads\" competition, where it was championed by author Nancy Lee. In addition, its French translation, \"Histoire de Pi\", was included in the French version of the competition, \"Le combat des livres\", in 2004, championed by singer Louise Forestier. Martel was the Samuel Fischer Visiting Professor at the Institute of Comparative Literature, [Free University of Berlin|Freie Universität Berlin] in 2002, where he taught a course titled \"The Animal in Literature\". He then spent a year in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, from September 2003 as the Saskatoon Public Library's writer-in-residence. He collaborated with Omar Daniel, composer-in-residence at the Royal Conservatory of Music in Toronto, on a piece for piano, string quartet and bass. The composition, \"You Are Where You Are\", is based on text written by Martel, which includes parts of cellphone conversations taken from moments in an ordinary day. From 2005 to 2007, Martel was Visiting Scholar at the University of Saskatchewan. \"Beatrice and Virgil\", his third novel, came out in 2010. The work is an allegorical take on the Holocaust, attempting to approach this period not through the lens of historical witness, but through imaginative synthesis. The main characters in the story are a writer, a taxidermist, and two stuffed animals: a red howler monkey and a donkey. From 2007 to 2011, Martel ran a book club with the then Prime Minister of Canada, Stephen Harper, sending the Prime Minister a book every two weeks for four years, a total of more than a hundred novels, plays, poetry collections, graphic novels and children's books. The letters were published as a book in 2012, \"101 Letters to a Prime Minister\". The Polish magazine \"Histmag\" cited him as the inspiration behind their giving of books to the Prime Minister Donald Tusk; this, however, was a one-off with only 10 books involved, which had been donated by their publishers and selected by readers of the magazine. Tusk reacted very positively. Martel was invited to be a Fellow of the Royal Society of Literature in 2014. He sat on the Board of Governors of the Saskatoon Public Library from 2010 to 2015. His fourth novel, \"The High Mountains of Portugal\", was published on 2 February 2016. It tells of three characters in Portugal in three different time periods, who cope with love and loss each in their own way. It made The New York Times Bestseller list within the first month of its release.",
"Martel has said in a number of interviews that Dante's \"Divine Comedy\" is the single most impressive book he has ever read. In talking about his most memorable childhood book, he recalls \"Le Petit Chose\" by Alphonse Daudet. He said that he read it when he was ten years old, and it was the first time he found a book so heartbreaking that it moved him to tears. His writing influences include Dante Alighieri, Franz Kafka, Joseph Conrad, Nikolai Gogol, Sinclair Lewis, Moacyr Scliar, Thomas Hardy, Leo Tolstoy, and Alphonse Daudet. J.M. Coetzee, Knut Hamsun,"
]
}
|
Michael Jordan
| null |
Michael Jeffrey Jordan (born February 17, 1963), also known by his initials MJ, is an American former professional basketball player and the principal owner of the Charlotte Hornets of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He played 15 seasons in the NBA, winning six championships with the Chicago Bulls. His biography on the official NBA website states: "By acclamation, Michael Jordan is the greatest basketball player of all time." He is considered instrumental in popularizing the NBA around the world in the 1980s and 1990s.
| null |
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en-train-635036
|
en-train-635036
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635036
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{
"title": [
"Early life.",
"College career.",
"Professional career.",
"Early NBA years (1984–1987).",
"Pistons roadblock (1987–1990).",
"First three-peat (1991–1993).",
"First retirement and stint in Minor League Baseball (1993–1994).",
"\"I'm back\": Return to the NBA (1995).",
"Second three-peat (1995–1998).",
"Second retirement (1999–2001).",
"Washington Wizards comeback (2001–2003).",
"National team career.",
"Post-retirement.",
"Charlotte Bobcats / Hornets.",
"Player profile.",
"NBA career statistics.",
"Playoffs.",
"Legacy.",
"Personal life.",
"Philanthropy.",
"Media figure and business interests.",
"Endorsements.",
"Business ventures.",
"Film and television.",
"Books."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
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"2",
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],
"content": [
"Michael Jeffrey Jordan was born at Cumberland Hospital in the Fort Greene neighborhood of New York City's Brooklyn borough on February 17, 1963, the son of bank employee Deloris (née Peoples) and equipment supervisor James R. Jordan Sr. When he was a toddler, he moved with his family to Wilmington, North Carolina. Jordan attended Emsley A. Laney High School in Wilmington, where he highlighted his athletic career by playing basketball, baseball, and football. He tried out for the varsity basketball team during his sophomore year but, at 5'11\" (1.80 m), he was deemed too short to play",
"As a freshman in coach Dean Smith's team-oriented system, he was named ACC Freshman of the Year after he averaged 13.4 ppg on 53.4% shooting (field goal percentage). He made the game-winning jump shot in the 1982 NCAA Championship game against Georgetown, which was led by future NBA rival Patrick Ewing. Jordan later described this shot as the major turning point in his basketball career. During his three seasons with the Tar Heels, he averaged 17.7 ppg on 54.0% shooting, and added 5.0 rpg. He was selected by consensus to the NCAA All-American First Team in both his sophomore (1983) and junior (1984) seasons. After winning the Naismith",
"",
"During his rookie season with the Bulls, Jordan averaged 28.2 ppg on 51.5% shooting, and helped make a team that had won 35% of games in the previous three seasons playoff contenders. He quickly became a fan favorite even in opposing arenas. Roy S. Johnson of \"The New York Times\" described him as \"the phenomenal rookie of the Bulls\" in November, and Jordan appeared on the cover of \"Sports Illustrated\" with the heading \"A Star Is Born\" in December. The fans also voted in Jordan as an All-Star starter during his rookie season. Controversy arose before the All-Star game when word surfaced that several veteran players—led by Isiah Thomas—were upset by the amount of attention Jordan was receiving. This led to a so-called \"freeze-out\" on Jordan, where players refused to pass the ball to him throughout the game. The controversy left Jordan relatively unaffected when he returned to regular season play, and he would go on to be voted Rookie of the Year.",
"Jordan again led the league in scoring during the 1987–88 season, averaging 35.0 ppg on 53.5% shooting and won his first league MVP Award. He was also named the Defensive Player of the Year, as he had averaged 1.6 blocks and a league high 3.16 steals per game. The Bulls finished 50–32, and made it out of the first round of the playoffs for the first time in Jordan's career, as they defeated the Cleveland Cavaliers in five games. However, the Bulls then lost in five games to the more experienced Detroit Pistons, who were led by Isiah Thomas and a group of physical players known as the \"\". In the 1988–89 season, Jordan again led the league in scoring, averaging 32.5 ppg on 53.8% shooting from the field, along with 8 rpg and 8",
"In the 1990–91 season, Jordan won his second MVP award after averaging 31.5 ppg on 53.9% shooting, 6.0 rpg, and 5.5 apg for the regular season. The Bulls finished in first place in their division for the first time in 16 years and set a franchise record with 61 wins in the regular season. With Scottie Pippen developing into an All-Star, the Bulls had elevated their play. The Bulls defeated the New York Knicks and the Philadelphia 76ers in the opening two rounds of the playoffs. They advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals where their rival, the Detroit Pistons, awaited them. However, this time the Bulls beat the Pistons in a four-game sweep. The Bulls advanced to the NBA Finals for the first time in franchise history to face the Los Angeles Lakers, who had Magic Johnson and James Worthy, two formidable opponents. The Bulls won the series four games to one, and compiled a 15–2 playoff record along the way. Perhaps the best known moment of the series came in Game 2 when, attempting a dunk, Jordan avoided a potential Sam Perkins block by switching the ball from his right hand to his left in mid-air to lay the shot into the basket. In his first Finals appearance, Jordan posted per game averages of 31.2 points on 56% shooting from the field, 11.4 assists, 6.6 rebounds, 2.8 steals, and 1.4 blocks. Jordan won his first NBA Finals MVP award, and he cried while holding the NBA Finals trophy. Jordan and the",
"On October 6, 1993, Jordan announced his retirement, citing a loss of desire to play the game. Jordan later stated that the death of his father three months earlier also shaped his decision. Jordan's father was murdered on July 23, 1993, at a highway rest area in Lumberton, North Carolina, by two teenagers, Daniel Green and Larry Martin Demery, who carjacked his luxury Lexus bearing the license plate \"UNC 0023\". His body was dumped in a South Carolina swamp and was not discovered until August 3. The assailants were traced from calls that they made on James Jordan's cell phone. The two criminals were caught, convicted at trial, and sentenced to life in prison. Jordan was close to his father; as a child he had imitated his father's proclivity to stick out his tongue while absorbed in work. He later adopted it as his own signature, displaying it each time he drove to the basket. In 1996, he founded a Chicago area Boys & Girls Club and dedicated it to his father.",
"In the 1993–94 season, the Bulls achieved a 55–27 record without Jordan in the lineup, and lost to the New York Knicks in the second round of the playoffs. The 1994–95 Bulls were a shell of the championship team of just two years earlier. Struggling at mid-season to ensure a spot in the playoffs, Chicago was 31–31 at one point in mid-March. The team received help, however, when Jordan decided to return to the Bulls. In March 1995, Jordan decided to quit baseball due to the ongoing Major League Baseball strike, as he wanted to avoid becoming a potential replacement player. On March 18, 1995, Jordan announced his return to the NBA through a two-word press release: \"I'm back.\" The next day, Jordan took to the court with the Bulls to face the Indiana Pacers in Indianapolis, scoring 19 points. The game had the highest Nielsen rating of a regular season NBA game since",
"Jordan was freshly motivated by the playoff defeat, and he trained aggressively for the 1995–96 season. The Bulls were strengthened by the addition of rebound specialist Dennis Rodman, and the team dominated the league, starting the season at 41–3. The Bulls eventually finished with the then-best regular season record in NBA history, 72–10; this record was later surpassed by the 2015–16 Golden State Warriors. Jordan led the league in scoring with 30.4 ppg and won the league's regular season and All-Star Game MVP awards. In the playoffs, the Bulls lost only three games in four series (Miami Heat 3–0, New York Knicks 4–1, Orlando Magic 4–0). They defeated the Seattle SuperSonics 4–2 in the NBA Finals to win their fourth championship. Jordan was named Finals MVP for",
"With Phil Jackson's contract expiring, the pending departures of Scottie Pippen and Dennis Rodman looming, and being in the latter stages of an owner-induced lockout of NBA players, Jordan retired for the second time on January 13, 1999. On January 19, 2000, Jordan returned to the NBA not as a player, but as part owner and president of basketball operations for the Washington Wizards. Jordan's responsibilities with the Wizards were comprehensive. He controlled all aspects of the Wizards' basketball operations, and had the final say in all personnel matters. Opinions of Jordan as a basketball executive were mixed. He managed",
"On September 25, 2001, Jordan announced his return to the NBA to play for the Washington Wizards, indicating his intention to donate his salary as a player to a relief effort for the victims of the September 11 attacks. In an injury-plagued 2001–02 season, he led the team in scoring (22.9 ppg), assists (5.2 apg), and steals (1.42 spg). However, torn cartilage in his right knee ended Jordan's season after only 60 games, the fewest he had played in a regular season since playing 17 games after returning from his first retirement during the 1994–95 season. Jordan started 53 of",
"Jordan played on two Olympic gold medal-winning American basketball teams. He won a gold medal as a college player in the 1984 Summer Olympics. The team was coached by Bob Knight and featured players such as Patrick Ewing, Sam Perkins, Chris Mullin, Steve Alford, and Wayman Tisdale. Jordan led the team in scoring, averaging 17.1 ppg for",
"After his third retirement, Jordan assumed that he would be able to return to his front office position as Director of Basketball Operations with the Wizards. However, his previous tenure in the Wizards' front office had produced the aforementioned mixed results and may have also influenced the trade of Richard \"Rip\" Hamilton for Jerry Stackhouse (although Jordan was not technically Director of Basketball Operations in 2002). On May 7, 2003, Wizards owner Abe Pollin fired Jordan as the team's president of basketball operations. Jordan later stated that he felt betrayed, and that if he had known he would be fired upon retiring he never would have come back to play for the Wizards. Jordan kept busy over the next few years. He stayed in shape, played golf in celebrity charity tournaments, and spent time with his family in Chicago. He also promoted his Jordan Brand clothing line and rode motorcycles. Since 2004, Jordan has owned Michael Jordan Motorsports, a professional closed-course motorcycle road racing team that competed with two Suzukis in the premier Superbike championship sanctioned by the American Motorcyclist Association (AMA) until the end of the 2013 season.",
"On June 15, 2006, Jordan bought a minority stake in the Charlotte Bobcats (now known as the Hornets), becoming the team's second-largest shareholder behind majority owner Robert L. Johnson. As part of the deal, Jordan took full control over the basketball side of the operation, with the title \"Managing Member of Basketball Operations\". Despite Jordan's previous success as an endorser, he has made an effort not to be included in Charlotte's marketing campaigns. A decade earlier, Jordan had made a bid to become part-owner of Charlotte's original NBA team, the Charlotte Hornets, but talks collapsed when owner George Shinn refused to give Jordan complete control of basketball operations. In February 2010, it was reported that Jordan was seeking majority ownership of the Bobcats. As February wore on, it became apparent that Jordan and former Houston Rockets president George Postolos were the leading contenders for ownership of the team. On February 27, the Bobcats announced that Johnson had reached an agreement with",
"Jordan was a shooting guard who was also capable of playing as a small forward (the position he would primarily play during his second return to professional basketball with the Washington Wizards), and as a point guard. Jordan was known throughout his career for being a strong clutch performer. With the Bulls, he decided 25 games with field goals or free throws in the last 30 seconds, including two NBA Finals games and five other playoff contests. His competitiveness was visible in his prolific trash-talk and well-known work ethic. Jordan often used perceived slights to fuel his performances. Sportswriter Wright Thompson described him as \"a killer, in the Darwinian sense of the word, immediately sensing and attacking someone's weakest spot.\" As the Bulls organization built the franchise around Jordan, management had to trade away players who were not \"tough enough\" to compete with him in practice. To help improve his defense, he spent extra hours studying film of opponents. On offense, he relied more upon instinct and improvization at game time. Noted as a durable player, Jordan did not miss four or more games while active for a full season from 1986–87 to 2001–02, when he injured his right knee. Of the 15 seasons Jordan was in the NBA, he played all 82 regular season games nine times. Jordan has frequently cited David Thompson, Walter Davis, and Jerry West as influences. Confirmed at the start of his career, and possibly later on, Jordan had a special \"Love of the Game Clause\"",
"",
"",
"Jordan's talent was clear from his first NBA season; by November he was being compared to Julius Erving. Bird said of the rookie Jordan that he was the best player he had ever seen and that Jordan was \"one of a kind\" and comparable to Wayne Gretzky as an athlete. In his first game in Madison Square Garden against the New York Knicks, Jordan received a standing ovation of almost one minute. After he scored a playoff record 63 points against the Boston Celtics on April 20, 1986, Bird described him as \"God disguised as Michael Jordan\". Jordan led the NBA in scoring in 10 seasons (NBA record) and tied Wilt Chamberlain's record of seven consecutive scoring titles. He was also a fixture on the NBA All-Defensive First Team, making the roster nine times (NBA record shared with Gary Payton, Kevin Garnett and Kobe Bryant). Jordan also holds the top career regular season and playoff scoring averages of 30.1 and 33.4 points per game, respectively. By 1998, the season of his Finals-winning shot against the Jazz, he was well known throughout the league as a clutch performer. In the regular season, Jordan was the Bulls' primary threat in the final seconds of a close game and in the playoffs; he would always ask for the ball at crunch time. Jordan's total of 5,987 points in the playoffs is the second-highest in NBA history. He retired with 32,292 points in regular season play, placing him fifth on the NBA's all-time scoring list behind Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, Karl Malone, Kobe Bryant, and LeBron James. With five regular-season MVPs (tied for second place with Bill Russell—only Kareem Abdul-Jabbar has won more, with six), six Finals MVPs (NBA record), and three All-Star Game MVPs, Jordan is the most decorated player in NBA history. Jordan finished among the top three in regular-season MVP voting 10 times, and was named one of the 50 Greatest Players in NBA History in 1996. He is one of only seven players in history to win an NCAA championship, an NBA championship, and an Olympic gold medal (doing so twice with the 1984 and 1992 U.S. men's basketball teams). Since 1976,",
"Jordan married Juanita Vanoy in September 1989. They had two sons, Jeffrey and Marcus, and a daughter, Jasmine. Jordan and Juanita filed for divorce on January 4, 2002, citing irreconcilable differences, but reconciled shortly thereafter. They again filed for divorce and were granted a final decree of dissolution of marriage on December 29, 2006, commenting that the decision was made \"mutually and amicably\". It is reported that Juanita received a $168 million settlement (equivalent to $ million in ), making it the largest celebrity divorce settlement on public record at the time. In 1991, Jordan purchased a lot in Highland Park, Illinois, on which he planned to build a 56,000 square-foot (5,200 m) mansion. It was completed in 1995. He listed the mansion for sale in 2012. His two sons attended Loyola Academy, a private Catholic school in Wilmette, Illinois. Jeffrey graduated in 2007 and played his first collegiate basketball game for the University of Illinois on November 11, 2007. After two seasons, he left the Illinois basketball team in 2009. He later rejoined the team for a third season, then received a release to transfer to the University of Central Florida, where Marcus was attending. Marcus transferred to Whitney Young High School after his sophomore year at Loyola Academy and graduated in 2009. He began attending UCF in the fall",
"From 2001 to 2014, Jordan hosted an annual golf tournament, the Michael Jordan Celebrity Invitational, that raised money for various charities. In 2006, Jordan and his wife Juanita pledged $5 million to Chicago's Hales Franciscan High School. The Jordan Brand has made donations to Habitat for Humanity and a Louisiana branch of the Boys & Girls Clubs of America. The Make-A-Wish Foundation named Jordan its Chief Wish Ambassador in 2008. Five years later, he granted his 200th wish for the organization. As of 2019, he has raised more than $5 million for the Make-A-Wish Foundation.",
"",
"Jordan is one of the most marketed sports figures in history. He has been a major spokesman for such brands as Nike, Coca-Cola, Chevrolet, Gatorade, McDonald's, Ball Park Franks, Rayovac, Wheaties, Hanes, and MCI. Jordan has had a long relationship with Gatorade, appearing in over 20 commercials for the company since 1991, including the \"Be Like Mike\" commercials in which a song was sung by children wishing to be like Jordan. Nike created a signature shoe for Jordan, called the Air Jordan, in 1984. One of Jordan's more popular commercials for the shoe involved Spike Lee playing the part of Mars Blackmon. In the commercials Lee, as Blackmon, attempted to find the source of Jordan's abilities and became convinced that \"it's gotta be the shoes\". The hype and demand for the shoes even brought on a spate of \"shoe-jackings\" where people were robbed of their sneakers at gunpoint. Subsequently, Nike spun off the Jordan line into its own division named the \"Jordan",
"In June 2010, Jordan was ranked by \"Forbes\" magazine as the 20th-most powerful celebrity in the world with $55 million earned between June 2009 and June 2010. According to the \"Forbes\" article, Jordan Brand generates $1 billion in sales for Nike. In June 2014, Jordan was named the first NBA player to become a billionaire, after he increased his stake in the Charlotte Hornets from 80% to 89.5%. On January 20, 2015, Jordan was honored with the \"Charlotte Business Journal\"'s Business Person of the Year for 2014. In 2017, he became a part owner of the Miami Marlins of Major League Baseball.",
"Jordan played himself in the 1996 comedy film \"Space Jam\". The film was a box office success, making $230 million worldwide, although the reviews were mixed. In 2000, Jordan was the subject of an IMAX documentary about his career with the Chicago Bulls, especially the 1998 championship season, entitled \"Michael Jordan to the Max\". Two decades later, the same",
"Jordan has authored several books"
]
}
|
Alex Hitzinger
| null |
Alexander, or Alex, Hitzinger (born 23 October 1971 in Passau) is a German engineer, until 31 March 2016 he was the Technical Director of the Porsche LMP1 project. He previously worked as Head of Advanced Technologies for the Red Bull and Toro Rosso Formula One teams.
| null |
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en-train-639321
|
en-train-639321
|
639321
|
{
"title": [
"Early life and education.",
"Career."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Hitzinger was born in Passau, Germany. He has been interested in motorsports since he was a teenager. Different from most boys, who are fascinated by fast cars, he was mainly interested in the technical aspects of the car. He studied mechanical engineering at University of Applied Sciences Landshut as an undergraduate and earned an MBA from Warwick Business School at University of Warwick, UK.",
"Hitzinger's first job in the automotive industry was at Toyota Motorsport as a development engineer. Hitzinger moved to Cosworth together with World Rally Champion Carlos Sainz, when Carlos changed team from Toyota to Ford. At Cosworth, he firstly worked as Head of the Ford-Cosworth World Rally Championship programme and then as Head of F1 Development. In 2005, at the age of 34, Hitzinger was one of the youngest chief engineers in F1. Under Hitzinger’s leadership, in 2006, Cosworth F1 team developed the first ever F1 engine (Cosworth CA, 2.4 Litre, V8 ) to attain 20,000 rpm at the track, despite the difficult circumstances (under budget and small number of staff). This set a new standard at the time for F1 engines. From 2006 to 2011 he worked as Head of Advanced Technologies for Red Bull Technology and from mid- and mid- he also filled the role of Technical Director of the Scuderia Toro Rosso Formula One team. Since 2011, Hitzinger has been Technical Director of the Porsche LMP1 project. On 14 March 2016, it was announced that Alex Hitzinger was leaving Porsche. On 16 December 2016 it was reported that Hitzinger is working for Apple on its Project Titan electric car project. On 10 January 2019 it was reported that he starts working for Volkswagen as head of the technical development for its commercial vehicles division as well as its self-driving car and MaaS (mobility-as-a-service) programs."
]
}
|
Titus Quinctius Flamininus
| null |
Titus Quinctius Flamininus ( ; c. 228–174 BC) was a Roman politician and general instrumental in the Roman conquest of Greece.
| null |
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en-train-281632
|
en-train-281632
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281632
|
{
"title": [
"Family background.",
"Early career.",
"Military Tribune (208 BC).",
"Propraetor of Tarentum (205–202 BC).",
"Commissions (201-200 BC).",
"Consulate and command in Greece (198–194 BC).",
"Consular elections (199 BC).",
"Campaign of 198 BC."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2"
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"content": [
"Flamininus belonged to the minor patrician \"gens\" Quinctia. The family had a glorious place in the early history of Rome, especially the famous hero Lucius Quinctius Cincinnatus, but it had somewhat lost its political influence by the middle of the fourth century BC. Flamininus' great grandfather Caeso Quintius Claudus was still consul in 271, the last time a Quintius is recorded as holding a curule office before 209. Lucius Quinctius, his grandfather, was Flamen Dialis—the great priest of Jupiter—during the third quarter of the third century. The cognomen Flamininus borne by his descendants derives from this prestigious priesthood. Flamininus' great grandson later put an \"apex\", the head covering of the Flamen, as a symbol of his family on a denarius he minted. Flamininus' father—also named Titus—is not known. He had two sons: the elder, Titus Flamininus, was born c.228, the younger Lucius followed soon after. At the end of the third century, the Quinctii regained a good status among the political class, as shown by Flamininus' uncle Caeso who built the Temple of Concord in 217, his younger brother that became augur in 213 at a very young age, and his distant cousin Titus Quinctius Crispinus, consul in 208. The Quinctii were for a long time allied to the Fabii, one of the most prominent gentes of the Republic. They likely owed them the rare \"praenomen\" Caeso—a feature of the early Fabii—through marriages. Likewise, Flamininus was probably married to a Fabia, as Polybius says that Quintus Fabius Buteo, who later served under him in Greece, was his wife's nephew. The Buteones were very influent at the time thanks to Marcus Fabius Buteo, the Princeps Senatus between 216 and 210; he was also succeeded by another Fabius, the famous Cunctator.",
"",
"Flamininus' early career was peculiar, as he skipped several steps of the cursus honorum. The Second Punic War that was raging in Italy created several unusual careers, that of Scipio Africanus being the most famous example. It started in 208 as military tribune, a junior military position. He served under the five time consul Marcus Claudius Marcellus, who commanded the operations against Hannibal in Southern Italy. Marcellus died in a Carthaginian ambush near Crotone in 208.",
"Flamininus then became quaestor, probably in 206, although some historians have suggested a later date. He was sent to Tarentum to second his uncle Quinctius Claudus Flamininus, who was the propraetor in charge of the Roman garrison. Rome kept a strong military presence into this Greek city because it had previously defected to Hannibal. His uncle likely died in Tarentum in 205, and it seems that Flamininus was given his command since he was already on-site. Becoming propraetor before 25 was an extraordinary achievement, but it can be explained by the fact that experienced commanders were used abroad at the end of the Second Punic War. Livy tells that he was prorogued in 204, but remains silent on the following years; he might have stayed there until the end of the war in 202. In any case, Flamininus had a good relationship with the Greek population of Tarentum. During his time there, he also became familiar with the Greek language and culture.",
"Flamininus is mentioned again in 201 as the last member of a ten-men commission tasked with settling veterans of Scipio Africanus in Southern Italy (Samnium and Apulia), perhaps because he knew the area after his command at Tarentum. This commission continued its work in 200, but Flamininus was nevertheless appointed to another commission of three men to enrol settlers in Venusia. It is the only occurrence in Roman history of a man being member of two commissions simultaneously.",
"",
"In 199, Flamininus ran for the consulship, while he was not even 30 years old. The \"cursus honorum\" had not yet been formally organised in these years, but his bid for election still broke the tradition. He was even younger than Scipio Africanus, elected consul in 205 at 31, who had for him impressive military records and prestigious family support. In contrast, Flamininus came from a smaller family and could not boast any notable achievement during the war against Hannibal. At least two tribunes of the plebs, Marcus Fulvius and Manius Curius, vetoed his candidacy, precisely on the ground that he was too young and had not held any curule office (praetor or aedile). However, the Senate compelled them to remove their veto and allow Flamininus to present himself in the elections. This anomaly led modern historians to suppose that Flamininus was backed by several powerful politicians. Early prosopographers such as Friedrich Münzer and H. H. Scullard thought that he was a member of the political faction led by the Fabii. However this view has been contested, because the Fabii were in decline after the death of Buteo and the Cunctator. Flamininus was elected consul, together with the plebeian Sextus Aelius Paetus Catus, as the consul \"posterior\", which means the Centuriate Assembly elected him in second place, after Aelius. Plutarch tells that he owed his success to his land distributions in the commissions that made him popular among the settlers, who voted for him in return. The other consul likewise lacked any notable military achievement, and was elected thanks to his aedileship the previous year, during which he imported a lot of grain from Africa. As the two consuls could not agree on the allocation of the provinces between them, they turned to sortition. At the time, the main prize was the conduct of the Second Macedonian War against Philip V of Macedon. Although several scholars have thought that the lottery was rigged in favour of Flamininus, it appears that he was just lucky; the known instances of rigged sortitions took place much later.",
"After his election to the consulship he was chosen to replace Publius Sulpicius Galba who was consul with Gaius Aurelius in 200 BC, according to Livy, as general during the Second Macedonian War. He chased Philip V of Macedon out of most of Greece, except for a few fortresses, defeating him at the Battle of the Aous, but as his term as consul was coming to an end he attempted to establish a peace with the Macedonian king. During the negotiations, Flamininus was made proconsul, giving him the authority to continue the war rather than finishing the negotiations. In 197 BC he defeated Philip at the Battle of Cynoscephalae in Thessaly, the Roman legions making the Macedonian phalanx obsolete in the process. Philip was forced to surrender, give up all the Greek cities he had conquered, and pay Rome 1,000 talents, but his kingdom was left intact to serve as a buffer state between Greece and Illyria. This displeased the Achaean League, Rome's allies in Greece, who wanted Macedon to be dismantled completely. In 198 BC he occupied Anticyra in Phocis and made it his naval yard and his main provisioning port. During the period from 197 to 194 BC, from his seat in Elateia, Flamininus directed the political affairs of the Greek states. In 196 BC Flamininus appeared at the Isthmian Games in Corinth and proclaimed the freedom of the Greek states. He was fluent in Greek and was a great admirer of Greek culture, and the Greeks hailed him as their liberator; they minted coins with his portrait, and in some cities he was deified. According to Livy, this was the act of an unselfish Philhellene, although it seems more likely that Flamininus understood freedom as liberty for the aristocracy of Greece, who would then become clients of Rome, as opposed to being subjected to Macedonian hegemony. With his Greek allies, Flamininus plundered Sparta, before returning to Rome in triumph along with thousands of freed slaves, 1,200 of whom were freed from Achaea, having been taken captive and sold in Greece during the Second Punic War. Meanwhile, Eumenes II of Pergamum appealed to Rome for help against the Seleucid king Antiochus III. Flamininus was sent to negotiate with him in 192 BC, and warned him not to interfere with the Greek states. Antiochus did not believe Flamininus had the authority to speak for the Greeks, and promised to leave Greece alone only if the Romans did the same. These negotiations came to nothing and Rome was soon at war with Antiochus. Flamininus was present at the Battle of Thermopylae in 191 BC, in which Antiochus was defeated. In 189 BC he was elected censor along with Marcus Claudius Marcellus, defeating among others Cato the Elder. In 183 BC he was sent to negotiate with Prusias I of Bithynia in an attempt to capture Hannibal, who had been exiled there from Carthage, but Hannibal committed suicide to avoid being taken prisoner. According to Plutarch, many senators reproached Flamininus for having cruelly caused the death of an enemy who had now become harmless. Although nothing is known of him after this, Flamininus seems to have died around 174."
]
}
|
Chalcanthite
| null |
Chalcanthite, whose name derives from the Greek,'and ', meaning copper flower, is a richly colored blue/green water-soluble sulfate mineral CuSO·5HO. It is commonly found in the late-stage oxidation zones of copper deposits. Due to its ready solubility, chalcanthite is more common in arid regions.
| null |
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en-train-1038889
|
en-train-1038889
|
1038889
|
{
"title": [
"Uses of chalcanthite.",
"Associated minerals.",
"Notes for identification."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"As chalcanthite is a copper mineral, it can be used as an ore of copper. However, its ready solubility in water means that it tends to crystallize, dissolve, and recrystallize as crusts over any mine surface in more humid regions. Therefore, chalcanthite is only found in the most arid regions in sufficiently large quantities for use as an ore. Secondarily, chalcanthite, due to its rich color and beautiful crystals, is a sought after collector's mineral. However, as with its viability as an ore, the solubility of the mineral causes significant problems. First, the mineral readily absorbs and releases its water content, which, over time, leads to a disintegration of the crystal structure, destroying even the finest specimens. It is critical to store specimens properly to limit exposure to humidity. Second, higher quality crystals can be easily grown synthetically, and, as such, there is a concern that disreputable mineral dealers would present a sample as natural when it is not.",
"Given that chalcanthite is found in oxidized copper deposits, it is frequently found in association with other copper minerals. Frequently associated minerals include:",
"Chalcanthite's blue color is one of its most notable features, but it is insufficient in identification. Other useful tests include associated minerals, crystal habit, solubility and subsequent coloring of the water blue. Chalcanthite can also dye materials blue when dissolved in water, and has a peculiarly sweet and metallic taste, although consuming it can induce dangerous copper poisoning."
]
}
|
Nero Claudius Drusus
| null |
Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus (14 January 38 BC – summer of 9 BC), born Decimus Claudius Drusus, also called Drusus, Drusus I, or Drusus the Elder was a Roman politician and military commander. He was a patrician Claudian on his birth father's side but his maternal grandmother was from a plebeian family. He was the son of Livia Drusilla and the legal stepson of her second husband, the Emperor Augustus. He was also brother of the Emperor Tiberius, father to both the Emperor Claudius and general Germanicus, paternal grandfather of the Emperor Caligula, and maternal great-grandfather of the Emperor Nero.
| null |
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en-train-2160067
|
en-train-2160067
|
2160067
|
{
"title": [
"Childhood.",
"Marriage.",
"Career.",
"Germanic campaigns.",
"Death and legacy.",
"In popular culture."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Drusus was the youngest son of Livia Drusilla from her marriage to Tiberius Claudius Nero, who was legally declared his father before the couple divorced. Drusus was born between mid-March and mid-April 38 BC, three months after Livia married Augustus on 17 January. Gerhard Radke has proposed the date of March 28 as his most likely birthday, while Lindsay Powell interprets Ovid's \"Fasti\" as indicating a date of 13 January. Rumors arose that Augustus was the child's real father, although this has never been authoritatively proven. Claudius, however, encouraged the rumor during his reign as emperor to create an impression of more direct lineage from Augustus. According to Suetonius, Drusus was originally given \"Decimus\" as his praenomen, the first of a Roman male's conventional three names in Roman naming practice at the time. \"Nero\" was a traditional cognomen (third name) of the Claudii, whereas \"Drusus\" was given to a branch of the \"gens Livia\". Using a cognomen such as \"Nero\" as a first name was unusual, as was the prominence given to his maternal lineage in adopting \"Drusus\" as his cognomen. Drusus was raised in Claudius Nero's house with his brother, the future emperor Tiberius, until his legal father's death. The two brothers developed a famously close relationship that would last the rest of their lives. Tiberius named his eldest son after his brother, and Drusus did likewise, although eldest sons were usually named after their father or grandfather.",
"Drusus married Antonia Minor, the daughter of Mark Antony and Augustus' sister, Octavia Minor, and gained a reputation of being completely faithful to her. Their children were Germanicus, Claudius, a daughter named Livilla ('little Livia'), and at least two others who did not survive infancy. After Drusus' death, Antonia never remarried, though she outlived him by nearly five decades. Three emperors were direct descendants of Drusus: his son Claudius, his grandson Caligula, and his great-grandson Nero.",
"Augustus bestowed many honors on his stepsons. In 19 BC, Drusus was granted the ability to hold all public offices five years before the minimum age. When Tiberius left Italy during his term as praetor in 16 BC, Drusus legislated in his place. He became quaestor the following year, fighting against Raetian bandits in the Alps. Drusus repelled them, gaining honors, but was unable to smash their forces, and required reinforcement from Tiberius. The brothers easily defeated the local Alpine tribes. Drusus arrived in Gaul in late 15 BC to serve as \"legatus Augusti pro praetore\" (governor on Augustus' behalf with the authority of a praetor) of the three Gaulish provinces. His contribution to the ongoing building and urban development in Gaul can be seen in the establishment of the \"pes Drusianus\", or ‘Drusian foot’, of about, which was in use in Samarobriva (modern Amiens) and among the Tungri. From 14 to 13 BC, Augustus himself was also active in Gaul, whether in Lugdunum (modern Lyon) or along the Rhine frontier. As governor of Gaul, Drusus made his headquarters at Lugdunum, where he decided to establish the \"concilium Galliarum\" or ‘council of the Gaulish provinces’ sometime between 14 and 12 BC. This council would elect from its members a priest to celebrate games and venerate Rome and Augustus as deities every 1 August at the altar of the three Gauls that Drusus established at Condate in 10 BC. Drusus' son Tiberius—the future emperor Claudius—was born in Lugdunum on the same day that this altar was inaugurated.",
"Starting in 14 BC, Drusus built a string of military bases along the Rhine—fifty according to Florus—and established an alliance with the Batavi in preparation for military action in Germania Libera. He is likely to have had seven legions under his command. In spring of 12 BC, he embarked an expeditionary force, perhaps consisting of the Legiones I Germanica and V Alaudae, by ship from the vicinity of modern Nijmegen, making use of one or more canals he had built for the purpose. Drusus sailed to the mouth of the Ems and penetrated into the territory of the Chauci in present-day Lower Saxony. The Chauci concluded a treaty acknowledging Roman supremacy, and would remain allies of Rome for years to come. As they continued to ascend the Ems, the Romans were attacked by the Bructeri in boats. Drusus' forces defeated the Bructeri, but, as it was now late in the campaign season, turned back for their winter quarters in Gaul, taking advantage of their new alliance with the Frisii to navigate through the difficult conditions on the North Sea. As a reward for the successes of his campaign in 12 BC, Drusus was made \"praetor urbanus\" for 11 BC when he returned to Rome for the winter. News of Drusus' achievements—navigating the North Sea, carrying the Roman eagles into new territory, and fixing new peoples into treaty relations with Rome—caused considerable excitement in Rome and were commemorated on coins. Drusus did not have it in him to stay in Rome. In the spring of his term as \"praetor urbanus\", he set out for the German border once more. This time, he assembled a force consisting of all or part of five legions in addition to auxiliaries and, setting out from Vetera on the Rhine, ascended the River Lippe. Here he encountered the Tencteri and Usipetes, whom he defeated in two separate engagements. He reached the Werra Valley before deciding to turn back for the season, as winter was coming on, supplies were dwindling, and the omens were unfavorable. While his forces were making their way back through the territory of the Cherusci, the latter tribe laid an ambush for them at Arbalo. The Cherusci failed to capitalize on their initial advantage, whereupon the Romans broke through their lines, defeated the Germanic attackers, and acclaimed Drusus as \"imperator\". To show his continued mastery of the ground, Drusus garrisoned a number of positions within Germania during the winter of 11–10 BC, including one somewhere in Hesse and one in Cheruscan territory, probably either at Haltern or Bergkamen-Oberaden, both in present-day North Rhine–Westphalia. He rejoined his wife Antonia and two children for a time in Lugdunum before the family returned to Rome, where Drusus reported to Augustus. Drusus was given the honor of an ovation, and for the second time, Augustus closed the doors of the Temple of Janus, signifying that the whole Roman world was then at peace. Drusus was granted the office of proconsul for the following year. In 10 BC, the Chatti joined with the Sicambri and attacked Drusus' camp, but they were driven back. Drusus pursued them, proceeding from the sites of present-day Mainz and, where he set up a base of supply, to Hedemünden, where a strong new camp was established. Around this time, the canny Marcomannic king Maroboduus responded to the Roman incursion by relocating his people \"en masse\" to Bohemia. In summer of 10 BC, Drusus left the field in order to return to Lugdunum, where he inaugurated the sanctuary of the Three Gaulish provinces at Condate on 1 August. Augustus and Tiberius were in Lugdunum for this occasion (when Drusus' youngest son Claudius was born), and afterwards Drusus accompanied them back to Rome. Drusus easily won election as consul for the year 9 BC. Once more he left the city before assuming office. His consulship conferred the chance for Drusus to attain Rome's highest and rarest military honor, the \"spolia opima\", or spoils of an enemy chieftain slain personally by an opposing Roman general who was fighting (as consuls did) under his own auspices. He quickly returned to the field, stopping to confer with his staff at Lugdunum and to dedicate a temple to Caesar Augustus at Andemantunnum, before rejoining his command at Mainz, from which the year's expedition departed in early spring. Drusus led the army via Rödgen through the territories of the Marsi and Cherusci until he even crossed the river Elbe. Here he is said to have seen an apparition of a Germanic woman who warned him against proceeding farther and that his death was near. Drusus turned back, erecting a trophy to commemorate his reaching the Elbe, perhaps on the site of Dresden or Magdeburg. Drusus had sought out multiple Germanic (at least three) chieftains during his campaigns in Germany (12 BC–9 BC), engaging them in \"dazzling displays of single combat\". The sources are ambiguous, but imply that at some point he did take the \"spolia opima\" from a Germanic king, thus becoming the fourth and final Roman to gain this honor.",
"Drusus was returning from his advance to the Elbe when he fell from his horse, lingering on for a month after the accident, by which point Tiberius had joined him. Shortly before his death he wrote a letter to Tiberius complaining about the style in which Augustus ruled. Suetonius reports that he had refused to return to Rome just before his death. Drusus' body was brought back to the city, and his ashes were deposited in the Mausoleum of Augustus. He remained extremely popular with the legionaries, who erected a monument (the Drususstein) in \"Mogontiacum\" (modern Mainz) on his behalf. Remnants of this are still standing. His family was granted the hereditary honorific title \"Germanicus\", which was given to his eldest son before passing to his youngest. Augustus later wrote a biography of him which does not survive. By Augustus' decree, festivals were held in Mogontiacum at Drusus' death day and probably also on his birthday. Drusus' mother Livia, much affected by the death of her second son, took the advice of the philosopher Areus to put up many statues and images of Drusus and speak often about him. The surviving Latin work \"Consolatio ad Liviam\" is framed as an Ovidian message of consolation to Livia on this occasion, though it is generally considered a literary exercise \"composed between the death of Livia [29 CE] and that of Tiberius [37 CE]\". Augustus noted the successes of Drusus' campaigns—for which, as Drusus' superior, he took credit—in his \"Res Gestae Divi Augusti\", written in 14 AD: Upon Claudius' accession to the principate in 41 AD, his late father Drusus received new public honors, including annual games in the Circus Maximus on January 14 for Drusus' birthday, coin issues commemorating Drusus' victories in Germania, and the restoration of a monument near the Ara Pacis Augustae that featured a statue of Drusus. Claudius also completed a road from Italy into Raetia that followed the route Drusus had taken and whose road-markers commemorated Drusus' achievements in the Alpine war. Such Claudian commemorations of Drusus' memory are thought to have become less prominent once Claudius had his own British triumph to celebrate.",
"He is a minor character in Robert Graves' historical novel \"I, Claudius\", as well as the BBC's adaptation of the same title in which he was played by Ian Ogilvy. The annual festival celebrating Drusus' death is a main plot element in the second volume of \"the Romanike series\" by Codex Regius (2006-2014). He is a prominent character in the \"Hrabam Chronicles\" by Alaric Longward (2016)."
]
}
|
Air Battalion Royal Engineers
| null |
The Air Battalion Royal Engineers (ABRE) was the first flying unit of the British Armed Forces to make use of heavier-than-air craft. Founded in 1911, the battalion in 1912 became part of the Royal Flying Corps, which in turn evolved into the Royal Air Force.
| null |
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en-train-1618815
|
en-train-1618815
|
1618815
|
{
"title": [
"Establishment.",
"Structure and activities.",
"Creation of the Royal Flying Corps."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"In 1911, following the growth in early aviation activity, the War Office issued instructions for the School of Ballooning, which had originally been formed in 1888, to be expanded into a battalion. An order was issued on 28 February 1911 for the formation of the Air Battalion of the Royal Engineers effective 1 April the same year. The initial establishment was 14 officers and 150 other ranks. Officers could be selected from any branch of the service whereas other ranks were selected from the Corps of Royal Engineers. Pilots had to already have earned a Royal Aero Club certificate from a private flying school. The GBP 75 charge for flight training was reimbursed only if the student passed the course.",
"The battalion comprised two companies and a headquarters located at Farnborough. The commander of the Air Battalion was Major Sir Alexander Bannerman. No. 1 Company, at Farnborough, was equipped with airships and was under the command of Captain Edward Maitland, an experienced balloon and airship pioneer. He also helped pioneer the parachute and in 1913 made the first parachute jump from an airship. No. 2 Company, at Larkhill on Salisbury Plain, was equipped with aeroplanes and was commanded by Captain John Fulton. A mechanical engineer from the Royal Field Artillery, Fulton had been an early enthusiast of military flying and had attended the world's first air show at Rheims in 1909. He had earned his pilot's certificate, number 27, on 15 November 1910. On 17 September 1911, Lt. R.A. Cammell, R.E. was killed in the crash of a Valkyrie monoplane at Hendon airfield; a 1922 account of the formation of the RAF states this was the only fatal accident in the Air Battalion. On 14 February 1912, Lt. Barrington-Kennet flew a government-bought aeroplane – a two-seater Nieuport monoplane with a 50 hp Gnome engine – 249.5 miles in 4 hours and 32 minutes, setting a record.",
"In October 1911, Italy's use of aircraft in combat against the Ottoman Empire in Tripoli, Libya led to the formation of a sub-committee of the British Imperial Defence Staff to recommend policy for the future of British military flying. The committee recommended the formation of a separate flying corps and on 13 April 1912 the Royal Flying Corps was created, with the Air Battalion becoming its Military Wing on 13 May. No.1 Company was the forerunner of No. 1 Squadron RFC on 1 April 1911. No.2 Company was the forerunner of No. 3 Squadron RFC on 1 April 1911 and a detachment of No.2 Company became No. 2 Squadron RFC on 13 May 1912."
]
}
|
Germanicus
| null |
Germanicus Julius Caesar (24 May 15 BC – 10 October AD 19) was a popular and prominent general of the Roman Empire, known for his campaigns in Germania. The son of Nero Claudius Drusus and Antonia Minor, Germanicus was born into an influential branch of the patrician "gens Claudia". The agnomen "Germanicus" was added to his full name in 9 BC when it was posthumously awarded to his father in honor of his victories in Germania. In AD 4, he was adopted by his paternal uncle, Tiberius, who succeeded Augustus as Roman emperor a decade later. As a result, Germanicus became an official member of the "gens Julia", another prominent family which he was related to on his mother's side. His connection to the Julii was further consolidated through a marriage between himself and Agrippina the Elder, a granddaughter of Augustus. He was also the older brother of Claudius, the father of Caligula, and the maternal grandfather of Nero.
| null |
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en-train-138966
|
en-train-138966
|
138966
|
{
"title": [
"Name.",
"Family and early life.",
"Career.",
"Batonian War.",
"Interim.",
"Commander of Germania.",
"First campaign against the Germans.",
"Second campaign against the Germans.",
"Third campaign against the Germans.",
"Result.",
"Recall.",
"Command in Asia.",
"Post mortem.",
"Literary activity.",
"Historiography.",
"Publius Cornelius Tacitus.",
"Suetonius Tranquillus.",
"Legacy."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Germanicus' \"praenomen\" is unknown, but he was probably named Nero Claudius Drusus after his father (conventionally called \"Drusus\"), or possibly Tiberius Claudius Nero after his uncle. He took the \"agnomen\" Germanicus, awarded posthumously to his father in honor of his victories in Germania, at which point he nominally became head of the family",
"Germanicus was born in Rome on 24 May 15 BC to Nero Claudius Drusus and Antonia Minor, and had two younger siblings: a sister, Livilla; and a brother, Claudius. His paternal grandmother was Livia, who had divorced his grandfather, Tiberius Claudius Nero around 24 years before Germanicus' birth, and was married to the emperor Augustus. His maternal grandparents were the triumvir Mark Antony and Augustus's sister Octavia Minor. Germanicus was a key figure in Julio-Claudian dynasty of the early Roman Empire. As well as being the great-nephew of Augustus, he was the nephew of the second emperor, Tiberius, his son Gaius would become the third emperor, Caligula, who would be succeeded by Germanicus' brother",
"",
"Germanicus became a quaestor in AD 7, four years before the legal age of 25. He was sent to Illyricum the same year to help Tiberius suppress a rebellion by the Pannonians and Dalmatians. He brought with him an army of levied citizens and former slaves to reinforce Tiberius at Siscia, his base of operations in Illyricum. Towards the end of the year, additional reinforcements arrived; three legions from Moesia commanded by Aulus Caecina Severus, and two legions with Thracian cavalry and auxiliary troops from Anatolia commanded by",
"After a distinguished start to his military career, Germanicus returned to Rome in late AD 9 to personally announce his victory. He was honored with a triumphal insignia (without an actual triumph) and the rank (not the actual title) of praetor. He was also given permission to be a candidate for consul before the regular time and the right to speak first in the Senate after the consuls. According to Cassius Dio, Germanicus was a popular quaestor because he acted as an advocate as much in capital jurisdiction cases before Augustus as he did before lesser judges in standard \"quaestiones\" (trials). He successfully defended, for example, a quastor accused of murder in AD 10 in which the prosecutor, fearing the jurors would find in favor of the defense out of deference for Germanicus, demanded a trial before Augustus. In AD 9, three Roman legions commanded by Varus were destroyed by a coalition of German tribes led by Arminius in the Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. As proconsul, Germanicus",
"In AD 13, Augustus appointed him commander of the forces in the Rhine, which totaled eight legions and was about one-third of Rome's total military force. The next year in August, Augustus died and on 17 September the Senate met to confirm Tiberius as princeps. That day the Senate also dispatched a delegation to Germanicus' camp to send its condolences for the death of his grandfather and to grant him proconsular \"imperium\". The delegation would not arrive until October. In Germany and Illyricum, the legions were in mutiny. In Germany, the legions in mutiny were those of the Lower Rhine under Aulus Caecina (the V Alaudae, XXI Rapax, I Germanica, and XX",
"To satisfy the requisition promised to the legions, Germanicus paid them out of his own pocket. All 8 legions were given money, even if they did not demand it. Both the armies of the Lower and Upper Rhine had returned to order. It seemed prudent to satisfy the armies, but Germanicus took it a step further. In a bid to secure the loyalty of his troops, he led them on a raid against the Marsi, a Germanic people on the upper Ruhr river. Germanicus massacred the",
"For the next two years, he led his legions across the Rhine against the Germans, where they would confront the forces of Arminius and his allies. Tacitus says the purpose of those campaigns was to avenge the defeat of Varus at the Battle of Teutoburg Forest, and not to expand Roman territory. In early spring AD 15, Germanicus crossed the Rhine and struck the Chatti. He sacked their capital Mattium (modern Maden near Gudensberg), pillaged their countryside, then returned to the Rhine. Sometime this year, he received word from Segestes, who was held prisoner by Arminius's forces and needed help. Germanicus' troops released Segestes and took his pregnant daughter, Arminius's wife Thusnelda, into captivity. Again he marched back victorious and at the direction of Tiberius, accepted the title of Imperator. Arminius called his tribe, the Cherusci, and the surrounding tribes to arms. Germanicus coordinated a land and riverine",
"In preparations for his next campaign, Germanicus sent Publius Vitellius and Gaius Antius to collect taxes in Gaul, and instructed Silius, Anteius, and Caecina to build a fleet. A fort on the Lippe called \"Castra Aliso\" was besieged, but the attackers dispersed on sight of Roman reinforcements. The Germans destroyed the nearby mound and altar dedicated to his father Drusus, but he had them both restored and celebrated funerary games with his legions in honor of his father. New barriers and earthworks were put in place,",
"While Germanicus enjoyed some success in his campaigns against Arminius and his allies, Tiberius decided not to attempt to conquer the Germans and recalled Germanicus to Rome. The effort it would have taken to conquer Germania Magna was deemed too great when compared with the low potential for profit from acquiring the new territory. Rome regarded Germany as a wild territory of forests and swamps, with little wealth compared to territories Rome already had. However, the campaign significantly healed the Roman psychological trauma from the Varus",
"At the beginning of AD 17, Germanicus returned to the capital and on May 26 he celebrated a triumph for his victories over the Germans. He had captured a few important prisoners, but Arminius was still at large. It was far from clear that Germanicus had won the war. Nonetheless, this did not take away from the spectacle of his triumph: a near contemporary calendar marks 26 May as the day in \"which Germanicus Caesar was borne into the city",
"Following his triumph, Germanicus was sent to Asia to reorganize the provinces and kingdoms there, which were in such disarray that the attention of a \"domus Augusta\" was deemed necessary to settle matters. Germanicus was given \"imperium maius\" (extraordinary command) over the other governors and commanders of the area he was to operate; however, Tiberius had replaced the governor of Syria with Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso, who was meant to be his helper (\"adiutor\"), but turned out to be hostile. According to Tacitus, this was an attempt to separate Germanicus from his familiar troops and weaken his influence, but the historian Richard Alston says Tiberius had little reason to undermine his heir. Germanicus had a busy year in 17. He restored a temple of Spes, and allegedly won a chariot race in the name of Tiberius at the Olympic games that year. However, Eusebius, our main reference for this, does not name Germanicus, and Tacitus makes no reference to this occasion either, which would have required Germanicus to make two trips to Greece within a year. Not waiting to take up his consulship in Rome, he left after his triumph but before the end of AD 17. He sailed down the Illyrian coast of the Adriatic Sea to Greece. He arrived at Nicopolis near the site of",
"When Rome had received word of Germanicus' death, the people began observing an \"iustitium\" before the Senate had officially declared it. Tacitus says this shows the true grief that the people of Rome felt, and this also shows that by this time the people already knew the proper way to commemorate dead princes without an edict from a magistrate. At his funeral, there were no procession statues of Germanicus. There were abundant eulogies and reminders of his fine character and a particular eulogy was given by Tiberius himself in the Senate. The historians Tacitus and Suetonius record the funeral and posthumous honors of Germanicus. His name was placed into the Carmen Saliare, and onto the Curule chairs that were placed with oaken garlands over them as honorary seats for the Augustan priesthood. His ivory statue was at the head of the procession during the Circus Games; his posts as priest of Augustus and Augur were to be filled by members of the imperial family; knights of Rome gave his name to a block of seats at a theatre in Rome, and rode behind his effigy on 15 July AD 20. After consulting with his family, Tiberius made his wishes known whereupon the Senate collected the honors into a commemorative decree, the \"Senatus Consultum de memoria honoranda Germanini Caesaris\", and ordered the consuls of AD 20 to issue a public law honoring the death of Germanicus, the \"Lex Valeria Aurelia\". Although Tacitus stressed the honors paid to him, the funeral and processions were carefully modeled after those of Gaius and Lucius, Agrippa's sons. This served to emphasize the continuation of the \"domus Augusta\" across the transition from Augustus to Tiberius. Commemorative arches were built in his honor and not just at Rome, but at the frontier on the Rhine and in Asia where he had governed in life. The arch of the Rhine was placed alongside of that of his father, where the soldiers had built a funerary monument honoring him. Portraits of him and his natural father were placed in the Temple of Apollo on the Palatine in Rome. On the day of Germanicus' death his sister Livilla gave birth to twins by Drusus. The oldest was named Germanicus and died young. In 37, Germanicus' only remaining son, Caligula, became emperor and renamed September \"Germanicus\" in honor of his father. Many Romans, in the account of Tacitus, considered Germanicus to be their equivalent to Alexander the Great, and believed that he would have easily surpassed the achievements of Alexander had he become emperor. In book eight of his \"Natural History\", Pliny connects Germanicus, Augustus, and Alexander as fellow equestrians: when Alexander's horse Bucephalus died he named a city, Bucephalia, in his honor. Less monumental, Augustus's horse received a funeral mound, which Germanicus wrote a poem about.",
"In AD 4, Germanicus wrote a Latin version of Aratus's \"Phainomena\", which survives, wherein he rewrites the contents of the original. For example, he replaces the opening hymn to Zeus with a passage in honor of the Roman emperor. He avoided writing in the poetic",
"Germanicus and Tiberius are often contrasted by ancient historians and poets who wrote using themes found in drama, with Germanicus playing the tragic hero and Tiberius the tyrant. The endurance of the Principate is challenged in these narratives, by the emperor's jealous trepidation toward competent commanders such as Germanicus. Attention is paid particularly to their leadership styles, i.e., in their relationship with the masses. Germanicus is painted as a competent leader able to handle the masses whereas Tiberius is indecisive and envious. Despite the poetics attached to Germanicus by ancient authors, it is accepted by historians such as Anthony Barrett that Germanicus was an able general. He fought against the Pannonians under Tiberius, quelled the mutiny in the Rhine, and led three successful campaigns into Germania. As for his popularity, he was popular enough that the mutinous legions of the Rhine attempted to proclaim him emperor in AD 14; however, he remained loyal and led them against the German tribes instead. Tacitus and Suetonius claim that Tiberius was jealous of Germanicus' popularity, but Barrett suggests their claim might be contradicted by the fact that, following his campaigns in Germany, Germanicus was given command of the eastern provinces – a sure sign he was intended to rule. In accordance with the precedent set by Augustus, Agrippa had been given command of those same provinces in the east when Agrippa was the intended successor to the empire.",
"The \"Annals\" by Tacitus is one of the most detailed accounts of Germanicus' campaigns against the Germans. He wrote his account in the early years of the second century. Tacitus described Germanicus as a fine general who was kind and temperate, saying that his early death had taken a great ruler from Rome. Book 1 of \"Annals\" extensively focuses",
"Suetonius was an equestrian who held administrative posts during the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian. \"The Twelve Caesars\" details a biographical history of the principate from the birth of Julius Caesar to the death of Domitian in AD 96. Like Tacitus, he drew upon the imperial archives, as",
"Due to his prominence as heir to the imperial succession, he is depicted in many works of art."
]
}
|
Zaporizhia
| null |
Zaporizhia, Zaporizhzhia or Zaporizhzhya (, ; ), also known as Zaporozhye (;, ) and formerly as Alexandrovsk ( ; ), is a city in south-eastern Ukraine, situated on the banks of the Dnieper. It is the administrative centre of the Zaporizhia Oblast (region).
| null |
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en-train-2130399
|
en-train-2130399
|
2130399
|
{
"title": [
"Etymology.",
"History.",
"Pre foundation history.",
"Russian Empire (1654–1917).",
"Foundation of Zaporizhia.",
"Mennonite settlers.",
"The ferry.",
"Establishment of railway and Kichkas Bridge.",
"Civil war (1917–1921).",
"In the time of Soviet Ukraine as a part of the USSR (1922–1991).",
"Industrialization in the 1920 – 1930s.",
"The hydro-electric dam, DniproHES.",
"The city of the Socialism (Sotsgorod).",
"Dnieper railway bridges.",
"World War II (1941–1945).",
"German occupation.",
"Liberation.",
"Contemporary (1991–present time).",
"New bridges across Dnieper.",
"Euromaidan events, 2013–2014.",
"Renaming city streets, plants, culture centers (2016).",
"Geography.",
"Governance.",
"Administrative subdivision.",
"Demographics.",
"City population.",
"Ethnic structure.",
"Religion.",
"Economy.",
"Industry.",
"Electricity generation.",
"Culture.",
"Some attractions.",
"Infrastructure.",
"In popular culture.",
"Twin towns and sister cities."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
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"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
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"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Until 1921 the city bore the name of Aleksandrovsk after the name of a fortress that was a part of the Dnieper Defence Line of the Russian Empire. In 1921 the city name was changed to Zaporizhia (Zaporozhye). The city's name \"Zaporizhia\" literally means the position of the city located \"beyond the rapids\" (later, in 1932 the rapids were flooded in order to build the Dnieper Hydroelectric Station).",
"",
"Archaeological finds show that about two or three thousand years ago Scythians lived around the modern city. Later, Khazars, Pechenegs, Kuman, Tatars and Slavs dwelt there. The trade route from the Varangians to the Greeks passed through the island of Khortytsia. These territories were called the \"Wild Fields\", because they were not under the control of any state (it was the land between the highly eroded borders of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the Grand Duchy of Moscow, and the Ottoman Empire). In 1552 Dmytro Vyshnevetsky erected wood-earth fortifications on the small island Little Khortytsia which is near the western shore of Khortytsia island. Archeologists consider these fortifications to be a prototype for the Zaporizhian Sich — the stronghold of the paramilitary peasant regiments of Cossacks.",
"",
"In 1770 the fortress of Aleksandrovskaya () was erected and is considered to be the year of the foundation of Zaporizhia. As a part of the Dnieper Defence Line the fortress protected the southern territories of Russian Empire from Crimean Tatar invasions. It is uncertain in whose honour the fortress was named. Some believe that it was Aleksander Golitsyn, the general who served Catherine the Great. Other possibilities are Prince Aleksandr Vyazemskiy or Alexander Rumyantsev. In 1775, Russia and the Ottoman Empire signed the Küçük Kaynarca peace treaty, according to which the southern lands of the Russian Plain and Crimean peninsula became Russian-governed territories. As a result, the Aleksandrovskaya Fortress lost its military significance and converted into a small provincial rural town, known from 1806 under the name Alexandrovsk ().",
"In 1789, Mennonites from Danzig (Prussia) accepted the invitation from Catherine the Great to settle several colonies in the area of the modern city. The island of Khortitza was gifted to them for \"perpetual possession\" by the Russian government. In 1914, the Mennonites sold the island back to the city. The Mennonites built mills and agricultural factories in Alexandrovsk. During the Russian Revolution and especially by World War II most of the Mennonites had fled to North and South America as well as being forcefully relocated to eastern Russia. At present, few Mennonites live in Zaporizhia, although in the area many industrial buildings and houses built by Mennonites are preserved.",
"In 1829, it was proposed to build a cable ferry across the Dnieper. The ferry could carry a dozen carts. The project was approved by Tsar and later was used in other parts of the Russian Empire. In 1904 the ferry was replaced by the Kichkas Bridge, which was built in the narrowest part of the river called \"Wolf Throat\", near to the northern part of the Khortytsia Island.",
"The first railway bridge over the Dnieper was the Kichkas () Bridge, which was designed by Y.D. Proskuryakov and E. O. Paton. The construction works were supervised by F. W. Lat. The total bridge length was 336 meters. It crossed the river with a single span of 190 m. The upper tier carried a double-track railway line, whilst the lower tier was used for other types of vehicles; both sides of the bridge were assigned as footpaths. It was built at the narrowest part of the Dnieper river known as \"Wolf Throat\". Construction started in 1900, and it opened for pedestrian traffic in 1902. The official opening of the bridge was 17 April 1904, though railway traffic on the bridge only commenced on 22 January 1908. The opening of the Kichkas Bridge led to the industrial growth of Alexandrovsk. In 1916, during the World War I, the aviation engines plant of DEKA Stock Association (today better known as the Motor Sich) was transferred from Saint Petersburg.",
"The Kichkas Bridge was of strategic importance during the Russian Civil War, and carried troops, ammunition, the wounded and medical supplies. Because of this bridge, Alexandrovsk and its environs was the scene of fierce fighting from 1918 to 1921 between the Red Army and the White armies of Denikin and Wrangel, Petliura and German-Austrian troops, and after their defeat, the struggle with insurgents led by Grigoriev and Makhno. The bridge was damaged a number of times. The most serious damage was inflicted by Makhno's troops when they retreated from Alexandrovsk in 1920 and blew a 40 m wide gap in the middle of the bridge. People's Commissar of Railways Dzerzhinsky of the Bolshevik government ordered the repair of the bridge. The metallurgical plant of (now Dneprovsky plant) in Dnipropetrovsk built a replacement section. The Kichkas Bridge reopened on 14 September 1921. On 19 October 1921, the Soviet Council of Labour and Defence (chaired by Lenin) awarded the Yekaterininsky railroad the Order of the Red Banner of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic for the early restoration of the Kichkas Bridge.",
"",
"At the beginning of 20th century, Zaporizhia was a small unremarkable rural town of the Russian Empire, which acquired industrial importance during the industrialization carried out by the Soviet government in the 1920–1930th In the 1929–1932 master plan for city construction was developed. At 10 km from the old town Alexandrovsk at the narrowest part of the Dnieper river was planned to build the hydroelectric power station, the most powerful in Europe at that time. Close to the station should be constructed the new modern city and a giant steel and aluminum plants. Later the station was named \"DnieproHES\", the steel plant – \"Zaporizhstal'\" (Zaporizhia Steel Plant), and the new part of the city – \"Sotsgorod\". (Socialist city) Production of the aluminum plant (\"DAZ\"- Dnieper Aluminium Plant) according to the plan should exceed the overall production of the aluminum all over Europe at that time. State Institute for Design of Metallurgical Plants (GIPROMEZ) developed a project of creation of the Dnieper Industrial Complex. GIPROMEZ consulted with various companies, including the Freyn Engineering Company of Chicago (USA), which participated in the design and construction of the blast furnaces. In the 1930s the American United Engineering and Foundry Company built a strip mill, which produced hot and cold rolling steel strip. This was a copy of the Ford River Rouge steel mill. Annual capacity of the mill reached 600,000 tons. Strip width was 66 inches. There was a second section that used a Soviet copy of the Demag AG strip mill that produced 45 inch wide strip steel.",
"The turning point in the history of the city was the construction of the hydro-electric dam (DniproHES), which began in 1927 and completed in 1932. The principal designer of the project was I. G. Alexandrov, the construction manager – A. V. Vinter, the chief architect – V. A. Vesnin and the chief American advisor – the colonel Hugh Cooper. According to the project, the installed generating capacity was 560 megawatts, the length of a convex dam was 760 m, the width – 56 m, the height – 60 m. Eight turbines and five electrical generators were designed and manufactured in the United States; the other three generators were made at the Leningrad factory Electrosila. As a result of the commissioning of the station The Dnieper rapids were flooded, and the river became navigable from Kiev to Kherson. In 1980, in addition, a new generator building was built, and the station power was increased to 1.388 megawatts",
"Between the hydroelectric dam and industrial area in 10 km from the center of the old Alexandrovsk was established residential district No. 6, which was named \"Sotsgorod\". In 20th doctrinaire idealistic enthusiasm of the architects was reflected in the intense debate about the habitation of the socialist community. The architects believed that by using new architectural forms they could create a new society. District No. 6 was one of the few implementations of urban development concepts. The construction of the district began in 1929 and finished in 1932. The main idea guiding the architects was the creation of the garden city, the city of the future. Multi-storey houses (not more than 4 floors) with large, roomy apartments were built in Sotsgorod with spacious yards planted with grass and trees around the buildings. Nikolai Kolli, V.A.Vesnin, G.M.Orlov, V.G.Lavrov and others designed the DniproHES and SotsGorod. Le Corbusier visited the town few times in the 1930s. The architects used the ideas of the constructivist architecture. The ring house the building No. 31 at Independent Ukraine Street (formerly – 40 years of Soviet Ukraine Street) was designed by V.G. Lavrov. Families of the Soviet and American engineers, advisors, and industry bosses lived in Sotsgorod at that time. However, the most of the workers during the construction of the hydro-power station and plants lived in dugouts at No. 15 and Aluminum districts. The south border of the Sotsgorog is limited by Verkhnya Ulitsa (Upper Street) and north border – by the hydroelectric power station. At the intersection between Sobornyi Avenue and Verkhnya Street, architect I.L. Kosliner set a tower with seven stories. This tower supposedly indicates the entrance gate of Sotsgorod from the south (from Alexandrovsk). Closer to the dam, the second tower was raised (architects I.L. Kosliner and L.Ya. Gershovich). Both towers point out a straight line of the central street of the district. The names of the streets have changed several times. The original name of Metallurgist Avenue was Enthusiasts Alley. This road leads to the factories. At that time, they believed that people going to the plant had only positive feelings like joy, pride, and enthusiasm. At the end of the road stands a 1963 sculpture of the metallurgist by sculptor Ivan Nosenko. During the German occupation, it was named Shevchenko Avenue. Later it was renamed Stalin Avenue; and after his death, it got the present name of Metallurgist Avenue. Sobornyi Avenue originally had the name Libkhnet Avenue. \"Forty Years of Soviet Ukraine\" Street was once called Sovnarkomovska Street and during the German occupation Hitler Alley. Big Zaporizhia District No. 6 is a small part of the global project called \"Big Zaporizhia\". This project was designed for the city, to enable a half-million people to live in seven different areas: Voznesenka, Baburka, Kichkas, Alexandrovsk, Pavlo-Kichkas, Island Khortitsa, and (omitted). Each district must be independent of the others and yet part of а united city. The city line should be stretched along the banks of the Dnieper River for 22 km.",
"The location of the Kichkas Bridge was in the flood zone upstream of the hydroelectric dam. Initially, it was planned to disassemble it and rebuild it in another location. But expert advice was that this was not cost-effective as it was cheaper to build a new bridge. The building of the hydroelectric dam meant that a new bridge was required to take the railway over the Dnieper. Instead of having a single bridge, as before, it was decided to take the railway over the island Khortytsia. The wide part of the river between Khortytsia and the city is known as the New Dnieper, and the narrower part between Khortytsia and the suburbs on the right bank of the river is known as the Old Dnieper. The New Dnieper was crossed by a three-arch two-tier bridge. Each of the arches spans 140 m. When the approach spans are included the total length is 715 m weighing 8,480 tons. The Old Dnieper was crossed by a single-span arch bridge with a total length of 370 m; the arch spans of 224 m and was then the largest single-span bridge in Europe. This bridge weighed 5,220 tons. Both bridges were designed by Professor Streletsky. They were made of riveted steel, and had two tiers: the upper tier for rail traffic and the lower tier for road traffic and pedestrians. They were assembled by a combination of Czechoslovakian and Soviet workers under the direction of a Soviet engineer named Konstantinov. The arches are steel made by the Vitkovetskom steel plant in Czechoslovakia, other steelwork was made at the Dnipropetrovsk Metallurgical Plant. The new bridges opened on 6 November 1931. The Kichkas Bridge was demolished afterwards.",
"",
"The War between the USSR and Nazi Germany began on 22 June 1941. After the outbreak of the war, the Soviet government started the evacuation of the industrial equipment from the city to Siberia. The Soviet security forces NKVD shot political prisoners in the city. On 18 August 1941, elements of the German 1st Panzergruppe reached the outskirts of Zaporizhia on the right bank and seized the island Khortytsia. The Red Army blew a 120m x 10m hole in the Dnieper hydroelectric dam (DniproHES) at 16:00 on 18 August 1941, producing a flood wave that swept from Zaporizhia to Nikopol, killing local residents as well as soldiers from both sides. \"Since no official death toll was released at the time, the estimated number of victims varies widely. Most historians put it at between 20,000 and 100,000, based on the number of people then living in the flooded areas\". After two days, the city defenders received reinforcements, and held the left bank of the river for 45 days. During this time people dismantled heavy machinery, packed and loaded them on the railway platform, marked and accounted for with wiring diagrams. Zaporizhstal alone exported 9,600 railway cars with the equipment. Zaporizhia was taken on 3 October 1941. The German occupation of Zaporizhia lasted 2 years and 10 days. During this time the Germans shot over 35,000 people, and sent 58,000 people to Germany as forced labour. The Germans used forced labor (mostly POWs) to try to restore the Dnieper hydroelectric dam and the steelworks. Local citizens established an underground resistance organization in spring 1942. The Krivoy Rog – Stalingrad and Moscow – Crimea railway lines through Zaporizhia were important supply lines for the Germans in 1942–43, but the big three-arch Dnieper railway bridge at Zaporizhia was blown up by the retreating Red Army on 18 August 1941, with further demolition work done during September 1941. and the Germans did not bring it back into operation until summer 1943. \"As a result all goods had to be reloaded and tank-wagons carrying petrol could not go through to the front.\" When the Germans reformed Army Group South in February 1943, it had its headquarters in Zaporizhia. The loss of Kharkiv and other cities caused Adolf Hitler to fly to this headquarters on 17 February 1943, where he stayed until 19 February and met the army group commander Field Marshal Erich von Manstein, and was persuaded to allow Army Group South to fight a mobile defence that quickly led to much of the lost ground being recaptured by the Germans in the Third Battle of Kharkov. Hitler visited the headquarters in Zaporizhia again on 10 March 1943, where he was briefed by von Manstein and his air force counterpart Field Marshal Wolfram Freiherr von Richthofen. Hitler visited the headquarters at Zaporizhia for the last time on 8 September 1943. In mid-September 1943 the Army Group moved its headquarters from Zaporizhia to Kirovograd (now called Kropyvnytskyi). Both the big railway bridge over the New Dnieper and the smaller one over the Old Dnieper were damaged in an air raid by a group of eight Ilyushin Il-2s led by Lieutenant A Usmanov on 21 September 1943.",
"In mid-August 1943, the Germans started building the Panther-Wotan defence line along the Dnieper from Kiev to Crimea, and retreated back to it in September 1943. The Germans held the city as a bridgehead over the Dnieper, with elements of 40th Panzer and 17th Corps. The Soviet Southwestern Front, commanded by Army General Rodion Malinovsky, attacked the city on 10 October 1943. Whilst the defenders held against the attacks, the Red Army reinforced its troops and launched a surprise night attack at 22:00 on 13 October, \"laying down a barrage of shellfire bigger than anything... seen to date (it was here that entire 'divisions' of artillery appeared for the first time) and throwing in no fewer than ten divisions strongly supported by armour\", the Red Army broke into the bridgehead forcing the Germans to abandon it on 14 October. The retreating Germans destroyed the Zaporizhstal steel plant almost completely; they demolished the big railway bridge again, and demolished the turbine building and damaged 32 of the 49 bays of the Dnieper hydro-electric dam. The city has a street between Voznesenskyi and Oleksandrivskyi Districts and a memorial in Oleksandrivskyi District dedicated to Red Army Lieutenant Yatsenko who commanded the tank, which first entered the city; he and his crew were killed in the battle for the city. The Red Army did not recapture the parts of the city on the right bank until 1944. The rebuilding of the Dnieper hydro-electric dam commenced on 7 July 1944; the first electricity was produced from the restored dam on 3 March 1947.",
"",
"The automobile transport connection between the right shore city districts and city centre via the Preobrazhensky bridge was already congested in the late nineties. In 2004, construction began on new bridges across the Dnieper. These bridges are parallel to the existing Preobrazhensky bridge at a short distance downstream. Construction of the bridges halted soon after it began, and remain untouched due to lack of funding. The project design is dated and needs revising, and the cost of the bridge is estimated to reach 8 billion hryvnias (as opposed to the original 2 billion).",
"During the 2014 Euromaidan regional state administration occupations protests against President Viktor Yanukovych were also held in Zaporizhia. On 23 February 2014 Zaporizhia's regional state administration building was occupied by 4,500 protesters, Mid-April 2014 there were clashes between Ukrainian activists and pro-Russians. The Ukrainian activists outnumbered the pro-Russian protesters.",
"In the year of the fall of the Russian Empire (1917), the population of Alexandrovsk was about 60,000 people. In the year of the fall of the Soviet Union (1992), the city's population reached almost 1 million people. In 70 years, a small rural town turned into a large industrial, cultural and scientific center. In other words, the modern city was created in times of socialism and as a result, after 19 May 2016, when the Ukrainian parliament issued Law No. 275, which Ukrainians briefly called as the \"Decommunization Law\", the city council is forced to rename more than 50 main streets and the names of the administrative parts of the city, the monuments of the Soviet Union leaders (Lenin, Felix Dzerzhinsky) were destroyed. The names in honor of the others the Soviet leaders in the titles of the plants, factories, culture centers DniproHES were also removed.",
"The city is located in south-eastern Ukraine. The Dnieper river splits the city for two parts between them is located the Khortytsia island. The city covers 334 km at an elevation of 50 m above sea level. Two streams around Khortytsia island are called the New and Old Dnieper. The New Dnieper is about 800 m (2600 feet) wide and the Old Dnieper is about 200 m (650 feet). The island has sizes. There are also several small rivers in the city, which enter the Dnieper: Sukha and Mokra Moskovka, Kushuhum, and Verkhnia Khortytsia. The flora of Khortytsia island is unique and diverse due to the dry steppe air and a large freshwater basin around, which cleans the polluted by industries air. Khortytsia Island is a national park. The island surface is cut by large ravines (\"balka\"), hiking routes and historical monuments. The island is a very popular recreational area for both kids and adults. There are a large number of sanatoriums, resorts and health centers. The comfortable sand beaches for swimming and other water activities are present here as well:",
"Zaporizhia is a regional seat of Zaporizhia Oblast and a city of regional significance meaning that it has a form of self-rule within the oblast (region).",
"The city is divided into 7 administrative raions.",
"",
"The city population has been permanently declined since the first years of the state independence. In 2014–2015 the rate of the population decrease was −0.56%/year. In January 2017, the city population equaled 750,685 inhabitants Total reduction of the population of the city during the state independence was around 146 thousand people ( 2017–2018 years are not included in this estimation)",
"According to the 2001 census, Zaporizhia had the following ethnic structure: Zaporizhia residents speak mostly in Russian in the city itself but in the peripheral towns and villages Ukrainian language is dominant. For official government business Ukrainian is used.",
"The following religious denominations are present in Zaporizhia: Most of the citizens are Orthodox Christians of Ukrainian Orthodox Church (Moscow Patriarchate) or newly created Orthodox Church of Ukraine. Among of the Orthodox churches the Church of the Intercession, which is under the Moscow Patriarchate, is most popular. There are also St. Nicholas Church and St. Andrew's Cathedral in the city. Protestantism is represented by: Catholicism is represented by: The biggest Catholic church is Church of God, the Father of Mercy Orthodox Judaism is represented by one union and six communities. In the Zaporizhia district there are five communities which are part of the Spiritual Administration of Muslims of Ukraine and four independent Muslim communities. The city hosts a branch of the Vedic Academy.",
"",
"Zaporizhia is an important industrial center of Ukraine, the country's main car manufacturing company, the Motor-Sich world-famous aircraft engine manufacturer. Well supplied with electricity, Zaporizhia forms, together with the adjoining Donets Basin and the Nikopol manganese and Kryvyi Rih iron mines, one of Ukraine's leading industrial complexes. The city is also a home of the Ukraine's main automobile production center which is based at the Zaporizhia Automobile Factory ZAZ producing such Ukrainian car brands like \"Zaporozhets\" and \"Tavria\". After the end of the Russian Revolution, the city became an important industrial center. The presence of cheap labor and the proximity of deposits of coal, iron ore, and manganese created favorable conditions for large-scale enterprises of the iron and mechanical engineering industries. Today Zaporizhia is an important industrial center of the region with heavy industry (particularly metallurgy), aluminium, and chemical industry. In the city cars, avia motors, radioelectronics are manufactured. The port of Zaporizhia is an important place of transshipment for goods from the Donbas. Zaporizhstal, Ukraine's fourth largest steel maker, ranks 54th in the world and is based in the city.",
"Zaporizhia is a large electricity generating hub. There are hydroelectric power plant known as \"DniproHES\" Dnieper Hydroelectric Station and the largest in Europe nuclear power plant. Zaporizhia plants generate about 25% of the whole Ukrainian electricity consumption. The Zaporizhia Nuclear Power Plant is located near the Enerhodar (trans. Energygifter), around 60 km from Zaporizhia which is the largest nuclear power plant in Europe. Also in Enerhodar, is the Zaporizhia Thermal Power Station.",
"Zaporizhia has a philharmonic, few museums, theaters, libraries. Among them are: There are a number of small amateur groups of folk music bands, art galleries in Zaporizhia. The city regularly holds festivals and feasts, competitions of the Cossack martial arts and art exhibitions. Zaporizhia has an open-air exhibition-and-sale of Zaporizhia city association of artists «Kolorit» near the 'Fountain of Life' at the Mayakovskoho square. A daily exhibition of artists' organizations of the city is a unique place in Zaporizhia, where people can communicate with craftsmen and artists, watch classes of carving, embroidery, beading and other creative works, receive lessons from professional artists, designers, and cartoonists.",
"The x island Khortytsia is located in the geographical center of the city. The city embraces the island by banks of the New and Old Dnieper streams. Two concrete bridges connect the Island to the city. They have been designed and constructed by the engineer Boris N. Preobrazhensky in 1952. Two level bridges have height about 54 meters. High level of the bridges is intended for rail and bottom – for cars and pedestrians. The historical and cultural museum \"Zaporizhian Sich\" is placed on the northern rocky part of the island Khotritsa. The museum is the reconstructed stronghold of the Zaporizhian Cossacks. All features of the military cossack's camp life and their lifestyle are presented in the museum. The smaller islands are located between the dam and the island Khortytsia. Each of these islands has its own legend. On one of them named Durnya Scala (Rock of the Fool) Tzar Peter the Great punished the Cossacks by flogging for their betrayal on the side of Charles XII of Sweden during the Great Northern War between Russia and Sweden. The another small island, named Stolb (Pillar), has a geological feature, which looks like a large bowl in granite slabs, its diameter equals 1,4 м, the depth – 1 м. This bowl is named Cossack's bowl. People say that in summer days under the hot sun, it is easy to boil water in this \"bowl\" and the Cossacks used it for cooking galushki The panoramic view of the DnieproHES from Khortytsia island is very impressive. The straight and long Sobornyi avenue (10 km) ends in the SotsGorod near the Dam, which built up of the constructivist architecture of the 20th century.",
"The city of Zaporizhia is an important transportation hub in Ukraine and has deeply developed transportation system that includes roadway, rail, river and air options for passenger, freight as well as public utilities transit. Public city transport includes buses, minivans, trams, trolleybuses and railways. On the eastern outskirts of Zaporizhia passes a major national highway M-18 that connects Kharkiv with Simferopol. Three other national highways terminate in Zaporizhia, one H-23 which starts in Kropyvnytskyi and through Kryvyi Rih ends in Zaporizhia; the second H-08 which starts in Kiev and travels along Dnieper all the way south passing through number of important cities such as Kremenchuk, Kamianske, Dnipro, and others; and the other highway H-15 which arrives to Zaporizhia from Donetsk. There are four road bridges over Dnieper and two rail bridges. All bridges but one connect the city with Khortytsia island. The other bridge goes over the river dam of DniproHES. The Zaporizhia city has two railway stations, Zaporizhia-the-First and Zaporizhia-the-Second. The First is the central station. It is located in the southern part of the city and is a part of the \"north-south\" transit route Simferopol-Kharkiv. The line of the Zaporizhia-the-Second station connects the Donbas coalfield with Kryvyi Rih iron ore site. The city's two river ports are part of the national water transportation infrastructure that connects Kiev to Kherson along Dnieper river and utilizes some freight ships as well as cutter boats to travel between Zaporizhia and nearby villages. The large island of Khortytsia splits the Dnieper into two branches (channels) the main branch that passes the island on its eastern side and the alternative branch also known as \"Staryi Dnipro\" (Old Dnieper) that flows past the island on its western side. The city's sole airport that is located to the east of the city (left-bank of Dnieper) includes both domestic and international flights. To the west of the city (right-bank of Dnieper) is located smaller airfield Shyroke.",
"Zaporizhia is an important setting in two Axis victory in World War II short fictions by Harry Turtledove: \"Ready for the Fatherland\" (1991) and \"The Phantom Tolbukhin\" (1998). Turtledove always uses the Zaporozhye spelling.",
"Zaporizhia has an agreement about sister city relations with: In addition, in 1969 the city renamed one of its streets \"Wrocław\", the Wrocław communist government acknowledging that they should honour the Ukrainian city in a similar way and a part of the Sudecka – Grabiszyńska street towards the square of the Silesian Insurgents – was renamed to Zaporoska street. It is about 1.3 km long."
]
}
|
Abbas the Great
| null |
Abbas the Great or Abbas I of Persia (; 27 January 157119 January 1629) was the 5th Safavid Shah (king) of Iran, and is generally considered the strongest ruler of the Safavid dynasty. He was the third son of Shah Mohammad Khodabanda.
| null |
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en-train-460082
|
en-train-460082
|
460082
|
{
"title": [
"Early years.",
"Absolute monarch.",
"Abbas takes control.",
"Reducing the power of the Qizilbash and the completion of the Caucasian layer.",
"Reforming the army.",
"Consolidation of the Empire.",
"Reconquest.",
"War against the Uzbeks.",
"War against the Ottomans.",
"Quelling the Georgian uprisings.",
"Kandahar and the Mughals.",
"War against the Portuguese.",
"Shah and his subjects.",
"Isfahan: a new capital.",
"Arts.",
"Attitude towards religious minorities.",
"Contacts with Europe.",
"Family tragedies and death.",
"Character and legacy."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Abbas was born in Herat (now in Afghanistan, then one of the two chief cities of Khorasan) as the third son of the royal prince Mohammad Khodabanda and his wife Khayr al-Nisa Begum (known as \"Mahd-i Ulya\"), the daughter of the Marashi ruler of the Mazandaran province, who claimed descent from the fourth Shi'a Imam Zayn al-Abidin. At the time of his birth, Abbas' grandfather Shah Tahmasp I was the Shah of Iran. Abbas' parents gave him to be nursed by Khani Khan Khanum, the mother of the governor of Herat, Ali-Qoli Khan Shamlu. When Abbas was four, Tahmasp sent Abbas' father to stay in Shiraz where the climate was better for his fragile health. Tradition dictated that at least one prince of the royal blood had to reside in Khorasan, so Tahmasp appointed Abbas as the nominal governor of the province, despite his young age, and Abbas was",
"",
"The kingdom Abbas inherited was in a desperate state. The Ottomans had seized vast territories in the west and the north-west (including the major city of Tabriz) and the Uzbeks had overrun half of Khorasan in the north-east. Iran itself was riven by fighting between the various factions of the Qizilbash, who had mocked royal authority by killing the queen in 1579 and the grand vizier Mirza Salman Jabiri in 1583. First, Abbas settled his score with his mother's killers, executing three of the ringleaders of the plot and exiling four others. His next task was to free himself from the power of Murshid Qoli Khan. Murshid made Abbas marry Hamza's widow and a Safavid cousin, and began distributing important government",
"The Qizilbash had provided the backbone of the Safavid army from the very beginning of Safavid rule and they also occupied many posts in the government. As a result, effective power in the state in the early days of the dynasty was held by the Qizilbash, leaving the shah often powerless. To counterbalance their power and as a decisive answer to this problem, Abbas turned to the newly introduced members of Iranian society (an initiative put in place by Shah Tahmasp I) the \"ghulams\" (a word literally meaning \"slaves\"). From these newly introduced slaves, the Shah created a gunpowder force, reaching numbers up to 37,000 soldiers, completely funded by the Crown. This weakened the power that the Qizilbash had against the crown significantly as they no longer had a \"military monopoly\" in Persia. Like the janissaries of the neighbouring Ottoman Empire, these \"ghulams\" were mainly Georgians, Circassians and Armenians who had been brought into Iran \"en masse\" (by conquest and slave",
"Abbas needed ten years to get his army into shape so that he could effectively confront his Ottoman and Uzbek enemies. During this period, the Uzbeks and the Ottomans took swaths of territory from Iran. He also used military reorganisation as another way of side-lining the Qizilbash. He created a standing army of many thousands of \"ghulams\" (always conscripted from ethnic Georgians and Circassians), and to a much lesser extent Iranians, to fight alongside the traditional, feudal force provided by the Qizilbash. The new army regiments' loyalty was to the Shah. The new army consisted of 10,000 to 15,000 cavalry or squires (conscripted Caucasian \"ghulams\") armed with muskets and other weapons (then",
"During the 1590s, Abbas moved to depose the provincial rulers of Persia. He started with Khan Ahmad Khan, the ruler of Gilan, who had disobeyed Abbas' orders when he asked that his daughter to marry Abbas' son Safi Mirza. This resulted in a Safavid invasion of Gilan in 1591 under the leadership of one of Abbas' favourites, Farhad Khan Qaramanlu. In 1593–94, Jahangir",
"",
"Abbas' first campaign with his reformed army was against the Uzbeks who had seized Khorasan and were ravaging the province. In April 1598 he went on the attack. One of the two main cities of the province, Mashhad, was easily recaptured but the Uzbek leader Din Mohammed Khan was safely behind the walls of the other chief city, Herat. Abbas managed to lure the Uzbek army out of the town by feigning a retreat. A bloody battle ensued on 9 August 1598, in the course of which the Uzbek khan was wounded and his troops retreated (the khan was murdered by his own men during the retreat). However, during the battle, Farhad Khan had fled after being wounded and was later accused of fleeing due to cowardice. He was nevertheless forgiven by Abbas, who wanted to appoint",
"The Safavids had not yet beaten their archrival, the Ottomans, in battle. After a particularly arrogant series of demands from the Ottoman ambassador, the Shah had him seized, had his beard shaved and sent it to his master, the sultan, in Constantinople. This was effectively a declaration of war. In the resulting conflict, Abbas first recaptured Nahavand and destroyed the fortress in the city, which the Ottomans had planned to use as an advance base for attacks on Iran. The next year, Abbas pretended he was setting off on a hunting expedition to Mazandaran with his men. This was merely a ruse to",
"Between 1614 and 1616, during the Ottoman-Safavid War, Abbas suppressed a rebellion led by his formerly loyal Georgian subjects Luarsab II and Teimuraz I (also known as \"Tahmuras Khan\") in the Kingdom of Kakheti. In 1606, Abbas had appointed these Georgians on the thrones of Safavid vassals Kartli and Kakheti, at the behest of Kartlian nobles and Teimuraz's mother Ketevan; both seemed like malleable youths. However, tensions soon arose between the Shah and the Georgian kings. In 1613, when the Shah summoned them to join him on a hunting expedition in Mazandaran, they did not appear as they feared that they would be either imprisoned",
"The Safavids were traditionally allied with the Mughals in India against the Uzbeks, who coveted the province of Khorasan. The Mughal emperor Humayun had given Abbas' grandfather, Shah Tahmasp, the province of Kandahar as a reward for helping him back to his throne. In 1590, profiting from the confusion in Iran, Humayun's successor Akbar seized Kandahar. Abbas continued to maintain cordial relations with the Mughals, while always asking for the return of Kandahar. Finally, in",
"During the 16th century the Portuguese had established bases in the Persian Gulf. In 1602, the Iranian army under the command of Imam-Quli Khan Undiladze managed to expel",
"",
"Abbas moved his capital from Qazvin to the more central city of Isfahan in 1598. Embellished by a magnificent series of new mosques, baths, colleges, and caravansarais, Isfahan became one of the most beautiful cities in the world. As Roger Savory writes, \"Not since the development of Baghdad in the eighth century A.D. by the Caliph al-Mansur had there been such a comprehensive example of town-planning in the Islamic world, and the scope and layout of the city centre clearly",
"Abbas' painting studios (of the Isfahan school established under his patronage) created some of the finest art in modern Iranian history, by such illustrious painters as Reza Abbasi and Muhammad Qasim. Despite the ascetic roots of the Ṣafavid dynasty and the religious injunctions restricting the pleasures lawful to the faithful, the art of Abbas' time denoted a certain relaxation of",
"Like all other Safavid monarchs, Abbas was a Shi'ite Muslim. He had a particular veneration for Imam Hussein. In 1601, he made a pilgrimage on foot from Isfahan to Mashhad, site of the shrine of Imam Reza, which he restored (it had been despoiled by the Uzbeks). Since Sunni Islam was the religion of Iran's main rival, the Ottoman Empire, Abbas often treated Sunnis living in western border provinces harshly. Abbas was usually tolerant of Christianity. The Italian traveller Pietro della Valle was astonished at the Shah's knowledge of Christian history and theology and establishing diplomatic links with European Christian states was a vital part of the shah's foreign policy. Christian Armenia was a key Safavid province bordering the Ottoman Empire. From 1604 Abbas implemented a \"scorched earth\" policy in the region to protect his north-western frontier against any invading Ottoman forces, a policy that involved the forced",
"Abbas' tolerance towards most Christians was part of his policy of establishing diplomatic links with European powers to try to enlist their help in the fight against their common enemy, the Ottoman Empire. The idea of such an anti-Ottoman alliance was not a new one – over a century before, Uzun Hassan, then ruler of part of Iran, had asked the Venetians for military aid – but none of the Safavids had made diplomatic overtures to Europe and Abbas' attitude was in marked contrast to that of his grandfather, Tahmasp I, who had expelled the English traveller Anthony Jenkinson from his court on hearing he was a Christian. For his part, Abbas declared that he \"preferred the dust from the shoe soles of the lowest Christian to the highest Ottoman personage\". In 1599, Abbas sent his first diplomatic mission to Europe. The group crossed the Caspian Sea and spent the winter in Moscow, before proceeding through Norway, Germany (where it was received by Emperor Rudolf II) to Rome where Pope Clement VIII gave the travellers a long audience. They finally arrived at the court of Philip III of Spain in 1602. Although the expedition never managed to return to Iran, being shipwrecked on the journey around Africa, it marked an important new step in contacts between Iran",
"Of Abbas' five sons, three had survived past childhood, so the Safavid succession seemed secure. He was on good terms with the crown prince, Mohammed Baqir Mirza (born 1587; better known in the West as Safi Mirza). In 1614, however, during a campaign in Georgia, the shah heard rumours that the prince was conspiring against him with a leading Circassian, Farhad Beg Cherkes. Shortly after, Mohammed Baqir broke protocol during a hunt by killing a boar before the shah had a chance to put his spear in the animal. This seemed to confirm Abbas' suspicions and he sunk into melancholy; he no longer trusted any of his three sons. In 1615, he decided he had no choice but to have Mohammed killed. A Circassian named Behbud Beg executed the Shah's orders and the prince was murdered in a hammam in the city of Resht. The shah almost immediately regretted his action and was plunged",
"According to Roger Savory: \"Shah Abbas I possessed in abundance qualities which entitle him to be styled 'the Great'. He was a brilliant strategist and tactician whose chief characteristic was prudence. He preferred to obtain his ends by diplomacy rather than war, and showed immense patience in pursuing his objectives.\" In Michael Axworthy's view, Abbas \"was a talented administrator and military leader, and a ruthless autocrat. His reign was the outstanding creative period of the Safavid era. But the civil wars and troubles of his childhood (when many of his relatives were murdered) left him with a dark twist of suspicion and brutality at the centre of his personality.\" Donald Rayfield described him as \"exceptionally perspicacious and active,\" but also \"a murderous paranoiac when aroused.\" \"The Cambridge History of Iran\" rejects the view that the death of Abbas marked the beginning of the decline of the Safavid dynasty as Iran continued to prosper throughout the 17th century, but blames him for the poor statesmanship of the later Safavid shahs: \"The elimination of royal princes, whether by blinding or immuring them in the harem, their exclusion from the affairs of state and from contact with the leading aristocracy of the empire and the generals, all the abuses of the princes' education, which were nothing new but which became the normal practice with Abbas at the court of Isfahan, effectively put a stop to the training of competent successors, that is to say, efficient princes prepared to meet the demands of ruling as kings.\" Abbas was fluent in the Turkish dialect used by the Turkoman portion of the multi-ethnic Qizilbash organization, although he was equally at ease speaking Persian, which was the language of the administration and culture, of the majority of the population, as well as of the court when Isfahan became the capital under his reign (1598). According to García de Silva Figueroa, the Spanish ambassador to the Safavid court during Abbas' later reign, he heard Abbas speak Georgian, which he had doubtlessly acquired from his Georgian \"gholams\" and concubines. Abbas gained strong support from the common people. Sources report him spending much of his time among them, personally visiting bazaars and other public places in Isfahan. Short in stature but physically strong until his health declined in his final years, Abbas could go for long periods without needing to sleep or eat and could ride great distances. At the age of 19 Abbas shaved off his beard, keeping only his moustache, thus setting a fashion in Iran."
]
}
|
Psychopathy
| null |
Psychopathy is traditionally a personality disorder characterized by persistent antisocial behavior, impaired empathy and remorse, and bold, disinhibited, and egotistical traits. It is sometimes considered synonymous with sociopathy. Different conceptions of psychopathy have been used throughout history that are only partly overlapping and may sometimes be contradictory.
| null |
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2
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en-train-365158
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en-train-365158
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365158
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{
"title": [
"Definition.",
"Concepts.",
"Measurement.",
"Personality dimensions.",
"Criticism of current conceptions.",
"Signs and symptoms.",
"Offending.",
"Criminality.",
"Violence.",
"Sexual offending.",
"Other offending.",
"Childhood and adolescent precursors.",
"Conduct disorder.",
"Mental traits.",
"Cognition.",
"Emotion recognition and empathy.",
"Moral judgment.",
"Cause.",
"Genetic.",
"Environment.",
"Brain injury.",
"Other theories.",
"Evolutionary explanations.",
"Mechanisms.",
"Psychological.",
"Neurological.",
"Biochemical.",
"Diagnosis.",
"Tools.",
"Psychopathy Checklist.",
"Psychopathic Personality Inventory.",
"DSM and ICD.",
"Other tools.",
"Comorbidity.",
"Further considerations.",
"Sex differences.",
"Management.",
"Clinical.",
"Legal.",
"United Kingdom.",
"United States.",
"Prognosis.",
"Frequency.",
"Society and culture.",
"In the workplace.",
"In fiction.",
"History.",
"Etymology.",
"Sociopathy.",
"Precursors.",
"20th century."
],
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"content": [
"A person suffering from a chronic mental disorder with abnormal or violent social behavior.",
"There are multiple conceptualizations of psychopathy, including \"Cleckleyan psychopathy\" (Hervey Cleckley's conception entailing bold, disinhibited behavior, and \"feckless disregard\") and \"criminal psychopathy\" (a meaner, more aggressive and disinhibited conception explicitly entailing persistent and sometimes serious criminal behavior). The latter conceptualization is typically used as the modern clinical concept and assessed by the Psychopathy",
"An early and influential analysis from Harris and colleagues indicated that a discrete category, or taxon, may underlie PCL-R psychopathy, allowing it to be measured and analyzed. However, this was only found for the behavioral Factor 2 items they identified, child problem behaviors; adult criminal behavior did not support the existence of a taxon. Marcus, John, and Edens more recently performed a series of statistical analyses on PPI scores and concluded that psychopathy may best be conceptualized as having a \"dimensional latent structure\" like depression. Marcus et al. repeated the study on",
"Studies have linked psychopathy to alternative dimensions such as antagonism (high), conscientiousness (low) and anxiousness (low). Psychopathy has also been linked to high psychoticism—a theorized dimension referring to tough, aggressive or hostile tendencies. Aspects of this that appear associated with psychopathy are lack of socialization and responsibility, impulsivity, sensation-seeking (in some cases), and",
"The current conceptions of psychopathy have been criticized for being poorly conceptualized, highly subjective, and encompassing a wide variety of underlying disorders. Dorothy Otnow Lewis has written Half of the Hare Psychopathy Checklist consists of symptoms of mania, hypomania,",
"Socially, psychopathy expresses extensive callous and manipulative self-serving behaviors with no regard for others, and often is associated with repeated delinquency, crime and violence. Mentally, impairments in processes related to affect and cognition, particularly socially related mental processes, have been found in those with the disorder. Developmentally, symptoms of psychopathy have been identified in young children with conduct disorder, and is suggestive of at least a partial constitutional factor that influences its development.",
"",
"In terms of simple correlations, the PCL-R manual states an average score of 22.1 has been found in North American prisoner samples, and that 20.5% scored 30 or higher. An analysis of prisoner samples from outside North America found a somewhat lower average value of 17.5. Studies have found that psychopathy scores correlated with repeated imprisonment, detention in higher security, disciplinary infractions, and substance misuse. Psychopathy, as measured with the PCL-R in institutional settings, shows in meta-analyses small to moderate effect sizes with institutional misbehavior, postrelease crime, or postrelease violent crime with similar effects for the three outcomes. Individual studies give similar results for adult offenders, forensic psychiatric samples, community samples, and youth. The PCL-R",
"Studies have suggested a strong correlation between psychopathy scores and violence, and the PCL-R emphasizes features that are somewhat predictive of violent behavior. Researchers, however, have noted that psychopathy is dissociable from and not synonymous with violence. It has been suggested that psychopathy is associated with \"instrumental\", also known as predatory, proactive, or \"cold blooded\" aggression, a form of aggression characterized by reduced emotion and conducted with a goal differing from but facilitated by the commission of harm. One conclusion in this regard was made by a 2002 study of homicide offenders, which reported that the homicides committed by homicidal",
"Psychopathy has been associated with commission of sexual crime, with some researchers arguing that it is correlated with a preference for violent sexual behavior. A 2011 study of conditional releases for Canadian male federal offenders found that psychopathy was related to more violent and non-violent offences but not more sexual offences. For child molesters, psychopathy was associated with more offences. A study on the relationship between psychopathy scores and types of aggression in a sample of sexual murderers, in which 84.2% of the sample had PCL-R scores above 20 and 47.4% above 30, found that 82.4% of those with scores above",
"The possibility of psychopathy has been associated with organized crime, economic crime and war crimes. Terrorists are sometimes considered psychopathic, and comparisons may be drawn with traits such as antisocial violence, a selfish world view that precludes the welfare of others, a lack of remorse or guilt, and blame externalization. However, John Horgan, author of \"The Psychology of Terrorism\", argues that such comparisons could also then be drawn more widely: for example, to soldiers in wars. Coordinated terrorist activity requires organization, loyalty and ideological fanaticism often to the extreme of sacrificing oneself for an ideological cause. Traits such as a self-centered disposition, unreliability, poor behavioral controls, and unusual behaviors may disadvantage or preclude psychopathic individuals in conducting organized terrorism. It may be that a significant portion of people with the disorder are socially successful and tend to express their antisocial behavior through more covert avenues such as social manipulation or white collar crime. Such individuals are sometimes referred to as \"successful psychopaths\", and may not necessarily always have extensive histories of traditional antisocial behavior as characteristic of traditional psychopathy.",
"The PCL:YV is an adaptation of the PCL-R for individuals aged 13–18 years. It is, like the PCL-R, done by a trained rater based on an interview and an examination of criminal and other records. The \"Antisocial Process Screening Device\" (APSD) is also an adaptation of the PCL-R. It can be administered by parents or teachers for individuals aged 6–13 years. High psychopathy scores for both juveniles, as measured with these instruments, and adults, as measured with the PCL-R and other measurement tools, have similar associations with other variables, including",
"Conduct disorder is diagnosed based on a prolonged pattern of antisocial behavior in childhood and/or adolescence, and may be seen as a precursor to ASPD. Some researchers have speculated that there are two subtypes of conduct disorder which mark dual developmental pathways to adult psychopathy. The DSM allows differentiating between childhood onset before age 10 and adolescent onset at age 10 and later. Childhood onset is argued to be more due to a personality disorder caused by neurological deficits interacting with an adverse environment. For many, but not all, childhood onset is associated with what is in Terrie Moffitt's developmental theory of crime referred to as \"life-course- persistent\" antisocial behavior as well as poorer health and economic status. Adolescent onset is argued to more typically be associated with short-term antisocial behavior. It has been suggested that the combination of early-onset conduct",
"",
"Dysfunctions in the prefrontal cortex and amygdala regions of the brain have been associated with specific learning impairments in psychopathy. Since the 1980s, scientists have linked traumatic brain injury, including damage to these regions, with violent and psychopathic behavior. Patients with damage in such areas resembled \"psychopathic individuals\" whose brains were incapable of acquiring social and moral knowledge; those who acquired damage as children may have trouble conceptualizing social or moral reasoning, while those with adult-acquired damage may be aware of proper social and moral conduct but be unable to behave appropriately. Dysfunctions in the amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex may also impair stimulus-reinforced learning in psychopaths, whether punishment-based or reward-based. People scoring 25 or higher in the PCL-R, with",
"A large body of research suggests that psychopathy is associated with atypical responses to distress cues (e.g. facial and vocal expressions of fear and sadness), including decreased activation of the fusiform and extrastriate cortical regions, which may partly account for impaired recognition of and reduced autonomic responsiveness to expressions of fear, and impairments of empathy. The underlying biological surfaces for processing expressions of happiness are functionally intact in psychopaths, although less responsive than those of controls. The neuroimaging literature is unclear as to whether deficits are specific to",
"Psychopathy has been associated with amorality—an absence of, indifference towards, or disregard for moral beliefs. There are few firm data on patterns of moral judgment. Studies of developmental level (sophistication) of moral reasoning found all possible results—lower, higher or the same as non-psychopaths. Studies that compared judgments of personal moral transgressions versus judgments of breaking conventional rules or laws found that psychopaths rated them as equally severe, whereas non-psychopaths rated the rule-breaking as less severe. A study comparing judgments of whether personal or impersonal harm would be endorsed in order to achieve the rationally maximum (utilitarian) amount of welfare found no significant differences between subjects high and low in psychopathy. However, a further study using the same tests found that prisoners scoring high on the PCL were more likely to endorse impersonal harm or rule violations than non-psychopathic controls were. The psychopathic offenders who scored low in anxiety were also more willing to endorse personal harm on average. Assessing accidents, where one person harmed another unintentionally, psychopaths judged such actions to be more morally permissible. This result has been considered a reflection of psychopaths' failure to appreciate the emotional aspect of the victim's harmful experience.",
"Behavioral genetic studies have identified potential genetic and non-genetic contributors to psychopathy, including influences on brain function. Proponents of the triarchic model believe that psychopathy results from the interaction of genetic predispositions and an adverse environment. What is adverse may differ depending on the underlying predisposition: for example, it is hypothesized that persons having high boldness may respond poorly to punishment but may respond better to rewards and secure attachments.",
"Genetically informed studies of the personality characteristics typical of individuals with psychopathy have found moderate genetic (as well as non-genetic) influences. On the PPI, fearless dominance and impulsive antisociality were similarly influenced by genetic factors and uncorrelated with",
"A study by Farrington of a sample of London males followed between age 8 and 48 included studying which factors scored 10 or more on the PCL:SV at age 48. The strongest factors included having a convicted parent, being physically neglected, low involvement of the father with the boy, low family income, and coming from a disrupted family. Other significant factors included poor supervision, harsh discipline, large family size, delinquent sibling, young mother, depressed mother, low social class, and poor housing. There has also been association between psychopathy and detrimental treatment by peers. However, it is difficult to determine the extent of an environmental influence on the development of psychopathy because of evidence of its strong heritability.",
"Researchers have linked head injuries with psychopathy and violence. Since the 1980s, scientists have associated traumatic brain injury, such as damage to the prefrontal cortex, including the orbitofrontal cortex, with psychopathic behavior and a deficient ability to make morally and socially acceptable decisions, a condition that has been termed \"acquired sociopathy\", or \"pseudopsychopathy\". Individuals with damage to the area of the prefrontal cortex known as the ventromedial prefrontal cortex show remarkable similarities to diagnosed psychopathic individuals, displaying reduced autonomic response to emotional stimuli, deficits in aversive conditioning, similar preferences in moral and economic decision making, and diminished empathy and social emotions like guilt or shame. These emotional and moral impairments may be especially severe when the brain injury occurs at a young age. Children with early damage in the prefrontal cortex may never fully develop social or moral reasoning and become \"psychopathic individuals... characterized by high levels of aggression and antisocial behavior performed without guilt or empathy for their victims\". Additionally, damage to the amygdala may impair the ability of the prefrontal cortex to interpret feedback from the limbic system, which could result in uninhibited signals that manifest in violent and aggressive behavior.",
"",
"Psychopathy is associated with several adverse life outcomes as well as increased risk of disability and death due to factors such as violence, accidents, homicides, and suicides. This, in combination with the evidence for genetic influences, is evolutionarily puzzling and may suggest that there are compensating evolutionary advantages, and researchers within evolutionary psychology have proposed several evolutionary explanations. According to one hypothesis, some traits associated with psychopathy may be socially adaptive, and psychopathy may be a frequency-dependent, socially parasitic strategy, which may work as long as there is a large population of altruistic and trusting individuals, relative to the population of psychopathic individuals, to be exploited. It is also suggested that some",
"",
"Some laboratory research demonstrates correlations between psychopathy and atypical responses to aversive stimuli, including weak conditioning to painful stimuli and poor learning of avoiding responses that cause punishment, as well as low reactivity in the autonomic nervous system as measured with skin conductance while waiting for a painful stimulus but not when the stimulus occurs. While it has been argued that the reward",
"Thanks to advancing MRI studies, experts are able to visualize specific brain differences and abnormalities of individuals with psychopathy in areas that control emotions, social interactions, ethics, morality, regret, impulsivity and conscience within the brain. Blair, a researcher who pioneered research into psychopathic tendencies stated, “With regard to psychopathy, we have clear indications regarding why the pathology gives rise to the emotional and behavioral disturbance and important insights into the neural systems implicated in this pathology”. Dadds et al., remarks that",
"High levels of testosterone combined with low levels of cortisol and/or serotonin have been theorized as contributing factors. Testosterone is \"associated with approach-related behavior, reward sensitivity, and fear reduction\", and injecting testosterone \"shift[s] the balance from punishment to reward sensitivity\", decreases fearfulness, and increases \"responding to angry faces\". Some studies have found that high testosterone levels are associated with antisocial and aggressive behaviors, yet other research suggests that testosterone alone does not cause aggression but increases dominance-seeking. It is unclear from studies if psychopathy correlates with high testosterone levels, but a few studies have found psychopathy to be linked to low cortisol levels and reactivity. Cortisol increases withdrawal behavior and sensitivity to punishment and aversive conditioning, which are abnormally low in individuals with psychopathy and may underlie their impaired aversion learning and disinhibited behavior. High testosterone levels combined with low serotonin levels are associated with \"impulsive and highly negative reactions\", and may increase violent aggression when an individual is provoked or becomes frustrated. Several animal studies note the role of serotonergic functioning in impulsive aggression and antisocial behavior. However, some studies on animal and human subjects have suggested that the emotional-interpersonal traits and predatory aggression of psychopathy, in contrast",
"",
"",
"Psychopathy is most commonly assessed with the \"Psychopathy Checklist, Revised (PCL-R)\", created by Robert D. Hare based on Cleckley's criteria from the 1940s, criminological concepts such as those of William and",
"Unlike the PCL, the Psychopathic Personality Inventory (PPI) was developed to comprehensively index personality traits without explicitly referring to antisocial or criminal behaviors themselves. It is a self-report scale that was developed originally for non-clinical samples (e.g. university students) rather than prisoners, though may be used with the latter. It was revised in 2005 to become",
"There are currently two widely established systems for classifying mental disorders—the \"International Classification of Diseases\" (ICD) produced by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the \"Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders\" (DSM) produced by the American Psychiatric Association (APA). Both list categories of disorders thought to be distinct types, and have deliberately converged their codes in recent revisions so that the manuals are",
"There are some traditional personality tests that contain subscales relating to psychopathy, though they assess relatively non-specific tendencies towards antisocial or criminal behavior. These include the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (Psychopathic Deviate scale), California Psychological Inventory (Socialization scale), and Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory Antisocial Personality Disorder scale. There is also the Levenson Self-Report Psychopathy Scale (LSRP) and the Hare Self-Report Psychopathy Scale (HSRP), but in terms of self-report tests, the PPI/PPI-R has become more used than either of these in modern psychopathy research on adults.",
"As with other mental disorders, psychopathy as a personality disorder may be present with a variety of other diagnosable conditions. Studies especially suggest strong comorbidity with antisocial personality disorder. Among numerous studies, positive correlations have also been reported between psychopathy and histrionic, narcissistic, borderline, paranoid, and schizoid personality disorders, panic and obsessive–compulsive disorders, but not neurotic disorders in general, schizophrenia, or depression. Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is known to be highly comorbid with conduct disorder (a",
"",
"Research on psychopathy has largely been done on men and the PCL-R was developed using mainly male criminal samples, raising the question of how well the results apply to women. Men score higher than women on both the PCL-R and the PPI and on both of their main scales. The differences tend to be somewhat larger on the interpersonal-affective scale than on the antisocial scale. Most but not all studies have found broadly similar factor structure for men and women. Many associations with other personality traits are similar, although in one study the antisocial factor was more strongly related",
"",
"Psychopathy has often been considered untreatable. Its unique characteristics makes it among the most refractory of personality disorders, a class of mental illnesses that are already traditionally considered difficult to treat. People afflicted with psychopathy are generally unmotivated to seek treatment for their condition, and can be uncooperative in therapy. Attempts to treat psychopathy with the current tools available to psychiatry have been disappointing. Harris and Rice's \"Handbook of Psychopathy\" says that there is currently little evidence for a cure or effective treatment for psychopathy; as yet, no pharmacological therapies are known to or have been trialed for alleviating the emotional, interpersonal and moral deficits of psychopathy, and patients with psychopathy who undergo psychotherapy might gain the skills to become more adept at the manipulation and deception of others and be more likely to commit crime. Some studies suggest that punishment and behavior modification techniques are ineffective at modifying the behavior of psychopathic individuals as they are insensitive to punishment or threat. These failures have led to a widely pessimistic view on its treatment prospects, a view that is exacerbated by the little research being done into this disorder compared to the efforts committed to",
"The PCL-R, the PCL:SV, and the PCL:YV are highly regarded and widely used in criminal justice settings, particularly in North America. They may be used for risk assessment and for assessing treatment potential and be used as part of the decisions regarding bail, sentence, which prison to use, parole, and regarding whether a youth should be tried as a juvenile or as an adult. There have been several criticisms against its use in legal settings. They include the general criticisms against the PCL-R, the availability of other risk assessment tools which may have advantages, and the excessive pessimism surrounding",
"The PCL-R score cut-off for a label of psychopathy is 25 out of 40 in the United Kingdom, instead of 30 as it is in the United States. In the United Kingdom, \"psychopathic disorder\" was legally defined in the Mental Health Act (UK), under MHA1983, as \"a persistent disorder or disability of mind (whether or not including significant impairment of intelligence) which results in abnormally aggressive or seriously irresponsible conduct on the part of the",
"",
"The prognosis for psychopathy in forensic and clinical settings is quite poor, with some studies reporting that treatment may worsen the antisocial aspects of psychopathy as measured by recidivism rates, though it is noted that one of the frequently cited studies finding increased criminal recidivism after treatment, a 2011 retrospective study of a treatment program in",
"A 2008 study using the PCL:SV found that 1.2% of a US sample scored 13 or more out of 24, indicating \"potential psychopathy\". The scores correlated significantly with violence, alcohol use, and lower intelligence. A 2009 British study by Coid et al., also using the PCL:SV, reported a community prevalence of 0.6% scoring 13 or more. However, if the scoring was adjusted to the recommended 18 or more, this would have left the prevalence closer to 0.1%. The scores correlated with younger age,",
"",
"There is limited research on psychopathy in the general work populace, in part because the PCL-R includes antisocial behavior as a significant core factor (obtaining a PCL-R score above the threshold is unlikely without having significant scores on the antisocial-lifestyle factor) and does not include positive adjustment characteristics, and most researchers have studied psychopathy in incarcerated criminals, a relatively accessible population of research subjects. However, psychologists Fritzon and Board, in their study comparing the incidence of personality disorders in business executives against criminals detained in a mental hospital, found that the profiles of some senior business managers contained significant elements of personality disorders, including those referred to as the \"emotional components\", or interpersonal-affective traits, of psychopathy. Factors such as boldness, disinhibition, and meanness as defined in the triarchic model, in combination with other advantages such as a favorable upbringing and high intelligence, are thought to correlate with stress immunity and stability, and may contribute to this particular expression. Such individuals are sometimes referred to as \"successful psychopaths\" or \"corporate psychopaths\" and they may not always have extensive histories of traditional criminal or antisocial behavior characteristic of the traditional conceptualization",
"Characters with psychopathy or sociopathy are some of the most notorious characters in film and literature, but their characterizations may only vaguely or partly relate to the concept of psychopathy as it is defined in psychiatry, criminology, and research. The character may be identified as having psychopathy within the fictional work itself, by its creators, or from the opinions of audiences and critics, and may be based on undefined popular stereotypes of psychopathy. Characters with psychopathic traits have appeared in Greek and Roman mythology, Bible stories, and some of Shakespeare's works. Such characters are often portrayed in an exaggerated fashion and typically in the",
"",
"The word \"psychopathy\" is a joining of the Greek words \"psyche\" (ψυχή) \"soul\" and \"pathos\" (πάθος) \"suffering, feeling\". The first documented use is from 1847 in Germany as \"psychopatisch\", and the noun \"psychopath\" has been traced to 1885. In medicine, \"patho-\" has a more specific meaning of disease (thus \"pathology\" has meant the study of disease since 1610, and \"psychopathology\" has meant the study of mental disorder in general since 1847. A sense of \"a subject of pathology, morbid, excessive\" is attested from 1845, including the phrase \"pathological liar\" from 1891 in the medical literature). The term \"psychopathy\" initially had a very general meaning referring to all sorts of mental disorders and social aberrations, popularised from 1891 in Germany by Koch's concept of \"psychopathic inferiority\" (psychopathische Minderwertigkeiten). Some medical dictionaries still define psychopathy in both a narrow and broad sense, such as MedlinePlus from the U.S. National Library of Medicine. On the other hand, Stedman's Medical Dictionary defines psychopathy only as an outdated term for an antisocial type of personality disorder. The term \"psychosis\" was also used in Germany from 1841, originally in a very general sense. The suffix -ωσις (-osis) meant in this case \"abnormal condition\". This term or its adjective \"psychotic\" would come to refer to the more severe mental disturbances and then specifically to mental states or disorders characterized by hallucinations, delusions or in some other sense markedly out of touch with reality. The slang term \"psycho\" has been traced to a shortening of the adjective \"psychopathic\" from 1936, and from 1942 as a shortening of the noun \"psychopath\", but it is also used as shorthand for psychotic or crazed. The media usually uses the term \"psychopath\" to designate any criminal whose offenses are particularly abhorrent and unnatural, but that is not its original or general psychiatric meaning.",
"The word element \"socio\"- has been commonly used in compound words since around 1880. The term \"sociopathy\" may have been first introduced in 1909 in Germany by biological psychiatrist Karl Birnbaum and in 1930 in the US by educational psychologist George E. Partridge, as an alternative to the concept of \"psychopathy\". It was used to indicate that the defining feature is violation of social norms, or antisocial behavior, and may be social or biological in origin. The term is used in various different ways in contemporary usage. Robert Hare stated in the popular",
"Ancient writings that have been connected to psychopathic traits include Deuteronomy 21:18–21, which was written around 700 BCE, and a description of an unscrupulous man by the Greek philosopher Theophrastus around 300 BCE. The concept of psychopathy has been indirectly connected to the early 19th century with the work of Pinel (1801; \"mania without delirium\") and Pritchard (1835; \"moral insanity\"), although historians have largely discredited the idea of a direct equivalence. \"Psychopathy\" originally described any illness of the mind, but found its",
"An influential figure in shaping modern American conceptualizations of psychopathy was American psychiatrist Hervey Cleckley. In his classic monograph, \"The Mask of Sanity\" (1941), Cleckley drew on a small series of vivid case studies of psychiatric patients at a Veterans Administration hospital in Georgia to describe the disorder. Cleckley used the metaphor of the \"mask\" to refer to the tendency of psychopaths to appear confident, personable, and well-adjusted compared to most psychiatric patients, while revealing underlying pathology through their actions over time. Cleckley formulated sixteen criteria to describe the disorder. The Scottish psychiatrist David Henderson had also been influential in Europe from 1939 in narrowing the diagnosis. The diagnostic category of \"sociopathic personality\" in early editions of the \"Diagnostic and Statistical Manual\" (DSM) had some key similarities"
]
}
|
Constantin Carathéodory
| null |
Constantin Carathéodory (; 13 September 1873 – 2 February 1950) was a Greek mathematician who spent most of his professional career in Germany. He made significant contributions to the theory of functions of a real variable, the calculus of variations, and measure theory. His work also includes important results in conformal representations and in the theory of boundary correspondence. In 1909, Carathéodory pioneered the "Axiomatic Formulation of Thermodynamics" along a purely geometrical approach.
| null |
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en-train-1240488
|
en-train-1240488
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1240488
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{
"title": [
"Origins.",
"Studies and university career.",
"Doctoral students.",
"Academic contacts in Germany.",
"Academic contacts in Greece.",
"Works.",
"Calculus of variations.",
"Real analysis.",
"Theory of measure.",
"Theory of functions of a complex variable.",
"Thermodynamics.",
"Optics.",
"Historical.",
"A conjecture.",
"The University of Smyrna.",
"Linguistic talent.",
"Legacy.",
"Publications.",
"Journal articles."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
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"1",
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"2"
],
"content": [
"Constantin Carathéodory was born in 1873 in Berlin to Greek parents and grew up in Brussels. His father Stephanos, a lawyer, served as the Ottoman ambassador to Belgium, St. Petersburg and Berlin. His mother, Despina, née Petrokokkinos, was from the island of Chios. The Carathéodory family, originally from Bosnochori or Vyssa, was well established and respected in Constantinople, and its members held many important governmental positions. The Carathéodory family spent 1874–75 in Constantinople, where Constantin's paternal grandfather lived, while his father Stephanos was on leave. Then in 1875 they went to Brussels when Stephanos was appointed there as Ottoman Ambassador. In Brussels, Constantin's younger sister Julia was born. The year 1879 was a tragic one for the family since Constantin's paternal grandfather died in that year, but much more tragically, Constantin's mother Despina died of pneumonia in Cannes. Constantin's maternal grandmother took on the task of bringing up Constantin and Julia in his father's home in Belgium. They employed a German maid who taught the children to speak German. Constantin was already bilingual in French and Greek by this time. Constantin began his formal schooling at a private school in Vanderstock in 1881. He left after two years and then spent time with his father on a visit to Berlin, and also spent the winters of 1883–84 and 1884–85 on the Italian Riviera. Back in Brussels in 1885 he attended a grammar school for a year where he first began to become interested in mathematics. In 1886, he entered the high school Athénée Royal d'Ixelles and studied there until his graduation in 1891. Twice during his time at this school Constantin won a prize as the best mathematics student in Belgium. At this stage Carathéodory began training as a military engineer. He attended the École Militaire de Belgique from October 1891 to May 1895 and he also studied at the École d'Application from 1893 to 1896. In 1897 a war broke out between the Ottoman Empire and Greece. This put Carathéodory in a difficult position since he sided with the Greeks, yet his father served the government of the Ottoman Empire. Since he was a trained engineer he was offered a job in the British colonial service. This job took him to Egypt where he worked on the construction of the Assiut dam until April 1900. During periods when construction work had to stop due to floods, he studied mathematics from some textbooks he had with him, such as Jordan's \"Cours d'Analyse\" and Salmon's text on the analytic geometry of conic sections. He also visited the Cheops pyramid and made measurements which he wrote up and published in 1901. He also published a book on Egypt in the same year which contained a wealth of information on the history and geography of the country.",
"Carathéodory studied engineering in Belgium at the Royal Military Academy, where he was considered a charismatic and brilliant student.",
"Carathéodory had about 20 doctoral students among these being Hans Rademacher, known for his work on analysis and number theory, and Paul Finsler known for his creation of Finsler space.",
"Carathéodory's contacts in Germany were many and included such famous names as: Hermann Minkowski, Hilbert, Felix Klein, Albert Einstein, Hermann Amandus Schwarz, Lipót Fejér. During the difficult period of World War II his close associates at the Bavarian Academy of Sciences were Perron and Tietze.",
"While in Germany Carathéodory retained numerous links with the Greek academic world about which detailed information may be found in Georgiadou's book. He was directly involved with the reorganization of Greek universities. An especially close friend and colleague in Athens was Nicolaos Kritikos who had attended his lectures at Gŏttingen, later going with him to Smyrna, then becoming professor at Athens Polytechnic. Kritikos and Carathéodory helped the Greek topologist Christos Papakyriakopoulos take a doctorate in topology at Athens University in 1943 under very difficult circumstances. While teaching in Athens University Carathéodory had as undergraduate student Evangelos Stamatis who subsequently achieved considerable distinction as a scholar of ancient Greek mathematical classics.",
"",
"In his doctoral dissertation Carathéodory originated his method based on the use of the Hamilton–Jacobi equation to construct a field of extremals. The ideas are closely related to light propagation in optics. The method became known as \"the royal road to the calculus of variations\". More recently the same idea has been taken into the theory of optimal control. The method can also be extended to multiple integrals.",
"He proved an existence theorem for the solution to ordinary differential equations under mild regularity conditions.",
"He is credited with the Carathéodory extension theorem which is fundamental to modern measure theory. Later Carathéodory extended the theory from sets to Boolean algebras.",
"He greatly extended the theory of conformal transformation proving his theorem about the extension of conformal mapping to the boundary of Jordan domains. In studying boundary correspondence he originated the theory of prime ends.",
"In 1909, Carathéodory published a pioneering work \"Investigations on the Foundations of Thermodynamics\" in which he formulated the Laws of Thermodynamics axiomatically. It has been said that he was using only mechanical concepts and the theory of Pfaff's differential forms. But in reality he also relied heavily on the concept of an adiabatic process. The physical meaning of the term adiabatic rests on the concepts of heat and temperature. Thus, in Bailyn's survey of thermodynamics, Carathéodory's approach is called \"mechanical\", as distinct from \"thermodynamic\". Carathéodory's \"first axiomatically rigid foundation of thermodynamics\" was acclaimed by Max Born but criticized by Max Planck. In his theory he simplified the basic concepts, for instance \"heat\" is not an essential concept but a derived one. He formulated the axiomatic principle of irreversibility in thermodynamics stating that inaccessibility of states is related to the existence of entropy, where temperature is the integration function. The Second Law of Thermodynamics was expressed via the following axiom: \"In the neighbourhood of any initial state, there are states which cannot be approached arbitrarily close through adiabatic changes of state.\" In this connexion he coined the term adiabatic accessibility.",
"Carathéodory's work in optics is closely related to his method in the calculus of variations. In 1926 he gave a strict and general proof that no system of lenses and mirrors can avoid aberration, except for the trivial case of plane mirrors. In his later work he gave the theory of the Schmidt telescope.",
"During the Second World War Carathéodory edited two volumes of Euler's Complete Works dealing with the Calculus of Variations which were submitted for publication in 1946.",
"He is credited with the authorship of the Carathéodory conjecture claiming that a closed convex surface admits at least two umbilic points. As of 2007, this conjecture remained unproven despite having attracted a large amount of research.",
"At the time, Athens was the only major educational centre in the wider area and had limited capacity to sufficiently satisfy the growing educational need of the eastern part of the Aegean Sea and the Balkans. Constantin Carathéodory, who was a Professor at the University of Berlin at the time, proposed the establishment of a new University - the difficulties regarding the establishment of a Greek university in Constantinople led him to consider three other cities: Thessaloniki, Chios and Smyrna. At the invitation of the Greek Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos he submitted a plan on 20 October 1919 for the creation of a new University at Smyrna in Asia Minor, to be named Ionian University of Smyrna. In 1920 Carathéodory was appointed Dean of the University and took a major part in establishing the institution, touring Europe to buy books and equipment. The university however never actually admitted students due to the War in Asia Minor which ended in the Great Fire of Smyrna. Carathéodory managed to save books from the library and was only rescued at the last moment by a journalist who took him by rowing boat to the battleship Naxos which was standing by. Carathéodory brought to Athens some of the university library and stayed in Athens, teaching at the university and technical school until 1924. In 1924 Carathéodory was appointed professor of mathematics at the University of Munich, and held this position until retirement in 1938. He later worked from the Bavarian Academy of Sciences until his death in 1950. The new Greek University in the broader area of the Southeast Mediterranean region, as originally envisioned by Carathéodory, finally materialised with the establishment of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki in 1925.",
"Carathéodory excelled at languages, much like many members of his family did. Greek and French were his first languages, and he mastered German with such perfection, that his writings composed in the German language are stylistic masterworks. Carathéodory also spoke and wrote English, Italian, Turkish, and the ancient languages without any effort. Such an impressive linguistic arsenal enabled him to communicate and exchange ideas directly with other mathematicians during his numerous travels, and greatly extend his fields of knowledge. Much more than that, Carathéodory was a treasured conversation partner for his fellow professors in the Munich Department of Philosophy. The well-respected, German philologist, professor of ancient languages Kurt von Fritz praised Carathéodory, saying that from him one could learn an endless amount about the old and new Greece, the old Greek language, and Hellenic mathematics. Fritz had numerous philosophical discussions with Carathéodory. The Greek language was spoken exclusively in Carathéodory's house – his son Stephanos and daughter Despina went to a German high school, but they obtained daily additional instruction in Greek language and culture from a Greek priest. At home, they were not allowed to speak any other language.",
"In 2002, in recognition of his achievements, the University of Munich named one of the largest lecture rooms in the mathematical institute the Constantin-Carathéodory Lecture Hall. Known correspondence between Carathéodory and Einstein can be seen as facsimile in Einstein Archives Online (11 items). These are mainly from the time when Carathéodory and Einstein were both on the editorial board of Mathematisch Annalen. Three 1916 letters concern mathematics and these are printed in vol.8 of Einstein's Collected Works (Princeton Univ. Press 1987) now freely available online. These letters are mainly on the Hamilton-Jacobi equation which was of interest to Einstein in quantum mechanics. Einstein did ask a question on relativity but there is no known reply from Carathéodory. In the town of Nea Vyssa, where Caratheodory's family came from, there is the unique Caratheodory's family museum. The museum is located in the central square of the town nearby the church and there are many personal items of Constantin as well as letters that he had exchanged with A. Einstein, for more information visit the original website of the club http://www.s-karatheodoris.gr. On the other hand, the Greek authorities intended for a long time to create a museum honoring Karatheodoris in Komotini, a major town of the northeastern Greek region, which is more than 200 km far away for the town of Nea Vyssa where his family came from. On 21 March 2009, the museum \"Karatheodoris\" (Καραθεοδωρής) opened its gates to the public, in Komotini. The coordinator of the Museum, Athanasios Lipordezis (Αθανάσιος Λιπορδέζης), noted that the museum gave home to original manuscripts of the mathematician of about 10,000 pages including correspondence of Carathéodory with the German mathematician Arthur Rosenthal for the algebraization of measure. Also visitors can view at the showcases the books \"\" Gesammelte Mathematische Schriften Band 1,2,3,4 \", \"Mass und Ihre Algebraiserung\", \" Reelle Functionen Band 1\", \" Zahlen/Punktionen Funktionen \"\" and many more. Handwritten letters of C.Carathéodory to Albert Einstein, Hellmuth Kneser and photographs of the Carathéodory family are on display. The effort to furnish the museum with more exhibits is continuous.",
"",
"A complete list of Carathéodory's journal article publications can be found in his \"Collected Works\"(\"Ges. Math. Schr.\"). Notable publications are:"
]
}
|
Take
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A take is a single continuous recorded performance. The term is used in film and music to denote and track the stages of production.
| null |
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en-train-2093280
|
en-train-2093280
|
2093280
|
{
"title": [
"Film.",
"Single-takes.",
"Long takes.",
"Multiple takes.",
"Music recording."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"In cinematography, a take refers to each filmed \"version\" of a particular shot or \"setup\". Takes of each shot are generally numbered starting with \"take one\" and the number of each successive take is increased (with the director calling for \"take two\" or \"take eighteen\") until the filming of the shot is completed. Film takes are often designated with the aid of a clapperboard. It is also referred to as the slate. The number of each take is written or attached to the clapperboard, which is filmed briefly prior to or at the beginning of the actual take. Only those takes which are vetted by the continuity person and/or script supervisor are printed and are sent to the film editor.",
"A single-take or one-take occurs when the entire scene is shot satisfactorily the first time, whether by necessity (as with certain expensive special effects) or by luck.",
"Some film directors are known for using very long, unedited takes. Alfred Hitchcock's \"Rope\" is famous for being composed of nine uninterrupted takes, each from four to ten minutes long. This required actors to step over cables and dolly tracks while filming, and stagehands to move furniture and props out of the camera's way as it moved around the room. The eight-minute opening shot of \"The Player\" includes people discussing long takes in other movies. Aleksandr Sokurov's \"Russian Ark\" (2002) consists of a single 90-minute take, shot on a digital format. Mike Figgis' \"Timecode\" (2000) consists of a single 90-minute take as well, albeit with four camera units shooting simultaneously. In the finished film, all four camera angles are shown simultaneously on a split screen, with the sound fading from one to another to direct audience attention.",
"Other directors such as Stanley Kubrick are notorious for demanding numerous retakes of a single scene, once asking Shelley Duvall to repeat a scene 127 times for \"The Shining\". During the shooting of \"Eyes Wide Shut\", Kubrick asked for 97 takes of Tom Cruise walking through a door before he was satisfied. Charlie Chaplin, both director and star of \"The Gold Rush\", did 63 separate takes of a scene where his character eats a boot—in reality, a prop made of licorice—and ended up being taken to the hospital for insulin shock due to the high sugar intake. Chaplin also did 342 takes of a scene in \"City Lights\" (1931). In other cases, it is the actors who cause multiple takes. One fight scene in Jackie Chan's \"The Young Master\" was so intricate that it required 329 takes to complete. Director Bryan Singer tried for a full day to get his desired shots of the cast of \"The Usual Suspects\" behaving sullenly in a police lineup, but the actors could not remain serious and kept spoiling the takes by laughing and making faces. In the end, Singer changed his plan and used the funniest of the takes in the final movie to illustrate the contempt the criminals had for the police. During the filming of \"Some Like It Hot\", director Billy Wilder was notoriously frustrated by the retakes required by Marilyn Monroe's inability to remember her lines.",
"In music recording, a take similarly refers to successive attempts to record a song or part. Musical takes are also sequentially numbered. The need to obtain a complete, acceptable take was especially important in the years predating multi-track recording and overdubbing techniques. Failed attempts are called \"false starts\" if, for example, not even a complete chorus or verse is recorded; longer almost-complete attempts are called \"long false starts\". Different versions of the same song from a single recording session are sometimes eventually released as alternate takes (or alternative takes) or \"playback masters\" of the recording. Notable examples of releases of alternate takes include The Beatles \"Anthology\" box set, Johnny Cash's Bear Family box sets and \"Johnny Cash:The Outtakes\" and a series of alternate takes of recordings by Elvis Presley released by RCA Victor beginning in 1974 with \"\"."
]
}
|
Royal Aero Club
| null |
The Royal Aero Club (RAeC) is the national co-ordinating body for air sport in the United Kingdom. It was founded in 1901 as the Aero Club of Great Britain, being granted the title of the "Royal Aero Club" in 1910.
| null |
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en-train-114919
|
en-train-114919
|
114919
|
{
"title": [
"History.",
"First aviator certificates.",
"Air races and awards.",
"Air races.",
"Britannia Trophy."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2"
],
"content": [
"The Aero Club was founded in 1901 by Frank Hedges Butler, his daughter Vera and the Hon Charles Rolls (one of the founders of Rolls-Royce), partly inspired by the Aero Club of France. It was initially concerned more with ballooning but after the demonstrations of heavier-than air flight made by the Wright Brothers in France in 1908, it embraced the aeroplane. The original club constitution declared that it was dedicated to 'the encouragement of aero auto-mobilism and ballooning as a sport.' As founded, it was primarily a London gentlemen's club, but gradually moved on to a more regulatory role. It had a clubhouse at 119 Piccadilly, which it retained until 1961. The club was granted its Royal prefix on 15 February 1910. From 1910 the club issued Aviators Certificates, which were internationally recognised under the Fédération Aéronautique Internationale (the FAI) to which the club was the UK representative. The club is the governing body in the UK for air sports, as well as for records and competitions. The club established its first flying ground on a stretch of marshland at Shellbeach near Leysdown on the Isle of Sheppey in early 1909. A nearby farmhouse, Mussell Manor (now called Muswell Manor) became the flying ground clubhouse, and club members could construct their own sheds to accommodate their aircraft. Among the first occupants of the ground were Short Brothers. Two of the brothers, Eustace and Oswald, had previously made balloons for Aero Club members and been appointed the official engineers of the Aero Club. They had also enlisted their eldest brother, Horace, when they decided to begin constructing heavier-than-air aircraft. They acquired a licence to build copies of the Wright aircraft and set up the first aircraft production line in the world at Leysdown. On 1 May 1909 John Moore-Brabazon (later Lord Brabazon of Tara) made a flight of 500 yards in his Voisin at Shellbeach. This is officially recognised as the first flight by a British pilot in Britain. The same week the Wright brothers visited the Aero Club flying ground at Shellbeach. After inspecting the Short Brothers' factory, a photograph was taken outside Mussell Manor of the Wright Brothers with all of the early British aviation pioneers to commemorate their visit to Britain. In October 1909, the club recognised the Blackpool Aviation Week, making it Brtain's first official air show. On 30 October Moore-Brabazon was also the first to cover a mile (closed circuit) in a British aeroplane, flying the Short Biplane No. 2, and so winning a prize of £1,000 offered by the \"Daily Mail\" newspaper. On 4 November 1909, he decided to take up a piglet, which he named Icarus the Second, as passenger, thereby disproving the adage that \"pigs can't fly\". It moved the next year to nearby Eastchurch, where the Royal Navy had established a flying school. Until 1911 the British Military did not have any pilot training facilities. As a result, most early military pilots were trained by members of the club and many became members. By the end of the First World War, more than 6,300 military pilots had taken RAeC Aviator's Certificates. After the loss of its Piccadilly clubhouse in 1961, the club was lodged at the Lansdowne Club at 9 Fitzmaurice Place until 1968. It then moved for a short spell to the Junior Carlton Club's modern building at 94 Pall Mall. In June 1973 the club merged with the United Service Club and moved into its premises at 116 Pall Mall. All its aviation-related activities were then transferred to the Aviation Council (United Service and Royal Aero Club) Ltd incorporated on 15 February 1973. In June 1975, the United Service and Royal Aero Club merged with the Naval and Military Club and on 1 August 1975 the Royal Aero Club of the United Kingdom was officially launched and endowed with all its awards, library and memorabilia and took the place of the Aviation Council. By 1977, the club had ceased to be a members club but continued to carry out the function previously carried out by its Aviation Council, with the Secretariat based at the Leicester premises of the British Gliding Association. Today the Royal Aero Club continues to be the national governing and coordinating body of air sport and recreational flying. The governing bodies of the various forms of sporting aviation are all members of the Royal Aero Club, which is the UK governing body for international sporting purposes. The Royal Aero Club also acts to support and protect the rights of recreational pilots in the context of national and international regulation.",
"The following were the first ten people to gain their aviator certificates from the Royal Aero Club:",
"",
"A number of air races were organised by the club:",
"The Britannia Trophy is presented by the Royal Aero Club for aviators accomplishing the most meritorious performance in aviation during the previous year."
]
}
|
Artistic gymnastics
| null |
Artistic gymnastics is a discipline of gymnastics in which athletes perform short routines (ranging from about 30 to 90 seconds) on different apparatuses, with less time for vaulting. The sport is governed by the Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique (FIG), which designs the code of points and regulates all aspects of international elite competition. Within individual countries, gymnastics is regulated by national federations, such as Gymnastics Canada, British Gymnastics, and USA Gymnastics. Artistic gymnastics is a popular spectator sport at many competitions, including the Summer Olympic Games.
| null |
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en-train-2211200
|
en-train-2211200
|
2211200
|
{
"title": [
"History.",
"Women's artistic gymnastics (WAG).",
"Apparatus.",
"Women only.",
"Competition format.",
"New life.",
"Compulsories.",
"Competition levels.",
"Age limits.",
"Scoring and the Code of Points.",
"Major competitions.",
"National.",
"Dominant teams and nations.",
"USSR and post-Soviet republics.",
"Romania.",
"United States.",
"China.",
"Japan.",
"Germany.",
"Czechoslovakia.",
"Hungary.",
"Other nations.",
"Health effects."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The gymnastic system was mentioned in writings by ancient authors, such as Homer, Aristotle, and Plato. It included many disciplines that later became independent sports, such as swimming, racing, wrestling, boxing, and riding, and was also used for military training. In its present form, gymnastics evolved in Bohemia and what is now Germany at the beginning of the 19th century, and the term \"artistic gymnastics\" was introduced at the same time to distinguish free styles from those used by the military. The German educator Friedrich Ludwig Jahn, who was known as the father of gymnastics, invented several apparatuses, including the horizontal bar and parallel bars, that are used to this day. Two of the first gymnastics clubs were Turnvereins and Sokols. In 1881 the FIG was founded; it remains the governing body of international gymnastics. The FIG initially included only three countries and was called the European Gymnastics Federation until 1921, when the first non-European countries joined the federation and it was reorganized into its present form. Gymnastics was included in the program of the 1896 Summer Olympics, but women have been allowed to participate in the Olympics only since 1928. The World Championships, held since 1903, were open only to men until 1934. Since that time, two branches of artistic gymnastics have developed: women's artistic gymnastics (WAG) and men's artistic gymnastics (MAG). Unlike men's and women's branches of many other sports, WAG and MAG differ significantly in apparatuses used at major competitions, and in techniques.",
"Women's gymnastics entered the Olympics as a team event in 1928, and was included in the 12th gymnastics world championships in 1950. Individual women were recognized in the all-around as early as the 10th world championships in 1934. Two years after the full women's program (all-around and all four event finals) was introduced at the 1950 World Championships, it was added to the 1952 Summer Olympics in Helsinki, Finland, and the format has remained to this day. The earliest champions in women's gymnastics tended to be in their 20s, and most had studied ballet for years before entering the sport. Larisa Latynina, the first great Soviet gymnast, won her first Olympic all-around medal at age 22 and second at 26; she became world champion in 1958 while pregnant. Věra Čáslavská of Czechoslovakia, who followed Latynina to become a two-time Olympic all-around champion, was 22 before she started winning gold medals. In the 1970s the average age of Olympic gymnasts began to decrease. While it was not unheard-of for teenagers to compete in the",
"Both male and female gymnasts are judged on all events for execution, degree of difficulty, and overall presentation skills. In many competitions, especially high-level ones sanctioned by the FIG, such as the World Championships or Olympics, gymnasts compete in Olympic Order, which has changed over time, but has stayed consistent now for at least a few decades.",
"The Uneven Parallel Bars were adapted, by the Czechoslovakian Sokol from the men's Parallel Bars some time before World War I and were shown in international exhibition for the first time at the 1928 Amsterdam Summer Olympic Games.. On the uneven bars (also known as \"asymmetric bars\" in the UK), the gymnast navigates two horizontal bars preset at different heights but alterable widths. Gymnasts perform swinging, circling, transitional and release moves as well as moves that pass through handstand. The most common way to mount these bars is by jumping toward the lower bar first. Higher-level gymnasts usually wear leather grips to ensure a grip is maintained on the bars while protecting hands from painful blisters and",
"Currently, in Olympic or World Championships competition, the meet is divided into several sessions that are held on different days: qualification, team finals, all-around finals, and event finals. During the \"qualification\" (abbreviated TQ) round, gymnasts compete with their national squad on all four (WAG) or six (MAG) apparatus. The scores from this session are not used to award medals, but are used to determine which teams advance to the team finals and which individual gymnasts advance to the all-around and event finals. For the 2020 Olympic cycle a new qualification format has been adopted. Each country can enter six gymnasts: a four-person team and two individual gymnasts. The current format of team qualification is 4–4–3, meaning that there are four gymnasts on the team, all four compete on each event, and three of the scores count. Individual gymnasts also compete to be qualified to the all-around and event finals, but their scores do not count toward team score. In the \"team finals\" (abbreviated TF), gymnasts compete with their national squad on all four/six apparatus. The scores from the session are used to determine the medalists of the team competition. The current format is 4–3–3, meaning that there are four gymnasts on the team, three compete on each event, and all three scores count. In the \"all-around\" finals (abbreviated AA), the gymnasts are individual competitors and perform on all four/six apparatus. Their scores from all four/six events are added together and the gymnasts with the three highest totals are awarded all-around medals. Only two gymnasts from each country may advance to the all-around finals. In the \"event finals\" (abbreviated EF) or \"apparatus finals\", the top eight gymnasts on each event compete for medals. Only two gymnasts from each country may advance to each event final. Other competitions are not bound by these rules, and may use other formats. For instance, the 2007 Pan American Games had only one day of team competition on a 6–5–4 format, and allowed three athletes from each country to advance to the all-around. In other meets, such as those on the World Cup circuit, the team event is not contested at all.",
"Competitions use the \"New Life\" scoring rule, which was introduced in 1989. Under New Life, marks from one session do not carry over to the next. In other words, a gymnast's performance in team finals does not affect his or her scores in the all-around finals or event finals; he or",
"Before 1997, team competition was structured differently. It still consisted of two sessions, but gymnasts performed \"compulsory exercises\" in the preliminaries and their own optional routines on the second day. The team medals were awarded based on the combined scores of both days. All-around and event final qualifiers were determined according to the combined scores. In meets where team titles were not contested, such as the American Cup, there were two days of all-around competition: one for compulsories and another for optionals. The optionals were the gymnasts' personal routines, developed with their coaches to adhere to the requirements of the \"Code of Points.\" They were performed in the team finals, the all-around and the event finals. The compulsories were routines that were developed and choreographed by",
"Artistic gymnasts compete only with other gymnasts in their level. Gymnasts start at the lowest level of competition and advance to higher levels by learning gymnastics skills and achieving qualifying scores at competitions. In America, levels range from 1 to 10, then junior elite and senior elite. Elite, especially senior elite is considered Olympic level, and these gymnasts generally perform routines designed to meet the FIG's \"Code of Points\". Levels 1–2 are usually considered recreational, or beginner; 3–6 intermediate, and 7–Elite advanced. Competitions begin at level 3, and in some gyms, level 2. A gymnast must have specific skills for each event in order to advance to the next level, and once a gymnast has competed in a Sectional meet, they",
"The FIG imposes a minimum age limit on gymnasts competing in international meets. The term \"senior\", in gymnastics, refers to any world-class or elite gymnast who is age-eligible under FIG rules. The term \"junior\" refers to any gymnast who competes at a world-class or elite level, but is too young to be classified as a senior. Currently, female gymnasts must be at least sixteen years of age, or turning sixteen within the calendar year, the male 18, to be classified as a senior. Juniors are judged under",
"Scoring at the international level is regulated by the code of points. This system was significantly overhauled for 2006. Under the new code of points, there are two different panels judging each routine, evaluating different aspects of the performance. The D score covers difficulty value, element group requirements, and connection value; the E score covers execution, composition and artistry. The most visible change to the code was the abandonment of the \"perfect 10\" for an open-ended scoring system for difficulty (the D score). The E score is still limited to a maximum of 10. The sum of the two provides a gymnast's total score for the routine. Theoretically this means scores could be infinite, although average marks for routines in major competitions",
"",
"Most countries hold a major competition (National Championships, or \"Nationals\") every year that determines the best-performing all-around gymnasts",
"",
"Before the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991, Soviet gymnasts dominated both men's and women's gymnastics, commencing with the introduction of the full women's program into the Olympics and the overall increased standardization of the Olympic gymnastics competition format which happened in 1952. Soviet Union's success might be explained by a heavy state's investment in sports to fulfil its political agenda on an international stage. They had many male stars, such as Olympic all-around champions Viktor Chukarin and Vitaly Scherbo, and female stars, such as Olympic all-around champion Larisa Latynina and World all-around and Olympic champion Svetlana Boginskaya who contributed to this tradition. From 1952 to 1992 inclusive, the Soviet women's squad won",
"The Romanian team first achieved wide-scale success at the 1976 Summer Olympics with the tremendous performance of Nadia Comăneci. Since then, using the centralized training system pioneered by Béla Károlyi, they have been a dominant force in both team and individual events in WAG. With the exception of the defeat of the Soviet women's team by the Czechoslovakian women's team at the 1966 World Championships, Romania was the only team ever to defeat the Soviets in head-to-head competition at the World Championships/Olympic level with their victories at the 1979 and 1987 Worlds. Their women's teams have also won team medals at every Olympics from 1976 to 2012 inclusive, including three victories in 1984, 2000, and 2004. At the 16 World Championships from 1978 to 2007 inclusive, the women's team failed to medal only twice (in 1981 and 2006) and has won the team title seven times, including five victories in a row (1994–2001). From 1976 to 2000, they placed notable gymnasts such as Daniela Silivaş, Lavinia Miloşovici, and Simona Amânar on the Olympic all-around podium",
"While isolated American gymnasts, including Kurt Thomas and Cathy Rigby, won medals in World Championship meets in the 1970s, the United States team was largely considered a \"second power\" until the mid- to late 1980s, when American gymnasts began medaling consistently in major, fully attended competitions. In 1984, the Olympic men's team won the gold. The team included Tim Daggett, Peter Vidmar, Mitch Gaylord, Bart Conner, Scott Johnson, Jim Hartung, and the team alternate Jim Mikus. Also in 1984, Mary Lou Retton became the first American Olympic all-around champion and won individual medals as well. In 1991, Kim Zmeskal became the first American world all-around champion. At the 1992 Olympics, the American women won their first team medal (bronze), as well as their highest all-around ranking, a silver medal by Shannon Miller, in a fully attended Games. In men's gymnastics, Trent Dimas was able to capture the gold medal on the horizontal bar. This was the second time that an American gymnast, male or female, won a gold medal in an Olympics held outside the United States. The U.S. women's team has",
"China has developed strong, successful programs in both WAG and MAG over the past 25 years, earning both team and individual medals. The Chinese men won team gold at the 2000 and 2008 Olympics, and every team world championship since 1994, except 2001 when they placed fifth. They have produced individual gymnasts like Olympic (and world) all-around champions Li Xiaoshuang (1996) and Yang Wei (2008). The Chinese women's team won team gold at the 2006 World",
"Japan was largely dominant in MAG during the 1960s and 1970s, winning every Olympic team title from 1960 through 1976 thanks to individual gymnasts such as Olympic all-around champions Sawao Kato and Yukio Endo. Several innovations pioneered by Japanese gymnasts during this era have remained in the sport, including the Tsukahara vault. Japanese male gymnasts have re-emerged as a team to reckon with since winning a team gold at the 2004 Olympics. Six-time world champion and Two-time Olympic All-around gold medalist",
"The German Democratic Republic, or East Germany, had an extremely successful gymnastics program before the reunification of Germany. Both the MAG and WAG teams frequently won silver or bronze team medals at the World Championships and Olympics. Male gymnasts such as Andreas Wecker and Roland Brückner and female gymnasts such as Maxi Gnauck and Karin Janz contributed to",
"The Czechoslovakian women's team had a very long tradition of success and was the chief threat to the dominance of the Soviet women's team for decades. They won team medals at every World Championships and Olympics from 1934 to 1970, with the exceptions of the 1950 Worlds and 1956 Olympics. Among their leaders were the first women's world all-around champion, Vlasta Děkanová (1934, 1938) and Věra Čáslavská, who won outright all five European, World and Olympic all-around titles during an Olympic cycle from 1964 to 1968—a feat never matched by any other gymnast, male or female. Čáslavská also led her teammates to the world team title in 1966, making the Czechoslovakians one of",
"Another Eastern Bloc country whose women achieved notable results was Hungary. Led by individuals such as 10-time Olympic medalist (with five golds) Ágnes Keleti, their team medaled at the first four Olympics with women's artistic gymnastics competitions (1936–1956), as well as at the 1954 World Championships. Their women's program went into a decline with minor occasional success, although much later, during the late 1980s",
"Several other nations were at one time or have become in recent years serious contenders in both WAG and MAG. Part of the rise of the success of various countries' programs in recent years is attributable to the exodus of lots of",
"Artistic gymnastics carries inherently high risk of spinal and other injuries. Eating disorders can also be quite common, especially in women's gymnastics when gymnasts are motivated and sometimes pushed by coaches to maintain a lower than normal bodyweight."
]
}
|
Oliver Cromwell
| null |
Oliver Cromwell (25 April 15993 September 1658) was an English general and statesman who led the Parliament of England's armies against King Charles I during the English Civil War and ruled the British Isles as Lord Protector from 1653 until his death in 1658. He acted simultaneously as head of state and head of government of the new republican commonwealth.
| null |
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en-train-1439065
|
en-train-1439065
|
1439065
|
{
"title": [
"Early years.",
"Marriage and family.",
"Crisis and recovery.",
"Member of Parliament: 1628–29 and 1640–1642.",
"Military commander: 1642–1646.",
"English Civil War begins.",
"Marston Moor 1644.",
"New Model Army.",
"Battle of Naseby 1645.",
"Cromwell's military style.",
"Politics: 1647–1649.",
"Second Civil War.",
"King tried and executed.",
"Establishment of the Commonwealth: 1649.",
"Irish campaign: 1649–50.",
"Debate over Cromwell's effect on Ireland.",
"Scottish campaign: 1650–51.",
"Scots proclaim Charles II as King.",
"Battle of Dunbar.",
"Battle of Worcester.",
"Conclusion.",
"Return to England and dissolution of the Rump Parliament: 1651–1653.",
"Establishment of Barebone's Parliament: 1653.",
"The Protectorate: 1653–1658.",
"Death and posthumous execution.",
"Political reputation.",
"Monuments and posthumous honours."
],
"section_level": [
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"content": [
"Cromwell was born in Huntingdon on 25 April 1599 to Robert Cromwell and his second wife Elizabeth, daughter of William Steward (buried in Ely Cathedral in 1593). The family's estate derived from Oliver's great-great-grandfather Morgan ap William, a brewer from Glamorgan who settled at Putney near London, and married Katherine Cromwell (born 1482), the sister of Thomas Cromwell, who would become the famous chief minister to Henry VIII. The Cromwell family acquired great wealth as occasional beneficiaries of Thomas's administration of the Dissolution of the Monasteries. Morgan ap William was a son of William ap Yevan of Wales. The family line continued through Richard Williams (alias Cromwell), (c. 1500–1544), Henry Williams (alias Cromwell), (c. 1524 – 6 January 1604), then to Oliver's father Robert Williams, alias Cromwell (c. 1560–1617), who married Elizabeth Steward (c. 1564 – 1654), probably in 1591. They had ten children, but Oliver, the fifth child, was the only boy to survive infancy. Cromwell's paternal grandfather Sir Henry Williams was one of the two wealthiest landowners in Huntingdonshire. Cromwell's father Robert was of modest means but still a member of the landed gentry. As a younger son with many siblings, Robert inherited only a house at Huntingdon and a small amount of land. This land would have generated an income of up to £300 a year, near the bottom of the range of gentry incomes. Cromwell himself in 1654 said, \"I was by birth a gentleman, living neither in considerable height, nor yet in obscurity\". Cromwell was baptised on 29 April 1599 at St John's Church, and attended Huntingdon Grammar School. He went on to study at Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, then a recently founded college with a strong Puritan ethos. He left in June 1617 without taking a degree, immediately after his father's death. Early biographers claim that he then attended Lincoln's Inn, but the Inn's archives retain no record of him. Antonia Fraser concludes that it was likely that he did train at one of the London Inns of Court during this time. His grandfather, his father, and two of his uncles had attended Lincoln's Inn, and Cromwell sent his son Richard there in 1647. Cromwell probably returned home to Huntingdon after his father's death. As his mother was widowed, and his seven sisters unmarried, he would have been needed at home to help his family.",
"Cromwell married Elizabeth Bourchier (1598–1665) on 22 August 1620 at St Giles-without-Cripplegate, Fore Street, London. Elizabeth's father, Sir James Bourchier, was a London leather merchant who owned extensive lands in Essex and had strong connections with",
"Little evidence exists of Cromwell's religion at this stage. His letter in 1626 to Henry Downhall, an Arminian minister, suggests that Cromwell had yet to be influenced by radical Puritanism. However, there is evidence that Cromwell went through a period of personal crisis during the late 1620s and early 1630s. In 1628 he was elected to Parliament from the Huntingdonshire county town of Huntingdon. Later that year, he sought treatment for a variety of physical and emotional ailments, including \"valde melancholicus\" (depression), from the Swiss-born London doctor Théodore de Mayerne. In 1629 he was caught up in a dispute among the gentry of Huntingdon over a new charter for the town, as a result of which he was called before the Privy Council in 1630. In 1631 Cromwell sold most of his properties in Huntingdon—probably as a result of the dispute—and moved to a farmstead in nearby St Ives (then in Huntingdonshire, now in Cambridgeshire). This signified a major step down in society compared with",
"Cromwell became the Member of Parliament for Huntingdon in the Parliament of 1628–1629, as a client of the Montagu family of Hinchingbrooke House. He made little impression: records for the Parliament show only one speech (against the Arminian Bishop Richard Neile), which was poorly received. After dissolving this Parliament, Charles I ruled without a Parliament for the next 11 years. When Charles faced the Scottish rebellion known as the Bishops' Wars, shortage of funds forced him to call a Parliament again in 1640. Cromwell was returned to this Parliament as member for Cambridge, but it lasted for only three weeks and became known as the Short Parliament. Cromwell moved his family from Ely to London in 1640. A second Parliament was called later the same year, and became known as the Long Parliament.",
"",
"Failure to resolve the issues before the Long Parliament led to armed conflict between Parliament and Charles I in late 1642, the beginning of the English Civil War. Before joining Parliament's forces Cromwell's only military experience was in the trained bands, the local county militia. He recruited a cavalry troop in Cambridgeshire after blocking a valuable shipment of silver plate from Cambridge colleges that",
"By the time of the Battle of Marston Moor in July 1644, Cromwell had risen to the rank of Lieutenant General of horse in Manchester's army. The success of his cavalry in breaking the ranks of the Royalist cavalry and then attacking their infantry from the rear at Marston Moor was a major factor in the Parliamentarian victory. Cromwell fought at the head of his troops in the battle and was slightly wounded in the neck, stepping away briefly to receive treatment during the battle but returning to help force the victory. After Cromwell's nephew was killed at Marston Moor he wrote a famous letter to his brother-in-law. Marston Moor secured the north of England for the Parliamentarians, but failed to end Royalist",
"Partly in response to the failure to capitalise on their victory at Marston Moor, Parliament passed the Self-Denying Ordinance in early 1645. This forced members of the House of Commons and the Lords, such as Manchester, to choose between civil office and military command. All of them—except",
"At the critical Battle of Naseby in June 1645, the New Model Army smashed the King's major army. Cromwell led his wing with great success at Naseby, again routing the Royalist cavalry. At the Battle of Langport on 10 July, Cromwell participated in the defeat of the last sizeable Royalist field army. Naseby and Langport effectively ended the King's hopes of victory, and the subsequent Parliamentarian campaigns involved",
"Cromwell had no formal training in military tactics, and followed the common practice of ranging his cavalry in three ranks and pressing forward, relying on impact rather than firepower. His strengths were an instinctive ability to lead and train his men, and his moral authority. In a war fought mostly by amateurs, these strengths were significant and are likely to",
"In February 1647 Cromwell suffered from an illness that kept him out of political life for over a month. By the time he had recovered, the Parliamentarians were split over the issue of the King. A majority in both Houses pushed for a settlement that would pay off the Scottish army, disband much of the New Model Army, and restore Charles I in return for a Presbyterian settlement of the Church. Cromwell rejected the Scottish model of Presbyterianism, which threatened to replace one authoritarian hierarchy with another. The New Model Army, radicalised by the failure of the Parliament to pay the wages it was owed, petitioned against these changes, but the Commons declared the petition unlawful. In May 1647 Cromwell was sent to the army's headquarters in Saffron Walden to negotiate with them, but failed to agree. In June 1647, a troop of cavalry under Cornet George Joyce seized the King from Parliament's imprisonment. With the King now present, Cromwell was eager to find out what conditions the King would acquiesce to if his authority was restored. The King appeared to be willing to compromise, so Cromwell employed his son-in-law, Henry Ireton, to draw up proposals for a constitutional settlement. Proposals were drafted multiple times with different changes until finally the \"Heads of Proposals\" pleased Cromwell in principle and would allow for further negotiations. It was designed to check the powers of the executive, to set up regularly elected parliaments, and to restore a non-compulsory Episcopalian settlement. Many in the army, such as the Levellers led by John Lilburne, thought this was not enough and demanded full political equality for all men, leading to tense debates in Putney during the autumn of 1647 between Fairfax, Cromwell and Ireton on the one hand, and radical Levellers like Colonel Rainsborough on the other. The Putney Debates ultimately broke up without reaching a resolution.",
"The failure to conclude a political agreement with the King led eventually to the outbreak of the Second English Civil War in 1648, when the King tried to regain power by force of arms. Cromwell first put down a Royalist uprising in south Wales led by Rowland Laugharne, winning back Chepstow Castle on 25 May and six days later forcing the surrender of Tenby. The castle at Carmarthen was destroyed by burning. The much stronger castle at Pembroke, however, fell only after a siege of eight weeks. Cromwell dealt leniently with the ex-Royalist soldiers, but less so with those who had previously been members of the parliamentary army, John Poyer eventually being executed in London after the drawing of lots. Cromwell then marched north to deal with a pro-Royalist Scottish army (the Engagers) who had invaded England. At Preston, Cromwell, in sole command for the first time and with an army of 9,000, won a decisive victory",
"In December 1648, in an episode that became known as Pride's Purge, a troop of soldiers headed by Colonel Thomas Pride forcibly removed from the Long Parliament all those who were not supporters of the Grandees in the New Model Army and the Independents. Thus weakened, the remaining body of MPs, known as the Rump Parliament, agreed that Charles should be tried on a charge of treason. Cromwell was still in the north of England, dealing with Royalist resistance, when these events took place, but then returned to London. On the day after Pride's Purge, he became a determined supporter of those pushing for the King's trial and execution, believing that killing Charles was the only way to end the civil wars. Cromwell approved Thomas",
"After the execution of the King, a republic was declared, known as the \"Commonwealth of England\". The \"Rump Parliament\" exercised both executive and legislative powers, with a smaller Council of State also having some executive functions. Cromwell remained a member of the \"Rump\" and was appointed a member of the Council. In the early months after the execution of Charles I, Cromwell tried but failed to unite the original \"Royal Independents\" led by St John and Saye and Sele, which had fractured during 1648. Cromwell had been connected to this group since before the outbreak of civil war in 1642 and had been closely associated with them during the 1640s. However, only St John was persuaded to retain his seat in Parliament. The Royalists, meanwhile, had regrouped in Ireland, having signed a treaty with the Irish",
"Cromwell led a Parliamentary invasion of Ireland from 1649–50. Parliament's key opposition was the military threat posed by the alliance of the Irish Confederate Catholics and English royalists (signed in 1649). The Confederate-Royalist alliance was judged to be the biggest single threat facing the Commonwealth. However, the political situation in Ireland in 1649 was extremely fractured: there were also separate forces of Irish Catholics who were opposed to the Royalist alliance, and Protestant Royalist forces that were gradually moving towards Parliament. Cromwell said in a speech to the army Council on 23 March that \"I had rather be overthrown by a Cavalierish interest than a Scotch interest; I had rather be overthrown by a Scotch interest than an Irish interest and I think of all this is the most dangerous\". Cromwell's hostility to the Irish was religious as well as political. He was passionately opposed to the Catholic Church, which he saw as denying the primacy of the Bible in favour of papal and clerical authority, and which he blamed for suspected tyranny and persecution of Protestants in continental Europe. Cromwell's association of Catholicism with persecution was deepened with the Irish Rebellion of 1641. This rebellion, although intended to be bloodless, was marked by massacres of English and Scottish Protestant settlers by Irish (\"Gaels\") and Old English in Ireland, and Highland Scot Catholics in Ireland. These settlers had settled on land seized from former, native Catholic owners to make way for the non-native Protestants. These factors contributed to the brutality of the Cromwell military campaign in Ireland. Parliament had planned to re-conquer Ireland since 1641 and had already sent an invasion force there in 1647. Cromwell's invasion of 1649 was much larger and, with the civil war in England over, could be regularly reinforced and re-supplied. His nine-month military campaign was brief and effective, though it did not end the war in Ireland. Before his invasion, Parliamentarian forces held only outposts in Dublin and",
"The extent of Cromwell's brutality in Ireland has been strongly debated. Some historians argue that Cromwell never accepted that he was responsible for the killing of civilians in Ireland, claiming that he had acted harshly but only against those \"in arms\". Other historians, however, cite Cromwell's contemporary reports to London including that of 27 September 1649 in which he lists the slaying of 3,000 military personnel, followed by the phrase \"and many inhabitants\". In September 1649, he justified his sacking of Drogheda as revenge for the massacres of Protestant settlers in Ulster in 1641, calling the massacre \"the righteous judgement of God on these barbarous wretches, who have imbrued their hands with so much innocent blood\". However, Drogheda had never been held by the rebels in 1641—many of its garrison were in fact English royalists. On the other hand, the worst atrocities committed in Ireland, such as mass evictions, killings and deportation of over 50,000 men, women and children as prisoners of war and indentured servants to Bermuda and Barbados, were carried out under the command of other generals after Cromwell had left for England. Some point to his actions on entering Ireland. Cromwell demanded that no supplies were to be seized from the civilian inhabitants and that everything should be fairly purchased; \"I do hereby warn...all Officers, Soldiers and others under my command not to do any wrong or violence toward Country People or any persons whatsoever, unless they be actually in arms or office with the enemy...as they shall answer to the contrary at their utmost peril.\" The massacres at Drogheda and Wexford were in some ways typical of the day, especially in the context of the recently ended Thirty Years War, although there are few comparable incidents during the Civil Wars in England or Scotland, which were fought mainly between Protestant adversaries, albeit of differing denominations. One possible comparison is Cromwell's Siege of Basing House in 1645—the seat of the prominent Catholic the Marquess of Winchester—which resulted in about 100 of the garrison of 400 being killed after being refused quarter. Contemporaries also reported civilian casualties, six Catholic priests and a woman. However, the scale of the deaths at Basing House was much smaller. Cromwell himself said of the slaughter at Drogheda in his first letter back to the Council of State: \"I believe we put to the sword the whole number of the defendants. I do not think thirty of the whole number escaped with their lives.\" Cromwell's orders—\"in the heat of the action, I forbade them to spare",
"",
"Cromwell left Ireland in May 1650 and several months later invaded Scotland after the Scots had proclaimed Charles I's son Charles II as King. Cromwell was much less hostile to Scottish Presbyterians, some of whom had been his allies in the First English Civil War, than he was to Irish Catholics. He described",
"His appeal rejected, Cromwell's veteran troops went on to invade Scotland. At first, the campaign went badly, as Cromwell's men were short of supplies and held up at fortifications manned by Scottish troops under David Leslie. Sickness began to spread in the ranks. Cromwell was on the brink of evacuating",
"The following year, Charles II and his Scottish allies made a desperate attempt to invade England and capture London while Cromwell was engaged in Scotland. Cromwell followed them south and caught them at Worcester on 3 September 1651, and his forces destroyed the last major Scottish Royalist army at the Battle of Worcester. Charles II barely escaped capture and fled to exile in France and the Netherlands, where he remained until",
"In the final stages of the Scottish campaign, Cromwell's men under George Monck sacked Dundee, killing up to 1,000 men and 140 women and children. Scotland was ruled from England during the Commonwealth and was kept under military occupation, with a line of fortifications sealing off the Highlands which had provided manpower for Royalist armies in Scotland. The northwest Highlands was the scene of another pro-Royalist uprising in 1653–55, which was",
"Cromwell was away on campaign from the middle of 1649 until 1651, and the various factions in Parliament began to fight amongst themselves with the King gone as their \"common cause\". Cromwell tried to galvanise the Rump into setting dates for new elections, uniting the three kingdoms under one polity, and to put in place a broad-brush, tolerant national church. However, the Rump vacillated in setting election dates, although it put in place a basic liberty of conscience, but it failed to produce an alternative for tithes or to dismantle other aspects of the existing religious settlement. In",
"After the dissolution of the Rump, power passed temporarily to a council that debated what form the constitution should take. They took up the suggestion of Major-General Thomas Harrison for a \"sanhedrin\" of saints. Although Cromwell did not subscribe to Harrison's apocalyptic, Fifth Monarchist beliefs—which saw a sanhedrin as the starting point for Christ's rule on earth—he was attracted by the idea of an assembly made up of men chosen for their religious credentials. In his speech at the opening of the assembly on 4 July 1653, Cromwell thanked God's providence",
"After the dissolution of the Barebones Parliament, John Lambert put forward a new constitution known as the Instrument of Government, closely modelled on the Heads of Proposals. It made Cromwell Lord Protector for life to undertake \"the chief magistracy and the administration of government\". Cromwell was sworn in as Lord Protector on 16 December 1653, with a ceremony in which he wore plain black clothing, rather than any monarchical regalia. However, from this point on Cromwell signed his name 'Oliver P', the \"P\" being an abbreviation for \"Protector\", which was similar to the style of monarchs who used an \"R\" to mean \"Rex\" or \"Regina\", and it soon became the norm for others to address him as \"Your Highness\". As Protector, he had the power to call and dissolve parliaments but was obliged under the Instrument to seek the majority vote of a Council of State. Nevertheless, Cromwell's power was buttressed by his continuing popularity among the army. As the Lord Protector he was paid £100,000 a year. Cromwell had two key objectives as Lord Protector. The first was \"healing and settling\" the nation after the chaos of the civil wars and the regicide, which meant establishing a stable form for the new government to take. Although Cromwell declared to the first Protectorate Parliament that, \"Government by one man and a parliament is fundamental,\" in practice social priorities took precedence over forms of government. Such forms were, he said, \"but... dross and dung in comparison of Christ\". The social priorities did not, despite the revolutionary nature of the government, include any meaningful attempt to reform the social order. Cromwell declared, \"A nobleman, a gentleman, a yeoman; the distinction of these: that is a good interest of the nation, and a great one!\", Small-scale reform such as that carried out on the judicial system were outweighed by attempts to restore order to English politics. Direct taxation was reduced slightly and peace was made with the Dutch, ending the First Anglo-Dutch War. England's overseas possessions in this period included Newfoundland, the New England Confederation, the Providence Plantation, the Virginia Colony, the Maryland Colony, and islands in the West Indies. Cromwell soon secured the submission of these and largely left them to their own affairs, intervening only to curb his fellow Puritans who were usurping control over the Maryland Colony at the Battle of the Severn, by his confirming the former Roman Catholic proprietorship and edict of tolerance there. Of all the English dominions, Virginia was the most resentful of Cromwell's rule, and Cavalier emigration there mushroomed during the Protectorate. Cromwell famously stressed the quest to restore order in his speech to the first Protectorate parliament at its inaugural meeting on 3 September 1654. He declared that \"healing and settling\" were the \"great end of your meeting\". However, the Parliament was quickly dominated by those pushing for more radical, properly republican reforms. After some initial gestures approving appointments previously made by Cromwell, the Parliament began to work on a radical programme of constitutional reform. Rather than opposing Parliament's bill, Cromwell dissolved them on 22 January 1655. The First Protectorate Parliament had a property franchise of £200 per annum in real or personal property value set as the minimum value in which a male adult was to possess before he was eligible to vote for the representatives from the counties or shires in the House of Commons. The House of Commons representatives from the boroughs were elected by the burgesses or those borough residents who had the right to vote in municipal elections, and by the aldermen and councilors of the boroughs. Cromwell's second objective was spiritual and moral reform. He aimed to restore liberty of conscience and",
"Cromwell is thought to have suffered from malaria and from \"stone\" (kidney stone disease). In 1658, he was struck by a sudden bout of malarial fever, followed directly by illness symptomatic of a urinary or kidney complaint. The Venetian ambassador wrote regular dispatches to the Doge of Venice in which he included details of Cromwell's final illness, and he was suspicious of the rapidity of his death. The decline may have been hastened by the death of his daughter Elizabeth Claypole in August. He died at age 59 at Whitehall on Friday 3 September 1658, the anniversary of his great victories at Dunbar and Worcester. The most likely cause was septicaemia (blood poisoning) following his urinary infection. He was buried with great ceremony, with an elaborate funeral at Westminster Abbey based on that of James I, his daughter Elizabeth also being buried there. He was succeeded as Lord Protector by his son Richard. Richard had no power base in Parliament or the Army and was forced to resign in May 1659, ending the Protectorate. There was no clear leadership from the various factions that jostled for power during the reinstated Commonwealth, so George Monck was able to march on",
"During his lifetime, some tracts painted Cromwell as a hypocrite motivated by power. For example, \"The Machiavilian Cromwell\" and \"The Juglers Discovered\" are parts of an attack on Cromwell by the Levellers after 1647, and both present him as a Machiavellian figure. John Spittlehouse presented a more positive assessment in \"A Warning Piece Discharged\", comparing him to Moses rescuing the English by taking them safely through the Red Sea of the civil wars. Poet John Milton called Cromwell \"our chief of men\" in his \"Sonnet XVI\". Several biographies were published soon after Cromwell's death. An example is \"The Perfect Politician\", which describes how Cromwell \"loved men more than books\" and provides a nuanced assessment of him as an energetic campaigner for liberty of conscience who is brought down by pride and ambition. An equally nuanced but less positive assessment was published in 1667 by Edward Hyde, 1st Earl of Clarendon in his \"History of the Rebellion and Civil Wars in England\". Clarendon famously declares that Cromwell \"will be looked upon by posterity as a brave bad man\". He argues that Cromwell's rise to power had been helped by his great spirit and energy, but also by his ruthlessness. Clarendon was not one of Cromwell's confidantes, and his account was written after the Restoration of the monarchy. During the early 18th century, Cromwell's image began to be adopted and reshaped by the Whigs as part of a wider project to give their political objectives historical legitimacy. John Toland rewrote Edmund Ludlow's \"Memoirs\" in order to remove the Puritan elements and replace them with a Whiggish brand of republicanism, and it presents the Cromwellian Protectorate as a military",
"In 1776, one of the first ships commissioned to serve in the American Continental Navy during the American Revolutionary War was named \"Oliver Cromwell\". 19th-century engineer Sir Richard Tangye was a noted Cromwell enthusiast and collector of Cromwell manuscripts and memorabilia. His collection included many rare manuscripts and printed books, medals, paintings, objects d'art, and a bizarre assemblage of \"relics\". This includes Cromwell's Bible, button, coffin plate, death mask, and funeral escutcheon. On Tangye's death, the entire collection was donated to the Museum of London, where it can still be seen. In 1875, a statue of Cromwell by Matthew Noble was erected in Manchester outside the Manchester Cathedral, a gift to the city by Abel Heywood in memory of her first husband. It was the first large-scale statue to be erected in the open in England, and was a realistic likeness based on the painting by Peter Lely; it showed Cromwell in battledress with drawn sword and leather body armour. It was unpopular with local Conservatives and the large Irish immigrant population. Queen Victoria was invited to open the new Manchester Town Hall, and she allegedly consented on the condition that the statue be"
]
}
|
Jan Nowopacký
| null |
Jan Nowopacký or, in German, Johann Novopacky (15 November 1821, Nechanice – 3 August 1908, Slavětín) was a Czech landscape painter.
| null |
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[
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en-train-48858
|
en-train-48858
|
48858
|
{
"title": [
"Biography."
],
"section_level": [
"1"
],
"content": [
"He was born to a poor family of weavers. He showed creative talent at an early age, playing the flute and violin as well as painting, so his family sought a way to arrange a good education for him. They finally obtained the patronage of Countess von Harrach, who took him to Vienna to study with the portrait painter,. After a few lessons, he attempted to gain admission to the Academy of Fine Arts, but was rejected because he did not speak German well enough. He went home to Nechanice, studied hard, reapplied, and was admitted in 1842. From there, he made several study trips to the Alps and Tyrolia. In 1848, he was a participant in the Revolutions and, fearing reprisals, returned to Prague when they failed. Following his father's death, his financial situation became difficult and he accepted a job as a drawing teacher for the Paars, a notable family that was instrumental in establishing the Austro-Hungarian Postal Service. After two years, in 1851, he took a similar position with the Count of Hoyos in Lower Austria. His duties there involved travelling in Northern Italy and Campania. He returned to Vienna in 1861, where he continued to be an art instructor for noble families. After 1869, he was engaged by the Imperial Family and taught painting to Crown Prince Rudolf. As a result, in 1880, he was appointed Custodian of the Imperial Galleries, a position he held until his retirement in 1895, when he returned to Bohemia to live with his niece in Ústí nad Orlicí. He spent so many years in Vienna that he was generally considered to be an Austrian painter. His first major exhibition in his homeland did not come until 1902."
]
}
|
Transpiration
| null |
Transpiration is the process of water movement through a plant and its evaporation from aerial parts, such as leaves, stems and flowers. Water is necessary for plants but only a small amount of water taken up by the roots is used for growth and metabolism. The remaining 97–99.5% is lost by transpiration and guttation. Leaf surfaces are dotted with pores called stomata, and in most plants they are more numerous on the undersides of the foliage. The stomata are bordered by guard cells and their stomatal accessory cells (together known as stomatal complex) that open and close the pore. Transpiration occurs through the stomatal apertures, and can be thought of as a necessary "cost" associated with the opening of the stomata to allow the diffusion of carbon dioxide gas from the air for photosynthesis. Transpiration also cools plants, changes osmotic pressure of cells, and enables mass flow of mineral nutrients and water from roots to shoots. Two major factors influence the rate of water flow from the soil to the roots: the hydraulic conductivity of the soil and the magnitude of the pressure gradient through the soil. Both of these factors influence the rate of bulk flow of water moving from the roots to the stomatal pores in the leaves via the xylem.
| null |
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] | null | null |
en-train-1538570
|
en-train-1538570
|
1538570
|
{
"title": [
"Regulation.",
"Cavitation."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Plants regulate the rate of transpiration by controlling the size of the stomatal apertures. The rate of transpiration is also influenced by the evaporative demand of the atmosphere surrounding the leaf such as boundary layer conductance, humidity, temperature, wind and incident sunlight. Along with above ground factors, soil temperature and moisture can influence stomatal opening, and thus transpiration rate. The amount of water lost by a plant also depends on its size and the amount of water absorbed at the roots. Transpiration accounts for most of the water loss by a plant by the leaves and young stems. Transpiration serves to evaporatively cool plants, as the evaporating water carries away heat energy due to its large latent heat of vaporization of 2260 kJ per litre. During a growing season, a leaf will transpire many times more water than its own weight. An acre of corn gives off about 3,000–4,000 gallons (11,400–15,100 liters) of water each day, and a large oak tree can transpire 40,000 gallons (151,000 liters) per year. The transpiration ratio is the ratio of the mass of water transpired to the mass of dry matter produced; the transpiration ratio of crops tends to fall between 200 and 1000 (\"i.e.\", crop plants transpire 200 to 1000 kg of water for every kg of dry matter produced). Transpiration rates of plants can be measured by a number of techniques, including potometers, lysimeters, porometers, photosynthesis systems and thermometric sap flow sensors. Isotope measurements indicate transpiration is the larger component of evapotranspiration. Recent evidence from a global study of water stable isotopes shows that transpired water is isotopically different from groundwater and streams. This suggests that soil water is not as well mixed as widely assumed. Desert plants have specially adapted structures, such as thick cuticles, reduced leaf areas, sunken stomata and hairs to reduce transpiration and conserve water. Many cacti conduct photosynthesis in succulent stems, rather than leaves, so the surface area of the shoot is very low. Many desert plants have a special type of photosynthesis, termed crassulacean acid metabolism or CAM photosynthesis, in which the stomata are closed during the day and open at night when transpiration will be lower.",
"To maintain the pressure gradient necessary for a plant to remain healthy they must continuously uptake water with their roots. They need to be able to meet the demands of water lost due to transpiration. If a plant is incapable of bringing in enough water to remain in equilibrium with transpiration an event known as cavitation occurs. Cavitation is when the plant cannot supply its xylem with adequate water so instead of being filled with water the xylem begins to be filled with water vapor. These particles of water vapor come together and form blockages within the xylem of the plant. This prevents the plant from being able to transport water throughout its vascular system. There is no apparent pattern of where cavitation occurs throughout the plant's xylem. If not effectively taken care of, cavitation can cause a plant to reach its permanent wilting point, and die. Therefore, the plant must have a method by which to remove this cavitation blockage, or it must create a new connection of vascular tissue throughout the plant. The plant does this by closing its stomates overnight, which halts the flow of transpiration. This then allows for the roots to generate over 0.05 mPa of pressure, and that is capable of destroying the blockage and refilling the xylem with water, reconnecting the vascular system. If a plant is unable to generate enough pressure to eradicate the blockage it must prevent the blockage from spreading with the use of pit pears and then create new xylem that can re-connect the vascular system of the plant. Scientists have begun using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) to monitor the internal status of the xylem during transpiration, in a non invasive manner. This method of imaging allows for scientists to visualize the movement of water throughout the entirety of the plant. It also is capable of viewing what phase the water is in while in the xylem, which makes it possible to visualize cavitation events. Scientists were able to see that over the course of 20 hours of sunlight more than 10 xylem vessels began filling with gas particles becoming cavitated. MRI technology also made it possible to view the process by which the plant was able to repair these xylem structures. After three hours in darkness it was seen that the plant was able to resupply its vascular tissue with liquid water. This was possible because in darkness the stomates of the plant are closed and transpiration no longer occurs. When transpiration is halted the plant can destroy the cavitation bubbles with the use of pressure generated by the roots. These observations suggest that MRIs are capable of monitoring the functional status of xylem and allows scientists to view cavitation events for the first time."
]
}
|
William Henry Harrison
| null |
William Henry Harrison (February 9, 1773 – April 4, 1841) was an American military officer and politician who served as the ninth president of the United States in 1841. He died of typhoid, pneumonia or paratyphoid fever 31 days into his term (the shortest tenure), becoming the first president to die in office. His death sparked a brief constitutional crisis regarding succession to the presidency, because the Constitution was unclear as to whether Vice President John Tyler should assume the office of president or merely execute the duties of the vacant office. Tyler claimed a constitutional mandate to become the new president and took the presidential oath of office, setting an important precedent for an orderly transfer of the presidency and its full powers when the previous president fails to complete the elected term.
| null |
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en-train-1574547
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en-train-1574547
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1574547
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{
"title": [
"Early life and education.",
"Early military career.",
"Marriage and family.",
"Political career.",
"U.S. Congress.",
"Indiana territorial governor.",
"Army general.",
"Tecumseh and Tippecanoe.",
"War of 1812.",
"Postwar life.",
"Ohio politician.",
"Private citizen.",
"1836 presidential campaign.",
"1840 presidential campaign.",
"Presidency (1841).",
"Shortest presidency.",
"Death and funeral.",
"Impact of death.",
"Legacy.",
"Historical reputation.",
"Honors and tributes."
],
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"content": [
"Harrison was the seventh and youngest child of Benjamin Harrison V and Elizabeth (Bassett) Harrison, born on February 9, 1773 at Berkeley Plantation, the Harrison family home along the James River in Charles City County, Virginia. He was a member of a prominent political family of English descent whose ancestors had been in Virginia since the 1630s and the last American president born as a British subject. His father was a Virginia planter who served as a delegate to the Continental Congress (1774–1777) and who signed the Declaration of Independence. His father also served in the Virginia legislature and as the fifth governor of Virginia (1781–1784) in the years during and after the American Revolutionary War. Harrison's older brother Carter Bassett Harrison represented Virginia in the House of Representatives (1793–1799). Harrison was tutored at home until age 14 when he entered Hampden–Sydney College, a Presbyterian college in Virginia. He studied there for three years, receiving a classical education which included Latin, Greek, French, logic, and debate. His Episcopalian father removed him from the college, possibly for religious reasons, and he briefly attended a boys' academy in Southampton County, Virginia before being transferred to Philadelphia in 1790. He boarded with Robert Morris and entered the University of Pennsylvania in April 1791, where he studied medicine under Doctor Benjamin Rush and William Shippen Sr. His father died in the spring of 1791, shortly after he began his medical studies. He was only 18 and Morris became his guardian; he also discovered that his family's financial situation left him without funds for further schooling, so he abandoned medical school in favor of a military career after being persuaded by Governor Henry Lee III, a friend of Harrison's father.",
"On August 16, 1791, Harrison was commissioned as an ensign in the Army in the 1st Infantry Regiment within 24 hours of meeting Lee. He was 18 years old at the time. He was initially assigned to Fort Washington, Cincinnati in the Northwest Territory where the army was engaged in the ongoing Northwest Indian War. Harrison was promoted to lieutenant after Major General \"Mad Anthony\" Wayne took command of the western army in 1792 following a disastrous defeat under Arthur St. Clair. In 1793, he became Wayne's aide-de-camp and",
"Harrison met Anna Tuthill Symmes of North Bend, Ohio in 1795 when he was 22. She was a daughter of Anna Tuthill and Judge John Cleves Symmes, who served as a colonel in the Revolutionary War and a representative to the Congress of the Confederation. Harrison asked the judge for permission to marry Anna but was refused, so the couple waited until Symmes left on business. They then eloped and were married on November 25, 1795 at the North Bend home of Dr. Stephen Wood, treasurer of the Northwest Territory. They honeymooned at Fort Washington, since Harrison was still on military duty. Judge Symmes confronted him two weeks later",
"Harrison began his political career when he resigned from the military on June 1, 1798 and campaigned among his friends and family for a post in the Northwest Territorial government. His close friend Timothy Pickering was serving as Secretary of State, and he helped him to get a recommendation to replace Winthrop Sargent, the outgoing territorial secretary. President John Adams appointed Harrison to the position in July 1798. He also frequently served as acting territorial governor during the absences of Governor Arthur St. Clair.",
"Harrison had many friends in the eastern aristocracy and quickly gained a reputation among them as a frontier leader. He ran a successful horse-breeding enterprise that won him acclaim throughout the Northwest Territory. Congress had legislated a territorial policy which led to high land costs, and this became a primary concern for settlers in the Territory; Harrison became their champion to lower those prices. The Northwest Territory's population reached a sufficient number to have a delegate in Congress in October 1799, and Harrison ran for election. He campaigned to encourage further migration to the territory, which eventually led to statehood. Harrison defeated Arthur St. Clair Jr. by one vote to become the Northwest Territory's first congressional delegate in 1798 at age 26. He served in the Sixth United States Congress from March 4, 1799 to May 14, 1800. He had no authority to vote on legislative bills, but he was permitted to serve on a",
"Harrison began his duties on January 10, 1801 at Vincennes, the capital of the Indiana Territory. Presidents Thomas Jefferson and James Madison were both members of the Democratic-Republican Party, and they reappointed him as governor in 1803, 1806, and 1809. He resigned on December 28, 1812 to resume his military career during the War of 1812. Harrison was assigned to administer the civilian government of the District of Louisiana in 1804, a part of the Louisiana Territory that included land north of the 33rd parallel. In October, a civilian government went into effect and Harrison served as the Louisiana district's executive leader. He administered the district's affairs for five weeks until the Louisiana Territory was formally established on July 4, 1805, and Brigadier General James Wilkinson assumed the duties of governor. In 1805, Harrison built a plantation-style home",
"",
"An Indian resistance movement had been growing against American expansion through the leadership of Shawnee brothers Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa (The Prophet) in a conflict that became known as Tecumseh's War. Tenskwatawa convinced the tribes that they would be protected by the Great Spirit and no harm could befall them if they would rise up against the settlers. He encouraged resistance by telling the tribes to pay white traders only half of what they owed and to give up all the white man's ways, including their clothing, muskets, and especially whiskey. In August 1810, Tecumseh led 400 warriors down the Wabash River to meet with Harrison in Vincennes. They were dressed in war paint, and their sudden appearance at first",
"The outbreak of war with the British in 1812 led to continued conflict with Indians in the Northwest. Harrison briefly served as a major general in the Kentucky militia until the government commissioned him on September 17 to command the Army of the Northwest. He received federal military pay for his service, and he also collected a territorial governor's salary from September until December 28, when he formally resigned as governor and continued his military service. The Americans suffered a defeat in the Siege of Detroit. General James Winchester offered Harrison the rank of brigadier general, but Harrison also wanted sole command of the army. President James Madison removed Winchester from command in September, and Harrison became commander of the fresh recruits. The British and their Indian allies greatly outnumbered Harrison's troops, so Harrison constructed a defensive position during the winter along the Maumee River in northwest Ohio. He named it Fort Meigs in honor of Ohio governor Return",
"",
"John Gibson replaced Harrison as Indiana territorial governor in 1812, and Harrison resigned from the army in 1814 and returned to his family in North Bend. He cultivated his land and enlarged the log cabin farmhouse, but he soon returned to public life. He was elected in 1816 to complete John McLean's term in the House of Representatives, where he represented Ohio's 1st congressional district from October 8, 1816 to March 3, 1819. He declined to serve as Secretary of War under President Monroe in 1817. He was elected to the Ohio State Senate in 1819 and served until 1821, having lost the election for Ohio governor in 1820. He ran for a seat in the House but in 1822 lost by 500 votes to James W. Gazlay. He was elected to",
"Harrison returned to the United States from Colombia and settled on his farm in North Bend, Ohio, living in relative retirement after nearly four decades of government service. He had accumulated no substantial wealth during his lifetime, and he subsisted on his savings, a small pension, and the income produced by his farm. He cultivated corn and established a distillery to produce whiskey, but he became disturbed by the effects of alcohol on its consumers and closed the distillery. In an address to the Hamilton County Agricultural Board in 1831, he said that he had sinned in making",
"Harrison was the Northern Whig candidate for president in 1836, one of only two times in American history when a major political party intentionally ran more than one presidential candidate (the Democrats ran two candidates in 1860). Vice President Martin Van Buren was the Democratic candidate, and he was popular and deemed likely to win the election against a single Whig candidate. The Whig plan was to elect popular Whigs regionally, deny Van Buren the 148 electoral votes needed for election, and force the House",
"Harrison was the Whig candidate and faced incumbent Van Buren in the 1840 election. He was chosen over more controversial members of the party, such as Clay and Webster, and based his campaign on his military record and on the weak U.S. economy caused by the Panic of 1837. The Whigs nicknamed Van Buren \"Van Ruin\" in order to blame him for the economic problems. The Democrats, in turn, ridiculed Harrison by calling him \"Granny Harrison, the petticoat general\" because he resigned from the army before the War of 1812 ended. They would ask voters what Harrison's name would be when spelled backwards: \"No Sirrah\". They also cast him as a provincial, out-of-touch old man who would rather \"sit in his log cabin drinking hard cider\" than attend to the administration of the country. This strategy backfired when Harrison and",
"",
"Harrison's wife Anna was too ill to travel when he left Ohio for his inauguration, and she decided not to accompany him to Washington. He asked his late son's widow Jane to accompany him and act as hostess until Anna's proposed arrival in May. When Harrison came to Washington, he wanted to show that he was still the steadfast hero of Tippecanoe and that he was a better educated and more thoughtful man than the backwoods caricature portrayed in the campaign. He took the oath of office on Thursday, March 4, 1841, a cold and wet day. He braved the cold weather and chose not to wear an overcoat or a hat, rode on horseback to the ceremony rather than in the closed carriage that had been offered him, and delivered the longest inaugural address in American history at 8,445 words. It took him nearly two",
"On March 26, 1841, Harrison became ill with cold-like symptoms. His symptoms grew progressively worse over the next two days, at which time a team of doctors was called in to treat him. The prevailing misconception at the time was that his illness had been caused by the bad weather at his inauguration three weeks earlier. The doctors diagnosed him with right lower lobe pneumonia, then placed heated suction cups on his bare torso and administered a series of bloodlettings to draw out the disease. Those procedures failed to bring about improvement, so the doctors treated him with ipecac, castor oil, calomel, and finally with a boiled mixture of crude petroleum and Virginia snakeroot. All this only weakened Harrison further. Initially, no official announcement was made concerning Harrison's illness, which fueled public speculation and concern the longer he remained out of public view. By the end of the month, large crowds were gathering outside the White House, holding vigil while awaiting any news about the president's condition. Harrison died on April 4, 1841, nine days after becoming ill and exactly one month after taking the oath of office; he was the first president to die in office. Jane McHugh and Philip A. Mackowiak did an analysis in \"Clinical Infectious Diseases\" (2014), examining Dr. Miller's notes and records of the White House water supply being downstream of public sewage, and they concluded that he likely died of septic shock due to \"enteric fever\" (typhoid or paratyphoid fever). His last words were to his attending doctor, though assumed to be directed at Vice President John Tyler: A 30-day period of mourning commenced following the president's death. The White House hosted various public ceremonies, modeled after European royal funeral practices. An \"invitation only\" funeral service was also held on April 7 in the East Room of the White House, after which Harrison's coffin was brought to Congressional Cemetery in Washington, D.C. where it was placed in the Public Vault. Solomon Northup gave an account of the procession in \"Twelve Years a Slave\": That June, Harrison's body was transported by train and river barge to North Bend, Ohio, and he was buried on July 7 in a family tomb at the summit of Mt. Nebo overlooking the Ohio River which is now the William Henry Harrison Tomb State Memorial.",
"Harrison's death called attention to an ambiguity in of the Constitution regarding succession to the presidency. The Constitution clearly provided for the vice president to take over the \"powers and duties\" of the presidency in the event of a president's removal, death, resignation, or inability, but it was unclear whether the vice president formally became president of the United States, or simply temporarily assumed the powers and duties of that office, in a case of succession. Harrison's cabinet insisted that Tyler was \"Vice President acting as President\". Tyler was resolute in his claim to the title of President and in his determination to exercise the full powers of the presidency. The cabinet consulted",
"",
"Among Harrison's most enduring legacies is the series of treaties that he either negotiated or signed with Indian leaders during his tenure as the Indiana territorial governor. As part of the treaty negotiations, the tribes ceded large tracts of land in the west which provided additional acreage for purchase and settlement. Harrison's long-term impact on American politics includes his campaigning methods, which laid the foundation for modern presidential campaign tactics. He was also the first president to have his photograph taken while having incumbency. The image was made in Washington, D.C. on his",
"On February 19, 2009, the U.S. Mint released the ninth coin in the Presidential $1 Coin Program, bearing Harrison's likeness. A total of 98,420,000 coins were minted. Several monuments and memorial statues have been erected in tribute to Harrison. There are public statues of him in downtown Indianapolis, Cincinnati's Piatt Park,"
]
}
|
TrueCrypt
| null |
TrueCrypt is a discontinued source-available freeware utility used for on-the-fly encryption (OTFE). It can create a virtual encrypted disk within a file, or encrypt a partition or the whole storage device (pre-boot authentication).
| null |
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en-train-1557857
|
en-train-1557857
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1557857
|
{
"title": [
"History.",
"E4M and SecurStar dispute.",
"Version 2.0.",
"End of life announcement.",
"Alternatives.",
"CipherShed.",
"VeraCrypt.",
"tc-play.",
"Operating systems.",
"Independent implementations.",
"Encryption scheme.",
"Algorithms.",
"Modes of operation.",
"Keys.",
"Plausible deniability.",
"Identifying TrueCrypt volumes.",
"Performance.",
"Incompatibility with FlexNet Publisher and SafeCast.",
"Security concerns.",
"Encryption keys stored in memory.",
"Physical security.",
"Malware.",
"The \"Stoned\" bootkit.",
"Trusted Platform Module.",
"Security audits.",
"Legal cases.",
"Operation Satyagraha.",
"\"United States v. John Doe\".",
"David Miranda.",
"James DeSilva.",
"Lauri Love.",
"Druking.",
"License and source model.",
"End of life and license version 3.1.",
"Trademarks."
],
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"2",
"2",
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"content": [
"TrueCrypt was initially released as version 1.0 in February 2004, based on E4M (Encryption for the Masses). Several versions and many additional minor releases have been made since then, with the most current version being 7.1a.",
"Original release of TrueCrypt was made by anonymous developers called \"the TrueCrypt Team\". Shortly after version 1.0 was released in 2004, the TrueCrypt Team reported receiving email from Wilfried Hafner, manager of SecurStar, a computer security company. According to the TrueCrypt Team, Hafner claimed in the email that the acknowledged author of E4M, developer Paul Le Roux, had stolen the source code from SecurStar as an employee. It was further stated that Le Roux illegally distributed E4M, and authored an illegal license permitting anyone to base derivative work on the code and distribute it freely. Hafner alleges all versions of E4M always belonged only to SecurStar, and Le Roux did not have any right to release it under such a license. This led the TrueCrypt Team to immediately stop developing and distributing TrueCrypt, which they announced online through usenet. TrueCrypt Team member David Tesařík stated that Le Roux informed the team that there was a legal dispute between himself and SecurStar, and that he received legal advisement not to comment on any issues of the case. Tesařík concluded that should the TrueCrypt Team continue distributing TrueCrypt, Le Roux may ultimately be held liable and be forced to pay consequent damages to SecurStar. To continue in good faith, he said, the team would need to verify the validity of the E4M license. However, because of Le Roux's need to remain silent on the matter, he was unable to confirm or deny its legitimacy, keeping TrueCrypt development in limbo. Thereafter, would-be visitors reported trouble accessing the TrueCrypt website, and 3rd party mirrors appeared online making the source code and installer continually available, outside of official sanction by the TrueCrypt Team. In the FAQ section of its website, SecurStar maintains its claims of ownership over both E4M and Scramdisk, another free encryption program. The company states that with those products, SecurStar \"had a long tradition of open source software\", but that \"competitors had nothing better to do but to steal our source code\", causing the company to make its products closed-source, forcing potential customers to place a substantial order and sign a non-disclosure agreement before being allowed to review the code for security. Le Roux himself has denied developing TrueCrypt in a court hearing in March 2016, in which he also confirmed he had written E4M.",
"Months later on 7 June 2004, TrueCrypt 2.0 was released. The new version contained a different digital signature from that of the original TrueCrypt Team, with the developers now being referred to as \"the TrueCrypt Foundation.\" The software license was also changed to the open source GNU General Public License (GPL). However, given the wide range of components with differing licenses making up the software, and the contested nature of the legality of the program's release, a few weeks later on 21 June, version 2.1 was released under the original E4M license to avoid potential problems relating to the GPL license. Version 2.1a of the software was released on 1 October 2004 on codice_1 sub-domain. By May 2005, the original TrueCrypt website returned and codice_1 redirected visitors to codice_3.",
"On 28 May 2014, the TrueCrypt official website, codice_3, began redirecting visitors to codice_1 with a HTTP 301 \"Moved Permanently\" status, which warned that the software may contain unfixed security issues, and that development of TrueCrypt was ended in May 2014, following Windows XP's end of support. The message noted that more recent versions of Windows have built-in support for disk encryption using BitLocker, and that Linux and OS X had similar built-in solutions, which the message states renders TrueCrypt unnecessary. The page recommends any data encrypted by TrueCrypt be migrated to other encryption setups and offered instructions on moving to BitLocker. The SourceForge project page for the software at codice_6 was updated to display the same initial message, and the status was changed to \"inactive.\" The page also announced a new software version, 7.2, which only allows decryption. Initially, the authenticity of the announcement and new software was questioned. Multiple theories attempting to explain the reason behind the announcement arose throughout the tech community. Shortly after the end of life announcement of TrueCrypt, Gibson Research Corporation posted an announcement titled \"Yes... TrueCrypt is still safe to use\" and a Final Release Repository to host the last official non-crippled version 7.1a of TrueCrypt.",
"TrueCrypt may still be used on supported platforms. There are at least two TrueCrypt forks, one Free Software re-implementation as well as open-source and commercial alternatives.",
"As of June 2014, there is also a software fork named CipherShed, with resources and infrastructure funded by codice_7, developed by codice_8, and audited by a crowdfunded security audit team (c.f. ). The latest version of the CipherShed is 0.7.4.0, released in.",
"VeraCrypt is a fork of TrueCrypt. Security improvements have been implemented and issues raised by the TrueCrypt code audit just before the TrueCrypt developers retired have been addressed.",
"tc-play is an independently developed open-source implementation of the TrueCrypt format. It is a free command-line implementation available for Linux and DragonFly BSD under BSD license. Its disk encryption method and container format are managed by Linux Kernel via dm-crypt module. ZuluCrypt, a graphical front end for tc-play, is available on several Linux distributions.",
"TrueCrypt supports Windows, OS X and Linux operating systems. Both 32-bit and 64-bit versions of these operating systems are supported, except for Windows IA-64 (not supported) and Mac OS X 10.6 Snow Leopard (runs as a 32-bit process). The version for Windows 7, Windows Vista, and Windows XP can encrypt the boot partition or entire boot drive.",
"There is an independent, compatible implementation, tcplay, for DragonFly BSD and Linux. The Dm-crypt module included in default Linux kernel supports a \"TrueCrypt\" target called \"tcw\" since Linux version 3.13.",
"",
"Individual ciphers supported by TrueCrypt are AES, Serpent, and Twofish. Additionally, five different combinations of cascaded algorithms are available: AES-Twofish, AES-Twofish-Serpent, Serpent-AES, Serpent-Twofish-AES and Twofish-Serpent. The cryptographic hash functions available for use in TrueCrypt are RIPEMD-160, SHA-512, and Whirlpool.",
"TrueCrypt currently uses the XTS mode of operation. Prior to this, TrueCrypt used LRW mode in versions 4.1 through 4.3a, and CBC mode in versions 4.0 and earlier. XTS mode is thought to be more secure than LRW mode, which in turn is more secure than CBC mode. Although new volumes can only be created in XTS mode, TrueCrypt is backward compatible with older volumes using LRW mode and CBC mode. Later versions produce a security warning when mounting CBC mode volumes and recommend that they be replaced with new volumes in XTS mode.",
"The header key and the secondary header key (XTS mode) are generated using PBKDF2 with a 512-bit salt and 1000 or 2000 iterations, depending on the underlying hash function used.",
"TrueCrypt supports a concept called plausible deniability, by allowing a single \"hidden volume\" to be created within another volume. In addition, the Windows versions of TrueCrypt have the ability to create and run a hidden encrypted operating system whose existence may be denied. The TrueCrypt documentation lists many ways in which TrueCrypt's hidden volume deniability features may be compromised (e.g. by third party software which may leak information through temporary files, thumbnails, etc., to unencrypted disks) and possible ways to avoid this. In a paper published in 2008 and focused on the then latest version (v5.1a) and its plausible deniability, a team of security researchers led by Bruce Schneier states that Windows Vista, Microsoft Word, Google Desktop, and others store information on unencrypted disks, which might compromise TrueCrypt's plausible deniability. The study suggested the addition of a hidden operating system functionality; this feature was added in TrueCrypt 6.0. When a hidden operating system is running, TrueCrypt also makes local unencrypted filesystems and non-hidden TrueCrypt volumes read-only to prevent data leaks. The security of TrueCrypt's implementation of this feature was not evaluated because the first version of TrueCrypt with this option had only recently been released. There was a functional evaluation of the deniability of hidden volumes in an earlier version of TrueCrypt by Schneier et al. that found security leaks.",
"When analyzed, TrueCrypt volumes appear to have no header and contain random data. TrueCrypt volumes have sizes that are multiples of 512 due to the block size of the cipher mode and key data is either 512 bytes stored separately in the case of system encryption or two 128 kB headers for non-system containers. Forensics tools may use these properties of file size, apparent lack of a header, and randomness tests to attempt to identify TrueCrypt volumes. Although these features give reason to suspect a file to be a TrueCrypt volume, there are, however, some programs which exist for the purpose of securely erasing files by employing a method of overwriting file contents, and free disk space, with purely random data (i.e. \"shred\" & \"scrub\"), thereby creating reasonable doubt to counter pointed accusations declaring a file, made of statistically random data, to be a TrueCrypt file. If a system drive, or a partition on it, has been encrypted with TrueCrypt, then only the data on that partition is deniable. When the TrueCrypt boot loader replaces the normal boot loader, an offline analysis of the drive can positively determine that a TrueCrypt boot loader is present and so lead to the logical inference that a TrueCrypt partition is also present. Even though there are features to obfuscate its purpose (i.e. displaying a BIOS-like message to misdirect an observer such as, \"Non-system disk\" or \"disk error\"), these reduce the functionality of the TrueCrypt boot loader and do not hide the content of the TrueCrypt boot loader from offline analysis. Here again, the use of a hidden operating system is the suggested method for retaining deniability.",
"TrueCrypt supports parallelized encryption for multi-core systems and, under Microsoft Windows, pipelined read/write operations (a form of asynchronous processing) to reduce the performance hit of encryption and decryption. On newer processors supporting the AES-NI instruction set, TrueCrypt supports hardware-accelerated AES to further improve performance. The performance impact of disk encryption is especially noticeable on operations which would normally use direct memory access (DMA), as all data must pass through the CPU for decryption, rather than being copied directly from disk to RAM. In a test carried out by \"Tom's Hardware\", although TrueCrypt is slower compared to an unencrypted disk, the overhead of real-time encryption was found to be similar regardless of whether mid-range or state-of-the-art hardware is in use, and this impact was \"quite acceptable\". In another article the performance cost was found to be unnoticeable when working with \"popular desktop applications in a reasonable manner\", but it was noted that \"power users will complain\".",
"Installing third-party software which uses FlexNet Publisher or SafeCast (which are used for preventing software piracy on products by Adobe such as Adobe Photoshop) can damage the TrueCrypt bootloader on Windows partitions/drives encrypted by TrueCrypt and render the drive unbootable. This is caused by the inappropriate design of FlexNet Publisher writing to the first drive track and overwriting whatever non-Windows bootloader exists there.",
"TrueCrypt is vulnerable to various known attacks which are also present in other software-based disk encryption software such as BitLocker. To prevent those, the documentation distributed with TrueCrypt requires users to follow various security precautions. Some of those attacks are detailed below.",
"TrueCrypt stores its keys in RAM; on an ordinary personal computer the DRAM will maintain its contents for several seconds after power is cut (or longer if the temperature is lowered). Even if there is some degradation in the memory contents, various algorithms can intelligently recover the keys. This method, known as a cold boot attack (which would apply in particular to a notebook computer obtained while in power-on, suspended, or screen-locked mode), has been successfully used to attack a file system protected by TrueCrypt.",
"TrueCrypt documentation states that TrueCrypt is unable to secure data on a computer if an attacker physically accessed it and TrueCrypt is used on the compromised computer by the user again (this does not apply to a common case of a stolen, lost, or confiscated computer). The attacker having physical access to a computer can, for example, install a hardware/software keylogger, a bus-mastering device capturing memory, or install any other malicious hardware or software, allowing the attacker to capture unencrypted data (including encryption keys and passwords), or to decrypt encrypted data using captured passwords or encryption keys. Therefore, physical security is a basic premise of a secure system. Attacks such as this are often called \"evil maid attacks\".",
"TrueCrypt documentation states that TrueCrypt cannot secure data on a computer if it has any kind of malware installed. Malware may log keystrokes, thus exposing passwords to an attacker.",
"The \"Stoned\" bootkit, an MBR rootkit presented by Austrian software developer Peter Kleissner at the Black Hat Technical Security Conference USA 2009, has been shown capable of tampering TrueCrypt's MBR, effectively bypassing TrueCrypt's full volume encryption. Potentially every hard disk encryption software is affected by this kind of attack if the encryption software does not rely on hardware-based encryption technologies like TPM, or if the attack is made with administrative privileges while the encrypted operating system is running. Two types of attack scenarios exist in which it is possible to maliciously take advantage of this bootkit: in the first one, the user is required to launch the bootkit with administrative privileges once the PC has already booted into Windows; in the second one, analogously to hardware keyloggers, a malicious person needs physical access to the user's TrueCrypt-encrypted hard disk: in this context this is needed to modify the user's TrueCrypt MBR with that of the Stoned bootkit and then place the hard disk back on the unknowing user's PC, so that when the user boots the PC and types his/her TrueCrypt password on boot, the \"Stoned\" bootkit intercepts it thereafter because, from that moment on, the Stoned bootkit is loaded before TrueCrypt's MBR in the boot sequence. The first type of attack can be prevented as usual by good security practices, e.g. avoid running non-trusted executables with administrative privileges. The second one can be successfully neutralized by the user if he/she suspects that the encrypted hard disk might have been physically available to someone he/she does not trust, by booting the encrypted operating system with TrueCrypt's Rescue Disk instead of booting it directly from the hard disk. With the rescue disk, the user can restore TrueCrypt's MBR to the hard disk.",
"The FAQ section of the TrueCrypt website states that the Trusted Platform Module (TPM) cannot be relied upon for security, because if the attacker has physical or administrative access to the computer and you use it afterwards, the computer could have been modified by the attacker e.g. a malicious component—such as a hardware keystroke logger—could have been used to capture the password or other sensitive information. Since the TPM does not prevent an attacker from maliciously modifying the computer, TrueCrypt will not support the TPM.",
"In 2013 a graduate student at Concordia University published a detailed online report, in which he states that he has confirmed the integrity of the distributed Windows binaries of version 7.1a. A crowdfunding campaign attempting to conduct an independent security audit of TrueCrypt was successfully funded in October 2013. A non-profit organization called the Open Crypto Audit Project (OCAP) was formed, calling itself \"a community-driven global initiative which grew out of the first comprehensive public audit and cryptanalysis of the widely used encryption software TrueCrypt\". The organization established contact with TrueCrypt developers, who welcomed the audit. Phase I of the audit was successfully completed on 14 April 2014, finding \"no evidence of backdoors or malicious code\". Matthew D. Green, one of the auditors, added \"I think it's good that we didn't find anything super critical.\" One day after TrueCrypt's end of life announcement, OCAP confirmed that the audit would continue as planned, with Phase II expected to begin in June 2014 and wrap up by the end of September. The Phase II audit was delayed, but was completed 2 April 2015 by NCC Cryptography Services. This audit \"found no evidence of deliberate backdoors, or any severe design flaws that will make the software insecure in most instances.\" The French National Agency for the Security of Information Systems (ANSSI) stated that while TrueCrypt 6.0 and 7.1a have previously attained ANSSI certification, migration to an alternate certified product is recommended as a precautionary measure. According to Gibson Research Corporation, Steven Barnhart wrote to an email address for a TrueCrypt Foundation member he had used in the past and received several replies from \"David\". According to Barnhart, the main points of the email messages were that the TrueCrypt Foundation was \"happy with the audit, it didn't spark anything\", and that the reason for the announcement was that \"there is no longer interest [in maintaining the project].\" According to a study released 29 September 2015, TrueCrypt includes two vulnerabilities in the driver that TrueCrypt installs on Windows systems allowing an attacker arbitrary code execution and privilege escalation via DLL hijacking. In January 2016, the vulnerability was fixed in VeraCrypt, but it remains unpatched in TrueCrypt's unmaintained installers.",
"",
"In July 2008, several TrueCrypt-secured hard drives were seized from Brazilian banker Daniel Dantas, who was suspected of financial crimes. The Brazilian National Institute of Criminology (INC) tried unsuccessfully for five months to obtain access to his files on the TrueCrypt-protected disks. They enlisted the help of the FBI, who used dictionary attacks against Dantas' disks for over 12 months, but were still unable to decrypt them.",
"In 2012 the United States 11th Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that a \"John Doe\" TrueCrypt user could not be compelled to decrypt several of his hard drives. The court's ruling noted that FBI forensic examiners were unable to get past TrueCrypt's encryption (and therefore were unable to access the data) unless Doe either decrypted the drives or gave the FBI the password, and the court then ruled that Doe's Fifth Amendment right to remain silent legally prevented the Government from making him or her do so.",
"On 18 August 2013 David Miranda, partner of journalist Glenn Greenwald, was detained at London's Heathrow Airport by Metropolitan Police while en route to Rio de Janeiro from Berlin. He was carrying with him an external hard drive said to be containing sensitive documents pertaining to the 2013 global surveillance disclosures sparked by Edward Snowden. Contents of the drive were encrypted by TrueCrypt, which authorities said \"renders the material extremely difficult to access.\" Detective Superintendent Caroline Goode stated the hard drive contained around 60 gigabytes of data, \"of which only 20 have been accessed to date.\" She further stated the process to decode the material was complex and \"so far only 75 documents have been reconstructed since the property was initially received.\" \"Guardian\" contributor Naomi Colvin concluded the statements were misleading, stating that it was possible Goode was not even referring to any actual encrypted material, but rather deleted files reconstructed from unencrypted, unallocated space on the hard drive, or even plaintext documents from Miranda's personal effects. Glenn Greenwald supported this assessment in an interview with \"Democracy Now!\", mentioning that the UK government filed an affidavit asking the court to allow them to retain possession of Miranda's belongings. The grounds for the request were that they could not break the encryption, and were only able to access 75 of the documents that he was carrying, which Greenwald said \"most of which were probably ones related to his school work and personal use.\"",
"In February 2014, an Arizona Department of Real Estate IT department employee, James DeSilva, was arrested on charges of sexual exploitation of a minor through the sharing of explicit images over the Internet. His computer, encrypted with TrueCrypt, was seized, and DeSilva refused to reveal the password. Forensics detectives from the Maricopa County Sheriff's Office were unable to gain access to his stored files.",
"In October 2013, British–Finnish activist Lauri Love was arrested by the National Crime Agency (NCA) on charges of hacking into a US department or agency computer and one count of conspiring to do the same. The government confiscated all of his electronics and demanded he provide them with the necessary keys to decrypt the devices. Love refused. On 10 May 2016 a District Judge (Magistrate's Court) rejected a request by the NCA that Love be forced to turn over his encryption keys or passwords to TrueCrypt files on an SD card and hard drives that were among the confiscated property.",
"In the special prosecutor investigation for Druking in South Korea, the special prosecutor decrypted some of the files encrypted by TrueCrypt by guessing the passphrase. The special prosecutor said the hidden volumes were especially difficult to deal with. He decrypted some of encrypted files by trying words and phrases the druking group had used elsewhere as parts of the passphrase in order to make educated guesses.",
"TrueCrypt was released under the source-available \"TrueCrypt License\" which is unique to the TrueCrypt software. It is not part of the panoply of widely used open source licenses and is not a free software license according to the Free Software Foundation (FSF) license list, as it contains distribution and copyright-liability restrictions. As of version 7.1a (the last full version of the software, released Feb 2012), the TrueCrypt License was version 3.0. Discussion of the licensing terms on the Open Source Initiative (OSI)'s license-discuss mailing list in October 2013 suggests that the TrueCrypt License has made progress towards compliance with the Open Source Definition but would not yet pass if proposed for certification as Open Source software. According to current OSI president Simon Phipps: ...it is not at all appropriate for [TrueCrypt] to describe itself as \"open source.\" This use of the term \"open source\" to describe something under a license that's not only unapproved by OSI but known to be subject to issues is unacceptable. As a result of its questionable status with regard to copyright restrictions and other potential legal issues, the TrueCrypt License is not considered \"free\" by several major Linux distributions and is therefore not included in Debian, Ubuntu, Fedora, or openSUSE. The wording of the license raises doubts whether those who use it have the right to modify it and use it within other projects. Cryptographer Matthew Green noted that \"There are a lot of things [the developers] could have done to make it easier for people to take over this code, including fixing the licensing situation\", and speculates that since they didn't do those things (including making the license more friendly), their intent was to prevent anyone from building on their code in the future.",
"28 May 2014 announcement of discontinuation of TrueCrypt also came with a new version 7.2 of the software. Among the many changes to the source code from the previous release were changes to the TrueCrypt License — including removal of specific language that required attribution of TrueCrypt as well as a link to the official website to be included on any derivative products — forming a license version 3.1. On 16 June 2014, the only alleged TrueCrypt developer still answering email replied to a message by Matthew Green asking for permission to use the TrueCrypt trademark for a fork released under a standard open source license. Permission was denied, which led to the two known forks being named VeraCrypt and CipherShed as well as a re-implementation named tc-play rather than TrueCrypt.",
"In 2007 a US trademark for \"TrueCrypt\" was registered under the name of \"Ondrej Tesarik\" with a company name \"TrueCrypt Developers Association\" and a trademark on the \"key\" logo was registered under the name of \"David Tesarik\" with a company name \"TrueCrypt Developers Association\". In 2009 the company name \"TrueCrypt Foundation\" was registered in the US by a person named David Tesarik. The TrueCrypt Foundation non-profit organization last filed tax returns in 2010, and the company was dissolved in 2014."
]
}
|
Border Gateway Protocol
| null |
Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) is a standardized exterior gateway protocol designed to exchange routing and reachability information among autonomous systems (AS) on the Internet. BGP is classified as a path-vector routing protocol, and it makes routing decisions based on paths, network policies, or rule-sets configured by a network administrator.
| null |
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en-train-304310
|
en-train-304310
|
304310
|
{
"title": [
"History.",
"Operation.",
"Extensions negotiation.",
"Router connectivity and learning routes.",
"Communities.",
"Multi-exit discriminators.",
"Message header format.",
"Internal scalability.",
"Route reflectors.",
"Rules.",
"Cluster.",
"BGP confederation.",
"Stability.",
"Routing table growth.",
"512k day.",
"AS numbers depletion and 32 bits ASN.",
"Load balancing.",
"Security.",
"Extensions.",
"Uses.",
"Implementations."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The Border Gateway Protocol has been in use on the Internet since 1994. The current version of BGP is version 4 (BGP4), which was published as RFC 4271 in 2006, after progressing through 20 drafts from documents based on RFC 1771 version 4. RFC 4271 corrected errors, clarified ambiguities and updated",
"Ideally, even if impractical, all possible links would connect to one another, like spokes in a bicycle tire. BGP, \"the most scalable of all routing protocols,\" provides a workaround and ways to measure how effectively it is configured. BGP neighbors, called peers, are established by manual configuration among routers to create a TCP session on port 179. A BGP speaker sends 19-byte keep-alive messages every 60 seconds to maintain the connection. Among routing protocols, BGP is unique in using TCP as its transport protocol. When BGP runs between two peers in the same autonomous system (AS), it is referred to as \"Internal BGP\" (\"i-BGP\" or \"Interior Border Gateway Protocol\"). When it runs between different autonomous systems, it is called \"External BGP\" (\"eBGP\" or \"Exterior Border Gateway Protocol\"). Routers on the boundary of one AS exchanging information with another AS are called \"border\" or \"edge routers\" or simply \"eBGP peers\" and are typically connected directly, while \"i-BGP peers\" can be interconnected through other intermediate routers. Other deployment topologies are also possible, such as running eBGP peering inside a VPN tunnel, allowing two remote sites to exchange routing information in a secure and isolated manner. The main difference between iBGP and eBGP peering is in the way routes that were received from one peer are propagated to other peers. For instance, new routes learned from an eBGP peer are typically redistributed to all iBGP peers as well as all other eBGP peers (if \"transit\" mode is enabled on the router). However, if new routes are learned on an iBGP peering, then they are re-advertised only to all eBGP peers. These route-propagation rules effectively require that all iBGP peers inside an AS are interconnected in a full mesh. How routes are propagated can be controlled in detail via the \"route-maps\" mechanism. This mechanism consists of a set of rules. Each rule describes, for routes matching some given criteria, what action should be taken. The action could be to drop the route, or it could be to modify some attributes of the route before inserting it in the routing table.",
"During the peering handshake, when OPEN messages are exchanged, BGP speakers can negotiate optional capabilities of the session, including multiprotocol extensions and various recovery modes. If the multiprotocol extensions to BGP are negotiated at the time of creation, the BGP speaker can prefix the Network Layer Reachability Information (NLRI) it advertises with an address family prefix. These families include the IPv4 (default), IPv6, IPv4/IPv6 Virtual Private Networks and multicast BGP. Increasingly, BGP is used as a generalized signaling protocol to carry information about routes that may not be part of the global Internet, such as VPNs. In order to make decisions in its operations with peers, a BGP peer uses a simple finite state machine (FSM) that consists of six states: Idle; Connect; Active; OpenSent;",
"In the simplest arrangement, all routers within a single AS and participating in BGP routing must be configured in a full mesh: each router must be configured as peer to every other router. This causes scaling problems, since the number of required connections grows quadratically with the number of routers involved. To alleviate the problem, BGP implements two options: route reflectors (RFC 4456) and BGP confederations (RFC 5065). The following discussion of basic UPDATE processing assumes a full iBGP mesh. A given BGP router may accept Network Layer Reachability Information (NLRI) UPDATEs from multiple neighbors and advertise NLRI to the same, or a different set, of neighbors. Conceptually, BGP maintains its own \"master\" routing table, called the Local Routing Information Base (\"Loc-RIB\"), separate from the main routing table of the router. For each neighbor, the BGP process maintains a conceptual Adjacent Routing Information Base, Incoming (\"Adj-RIB-In\") containing the NLRI received from the neighbor, and a conceptual \"Adj-RIB-Out\" (Outgoing) for NLRI to be sent to the neighbor. \"Conceptual\", in the",
"BGP communities are attribute tags that can be applied to incoming or outgoing prefixes to achieve some common goal (RFC 1997). While it is common to say that BGP allows an administrator to set policies on how prefixes are handled by ISPs, this is generally not possible, strictly speaking. For instance, BGP natively has no concept to allow one AS to tell another AS to restrict advertisement of a prefix to only North American peering customers. Instead, an ISP generally publishes a list of well-known or proprietary communities with",
"MEDs, defined in the main BGP standard, were originally intended to show to another neighbor AS the advertising AS's preference as to which of several",
"The following is the",
"An autonomous system with internal BGP (iBGP) must have all of its iBGP peers connect to each other in a full mesh (where everyone speaks to everyone directly). This full-mesh configuration requires that each router maintain a session to every other router. In large networks, this number of sessions may degrade performance of routers, due to either a lack of memory, or high CPU process requirements.",
"Route reflectors reduce the number of connections required in an AS. A single router (or two for redundancy) can be made a route reflector: other routers in the AS need only be configured as peers to them. A route reflector offers an alternative to the logical full-mesh requirement of internal border gateway protocol (IBGP). A RR acts as a for IBGP sessions. The purpose of the RR is concentration. Multiple BGP routers can peer with a central point, the RR – acting as a route reflector server – rather than peer with every other router in a full mesh. All the other IBGP routers become route reflector clients. This approach, similar",
"RR servers propagate routes inside",
"RR and its clients form a \"Cluster\". The \"Cluster-ID\" is then attached to every route advertised by RR to its client or nonclient peers. Cluster-ID is a cumulative, non-transitive BGP attribute and every RR MUST prepend the local CLUSTER_ID to the CLUSTER_LIST in order to avoid routing loops. Route reflectors and confederations both reduce the number of iBGP peers to each router and thus reduce processing overhead. Route reflectors are a pure performance-enhancing technique, while confederations also can be used to implement more fine-grained policy.",
"Confederations are sets of autonomous systems. In common practice, only one of the confederation AS numbers is seen by the Internet as a whole. Confederations are used in very large networks where a large AS can be configured to encompass smaller more manageable internal ASs. The confederated AS is composed of multiple ASs. Each confederated AS alone has iBGP fully meshed and has connections to other ASs inside the confederation. Even though these ASs have eBGP peers to ASs within the confederation, the ASs exchange routing as if they used iBGP. In this",
"The routing tables managed by a BGP implementation are adjusted continually to reflect actual changes in the network, such as links breaking and being restored or routers going down and coming back up. In the network as a whole it is normal for these changes to happen almost continuously, but for any particular router or link, changes are supposed to be relatively infrequent. If a router is misconfigured or mismanaged then it may get into a rapid cycle between down and up states. This pattern of repeated withdrawal and re-announcement known as route flapping can cause excessive activity in all the other routers that know about the broken link, as the same route is continually injected and withdrawn from the routing tables. The BGP design is such that delivery of traffic may not function while routes are being updated. On the Internet, a BGP routing change may cause outages for several minutes. A feature known as \"route flap damping\" (RFC 2439) is built into many BGP implementations in an attempt to mitigate the effects of route flapping. Without damping, the excessive activity can cause a heavy processing load on routers, which may in turn delay updates on other routes, and so affect overall routing stability. With damping, a route's flapping is exponentially decayed. At the first instance when a route becomes unavailable and quickly reappears, damping does",
"One of the largest problems faced by BGP, and indeed the Internet infrastructure as a whole, is the growth of the Internet routing table. If the global routing table grows to the point where some older, less capable routers cannot cope with the memory requirements or the CPU load of maintaining the table, these routers will cease to be effective gateways between the parts of the Internet they connect. In addition, and perhaps even more importantly, larger routing tables take longer to stabilize (see above) after a major connectivity change, leaving network service unreliable, or even unavailable, in the interim. Until late 2001, the global routing table was growing exponentially, threatening an eventual widespread breakdown of connectivity. In an attempt to prevent this, ISPs cooperated in keeping the global routing table as small as possible, by using Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) and route aggregation. While this slowed the growth of the routing table to a linear process for several years, with the expanded demand for multihoming by end user networks the growth was once again superlinear by the middle of 2004.",
"A Y2K-like overflow triggered in 2014 for those models that were not appropriately updated. While a full IPv4 BGP table (512k day) is in excess of 512,000 prefixes, many older routers have a limit of 512k (512,000–524,288) routing table entries. On August 12, 2014, outages resulting from full tables hit eBay, LastPass and Microsoft Azure among others. A number of Cisco routers commonly in use have TCAM, a form of high-speed content-addressable memory, for storing BGP advertised routes. On impacted routers, the TCAM is default allocated to 512k entries for IPv4 routes, and 512k entries for",
"The RFC 1771 (\"A Border Gateway Protocol 4 (BGP-4)\") planned the coding of AS numbers on 16 bits, for 64510 possible public AS, since ASN 64512 to 65534 were reserved for private use (0 and 65535 being forbidden). In 2011, only 15000 AS numbers were still available, and projections were envisioning a complete depletion of available AS numbers",
"Another factor causing this growth of the routing table is the need for load balancing of multi-homed networks. It is not a trivial task to balance the inbound traffic to a multi-homed network across its multiple inbound paths, due to limitation of the BGP route selection process. For a multi-homed network, if it announces the same network blocks across all of its BGP peers, the result may be that one or several of its inbound links become congested while the other links remain under-utilized, because external networks all picked",
"By design, routers running BGP accept advertised routes from other BGP routers by default. This allows for automatic and decentralized routing of traffic across the Internet, but it also leaves the Internet potentially vulnerable to accidental or malicious disruption, known as",
"An extension to BGP is the use of multipathing this typically requires identical MED, weight, origin, and AS-path although some implementations provide the ability to relax the AS-path checking to only expect an equal path length rather than the actual AS numbers in the path being expected to match too. This can then be extended further with features like Cisco's dmzlink-bw which enables a ratio of traffic sharing based on bandwidth values configured on individual links. Multiprotocol Extensions for BGP (MBGP), sometimes referred to as Multiprotocol BGP or Multicast BGP and defined in IETF <nowiki>RFC 4760</nowiki>, is an extension to (BGP) that allows",
"BGP4 is standard for Internet routing and required of most Internet service providers (ISPs) to establish routing between one another. Very large private IP networks use BGP internally. An example is the",
"Routers, especially small ones intended for Small Office/Home Office (SOHO) use, may not include BGP software. Some SOHO routers simply are not capable of running BGP / using BGP routing tables of any size. Other commercial routers may need a specific software executable image that contains BGP, or a license that enables it. Open source packages that run BGP include GNU Zebra, Quagga, OpenBGPD, BIRD, XORP, and Vyatta. Devices marketed as Layer 3 switches are less likely to support BGP than devices marketed as routers, but high-end Layer 3 Switches usually can run BGP. Products marketed as switches may or may not have a size limitation on BGP tables, such as 20,000 routes, far smaller than a full Internet table plus internal routes. These devices, however, may be perfectly reasonable and useful when used for BGP routing of some smaller part of the network, such as a confederation-AS representing one of several smaller enterprises that are linked, by a BGP backbone of backbones, or a small enterprise that announces routes to an ISP but only accepts a default route and perhaps a small number of aggregated routes. A BGP router used only for a network with a single point of entry to the Internet may have a much smaller routing table size (and hence RAM and CPU requirement) than a multihomed network. Even simple multihoming can have modest routing table size. See RFC 4098 for vendor-independent performance parameters for single BGP router convergence in the control plane. The actual amount of memory required in a BGP router depends on the amount of BGP information exchanged with other BGP speakers and the way in which the particular router stores BGP information. The router may have to keep more than one copy of a route, so it can manage different policies for route advertising and acceptance to a specific neighboring AS. The term view is often used for these different policy relationships on a running router. If one router implementation takes more memory per route than another implementation, this may be a legitimate design choice, trading processing speed against memory. A full IPv4 BGP table is in excess of 590,000 prefixes. Large ISPs may add another 50% for internal and customer routes. Again depending on implementation, separate tables may be kept for each view of a different peer AS. Notable free and open source implementations of BGP include: Systems for testing BGP conformance, load or stress performance come from vendors such as:"
]
}
|
Open Shortest Path First
| null |
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is a routing protocol for Internet Protocol (IP) networks. It uses a link state routing (LSR) algorithm and falls into the group of interior gateway protocols (IGPs), operating within a single autonomous system (AS). It is defined as OSPF Version 2 in RFC 2328 (1998) for IPv4. The updates for IPv6 are specified as OSPF Version 3 in RFC 5340 (2008). OSPF supports the Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) addressing model.
| null |
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en-train-1536216
|
en-train-1536216
|
1536216
|
{
"title": [
"Operation.",
"Router relationships.",
"Adjacency state machine.",
"OSPF messages.",
"OSPF areas.",
"Backbone area.",
"Stub area.",
"Not-so-stubby area.",
"Proprietary extensions.",
"Transit area.",
"Router types.",
"Router attributes.",
"Routing metrics.",
"OSPF v3.",
"OSPF Extensions.",
"Traffic engineering.",
"Optical routing.",
"Multicast Open Shortest Path First.",
"OSPF in broadcast and non-broadcast networks.",
"Applications."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"OSPF was designed as an interior gateway protocol (IGP), for use in an autonomous system such as a local area network (LAN). It implements Dijkstra's algorithm, also known as the shortest path first (SPF) algorithm. As a link-state routing protocol it was based on the link-state algorithm developed for the ARPANET in 1980 and the IS-IS routing protocol. OSPF was first standardized in 1989 as RFC 1131, which is now known as OSPF version 1. The development work for OSPF prior to its codification as open standard was undertaken largely by the Digital Equipment Corporation, which developed its own proprietary DECnet protocols. Routing protocols like OSPF calculate the \"shortest\" route to a destination through the network based on an algorithm. The first routing protocol that was widely implemented, the Routing Information Protocol (RIP), calculated the shortest route based on hops, that is the number of routers that an IP packet had to traverse to reach the destination host. RIP successfully implemented dynamic routing, where routing tables change if the network topology changes. But RIP did not adapt its routing according to changing network conditions, such as data-transfer rate. Demand grew for a dynamic routing protocol that could calculate the \"fastest\" route to a destination. OSPF was developed so that the shortest path through a network was calculated based on the \"cost\" of the route, taking into account bandwidth, delay and load. Therefore OSPF undertakes route cost calculation on the basis of link-cost parameters, which can be weighted by the administrator. OSPF was quickly adopted because it became known for reliably calculating routes through large and complex local area networks. As a link-state routing protocol, OSPF maintains link-state databases, which are really network topology maps, on every router on which it is implemented. The \"state\" of a given route in the network is the cost, and OSPF algorithm allows every router to calculate the cost of the routes to any given reachable destination. Unless the administrator has made a configuration, the link cost of a path connected to a router is determined by the bit rate (1 Gbit/s, 10 Gbit/s, etc) of the interface. A router interface with OSPF will then advertise its link cost to neighboring routers through multicast, known as the \"hello procedure\". All routers with OSPF implementation keep sending hello packets, and thus changes in the cost of their links become known to neighboring routers. The information about the cost of a link, that is the speed of a point to point connection between two routers, is then cascaded through the network because OSPF routers advertise the information they receive from one neighboring router to all other neighboring routers. This process of flooding link state information through the network is known as \"synchronization\". Based on this information, all routers with OSPF implementation continuously update their link state databases with information about the network topology and adjust their routing tables. An OSPF network can be structured, or subdivided, into routing \"areas\" to simplify administration and optimize traffic and resource utilization. Areas are identified by 32-bit numbers, expressed either simply in decimal, or often in the same dot-decimal notation used for IPv4 addresses. By convention, area 0 (zero), or 0.0.0.0, represents the core or \"backbone\" area of an OSPF network. While the identifications of other areas may be chosen at will; administrators often select the IP address of a main router in an area as the area identifier. Each additional area must have a connection to the OSPF backbone area. Such connections are maintained by an interconnecting router, known as an area border router (ABR). An ABR maintains separate link-state databases for each area it serves and maintains summarized routes for all areas in the network. OSPF detects changes in the topology, such as link failures, and converges on a new loop-free routing structure within seconds. OSPF has become a popular dynamic routing protocol. Other commonly used dynamic routing protocols are the RIPv2 and the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP). Today routers support at least one interior gateway protocol to advertise their routing tables within a local area network. Frequently implemented interior gateway protocols besides OSPF are RIPv2, IS-IS, and EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol)..",
"OSPF supports complex networks with multiple routers, including backup routers, to balance traffic load on multiple links to other subnets. Neighboring routers in the same broadcast domain or at each end of a point-to-point link communicate with each other via the OSPF protocol. Routers form \"adjacencies\" when they have detected each other. This detection is initiated when a router identifies itself in a \"Hello\" protocol packet. Upon acknowledgment, this establishes a \"two-way state\" and the most basic relationship. The routers in an Ethernet or Frame Relay network select a \"Designated Router\" (DR) and a \"Backup Designated Router\" (BDR) which act as a hub to reduce traffic between routers. OSPF uses both unicast and multicast transmission modes to send \"Hello\" packets and link-state updates. As a link-state routing protocol, OSPF establishes and maintains neighbor relationships for exchanging routing updates with other routers. The neighbor relationship table is called an \"adjacency database\". Two OSPF routers are neighbors if they are members of the same subnet and share the same area ID, subnet mask, timers and authentication. In essence, OSPF neighborship is a relationship between two routers that allow them to see and understand each other but nothing more. OSPF neighbors do not exchange any routing information – the only packets they exchange are Hello packets. OSPF adjacencies are formed between selected neighbors and allow them to exchange routing information. Two routers must first be neighbors and only then, can they become adjacent. Two routers become adjacent if at least one of them is Designated Router or Backup Designated Router (on multiaccess type networks), or they are interconnected by a point-to-point or point-to-multipoint network type. For forming a neighbor relationship between, the interfaces used to form the relationship must be in the same OSPF area. While an interface may be configured to belong to multiple areas, this is generally not practiced. When configured in a second area, an interface must be configured as a secondary interface.",
"Each OSPF router within a network communicates with other neighboring routers on each connecting interface to establish the states of all adjacencies. Every such communication sequence is a separate \"conversation\" identified by the pair of router IDs of the communicating neighbors. RFC 2328 specifies the protocol for initiating these conversations (\"Hello Protocol\") and for establishing full adjacencies (\"Database Description Packets\", \"Link State Request Packets\"). During its course, each router conversation transitions through a maximum of eight conditions defined by a state machine:",
"Unlike other routing protocols, OSPF does not carry data via a transport protocol, such as the User Datagram Protocol (UDP) or the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). Instead, OSPF forms IP datagrams directly, packaging them using protocol number 89 for the IP Protocol field. OSPF defines five different message types, for various types of communication:",
"An OSPF network can be divided into \"areas\" that are logical groupings of hosts and networks. An area includes its connecting router having interfaces connected to the network. Each area maintains a separate link-state database whose information may be summarized towards the rest of the network by the connecting router. Thus, the topology of an area is unknown outside the area. This reduces the routing traffic between parts of an autonomous system. Areas are uniquely identified with 32-bit numbers. The area identifiers are commonly written in the dot-decimal notation, familiar from IPv4 addressing. However, they are not IP addresses and may duplicate, without conflict, any IPv4 address. The area identifiers for IPv6 implementations (OSPFv3) also use 32-bit identifiers written in the same notation. When dotted formatting is omitted, most implementations expand area \"1\" to the area identifier \"0.0.0.1\", but some have been known to expand it as \"1.0.0.0\". OSPF defines several special area types:",
"The backbone area (also known as \"area 0\" or \"area 0.0.0.0\") forms the core of an OSPF network. All other areas are connected to it, either directly or through other routers. Inter-area routing happens via routers connected to the backbone area and to their own associated areas. It is the logical and physical structure for the 'OSPF domain' and is attached to all nonzero areas in the OSPF domain. Note that in OSPF the term Autonomous System Boundary Router (ASBR) is historic, in the sense that many OSPF domains can coexist in the same Internet-visible autonomous system, RFC 1996. The backbone area is responsible for distributing routing information between non-backbone areas. The backbone must be contiguous, but it does not need to be physically contiguous; backbone connectivity can be established and maintained through the configuration of virtual links. All OSPF areas must connect to the backbone area. This connection, however, can be through a virtual link. For example, assume area 0.0.0.1 has a physical connection to area 0.0.0.0. Further assume that area 0.0.0.2 has no direct connection to the backbone, but this area does have a connection to area 0.0.0.1. Area 0.0.0.2 can use a virtual link through the \"transit area\" 0.0.0.1 to reach the backbone. To be a transit area, an area has to have the transit attribute, so it cannot be stubby in any way.",
"A stub area is an area that does not receive route advertisements external to the AS and routing from within the area is based entirely on a default route. An ABR deletes type 4, 5 LSAs from internal routers, sends them a default route of 0.0.0.0 and turns itself into a default gateway. This reduces LSDB and routing table size for internal routers. Modifications to the basic concept of stub area have been implemented by systems vendors, such as the \"totally stubby area\" (TSA) and the \"not-so-stubby area\" (NSSA), both an extension in Cisco Systems routing equipment.",
"A \"not-so-stubby area\" (NSSA) is a type of stub area that can import autonomous system external routes and send them to other areas, but still cannot receive AS-external routes from other areas. NSSA is an extension of the stub area feature that allows the injection of external routes in a limited fashion into the stub area. A case study simulates an NSSA getting around the Stub Area problem of not being able to import external addresses. It visualizes the following activities: the ASBR imports external addresses with a type 7 LSA, the ABR converts a type 7 LSA to type 5 and floods it to other areas, the ABR acts as an \"ASBR\" for other areas. The ASBRs do not take type 5 LSAs and then convert to type 7 LSAs for the area.",
"Several vendors (Cisco, Allied Telesis, Juniper, Alcatel-Lucent, Huawei, Quagga), implement the two extensions below for stub and not-so-stubby areas. Although not covered by RFC standards, they are considered by many to be standard features in OSPF implementations. A newly acquired subsidiary is one example of where it might be suitable for an area to be simultaneously not-so-stubby and totally stubby if the practical place to put an ASBR is on the edge of a totally stubby area. In such a case, the ASBR does send externals into the totally stubby area, and they are available to OSPF speakers within that area. In Cisco's implementation, the external routes can be summarized before injecting them into the totally stubby area. In general, the ASBR should not advertise default into the TSA-NSSA, although this can work with extremely careful design and operation, for the limited special cases in which such an advertisement makes sense. By declaring the totally stubby area as NSSA, no external routes from the backbone, except the default route, enter the area being discussed. The externals do reach area 0.0.0.0 via the TSA-NSSA, but no routes other than the default route enter the TSA-NSSA. Routers in the TSA-NSSA send all traffic to the ABR, except to routes advertised by the ASBR.",
"A transit area is an area with two or more OSPF border routers and is used to pass network traffic from one adjacent area to another. The transit area does not originate this traffic and is not the destination of such traffic.",
"OSPF defines the following overlapping categories of routers: The router type is an attribute of an OSPF process. A given physical router may have one or more OSPF processes. For example, a router that is connected to more than one area, and which receives routes from a BGP process connected to another AS, is both an area border router and an autonomous system boundary router. Each router has an identifier, customarily written in the dotted-decimal format (e.g., 1.2.3.4) of an IP address. This identifier must be established in every OSPF instance. If not explicitly configured, the highest logical IP address will be duplicated as the router identifier. However, since the router identifier is not an IP address, it does not have to be a part of any routable subnet in the network, and often isn't to avoid confusion.",
"In addition to the four router types, OSPF uses the terms \"designated router\" (DR) and \"backup designated router\" (BDR), which are attributes of a router interface. A given router can have some interfaces that are designated (DR) and others that are backup designated (BDR), and others that are non-designated. If no router is a DR or a BDR on a given subnet, the BDR is first elected, and then a second election is held for the DR. The DR is elected based on the following default criteria: DR's exist for the purpose of reducing network traffic by providing a source for routing updates. The DR maintains a complete topology table of the network and sends the updates to the other routers via multicast. All routers in a multi-access network segment will form a slave/master relationship with the DR. They will form adjacencies with the DR and BDR only. Every time a router sends an update, it sends it to the DR and BDR on the multicast address. The DR will then send the update out to all other routers in the area, to the multicast address. This way all the routers do not have to constantly update each other, and can rather get all their updates from a single source. The use of multicasting further reduces the network load. DRs and BDRs are always setup/elected on OSPF broadcast networks. DR's can also be elected on NBMA (Non-Broadcast Multi-Access) networks such as Frame Relay or ATM. DRs or BDRs are not elected on point-to-point links (such as a point-to-point WAN connection) because the two routers on either side of the link must become fully adjacent and the bandwidth between them cannot be further optimized. DR and non-DR routers evolve from 2-way to full adjacency relationships by exchanging DD, Request, and Update.",
"OSPF uses \"path cost\" as its basic routing metric, which was defined by the standard not to equate to any standard value such as speed, so the network designer could pick a metric important to the design. In practice, it is determined by the speed (bandwidth) of the interface addressing the given route, although that tends to need network-specific scaling factors now that links faster than 25 Mbit/s are common. Cisco uses a metric like (10 bit/s)/bandwidth (the reference value, 10 bit/s by default, can be adjusted). So, a 100 Mbit/s link will have a cost of 1, a 10 Mbit/s a cost of 10 and so on. But for links faster than 100 Mbit/s, the cost would be <1. Metrics, however, are only directly comparable when of the same type. Four types of metrics are recognized. In decreasing preference, these types are (for example, an intra-area route is always preferred to an external route regardless of metric):",
"OSPF version 3 introduces modifications to the IPv4 implementation of the protocol. Except for virtual links, all neighbor exchanges use IPv6 link-local addressing exclusively. The IPv6 protocol runs per link, rather than based on the subnet. All IP prefix information has been removed from the link-state advertisements and from the \"hello\" discovery packet making OSPFv3 essentially protocol-independent. Despite the expanded IP addressing to 128-bits in IPv6, area and router identifications are still based on 32-bit numbers.",
"",
"OSPF-TE is an extension to OSPF extending the expressivity to allow for traffic engineering and use on non-IP networks. Using OSPF-TE, more information about the topology can be exchanged using opaque LSA carrying type-length-value elements. These extensions allow OSPF-TE to run completely out of band of the data plane network. This means that it can also be used on non-IP networks, such as optical networks. OSPF-TE is used in GMPLS networks as a means to describe the topology over which GMPLS paths can be established. GMPLS uses its own path setup and forwarding protocols, once it has the full network map. In the Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP), OSPF-TE is used for recording and flooding RSVP signaled bandwidth reservations for label switched paths within the link-state database.",
"documents work in optical routing for IP based on extensions to OSPF and IS-IS.",
"The Multicast Open Shortest Path First (MOSPF) protocol is an extension to OSPF to support multicast routing. MOSPF allows routers to share information about group memberships.",
"In broadcast multiple-access networks, neighbor adjacency is formed dynamically using multicast hello packets to. A DR and BDR are elected normally, and function normally. For non-broadcast multiple-access networks (NBMA), the following two official modes are defined: Cisco has defined the following three additional modes for OSPF in NBMA topologies:",
"OSPF is a widely deployed routing protocol that can converge a network in a few seconds and guarantee loop-free paths. It has many features that allow the imposition of policies about the propagation of routes that it may be appropriate to keep local, for load sharing, and for selective route importing. IS-IS, in contrast, can be tuned for lower overhead in a stable network, the sort more common in ISP than enterprise networks. There are some historical accidents that made IS-IS the preferred IGP for ISPs, but ISPs today may well choose to use the features of the now-efficient implementations of OSPF, after first considering the pros and cons of IS-IS in service provider environments. OSPF can provide better load-sharing on external links than other IGPs. When the default route to an ISP is injected into OSPF from multiple ASBRs as a Type I external route and the same external cost specified, other routers will go to the ASBR with the least path cost from its location. This can be tuned further by adjusting the external cost. If the default route from different ISPs is injected with different external costs, as a Type II external route, the lower-cost default becomes the primary exit and the higher-cost becomes the backup only. The only real limiting factor that may compel major ISPs to select IS-IS over OSPF is if they have a network with more than 850 routers."
]
}
|
Intelligence quotient
| null |
An intelligence quotient (IQ) is a total score derived from a set of standardized tests or subtests designed to assess human intelligence. The abbreviation "IQ" was coined by the psychologist William Stern for the German term "Intelligenzquotient", his term for a scoring method for intelligence tests at University of Breslau he advocated in a 1912 book.
| null |
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en-train-1332746
|
en-train-1332746
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1332746
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{
"title": [
"History.",
"Precursors to IQ testing.",
"General factor (\"g\").",
"United States military selection in World War I.",
"IQ testing and the Eugenics movement in the United States.",
"Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory.",
"Other theories.",
"Current tests.",
"Test bias or differential item functioning.",
"Reliability and validity.",
"Flynn effect.",
"Age.",
"Genetics and environment.",
"Heritability.",
"Shared family environment.",
"Non-shared family environment and environment outside the family.",
"Individual genes.",
"Gene-environment interaction.",
"Interventions.",
"Music.",
"Brain anatomy.",
"Health.",
"Social correlations.",
"School performance.",
"Job performance.",
"Income.",
"Crime.",
"Health and mortality.",
"Other accomplishments.",
"Group-IQ or the collective intelligence factor c.",
"Group differences.",
"Sex.",
"Race and intelligence.",
"Race and intelligence in United States of America.",
"Public policy.",
"Criticism and views.",
"Relationship to intelligence.",
"Criticism of IQ.",
"Systematic exclusion of threshold effects.",
"Test bias.",
"Intermingling cultures and IQ classification fairness.",
"Outdated methodology.",
"\"Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns\".",
"Dynamic assessment.",
"Classification.",
"High IQ societies."
],
"section_level": [
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"content": [
"",
"Historically, even before IQ tests were devised, there were attempts to classify people into intelligence categories by observing their behavior in daily life. Those other forms of behavioral observation are still important for validating classifications based primarily on IQ test scores. Both intelligence classification by observation of behavior outside the testing room and classification by IQ testing depend on the definition of \"intelligence\" used in a particular case and on the reliability and error of estimation in the classification procedure. The English statistician Francis Galton made the first attempt at creating a standardized test for rating a person's intelligence. A pioneer of psychometrics and the application of statistical methods to the study of human diversity and the study of inheritance of human traits, he believed that intelligence was largely a product of heredity (by which he did not mean genes, although he did develop several pre-Mendelian theories of particulate inheritance). He hypothesized that there should exist a correlation between intelligence and other observable traits such as reflexes, muscle grip, and",
"The many different kinds of IQ tests include a wide variety of item content. Some test items are visual, while many are verbal. Test items vary from being based on abstract-reasoning problems to concentrating on arithmetic, vocabulary, or general knowledge. The British psychologist Charles Spearman in 1904 made the first formal factor analysis of correlations between the tests. He observed that children's school grades across seemingly unrelated school subjects were positively correlated, and reasoned that these correlations reflected the influence of an underlying general mental ability that entered into performance on all kinds of mental tests. He suggested that all mental performance could be conceptualized in terms of a single general ability factor",
"During World War I, the Army needed a way to evaluate and assign recruits to appropriate tasks. This led to the development of several mental tests by Robert Yerkes, who worked with major hereditarians of American psychometrics—including Terman, Goddard—to write the test. The testing generated controversy and much public debate in the United States. Nonverbal or \"performance\" tests were developed for those who could not speak English or were suspected of malingering. Based on Goddard's translation of the Binet-Simon test, the tests had an impact in screening men for officer training:...the tests did have a strong impact in some areas, particularly in screening men for officer training. At the start of the war, the army and national guard maintained nine thousand officers. By the end, two hundred thousand officers presided, and two- thirds of them had started their careers in training camps where the tests were applied. In some camps, no man scoring below C could be considered for officer training.1.75 million men were tested in total, making the results the first mass-produced written tests of intelligence, though considered dubious and non-usable, for reasons including high variability of test implementation throughout different camps and",
"Eugenics, the set of beliefs and practices which aims at improving the genetic quality of the human population, played a significant role in the history and culture of the United States during the Progressive Era, from the late 19th century until US involvement in World War II. The American eugenics movement was rooted in the biological determinist ideas of the British Scientist Sir Francis Galton. In 1883, Galton first used the word eugenics to describe the biological improvement of human genes and the concept of being \"well-born\". He believed that differences in a person's ability were acquired primarily through genetics and that eugenics could be implemented through selective breeding in order for the human race to improve in its overall quality, therefore allowing for humans to direct their own evolution. Goddard was a eugenicist. In 1908, he published his own version, \"The Binet and Simon Test of Intellectual Capacity\", and cordially promoted the test. He quickly extended the use of the scale to the public schools (1913), to immigration (Ellis Island, 1914) and",
"Raymond Cattell (1941) proposed two types of cognitive abilities in a revision of Spearman's concept of general intelligence. Fluid intelligence (Gf) was hypothesized as the ability to solve novel problems by using reasoning, and crystallized intelligence (Gc) was hypothesized as a knowledge-based ability that was very dependent on education and experience. In addition, fluid intelligence was hypothesized to decline with age, while crystallized intelligence was largely resistant to the effects of aging. The theory was almost forgotten, but was revived by his student John L. Horn (1966) who later argued Gf and Gc were only two among several factors, and who eventually identified nine or ten broad abilities. The theory continued to be called Gf-Gc theory. John B. Carroll (1993), after a comprehensive reanalysis of earlier data, proposed the three stratum theory, which is a hierarchical model with three levels. The bottom stratum consists of narrow abilities that are highly",
"J.P. Guilford's Structure of Intellect (1967) model used three dimensions which when combined yielded a total of 120 types of intelligence. It was popular in the 1970s and early 1980s, but faded owing to both practical problems and theoretical criticisms. Alexander Luria's earlier work on neuropsychological processes led to the PASS theory (1997). It argued that only looking at one general factor was inadequate for researchers and clinicians who worked with learning disabilities, attention disorders, intellectual disability, and interventions for such disabilities.",
"There are a variety of individually administered IQ tests in use in the English-speaking world. The most commonly used individual IQ test series is the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale for adults and the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children for school-age test-takers. Other commonly used individual IQ tests (some of which do not label their standard scores as \"IQ\" scores) include",
"Differential item functioning (DIF), sometimes referred to as measurement bias, is a phenomenon when participants from different groups (e.g. gender, race, disability) with the same latent abilities give different answers to specific questions on the same IQ test. DIF analysis measures such specific items on a test alongside measuring participants' latent abilities on other similar questions. A consistent different group response to a specific question among similar type of questions",
"Psychometricians generally regard IQ tests as having high statistical reliability. Reliability represents the measurement consistency of a test. A reliable test produces similar scores upon repetition. A high reliability implies that – although test-takers may have varying scores when taking the same test on differing occasions, and although they may have varying scores when taking different IQ tests at the same age – the scores generally agree with one another and across time. Like all statistical quantities, any particular estimate of IQ has an associated standard error that measures uncertainty about the estimate. For modern tests, the standard error of measurement is about three points. For individuals with very low scores, the 95% confidence interval may be greater than 40 points, potentially complicating the accuracy of diagnoses of intellectual",
"Since the early 20th century, raw scores on IQ tests have increased in most parts of the world. When a new version of an IQ test is normed, the standard scoring is set so performance at the population median results in a score of IQ 100. The phenomenon of rising raw score performance means if test-takers are scored by a constant standard scoring rule, IQ test scores have been rising at an average rate of around three IQ points per decade. This phenomenon was named the Flynn effect in the book \"The Bell Curve\" after James R. Flynn, the author who did the most to bring this phenomenon to the attention of psychologists. Researchers have been exploring the issue of",
"IQ can change to some degree over the course of childhood. However, in one longitudinal study, the mean IQ scores of tests at ages 17 and 18 were correlated at r=0.86 with the mean scores of tests at ages five, six, and seven and at r=0.96 with the mean scores of tests at ages 11, 12, and 13. For decades, practitioners' handbooks and textbooks on IQ testing have reported IQ declines with age after the beginning of adulthood. However, later researchers pointed out this phenomenon is related to the Flynn effect and is in part a cohort effect rather",
"Environmental and genetic factors play a role in determining IQ. Their relative importance has been the subject of much research and debate.",
"The general figure for the heritability of IQ, according to an authoritative American Psychological Association report, is 0.45 for children, and rises to around 0.75 for late adolescents and adults.",
"Family members have aspects of environments in common (for example, characteristics of the home). This shared family environment accounts for 0.25–0.35 of the variation in IQ",
"Although parents treat their children differently, such differential treatment explains only a small amount of nonshared environmental influence. One",
"A very large proportion of the over 17,000 human genes are thought to have an effect on the development and functionality of the brain. While a number of individual genes have been reported to",
"David Rowe reported an interaction of genetic effects with socioeconomic status, such that the heritability was high in high-SES families, but much lower in low-SES families. In the US, this has been replicated in infants, children, adolescents, and adults. Outside the US, studies show no link between heritability and SES. Some effects may even reverse sign outside the US. Dickens and Flynn",
"In general, educational interventions, as those described below, have shown short-term effects on IQ, but long-term follow-up is often missing. For example, in the US, very large intervention programs such as the Head Start Program have not produced lasting gains in IQ scores. More intensive, but much smaller projects, such as the Abecedarian Project, have reported lasting effects, often on socioeconomic status variables, rather than IQ. Recent studies have shown that training in using one's working memory may increase IQ.",
"Musical training in childhood correlates with higher than average IQ. However, a study of 10,500 twins found no effects on IQ, suggesting that the correlation was caused by genetic confounders. A meta-analysis concluded that \"Music training does not reliably enhance",
"Several neurophysiological factors have been correlated with intelligence in humans, including the ratio of brain weight to body weight and the size, shape, and activity level of different parts of the",
"Health is important in understanding differences in IQ test scores and other measures of cognitive ability. Several factors can lead to significant cognitive impairment, particularly if they occur during pregnancy and childhood when the brain is growing and the blood–brain barrier is less effective. Such impairment may sometimes be permanent, sometimes be partially or wholly compensated for by later growth. Since about 2010, researchers such as Eppig, Hassel, and MacKenzie have found a very close and consistent link between IQ scores and infectious diseases, especially in the infant and preschool populations and the mothers of these children.",
"",
"The American Psychological Association's report \"Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns\" states that wherever it has been studied, children with high scores on tests of intelligence tend to learn more of what is taught in school than their lower-scoring peers. The correlation between IQ scores and grades is about.50. This means that the explained variance is 25%. Achieving good grades depends on many factors other than IQ, such as \"persistence, interest in school, and willingness to study\" (p. 81). It has been",
"According to Schmidt and Hunter, \"for hiring employees without previous experience in the job the most valid predictor of future performance is general mental ability.\" The validity of IQ as a predictor of job performance is above zero for all work studied to date, but varies with the type of job and across different studies, ranging from 0.2 to 0.6. The correlations were higher when the unreliability of measurement methods was controlled for. While IQ is more strongly correlated with reasoning and less so with motor function, IQ-test scores predict performance ratings in all occupations. That said, for highly qualified activities (research, management) low IQ scores are more likely to be a barrier to adequate performance, whereas for minimally-skilled activities, athletic strength (manual strength, speed, stamina, and coordination) are more",
"It has been suggested that \"in economic terms it appears that the IQ score measures something with decreasing marginal value\" and it \"is important to have enough of it, but having lots and lots does not buy you that much\". However, large-scale longitudinal studies indicate an increase in IQ translates into an increase in performance at all levels of IQ: i.e. ability and job performance are monotonically linked at all IQ levels. Charles Murray, coauthor of \"The Bell Curve,\" found that IQ has a substantial effect on income independent of family background. The link from IQ to wealth is much less strong than that from IQ to job performance. Some studies indicate that IQ is unrelated to net worth. The American Psychological Association's 1995 report \"Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns\" stated that IQ scores accounted for",
"The American Psychological Association's 1996 report \"Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns\" stated that the correlation between IQ and crime was −0.2. It was −0.19 between IQ scores and number of juvenile offenses in a large Danish sample; with social class controlled, the correlation dropped to −0.17. A correlation of 0.20 means that the explained variance is 4%. The causal links between psychometric ability and social outcomes may be indirect. Children with poor scholastic performance may feel alienated. Consequently, they may be more likely to engage in delinquent behavior, compared to other children who do well. In his book \"\" (1998), Arthur Jensen cited data which showed that, regardless of race, people",
"Multiple studies conducted in Scotland have found that higher IQs",
"There is considerable variation within and overlap among these categories. People with high IQs are found at",
"With operationalization and methodology derived from the general intelligence factor \"g\", a new scientific understanding of collective intelligence, defined as a group's general ability to perform a wide range of tasks, aims to explain intelligent behavior of groups. Goal is to detect and explain a general intelligence",
"Among the most controversial issues related to the study of intelligence is the observation that intelligence measures such as IQ scores vary between ethnic and racial groups and sexes. While there is little scholarly debate about the \"existence\" of some of these differences, their \"causes\" remain highly controversial both within academia and in the public sphere.",
"Most IQ tests are constructed so that there are no overall score differences between females and males. Popular IQ batteries such as the WAIS and the WISC-R are also constructed in order to eliminate sex differences. In a paper presented at the International Society for Intelligence Research in 2002, it was pointed out that because",
"",
"The 1996 Task Force investigation on Intelligence sponsored by the American Psychological Association concluded that there are significant variations in IQ across races. The problem of determining the causes underlying this variation relates to the question of the contributions of \"nature and nurture\" to IQ. Psychologists such as Alan S. Kaufman and Nathan Brody and statisticians such as Bernie Devlin argue that there are insufficient data to conclude that this is because of genetic influences. A review article published in 2012 by leading scholars on human intelligence concluded, after reviewing the prior research literature, that group differences in IQ are best understood as environmental in origin. In considering disparities between test results of different ethnic groups, one might investigate the effects of stereotype threat (a situational predicament in which a person feels at risk of confirming negative stereotypes about the group(s) he identifies with), as well as culture and acculturation. This phenomenon has been criticized as a fiction of publication bias.",
"In the United States, certain public policies and laws regarding military service, education, public benefits, capital punishment, and employment incorporate an individual's IQ into their decisions. However, in the case of Griggs v. Duke Power Co. in 1971, for the purpose of minimizing employment practices that disparately impacted racial minorities, the U.S. Supreme Court banned the use of IQ tests in employment, except when linked to job performance via a job analysis. Internationally, certain public policies,",
"",
"IQ is the most thoroughly researched means of measuring intelligence, and by far the most widely used in practical settings. However, while IQ strives to measure some concepts of intelligence, it may fail to serve as an accurate measure of broader definitions",
"Some scientists dispute the worthiness of IQ entirely. In \"The Mismeasure of Man\" (1996), paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould criticized IQ tests and argued that they were used for scientific racism. He argued that \"g\" was a mathematical artifact and criticized: Arthur Jensen responded: Jensen also argued that even if \"g\" were replaced by a model with several intelligences this would change the situation less than expected. He argues that all tests of cognitive ability would continue to be highly correlated with one another and there would still be",
"Cecil Reynolds and Paul Kline argue that the construction of IQ tests around the rule that they should show a bell curve distribution in the population leads to systematic exclusion of cognitive tests that display threshold effects and are not gradually variable, as well as biasing IQ tests towards questions that can be made to fit a bell curve model and against questions that show any non-bell distributions. They argue that just as swarms change their collective behavior at certain thresholds of animals in the swarm, it is possible that brains change their abilities at thresholds of number of connected neurons and/or level of",
"The American Psychological Association's report \"Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns\" stated that in the United States IQ tests as predictors of social achievement are not biased against African Americans since they predict future performance, such as school achievement, similarly to the way they predict future performance for Caucasians. While agreeing that IQ tests predict performance equally well for all racial groups, Nicholas Mackintosh also points out that there may still be a bias inherent in IQ testing if the education system is also systematically biased against African Americans, in which case educational performance may in fact also be an underestimation of African American children's cognitive abilities. Earl Hunt points out that while this may be the case that would not be a bias of the",
"Barbara P. Uzzell and Harvey N. Switzky argue that defining IQ from an average at a period of time and putting different thresholds of what is considered retarded based on average IQ test performance in a culture faces issues of defining who belongs to what culture. They argue that since people are not actually in boxes of isolated cultures, essentialistic classification of culture that is said to make IQ tests \"culturally fair\" will show false \"evidence\" of underlying cognitive differences between individuals who are formally classified in the same culture but have faced different cultural non-shared environments due to the fluid intermingling of cultures in real life, making IQ tests a false measure of mental retardation. It is argued by Barbara P. Uzzell and Harvey N. Switzky that different social treatment depending on hereditary",
"Psychologist Denny Borsboom says that contemporary psychological research",
"In response to the controversy surrounding \"The Bell Curve\", the American Psychological Association's Board of Scientific Affairs established a task force in 1995 to write a report on the state of intelligence research which could be used by all sides as a basis for discussion, \"\". The full text of the report is available through several websites. In this paper, the representatives of the association regret that IQ-related works are frequently written with a view to their political consequences: \"research findings were often assessed not so much on their merits or their scientific standing as on their",
"An alternative to standard IQ tests originated in the writings of psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896–1934) from his last two years of work. The notion of the zone of proximal development that he introduced in 1933, roughly a year before his death, served as the banner for his proposal to diagnose development as the level of actual development that can be measured by the child's independent problem solving and, at the same time, the level of proximal, or potential development that is measured in the situation of moderately assisted problem solving by the child. The maximum level of complexity and difficulty of the problem that the child is capable to solve under some guidance indicates the level of potential development. Then, the difference between the higher level of potential and the lower level of actual development indicates the zone of",
"IQ classification is the practice used by IQ test publishers for designating IQ score ranges into various categories with labels such as \"superior\" or \"average.\"",
"There are social organizations, some international, which limit membership to people who have scores as high as or higher than the 98th percentile (2 standard deviations above the mean) on some IQ test or equivalent. Mensa International is perhaps the best known of these. The largest 99.9th percentile (3 standard deviations above the mean) society is the Triple Nine Society."
]
}
|
Chaim Rumkowski
| null |
Chaim Mordechaj Rumkowski (February 27, 1877 – August 28, 1944) was the head of the Jewish Council of Elders in the Łódź Ghetto appointed by Nazi Germany during the German occupation of Poland.
| null |
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en-train-1700677
|
en-train-1700677
|
1700677
|
{
"title": [
"Background.",
"Ghetto history prior to the \"Final Solution\".",
"Administration.",
"Deportations.",
"\"Give Me Your Children\".",
"Personality.",
"Death at the hands of the \"Sonderkommando\".",
"Debate over Rumkowski's role in the Holocaust."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Chaim Rumkowski was born on 27 February 1877 to Jewish parents in Ilyino, a shtetl in Vitebsk Governorate, Russian Empire. In 1892 Rumkowski moved to Congress Poland. He became a Polish citizen after the establishment of the Second Polish Republic in 1918. Before the German invasion of Poland, Rumkowski was an insurance agent in Łódź; member of Qahal, and in 1925–1939 head of a Jewish orphanage at Krajowa 15 Street. According to Dr. Edward Reicher, a Holocaust survivor from Łódź, Rumkowski had an unhealthy interest in children. Łódź was annexed by the invading Germans into the Third Reich and became part of the territory of new Reichsgau Wartheland, separate from the \"Generalgouvernement\" established in most of the German-occupied Poland. Smaller Jewish communities were dissolved and forcibly relocated to metropolitan ghettos. The occupation authority ordered the creation of the new Jewish Councils known as the \"Judenräte\" which acted as bridges between the Nazis and the prisoner population of the ghettos. In addition to managing basic services such as communal kitchens, infirmaries, post offices and vocational schools, common tasks of the \"Judenräte\" included providing the Nazi regime with slave labor, and rounding up quotas of Jews for \"resettlement in the East,\" a euphemism for deportations to extermination camps in the deadliest phase of the Holocaust. On October 13, 1939, the Nazi \"Amtsleiter\" in Łódź appointed Rumkowski the \"Judenältester\" (\"Chief Elder of the Jews\"), head of the \"Ältestenrat\" (\"Council of Elders\"). In this position, Rumkowski reported directly to the Nazi ghetto administration, headed by Hans Biebow. When the rabbinate was dissolved, Rumkowski performed weddings. The ghetto's money or scrip, the so-called \"Rumki\" (sometimes \"Chaimki\"), was derived from his name, as it had been his idea. His face was put on the ghetto postage stamps and currency, which led to his sarcastic nickname \"King Chaim\". By industrializing the Łódź Ghetto, he hoped to make the community indispensable to the Germans and save the people of Łódź. On April 5, 1940, Rumkowski petitioned the Germans for materials for the Jews in exchange for desperately needed food and money. By the end of the month, the Germans had acquiesced, in part, agreeing to provide food, but not money. Although Rumkowski and other \"Jewish elders\" of the Nazi era came to be regarded as collaborators and traitors, historians have reassessed this judgment since the late 20th century in light of the terrible conditions of the time. A survivor of the Łódź ghetto, Arnold Mostowicz, noted in his memoir that Rumkowski gave a percentage of his people a chance to survive two years longer than the Jews of the Warsaw Ghetto, destroyed in the Uprising. However, as noted by Lucjan Dobroszycki, the ultimate decision on the future was not his to make.",
"The ghettoization of Łódź was decided on September 8, 1939, by an order of \"SS-Oberführer\" Friedrich Uebelhoer. His top secret document stated that the ghetto was only a temporary solution to \"the Jewish question\" in the city of Łódź. Uebelhoer never implied the long-term survival. The ghetto was sealed on April 30, 1940, with 164,000 people inside. On October 16, 1939, Rumkowski selected 31 public figures to form the Council. However, less than three weeks later, on November 11, twenty of them were executed and the rest disappeared, because he denounced them to the German authorities \"for refusing to rubber-stamp his policies.\" Although a new \"Judenrat\" was officially appointed a few weeks later, the men were not as distinguished, and remained far less effective than its original leaders. This change conceded more power to Rumkowski, and left no one to contest or restrain his decisions. Rumkowski had the Jewish Ghetto Police under his control also. The Germans authorized Rumkowski as the \"sole figure of authority in managing and organizing internal life in the ghetto\". Rumkowski gained power by his domineering personality as much as by his words and deeds. Biebow from the first gave Rumkowski full power in organizing the ghetto, as long as it did not interfere with his main objectives: absolute order, confiscation of Jewish property and assets, coerced labor, and Biebow's own personal gain. Their relationship seemed to work effectively. Rumkowski had leeway to organize the ghetto according to his own lights, while Biebow sat back and reaped the rewards. In trying to keep Biebow happy, Rumkowski obeyed every order with little question, and provided him with gifts and personal favors. Rumkowski is said to have boasted of his willingness to cooperate with the German authorities: \"My motto is to be always at least ten minutes ahead of every German demand.\" He believed that by staying ahead of the Germans' thinking, he could keep them satisfied and preserve the Jews. Łódź was the last ghetto in Central Europe to be liquidated. However, only 877 inhabitants survived in the city until liberation by hiding with Polish rescuers, and Rumkowski had nothing to do with it.",
"Because of the confiscation of cash and other belongings, Rumkowski proposed a currency to be used specifically in the ghetto – the \"ersatz.\" This new currency would be used as money, and by this alone, a person could buy food rations and other necessities. This proposal was considered arrogant and illustrated Rumkowski’s lust for power. The currency was, therefore, nicknamed by ghetto inhabitants as the \"Rumkin\". It dissuaded smugglers from endangering their lives to get in and out of the ghetto with goods, as people could not pay for them with regular currency. Rumkowski believed that smuggling of food would \"destabilize the ghetto with regard to the prices of basic commodities\" and prevented it from taking place. Rumkowski did not allow public protests expressing dissent. With the help of the Jewish police, he violently broke up demonstrations. On occasion, he would request the Nazis to come and break up the commotion, which usually resulted in protesters being killed. The leaders of these groups were punished by not being allowed to earn a living, which in effect meant that they and their families were doomed to starvation. Sometimes the strikers and demonstrators were arrested, imprisoned, or shipped off to labor camps. By the spring of 1941, almost all opposition to Rumkowski had dissipated. In the beginning, the Germans were unclear of their own plans for the ghetto, as arrangements for the \"Final Solution\" were still being developed. They realized that the original plan of liquidating the ghetto by October 1940 could not take place, so they began to take Rumkowski's labor agenda seriously. Forced labor became a staple of ghetto life, with Rumkowski running the effort. \"In another three years – he said – the ghetto will be working like a clock.\" This sort of \"optimism\" however, was met with a damning assessment by Max Horn from \"Ostindustrie\", who said that the ghetto was badly managed, not profitable, and had the wrong products.",
"In January 1942 some 10,000 Jews were sent aboard Holocaust trains to Chełmno based on selections made by the \"Judenrat\". An additional 34,000 victims were sent to Chelmno by 2 April, with 11,000 more in May, and over 15,000 in September 1942, for a total of 71,000 for 1942 as a whole. The children and the elderly as well as anyone deemed \"unfit for work\" in the eyes of the \"Judenrat\" would follow them.<ref name=\"jewishgen/timeline\"></ref> Rumkowski actively cooperated with the German demands hoping to save the majority of the ghetto inmates. Such behaviour set him at odds with the Orthodox observant Jews, because there could be no justification for delivering anyone to certain death. Following the creation of the extermination camp at Chełmno in 1941, the Nazis ordered Rumkowski to organize several waves of deportations. Rumkowski claimed that he tried to convince the Germans to reduce the number of Jews required for deportation and failed.",
"On German orders Rumkowski delivered a speech on September 4, 1942 pleading with the Jews in the ghetto to give up children 10 years of age and younger, as well as the elderly over 65, so that others might survive. \"Horrible, terrifying wailing among the assembled crowd\" could be heard, reads the transcriber's note to his parlance often referred to as: \"Give Me Your Children\". Some commentators see this speech as exemplifying aspects of the Holocaust.",
"Rumkowski was ruthless, using his position as head of the \"Judenrat\" to confiscate property and businesses that were still being run by their rightful Jewish owners in the ghetto. He established numerous departments and institutions that dealt with all of the ghetto's internal affairs, from housing tens of thousands of people, to distributing food rations. Welfare and health systems were also set up. For a time, his administration maintained seven hospitals, seven pharmacies, and five clinics employing hundreds of doctors and nurses. Despite their effort, many people could not be helped due to the shortage of medical supplies allowed in by the Germans. Rumkowski helped maintain school facilities. 47 schools remained in operation schooling 63% of school-age children. There was no education in any other ghetto as advanced as in Łódź. He helped set up a \"Culture House\" where cultural gatherings including plays, orchestra and other performances could take place. He was very involved in the particulars of these events, including hiring and firing performers and editing the content of the shows. He became integrated in religious life. This integration deeply bothered the religious public. For example, since the Germans disbanded the rabbinate in September 1942, Rumkowski began conducting wedding ceremonies, and altering the marriage contract (ketubah). \"He treated the ghetto Jews like personal belongings. He spoke to them arrogantly and rudely and sometime beat them\". Due to Rumkowski's harsh treatment, and stern, arrogant personality, the Jews began to blame him for their predicament, and unleashed their frustration on him instead of the Germans, who were beyond their reach. The most significant display of this frustration and resistance was a series of strikes and demonstrations between August 1940 and spring of 1941. Led by activists and leftist parties against Rumkowski, the workers abandoned their stations and went to the streets handing out fliers:",
"There are conflicting accounts regarding Rumkowski's final moments. According to one contemporary source he was murdered upon his arrival at Auschwitz by the Jews of Łódź who preceded him there. This version of events, however, has been challenged by historians. Another report, submitted by a \"Sonderkommando\" member from Hungary,, states that the Jews of Łódź approached the \"Sonderkommando\" Jews in secrecy, and asked them to kill Rumkowski for the crimes he committed in the Łódź Ghetto, so they beat him to death at the gate of the Crematorium No. 2 and disposed of his corpse.",
"In his memoirs, Yehuda Leib Gerst described Rumkowski as a complex person: \"This man had sickly leanings that clashed. Toward his fellow Jews, he was an incomparable tyrant who behaved just like a Führer and cast deathly terror to anyone who dared to oppose his lowly ways. Toward the perpetrators, however, he was as tender as a lamb and there was no limit to his base submission to all their demands, even if their purpose was to wipe us out totally. Either way, he did not properly understand his situation and position and their limits.\" Historian Michal Unger in her Reassessment \"of the Image of Mordechai Chaim Rumkowski\" (2004) explored the materials leading to what is being said about him. Rumkowski is described \"on the one hand, an aggressive, domineering person, thirsty for honor and power, raucous, vulgar and ignorant, impatient (and) intolerant, impulsive and lustful. On the other hand, he is portrayed as a man of exceptional organizational prowess, quick, very energetic, and true to tasks that he set for himself.\" Research performed by Isaiah Trunk for the book \"Judenrat\" attempted to revise the prevailing view of Rumkowski as traitor and collaborationist. Rumkowski took an active role in the deportations of Jews. Some historians and writers describe him as a traitor and as a Nazi collaborator. Rumkowski aimed at fulfilling the Nazi demands with the help of their own Orpo Security Police if necessary. His rule, unlike the leaders of other ghettos, was marked with abuse of his own people coupled with physical liquidation of political opponents. He and his council had a comfortable food ration and their own special shops. He was known to get rid of those he personally disliked by sending them to the camps. Additionally, he sexually abused vulnerable girls under his charge. Failure to submit to him meant death to the girl. Holocaust survivor Lucille Eichengreen, who claimed to have been abused by him for months as a young woman working in his office, wrote, \"I felt disgusted and I felt angry, I ah, but if I would have run away he would have had me deported, I mean that was very clear.\" Primo Levi, an Auschwitz survivor, in his book \"The Drowned and the Saved\", concludes: \"Had he survived his own tragedy...no tribunal would have absolved him, nor, certainly, can we absolve him on the moral plane. But there are extenuating circumstances: an infernal order such as National Socialism exercises a frightful power of corruption against which it is difficult to guard oneself. To resist it requires a truly solid moral armature, and the one available to Chaim Rumkowski...was fragile.\" At best, Levi viewed Rumkowski as morally ambiguous and self deluded. Hannah Arendt, in her book \"Eichmann in Jerusalem\", placed Rumkowski's egotism at the low end of the spectrum of wartime ghetto leadership examples. Professor Yehuda Bauer points out that if the Russians had continued their summer offensive in 1944, Lodz would have been the only ghetto to be liberated with a significant amount of its inhabitants still alive, and Rumkowski might be remembered in a very different light."
]
}
|
Edward Maitland (RAF officer)
| null |
Air Commodore Edward Maitland Maitland, (21 February 1880 – 24 August 1921) was an early military aviator who served in the Air Battalion of the Royal Engineers, the Royal Flying Corps, the Royal Naval Air Service and the Royal Air Force. He was a noted pioneer of lighter-than-air aviation.
| null |
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en-train-1949512
|
en-train-1949512
|
1949512
|
{
"title": [
"Early life.",
"Military career.",
"Accomplishments in ballooning."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Edward Maitland Gee, as he was known from his birth, was the eldest son of Arthur Gee, a barrister from Cambridgeshire. The family name was changed to 'Maitland' in 1903. He was educated at Haileybury and Trinity College, Cambridge, leaving Trinity without taking his degree to enlist in the Army. He later took his degree in 1906, gaining a third.",
"Maitland was commissioned a second-lieutenant in the Essex Regiment on 23 May 1900, and served with the 2nd battalion of his regiment in the Orange River Colony during the Second Boer War in South Africa. He was promoted to lieutenant on 26 January 1902, and returned home with his battalion in October that year, after the end of the war three months earlier. On 19 August 1911 Maitland was attached to the Royal Engineers' Air Battalion and later that year he was appointed Officer Commanding No. 1 Company, Air Battalion. (No. 1 Company, Air Battalion was subsequently renamed No. 1 Squadron RFC and then No. 1 Squadron RAF). In 1914, when the Army airships were transferred to the Navy, Maitland transferred to the Royal Naval Air Service and in the early months of World War I served with the Dunkirk Squadron, operating captive balloons. Impressed by the kite-balloons being used by the French, he returned to Britain to promote their use to the War Office, and was appointed head of the kite balloon school which was established at Roehampton. Early in 1916 he became the head of the Air Operational Department at the Admiralty, but this post did not suit him and he was appointed the head of the naval airship station at Pulham. On 1 April 1918, with the merger of the Royal Naval Air Service and the Royal Flying Corps, Maitland transferred to the Royal Air Force. He was subsequently promoted to air commodore.",
"Maitland took up ballooning in 1908. On 18 November 1908, he flew with Mr C C Turner and Prof A E Gaudron in a balloon named the \"Mammoth\" from Crystal Palace in England to Meeki Derevi, near Novo Aleksandrovsk in Russia (now Zarasai in Lithuania). The distance of was covered in thirty-six and a half hours. From 1909 Maitland was attached to the Balloon School at Farnborough Airfield. In addition to ballooning, he also experimented with powered aircraft, but following a crash in which he broke both legs he restricted his activities to airships and balloons. He was awarded Royal Aero Club Airship Pilot certificate No.8 in September 1911 and in 1913 he carried out a parachute descent from the airship Delta. In 1919 Maitland was on board the Airship R34 when it completed the first transatlantic crossing. On 24 August 1921 Maitland was killed when the R38 airship on which he was a passenger suffered structural failure and broke up in mid air over the Humber. He was buried at Western Cemetery in Hull."
]
}
|
Gustave Le Bon
| null |
Charles-Marie Gustave Le Bon (; 7 May 1841 – 13 December 1931) was a leading French polymath whose areas of interest included anthropology, psychology, sociology, medicine, invention, and physics. He is best known for his 1895 work "", which is considered one of the seminal works of crowd psychology.
| null |
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en-train-177815
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en-train-177815
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177815
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{
"title": [
"Biography.",
"Youth.",
"Life in Paris.",
"Widespread travels.",
"Development of theories.",
"Later life and death.",
"Le Bonian thought.",
"Inspirations.",
"Crowds.",
"Influence.",
"Works."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"",
"Charles-Marie Gustave Le Bon was born in Nogent-le-Rotrou, Centre-Val de Loire on 7 May 1841 to a family of Breton ancestry. At the time of Le Bon's birth, his mother, Annette Josephine Eugénic Tétiot Desmarlinais, was twenty-six and his father, Jean-Marie Charles Le Bon, was forty-one and a provincial functionary of the French government. Le Bon was a direct descendant of Jean-Odet Carnot, whose grandfather, Jean Carnot, had a brother, Denys, from whom the fifth president of the French Third Republic, Marie François Sadi Carnot, was directly descended. When Le Bon was eight years old, his father obtained a new post in French government and the family, including Gustave's younger brother Georges, left Nogent-le-Rotrou never to return. Nonetheless, the town was proud that Gustave Le Bon was born there and later named a street after him. Little else is known of Le Bon's childhood, except for his attendance at a lycée in Tours, where he was an unexceptional student. In 1860, he began medicinal studies at the University of Paris. He completed his internship at Hôtel-Dieu de Paris, and received his doctorate in 1866. From that time on, he referred to himself as \"Doctor\" though he never formally worked as a physician. During his university years, Le Bon wrote articles on a range of medical topics, the first of which related to the maladies that plagued those who lived in swamp-like conditions. He published several other about loa loa filariasis and asphyxia before releasing his first full-length book in 1866, \"La mort apparente et inhumations prématurées\". This work dealt with the definition of death, preceding 20th-century legal debates on the issue.",
"After his graduation, Le Bon remained in Paris, where he taught himself English and German by reading Shakespeare's works in each language. He maintained his passion for writing and authored several papers on physiological studies, as well as an 1868 textbook about sexual reproduction, before joining the French Army as a medical officer after the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War in July 1870. During the war, Le Bon organised a division of military ambulances. In that capacity, he observed the behaviour of the military under the worst possible condition—total defeat, and wrote about his reflections on military discipline, leadership and the behaviour of man in a state of stress and suffering. These reflections garnered praise from generals, and were later studied at Saint-Cyr and other military academies in France. At the end of the war, Le Bon was named a \"Chevalier\" of the Legion of Honour. Le Bon also witnessed the Paris Commune of 1871, which deeply affected his worldview. The then thirty-year-old Le Bon watched on as Parisian revolutionary crowds burned down the Tuileries Palace, the library of the Louvre, the Hôtel de Ville, the Gobelins Manufactory, the Palais de Justice, and other irreplaceable works of architectural art. From 1871 on, Le Bon was an avowed opponent of socialist pacifists and protectionists, who he believed were halting France's martial development and stifling her industrial growth; stating in 1913: \"Only people with lots of cannons have the right to be pacifists.\" He also warned his countrymen of the deleterious effects of political rivalries in the face of German military might and rapid industrialisation, and therefore was uninvolved in the Dreyfus Affair which dichotomised France.",
"Le Bon became interested in the emerging field of anthropology in the 1870s and travelled throughout Europe, Asia and North Africa. Influenced by Charles Darwin, Herbert Spencer and Ernst Haeckel, Le Bon supported biological determinism and a hierarchical view of the races and sexes; after extensive field research, he posited a correlation between cranial capacity and intelligence in \"Recherches anatomiques et mathématiques sur les variations de volume du cerveau et sur leurs relations avec l'intelligence\" (1879), which earned him the Godard Prize from the French Academy of Sciences. During his research, he invented a portable cephalometer to aid with measuring the physical characteristics of remote peoples, and in 1881 published a paper, \"\"The Pocket Cephalometer, or Compass of Coordinates\"\", detailing his invention and its application. In 1884, he was commissioned by the French government to travel around Asia and report on the civilisations there. The results of his journeys were a number of books, and a development in Le Bon's thinking to also view culture to be influenced chiefly by hereditary factors such as the unique racial features of the people. The first book, entitled \"La Civilisation des Arabes\", was released in 1884. In this, Le Bon praised Arabs highly for their contributions to civilisation, but criticised Islamism as an agent of stagnation. He also described their culture as superior to that of the Turks who governed them, and translations of this work were inspirational to early Arab nationalists. He followed this with a trip to Nepal, becoming the first Frenchman to visit the country, and released \"Voyage au Népal\" in 1886. He next published \"Les Civilisations de l'Inde\" (1887), in which he applauded Indian architecture, art and religion but argued that Indians were comparatively inferior to Europeans in regard to scientific advancements, and that this had facilitated British domination. In 1889, he released \"Les Premières Civilisations de l'Orient\", giving in it an overview of the Mesopotamian, Indian, Chinese and Egyptian civilisations. The same year, he delivered a speech to the International Colonial Congress criticising colonial policies which included attempts of cultural assimilation, stating: \"Leave to the natives their customs, their institutions and their laws.\" Le Bon released the last book on the topic of his travels, entitled \"Les monuments de l'Inde\", in 1893, again praising the architectural achievements of the Indian people.",
"On his travels, Le Bon travelled largely on horseback and noticed that techniques used by horse breeders and trainers varied dependent on the region. He returned to Paris and in 1892, while riding a high-spirited horse, he was bucked off and narrowly escaped death. He was unsure as to what caused him to be thrown off the horse, and decided to begin a study of what he had done wrong as a rider. The result of his study was \"L'Équitation actuelle et ses principes. Recherches expérimentales\" (1892), which consisted of numerous photographs of horses in action combined with analysis by Le Bon. This work became a respected cavalry manual, and Le Bon extrapolated his studies on the behaviour of horses to develop theories on early childhood education. Le Bon's behavioural study of horses also sparked a long-standing interest in psychology, and in 1894 he released \"Lois psychologiques de l'évolution des peuples\". This work was dedicated to his friend Charles Richet though it drew much from the theories of Théodule-Armand Ribot, to whom Le Bon dedicated \"\" (1895). \"Psychologie des Foules\" was in part a summation of Le Bon's 1881 work \"L'Homme et les sociétés\"—which Émile Durkheim referenced in his doctoral dissertation \"De la division du travail social\". Both were best-sellers, with \"Psychologie des Foules\" being translated into nineteen languages within one year of its appearance. Le Bon followed these with two more books on psychology, \"Psychologie du Socialisme\" and \"Psychologie de l'Éducation\", in 1896 and 1902 respectively. These works rankled the largely socialist academic establishment of France. Le Bon constructed a home laboratory in the early 1890s, and in 1896 reported observing \"black light\", a new kind of radiation that he believed was distinct from, but possibly related to, X-rays and cathode rays. Not the same type of radiation as what is now known as black light, its existence was never confirmed and, similar to N rays, it is now generally understood to be non-existent, but the discovery claim attracted much attention among French scientists at the time, many of whom supported it and Le Bon's general ideas on matter and radiation, and he was even nominated for the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903. In 1902, Le Bon began a series of weekly luncheons to which he invited prominent intellectuals, nobles and ladies of fashion. The strength of his personal networks is apparent from the guest list: participants included cousins Henri and Raymond Poincaré, Paul Valéry, Alexander Izvolsky, Henri Bergson, Marcellin Berthelot and Aristide Briand. In \"L'Évolution de la Matière\" (1905), Le Bon anticipated the mass–energy equivalence, and in a 1922 letter to Albert Einstein complained about his lack of recognition. Einstein responded and conceded that a mass–energy equivalence had been proposed before him, but only the theory of relativity had cogently proved it. Gaston Moch gave Le Bon credit for anticipating Einstein's theory of relativity. In \"L'Évolution des Forces\" (1907), Le Bon prophesied the Atomic Age. He wrote about \"the manifestation of a new force—namely intra-atomic energy—which surpasses all others by its colossal magnitude,\" and stated that a scientist who discovered a way to dissociate rapidly one gram of any metal would \"not witness the results of his experiments... the explosion produced would be so formidable that his laboratory and all neighbouring houses, with their inhabitants, would be instantaneously pulverised.\" Le Bon discontinued his research in physics in 1908, and turned again to psychology. He released \"La Psychologie politique et la défense sociale\", \"Les Opinions et les croyances\", \"La Révolution Française et la Psychologie des Révolutions\", \"Aphorismes du temps présent\", and \"La Vie des vérités\" in back-to-back years from 1910 to 1914, expounding in which his views on affective and rational thought, the psychology of race, and the history of civilisation.",
"Le Bon continued writing throughout World War I, publishing \"Enseignements Psychologiques de la Guerre Européenne\" (1915), \"Premières conséquences de la guerre: transformation mentale des peuples\" (1916) and \"Hier et demain. Pensées brèves\" (1918) during the war. He then released \"Psychologie des Temps Nouveaux\" (1920) before resigning from his position as Professor of Psychology and Allied Sciences at the University of Paris and retiring to his home. He released \"Le Déséquilibre du Monde\", \"Les Incertitudes de l'heure présente\" and \"L'évolution actuelle du monde, illusions et réalités\" in 1923, 1924 and 1927 respectively, giving in them his views of the world during the volatile interwar period. He became a \"Grand-Croix\" of the Legion of Honour in 1929. He published his last work, entitled \"Bases scientifiques d'une philosophie de l'histoire\", in 1931 and on 13 December, died in Marnes-la-Coquette, Île-de-France at the age of ninety.",
"Convinced that human actions are guided by eternal laws, Le Bon attempted to synthesise Auguste Comte and Herbert Spencer with Jules Michelet and Alexis de Tocqueville.",
"According to Steve Reicher, Le Bon was not the first crowd psychologist: \"The first debate in crowd psychology was actually between two criminologists, Scipio Sighele and Gabriel Tarde, concerning how to determine and assign criminal responsibility within a crowd and hence who to arrest.\" While this previous attribution may be valid, it is worth pointing out that Le Bon specified that the influence of crowds was not only a negative phenomenon, but could also have a positive impact. He considered this as a shortcoming from those authors who only considered the criminal aspect of crowd psychology.",
"Le Bon theorised that the new entity, the \"psychological crowd\", which emerges from incorporating the assembled population not only forms a new body but also creates a collective \"unconsciousness\". As a group of people gather together and coalesces to form a crowd, there is a \"magnetic influence given out by the crowd\" that transmutes every individual's behaviour until it becomes governed by the \"group mind\". This model treats the crowd as a unit in its composition which robs every individual member of their opinions, values and beliefs; as Le Bon states: \"An individual in a crowd is a grain of sand amid other grains of sand, which the wind stirs up at will\". Le Bon detailed three key processes that create the psychological crowd: i) Anonymity, ii) Contagion and iii) Suggestibility. Anonymity provides to rational individuals a feeling of invincibility and the loss of personal responsibility. An individual becomes primitive, unreasoning, and emotional. This lack of self-restraint allows individuals to \"yield to instincts\" and to accept the instinctual drives of their \"racial unconscious\". For Le Bon, the crowd inverts Darwin's law of evolution and becomes atavistic, proving Ernst Haeckel's embryological theory: \"ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny\". Contagion refers to the spread in the crowd of particular behaviours and individuals sacrifice their personal interest for the collective interest. Suggestibility is the mechanism through which the contagion is achieved; as the crowd coalesces into a singular mind, suggestions made by strong voices in the crowd create a space for the racial unconscious to come to the forefront and guide its behaviour. At this stage, the psychological crowd becomes homogeneous and malleable to suggestions from its strongest members. \"The leaders we speak of,\" says Le Bon, \"are usually men of action rather than of words. They are not gifted with keen foresight... They are especially recruited from the ranks of those morbidly nervous excitable half-deranged persons who are bordering on madness.\"",
"George Lachmann Mosse claimed that fascist theories of leadership that emerged during the 1920s owed much to Le Bon's theories of crowd psychology. Adolf Hitler is known to have read \"The Crowd\" and in \"Mein Kampf\" drew on the propaganda techniques proposed by Le Bon. Benito Mussolini also made a careful study of Le Bon. Le Bon also influenced Vladimir Lenin and the Bolsheviks. Just prior to World War I, Wilfred Trotter introduced Wilfred Bion to Le Bon's writings and Sigmund Freud's work \"Group Psychology and the Analysis of the Ego\". Trotter's book \"Instincts of the Herd in Peace and War\" (1919) forms the basis for the research of both Wilfred Bion and Ernest Jones who established what would be called group dynamics. During the first half of the twentieth century, Le Bon's writings were used by media researchers such as Hadley Cantril and Herbert Blumer to describe the reactions of subordinate groups to media. Edward Bernays, a nephew of Sigmund Freud, was influenced by Le Bon and Trotter. In his influential book \"Propaganda\", he declared that a major feature of democracy was the manipulation of the electorate by the mass media and advertising. Theodore Roosevelt as well as Charles G. Dawes and many other American progressives in the early 20th century were also deeply affected by Le Bon's writings.",
"Medical Anthropology, psychology and sociology Natural science"
]
}
|
George Lazenby
| null |
George Robert Lazenby AC (; born 5 September 1939) is an Australian actor and former model. He was the second actor to portray fictional British secret agent James Bond in the Eon Productions film series, playing the character in "On Her Majesty's Secret Service" (1969). Lazenby's tenure as Bond was the shortest among the actors in the official film series and he is the series' only Bond actor to not appear outside of one film.
| null |
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en-train-1804657
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en-train-1804657
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1804657
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{
"title": [
"Early life in Australia.",
"Modelling.",
"Acting career.",
"James Bond.",
"Post-Bond career.",
"Hong Kong.",
"Australia.",
"Hollywood.",
"Influence on popular culture.",
"Personal life."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Lazenby was born in 1939 in Goulburn, New South Wales, at Ovada Private Hospital, to railway worker George Edward Lazenby and Sheila Joan Lazenby (née Bodel), who worked at Fosseys. He went to Goulburn Public School in his primary years, and Goulburn High School until 1954. His sister, Barbara, was an accomplished dancer. When he was young he spent 18 months in hospital after having an operation which left him with only half a kidney. When Lazenby was about 14 he moved with his family from Goulburn to Queanbeyan, where his father ran a store. He served in the Australian Army, then afterwards worked as a car salesman and mechanic.",
"Lazenby moved to London in 1963 to pursue a woman with whom he'd fallen in love. He became a used car salesman in Finchley, and subsequently sold new cars in Park Lane, where he was spotted by a talent scout who persuaded him to become a model. He was soon earning £25,000 a year (£ today). He was widely known for an advertisement for Fry's chocolate bars. In 1966, he was voted Top Model of the Year.",
"",
"In 1968, after Sean Connery had left the role of James Bond, producer Albert R. Broccoli met Lazenby for the first time while they were getting their hair cut at the same barbershop. Broccoli later saw him in the Big Fry commercial and felt he could possibly be a Bond, on which basis he invited him to do a screen test. Lazenby dressed for the part by sporting several sartorial Bond elements such as a Rolex Submariner wristwatch and a Savile Row suit, which had been ordered, but not collected, by Connery. Broccoli offered him an audition. The position was consolidated when Lazenby accidentally punched a professional wrestler, who was acting as stunt coordinator, in the face, impressing Broccoli with his ability to display aggression. Director Peter R. Hunt later claimed: In July 1969, Lazenby returned home to Queanbeyan to see his parents. He said he had 18 films to consider. \"But it's all commercial rubbish, such as the guy getting the girl at the end of the \"Battle of Britain\"\", he said. \"I'll just have to wait and see.\" He also told the press \"I don't think I'm ready for anything like Hamlet yet but I'd love to play Ned Kelly.\" At this stage, Lazenby said he intended to make the next Bond film, which was to be \"The Man with the Golden Gun\". However by November 1969, prior to the release of the film, Lazenby said he no longer wished to play the James Bond role, saying, \"The producers made me feel like I was mindless. They disregarded everything I suggested simply because I hadn't been in the film business like them for about a thousand years.\" His co-star Diana Rigg was among many who commented on this decision: Rigg was also quoted as saying, \"I can no longer cater for his obsession with himself. He is utterly, unbelievably... bloody impossible\". \"I draw a veil over the chap\", said Desmond Llewelyn (who played Q in 17 Bond films). \"How can you expect someone who's never acted before... to take on a leading role?\" Lazenby grew a beard and long hair. \"Bond is a brute... I've already put him behind me. I will never play him again. Peace – that's the message now\", he announced. He said: He later elaborated: At the time of the release of \"OHMSS\", Lazenby's performance received mixed reviews. Some felt that, while he was physically convincing, some of his costumes were inappropriate – \"too loud\" according to some – and that he delivered his lines poorly. Others, however, have developed differing views in the decades since the film. In the 1998 book \"The Essential James Bond\", Lee Pfeiffer and Dave Worrell write: Roger Moore made reference to Lazenby in his commentary for a 2007 DVD release of \"The Man with the Golden Gun\": Lazenby was told by Connery in a restaurant \"you were good\". Broccoli told the press shortly after the film's release: Broccoli did admit that he found Lazenby's post-movie attitude annoying: Although Lazenby had been offered a contract for seven movies, his agent, Ronan O'Rahilly, convinced him that the secret agent would be archaic in the liberated 1970s, and as a result he left the series after the release of \"On Her Majesty's Secret Service\" in 1969. After this role Lazenby is claimed to have begun studying drama at Durham University's College of the Venerable Bede. though this was not reported on at the time. Lazenby has portrayed James Bond several times over the years in numerous parodies and unofficial 007 roles, notably the 1983 television film \"The Return of the Man from U.N.C.L.E.\" (in which his character is identified only by the initials J.B.), 1996 video game \"Fox Hunt\" (parts of which were reedited into a feature film) and an episode of \"The New Alfred Hitchcock Presents\", entitled \"Diamonds Aren't Forever\". In 2012 Lazenby made a guest appearance on the Canadian sketch comedy series \"This Hour Has 22 Minutes\", spoofing the 007 series in a skit called \"Help, I've Skyfallen and I Can't Get Up\". Lazenby was complimentary of the finished film in later years; \"In retrospect it was well done. I can’t say I was Richard Burton, or a great actor in it because it was my first acting experience, but I did carry the role. It was tough carrying the role after Sean Connery because he was good. I liked him. You’ve got to understand the story was good, and it had some substance while most of them, I hate to say, don’t.\"",
"For a time there was some talk Lazenby would appear in a western, \"Deakin\". He talked to the press about his use of LSD and marijuana and was involved in a well publicised incident helping a friend of his who was arrested in Germany. He grew his hair and a moustache and talked about rejecting the \"trappings of materialism\". Lazenby made another film a year after \"On Her Majesty's Secret Service\" – \"Universal Soldier\" (1971), which he helped write. He said the movie was \"anti-guns and anti-Bond... a [comedy] with no plot. It is really just a series of happenings which keep the audience entertained. This is the kind of film which is coming out in Europe now.\" It starred Chrissie Townsend, his 18-year-old girlfriend and future wife. The film was a financial disaster which was barely released. \"After the Bond fiasco nobody would touch me\", admitted Lazenby. \"Harry Saltzman had always said, 'If you don't do another Bond you'll wind up doing spaghetti westerns in Italy. But I couldn't even get one of those. My agent couldn't believe it. But the word was out – I was 'difficult'.\" Lazenby next appeared in the 1972 Italian film, \"Who Saw Her Die?\" opposite Anita Strindberg, a performance for which he lost 35 pounds and received positive reviews. He spent the next 15 months sailing around the world with Chrissie Townsend which ended when she became pregnant with their first child, prompting Lazenby to settle down and try to re-activate his career as an actor. In February 1973 he said he spent all his money from the movie and had had two nervous breakdowns and developed a drinking problem. He said if he had not left the role he would have been \"locked up by now... You need mental conditioning to play Bond,\" he added. I burnt some bridges behind me, and it was fun, really. I'm sort of glad I did it and I know I won't have to do it again. I can look back and laugh because I didn't hurt anyone — except myself.\" Lazenby played a role in the BBC's \"Play For Today\" series in 1973, starring in Roger Smith's \"The Operation\". He was meant to follow it with an Anglo-Italian western made in Turkey, followed by a film about rioting students in pre-Castro Cuba, but neither was made.",
"In 1973, Lazenby said he was \"flat broke\" when he went to Hong Kong to meet Bruce Lee and producer Raymond Chow. They ended up offering him $10,000 ($ today) to appear in a film with Lee, which was going to be the Golden Harvest film \"Game of Death\". However this collapsed after Lee's sudden death – Lazenby was actually meant to meet Lee for lunch on the day Lee died. Instead it was announced Lazenby would make \"The Golden Needles of Ecstasy\" for Golden Harvest. \"I'm excited to be able to concentrate on just acting in this film\", he said. \"On \"Universal Soldier\" I was involved in the production, the writing and even a bit in direction. I don't think I'm a good enough actor to get fragmented like that on a job. Now I can give my full concentration to acting. I hope it will be good and lead to other roles.\" He revealed he had been consulting an astrologer for four years. \"Even before I made the Bond picture she said I would become famous, and that there would be big problems for a couple of years\", he said. \"Then she assured me that I would be back at the top of my profession by the end of 1973. It's absolutely fantastic, because everything she has told me has happened\". In the end, Lazenby did not make \"Golden Needles\" but shot three other films for Golden Harvest, \"Stoner\" (1974) (aka \"The Shrine of Ultimate Bliss\"), \"The Man from Hong Kong\" (1975) (also known as \"The Dragon Flies\"), and \"A Queen's Ransom\" (1976).",
"In the mid-1970s, he appeared in a number of television movies shot in his native Australia, and an episode of the local police drama series \"Matlock Police\". He also returned to modelling, appearing in a number of advertisements for Benson and Hedges cigarettes. A few years later he told an Australian magazine, \"I got a few roles but nothing spectacular, yet I was ready, willing and able to work. I just don't think I'm going to make it here. If something good came along I'd stay, though.\"",
"In the late 1970s Lazenby moved to Hollywood where he started taking acting lessons and set about trying to reactivate his career. \"I enjoy the States, to be quite honest about it\", he said. \"I've got an American wife and green card so I have the best of both worlds.\" He appeared in a TV movie \"Cover Girls\" (1977). In 1978 Broccoli described casting Lazenby as \"my biggest mistake in 16 years. He just couldn't deal with success. He was so arrogant. There was the stature and looks of a Bond but Lazenby couldn't get along with the other performers and technicians.\" Sean Connery came to Lazenby's defence saying \"I have known George for many years and arrogance is not in his character. Alas I cannot say the same for Cubby Broccoli\". \"The interesting thing about that is – I've never met Sean\", said Lazenby. \"I don't know him at all. Once, years ago, he came to pick up someone who was staying at my house and I saw him through the door. That's all. But I always admired him. I tried to copy him when I played Bond because, after all, I wasn't an actor so I thought my best chance would be to try and be as close to Connery as I could.\" Lazenby went on to add:It hasn't been easy, trying to climb back... I admit I acted stupidly. It went to my head, everything that was happening to me. But remember, it was my first film... Now what I've got to do is live down my past; convince people I'm not the same person who made a fool of himself all those years ago. I know I can do it. All I need is the chance. In 1978, he took out an advertisement in \"Variety\", offering himself for acting work. \"If I could get a TV series or a good movie, I swear I'd do it for nothing\", he told a journalist. \"People ask me if the Bond movie wasn't worth it if it got me into acting. It's true that it got me in, but it wasn't worth the ten years it cost me.\" He was particularly keen to do \"The Thorn Birds\". but that project was not made until a number of years later and without Lazenby. He did manage to secure roles in \"Hawaii 5-0\" and \"Evening in Byzantium\". The latter was seen by Harry Saltzman who offered Lazenby a leading role in a proposed science fiction film \"The Micronauts\". \"When I tossed Bond in after one movie he said he'd make sure I never got another job\", said Lazenby. \"Now he's offering me one. It seems that the 10-year sentence is up. Harry saw me in a TV show I'd recently made for NBC. He rang me up out of the blue and said, \"Now that was a damn lousy show, but one thought that you were ger-reat.\" However the movie was never made. Lazenby made a guest appearance on the television series \"Superboy\", as an alien disguised as Jor-El, in a two-part episode during the series' second season in 1990. He appeared with Sylvia Kristel in several new \"Emmanuelle\" films in the 1990s, many of which appeared on cable television. In 1993, Lazenby had a part in the film \"Gettysburg\" as Confederate General Johnston Pettigrew. On 19 September 2013, comedian Jim Jefferies announced on Twitter that Lazenby would be playing his father in the upcoming second season of his FX network sitcom \"Legit\".",
"Lazenby's single portrayal of the iconic Bond character, and his lack of standing as a favourite in the series, has resulted in his name being used as a metaphor for forgettable, non-iconic acting efforts in other entertainment franchises, and for entities that are largely ignored. In his review of \"Batman & Robin\", widely regarded as the weakest and least successful film in the \"Batman\" film franchise, Mick LaSalle of the \"San Francisco Chronicle\" said that George Clooney \"should go down in history as the George Lazenby of the series\". Actor Paul McGann has described himself with good humour as \"the George Lazenby of \"Doctor Who\"\" because, although he has continued in the role of the Eighth Doctor in other media, he made only two appearances on television as the eponymous Time Lord. In a September 2006 episode of \"The Daily Show\", comedian John Oliver suggested that Pope Benedict XVI is the George Lazenby of the papacy, in comparison to \"John Paul II's Sean Connery\". In 2009, Sondre Lerche released a song called \"Like Lazenby\" on his album \"Heartbeat Radio\", in which he laments squandered opportunities wishing for a \"second try\". Lerche wrote the song after receiving a VHS of the film \"On Her Majesty's Secret Service\" as a child, after sending away for a free copy of the movie only to find he had joined a James Bond film club. He got into trouble when his mother was contacted to pay for the membership. Years later, watching the movie again on DVD (with Lazenby's interviews), he found it to be \"a perfect metaphor for life's disappointments\". In 2010, Roger Moore, who also played James Bond, provided the voice of a talking cat character named Tab Lazenby in the film \"\", which contained.",
"In 1973, Lazenby married his girlfriend of three years, Chrissie Townsend, a member of the Gannett family. They subsequently had two children, Zachary and Melanie. Zachary was diagnosed with a malignant brain tumour when he was eleven and died at 19. Melanie became a real estate broker in New York. In 2002 Lazenby married former tennis player Pam Shriver. In August 2008, it was reported that Shriver had filed for divorce from Lazenby. Documents filed in Los Angeles Superior Court cite \"irreconcilable differences\" for the end of the couple's six-year marriage. The couple have three children, including twins born in 2005."
]
}
|
Timothy Dalton
| null |
Timothy Dalton (; born Timothy Leonard Dalton Leggett; 21 March 1946) is a British actor. He is best known for portraying James Bond in "The Living Daylights" (1987) and "Licence to Kill" (1989), as well as Mr. Rochester in "Jane Eyre" (1983), Rhett Butler in the television miniseries "Scarlett" (1994), and Simon Skinner in "Hot Fuzz" (2007). As of February 2019 he appears as Niles Caulder / The Chief in the DC Universe action series "Doom Patrol" (2019–).
| null |
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en-train-1573171
|
en-train-1573171
|
1573171
|
{
"title": [
"Early life.",
"Career.",
"James Bond (1986–1994).",
"Initial offers.",
"Films.",
"Dalton as Bond.",
"Post-Bond career.",
"Personal life."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Dalton was born in Colwyn Bay, North Wales, to an English father, Peter Dalton Leggett, who was a captain in the Special Operations Executive during the Second World War and was an advertising executive at the time of his son's birth; and an American mother, Dorothy Scholes, of Italian and Irish descent. Before Timothy's fourth birthday, the family moved back to England to Belper in Derbyshire. While in Belper, he attended the Herbert Strutt Grammar School. As a teenager, he was a member of the Air Training Corps at LXX (Croft & Culcheth) Squadron. He decided to become an actor at 16 after seeing a production of \"Macbeth\" and got a role in a production of the play at The Old Vic. He left school in 1962 at 16 to enrol in the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art and tour with the National Youth Theatre. Dalton did not complete his RADA studies, leaving the academy in 1966 to join the ensemble of the Birmingham Repertory Theatre. He had ambitions of being an actor, which pleased his father; \"It pleased everybody on my father's side of the family. My mother and her side, however, were worried. None of them felt acting was a secure profession for a young man.\"",
"Dalton quickly moved to television, working mainly with the BBC, and in 1968 made his film debut as Philip II of France in \"The Lion in Winter\". This was the first of several period dramas, which included a remake of \"Wuthering Heights\" in 1970 in which he portrayed Heathcliff, and the Civil War drama \"Cromwell\" as Cavalier commander Prince Rupert. After a few more films, Dalton took a break in 1971 to concentrate on the theatre, performing with the Royal Shakespeare Company and other troupes throughout the world. In 1975, Dalton and Vivien Merchant headed the cast of a revival of Noël Coward's \"The Vortex\". With two exceptions, the films \"Mary, Queen of Scots\" (1971) and \"Permission to Kill\" (1975), he remained a theatre actor until 1978. That year he starred in \"Sextette\" as the husband of 85-year-old Mae West, hailing his return to cinema and the beginning of his American career. While in the United States, Dalton worked mainly in television, although he starred in several films. During this time, he played Prince Barin in the science fiction film \"Flash Gordon\" (1980) and played Mr. Rochester in a BBC serial of \"Jane Eyre\" (1983). Dalton starred alongside Jonathan Pryce in the film \"The Doctor and the Devils\" (1985). Dalton co-starred with Joan Collins in the miniseries, \"Sins\" (1986). He was also replaced in two films in which he'd been signed to appear. He was offered the role of real-life British Prime Minister William Lamb in the film \"Lady Caroline Lamb\". The filmmakers replaced him with Jon Finch at the last moment; Dalton sued for breach of contract and won an out-of-court settlement. In 1985, Dalton was set to play Don Alfonso de la Torré in Roman Polanski's film \"Pirates\". The two men did not get along, so Polanski replaced Dalton with Damien Thomas.",
"",
"Dalton had been considered for the role of James Bond several times. According to the documentary \"Inside The Living Daylights\", the producers first approached Dalton in 1968 for \"On Her Majesty's Secret Service\" although Dalton himself in this same documentary claims the approach occurred when he was either 24 or 25 and had already done the film \"Mary, Queen of Scots\" (1971). Dalton told the producers that he was too young for the role. In a 1987 interview, Dalton said, \"Originally I did not want to take over from Sean Connery. He was far too good, he was wonderful. I was about 24 or 25, which is too young. But when you've seen Bond from the beginning, you don't take over from Sean Connery.\" In either 1979 or 1980, he was approached again, but did not favour the direction the films were taking, nor did he think the producers were seriously looking for a new 007. As he explained, his idea of Bond was different. In a 1979 episode of the television series \"Charlie's Angels\", Dalton played the role of Damien Roth, a millionaire playboy described by David Doyle's character as \"almost James Bond-ian\". In 1986, Dalton was approached to play Bond after Roger Moore had retired, and Pierce Brosnan was unavailable due to his contractual commitments to the television series \"Remington Steele\". Dalton would soon begin filming \"Brenda Starr\" and could do \"The Living Daylights\" only if the Bond producers waited six weeks.",
"Dalton's first appearance as 007, \"The Living Daylights\" (1987), was critically successful, grossing more than either of the previous two Bond films with Moore (\"Octopussy\" (1983) and \"A View to a Kill\" (1985)) as well as contemporary box-office rivals such as \"Die Hard\" and \"Lethal Weapon\". His second film, \"Licence to Kill\" (1989), although almost as successful as its predecessor in most markets, did not perform as well at the U.S. box office, in large part due to a lacklustre marketing campaign whereby the title of the film was abruptly changed from \"Licence Revoked\". The main factor for the lack of success in the U.S. was that it was released at the same time as the hugely successful \"Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade\", Tim Burton's \"Batman\", and \"Lethal Weapon 2\", during the summer blockbuster season. In the United Kingdom—one of its critical markets—the film was also hampered by receiving a 15 certificate from the British Board of Film Classification, which severely affected its commercial success. Future Bond films, following the resolution of legal and other issues, were all released between 31 October and mid-December, in order to avoid the risk of a summer failure, as had happened to \"Licence to Kill\". With a worldwide gross of, \"The Living Daylights\" became the fourth-most-successful Bond film at the time of its release. In 1998, the second Deluxe Edition of Bond's soundtracks was released. \"The Living Daylights\" was one of the first soundtracks to receive Deluxe treatment. The booklet/poster of this CD contains MGM's quote about \"The Living Daylights\" being the fourth-most-successful Bond film. Since Dalton was contracted for three Bond films, the pre-production of his third film began in 1990, in order to be released in 1991. What was confirmed is that the story would deal with the destruction of a chemical weapons laboratory in Scotland, and the events would take place in London, Tokyo and Hong Kong. The film was cancelled due to legal issues between UA/MGM and Eon Productions, which lasted for four years. The legal battle ended in 1993, and Dalton was expected to return as James Bond in the next Bond film, which later became \"GoldenEye\". Since his contract has expired, negotiations with him to renew it took place. Dalton surprised everyone on 12 April 1994 with the announcement that he would not return as James Bond. At this time, he was shooting the mini-series \"Scarlett\". The announcement for the new Bond came two months later, with Pierce Brosnan playing the role. Dalton reflected in 2007, \"I was supposed to make one more but it was cancelled because MGM and the film's producers got into a lawsuit which lasted for five years. After that, I didn't want to do it anymore.\"",
"Dalton portrayed Bond in \"The Living Daylights\" (1987) and \"Licence to Kill\" (1989), the fifteenth and sixteenth entries in the franchise. Unlike Moore, who had played Bond as more of a light-hearted playboy, Dalton's portrayal of Bond was darker and more serious. Dalton pushed for renewed emphasis on the gritty realism of Ian Fleming's novels instead of fantasy plots and humour. A fan of the literary character, often seen re-reading and referring to the novels on set, Dalton determined to approach the role and play truer to the original character described by Fleming. His 007, therefore, came across as a reluctant agent who did not always enjoy the assignments he was given, something seen on screen before, albeit obliquely, only in George Lazenby's \"On Her Majesty's Secret Service\". In \"The Living Daylights,\" for example, Bond tells a critical colleague, Saunders, \"Stuff my orders!... Tell M what you want. If he fires me, I'll thank him for it.\" This was an element that appealed to Dalton when he read the script In \"Licence to Kill,\" he resigns from the Secret Intelligence Service in order to pursue his own agenda of revenge. This approach proved to be a double-edged sword. Film critics and fans of Fleming's original novels welcomed a more serious interpretation after more than a decade of Moore's approach. However, Dalton's films were criticised for their comparative lack of humour. Dalton's serious interpretation was not only in portraying the character, but also in performing most of the stunts of the action scenes himself. His director, John Glen, commented \"Tim is a very convincing James Bond. When he has a gun in his hand, you believe he really could kill someone. I don't think that was ever the case with Roger Moore.\" Some modern critics have compared Dalton favourably to Daniel Craig. \"The Guardian\" wrote that \"they want Bond to be closer to the original Ian Fleming character. They want him to be grittier, darker and less jokey. What they really want, it seems, is to have Dalton back.\" Dalton himself has claimed that the Bond films starring Daniel Craig are \"believable\" in the way he wanted his own Bond films to be: Of his time as Bond, Dalton recalled:",
"After his Bond films, Dalton divided his work between stage, television and films, and diversified the characters he played. This helped him eliminate the 007 typecasting that followed him during the previous period. Dalton was nevertheless for a certain period considered to act in the Bond film \" GoldenEye\". Instead, he played Nazi spy Neville Sinclair in \"The Rocketeer\" (1991), and Rhett Butler in \"Scarlett\", the television miniseries sequel to \"Gone with the Wind\". He also appeared as criminal informant Eddie Myers in the acclaimed British TV film \"Framed\" (1992). He had a major part in an episode of the TV series \"Tales from the Crypt\". During the second half of the 1990s he starred in several cable films, most notably the Irish Republican Army drama, \"The Informant\", and the action thriller \"Made Men\". In the TV film \"Cleopatra\" (1999) he played Julius Caesar. He played a parody of James Bond named Damian Drake in the film \"\" (2003). At the end of that year and the beginning of 2004, he returned to theatre to play Lord Asriel in the stage version of \"His Dark Materials\". Dalton played Simon Skinner, who ran the local supermarket, in the action/comedy film \"Hot Fuzz\", which was released in 2007. Dalton returned once again to British television in a guest role for the \"Doctor Who\" 2009–10 two-part special \"The End of Time\", playing Rassilon. He was first heard in the role narrating a preview clip shown at the 2009 Comic Convention. In 2010 and 2011, he starred in several episodes of the fourth season of the American spy comedy \"Chuck\" as Alexei Volkoff. Dalton voiced the character Mr. Pricklepants in \"Toy Story 3\", which was released on 18 June 2010; and again in the television specials \"Toy Story of Terror!\" (2013) and \"Toy Story That Time Forgot\" (2014), and the sequel \"Toy Story 4\" (2019). In 2012, Dalton voiced Lord Milori in \"Secret of the Wings\", as part of the Disney Fairies franchise and the fourth film direct-to-DVD installment of the Tinker Bell film series. From 2014 to 2016, Dalton portrayed the character Sir Malcolm Murray for three seasons on the \"Showtime\" original television series\" Penny Dreadful\".",
"Dalton was in a relationship with reporter Kate Adie as a youth, and with English actress Vanessa Redgrave (with whom he appeared in the 1971 film \"Mary, Queen of Scots\" and the 1979 film \"Agatha\") between 1971 and 1986. He was in a relationship with musician Oksana Grigorieva in the 1990s; they met in 1995 while she was employed as a translator for filmmaker Nikita Mikhalkov. Dalton and Grigorieva had a son together (born August 1997) named Alexander. They broke up around 2003. Dalton is a Manchester City F.C. supporter, and is often seen at the City of Manchester Stadium to watch the team play."
]
}
|
Larry Shue
| null |
Larry Howard Shue (July 23, 1946 – September 23, 1985) was an American playwright and actor, best known for writing two oft-performed farces, "The Nerd" and "The Foreigner".
| null |
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en-train-532451
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en-train-532451
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532451
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{
"title": [
"Early life.",
"Career.",
"Death."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Shue was born in New Orleans, Louisiana, and grew up in Kansas and Glen Ellyn, Illinois. He graduated \"cum laude\" from Illinois Wesleyan University, where he received a Bachelor of Fine Arts. He served in the United States Army at Fort Lee, Virginia from 1968-1972. He then began his career as a professional actor and playwright with the Harlequin Dinner Theatre in both Washington, D.C. and Atlanta. He worked in repertory theater and on the New York stage, and appeared in television's \"One Life to Live\". Film appearances include the shorts \"A Common Confusion\"; \"Another Town\"; and \"The Land of the Blind: or The Hungry Leaves\"; and the feature-length \"Sweet Liberty\". As a member of Milwaukee Repertory Theater, Shue played the sailor Joe in the 1980 premiere of \"Lakeboat\" by David Mamet. Mamet dedicated the play to Shue and the production's director, John Dillon. Shue married Linda Faye Wilson in 1968; they were divorced in 1977.",
"Shue's two best-known plays were written and first performed while he was playwright-in-residence at the Milwaukee Repertory Theater: His other plays include: The off-Broadway production of \"The Foreigner\" resulted in two Obie awards in 1985, to Jerry Zaks for direction and Anthony Heald for performance. From the Outer Critics Circle, it received the John Gassner Playwriting Award and the award for Best Off Broadway Play.",
"Shue's success was short-lived. At the age of 39, he died in the crash of a Beech 99 commuter plane en route to Shenandoah Valley Regional Airport near Weyers Cave, Virginia; all fourteen people on the flight were killed, twelve passengers and two crew. At the time, Shue was preparing for his first big Broadway role, as Reverend Crisparkle in Joseph Papp's \"The Mystery of Edwin Drood\". Among many other eulogies, author Thomas M. Disch said that Shue's death was \"fate's cruelest trick on the theater since the murder of Joe Orton.\" Also in remembrance, Canadian actor Jeff Brooks said, \"I knew him, and I saw him play Charlie [in the play \"The Foreigner\"] in New York. Then I played it in New York after him, although we're quite different as actors.\" Shue played the smaller role of Froggy, and Brooks had something to say about that, as well: \"I know damn well he wrote Charlie for himself. As an actor, he was such a cut-up. When I saw him, he was wonderful. I remember thinking a couple of times that he's doing things that if he were the playwright sitting out here, he'd be saying, 'Oh, stop that. Cut that out.' But he was having so much fun inventively in the role.\""
]
}
|
Kolomna
| null |
Kolomna () is an ancient city of Moscow Oblast, Russia, situated at the confluence of the Moskva and Oka Rivers, (by rail) southeast of Moscow. Population:
| null |
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en-train-2254560
|
en-train-2254560
|
2254560
|
{
"title": [
"History.",
"Administrative and municipal status.",
"Transportation.",
"Rail.",
"Public transportation.",
"Water.",
"Sports.",
"International relations.",
"Twin towns and sister cities."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"2"
],
"content": [
"Mentioned for the first time in 1177, Kolomna was founded in 1140–1160 according to the latest archaeological surveys. Kolomna's name may originate from the Old Russian term for \"on the bend (in the river)\", especially as the old city is located on a sharp bend in the Moscow River. In 1301, Kolomna was incorporated into the Moscow Principality. Like some other ancient Russian cities, it has a kremlin, which is a citadel similar to the more famous one in Moscow and also built of red brick. The stone Kolomna Kremlin was built from 1525–1531 under the Russian Tsar Vasily III. The Kolomna citadel was a part of the Great Abatis Border and, although much of the surrounding wall was removed in the eighteenth century and materials used to construct other public buildings, the remaining stretch of wall, several towers, and some interior buildings have been preserved and held in a good shape. A museum is located inside. In front of the façade stands a statue of Dmitry Donskoy, celebrating the gathering of his troops in Kolomna prior to the Battle of Kulikovo in 1380. The civic arms of Kolomna were granted by Empress Catherine II, who was influenced by the similar-sounding name of the famous Colonna family of Rome. Hence, the similar appearance of the arms, despite there being no connection between the Roman family and the city of Kolomna. Due to sensitive military production of missile components, Kolomna was a closed city until 1994. It is still not listed as a city of the Golden Ring, despite its kremlin and the large number of well-preserved churches and monasteries.",
"Within the framework of administrative divisions, Kolomna serves as the administrative center of Kolomensky District, even though it is not a part of it. As an administrative division, it is incorporated separately as Kolomna City Under Oblast Jurisdiction—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, Kolomna City Under Oblast Jurisdiction is incorporated as Kolomna Urban Okrug.",
"",
"Kolomna is located on the Ryazan line of the Moscow railroad, from Moscow. In Kolomna, there are five railway stations (Kolomna, Shchurovo, Bochmanovo, 6 km, and Sychevo) and one terminal (Golutvin).",
"Two bus terminals are located in the city. Public transport in the city is represented by tram and city bus lines.",
"Kolomna is situated on three rivers, and has passenger and transport berths. Most known one is the Bochmanovo () berth.",
"The Kolomna Speed Skating Center is an indoor ice speed skating oval used for Russian and international championships. It hosted the 2008 European Speed Skating Championships and the 2016 World Single Distance Speed Skating Championships. The Kolomna Speed Skating Center is considered as one of the most modern ice speed skating ovals in the world.",
"",
"Kolomna is twinned with:"
]
}
|
Percy Williams Bridgman
| null |
Percy Williams Bridgman (21 April 1882 – 20 August 1961) was an American physicist who received the 1946 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on the physics of high pressures. He also wrote extensively on the scientific method and on other aspects of the philosophy of science. The Bridgman effect and the Bridgman–Stockbarger technique are named after him.
| null |
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en-train-1049415
|
en-train-1049415
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1049415
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{
"title": [
"Biography.",
"Early life.",
"Education and professional life.",
"Home life and death.",
"Honors and awards."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"",
"Known to family and friends as \"Peter\", Bridgman was born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and grew up in nearby Auburndale, Massachusetts. Bridgman's parents were both born in New England. His father, Raymond Landon Bridgman, was \"profoundly religious and idealistic\" and worked as a newspaper reporter assigned to state politics. His mother, Mary Ann Maria Williams, was described as \"more conventional, sprightly, and competitive\". Bridgman attended both elementary and high school in Auburndale, where he excelled at competitions in the classroom, on the playground, and while playing chess. Described as both shy and proud, his home life consisted of family music, card games, and domestic and garden chores. The family was deeply religious; reading the Bible each morning and attending a Congregational Church. However, Bridgman later became an atheist.",
"Bridgman entered Harvard University in 1900, and studied physics through to his Ph.D. From 1910 until his retirement, he taught at Harvard, becoming a full professor in 1919. In 1905, he began investigating the properties of matter under high pressure. A machinery malfunction led him to modify his pressure apparatus; the result was a new device enabling him to create pressures eventually exceeding 100,000 kgf/cm (10 GPa; 100,000 atmospheres). This was a huge improvement over previous machinery, which could achieve pressures of only 3,000 kgf/cm (0.3 GPa). This new apparatus led to an abundance of new findings, including a study of the compressibility, electric and thermal conductivity, tensile strength and viscosity of more than 100 different compounds. Bridgman is also known for his studies of electrical conduction in metals and properties of crystals. He developed the Bridgman seal and is the eponym for Bridgman's thermodynamic equations. Bridgman made many improvements to his high-pressure apparatus over the years, and unsuccessfully attempted the synthesis of diamond many times. His philosophy of science book \"The Logic of Modern Physics\" (1927) advocated operationalism and coined the term operational definition. In 1938 he participated in the International Committee composed to organise the International Congresses for the Unity of Science. He was also one of the 11 signatories to the Russell–Einstein Manifesto.",
"Bridgman married Olive Ware, of Hartford, Connecticut, in 1912. Ware's father, Edmund Asa Ware, was the founder and first president of Atlanta University. The couple had two children and were married for 50 years, living most of that time in Cambridge. The family also had a summer home in Randolph, New Hampshire, where Bridgman was known as a skilled mountain climber. Bridgman was a \"penetrating analytical thinker\" with a \"fertile mechanical imagination\" and exceptional manual dexterity. He was a skilled plumber and carpenter, known to shun the assistance of professionals in these matters. He was also fond of music and played the piano, and took pride in his flower and vegetable gardens. Bridgman committed suicide by gunshot after suffering from metastatic cancer for some time. His suicide note read in part, \"It isn't decent for society to make a man do this thing himself. Probably this is the last day I will be able to do it myself.\" Bridgman's words have been quoted by many in the assisted suicide debate.",
"Bridgman received Doctors, \"honoris causa\" from Stevens Institute (1934), Harvard (1939), Brooklyn Polytechnic (1941), Princeton (1950), Paris (1950), and Yale (1951). He received the Bingham Medal (1951) from the Society of Rheology, the Rumford Prize from the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1919), the Elliott Cresson Medal (1932) from the Franklin Institute, the Gold Medal from Bakhuys Roozeboom Fund (founder Hendrik Willem Bakhuis Roozeboom) (1933) from the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, and the Comstock Prize (1933) of the National Academy of Sciences. Bridgman was a member of the American Physical Society and was its President in 1942. He was also a member of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the American Philosophical Society, and the National Academy of Sciences. He was a Foreign Member of the Royal Society and Honorary Fellow of the Physical Society of London. The Percy W. Bridgman House, in Massachusetts, is a U.S. National Historic Landmark designated in 1975. In 2014, the Commission on New Minerals, Nomenclature and Classification (CNMNC) of the International Mineralogical Association (IMA) approved the name bridgmanite for perovskite-structured (Mg,Fe)SiO, the Earth's most abundant mineral, in honor of his high-pressure research."
]
}
|
Silesian language
| null |
Silesian or Upper Silesian (Silesian: / ; ;,, ; ) is a West Slavic lect of the Lechitic group, spoken in Upper Silesia and partly in Czech Silesia. Its vocabulary has been significantly influenced by Central German due to the existence of numerous Silesian German speakers in the area prior to World War II and after.
| null |
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en-train-861168
|
en-train-861168
|
861168
|
{
"title": [
"Distribution.",
"Grammar.",
"Example.",
"Dialects of Silesian.",
"Dialect vs. language.",
"Politicization.",
"Views.",
"Writing system.",
"Culture.",
"Recognition."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Silesian speakers currently live in the region of Upper Silesia, which is split between southwestern Poland and the northeastern Czech Republic. At present Silesian is commonly spoken in the area between the historical border of Silesia on the east and a line from Syców to Prudnik on the west as well as in the Rawicz area. Until 1945 Silesian was also spoken in enclaves in Lower Silesia. Lower Silesian, a variety of Central German, was spoken by the ethnic German majority population of that region. The German speaking populace was either evacuated en masse by German forces towards the end of the war or deported by the new administration upon the Polish annexation of Silesia after World War II. Before the war, most Slavic speakers also spoke German and, at least in eastern Upper Silesia, many German-speakers were acquainted with Slavic Silesian. According to the last official census in Poland in 2011, about 509,000 people declared Silesian as their native language (in census 2002, about 60,000), and in the censuses in Poland, Czechia and Slovakia, nearly 0.9 million people declared Silesian nationality.",
"Although the morphological differences between Silesian and Polish have been researched extensively, other grammatical differences have not been studied in depth. One example is that, in contrast with Polish, Silesian retains a separate past conditional ( — \"I would have slipped\"). Another major difference is in question-forming. In Polish, questions which do not contain interrogative words are formed either by using intonation or the interrogative particle. In Silesian, questions which do not contain interrogative words are formed by using intonation (with a markedly different intonation pattern than in Polish) or inversion (e.g. ); there is no interrogative particle.",
"According to Jan Miodek, standard Polish has always been used by Upper Silesians as a language of prayers. The Lord's Prayer in Silesian, Polish, Czech, and English.",
"Silesian has many dialects:",
"",
"Opinions are divided among linguists regarding whether Silesian is a distinct language, a dialect of Polish, or in the case of Lach, a variety of Czech. The issue can be contentious, because some Silesians consider themselves to be a distinct nationality within Poland. When Czechs, Poles, and Germans each made claims to substantial parts of Silesia as constituting an integral part of their respective nation-states in the 19th and 20th centuries, the language of Slavic speaking Silesians became politicized. Some, like Óndra Łysohorsky, a poet and author in the Czechoslovakia, saw the Silesians as being their own distinct people, which culminated in his effort to create a literary standard he called the \"Lachian language\". Silesian inhabitants supporting the cause of each of these ethnic groups had their own robust network of supporters across Silesia's political borders which shifted over the course of the 20th century prior to the large-scale ethnic cleansing in the aftermath of World War II.",
"Some linguists from Poland such as Jolanta Tambor, Juan Lajo, Dr Tomasz Wicherkiewicz and philosopher Dr hab Jerzy Dadaczyński, sociologist Dr Elżbieta Anna Sekuła and sociolinguist Tomasz Kamusella support its status as a language. According to Stanisław Rospond, it is impossible to classify Silesian as a dialect of the contemporary Polish language because he considers it to be descended from the Old Polish language. Other Polish linguists, such as Jan Miodek and Edward Polański, do not support its status as a language. Jan Miodek and Dorota Simonides, both of Silesian origin, prefer conservation of the entire range of Silesian dialects rather than standardization. The German linguist Reinhold Olesch was eagerly interested in the \"Polish vernaculars\" of Upper Silesia and other Slavic varieties such as Kashubian and Polabian. United States Immigration Commission in 1911 classified it as one of the dialects of Polish. Most linguists writing in English, such as Alexander M. Schenker, Robert A. Rothstein, and Roland Sussex and Paul Cubberley in their respective surveys of Slavic languages, list Silesian as a dialect of Polish, as does \"Encyclopædia Britannica\". Gerd Hentschel wrote as a result of his paper about the question whether Silesian is a new Slavic language, that \"Silesian... can thus... without doubt be described as a dialect of Polish\" (\"\"). In Czechia, disagreement exists concerning the Lach dialects which rose to prominence thanks to Óndra Łysohorsky and his translator Ewald Osers. While some have considered it a separate language, most now view Lach as a dialect of Czech.",
"There have been a number of attempts at codifying the language spoken by Slavophones in Silesia. Probably the most well-known was undertaken by Óndra Łysohorsky when codifying the Lachian dialects in creating the Lachian literary language in the early 20th century. Ślabikŏrzowy szrajbōnek is the relatively new alphabet created by the Pro Loquela Silesiana organization to reflect the sounds of all Silesian dialects. It was approved by Silesian organizations affiliated in Rada Górnośląska. Ubuntu translation is in this alphabet as is the Silesian Wikipedia. It is used in a few books, including the Silesian alphabet book. One of the first alphabets created specifically for Silesian was \"Steuer's Silesian alphabet\", created in the Interwar period and used by Feliks Steuer for his poems in Silesian. The alphabet consists of 30 graphemes and eight digraphs: Based on the Steuer alphabet, in 2006 the \"Phonetic Silesian Alphabet\" was proposed: Silesian's phonetic alphabet replaces the digraphs with single letters (Sz with Š, etc.) and does not include the letter Ł, whose sound can be represented phonetically with U. It is therefore the alphabet that contains the fewest letters. Although it is the (phonetically) most logical and hence the most intuitive writing of Silesian, it did not become popular with Silesian organizations, with the argument that it contains too many caron diacritics and hence resembles the Czech alphabet. Large parts of the Silesian Wikipedia, however, are written in Silesian's phonetic alphabet. Sometimes other alphabets are also used, such as the \"Tadzikowy muster\" (for the \"National Dictation Contest of the Silesian language\") or the Polish alphabet, but writing in this alphabet is problematic as it does not allow for the differentiation and representation of all Silesian sounds.",
"Silesian has recently seen an increased use in culture, for example:",
"In 2003, the National Publishing Company of Silesia () commenced operations. This publisher was founded by the Alliance of the People of the Silesian Nation () and it prints books about Silesia and books in Silesian language. In July 2007, the Slavic Silesian language was given the ISO 639-3 code codice_1. On 6 September 2007, 23 politicians of the Polish parliament made a statement about a new law to give Silesian the official status of a regional language. The first official National Dictation Contest of the Silesian language () took place in August 2007. In dictation as many as 10 forms of writing systems and orthography have been accepted. On 30 January 2008 and in June 2008, two organizations promoting Silesian language were established: Pro Loquela Silesiana and. On 26 May 2008, the Silesian Wikipedia was founded. On 30 June 2008 in the edifice of the Silesian Parliament in Katowice, a conference took place on the status of the Silesian language. This conference was a forum for politicians, linguists, representatives of interested organizations and persons who deal with the Silesian language. The conference was titled \"Silesian – Still a Dialect or Already a Language?\" (). In 2012, the Ministry of Administration and Digitization registered the Silesian language in Annex 1 to the Regulation on the state register of geographical names; however, in a November 2013 amendment to the regulation, Silesian is not included."
]
}
|
Crowd psychology
| null |
Crowd psychology, also known as mob psychology, is a branch of social psychology. Social psychologists have developed several theories for explaining the ways in which the psychology of a crowd differs from and interacts with that of the individuals within it. Major theorists in crowd psychology include Gustave Le Bon, Gabriel Tarde, Sigmund Freud, and Steve Reicher. This field relates to the behaviors and thought processes of both the individual crowd members and the crowd as an entity. Crowd behavior is heavily influenced by the loss of responsibility of the individual and the impression of universality of behavior, both of which increase with crowd size.
| null |
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] | null | null |
en-train-2110564
|
en-train-2110564
|
2110564
|
{
"title": [
"Origins.",
"Types of crowds.",
"Theoretical perspectives.",
"Gustave Le Bon.",
"Freudian theory.",
"Deindividuation theory.",
"Convergence theory.",
"Emergent norm theory.",
"Social identity theory."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2"
],
"content": [
"The psychological study of crowd phenomena was documented decades prior to 1900, as European culture was imbued with thoughts of the fin de siècle. This \"modern\" urban culture perceived that they were living in a new and different age. They witnessed marvelous new inventions and experienced life in new ways. The population, now living in densely packed, industrialized cities, such as Milan and Paris, witnessed the development of the light bulb, radio, photography, moving-picture shows, the telegraph, the bicycle, the telephone, and the railroad system. They experienced a faster pace of life and viewed human life as segmented, so they designated each of these phases of life with a new name. They created new concepts like \"the adolescent\", \"kindergarten\", \"the vacation\", \"camping in nature\", \"the 5-minute segment\", and \"travel for the sake of pleasure\" as a leisure class to describe these new ways of life. Likewise, the abstract concept of \"the crowd\" grew as a new phenomenon simultaneously in Paris, France, and Milan, the largest city in the Kingdom of Italy. Legal reformers motivated by Darwin's evolutionary theory, particularly in the Kingdom of Italy, argued that the social and legal systems of Europe had been founded on antiquated notions of natural reason, or Christian morality, and ignored the irrevocable biology laws of human nature. Their goal was to bring social laws into harmony with biological laws. In pursuit of this goal, they developed the social science of criminal anthropology, which is tasked with the mission of changing the emphasis from one of the study of legal procedures to one of studying the criminal. \"Criminal anthropology\", writes Giuseppe Sergi, \"studies the delinquent in his natural place, that is to say, in the field of biology and pathology\". The Italian Cesare Lombroso, professor of forensic medicine and hygiene in Turin, greatly advanced their agenda in 1878, when he published, a highly influential book, which went through five editions. The book, published in English in 1900 under the title \"Criminal Man\", solidified the links between social evolutionary theories and the fear of crowds with its concept of the \"born\" criminal as the savage in the midst of civilized society. The book influenced both European and American legal experts interested in assigning responsibility to individuals performing dubious behavior while engaged within a crowd. The first debate in crowd psychology began in Rome at the first International Congress of Criminal Anthropology on 16 November 1885. The meeting was dominated by Cesare Lombroso and his fellow Italians, who emphasized the biological determinates. A weak response was offered by the French, who put forward an environmental theory of human psychology. In Paris during 10–17 August 1889, the Italian school received a stronger rebuke of their biological theories during the 2nd International Congress of Criminal Anthropology. A radical divergence in the views between the Italian and the French schools was reflected in the proceedings. Literature on crowds and crowd behavior appeared as early as 1841, with the publication of Charles Mackay's book \"Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the Madness of Crowds\". The attitude towards crowds underwent an adjustment with the publication of Hippolyte Taine's six-volume \"The Origins of Contemporary France\" (1875). In particular Taine's work helped to change the opinions of his contemporaries on the actions taken by the crowds during the 1789 Revolution. Many Europeans held him in great esteem. While it is difficult to directly link his works to crowd behavior, it may be said that his thoughts stimulated further study of crowd behavior. However, it was not until the latter half of the 19th century that scientific interest in the field gained momentum. French physician and anthropologist Gustave Le Bon became its most-influential theorist.",
"There is limited research into the types of crowd and crowd membership and there is no consensus as to the classification of types of crowds. Two recent scholars, Momboisse (1967) and Berlonghi (1995) focused upon purpose of existence to differentiate among crowds. Momboisse developed a system of four types: casual, conventional, expressive, and aggressive. Berlonghi classified crowds as spectator, demonstrator, or escaping, to correlate to the purpose for gathering. Another approach to classifying crowds is sociologist Herbert Blumer's system of emotional intensity. He distinguishes four types of crowds: casual, conventional, expressive, and acting. His system is dynamic in nature. That is, a crowd changes its level of emotional intensity over time, and therefore, can be classed in any one of the four types. Generally, researchers in crowd psychology have focused on the negative aspects of crowds, but not all crowds are volatile or negative in nature. For example, in the beginning of the socialist movement crowds were asked to put on their Sunday dress and march silently down the street. A more-modern example involves the sit-ins during the Civil Rights Movement. Crowds can reflect and challenge the held ideologies of their sociocultural environment. They can also serve integrative social functions, creating temporary communities. Crowds can be active (mobs) or passive (audiences). Active crowds can be further divided into aggressive, escapist, acquisitive, or expressive mobs. Aggressive mobs are often violent and outwardly focused. Examples are football riots and the L.A. Riots of 1992. Escapist mobs are characterized by a large number of panicked people trying to get out of a dangerous situation. Acquisitive mobs occur when large numbers of people are fighting for limited resources. An expressive mob is any other large group of people gathering for an active purpose. Civil disobedience, rock concerts, and religious revivals all fall under this category.",
"",
"Le Bon held that crowds existed in three stages: submergence, contagion, and suggestion. During submergence, the individuals in the crowd lose their sense of individual self and personal responsibility. This is quite heavily induced by the anonymity of the crowd. Contagion refers to the propensity for individuals in a crowd to unquestioningly follow the predominant ideas and emotions of the crowd. In Le Bon's view, this effect is capable of spreading between \"submerged\" individuals much like a disease. Suggestion refers to the period in which the ideas and emotions of the crowd are primarily drawn from a shared racial unconscious. This behavior comes from an archaic shared unconscious and is therefore uncivilized in nature. It is limited by the moral and cognitive abilities of the least capable members. Le Bon believed that crowds could be a powerful force only for destruction. Additionally, Le Bon and others have indicated that crowd members feel a lessened sense of legal culpability, due to the difficulty in prosecuting individual members of a mob. Le Bon's idea that crowds foster anonymity and generate emotion has been contested by some critics. Clark McPhail points out studies which show that \"the madding crowd\" does not take on a life of its own, apart from the thoughts and intentions of members. Norris Johnson, after investigating a panic at a 1979 The Who concert concluded that the crowd was composed of many small groups of people mostly trying to help each other. Additionally, Le Bon's theory ignores the socio-cultural context of the crowd, which some theorists argue can disempower social change. R. Brown disputes the assumption that crowds are homogenous, suggesting instead that participants exist on a continuum, differing in their ability to deviate from social norms.",
"Sigmund Freud's crowd behavior theory primarily consists of the idea that becoming a member of a crowd serves to unlock the unconscious mind. This occurs because the super-ego, or moral center of consciousness, is displaced by the larger crowd, to be replaced by a charismatic crowd leader. McDougall argues similarly to Freud, saying that simplistic emotions are widespread, and complex emotions are rarer. In a crowd, the overall shared emotional experience reverts to the least common denominator (LCD), leading to primitive levels of emotional expression. This organizational structure is that of the \"primal horde\" – pre-civilized society - and Freud states that one must rebel against the leader (re-instate the individual morality) in order to escape from it. Moscovici expanded on this idea, discussing how dictators such as Mao Zedong and Joseph Stalin have used mass psychology to place themselves in this \"horde leader\" position. Theodor Adorno criticized the belief in a spontaneity of the masses: according to him, the masses were an artificial product of \"administrated\" modern life. The Ego of the bourgeois subject dissolved itself, giving way to the Id and the \"de-psychologized\" subject. Furthermore, Adorno stated the bond linking the masses to the leader through the spectacle is feigned: \"When the leaders become conscious of mass psychology and take it into their own hands, it ceases to exist in a certain sense.... Just as little as people believe in the depth of their hearts that the Jews are the devil, do they completely believe in their leader. They do not really identify themselves with him but act this identification, perform their own enthusiasm, and thus participate in their leader's performance.... It is probably the suspicion of this fictitiousness of their own 'group psychology' which makes fascist crowds so merciless and unapproachable. If they would stop to reason for a second, the whole performance would go to pieces, and they would be left to panic.\"",
"Deindividuation theory argues that in typical crowd situations, factors such as anonymity, group unity, and arousal can weaken personal controls (e.g. guilt, shame, self-evaluating behavior) by distancing people from their personal identities and reducing their concern for social evaluation. This lack of restraint increases individual sensitivity to the environment and lessens rational forethought, which can lead to antisocial behavior. More recent theories have stated that deindividuation hinges upon a person being unable, due to situation, to have strong awareness of their self as an object of attention. This lack of attention frees the individual from the necessity of normal social behavior. American social psychologist Leon Festinger and colleagues first elaborated the concept of deindividuation in 1952. It was further refined by American psychologist Philip Zimbardo, who detailed why mental input and output became blurred by such factors as anonymity, lack of social constraints, and sensory overload. Zimbardo's famous Stanford Prison Experiment is a strong argument for the power of deindividuation. Further experimentation has had mixed results when it comes to aggressive behaviors, and has instead shown that the normative expectations surrounding the situations of deindividuation influence behavior (i.e. if one is deindividuated as a KKK member, aggression increases, but if it is as a nurse, aggression does not increase). A further distinction has been proposed between public and private deindividuation. When private aspects of self are weakened, one becomes more subject to crowd impulses, but not necessarily in a negative way. It is when one no longer attends to the public reaction and judgement of individual behavior that antisocial behavior is elicited.",
"Convergence theory holds that crowd behavior is not a product of the crowd, but rather the crowd is a product of the coming together of like-minded individuals. Floyd Allport argued that \"An individual in a crowd behaves just as he would behave alone, only more so.\" Convergence theory holds that crowds form from people of similar dispositions, whose actions are then reinforced and intensified by the crowd. Convergence theory claims that crowd behavior is not irrational; rather, people in crowds express existing beliefs and values so that the mob reaction is the rational product of widespread popular feeling. However, this theory is questioned by certain research which found that people involved in the 1970s riots were less likely than nonparticipant peers to have previous convictions. Critics of this theory report that it still excludes the social determination of self and action, in that it argues that all actions of the crowd are born from the individuals' intents.",
"Ralph Turner and Lewis Killian put forth the idea that norms emerge from within the crowd. Emergent norm theory states that crowds have little unity at their outset, but during a period of milling about, key members suggest appropriate actions, and following members fall in line, forming the basis for the crowd's norms. Key members are identified through distinctive personalities or behaviors. These garner attention, and the lack of negative response elicited from the crowd as a whole stands as tacit agreement to their legitimacy. The followers form the majority of the mob, as people tend to be creatures of conformity who are heavily influenced by the opinions of others. This has been shown in the conformity studies conducted by Sherif and Asch. Crowd members are further convinced by the universality phenomenon, described by Allport as the persuasive tendency of the idea that if everyone in the mob is acting in such-and-such a way, then it cannot be wrong. Emergent norm theory allows for both positive and negative mob types, as the distinctive characteristics and behaviors of key figures can be positive or negative in nature. An antisocial leader can incite violent action, but an influential voice of non-violence in a crowd can lead to a mass sit-in. When a crowd described as above targets an individual, anti-social behaviors may emerge within its members. A major criticism of this theory is that the formation and following of new norms indicates a level of self-awareness that is often missing in the individuals in crowds (as evidenced by the study of deindividuation). Another criticism is that the idea of emergent norms fails to take into account the presence of existent sociocultural norms. Additionally, the theory fails to explain why certain suggestions or individuals rise to normative status while others do not.",
"The social identity theory posits that the self is a complex system made up primarily of the concept of membership or non-membership in various social groups. These groups have various moral and behavioral values and norms, and the individual's actions depend on which group membership (or non-membership) is most personally salient at the time of action. This influence is evidenced by findings that when the stated purpose and values of a group changes, the values and motives of its members also change. Crowds are an amalgam of individuals, all of whom belong to various overlapping groups. However, if the crowd is primarily related to some identifiable group (such as Christians or Hindus or Muslims or civil-rights activists), then the values of that group will dictate the crowd's action. In crowds which are more ambiguous, individuals will assume a new social identity as a member of the crowd. This group membership is made more salient by confrontation with other groups - a relatively common occurrence for crowds. The group identity serves to create a set of standards for behavior; for certain groups violence is legitimate, for others it is unacceptable. This standard is formed from stated values, but also from the actions of others in the crowd, and sometimes from a few in leadership-type positions. A concern with this theory is that while it explains how crowds reflect social ideas and prevailing attitudes, it does not explain the mechanisms by which crowds enact to drive social change."
]
}
|
Sankey Viaduct
| null |
The Sankey Viaduct is a railway viaduct in North West England. It is a designated Grade I listed building and has been described as being "the earliest major railway viaduct in the world".
| null |
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en-train-1921195
|
en-train-1921195
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1921195
|
{
"title": [
"History.",
"Background.",
"Construction.",
"In popular culture."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"",
"In 1826, the Act for the Liverpool & Manchester Railway (L&MR), the world's first intercity railway, was passed by Parliament. George Stephenson, was the company's principal engineer for the 50 km route between Liverpool and Manchester. The route required crossing the Sankey valley west of Newton-le-Willows, about half way along the line. The Sankey valley contained two obstacles, the Sankey Brook and the Sankey Brook Navigation sometimes called the \"St Helens Canal\" or \"Sankey Canal\" that was constructed to link the St Helens coalfield and the River Mersey. The engineered waterway, could be regarded as the first canal built in England since Roman times. To traverse the Sankey Valley, Stephenson had to devise a route for the railway to pass without obstructing barges on the canals and maintain gradients for steam locomotives using the route. The Sankey Brook Navigation Company objected to the Liverpool & Manchester Railway's intended route and insisted that any structure across the valley must provide a minimum clearance of 18.3 meters above the water to allow fully-rigged Mersey flats to pass underneath. Stephenson's solution was to construct an embankment on the west side of the valley, roughly 823 meters long, and then cross the brook and the canal on a viaduct that met a smaller embankment on the eastern side. Stephenson designed the viaduct in conjunction with Thomas Longridge Gooch, his chief draughtsman. Constructed from yellow sandstone and red brick, the viaduct is of nine round-headed arches carried on piers that incline sharply from the base towards the top. Its form is similar to the traditional designs of canal aqueducts.",
"Work commenced on the embankment for the western approach in June 1827. The embankment was constructed of more than 100,000 tonnes of clay, marl and moss, which was compacted with brushwood. The clay was excavated from the sides of the valley. On completion, trees were planted to provide a natural camouflage for the structure. During the first half of 1828, William Allcard (1809–61) was appointed resident engineer for the mid section of the Liverpool & Manchester railway, which included the Sankey Viaduct and Kenyon cutting. During spring 1828, work commenced on piling for the viaduct's foundations, which was necessary because of the soft conditions of the ground. The splayed bases of the viaduct's piers are built on sandstone foundation slabs, which was quarried from the nearby Olive Mount Cutting. Each slab was founded on top of around 200 timber piles, which were between 6.1 and 9.1 metres in length. In summer 1829, the piers were completed and work began on the superstructure. By February 1830, the parapet walls had been completed. The cost of the viaduct, which was known locally as the \"Nine Arches Viaduct\", was between £45,200 and £46,000. On 15 September 1830, the viaduct was opened with the Liverpool & Manchester railway. Prior to its formal opening, a number of passengers had been transported across on special excursion trains earlier. In July 1833, work on the structure included the addition of copings to the parapet walls. The viaduct stands between 18.3 and 21.3 metres above Sankey Brook. It has nine semicircular arches of 15.2 metres span, 7.6 metres rise, and is of red brick with yellow sandstone facings. The arches are supported on eight rectangular piers and abutments at either end of the structure. The curved wing walls of the abutments retain the ends of the embankments. Projecting pilasters form rectangular cutwaters, which extend up the face of the piers to form part of the parapet walls. The width between the parapets is 7.6 metres. The retaining walls of the western embankment have been strengthened by the addition of stay bolts, which extend deep inside the embankment and bolt fixings set onto the faces of the retaining walls. Concrete has been applied to some of the vertical pilasters and areas of the masonry. During 1931, the Sankey Canal was abandoned north of the viaduct. In 1963, the last navigable section closed; the waterway was subsequently infilled; the canal beneath the viaduct was infilled during 2002. During February 1966, the viaduct received grade I listed building status, attributed to its \"international significance being the earliest major railway viaduct in the world\". During the first half of 2015, Network Rail installed overhead line equipment for the line's electrification.",
"The Sankey Viaduct is the scene of an 1852 murder in \"The Railway Viaduct\" (2006), a detective mystery novel by Keith Miles writing as Edward Marston."
]
}
|
Presumption of innocence
| null |
The presumption of innocence is the legal principle that one is considered innocent until proven guilty. In many countries, the presumption of innocence is a legal right of the accused in a criminal trial, and it is an international human right under the UN's Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 11. Under the presumption of innocence, the legal burden of proof is thus on the prosecution, which must present compelling evidence to the trier of fact (a judge or a jury). The prosecution must in most cases prove that the accused is guilty beyond reasonable doubt. If reasonable doubt remains, the accused must be acquitted.
| null |
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en-train-31151
|
en-train-31151
|
31151
|
{
"title": [
"History.",
"Roman law.",
"Talmudical law.",
"Islamic law.",
"Middle Ages in Europe.",
"Western Europe.",
"Eastern Europe.",
"Civil law.",
"Meaning.",
"The fundamental right.",
"Modern practices.",
"United Kingdom.",
"Canada."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2"
],
"content": [
"",
"The sixth-century \"Digest\" of Justinian (22.3.2) provides, as a general rule of evidence: \"Ei incumbit probatio qui dicit, non qui negat\"\"Proof lies on him who asserts, not on him who denies\". It is there attributed to the second and third century jurist Paul. It was introduced in Roman criminal law by emperor Antoninus Pius.",
"According to Talmud, \"every man is innocent until proved guilty. Hence, the infliction of unusual rigours on the accused must be delayed until his innocence has been successfully challenged. Thus, in the early stages of the trial, arguments in his defence are as elaborate as with any other man on trial. Only when his guilt has become apparent were the solicitous provisions that had been made to protect defendants waived\".",
"Similar to that of Roman law, Islamic law also holds the principle that the onus of proof is on the accuser or claimant based on a hadith documented by Imam Nawawi. \"Suspicion\" is also highly condemned, this also from a hadith documented by Imam Nawawi as well as Imam Bukhari and Imam Muslim. After the time of Muhammad, the fourth Caliph Ali ibn Abi Thalib has also been cited to say, \"Avert the prescribed punishment by rejecting doubtful evidence.\"",
"",
"After the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the West began to practice feudal law, which was a synthesis of aspects of Roman law as well as some Germanic customs according to the new elite, including presumed guilt. For instance, the accused could prove his innocence by having twelve people swear that he could not have done what he was accused of. In practice, this tended to favor the nobility over the lower classes, whose witnesses risked being seen as less credible. After the rediscovery of Roman law in the 12th century and the development of the \"jus commune\", the canon law of the Catholic Church influenced the common law during the medieval period through its preservation of Roman law doctrine of the presumption of innocence.",
"Following the aforementioned Roman law of Justinian, who lived at the dawn of the medieval era, the Eastern Roman Empire generally continued along his legal code which includes presumption of innocence. This also influenced nearby states within its cultural sphere, such as Orthodox, Slavic principalities like Serbia.",
"The maxim and its equivalents have been adopted by many civil law systems, including those of Brazil, China, France, Italy, Philippines, Poland, Romania and Spain. In Civil law, \"it is the most general concept that everybody (suspect, accused, or not) must be considered innocent until a final judgement finds the person guilty. But there is another point of view also,—and it usually appears in the international declarations—which does not connect the stopping of the presumption of innocence to a final judgement, but it is'satisfied' with any provision that states guilt, that is based on law. There is a significant difference between the two formulations. The final judgement usually means the end of the punitive procedure, which can take place many more years after the time of the crime committed. It can happen, for instance, in the case of caught in the act, the statements of witnesses, the confession of the offender, the perpetrator must be presumed innocent for some years till the final judgement is reached despite the above enlisted facts\".",
"\"Presumption of innocence\" serves to emphasize that the prosecution has the obligation to prove each element of the offense beyond a reasonable doubt (or some other level of proof depending on the criminal justice system) and that the accused bears no burden of proof. This is often expressed in the phrase \"innocent until proven guilty\", coined by the British barrister Sir William Garrow (1760–1840) during a 1791 trial at the Old Bailey. Garrow insisted that accusers be robustly tested in court. An objective observer in the position of the juror must reasonably conclude that the defendant almost certainly committed the crime. In 1935, in its judgment of \"Woolmington v Director of Public Prosecutions\", the English Court of Appeal would later describe Garrow's articulation as being the 'golden thread' connecting both the criminal burden of proof and the presumption of innocence within the web of English criminal law. The presumption of innocence was originally expressed by the French cardinal and canonical jurist Jean Lemoine in the phrase \"\"item quilbet presumitur innocens nisi probetur nocens\" (a person is presumed innocent until proven guilty)\", based on the legal inference that most people are not criminals. However, this referred not merely to the fact that the burden of proof rests on the prosecution in a criminal case, but the protections which a defendant should be given: prior notice of the accusation being made against them, the right of confrontation, right to counsel, etc. It is literally considered favorable evidence for the accused that automatically attaches at trial. It requires that the trier of fact, be it a juror or judge, begin with the presumption that the state is unable to support its assertion. To ensure this legal protection is maintained, a set of three related rules govern the procedure of criminal trials. The presumption means: Blackstone's ratio as expressed by the English jurist William Blackstone in his seminal work, \"Commentaries on the Laws of England\", published in the 1760s, said that: The idea subsequently became a staple of legal thinking in Anglo-Saxon jurisdictions and continues to be a topic of debate. This duty on the prosecution was famously referred to as the “golden thread” in the criminal law by Lord Sankey LC in \"Woolmington v DPP\":",
"This right is so important in modern democracies, constitutional monarchies and republics that many have explicitly included it in their legal codes and constitutions:",
"",
"In the United Kingdom changes have been made affecting this principle. Defendants' previous convictions may in certain circumstances be revealed to juries. Although the suspect is not compelled to answer questions after formal arrest, failure to give information may now be prejudicial at trial. Statute law also exists which provides for criminal penalties for failing to decrypt data on request from the police. If the suspect is unwilling to do so, it is an offence. Citizens can therefore be convicted and imprisoned without any evidence that the encrypted material was unlawful. Furthermore, in sexual offence cases such as rape, where the sexual act has already been proved beyond reasonable doubt, there are a limited number of circumstances where the defendant has an obligation to adduce evidence that the complainant consented to the sexual act, or that the defendant reasonably believed that the complainant was consenting. These circumstances include, for example, where the complainant was unconscious, unlawfully detained, or subjected to violence.",
"In Canadian law, the presumption of innocence has been reinforced in certain instances. The \"Criminal Code\" previously contained numerous provisions according to which defences to certain offences were subject to a reverse onus: that is, if an accused wishes to make that defence, they had to prove the facts of the defence to a balance of probabilities, rather than the Crown having to disprove the defence beyond a reasonable doubt. This meant that an accused in some circumstances might be convicted even if a reasonable doubt existed about their guilt. In several cases, various reverse onus provisions were found to violate the presumption of innocence provision of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms. They were replaced with procedures in which the accused merely had to demonstrate an \"air of reality\" to the proposed defence, following which the burden shifted to the Crown to disprove the defence. Bill C-51, \"An Act to amend the Criminal Code and the Department of Justice Act and to make consequential amendments to another Act\", received Royal Assent in December 2018. Among other things, it eliminated several reverse onus provisions from the \"Criminal Code\", some of which had previously been found unconstitutional, and others pre-emptively in order to avoid further \"Charter\" challenges."
]
}
|
Pachamama
| null |
Pachamama is a goddess revered by the indigenous people of the Andes. She is also known as the earth/time mother. In Inca mythology, Pachamama is a fertility goddess who presides over planting and harvesting, embodies the mountains, and causes earthquakes. She is also an ever-present and independent deity who has her own self-sufficient and creative power to sustain life on this earth. Her shrines are hallowed rocks, or the boles of legendary trees, and her artists envision her as an adult female bearing harvests of potatoes and coca leaves. The four cosmological Quechua principles – Water, Earth, Sun, and Moon – claim Pachamama as their prime origin. Priests sacrifice llamas, cuy (guinea pigs), and elaborate, miniature, burned garments to her. Pachamama is the mother of Inti the sun god and Mama Killa the moon goddess. Pachamama is said to also be the wife of Inti, her son.
| null |
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] | null | null |
en-train-538543
|
en-train-538543
|
538543
|
{
"title": [
"Etymology.",
"Modern-day rituals.",
"Household rituals.",
"Sunday parade.",
"New Age worship.",
"Political usage."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"\"Pachamama\" is usually translated as Mother Earth, but a more literal translation would be \"World Mother\" (in Aymara and Quechua). The Inca goddess can be referred to in multiple ways; the primary way being Pachamama. Other names for her are: Mama Pacha, La Pachamama, and Mother Earth.",
"Pachamama and son-husband, Inti, are worshiped as benevolent deities in the area known as Tawantinsuyu. Tawantinsuyu is the name of the former Inca Empire, and the region stretches through the Andean mountains in present-day Bolivia, Ecuador, Chile, Peru, and northern Argentina. People usually give a toast to honor Pachamama before meetings and festivities. In some regions, a special kind of libation known as a \"challa\" is performed on a daily basis. The challa is performed by spilling a small amount of \"chicha\" on the floor, and then drinking the rest. Pachamama has a special worship day called \"Martes de challa\" (Challa's Tuesday), when people bury food, throw candies, and burn incense to thank Pachamama for their harvests. In some cases, celebrants assist traditional priests, known as \"yatiris\" in Aymara, in performing ancient rites to bring good luck or the good will of the goddess, such as sacrificing guinea pigs or burning llama fetuses (although this is rare today). The festival coincides with Shrove Tuesday, also celebrated as \"Carnevale\" or \"Mardi Gras\". The central ritual to Pachamama is the \"Challa\" or \"Pago\" (Payment). It is carried out during all of August, and in many places also on the first Friday of each month. Other ceremonies are carried out in special times, as upon leaving for a trip or upon passing an \"\". According to Mario Rabey and Rodolfo Merlino, Argentine anthropologists who studied the Andean culture from the 1970s to the 1990s, \"The most important ritual is the challaco. Challaco is a deformation of the Quechua words 'ch'allay' and 'ch'allakuy', that refer to the action to insistently sprinkle. In the current language of the campesinos of the southern Central Andes, the word \"challar\" is used in the sense of \"to feed and to give drink to the land'. The challaco covers a complex series of ritual steps that begin in the family dwellings the night before. They cook a special food, the \"tijtincha\". The ceremony culminates at a pond or stream, where the people offer a series of tributes to Pachamama, including \"food, beverage, leaves of coca and cigars.",
"Rituals to honor Pachamama take place all year, but are especially abundant in August, right before the sowing season. Because August is the coldest month of the winter in the southern Andes, people feel more vulnerable to illness. August is therefore regarded as a \"tricky month.\" During this time of mischief, Andeans believe that they must be on very good terms with nature to keep themselves and their crops and livestock healthy and protected. In order to do this, families perform cleansing rituals by burning plants, wood and other items in order to scare evil spirits who are thought to be more abundant at this time. People also drink mate (a South American hot beverage), which is thought to give good luck. On the night before August 1, families prepare to honor Pachamama by cooking all night. The host of the gathering then makes a hole in the ground. If the soil comes out nicely, this means that it will be a good year; if not, the year will not be bountiful. Before any of the guests are allowed to eat, the host must first give a plate of food to Pachamama. Food that was left aside is poured onto the ground and a prayer to Pachamama is recited.",
"A main attraction of the Pachamama festival is the Sunday parade. The organizational committee of the festival searches for the oldest woman in the community and elects her the \"Pachamama Queen of the Year.\" This election first occurred in 1949. Indigenous women, in particular senior women, are seen as incarnations of tradition and as living symbols of wisdom, life, fertility, and reproduction. The Pachamama queen who is elected is escorted by the Gauchos who circle the plaza on their horses and salute her during the Sunday parade. The Sunday parade is considered to be the climax of the festival.",
"There has been a recent rise in a New Age practice among white and Andean mestizo peoples. There is a weekly ritual worship which takes place on Sundays and includes invocations to Pachamama in Quechua, although there are some references in Spanish. Inside the temple, there is a large stone with a medallion on it, symbolizing the New Age group and its beliefs. A bowl of dirt on the right of the stone is there to represent Pachamama, because of her status as a Mother Earth. Many rituals related to the Pachamama are practiced in conjunction with those of Christianity, to the point that many families are simultaneously Christian and pachamamistas. Pachamama is sometimes syncretized as the Virgin of Candelaria. Certain travel agencies have drawn upon the emerging New Age movement in Andean communities (drawn from Quechua ritual practices) to urge tourists to come to visit Inca sites. Tourists visiting these sites, such as Machu Picchu and Cusco, are offered the chance to participate in ritual offerings to Pachamama.",
"Belief in Pachamama features prominently in the Peruvian national narrative. Former President, Alejandro Toledo, held a symbolic inauguration on 28 July 2001 atop Machu Picchu which featured a Quechua religious elder giving an offering to Pachamama. Pachamama has also been used as an example of autochthony by some Andean intellectuals. Former Bolivian president Evo Morales invoked the name of Pachamama, among other language and symbolism that appealed to Bolivia's indigenous population, in speeches throughout his presidency."
]
}
|
Wilt Chamberlain
| null |
Wilton Norman Chamberlain (; August 21, 1936 – October 12, 1999) was an American basketball player who played as a center and is considered one of the greatest players in history. He played for the Philadelphia/San Francisco Warriors, the Philadelphia 76ers, and the Los Angeles Lakers of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He played for the University of Kansas and also for the Harlem Globetrotters before playing in the NBA. Chamberlain stood tall, and weighed as a rookie before bulking up to 275 and eventually to over with the Lakers.
| null |
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] | null | null |
en-train-1131247
|
en-train-1131247
|
1131247
|
{
"title": [
"Early years.",
"High school career.",
"College career.",
"Professional career.",
"Harlem Globetrotters (1958–1959).",
"Philadelphia/San Francisco Warriors (1959–1965).",
"1959–60 NBA season.",
"1960–61 NBA season.",
"1961–62 NBA season.",
"1962–63 NBA season.",
"1963–64 NBA season.",
"1964–65 NBA season with the Warriors.",
"Philadelphia 76ers (1965–1968).",
"1964–65 NBA season with the 76ers.",
"1965–66 NBA season.",
"1966–67 NBA season: Championship Season.",
"1967–68 NBA season.",
"Los Angeles Lakers (1968–1973).",
"1968–69 NBA season.",
"1969–70 NBA season.",
"1970–71 NBA season.",
"1971–72 NBA season.",
"1972–73 NBA season.",
"San Diego Conquistadors (1973–1974).",
"Post-NBA career.",
"Death.",
"Legacy.",
"Individual achievements and recognition.",
"Chamberlain–Russell rivalry.",
"Rule changes.",
"Reputation.",
"Personal life.",
"Star status.",
"Love life.",
"Relationships.",
"Politics."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2"
],
"content": [
"Chamberlain was born in 1936 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, into a family of nine children, the son of Olivia Ruth Johnson, a domestic worker and homemaker, and William Chamberlain, a welder, custodian, and handyman. He was a frail child, nearly dying of pneumonia in his early years and missing a whole year of school as a result. In his early years Chamberlain was not interested in basketball, because he thought it was \"a game for sissies\". Instead, he was an avid track and field athlete: as a youth, he high jumped 6 feet,",
"As the star player for the Overbrook Panthers, Chamberlain averaged 31 points a game during the 1953 high school season and led his team to a 71–62 win over Northeast High School, who had Guy Rodgers, Chamberlain's future NBA teammate. He scored 34 points as Overbrook won the Public League title and gained a berth in the Philadelphia city championship game against the winner of the rival Catholic league, West Catholic. In that game, West Catholic quadruple-teamed Chamberlain the entire game, and despite the center's 29 points, the Panthers lost 54–42. In his second Overbrook season, he continued his prolific scoring when he tallied a high school record 71 points against Roxborough. The Panthers comfortably won the Public League title after again beating Northeast in which Chamberlain scored 40 points, and later won the city title by defeating South Catholic 74–50. He scored 32 points and led Overbrook to a 19–0 season. During summer vacations, he worked as a bellhop in Kutsher's Hotel. Subsequently, owners Milton and Helen Kutsher kept up a lifelong friendship with Wilt, and according to their son Mark, \"They were his second set of parents.\" Red Auerbach, the coach of the Boston Celtics, spotted the talented teenager at Kutscher's and had him play 1-on-1 against University of Kansas standout and national champion, B. H. Born, elected the Most Outstanding Player of",
"In 1955, Chamberlain entered the University of Kansas. In his first year, he played for the Jayhawks freshman team under coach Phog Allen, whom he admired. Chamberlain was also a member of Kappa Alpha Psi fraternity, where he was the president of his pledge class. Chamberlain's freshman debut was highly anticipated, and he delivered; the freshman squad was pitted against the varsity, who were favored to win their conference that year. Chamberlain dominated his older college players by scoring 42 points (16–35 from the field, 10–12 on free throws), grabbing 29 rebounds and registering four blocks. Chamberlain's prospects of playing under Allen ended, however, when the coach turned 70 shortly after and retired in accordance with KU regulations. Chamberlain had a bad relationship with Allen's successor, Dick Harp, fueled by resentment and disappointment: Chamberlain biographer Robert Cherry has doubted whether Chamberlain would have chosen KU if he had known that Allen was going to retire. On December 3, 1956, Chamberlain made his varsity debut as a center. In his first game, he scored 52 points and grabbed 31 rebounds, breaking both all-time Kansas records in an 87–69 win against Northwestern, who had Chamberlain's future NBA teammate Joe Ruklick. Teammate Monte Johnson testified to his athleticism: \"Wilt... had unbelievable endurance and speed... and was never tired. When he dunked, he was so fast that a lot of players got their fingers jammed [between Chamberlain's hand and the rim].\" Reportedly, Chamberlain also broke Johnny Kerr's toe with a slam dunk. By this time, he had developed several offensive weapons that became his trademarks: his finger roll, his fade-away jump shot, which he could also hit as a bank shot, his passing and his shot-blocking. Leading a talented squad of starters, including Maurice King, Gene Elstun, John Parker, Ron Lonesky and Lew Johnson, the Jayhawks went 13–1 until they lost a game 56–54 versus Oklahoma State, who held the ball the last three and a half minutes without any intention of scoring a basket, which was still possible in the days before the shot clock (introduced 1984 in the NCAA). As he did at Overbrook, Chamberlain again showcased his diverse athletic talent. He ran the 100-yard dash in 10.9 seconds, shot-putted 56 feet, triple jumped more than 50 feet, and won the high jump in the Big Eight track and field championships three straight years. In 1957, 23 teams were selected to play in the NCAA Tournament. The Midwest regional was held in Dallas, Texas, which at the time was segregated. In the first game, the Jayhawks played the all-white SMU team, and KU player John Parker later said: \"The crowd was brutal. We were spat on, pelted with debris, and subjected to the vilest racial epithets possible.\" KU won 73–65 in overtime, after which police had to escort the Jayhawks out. The next game against Oklahoma City was equally unpleasant, with KU winning 81–61 under intense racist abuse. In the semi-finals, Chamberlain's Jayhawks handily defeated the two-time defending national champion San Francisco, 80–56, with Wilt scoring 32 points, grabbing 11 rebounds, and",
"",
"After his frustrating junior year, Chamberlain wanted to become a professional player before finishing his senior year. However, at that time, the NBA did not accept players until after their college graduating class had been completed. Therefore, Chamberlain was prohibited from joining the NBA for a year, and decided to play for the Harlem Globetrotters in 1958 for a sum of $50,000 (equal to about $ in 2019). Chamberlain became a member of the Globetrotters team that made history by playing in Moscow in 1959; the",
"On October 24, 1959, Chamberlain finally made his NBA debut, starting for the Philadelphia Warriors. Chamberlain immediately became the NBA's highest paid player, when he signed for $30,000 (equal to about $ today) in his rookie contract. In comparison, the previous top earner was Bob Cousy of the Boston Celtics with $25,000; in fact, Eddie Gottlieb bought the whole Warriors franchise for $25,000 seven years earlier.",
"In the 1959–60 NBA season, Chamberlain joined a Warriors squad that was coached by Neil Johnston and included Hall-of-Fame guards Tom Gola and Paul Arizin, plus Ernie Beck and his old rival, Guy Rodgers; remarkably, all five starters were Philadelphians. In his first NBA game, against the New York Knicks, the rookie center scored 43 points and grabbed 28 rebounds. In his third game, Chamberlain recorded 41 points and a then-career high 40 rebounds in a 124-113 win over the visiting Syracuse Nationals. In his fourth game, Philadelphia met the reigning champions, the Boston Celtics of Hall-of-Fame coach Red Auerbach, whose offer he had snubbed several years before, and Bill Russell, who was now lauded as one of the best",
"The following season, Chamberlain started it with a 42-point and 31-rebound performance in a 133-123 road win against the Syracuse Nationals. On November 24, 1960, Chamberlain grabbed an NBA-record 55 rebounds to go along with 34 points and 4 assists in a game against the Bill Russell led-Boston Celtics. Five days later, Chamberlain recorded 44 points, 38 rebounds, and a career-high 7 assists in a 122-121 win over the Los Angeles Lakers. Chamberlain surpassed his rookie season statistics as he averaged 38.4 points and 27.2 rebounds per game. He",
"In Chamberlain's third season, the Warriors were coached by Frank McGuire, the coach who had masterminded Chamberlain's painful NCAA loss against the Tar Heels. In that year, Wilt set several all-time records which have never been threatened. In the 1962 season, he averaged 50.4 points and grabbed 25.7 rebounds per game. On March 2, 1962, in Hershey, Pennsylvania, Wilt scored 100 points, shot 36 of 63 from the field, and made 28 of 32 free throws against the New York Knicks. Chamberlain's 4,029 regular-season points made him the only player to break the 4,000-point barrier; the only other player to break the 3,000-point barrier is Michael Jordan, with 3,041 points in the 1986–87 NBA season. Chamberlain once again broke the 2,000-rebound barrier with 2,052. Additionally, he was on the hardwood for an average of 48.53 minutes, playing 3,882 of his team's 3,890 minutes. Because Chamberlain played in overtime games, he averaged more minutes per game",
"In the 1962–63 NBA season, Gottlieb sold the Warriors franchise for $850,000 (equal to about $ today) to a group of businessmen led by Marty Simmons from San Francisco, and the team relocated to become the San Francisco Warriors under a new coach, Bob Feerick. This also meant, however, that the team",
"In the 1963–64 NBA season, Chamberlain got yet another new coach, Alex Hannum, and was joined by a promising rookie center, Nate Thurmond, who eventually entered the Hall of Fame. Ex-soldier Hannum, who later entered the Basketball Hall of Fame as a coach, was a crafty psychologist who emphasized defense and passing. Most importantly, he was not afraid to stand up to the",
"In the summer of 1964, Chamberlain, one of the prominent participants at the famed Rucker Park basketball court in New York City, made the acquaintance of a tall, talented 17-year-old who played there. Soon, the young Lew Alcindor was allowed into his inner circle, and quickly idolized the ten-year older NBA player. Chamberlain and Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, as Alcindor would name himself later, would develop an intensely personal antipathy. In the following 1964–65 NBA season, the Warriors got off to a terrible start and ran into financial trouble. At the 1965 All-Star break Chamberlain was traded to the Philadelphia 76ers, the new name of the relocated Syracuse Nationals. In return the Warriors received Paul Neumann, Connie Dierking, Lee Shaffer (who opted to retire rather than report to the Warriors), and $150,000 (equal to about $ today). When Chamberlain left the Warriors, owner Franklin Mieuli said: \"Chamberlain is not an easy man to love [and] the fans in San Francisco never learned to love him. Wilt is easy to hate [...] people came to see him lose.\"",
"",
"After the trade Chamberlain found himself on a promising Sixers team that included guards Hal Greer, a future Hall-of-Famer, and talented role players Larry Costello, Chet Walker and Lucious Jackson. Cherry remarks that there was a certain tension within the team: Greer was the formerly undisputed leader and was not willing to give up his authority, and Jackson, a talented center, was now forced to play power forward because Chamberlain blocked the center spot; however, as the season progressed, the three began to mesh better. He did not care for the Sixers' coach, Dolph Schayes, because Schayes, according to him, had made several disrespectful remarks when they were rival players in the NBA. Statistically, Chamberlain was again outstanding, posting 34.7 ppg and 22.9 rpg overall for the season. After defeating the Cincinnati Royals led by Oscar Robertson in the 1965 NBA Playoffs, the Sixers met Chamberlain's familiar rival, the Boston Celtics. The press called it an even matchup",
"In the 1965–66 NBA season the Sixers experienced tragedy when Ike Richman, the Sixers' co-owner as well as Chamberlain's confidant and lawyer, died of a coronary. The Sixers would post a 55–25 regular season record, and for his strong play, Chamberlain won his second MVP award. In that season, the center again dominated his opposition by recording 33.5 points and 24.6 rebounds a game, leading the league in both categories. In one particular game, Chamberlain blocked a dunk attempt by Gus Johnson so hard that he dislocated Johnson's shoulder. Off the court, however, Chamberlain's commitment to the cause was doubted, as Chamberlain was a late sleeper, lived in New York and preferred to \"commute\" to Philadelphia rather than live there, and he was only available during the afternoon for training. Because Schayes did not want to risk angering his best player, he scheduled the daily workout at 4 pm; this angered the team, who preferred an early schedule to have the afternoon off, but Schayes just said: \"There",
"Prior to the 1966–67 NBA season, the friendly but unassertive Schayes was replaced by a familiar face, the crafty but firm Alex Hannum. In what Cherry calls a tumultuous locker room meeting, Hannum addressed several key issues he observed during the last season, several of them putting Chamberlain in an unfavorable light. Sixers forward Chet Walker testified that on several occasions, players had to pull Chamberlain and Hannum apart to prevent a fistfight. Fellow forward Billy Cunningham observed that Hannum \"never backed down\" and \"showed who was the boss\". By doing this, he won Chamberlain's respect. When emotions cooled off,",
"In the 1967–68 NBA season, matters began to turn sour between Chamberlain and the Sixers' sole surviving owner, Irv Kosloff. This conflict had been going along for a while: in 1965, Chamberlain asserted that he and the late Richman had worked out a deal which would give the center 25% of the franchise once he ended his career. Although there is no written proof for or against, ex-Sixers coach Dolph Schayes and Sixers lawyer Alan Levitt assumed Chamberlain was right; in any case, Kosloff declined the request, leaving Chamberlain livid and willing to jump to the rival ABA once his contract ended in 1967. Kosloff and Chamberlain worked out a truce, and later signed a one-year, $250,000 contract. On the hardwood, Chamberlain continued his focus on team play and registered 24.3 points and 23.8 rebounds a game for the season. The 76ers had the best record in the league for the third straight season. Chamberlain made history by becoming the only center in NBA history to finish the season as the leader in assists, his 702 beating runner-up, Hall-of-Fame point guard Lenny Wilkens' total by 23. Chamberlain likened his assist title to legendary home run hitter \"Babe Ruth leading the league in sacrifice bunts\", and he dispelled the myth that he could not and would not pass the ball. For these feats, Chamberlain won his fourth and last MVP title. Another landmark was his 25,000th point, making him the first ever player to score these many points: he gave the ball to his team physician Dr. Stan Lorber. Winning 62 games, the Sixers easily took the first playoff berth of the 1968 NBA Playoffs. In the 1968 Eastern Division Semifinals, they were pitted against the Knicks. In a physically tough matchup, the Sixers lost sixth man Billy Cunningham with a broken hand, and Chamberlain, Greer and Jackson were struggling with inflamed feet, bad knees, and pulled hamstrings respectively. Going ahead 3–2, the Sixers defeated the Knicks 115–97 in Game 6 after Chamberlain scored 25 points and 27 rebounds: he had a successful series in which he led both teams in points (153), rebounds (145) and assists (38). In the 1968 Eastern Division Finals, the Sixers yet again met the Boston Celtics, again with home court advantage, and this time as reigning champions. Despite the Sixers' injury woes, coach Hannum was confident",
"",
"On July 9, 1968, Chamberlain was the centerpiece of a major trade between the 76ers and the Los Angeles Lakers, who sent center Darrall Imhoff, forward Jerry Chambers and guard Archie Clark to Philadelphia, making it the first time a reigning NBA Most Valuable Player was traded the next season. Lakers owner Jack Kent Cooke gave Chamberlain an unprecedented contract, paying him $250,000 after taxes (about $ million in real value); in comparison, previous Lakers top earner Jerry West was paid $100,000 before taxes (about $,000 in real value). Chamberlain joined a squad which featured Hall-of-Fame forward Elgin Baylor and Hall-of-Fame guard Jerry West, along with backup center Mel Counts, forwards Keith Erickson and Tom Hawkins and talented 5'11\" guard Johnny Egan. The lack of a second guard next",
"In his second year with the Lakers, under new coach Joe Mullaney, Chamberlain began the season strongly, averaging 32.2 points per game and 20.6 rebounds per game over the first nine games of the season. During the ninth game, however, he had a serious knee injury, suffering a total rupture of the patellar tendon at the base of his right kneecap, and missed the next several months before appearing in the final three games of the 82-game regular season. Owing to his strong",
"In the 1970–71 NBA season, the Lakers made a notable move by signing future Hall-of-Fame guard Gail Goodrich, who came back from the Phoenix Suns after playing for L.A. until 1968. Chamberlain averaged 20.7 points, 18.2 rebounds and 4.3 assists, once again led the NBA in rebounding and the Lakers won the Pacific Division title. After losing Elgin Baylor to an Achilles tendon rupture that effectively ended his career, and especially after losing Jerry West after a knee injury, the handicapped Lakers were seen as underdogs against the Milwaukee Bucks of freshly crowned MVP Lew Alcindor, and veteran Hall-of-Fame guard Oscar Robertson in the Western Conference Finals. Winning the regular season with 66 wins, the Bucks were seen as favourites against the depleted Lakers; still, many pundits were looking forward to the matchup between the 34-year-old Chamberlain and the 24-year-old Alcindor. In Game 1, Abdul-Jabbar outscored Chamberlain 32–22, and the Bucks won 106–85. In Game 2, the Bucks won again despite the Lakers center scoring 26 points, four more than his Milwaukee counterpart. Prior to Game 3, things became even worse for the Lakers when Keith Erickson,",
"In the 1971–72 NBA season, the Lakers hired former Celtics star guard Bill Sharman as head coach. Sharman introduced morning shoot-arounds, in which the perennial latecomer Chamberlain regularly participated (in contrast to earlier years with Dolph Schayes) and transformed him into a defensive-minded, low-scoring post defender in the mold of his old rival Bill Russell. Furthermore, he told Chamberlain to use his rebounding and passing skills to quickly initiate fastbreaks to his teammates. While no longer being the main scorer, Chamberlain was named the new captain of the Lakers: after rupturing his Achilles tendon, perennial captain Elgin Baylor retired, leaving a void the center now filled. Initially, Sharman wanted Chamberlain and West to",
"The 1972–73 NBA season was to be Chamberlain's last, although he didn't know this at the time. In his last season, the Lakers lost substance: Happy Hairston was injured, Flynn Robinson and LeRoy Ellis had left, and veteran Jerry West struggled with injury. Chamberlain averaged 13.2 points and 18.6 rebounds, still enough to win the rebounding crown for the 11th time in his career. In addition, he shot an NBA record 0.727 for the season, bettering his own mark of 0.683 from the 1966–67 season. It was the ninth time Chamberlain would lead the league in field goal percentage. The Lakers won",
"In 1973, the San Diego Conquistadors of the NBA rival league ABA signed Chamberlain as a player-coach for a $600,000 salary. However, the Lakers sued their former star and successfully prevented him from actually playing, because he still owed them the option year of his contract. Barred from playing, Chamberlain mostly left the coaching duties to his assistant Stan Albeck, who recalled: \"Chamberlain... has a great feel for pro basketball... [but] the day-to-day things that are an important",
"After his stint with the Conquistadors, Chamberlain successfully went into business and entertainment, made money in stocks and real estate, bought a popular Harlem nightclub, which he renamed Big Wilt's Smalls Paradise, and invested in broodmares. Chamberlain also sponsored his personal professional volleyball and track and field teams, and also provided high-level teams for girls and women in basketball, track, volleyball and softball, and made money by appearing in ads for TWA, American Express, Volkswagen, Drexel Burnham, Le Tigre Clothing and Foot Locker. After his basketball career, volleyball became Chamberlain's new passion: being a talented hobby volleyballer during his Lakers days, he became a board member of the newly founded International Volleyball Association in 1974, and then its president one year later. As a testament to his importance, the IVA All-Star game was televised only because Chamberlain also played in it: he rose to the challenge and was named the game's MVP. He played occasional matches for the IVA Seattle Smashers before the league folded in 1979. Chamberlain promoted the sport so effectively that he was named to the Volleyball Hall of Fame: he became one of the few athletes who were enshrined in different sports. In 1976, Chamberlain turned to his interest in movies, forming a film production and distribution company to make his first film, entitled \"Go For It\". Starting in the 1970s, he formed Wilt's Athletic Club, a track and field club in southern California, coached by then UCLA assistant coach Bob Kersee in the early days of his career. Among the members of the team were: Florence Griffith,",
"Chamberlain had a history of heart trouble. In 1992, he was briefly hospitalized for an irregular heartbeat. According to those close to him, he eventually began taking medication for his heart troubles. In 1999, his condition deteriorated rapidly. During this time, he lost 50 pounds. After undergoing dental surgery in the week before his death, he was in great pain and seemed unable to recover from the stress. On October 12, 1999, Chamberlain died in Bel-Air,",
"",
"Chamberlain is regarded as one of the most extraordinary and dominant basketball players in the history of the NBA. The 1972 NBA Finals MVP is holder of numerous official NBA all-time records, establishing himself as a scoring champion, all-time top rebounder and accurate field goal shooter. He led the NBA in scoring seven times, field goal percentage nine times, minutes played eight times, rebounding eleven times, and assists once. He was also responsible for several rule changes, including widening the lane from 12 to 16 feet, as well",
"From a historical NBA perspective, the rivalry between Chamberlain and his perennial nemesis Bill Russell is cited as the greatest on-court rivalry of all time. There were three NBA Finals matchups in the rivalry between Larry Bird and Magic Johnson, but they played different positions and did not guard each other. Russell's Celtics won seven of eight playoff series against Chamberlain's Warriors, 76ers, and Lakers teams, and went 57–37 against them in the regular season and 29–20 in the playoffs. Russell's teams won all four seventh games against Chamberlain's—the combined margin was nine points. Chamberlain outscored Russell 30 to 14.2 per game and outrebounded him 28.2 to 22.9 in the regular season, and also in the playoffs, he outscored him 25.7 to 14.9 and outrebounded him 28 to 24.7. The comparison between the two is often simplified to a great player (Chamberlain) versus",
"Chamberlain's impact on the game is also reflected in the fact that he was directly responsible for several rule changes in the NBA, including widening the lane to try to keep big men farther away from the hoop, instituting offensive goaltending and revising rules governing inbounding the ball and shooting free throws (such as making it against the rules to inbound the ball over the",
"Although Chamberlain racked up some of the most impressive statistics in the history of Northern American professional sports, because he won \"just\" two NBA championships and lost seven out of eight playoff series against the Celtics teams of his on-court nemesis Bill Russell, Chamberlain was often called \"selfish\" and a \"loser\". Frank Deford of ESPN said that Chamberlain was caught in a no-win situation: \"If you win, everybody says, 'Well, look at him, he's that big.' If you lose, everybody says, 'How could he lose, a guy that size?' \" Chamberlain himself often said: \"Nobody roots for Goliath.\" Like later superstar Shaquille O'Neal, Chamberlain was a target of criticism because of his poor free throw shooting, a.511 career average, with a low of.380 over the 1967–68 season. Countless suggestions were offered;",
"",
"Chamberlain was the first big earner of basketball; he immediately became the highest paid player upon entering the NBA. He was basketball's first player to earn at least $100,000 a year and earned an unprecedented $1.5 million during his Lakers years. As a Philadelphia 76er, he could afford to rent a New York apartment and commute to Philadelphia. In addition, he would often stay out late into the night and wake up at noon, a point that became notorious in the 1965–66 NBA season. When he became a Laker, Chamberlain built a million-dollar mansion he called the \"Ursa Major\" in Bel-Air, as a play on his nickname \"The Big Dipper\"",
"Although Chamberlain was shy and insecure as a teenager, he became well known for his womanizing when he was an adult. As his lawyer Seymour \"Sy\" Goldberg put it: \"Some people collect stamps, Wilt collected women.\" Swedish Olympic high jumper Annette Tånnander, who met him when he was 40 and she 19, remembers him as a pick-up artist who was extremely confident yet respectful: \"I think Wilt hit on everything that moved... [but] he never was bad or rude.\" However, \"Los Angeles Times\" columnist David Shaw claimed that during a dinner with Shaw and his wife, Chamberlain was \"rude and sexist toward his own date, as he usually was\", adding that at one point Chamberlain left the table to get the phone number of an attractive woman at a nearby table. According to Rod Roddewig, a contemporary of Wilt's, Chamberlain documented his love life using a Day-Timer. Every time Chamberlain went to bed with a different woman, he put a check in his",
"Although Cherry points out that Chamberlain was an egotist, he added that he had good relationships with many contemporaries and enjoyed a great deal of respect. He was especially lauded for his good rapport with his fans, often providing tickets and signing autographs. Dr. Jack Ramsay recalled that Chamberlain regularly took walks in downtown Philadelphia and acknowledged honking horns with the air of a man enjoying all the attention. Jerry West called him a \"complex... very nice person\", and NBA rival Jack McMahon even said: \"The best thing that happened to the NBA is that God made Wilt a nice person... he could have killed us all with his left hand.\" Celtics contemporary Bob Cousy even assumed that if Chamberlain had been less fixated on being popular, he would have been meaner and able to win more titles. During most of his NBA career, Chamberlain was good friends with Bill Russell. Chamberlain often invited Russell over to Thanksgiving, and at Russell's place, conversation mostly concerned Russell's electric trains. But as",
"Chamberlain denounced the Black Panthers Party and other black nationalist movements in the late 1960s, and supported"
]
}
|
Melitopol
| null |
Melitopol (, translit. "Melitópol’", ) is a city in Zaporizhia Oblast (region) of southeastern Ukraine. It is situated on the Molochna River that flows through the eastern edge of the city and into the Molochnyi Lyman, which eventually joins the Sea of Azov. Its population is approximately.
| null |
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en-train-184283
|
en-train-184283
|
184283
|
{
"title": [
"History.",
"Melitopol in World War II.",
"The Wotan Line Battle.",
"Culture.",
"Special notes.",
"The Stone Grave.",
"Melitopol cherries.",
"Melitopol honey.",
"Commemorative silver coin.",
"Twin towns – sister cities.",
"Education.",
"Industry."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"3",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"In medieval times, there was a small Noghai aul of Kyzyl-Yar where the modern Melitopol is settled. In July 1769, Russian military commanders built a redoubt there, and Zaporizhia Cossacks carried out their duty service there. On February 2, 1784, Catherine II issued the decree to create the Taurian Province on the lands that had been won. The deputy of Novorossiya Grigory Potemkin signed the relation to establish a town that very year - and Cossacks' families and those of retired soldiers of Suvorov settled on the right bank of the Molochna River. Among others, Germans were encouraged to settle in the new province, and some villages in this area were for many years German-speaking, such as Heidelberg (now Pryshyb) some to the north of Melitopol. In 1816, the settlement got the name \"sloboda\" \"of Novoalexandrovka\". Its population was increasing due to the importation of peasants from the northern provinces of Ukraine and Russia. On January 7, 1842, the sloboda was recognized as a town and received the new name of Melitopol after a port city of Melita (from Greek \"Μέλι\" (meli) - \"honey\") which had been situated on the mouth of the Molochna River. At the end of the 19th century, the \"Honey-city\" had been developed as a trade center - there were some banks, credit organizations and wholesale stores. The largest enterprises in the city at the time were the iron foundry and the Brothers Klassen's machinery construction factory (1886), the railroad depot and the workshops. Further development of the city was closely connected with trade, iron and engineering industries, and Crimean direction railway service. In the early twentieth century there were 15 thousand people living in Melitopol. 30 industrial and 350 retail outlets operated in the city at that time. In the second half of the twentieth century there was a strong economic growth of the city: new factories, plants, and housing estates were constructed. 16 Melitopol business enterprises have received the All-Soviet Union significance status. Industrial enterprise production was exported to more than 50 countries worldwide.",
"In 1941, the Soviet Union was attacked by Nazi Germany. The city became strategically important due to its location. The Red Army was not ready for the war and had to retreat. The German Wehrmacht occupied Melitopol on October 6, 1941. Within one week the entire remaining Jewish population of Melitopol (2,000 men, women and children) were murdered by Einsatzgruppe D actively supported by the Wehrmacht.",
"After breaking through on the Mius River and defeating Axis troops in the Donbas and Taganrog, the Soviet Southern Front army pursuing the retreating enemy came to the Molochna River on September 22, 1943. Here, in the basin of the Milk River, German troops had built a strong long-term defense which they called the Panther-Wotan line. It was on this line that the fate of the Crimean peninsula and the whole course of offensive operations in the southern Soviet Union were decided. The German defense consisted of four lines, covered with solid anti-tank ditches and land mines. The first attempt of the Soviet Southern Front army to break through was unsuccessful. Soviet commanders decided to prepare thoroughly a new attempt: the so-called “Melitopol operation”, which was carried out successfully from September 26 to November 5, 1943. Despite the courage and heroism of Soviet soldiers, fighting lasted long, as the Germans introduced fresh reserves in order to keep Melitopol. Finally, after many days of heavy street fighting against vastly superior numbers of men and equipment, German resistance was broken and on October 23 the Red Army took complete control of the city. By decrees of the Presidium of the USSR Supreme Soviet, 87 Red soldiers and airmen were awarded the title of \"Hero of the Soviet Union\" for their actions in the reconquest of Melitopol.",
"Melitopol is a melting pot of different ethnicities and cultures. Representatives of more than 100 ethnic groups have been living here together in peace. An association of national-cultural societies is actively working in the city. In 2008 Melitopol became a member of the international project of the Council of Europe \"Intercultural Cities\". The City confidently and clearly stated its goals in this program. Three flagship projects were identified as belonging to the future of the municipal program \"Melitopol - European Intercultural City.\" The project on which the city works under the Council of Europe project, is called \"Creation of Intercultural Park “Melito-Park”. The aim of the project is to create an intercultural park where people of different nationalities could meet and communicate. There is a design project of the Intercultural Park, prepared by a group of European architects and designers led by Mark Glaudemans - Director of the European Laboratory for urban planning, the Dean of the Academy of Architecture and Urbanism (city of Tilburg, Netherlands). In Melitopol removed first short film in 2015, \"The Zone\". As ethnic conflicts are not a problem for Melitopol, city authorities are trying to identify the potential diversity for the mobilization of efforts and creativity of different ethnic groups to develop and implement innovative projects revival. Among all the diversity of cultural events in Melitopol there are these unique activities: Melitopol has 38 monuments, memorials and statues registered. One of them is the statue of Bohdan Khmelnytsky, the famous hetman of Ukraine. His images are printed on Ukrainian 5 hryvnia's banknotes. The other one represents Ostap Bender a hero of the book of Ilf and Petrov \"12 chairs\".",
"",
"There is the unique relic of the Stone Grave (, translit. \"Kamyana mohyla\", ) north of Melitopol. It is a relic of sandstone from the Sarmatian epoch of the Tertiary period. Its exact coordinates are",
"Melitopol has justly gained fame as \"the city of cherries\". In the city territory there is, unique in CIS, the Sidorenko Scientific Research Institute of Irrigated Horticulture (Ukrainian Academy of Agrarian Sciences), that is professionally engaged in selection of stone fruit crops (such as cherries, apples, and peaches). The main base of this research institute is located in Melitopol. There are experimental black cherry orchards located in the heart of the city. Citizens of Melitopol rightly call it the \"city-garden\". A symbol of Melitopol is \"Chereshnya Melitopolska\" (\"Melitopol cherry\"), a type of cherry for which the city is known.",
"Recently, the city actively created its own brand as a \"city of honey\", which is the translation of the Greek word \"melitos\". The city formed a cluster of honey producers, prepared investment projects for the establishment of an apitherapy center (treatment with the help of bee products) and encourages the creation of souvenir products made from honey.",
"In October 2013, the National Bank of Ukraine introduced a new commemorative silver coin on the 70th anniversary of the Melitopol offensive against German troops and the liberation of the city of Melitopol on October 23, 1943. The new coin was called \"The Breakthrough of Soviet Troops Against the German Defense Line Wotan and liberation of Melitopol\" and each of the 30,000 limited edition coins worth was $5.",
"Melitopol is currently twinned with:",
"In 1874, a technical school was founded in the city, which, after a series of reforms and transformations, became Tavria State Agrotechnological University. The city now has two public universities − Tavria State Agrotechnological Academy and Bohdan Khmelnytsky Melitopol State Pedagogical University, as well as a private institute - Zaporizhia Institute of Economics and Information Technologies. A long history of universities and schools is one of the reasons that Melitopol is called \"the city of students\". More than 10% of its citizens are students. The strong system of education is represented by different types of educational institutions at all levels of accreditation: two universities, four branches of different universities in Ukraine, seven professional schools, and three colleges. 26 pre-schools are operating in the city, in which 6,000 young citizens are being educated. In addition, for more than 500 children with special needs under the age of seven years there are rehabilitation programs to provide the needed services. Educational services for 14,000 students are provided by 23 secondary schools. There is a center of labor training and professional orientation for young people. A network of six non-school institutions are the following: the Centre of Ecological-Naturalistic Art for Youth, the Center of Tourist and Local Lore Creativity for Youth, the Station of Young Technicians, the Vodvudenko Palace for Children and Teenagers Creativity, Small Academy of Sciences, and the Center of Children and Teenagers. Other creative centers unite nine communal hobby clubs.",
"There is a well-developed, internationally important engine-constructing industry. Thanks to the rich historical heritage, economic and geographical situation and enterprising citizens the city has developed mechanical engineering, light and food industry. The city's dynamic development is driven by engineering industries, that have received new impulse with the establishment of more than 100 new small and medium engineering business enterprises, united in the cluster \"AgroBOOM\". The dynamics of the machinery transformation from a \"Soviet\" model to a \"European\" one surprises many visitors of our city. The principles of cooperation and production outsourcing are working actively. Machine engineering complex of the city is represented by 8 large plants and more than 100 small and medium-sized enterprises formed after 1991. Mechanical engineers of the city mainly produce goods for the agricultural sector: a wide range of spare parts, components and assemblies for mobile equipment of local and foreign producers. Production capacity and availability of experienced, qualified staff allows entrepreneurs to design and produce parts of any complexity, including large ones. All the processes necessary to create parts can be made in the city: starting with metallurgical operations (casting) and ending with assembly and testing. There are many unique enterprises that stand out for their products and customers: The following companies can be called the basis of light industry in the city: Thanks to the proximity of agricultural areas and raw materials of Zaporizhia, Mykolaiv, Kherson, and Dnipropetrovsk regions, the food industry is well presented in the city. The main enterprises of the food industry are: Small and medium businesses of the city are proud of their high quality production: bakery and confectionery, convenience foods (dumplings, pancakes)."
]
}
|
Larry Bird
| null |
Larry Joe Bird (born December 7, 1956) is an American former professional basketball player, coach and executive in the National Basketball Association (NBA). Nicknamed "The Hick from French Lick", Bird is widely regarded as one of the greatest basketball players of all time.
| null |
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en-train-730298
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en-train-730298
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730298
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{
"title": [
"Early life.",
"College career.",
"Professional career.",
"Joining the Celtics (1978–1979).",
"Early success (1979–1983).",
"Battles with the Lakers and MVP tenure (1983–1987).",
"Late career (1988–1992).",
"International play.",
"Player profile and legacy.",
"Career as coach and executive.",
"Awards and honors.",
"Personal life."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
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"content": [
"Bird was born in West Baden Springs, Indiana, to Georgia (née Kerns) and Claude Joseph \"Joe\" Bird, a veteran of the Korean War. Bird's parents were of Irish, Scottish and some Native American descent on both sides of his family. He has four brothers and a sister. He was raised in nearby French Lick, where his mother worked two jobs to support Larry and his five siblings. Bird has said that being poor as a child still motivates him \"to this day\". Georgia and Joe divorced when Larry was in high school, and Joe committed suicide about a year later. Larry used basketball as an escape from his family troubles, starring for Springs Valley High School and averaging 31 points, 21 rebounds, and 4 assists as a senior on his way to becoming the school's all-time scoring leader. Bird's youngest brother, Eddie Bird, also played basketball at Indiana State University.",
"Bird received a scholarship to play college basketball for Indiana University in 1974. After less than a month on campus he dropped out of school, finding the adjustment between his small hometown and the large student population of Bloomington to be overwhelming. He returned to French Lick, enrolling at Northwood Institute (now Northwood University) in nearby West Baden, and working municipal jobs for a year before enrolling at Indiana State University in Terre Haute in 1975. He had a successful three-year career with the Sycamores, helping them reach the NCAA tournament for the first time in school history with a 33-0 record where they played the 1979 championship game against Michigan State. Indiana State lost the game 75–64, with Bird scoring 19 points but making only 7 of 21 shots. The game achieved the highest ever television rating for a college basketball game, in large part because of the matchup between Bird and Spartans' point guard Earvin \"Magic\" Johnson, a rivalry that lasted throughout their professional careers. Despite failing to win the championship, Bird earned numerous year-end awards and honors for his outstanding play, including the Naismith College Player of the Year Award. For his college career, he averaged 30.3 points, 13.3 rebounds, and 4.6 assists per game, leading the Sycamores to an 81–13 record during his tenure. Bird also appeared in one game for the baseball team, going 1-for-2 with 2 RBI. He graduated in 1979 with a Bachelor of Science degree in physical education.",
"",
"Bird was selected by the Boston Celtics with the sixth overall pick in the 1978 NBA draft. He did not sign with the Celtics immediately; instead, he played out his final season at Indiana State and led the Sycamores to the NCAA title game. Celtics General Manager Red Auerbach publicly stated that he would not pay Bird more than any Celtic on the current roster, but Bird's agent Bob Woolf told Auerbach that Bird would reject any sub-market offers and simply enter the 1979 draft instead, where Boston's rights would expire when the draft began on June 25, and Bird would have been the likely top pick. After protracted negotiations, Bird inked a five-year, $3.25 million contract with the team on June 8, making him the highest paid rookie in sports history. Shortly afterwards, NBA draft eligibility rules were changed to prevent teams from drafting players before they were ready to sign, a rule known as the Bird Collegiate Rule.",
"In his rookie season (1979–1980), Bird immediately transformed the Celtics into a title contender. The team improved its win total by 32 games from the year before he was drafted and finished first in the Eastern Conference. In his career debut, Bird recorded 14 points, 10 rebounds and 5 assists in a 114-106 win over the Houston Rockets. On November 14, 1979, Bird recorded his first career triple-double with 23 points, 19 rebounds and 10 assists in a 115–111 win over the Detroit Pistons. On November 23, Bird recorded his first 30-point scoring game after he scored 30 points to go along with 11 rebounds and 3 assists in a 118-103 win over the Indiana Pacers. With averages of 21.3 points, 10.4 rebounds, 4.5 assists, and 1.7 steals per game for the season, he was selected to the All-Star Team and named Rookie of the Year. In the Conference Finals, Boston was eliminated by the Philadelphia 76ers. Before the 1980–81 season, the Celtics selected forward Kevin McHale in the draft and acquired center Robert Parish from the Golden State Warriors, forming a Hall of Fame trio for years to come; the frontcourt of Bird, McHale, and Parish is regarded as one of the greatest frontcourts in NBA history. Behind Bird's leadership and Boston's upgraded roster, the Celtics again advanced to the Conference Finals for a rematch with the 76ers. Boston fell behind 3–1 to start the series but won the next three games to advance to the Finals against the Houston Rockets, winning in six games and earning Bird his first championship. He averaged 21.9 points, 14 rebounds, 6.1 assists, and 2.3 steals per game for the postseason and 15.3 points, 15.3 rebounds, and 7 assists per game for the Finals but lost out on the Finals MVP Award to teammate Cedric Maxwell. At the 1982 All-Star Game, Bird scored 19 points en route to winning the All-Star Game MVP Award. At the conclusion of the season, he earned his first All-Defensive Team selection. He eventually finished runner-up in Most Valuable Player Award voting to Moses Malone. In the Conference Finals, the Celtics faced the 76ers for the third consecutive year, losing in seven games. Boston's misfortunes continued into the next season, with Bird again finishing second in MVP voting to Malone and the team losing in the Conference Semifinals to the Milwaukee Bucks.",
"Bird was named MVP of the 1983–84 season with averages of 24.2 points, 10.1 rebounds, 6.6 assists, and 1.8 steals per game. In the playoffs, the Celtics avenged their loss from the year before to the Bucks, winning in five games in the Conference Finals to advance to the Finals against the Los Angeles Lakers. In Game Four, the Lakers—led by Bird's college rival Magic Johnson—were on the verge of taking a commanding 3-1 series lead before a flagrant foul was committed on Kurt Rambis that resulted in a brawl and caused the Lakers to lose their composure. Boston came back to win the game, eventually winning the series in seven. Bird was named Finals MVP behind 27.4 points, 14 rebounds, and 3.6 assists per game. On December 9, 1984, Bird recorded 48 points to go along with 14 rebounds and 5 assists in a 128-127 win over the Atlanta Hawks. On March 12 of the 1984–85 season, Bird scored a career-high and franchise record 60 points in a game against the Atlanta Hawks. The performance came just nine days after Kevin McHale set the previous Celtics record for points in a game with 56. At the conclusion of the year, Bird was named MVP for the second consecutive season behind averages of 28.7 points, 10.5 rebounds, and 6.6 assists per game. Boston advanced through the playoffs to earn a rematch with the Lakers, this time losing in six games. In the summer of 1985, Larry injured his back shoveling crushed rock to create a driveway at his mother's house. At least partially as a result of this, he experienced back problems for the remainder of his career. Before the start of the 1985–86 season, the Celtics made a daring trade for Bill Walton, an All-Star center with a history of injury. The risk paid off; Walton's acquisition helped Boston win a league best 67 games. One of Bird's career highlights occurred at the 1986 NBA All-Star Weekend when he walked into the locker room at the inaugural Three-Point Shootout and asked who was going to finish second before winning the shootout. On November 27, 1985, Bird recorded 47 points to go along with 12 rebounds, 2 assists and 2 steals in a 132–124 win over the Detroit Pistons. On March 10, 1986, Bird scored 50 points to go along with 11 rebounds and 5 assists in a 115–116 loss to the Dallas Mavericks. With averages of 25.8 points, 9.8 rebounds, and 6.8 assists, and 2 steals per game, Bird became just the third player in NBA history to win three consecutive MVP Awards. In the playoffs, the Celtics lost only one game through the first three rounds en route to a match-up against the Rockets in the Finals. In Game 6 of the Finals series, Bird recorded a triple-double of 29 points, 11 rebounds and 12 assists as the Celtics won the Finals series 4 games to 2 against the Rockets. Bird averaged 24 points, 9.7 rebounds, and 9.5 assists per game for the championship round. The '86 Celtics are commonly ranked as one of the greatest basketball teams of all-time, with the \"Boston Globe\"s Peter May and Grantland's Bill Simmons listing them at number one. In 1987, the Celtics made their last Finals appearance of Bird's career, fighting through difficult series against the Milwaukee Bucks and Detroit Pistons. In Game 5 of the Eastern Conference Finals against the Pistons, with five seconds remaining in the fourth quarter and Boston trailing the Pistons 107–106, Bird stole an inbound pass. Falling out of bounds, Bird turned and passed the ball to teammate Dennis Johnson, who converted a game-winning 2-point layup with less than a second left. The dramatic play saved the series for the Celtics. When they reached the NBA Finals, the Celtics—hampered by devastating injuries—lost to a dominant Lakers team which had won 65 games during the season. The Celtics ended up losing to the Lakers in six games, with Bird averaging 24.2 points on.445 shooting, 10 rebounds and 5.5 assists per game in the championship series. The Celtics would fall short in 1988 losing to the Detroit Pistons in 6 games in the Eastern Conference Finals as the Pistons made up from the heartbreak the previous season. Between them, Bird and Johnson captured eight NBA championships during the 1980s, with Magic getting five and Bird three. During the 1980s, either Boston or Los Angeles appeared in every NBA Finals. Throughout the 1980s, contests between the Celtics and the Lakers—both during the regular season and in the Finals—attracted enormous television audiences. The first regular season game between the Celtics and the Lakers in the 1987–88 season proved to be a classic with Magic Johnson banking in an off balance shot from near the three-point line at the buzzer for a 115–114 Lakers win at Boston Garden. The historical rift between the teams, which faced each other several times in championship series of the 1960s, fueled fan interest in the rivalry. Not since Bill Russell squared off against Wilt Chamberlain had professional basketball enjoyed such a marquee matchup. The apparent contrast between the two players and their respective teams seemed scripted for television: Bird, the introverted small-town hero with the blue-collar work ethic, fit perfectly with the throwback, hard-nosed style of the Celtics, while the stylish, gregarious Johnson ran the Lakers' fast-paced Showtime offense amidst the bright lights and celebrities of Los Angeles. A 1980s Converse commercial for its \"Weapon\" line of basketball shoes (endorsed by both Bird and Johnson) reflected the perceived dichotomy between the two players. In the commercial, Bird is practicing alone on a rural basketball court (in reality the court was one Bird had made on the property in French Lick that he had purchased for his mother), when Johnson pulls up in a sleek limousine and challenges him to a one-on-one match. Despite the intensity of their rivalry, Bird and Johnson became friends off the court. Their friendship blossomed when the two players worked together to film the Converse commercial, which depicted them as archenemies. Johnson appeared at Bird's retirement ceremony on February 4, 1993 and emotionally described Bird as a \"friend forever\".",
"The 1987–1988 season was the highest-scoring season of Bird's career. In Game 7 of the 1988 Eastern Conference semifinals against the Atlanta Hawks, Bird shot 9 of 10 from the floor in the fourth quarter, scoring 20 points in that quarter and lifting the Celtics to a series-clinching victory over Atlanta. Bird finished with 34 points. His effort helped to overcome a 47-point performance by Atlanta's Dominique Wilkins. Wilkins remarked, \"The basket was like a well. I couldn't miss. He couldn't miss. And it went down to the last shot of the game. Who was going to make the last shot? That's the greatest game I've ever played in or seen played.\" The Celtics failed to reach the NBA Finals for the first time in five years, losing to the Pistons in six games during the Eastern Conference Finals. Bird's 1988–89 season ended after six games when he had bone spurs surgically removed from both of his heels. He returned to the Celtics in 1989, but debilitating back problems and an aging Celtic roster prevented him from regaining his mid-1980s form. Nonetheless, during the final years of his career, Bird maintained his status as one of the premier players in the game. In his final three seasons with the Celtics, Bird averaged over 20 points, 9 rebounds and 7 assists per game, shot better than 45% from the field, and led the Celtics to playoff appearances. After leading the Celtics to a 29–5 start to the 1990–91 season, Bird missed 22 games due to a compressed nerve root in his back, a condition that would eventually lead to his retirement. He had off-season surgery to remove a disc from his back, but his back problems continued and he missed 37 games during the 1991–92 season. During the 1992 Eastern Conference semi-finals against the Cleveland Cavaliers, Bird missed four of the seven games due to recurring back problems. On August 18, 1992, Bird announced his retirement. Following Bird's departure, the Celtics promptly retired his jersey number 33.",
"In the summer of 1992, Bird joined Magic Johnson, Michael Jordan and other NBA stars to play for the United States basketball team in that year's Olympics in Barcelona, Spain. It was the first time in the United States' Olympic history that the country sent professional basketball players to compete. The \"Dream Team\" won the men's basketball gold medal. The Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame called the team \"the greatest collection of basketball talent on the planet\".",
"Bird was voted to the NBA's 50th Anniversary All-Time Team in 1996, was inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in 1998, and was inducted into the Hall of Fame again in 2010 as a member of the \"Dream Team\". In 1999, Bird ranked No. 30 on ESPN SportsCentury's list of. He played both the small forward and power forward positions. Bird has been described as one of the greatest basketball players and greatest shooters of all time. He was selected to 12 NBA All-Star teams. Bird won three NBA championships (in 1981, 1984, and 1986) with the Celtics and won two NBA Finals MVP Awards. Bird won three consecutive regular-season MVP awards; as of 2020, the only other players to accomplish this feat are Bill Russell and Wilt Chamberlain. Bird was also a four-time regular-season MVP runner-up in 1981, 1982, 1983, and 1988. Bird is also remembered as one of the foremost clutch performers in the history of the NBA; he was known for his excellent play in high-stakes, high-pressure situations. Bird scored 24.3 points per game in his career on a.496 field goal percentage, an.886 free throw percentage, and a 37.6 percentage on three-point shots. Bird had an average of 10.0 rebounds per game for his career and 6.3 assists. Bird was the first player in NBA history to shoot 50% or better on field goals, 40% on three-pointers, and 90% on free-throws in a single NBA season while achieving the league minimum for makes in each category. He accomplished this feat twice. Bird won NBA three-point-shooting contests in three consecutive years. He sometimes practiced shooting three-point shots with his eyes closed. Bird is also remembered as an excellent passer and defender. While he was relatively slow, Bird displayed a knack for anticipating the moves of his opponent, making him a strong team defender. He had 1,556 career steals. In recognition of his defensive abilities, Bird was named to three All-Defensive Second Teams. Bird was widely considered one of Red Auerbach's favorite players. He considered Bird to be the greatest basketball player of all time. Bird's humble roots were the source of his most frequently used moniker, \"The Hick from French Lick\". Bird was also referred to as \"The Great White Hope\" and \"Larry Legend\". Bird was known for his trash-talking on the court. At the 2019 NBA Awards, Bird received the NBA Lifetime Achievement Award (shared with Magic Johnson).",
"The Celtics employed Bird as a special assistant in the team's front office from 1992 until 1997. In 1997, Bird accepted the position of coach of the Indiana Pacers and said he would be on the job for no more than three years. Despite having no previous coaching experience, Bird led the Pacers to a 58–24 record—the franchise's best as an NBA team at the time—in the 1997–98 season, and pushed the Chicago Bulls to seven games in the Eastern Conference Finals. He was named the NBA Coach of the Year for his efforts. Bird then led the Pacers to consecutive Central Division titles in 1999 and 2000 and a berth in the 2000 NBA Finals. Bird resigned his head coaching position shortly after the end of the 2000 season, following through on his initial promise to coach for only three years. In 2003, Bird was hired as the Pacers' president of basketball operations. After the 2011–2012 NBA season, Bird was named NBA Executive of the Year, becoming the only man in NBA history to win the NBA MVP, Coach of the Year and Executive of the Year. On June 27, 2012, a day before the 2012 NBA draft, Bird and the Pacers announced that they would be parting ways; Bird said that health issues were among the reasons for his departure. Bird returned to the Pacers as president of basketball operations in 2013. He stepped down again in 2017, but stayed with the team in an advisory capacity.",
"As player: As coach: As executive:",
"In 1975, Bird married Janet Condra. They remained married for less than a year. Following an attempted reconciliation, Bird and Condra had a daughter, Corrie, in 1977. Bird married Dinah Mattingly in 1989. They have two adopted children, Conner and Mariah. | style=\"text-align:left;\"| | style=\"text-align:left;\"| 1980"
]
}
|
Charles Barkley
| null |
Charles Wade Barkley (born February 20, 1963) is an American former professional basketball player who is an analyst on "Inside the NBA". Nicknamed "Chuck", "Sir Charles" and "the Round Mound of Rebound", Barkley established himself as one of the National Basketball Association's most dominant power forwards. An All-American power forward at Auburn University, he was drafted as a junior by the Philadelphia 76ers with the 5th pick of the 1984 NBA draft.
| null |
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en-train-1086828
|
en-train-1086828
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1086828
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{
"title": [
"Early life.",
"College.",
"NBA career.",
"Philadelphia 76ers.",
"Phoenix Suns.",
"Houston Rockets.",
"Olympics.",
"Player profile.",
"Legacy.",
"NBA records.",
"Regular season.",
"Playoffs.",
"Post-basketball life.",
"Television analyst.",
"Gambling.",
"Politics.",
"Books.",
"Acting.",
"DUI conviction.",
"WeightWatchers.",
"Video games.",
"Personal life."
],
"section_level": [
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"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
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"content": [
"Barkley was born and raised in Leeds, Alabama, 10 miles outside Birmingham. He was the first black baby born at a segregated, all-white town hospital and was in the first group of black students at his elementary school. His parents divorced when he was a baby and his father abandoned the family. His mother remarried and had two more sons, Darryl and John Glenn, with his stepfather, who was killed in accident when Charles was 11 years old. He attended Leeds High School. As a",
"Barkley played collegiate basketball at Auburn for three seasons. Although he struggled to control his weight, he excelled as a player and led the SEC in rebounding each year. He became a popular crowd-pleaser, exciting the fans with dunks and blocked shots that belied his lack of height and overweight frame. It was not uncommon to see the hefty Barkley grab a defensive rebound and, instead of passing, dribble the entire length of the court and finish at the opposite end with a two-handed dunk. His physical size and skills ultimately earned him the nickname \"The Round Mound of Rebound\" and the \"Crisco Kid\". During his college career, Barkley played the center position, despite being shorter than the average center. His height, officially listed as, is stated as in his book, \"I May Be Wrong",
"",
"Barkley left before his final year at Auburn and made himself eligible for the 1984 NBA draft. He was selected with the fifth pick in the first round by the Philadelphia 76ers, two slots after the Chicago Bulls drafted Michael Jordan. He joined a veteran team that included Julius Erving, Moses Malone and Maurice Cheeks, players who took Philadelphia to the 1983 NBA championship. Under the tutelage of Malone, Barkley was able to manage his weight and learned to prepare and condition himself properly for a game. He averaged 14.0 points and 8.6 rebounds per game during the regular season and earned a berth on the All-Rookie Team. In the postseason, the Sixers advanced to the Eastern Conference Finals but were defeated in five games by the Boston Celtics. As a rookie in the postseason, Barkley averaged 14.9 points and 11.1 rebounds per game. During his second year, Barkley improved his game under the leadership of Moses Malone during the off-season with his workouts, in the process he became the team's leading rebounder and number two scorer, averaging 20.0 points and 12.8 rebounds per game. He became the Sixers' starting power forward and helped lead his team into the playoffs, averaging 25.0 points on.578 shooting from the field and 15.8 rebounds per game. Despite his efforts, Philadelphia was defeated 4–3 by the Milwaukee Bucks in the Eastern Conference Semi-finals. He was named to the All-NBA Second Team. Before the 1986–87 season, Moses Malone was traded to the Washington Bullets and Barkley began to assume control as the team leader. On November 4, 1986, Barkley recorded 34 points, 10 rebounds and a career-high 14 assists in a 121–125 loss to the Indiana Pacers. On March 20, 1987, Barkley recorded 26 points, 25 rebounds (career-high tying 16 offensive rebounds) and 9 assists in a 116–106 win over the Denver Nuggets. He earned his first and only rebounding title, averaging 14.6 rebounds per game and also led the league in offensive rebounds with 5.7 per game. He averaged 23.0 points on.594 shooting, earning his first trip to an NBA All-Star game and All-NBA Second Team honors for the second straight season. In the playoffs, Barkley averaged 24.6 points and 12.6 rebounds in a losing effort, for the second straight year, to the Bucks in a five-game first round playoff series. The following season, Julius Erving announced his retirement and Barkley became the Sixers' franchise player. On November 30, 1988, Barkley recorded 41 points, 22 rebounds, 5 assists and 6 steals in a 114–106 win over the Blazers. Playing in 80 games and getting 300 more minutes than his nearest teammate, Barkley had his most productive season, averaging 28.3 points on.587 shooting and 11.9 rebounds per game. He appeared",
"The trade to Phoenix in the 1992–93 season went well for both Barkley and the Suns. In his first game with the Suns, Barkley almost recorded a triple-double after racking up 37 points, 21 rebounds (12 of which were offensive rebounds) and 8 assists in a 111–105 victory over the Los Angeles Clippers. He averaged 25.6 points on.520 shooting, 12.2 rebounds and a career high 5.1 assists per game, leading the Suns to an NBA best 62–20 record. For his efforts, Barkley won the league's Most Valuable Player Award, and was selected to play in his seventh straight All-Star Game. He became the third player ever to win league MVP honors in the season immediately after being traded, established multiple career highs and led Phoenix to their first NBA Finals appearance since 1976. Despite Barkley's proclamation to Jordan, that it was \"destiny\" for the Suns to win the title, they were defeated in six games by the Chicago Bulls. He averaged 26.6 points and 13.6 rebounds per game during the whole postseason, including 27.3 points, 13.0 rebounds and 5.5 assists per game throughout the championship series. In the fourth game of the Finals, Barkley recorded a triple-double after collecting 32 points, 12 rebounds and 10 assists. As a result of severe back pains, Barkley began to speculate that the 1993–94 season would be his last in Phoenix. Playing through the worst injury problems of his career, Barkley managed 21.6 points on.495 shooting and 11.2 rebounds per game. He was selected to",
"The trade to the Houston Rockets in the 1996–97 season was Barkley's last chance at capturing an NBA championship title. He joined a veteran team that included two of the NBA's 50 Greatest Players, Hakeem Olajuwon and Clyde Drexler. To begin the season, Barkley was suspended for the season opener and fined $5,000 for fighting Charles Oakley during an October 25, 1996 preseason game. After Oakley committed a flagrant foul on Barkley, Barkley responded by shoving Oakley. In his first game with the Houston Rockets, Charles Barkley had a career-high 33 rebounds. He continued to battle injuries throughout the season and",
"Barkley was invited by Bob Knight to try out for United States men's basketball team for the 1984 Summer Olympics. He made it all the way to final cuts, but was not selected for the team, despite outplaying almost all of the front-court players there. According to Knight, Barkley was cut because of poor defense. Barkley competed in the 1992 and 1996 Olympic Games and won two gold medals as a member of the United States men's basketball team. International rules which had previously prevented NBA players from playing in the Olympics were changed in 1992, allowing Barkley and fellow NBA players to compete in the Olympics for the first time. The result was the \"Dream Team\",",
"Barkley played the power forward position, but occasionally played small forward and center. He was known for his unusual build as a basketball player, stockier than most small forwards, yet shorter than most power forwards he faced. However, Barkley was still capable of outplaying both taller and quicker opponents because of his unusual combination of strength and agility. Barkley was a prolific scorer who averaged 22.1 points-per-game during the regular season for his career and 23.0 points-per-game in the playoffs for his career. Barkley was an incredibly efficient offensive force, leading the NBA in 2-point field goal percentage every season from the 1986–87 season to the 1990–91 season. He led the league in effective field goal percentage in both the 1986–87 and 1987–88 seasons as well, and also led the league in offensive rating in both the 1988–89 and 1989–90 seasons. He was one of the NBA's most versatile players and accurate scorers capable of scoring from anywhere on the court and established himself as one of the NBA's premier clutch players. During his NBA career, Barkley was a constant mismatch because he possessed a set of very uncommon skills and could play in a variety of positions. He would use all facets of his game in a single play; as a scorer, he had the ability to score from the perimeter and the post, using an array of spin moves and fadeaways, or finishing a fast break with",
"During his 16-year NBA career, Barkley was regarded as one of the most controversial, outspoken and dominating players in the history of basketball. His impact on the sport went beyond his rebounding titles, assists, scoring and physical play. His confrontational mannerisms often led to technical fouls and fines on the court, and his larger than life persona sometimes gave rise to national controversy off of it, such as when he was featured in ads that rejected pro athletes as role models and declared, \"I am not a role model.\" Although his words often led to controversy, according to Barkley his mouth was never the cause because it always spoke the truth. He stated, \"I don't create controversies. They're there long before I open my mouth. I just bring them to your attention.\" Besides his on-court fights with other players, he has exhibited confrontational behavior off-court. He was arrested for breaking a man's nose during",
"",
"Most offensive rebounds in a half: 13, Philadelphia 76ers vs. New York",
"Most free throws made in a half: 19, Phoenix Suns vs. Seattle SuperSonics, Most free throw attempts in a 7-game series: 100, Philadelphia 76ers",
"",
"Since 2000, Barkley has served as a studio analyst for Turner Network Television (TNT). He appears on the network's NBA coverage during pre-game and halftime shows, in addition to special NBA events. He also occasionally works as an onsite game analyst. He is part of the crew on \"Inside the NBA\", a post-game show during which Barkley, Ernie Johnson Jr., Kenny Smith and Shaquille O'Neal recap and comment on NBA games that have occurred during the day and also on general NBA affairs. Barkley has won three Sports Emmy Awards for \"Outstanding Studio Analyst\" for his work on TNT. During the broadcast of a game, in which Barkley was courtside with Marv Albert, Barkley poked fun at NBA official Dick Bavetta's age. Albert replied to Barkley, \"I believe Dick would beat you in a footrace.\" In response to that remark, Barkley went on to challenge Bavetta to a race at the 2007 NBA All-Star Weekend for $5,000. The winner was to choose a charity to which the money would be donated. The NBA agreed to pitch",
"Barkley is known for his compulsive gambling. In a 2007 interview with ESPN's Trey Wingo, Barkley revealed that he had lost approximately $10 million through gambling. In addition, he also admitted to losing $2.5 million \"in a six-hour period\" while playing blackjack. Although Barkley openly admits to his problem, he claims it is not serious since he can afford to support the habit. When approached by fellow TNT broadcaster Ernie Johnson about the issue, Barkley replied, \"It's not a problem. If you're a drug addict or an alcoholic, those are problems. I gamble for too much money. As long as I can continue to do it I don't think it's a problem. Do I think it's a bad habit? Yes, I think it's a bad habit. Am I going to continue to do it? Yes, I'm going to",
"Barkley spoke for many years of his Republican Party affiliation. In 1995, he considered running as a Republican candidate for Alabama's governorship in the 1998 election. However, in 2006, he altered his political stance, stating \"I was a Republican until they lost their minds.\" At a July 2006 meeting of the Southern Regional Conference of the National School Boards Association in Destin, Florida, Barkley lent credence to the idea of running for Governor of Alabama, stating: I'm serious. I've got to get people to realize that the government is full of it. Republicans and Democrats want to argue over stuff that's not important, like gay marriage or the war in Iraq or illegal immigration... When I run—if I run—we're going to talk about real issues like improving our schools, cleaning up our neighborhoods of drugs and crime and making Alabama a better place for all people. In September 2006, Barkley once again reiterated his desire to run for governor. He noted, \"I can't run until 2014... I have to live there for seven years, so I'm looking for a house there as we speak.\" In July 2007, he made a video declaring his support for Barack Obama in the 2008 presidential election.",
"In 1991, Barkley and sportswriter Roy S. Johnson collaborated on the autobiographical work \"Outrageous\". Editorial choices made by Johnson in the book led to Barkley famously quipping that he had been misquoted in his own autobiography. In 2000, Barkley wrote the foreword for \"Sports Illustrated\" columnist Rick Reilly's book \"The Life of Reilly\". In it, Barkley quipped, \"Of all the people",
"He played himself in the 1996 film \"Space Jam\". He made a brief appearance in the TV series \"Suits\", in episode 3 of the fifth season. He also appeared in the eighth",
"On December 31, 2008, Barkley was pulled over in Scottsdale, Arizona, for initially running a stop sign. The officer smelled alcohol on Barkley's breath and proceeded to administer field sobriety tests, which he failed. He was arrested on drunk driving charges and had his vehicle impounded. Barkley refused to submit a breath test and was given a blood test. He was then cited and released. Gilbert police noted Barkley was cooperative and respectful during the entire incident, adding that he was treated no differently than anyone arrested on DUI charges. The police report of the incident stated that Barkley told police he was in a hurry to receive oral sex from his",
"In 2011, Barkley became a spokesman for WeightWatchers, promoting",
"Barkley has been featured in several video games. \"Barkley Shut Up and Jam!\" is a basketball video game which was developed by Accolade. It was released for the Super NES and the Sega Genesis/Mega Drive in 1994, and was followed up by a sequel for only the Genesis in 1995. An unofficial sequel to the initial game called \"\" was developed and published in 2008. The game was developed by Tales of Game's Studios and was a departure from the first game in that the game was a traditional style",
"Barkley married Maureen Blumhardt in 1989 and in the same year, the couple had a daughter together and named her Christiana. A DNA test read by George Lopez on \"Lopez Tonight\" revealed Barkley to be of 14% Native American, 11% European, and 75% African descent."
]
}
|
Augustus II the Strong
| null |
Augustus II the Strong (; ; ; 12 May 16701 February 1733), also known in Saxony as Frederick Augustus I, was Elector of Saxony from 1697, Imperial Vicar and elected King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania in the years 1697–1706 and from 1709 until his death in 1733. He was succeeded by his son, Augustus III of Poland.
| null |
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en-train-1466139
|
en-train-1466139
|
1466139
|
{
"title": [
"Early life.",
"Conversion to Catholicism.",
"King of Poland for the first time.",
"King of Poland for the second time.",
"Legacy.",
"Augustus II and the arts.",
"Meissen porcelain.",
"Order of the White Eagle.",
"Other.",
"Film.",
"Illegitimate issue."
],
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"1",
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"content": [
"Augustus was born in Dresden on 12 May 1670, the younger son of the Elector Johann Georg III and Anne Sophie of Denmark. As the second son, Augustus had no expectation of inheriting the electorate, since his older brother, Johann Georg IV, assumed the post after the death of their father on 12 September 1691. Augustus was well educated, and spent some years in travel and in fighting against France. Augustus married Kristiane Eberhardine of Brandenburg-Bayreuth in Bayreuth on 20 January 1693. They had a son, Frederick Augustus II (1696–1763), who succeeded his father as Elector of Saxony and King of Poland as Augustus III. While in Venice during the carnival season, his older brother, the Elector Johann Georg IV, contracted smallpox from his mistress Magdalena Sibylla of Neidschutz. On 27 April 1694, Johann Georg died without legitimate issue and Augustus became Elector of Saxony, as Friedrich Augustus I.",
"To be eligible for election to the throne of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1697, Augustus had to convert to Roman Catholicism. The Saxon dukes had traditionally been called \"champions of the Reformation\". Saxony had been a stronghold of German Protestantism and Augustus' conversion was therefore considered shocking in Protestant Europe. Although the prince-elector guaranteed Saxony's religious status quo, Augustus' conversion alienated many of his Protestant subjects. As a result of the enormous expenditure of money used to bribe the Polish nobility and clergy, Augustus' contemporaries derisively referred to the Saxon duke's royal ambitions as his \"Polish adventure\". His church policy within the Holy Roman Empire followed orthodox Lutheranism and ran counter to his new-found religious and absolutist convictions. The Protestant princes of the empire and the two remaining Protestant electors (of Hanover and Prussia) were anxious to keep Saxony well-integrated in their camp. According to the Peace of Augsburg, Augustus theoretically had the right to re-introduce Roman Catholicism (see \"Cuius regio, eius religio\"), or at least grant full religious freedom to his fellow Catholics in Saxony, but this never happened. Saxony remained Lutheran and the few Roman Catholics residing in Saxony lacked any political or civil rights. In 1717, it became clear just how awkward the situation was: to realize his ambitious dynastic plans in Poland and Germany, it was necessary for Augustus' heirs to become Roman Catholic. After five years as a convert, his son—the future Augustus III—publicly avowed his Roman Catholicism. The Saxon Estates were outraged and revolted as it became clear that his conversion to Catholicism was not only a matter of form, but of substance as well. Since the Peace of Westphalia, the Elector of Saxony had been the director of the Protestant body in the Reichstag. To placate the other Protestant states in the Empire, Augustus nominally delegated the directorship of the Protestant body to Johann Adolf II, Duke of Saxe-Weissenfels. However, when the Elector's son also converted to Catholicism, the Electorate faced a hereditary Catholic succession instead of a return to a Protestant Elector upon Augustus's death. When the conversion became public in 1717, Brandenburg-Prussia and Hanover attempted to oust Saxony from the directorship and appoint themselves as joint directors, but they gave up the attempt in 1720. Saxony would retain the directorship of the Protestant body in the Reichstag until the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, despite the fact that all remaining Electors of Saxony were Catholic. The wife of Augustus, the Electress Christiane Eberhardine, refused to follow her husband's example and remained a staunch Protestant. She did not attend her husband's coronation in Poland and led a rather quiet life outside Dresden, gaining some popularity for her stubbornness.",
"Following the death of Polish King John III Sobieski and having converted to Catholicism, Augustus won election as King of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1697 with the backing of Imperial Russia and Austria, which financed him through the banker Berend Lehmann. At the time, some questioned the legality of Augustus' elevation, since another candidate, François Louis, Prince of Conti, had received more votes. Each candidate, Conti and Augustus, was proclaimed as king by a different ecclesiastical authority: (the Primate Michal· Radziejowski proclaimed Conti and the bishop of Kujawy, Stanisław Dąmbski proclaimed Augustus, with Jacob Heinrich von Flemming swearing to the \"pacta conventa\" as Augustus's proxy). However, Augustus hurried to the Commonwealth with a Saxon army, while Conti stayed in France for two months. Although he had led the imperial troops against Turkey in 1695 and 1696 without very much success, Augustus continued the war of the Holy League against Turkey, and after a campaign in Moldavia, his Polish army eventually defeated the Tatar expedition in the Battle of Podhajce in 1698. This victory compelled the Ottoman Empire to sign the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699. Podolia and Kamieniec Podolski returned to Poland. An ambitious ruler, Augustus hoped to make the Polish throne hereditary within his family, and to use his resources as Elector of Saxony to impose some order on the chaotic Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. He was, however, soon distracted from his internal reform projects by the possibility of external conquest. He formed an alliance with Denmark's Frederick IV and Russia's Peter I to strip Sweden's young King Charles XII (Augustus' cousin) of his possessions. Poland's reward for participation in the Great Northern War was to have been the Swedish territory of Livonia. Charles proved an able military commander, however, quickly forcing the Danes out of the war and then driving back the Russians at Narva in 1700, thereby allowing him to focus on the struggle with Augustus. However, this war ultimately proved as disastrous for Sweden as for Poland. Charles defeated Augustus' army at Riga in July 1701, forcing the Polish-Saxon army to withdraw from Livonia, and followed this up with an invasion of Poland. He captured Warsaw on 14 May 1702, defeated the Polish-Saxon army again at the Battle of Kliszów (July 1702), and took Kraków. He defeated another of Augustus' armies under the command of Generalfeldmarschall Adam Heinrich von Steinau at the Battle of Pułtusk in spring 1703, and besieged and captured Toruń. By this time, Augustus was certainly ready for peace, but Charles felt that he would be more secure if he could establish someone with whom he had more influence on the Polish throne. In 1704 the Swedes installed Stanisław Leszczyński and tied the commonwealth to Sweden, which compelled Augustus to initiate military operations in Poland alongside Russia (an alliance was concluded in Narva in summer 1704). The resulting civil war in Poland (1704-1706) and the Grodno campaign (1705-1706) did not go well for Augustus. Following the Battle of Fraustadt, on 1 September 1706, Charles invaded Saxony, forcing Augustus to yield the Polish throne to Leszczyński by the Treaty of Altranstädt (October 1706). Meanwhile, Russia's Tsar Peter had reformed his army, and he dealt a crippling defeat to the Swedes at the Battle of Poltava (1709). This spelled the end of the Swedish Empire and the rise of the Russian Empire.",
"The weakened Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth soon came to be regarded as almost a protectorate of Russia. In 1709 Augustus II returned to the Polish throne under Russian auspices. Once again he attempted to establish an absolute monarchy in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, but was faced with opposition from the nobility (\"szlachta\", see Tarnogród Confederation). He was handicapped by the mutual jealousy of the Saxons and the Poles, and a struggle broke out in Poland which was only ended when the king promised to limit the number of his army in that country to 18,000 men. Peter the Great seized on the opportunity to pose as mediator, threatened the Commonwealth militarily, and in 1717 forced Augustus and the nobility to sign an accommodation favorable to Russian interests, at the Silent Sejm (\"Sejm Niemy\"). For the remainder of his reign, in an uneasy relationship, Augustus was more or less dependent on Russia (and to a lesser extent, on Austria) to maintain his throne. He gave up his dynastic ambitions and concentrated instead on attempts to strengthen the Commonwealth. Faced with both internal and foreign opposition, however, he achieved little. In 1729 he established the Grand Musketeers Company in Dresden, one of the oldest Polish officers' schools, which in 1730 was relocated to Warsaw. Augustus died at Warsaw in 1733. Although he had failed to make the Polish throne hereditary in his house, his eldest son, Frederick Augustus II of Saxony, did succeed him to the Polish throne as Augustus III of Poland—although he had to be installed by the Russian army in the War of the Polish Succession.",
"",
"Augustus is perhaps best remembered as a patron of the arts and architecture. He had beautiful palaces built in Dresden, a city that became renowned for extraordinary cultural brilliance. He introduced the first public museums, such as the Green Vault in 1723, and started systematic collection of paintings that are now on display in the Old Masters Gallery. From 1687 to 1689, Augustus toured France and Italy. The extravagant court in Versailles—perfectly tailored to fit the needs of an absolute monarch—impressed him deeply. In accordance with the spirit of the baroque age, Augustus invested heavily in the representative splendor of Dresden Castle, his major residence, to advertise his wealth and power. With strict building regulations, major urban development plans, and a certain feeling for art, the king began to transform Dresden into a renowned cultural center with one of Germany's finest art collections, though most of the city's famous sights and landmarks were completed during the reign of his son Augustus III. The most famous building started under Augustus the Strong was the Zwinger. Also known are Pillnitz Castle, his summer residence, Moritzburg Castle and Hubertusburg Castle, his hunting lodges. He greatly expanded the Saxon Palace in Warsaw with the adjacent Saxon Garden, which became the city's oldest public park and one of the first publicly accessible parks in the world. He also expanded the Wilanów Palace. He granted composer Johann Adolph Hasse the title of the Royal-Polish and Electoral-Saxon Kapellmeister in 1731. A man of pleasure, the king sponsored lavish court balls, Venetian-style \"balli in maschera\", and luxurious court gatherings, games, and garden festivities. His court acquired a reputation for extravagance throughout Europe. He held a famous animal-tossing contest in Dresden at which 647 foxes, 533 hares, 34 badgers and 21 wildcats were tossed and killed. Augustus himself participated, reportedly demonstrating his strength by holding the end of his sling by just one finger, with two of the strongest men in his court on the other end.",
"Augustus II successfully sponsored efforts to discover the secret of manufacturing porcelain. In 1701 he rescued the young alchemist Johann Friedrich Böttger, who had fled from the court of the king of Prussia, Frederick I, who had expected that he produce gold for him as he had boasted he could. Augustus imprisoned Böttger and tried to force him to reveal the secret of manufacturing gold. Böttger's transition from alchemist to potter was orchestrated as an attempt to avoid the impossible demands of the king. Being an alchemist by profession rather than a potter, gave Böttger an advantage. He realised that the current approaches, which involved mixing fine white substances like crushed egg shells into clay, would not work. Rather, his approach was to attempt to bake clay at higher temperatures than had ever before been attained in European kilns. That approach yielded the breakthrough that had eluded European potters for a century. By the king's decree, the Royal-Polish and Electoral-Saxon Porcelain Manufactory was established in Meissen in 1709. The manufacture of fine porcelain continues at the Meissen porcelain factory.",
"In November 1705 in Tykocin, Augustus founded the Order of the White Eagle, Poland's first and preeminent order of chivalry. In 1723 he bought the Großsedlitz estate near Dresden, and after expanding the palace and garden complex, in 1727 he organized there the first ever festivities of the Order of the White Eagle. In Warsaw, the Saxon Garden (Polish: \"Ogród Saski\") commemorates the role of Augustus II in expanding the city's public places.",
"Augustus II was called \"the Strong\" for his bear-like physical strength and for his numerous offspring (only one of them his legitimate child and heir). The most famous of the king's children born out of wedlock was Maurice de Saxe, a brilliant strategist who attained the highest military ranks in the kingdom of France. In the War of the Polish Succession he remained loyal to his employer Louis XV of France, who was married to the daughter of Augustus's rival Stanisław I Leszczyński. August was 1.76 meters (5’ 91⁄2”) tall, above average height for that time, but despite his extraordinary physical strength, he did not look big. In his final years he suffered from diabetes mellitus and became obese, at his death weighing some 110 kg (242 lbs). Augustus II's body was interred in the Wawel Cathedral in Kraków—all but his heart, which rests at the Dresden Cathedral.",
"In 1936 Augustus was the subject of a Polish-German film \"Augustus the Strong\" directed by Paul Wegener. Augustus was portrayed by the actor Michael Bohnen.",
"The Electress Christiane, who remained Protestant and refused to move to Poland with her husband, preferred to spend her time in the mansion in Pretzsch on the Elbe, where she died. Augustus, a voracious womanizer, never missed his wife, spending his time with a series of mistresses: Some contemporary sources, including Wilhelmine of Bayreuth, claimed that Augustus had as many as 365 or 382 children. The number is extremely difficult to verify. Perhaps the number refers not to the king's children but to the nights that he spent with his mistresses. Augustus officially recognised only a tiny fraction of that number as his bastards (the mothers of these \"chosen ones,\" with the possible exception of Fatima, were all aristocratic ladies):"
]
}
|
Prince Henry the Navigator
| null |
Infante Dom Henrique of Portugal, Duke of Viseu (4 March 1394 – 13 November 1460), better known as Prince Henry the Navigator (), was a central figure in the early days of the Portuguese Empire and in the 15th-century European maritime discoveries and maritime expansion. Through his administrative direction, he is regarded as the main initiator of what would be known as the Age of Discovery. Henry was the fourth child of the Portuguese king John I, who founded the House of Aviz.
| null |
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en-train-1154385
|
en-train-1154385
|
1154385
|
{
"title": [
"Life.",
"Resources and income.",
"Vila do Infante and Portuguese exploration.",
"Henry's explorations.",
"Madeira.",
"The Azores.",
"West African coast.",
"Origin of the \"Navigator\" nickname."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Henry was the third surviving son of King John I and his wife Philippa, sister of King Henry IV of England. He was baptized in Porto, and may have been born there, probably when the royal couple was living in the city's old mint, now called Casa do Infante (Prince's House), or in the region nearby. Another possibility is that he was born at the Monastery of Leça do Bailio, in Leça de Palmeira, during the same period of the royal couple's residence in the city of Porto. Henry was 21 when he and his father and brothers captured the Moorish port of Ceuta in northern Morocco. Ceuta had long been a base for Barbary pirates who raided the Portuguese coast, depopulating villages by capturing their inhabitants to be sold in the African slave trade. Following this success, Henry began to explore the coast of Africa, most of which was unknown to Europeans. His objectives included finding the source of the West African gold trade and the legendary Christian kingdom of Prester John, and stopping the pirate attacks on the Portuguese coast. At that time, the ships of the Mediterranean were too slow and too heavy to make these voyages. Under his direction, a new and much lighter ship was developed, the caravel, which could sail further and faster, and, above all, was highly maneuverable and could sail much nearer the wind, or \"into the wind\". This made the caravel largely independent of the prevailing winds. With the caravel, Portuguese mariners explored rivers and shallow waters as well as the open ocean with wide autonomy. In fact, the invention of the caravel was what made Portugal poised to take the lead in transoceanic exploration. In 1419, Henry's father appointed him governor of the province of the Algarve.",
"On 25 May 1420, Henry gained appointment as the Grand Master of the Military Order of Christ, the Portuguese successor to the Knights Templar, which had its headquarters at Tomar, in central Portugal. Henry held this position for the remainder of his life, and the Order was an important source of funds for Henry's ambitious plans, especially his persistent attempts to conquer the Canary Islands, which the Portuguese had claimed to have discovered before the year 1346. In 1425, his second brother the Infante Peter, Duke of Coimbra, made a tour of Europe. While largely a diplomatic mission, among his goals was to seek out geographic material for his brother Henry. Peter returned from Venice with a current world map drafted by a Venetian cartographer. In 1431, he donated houses for the \"Estudo Geral\" to reunite all the sciences—grammar, logic, rhetoric, arithmetic, music, and astronomy—into what would later become the University of Lisbon. For other subjects like medicine or philosophy, he ordered that each room should be decorated according to each subject that was being taught. Henry also had other resources. When John I died in 1433, Henry's eldest brother Edward of Portugal became king. He granted Henry all profits from trading within the areas he discovered as well as the sole right to authorize expeditions beyond Cape Bojador. Henry also held a monopoly on tuna fishing in the Algarve. When Edward died eight years later, Henry supported his brother Peter, Duke of Coimbra for the regency during the minority of Edward's son Afonso V, and in return received a confirmation of this levy. Henry functioned as a primary organizer of the disastrous expedition to Tangier in 1437. Henry's younger brother Ferdinand was given as a hostage to guarantee that the Portuguese would fulfill the terms of the peace agreement that had been made with Çala Ben Çala. The Portuguese Cortes refused to approve the return of Ceuta in exchange for the Infante Ferdinand who remained in captivity until his death six years later. Prince Regent Peter had an important role and responsibility in the Portuguese maritime expansion in the Atlantic Ocean and Africa during his administration. Henry promoted the colonization of the Azores during Peter's regency (1439–1448). For most of the latter part of his life, Henry concentrated on his maritime activities, or on Portuguese court politics.",
"According to João de Barros, in the Algarve he repopulated a village that he called Terçanabal (from \"terça nabal\" or \"tercena nabal\"). This village was situated in a strategic position for his maritime enterprises and was later called Vila do Infante (\"Estate or Town of the Prince\"). It is traditionally suggested that Henry gathered at his villa on the Sagres peninsula a school of navigators and map-makers. However modern historians hold this to be a misconception. He did employ some cartographers to chart the coast of Mauritania after the voyages he sent there, but there was no center of navigation science or observatory in the modern sense of the word, nor was there an organized navigational center. Referring to Sagres, sixteenth-century Portuguese mathematician and cosmographer Pedro Nunes remarked, \"from it our sailors went out well taught and provided with instruments and rules which all map makers and navigators should know.\" The view that Henry's court rapidly grew into the technological base for exploration, with a naval arsenal and an observatory, etc., although repeated in popular culture, has never been established. Henry did possess geographical curiosity, and employed cartographers. Jehuda Cresques, a noted cartographer, has been said to have accepted an invitation to come to Portugal to make maps for the infante. Prestage makes the argument that the presence of the latter at the Prince's court \"probably accounts for the legend of the School of Sagres, which is now discredited.\" The first contacts with the African slave market were made by expeditions to ransom Portuguese subjects enslaved by pirate attacks on Portuguese ships or villages. As Sir Peter Russell remarks in his biography, \"In Henryspeak, conversion and enslavement were interchangeable terms.\"",
"Henry sponsored voyages, collecting a 20% tax (\"o quinto\") on the profits made by naval expeditions, which was the usual practice in the Iberian states of that time. The nearby port of Lagos provided a convenient harbor from which these expeditions left. The voyages were made in very small ships, mostly the caravel, a light and maneuverable vessel. The caravel used the lateen sail, the prevailing rig in Christian Mediterranean navigation since late antiquity. Most of the voyages sent out by Henry consisted of one or two ships that navigated by following the coast, stopping at night to tie up along some shore. During Prince Henry's time and after, the Portuguese navigators discovered and perfected the North Atlantic \"Volta do Mar\" (the \"turn of the sea\" or \"return from the sea\"): the dependable pattern of trade winds blowing largely from the east near the equator and the returning westerlies in the mid-Atlantic. This was a major step in the history of navigation, when an understanding of oceanic wind patterns was crucial to Atlantic navigation, from Africa and the open ocean to Europe, and enabled the main route between the New World and Europe in the North Atlantic in future voyages of discovery. Although the lateen sail allowed sailing upwind to some extent, it was worth even major extensions of course to have a faster and calmer following wind for most of a journey. Portuguese mariners who sailed south and southwest towards the Canary Islands and West Africa would afterwards sail far to the northwest—that is, away from continental Portugal, and seemingly in the wrong direction—before turning northeast near the Azores islands and finally east to Europe in order to have largely following winds for their full journey. Christopher Columbus used this on his transatlantic voyages.",
"The first explorations followed not long after the capture of Ceuta in 1415. Henry was interested in locating the source of the caravans that brought gold to the city. During the reign of his father, John I, João Gonçalves Zarco and Tristão Vaz Teixeira were sent to explore along the African coast. Zarco, a knight in service to Prince Henry, had commanded the caravels guarding the coast of Algarve from the incursions of the Moors. He had also been at Ceuta. In 1418, Zarco and Teixeira were blown off-course by a storm while making the \"volta do mar\" westward swing to return to Portugal. They found shelter at an island they named Porto Santo. Henry directed that Porto Santo be colonized. The move to claim the Madeiran islands was probably a response to Castile's efforts to claim the Canary Islands. In 1420, settlers then moved to the nearby island of Madeira.",
"A chart drawn by the Catalan cartographer, Gabriel de Vallseca of Mallorca, has been interpreted to indicate that the Azores were first discovered by Diogo de Silves in 1427. In 1431, Gonçalo Velho was dispatched with orders to determine the location of \"islands\" first identified by de Silves. Velho apparently got as far as the Formigas, in the eastern archipelago, before having to return to Sagres, probably due to bad weather. By this time the Portuguese navigators had also reached the Sargasso Sea (western North Atlantic region), naming it after the \"Sargassum\" seaweed growing there (\"sargaço\" / \"sargasso\" in Portuguese).",
"Until Henry's time, Cape Bojador remained the most southerly point known to Europeans on the desert coast of Africa. Superstitious seafarers held that beyond the cape lay sea monsters and the edge of the world. In 1434, Gil Eanes, the commander of one of Henry's expeditions, became the first European known to pass Cape Bojador. Using the new ship type, the expeditions then pushed onwards. Nuno Tristão and Antão Gonçalves reached Cape Blanco in 1441. The Portuguese sighted the Bay of Arguin in 1443 and built an important fort there around the year 1448. Dinis Dias soon came across the Senegal River and rounded the peninsula of Cap-Vert in 1444. By this stage the explorers had passed the southern boundary of the desert, and from then on Henry had one of his wishes fulfilled: the Portuguese had circumvented the Muslim land-based trade routes across the western Sahara Desert, and slaves and gold began arriving in Portugal. This rerouting of trade devastated Algiers and Tunis, but made Portugal rich. By 1452, the influx of gold permitted the minting of Portugal's first gold \"cruzado\" coins. A cruzado was equal to 400 reis at the time. From 1444 to 1446, as many as forty vessels sailed from Lagos on Henry's behalf, and the first private mercantile expeditions began. Alvise Cadamosto explored the Atlantic coast of Africa and discovered several islands of the Cape Verde archipelago between 1455 and 1456. In his first voyage, which started on 22 March 1455, he visited the Madeira Islands and the Canary Islands. On the second voyage, in 1456, Cadamosto became the first European to reach the Cape Verde Islands. António Noli later claimed the credit. By 1462, the Portuguese had explored the coast of Africa as far as present-day Sierra Leone. Twenty-eight years later, Bartolomeu Dias proved that Africa could be circumnavigated when he reached the southern tip of the continent, now known as the Cape of Good Hope. In 1498, Vasco da Gama became the first European sailor to reach India by sea.",
"No one used the nickname \"Navigator\" to refer to prince Henry during his lifetime or in the following three centuries. The term was coined by two nineteenth-century German historians: Heinrich Schaefer and Gustave de Veer. Later on it was made popular by two British authors who included it in the titles of their biographies of the prince: Henry Major in 1868 and Raymond Beazley in 1895. In Portuguese, even in modern times, it is uncommon to call him by this epithet; the preferred use is \"Infante D. Henrique\"."
]
}
|
Iveta Bartošová
| null |
Iveta Bartošová (8 April 1966 – 29 April 2014) was a Czech singer, actress and celebrity, three-time best female vocalist in the music poll Zlatý slavík (1986, 1990 and 1991). She was also known for her turbulent lifestyle attracting the attention of the Czech tabloid media.
| null |
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en-train-1534444
|
en-train-1534444
|
1534444
|
{
"title": [
"Biography and career.",
"Death.",
"Bartošová and the tabloid media."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Bartošová was born in Čeladná and spent her childhood and adolescence in Frenštát pod Radhoštěm. She has an older brother Lumír and twin sister Ivana. She started her musical career in 1982, with the band \"Dianthus\". In 1983, she succeeded in a music competition held in Jihlava and met the singer Petr Sepéši, with whom she later collaborated and started a relationship. Sepéši died in a car accident in 1985. In the second half of the 1980s, she began collaborating with notable exponents of Czech pop music, such as František Janeček and Ladislav Štaidl, her life partner for many years. In 1987, she released her first solo album \"I.B.\", for which she received an award from her record label, Supraphon. In 1993, she starred in the comedy Svatba upírů. In 1996, she gave birth to a son. A year later, she appeared in her first musical production, Dracula. In the late 1990s, she released several successful albums, such as \"Ve jménu lásky\" and \"Bílý kámen\". With the start of the new millennium, her popularity decreased, partly due to scandals surrounding her personal life. In 2006, she announced a 'creative break'. She spent part of 2007 in a psychiatric hospital in Kroměříž, where she was treated for addiction to antidepressants and alcohol. In 2008, EMI released a 3–CD compilation of her greatest hits, called \"Platinum Collection\". In 2009, she won the TV poll in the TýTý Awards. Since October 2012, she appeared in a reality show about her life, broadcast by the tabloid TV channel \"Pětka\". She was hospitalized again in 2013, in Bohnice Psychiatric Hospital, in association with alcohol dependence. From 2008 to 2009, she was married to the actor and film producer, her second husband was Josef Rychtář (from 2013 to her death in 2014). She had one son, Artur, from her relationship with Ladislav Štaidl.",
"On 29 April 2014, she committed suicide by throwing herself under a train in Uhříněves, Prague. Some fellow musicians pointed out that the hunt of the tabloid media against the singer had its share of tragedy. \"Blame it on the media hyenas\", her husband commented shortly before he collapsed and was hospitalized.",
"Iveta Bartošová was one of the most-discussed personalities in the Czech tabloid media. According to the musical producer Oldřich Lichtenberg, she \"\"has become a victim of people who surrounded her and only try to profit from her\"\". On the other hand, the psychologist Jeroným Klimeš pointed out in the Slovak newspaper SME that Bartošová knowingly and voluntarily participated in the media circus concerning her personal life. \"\"She plays the story with all of us, however, she doesn't have the performance under control\"\", he said. In the article \"Milý národe, Iveta Bartošová není věc\" (Dear Nation, Iveta Bartošová Is Not a Thing), published by the newspaper Lidové noviny, journalist Tomáš Baldýnský noted that the Czech tabloid media changes a human being into a human 'thing' and compared the public attention to the Bartošová troubles to a vulture watching her dying with a grin. In 2013 Pavel Novotný, the chief editor of the website \"Extra.cz\" and a well known tabloid journalist, remarked \"\"Of course, we will kill her. But she's killing herself as well... It is a fact that we've parasitized her for years...\"\". Novotný stated that the public demand is so huge that even the people who don't read tabloids search and read articles about her: \"\"In such a case, there are no borders and we will parasitize her until the end and even half a year after that. It's hard and morally wrong but that's how it is.\"\" In July 2013, when she was hospitalized, 745,000 people (7% of the Czech population) watched the \"Night News\" special about her."
]
}
|
Quantum electrodynamics
| null |
In particle physics, quantum electrodynamics (QED) is the relativistic quantum field theory of electrodynamics. In essence, it describes how light and matter interact and is the first theory where full agreement between quantum mechanics and special relativity is achieved. QED mathematically describes all phenomena involving electrically charged particles interacting by means of exchange of photons and represents the quantum counterpart of classical electromagnetism giving a complete account of matter and light interaction.
| null |
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en-train-2225605
|
en-train-2225605
|
2225605
|
{
"title": [
"History.",
"Feynman's view of quantum electrodynamics.",
"Introduction.",
"Basic constructions.",
"Probability amplitudes.",
"Propagators.",
"Mass renormalization.",
"Conclusions.",
"Mathematical formulation.",
"Equations of motion.",
"Interaction picture.",
"Feynman diagrams.",
"Nonperturbative phenomena.",
"Renormalizability.",
"Nonconvergence of series."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The first formulation of a quantum theory describing radiation and matter interaction is attributed to British scientist Paul Dirac, who (during the 1920s) was able to compute the coefficient of spontaneous emission of an atom. Dirac described the quantization of the electromagnetic field as an ensemble of harmonic oscillators with the introduction of the concept of creation and annihilation operators of particles. In the following years, with contributions from Wolfgang Pauli, Eugene Wigner, Pascual Jordan, Werner Heisenberg and an elegant formulation of quantum electrodynamics due to Enrico Fermi, physicists came to believe that, in principle, it would be possible to perform any computation for any physical process involving photons and charged particles. However, further studies by Felix Bloch with Arnold Nordsieck, and Victor Weisskopf, in 1937 and 1939, revealed that such computations were reliable only at a first order of perturbation theory, a problem already pointed out by Robert Oppenheimer. At higher orders in the series infinities emerged, making such computations meaningless and casting serious doubts on the internal consistency of the theory itself. With no solution for this problem known at the time, it appeared that a fundamental incompatibility existed between special relativity and quantum mechanics. Difficulties with the theory increased through the end of the 1940s. Improvements in microwave technology made it possible to take more precise measurements of the shift of the levels of a hydrogen atom, now known as the Lamb shift and magnetic moment of the electron. These experiments exposed discrepancies which the theory was unable to explain. A first indication of a possible way out was given by Hans Bethe in 1947, after attending the Shelter Island Conference. While he was traveling by train from the conference to Schenectady he made the first non-relativistic computation of the shift of the lines of the hydrogen atom as measured by Lamb and Retherford. Despite the limitations of the computation, agreement was excellent. The idea was simply to attach infinities to corrections of mass and charge that were actually fixed to a finite value by experiments. In this way, the infinities get absorbed in those constants and yield a finite result in good agreement with experiments. This procedure was named renormalization. Based on Bethe's intuition and fundamental papers on the subject by Shin'ichirō Tomonaga, Julian Schwinger, Richard Feynman and Freeman Dyson, it was finally possible to get fully covariant formulations that were finite at any order in a perturbation series of quantum electrodynamics. Shin'ichirō Tomonaga, Julian Schwinger and Richard Feynman were jointly awarded with the 1965 Nobel Prize in Physics for their work in this area. Their contributions, and those of Freeman Dyson, were about covariant and gauge-invariant formulations of quantum electrodynamics that allow computations of observables at any order of perturbation theory. Feynman's mathematical technique, based on his diagrams, initially seemed very different from the field-theoretic, operator-based approach of Schwinger and Tomonaga, but Freeman Dyson later showed that the two approaches were equivalent. Renormalization, the need to attach a physical meaning at certain divergences appearing in the theory through integrals, has subsequently become one of the fundamental aspects of quantum field theory and has come to be seen as a criterion for a theory's general acceptability. Even though renormalization works very well in practice, Feynman was never entirely comfortable with its mathematical validity, even referring to renormalization as a \"shell game\" and \"hocus pocus\". QED has served as the model and template for all subsequent quantum field theories. One such subsequent theory is quantum chromodynamics, which began in the early 1960s and attained its present form in the 1970s work by H. David Politzer, Sidney Coleman, David Gross and Frank Wilczek. Building on the pioneering work of Schwinger, Gerald Guralnik, Dick Hagen, and Tom Kibble, Peter Higgs, Jeffrey Goldstone, and others, Sheldon Lee Glashow, Steven Weinberg and Abdus Salam independently showed how the weak nuclear force and quantum electrodynamics could be merged into a single electroweak force.",
"",
"Near the end of his life, Richard Feynman gave a series of lectures on QED intended for the lay public. These lectures were transcribed and published as Feynman (1985), \"\", a classic non-mathematical exposition of QED from the point of view articulated below. The key components of Feynman's presentation of QED are three basic actions. These actions are represented in the form of visual shorthand by the three basic elements of Feynman diagrams: a wavy line for the photon, a straight line for the electron and a junction of two straight lines and a wavy one for a vertex representing emission or absorption of a photon by an electron. These can all be seen in the adjacent diagram. As well as the visual shorthand for the actions Feynman introduces another kind of shorthand for the numerical quantities called probability amplitudes. The probability is the square of the absolute value of total probability amplitude, formula_1. If a photon moves from one place and time formula_2 to another place and time formula_3, the associated quantity is written in Feynman's shorthand as formula_4. The similar quantity for an electron moving from formula_5 to formula_6 is written formula_7. The quantity that tells us about the probability amplitude for the emission or absorption of a photon he calls \"j\". This is related to, but not the same as, the measured electron charge \"e\". QED is based on the assumption that complex interactions of many electrons and photons can be represented by fitting together a suitable collection of the above three building blocks and then using the probability amplitudes to calculate the probability of any such complex interaction. It turns out that the basic idea of QED can be communicated while assuming that the square of the total of the probability amplitudes mentioned above (\"P\"(\"A\" to \"B\"), \"E\"(\"C\" to \"D\") and \"j\") acts just like our everyday probability (a simplification made in Feynman's book). Later on, this will be corrected to include specifically quantum-style mathematics, following Feynman. The basic rules of probability amplitudes that will be used are:",
"Suppose, we start with one electron at a certain place and time (this place and time being given the arbitrary label \"A\") and a photon at another place and time (given the label \"B\"). A typical question from a physical standpoint is: \"What is the probability of finding an electron at \"C\" (another place and a later time) and a photon at \"D\" (yet another place and time)?\". The simplest process to achieve this end is for the electron to move from \"A\" to \"C\" (an elementary action) and for the photon to move from \"B\" to \"D\" (another elementary action). From a knowledge of the probability amplitudes of each of these sub-processes – \"E\"(\"A\" to \"C\") and \"P\"(\"B\" to \"D\") – we would expect to calculate the probability amplitude of both happening together by multiplying them, using rule b) above. This gives a simple estimated overall probability amplitude, which is squared to give an estimated probability. But there are other ways in which the end result could come about. The electron might move to a place and time \"E\", where it absorbs the photon; then move on before emitting another photon at \"F\"; then move on to \"C\", where it is detected, while the new photon moves on to \"D\". The probability of this complex process can again be calculated by knowing the probability amplitudes of each of the individual actions: three electron actions, two photon actions and two vertexes – one emission and one absorption. We would expect to find the total probability amplitude by multiplying the probability amplitudes of each of the actions, for any chosen positions of \"E\" and \"F\". We then, using rule a) above, have to add up all these probability amplitudes for all the alternatives for \"E\" and \"F\". (This is not elementary in practice and involves integration.) But there is another possibility, which is that the electron first moves to \"G\", where it emits a photon, which goes on to \"D\", while the electron moves on to \"H\", where it absorbs the first photon, before moving on to \"C\". Again, we can calculate the probability amplitude of these possibilities (for all points \"G\" and \"H\"). We then have a better estimation for the total probability amplitude by adding the probability amplitudes of these two possibilities to our original simple estimate. Incidentally, the name given to this process of a photon interacting with an electron in this way is Compton scattering. There is an \"infinite number\" of other intermediate processes in which more and more photons are absorbed and/or emitted. For each of these possibilities, there is a Feynman diagram describing it. This implies a complex computation for the resulting probability amplitudes, but provided it is the case that the more complicated the diagram, the less it contributes to the result, it is only a matter of time and effort to find as accurate an answer as one wants to the original question. This is the basic approach of QED. To calculate the probability of \"any\" interactive process between electrons and photons, it is a matter of first noting, with Feynman diagrams, all the possible ways in which the process can be constructed from the three basic elements. Each diagram involves some calculation involving definite rules to find the associated probability amplitude. That basic scaffolding remains when one moves to a quantum description, but some conceptual changes are needed. One is that whereas we might expect in our everyday life that there would be some constraints on the points to which a particle can move, that is \"not\" true in full quantum electrodynamics. There is a possibility of an electron at \"A\", or a photon at \"B\", moving as a basic action to \"any other place and time in the universe\". That includes places that could only be reached at speeds greater than that of light and also \"earlier times\". (An electron moving backwards in time can be viewed as a positron moving forward in time.)",
"Quantum mechanics introduces an important change in the way probabilities are computed. Probabilities are still represented by the usual real numbers we use for probabilities in our everyday world, but probabilities are computed as the square modulus of probability amplitudes, which are complex numbers. Feynman avoids exposing the reader to the mathematics of complex numbers by using a simple but accurate representation of them as arrows on a piece of paper or screen. (These must not be confused with the arrows of Feynman diagrams, which are simplified representations in two dimensions of a relationship between points in three dimensions of space and one of time.) The amplitude arrows are fundamental to the description of the world given by quantum theory. They are related to our everyday ideas of probability by the simple rule that the probability of an event is the \"square\" of the length of the corresponding amplitude arrow. So, for a given process, if two probability amplitudes, v and w, are involved, the probability of the process will be given either by or The rules as regards adding or multiplying, however, are the same as above. But where you would expect to add or multiply probabilities, instead you add or multiply probability amplitudes that now are complex numbers. Addition and multiplication are common operations in the theory of complex numbers and are given in the figures. The sum is found as follows. Let the start of the second arrow be at the end of the first. The sum is then a third arrow that goes directly from the beginning of the first to the end of the second. The product of two arrows is an arrow whose length is the product of the two lengths. The direction of the product is found by adding the angles that each of the two have been turned through relative to a reference direction: that gives the angle that the product is turned relative to the reference direction. That change, from probabilities to probability amplitudes, complicates the mathematics without changing the basic approach. But that change is still not quite enough because it fails to take into account the fact that both photons and electrons can be polarized, which is to say that their orientations in space and time have to be taken into account. Therefore, \"P\"(\"A\" to \"B\") consists of 16 complex numbers, or probability amplitude arrows. There are also some minor changes to do with the quantity \"j\", which may have to be rotated by a multiple of 90° for some polarizations, which is only of interest for the detailed bookkeeping. Associated with the fact that the electron can be polarized is another small necessary detail, which is connected with the fact that an electron is a fermion and obeys Fermi–Dirac statistics. The basic rule is that if we have the probability amplitude for a given complex process involving more than one electron, then when we include (as we always must) the complementary Feynman diagram in which we exchange two electron events, the resulting amplitude is the reverse – the negative – of the first. The simplest case would be two electrons starting at \"A\" and \"B\" ending at \"C\" and \"D\". The amplitude would be calculated as the \"difference\",, where we would expect, from our everyday idea of probabilities, that it would be a sum.",
"Finally, one has to compute \"P\"(\"A\" to \"B\") and \"E\"(\"C\" to \"D\") corresponding to the probability amplitudes for the photon and the electron respectively. These are essentially the solutions of the Dirac equation, which describe the behavior of the electron's probability amplitude and the Maxwell's equations, which describes the behavior of the photon's probability amplitude. These are called Feynman propagators. The translation to a notation commonly used in the standard literature is as follows: where a shorthand symbol such as formula_11 stands for the four real numbers that give the time and position in three dimensions of the point labeled \"A\".",
"A problem arose historically which held up progress for twenty years: although we start with the assumption of three basic \"simple\" actions, the rules of the game say that if we want to calculate the probability amplitude for an electron to get from \"A\" to \"B\", we must take into account \"all\" the possible ways: all possible Feynman diagrams with those endpoints. Thus there will be a way in which the electron travels to \"C\", emits a photon there and then absorbs it again at \"D\" before moving on to \"B\". Or it could do this kind of thing twice, or more. In short, we have a fractal-like situation in which if we look closely at a line, it breaks up into a collection of \"simple\" lines, each of which, if looked at closely, are in turn composed of \"simple\" lines, and so on \"ad infinitum\". This is a challenging situation to handle. If adding that detail only altered things slightly, then it would not have been too bad, but disaster struck when it was found that the simple correction mentioned above led to \"infinite\" probability amplitudes. In time this problem was \"fixed\" by the technique of renormalization. However, Feynman himself remained unhappy about it, calling it a \"dippy process\".",
"Within the above framework physicists were then able to calculate to a high degree of accuracy some of the properties of electrons, such as the anomalous magnetic dipole moment. However, as Feynman points out, it fails to explain why particles such as the electron have the masses they do. \"There is no theory that adequately explains these numbers. We use the numbers in all our theories, but we don't understand them – what they are, or where they come from. I believe that from a fundamental point of view, this is a very interesting and serious problem.\"",
"Mathematically, QED is an abelian gauge theory with the symmetry group U(1). The gauge field, which mediates the interaction between the charged spin-1/2 fields, is the electromagnetic field. The QED Lagrangian for a spin-1/2 field interacting with the electromagnetic field is given in natural units by the real part of where",
"Substituting the definition of \"D\" into the Lagrangian gives From this Lagrangian, the equations of motion for the \"ψ\" and \"A\" fields can be obtained. The derivatives of the Lagrangian concerning \"ψ\" are Inserting these into () results in with Hermitian conjugate Bringing the middle term to the right-hand side yields The left-hand side is like the original Dirac equation, and the right-hand side is the interaction with the electromagnetic field. the derivatives this time are Substituting back into () leads to Now, if we impose the Lorenz gauge condition the equations reduce to which is a wave equation for the four-potential, the QED version of the classical Maxwell equations in the Lorenz gauge. (The square represents the D'Alembert operator, formula_28.)",
"This theory can be straightforwardly quantized by treating bosonic and fermionic sectors as free. This permits us to build a set of asymptotic states that can be used to start computation of the probability amplitudes for different processes. In order to do so, we have to compute an evolution operator, which for a given initial state formula_29 will give a final state formula_30 in such a way to have This technique is also known as the S-matrix. The evolution operator is obtained in the interaction picture, where time evolution is given by the interaction Hamiltonian, which is the integral over space of the second term in the Lagrangian density given above: and so, one has where \"T\" is the time-ordering operator. This evolution operator only has meaning as a series, and what we get here is a perturbation series with the fine-structure constant as the development parameter. This series is called the Dyson series.",
"Despite the conceptual clarity of this Feynman approach to QED, almost no early textbooks follow him in their presentation. When performing calculations, it is much easier to work with the Fourier transforms of the propagators. Experimental tests of quantum electrodynamics are typically scattering experiments. In scattering theory, particles momenta rather than their positions are considered, and it is convenient to think of particles as being created or annihilated when they interact. Feynman diagrams then \"look\" the same, but the lines have different interpretations. The electron line represents an electron with a given energy and momentum, with a similar interpretation of the photon line. A vertex diagram represents the annihilation of one electron and the creation of another together with the absorption or creation of a photon, each having specified energies and momenta. Using Wick's theorem on the terms of the Dyson series, all the terms of the S-matrix for quantum electrodynamics can be computed through the technique of Feynman diagrams. In this case, rules for drawing are the following To these rules we must add a further one for closed loops that implies an integration on momenta formula_34, since these internal (\"virtual\") particles are not constrained to any specific energy–momentum, even that usually required by special relativity (see Propagator for details). From them, computations of probability amplitudes are straightforwardly given. An example is Compton scattering, with an electron and a photon undergoing elastic scattering. Feynman diagrams are in this case and so we are able to get the corresponding amplitude at the first order of a perturbation series for the S-matrix: from which we can compute the cross section for this scattering.",
"The predictive success of quantum electrodynamics largely rests on the use of perturbation theory, expressed in Feynman diagrams. However, quantum electrodynamics also leads to predictions beyond perturbation theory. In the presence of very strong electric fields, it predicts that electrons and positrons will be spontaneously produced, so causing the decay of the field. This process, called the Schwinger effect, cannot be understood in terms of any finite number of Feynman diagrams and hence is described as nonperturbative. Mathematically, it can be derived by a semiclassical approximation to the path integral of quantum electrodynamics.",
"Higher-order terms can be straightforwardly computed for the evolution operator, but these terms display diagrams containing the following simpler ones that, being closed loops, imply the presence of diverging integrals having no mathematical meaning. To overcome this difficulty, a technique called renormalization has been devised, producing finite results in very close agreement with experiments. A criterion for the theory being meaningful after renormalization is that the number of diverging diagrams is finite. In this case, the theory is said to be \"renormalizable\". The reason for this is that to get observables renormalized, one needs a finite number of constants to maintain the predictive value of the theory untouched. This is exactly the case of quantum electrodynamics displaying just three diverging diagrams. This procedure gives observables in very close agreement with experiment as seen e.g. for electron gyromagnetic ratio. Renormalizability has become an essential criterion for a quantum field theory to be considered as a viable one. All the theories describing fundamental interactions, except gravitation, whose quantum counterpart is only conjectural and presently under very active research, are renormalizable theories.",
"An argument by Freeman Dyson shows that the radius of convergence of the perturbation series in QED is zero. The basic argument goes as follows: if the coupling constant were negative, this would be equivalent to the Coulomb force constant being negative. This would \"reverse\" the electromagnetic interaction so that \"like\" charges would \"attract\" and \"unlike\" charges would \"repel\". This would render the vacuum unstable against decay into a cluster of electrons on one side of the universe and a cluster of positrons on the other side of the universe. Because the theory is \"sick\" for any negative value of the coupling constant, the series does not converge but are at best an asymptotic series. From a modern perspective, we say that QED is not well defined as a quantum field theory to arbitrarily high energy. The coupling constant runs to infinity at finite energy, signalling a Landau pole. The problem is essentially that QED appears to suffer from quantum triviality issues. This is one of the motivations for embedding QED within a Grand Unified Theory."
]
}
|
Richard Chamberlain
| null |
George Richard Chamberlain (born March 31, 1934) is an American actor and singer, who became a teen idol in the title role of the television show "Dr. Kildare" (1961–1966). He subsequently appeared in several TV mini-series, such as "Shōgun" (1980) and "The Thorn Birds" (1983) and was the first to play Jason Bourne in the 1988 made-for-TV movie "The Bourne Identity". Chamberlain has also performed classical stage roles and worked in musical theatre.
| null |
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en-train-1884769
|
en-train-1884769
|
1884769
|
{
"title": [
"Early life.",
"Career.",
"Since 1990.",
"Personal life.",
"Honors and awards.",
"Discography."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Chamberlain was born in 1934 in Beverly Hills, California, the son of Elsa Winnifred (née von Benzon; later Matthews) and Charles Axiom Chamberlain, who was a salesman. In 1952, Chamberlain graduated from Beverly Hills High School and later attended Pomona College (class of 1956).",
"Chamberlain co-founded a Los Angeles–based theatre group, Company of Angels, and began appearing in television series in the 1950s. He was cast as Lt. Dave Winslow in \"Chicota Landing\", a 1960 episode of the series \"Riverboat\". In the story, Juan Cortilla, a Mexican bandit played by Joe De Santis, is stormed from jail. Chamberlain, as United States Army Lieutenant Winslow, asks Grey Holden (lead series character played by Darren McGavin) to transport Cortilla and his men to a military garrison. Instead, Cortilla takes over Holden's vessel and its gunpowder. Connie Hines appears with Chamberlain as Lucy Bridges, and Ted de Corsia is cast as another bandit. Less than a year later, in 1961, Chamberlain gained widespread fame as the young intern, Dr. Kildare, in the NBC/MGM television series of the same name, co-starring with Raymond Massey. Chamberlain's singing ability also led to some hit singles in the early 1960s, including the \"Theme from Dr. Kildare\", titled \"Three Stars Will Shine Tonight\", which struck No. 10 according to the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 Charts. \"Dr. Kildare\" ended in 1966, after which Chamberlain began performing on the theatre circuit. In 1966, he was cast opposite Mary Tyler Moore in the ill-fated Broadway musical \"Breakfast at Tiffany's\", co-starring Priscilla Lopez, which, after an out-of-town tryout period, closed after only four previews. Decades later, he returned to Broadway in revivals of \"My Fair Lady\" and \"The Sound of Music\". At the end of the 1960s, Chamberlain spent a period of time in England where he played in repertory theatre and in the BBC's \"Portrait of a Lady\" adaptation, becoming recognized as a serious actor. In 1969, he starred opposite Katharine Hepburn in the film \"The Madwoman of Chaillot\". While in England, he took vocal coaching and in 1969 performed the title role in \"Hamlet\" for the Birmingham Repertory Theatre, becoming the first American to play the role there since John Barrymore in 1925. He received excellent notices and reprised the role for television in 1970 for the \"Hallmark Hall of Fame\". In the 1970s, Chamberlain enjoyed success as a leading man in films: \"The Music Lovers\" (1970), \"Lady Caroline Lamb\" (playing Lord Byron; 1973), \"The Three Musketeers\" (1973), \"The Lady's Not for Burning\" (1974), \"The Towering Inferno\" (in a villainous turn as a dishonest engineer, 1974), and \"The Count of Monte Cristo\" (1975). In \"The Slipper and the Rose\" (1976), a musical version of the Cinderella story, co-starring Gemma Craven, he displayed his vocal talents. A television film, William Bast's \"The Man in the Iron Mask\" (1977), followed. The same year, he starred in Peter Weir's film \"The Last Wave\". Chamberlain later appeared in several popular television mini-series (earning him a nickname of \"King of the Mini-Series\"), including \"Centennial\" (1978–79), \"Shōgun\" (1980), and \"The Thorn Birds\" (1983) as Father Ralph de Bricassart with Rachel Ward and Barbara Stanwyck co-starring. In the 1980s, he appeared as leading man with \"King Solomon's Mines\" (1985), and played Jason Bourne/David Webb in the television film version of \"The Bourne Identity\" (1988).",
"Since the 1990s, Chamberlain has appeared mainly in television movies, on stage, and as a guest star on such series as \"The Drew Carey Show\" and \"Will & Grace\". He starred as Henry Higgins in the 1993–1994 Broadway revival of \"My Fair Lady\". In the fall of 2005, Chamberlain appeared in the title role of Ebenezer Scrooge in the Broadway National Tour of \"Scrooge: The Musical\". In 2006, Chamberlain guest-starred in an episode of the British drama series \"Hustle\" as well as season 4 of \"Nip/Tuck\". In 2007, Chamberlain guest-starred in episode 80 (Season 4, Episode 8, \"Distant Past\") of \"Desperate Housewives\" as Glen Wingfield, Lynette Scavo's stepfather. In 2008 and 2009, he appeared as King Arthur in the national tour of Monty Python's \"Spamalot\". In 2010, he appeared as Archie Leach in season 3, episode 3 of the series \"Leverage\", as well as two episodes of season 4 of \"Chuck\" where he played a villain known only as The Belgian. Chamberlain has also appeared in several episodes of \"Brothers & Sisters\", playing an old friend and love-interest of Saul's. He also appeared in the independent film \"We Are the Hartmans\" in 2011. In 2012, Chamberlain appeared on stage in the Pasadena Playhouse as Dr. Sloper in the play \"The Heiress\".",
"Chamberlain was outed as a gay man at the age of 55 by the French women's magazine \"Nous Deux\" in December 1989, but it was not until 2003 that he confirmed his homosexuality in his autobiography \"Shattered Love: A Memoir\". Chamberlain was involved romantically with television actor Wesley Eure in the early 1970s. In 1977, at the age of 43, he met actor-writer-producer Martin Rabbett, 20 years his junior, with whom he began a long-term relationship. This led to a civil union in the state of Hawaii, where the couple resided from 1986 to 2010 and during which time Chamberlain legally adopted Rabbett to protect his future estate. Rabbett and Chamberlain starred together in \"Allan Quatermain and the Lost City of Gold\", in which they played brothers Allan and Robeson Quatermain. In spring 2010, Chamberlain returned to Los Angeles to pursue career opportunities, with Rabbett staying in Hawaii. At the same time, Chamberlain put his oceanfront Maui home on the market; the property selling in 2011. In a 2014 interview in \"The New York Times\", Chamberlain said Rabbett and he \"don't live together anymore, and we're much better friends than we've ever been.”",
"In 1962, Chamberlain won the Golden Apple Award for Most Co-Operative Actor. In 1963 he won a Golden Globe award for Best TV Star – Male for: \"Dr. Kildare\" (1961). He won the Photoplay Award for Most Popular Male Star for three consecutive years, from 1962 to 1964. In 1980, he won the Golden Apple award for Male Star of the Year. In 1981, he won a Golden Globe award for Best Performance by an Actor in a TV-Series – Drama for: \"Shogun\" (1980). In 1982, he won the Clavell de Plata award at the Sitges – Catalan International Film Festival as Best Actor for \"The Last Wave\" (1977). In 1984, he won a Golden Globe award for Best Performance by an Actor in a Mini-Series or Motion Picture Made for TV for: \"The Thorn Birds\" (1983). In 1985, he won the Aftonbladet TV Prize (Sweden) for Best Foreign TV Personality – Male. On March 12, 2011, Chamberlain received the Steiger Award (Germany) for accomplishments in the arts.",
"From \"Richard Chamberlain Sings\": UK #8"
]
}
|
Bridge of Weir
| null |
Bridge of Weir () is a village within the Renfrewshire council area and wider historic county of Renfrewshire in the west central Lowlands of Scotland. Lying within the Gryffe Valley and providing a crossing point for the River Gryffe, the village today serves largely as a dormitory settlement for nearby Glasgow and Paisley although it maintains a commercial centre of its own and some light industry.
| null |
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en-train-7528
|
en-train-7528
|
7528
|
{
"title": [
"History.",
"Economy.",
"Leather.",
"Governance.",
"Culture and community.",
"Recreation."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"2"
],
"content": [
"Bridge of Weir was historically an area divided between the parishes of neighbouring Houston and Killellan and Kilbarchan on either side of the River Gryffe. Growing out of the lands of the 15th century Ranfurly Castle, mainly occupied by small farms, the name 'Bridge of Weir' is first recorded in the early 18th century before any village was built. The 'weir' is a reference to a salmon weir which used to be located on the Gryffe. An older name provided for the village is 'Port o'Weir', implying a river crossing; this name remained in some use even after the Bridge of Weir name had been adopted. The bridge at Bridge of Weir was constructed at Burngill c.1770 and was considerably upgraded and widened in 1892 to allow for two-way traffic. It was finally demolished in 1964, with a more modern structure created. The bridge owes its construction to being on the route between the significant towns of Greenock and Paisley, with a Great Road constructed between the two in 1794. Also significant to the infrastructure of the emerging settlement was the construction of the Glasgow, Paisley and Ardrossan canal which, despite its name, was only constructed up to nearby Johnstone. The Johnstone to Bridge of Weir railway route was formalised on the 20 June 1864 and the Bridge of Weir railway station built. The line extended to Kilmacolm and onwards in 1869. This railway substantially altered the character of the village and contributed to its forthcoming affluence. The railway closed on 10 January 1983 and now forms part of the Clyde to Forth cycle route (National Cycle Route 75). The first semblances of the village came to be with the rise of the West of Scotland cotton industry. From around 1793 the river Gryffe was being used to power numerous cotton spinning and blanket making mills. The most significant industry to emerge in the village was leather. At its productivity peak the small village supported three tanneries. The leather industry survives to this day, now on a single site, in the form of a highly successful, modern facility with five Queen's Awards for International Business.",
"Bridge of Weir is surrounded by agricultural lands, with traditional industries being cotton milling and leather tanning. The earliest cotton mills were built in the late 18th and early 19th centuries on the banks on the River Gryffe. Today, the town's golf courses and fishing attract visitors and there the village has a commercial centre with retail stores, restaurants and public houses.",
"From the 18th century, the waulking mill was used in the production of leather with the Burngill Mill having been recorded in 1770. It was purchased by Andrew Muirhead in 1870 whose family had been in the leather industry in Glasgow for several generations. In 1905, Arthur Muirhead set up a further leather mill at the Laigh Mill (renamed the Clydesdale Works) and founded the Bridge of Weir Leather Company. Despite having several premises in the past, since the beginning of the 21st century, the company's business has been consolidated at the Lochar and Baltic Works. The leather works continue to serve as a large employer in the area and trade their goods across the world. Some notable customers include:",
"Bridge of Weir is part of the council area of Renfrewshire, as well the historic county of Renfrewshire which has wider boundaries and retains some official functions, for example as a registration county and lieutenancy area. For elections to Renfrewshire Council, Bridge of Weir is part of ward 10, named 'Bishopton, Bridge of Weir and Langbank', which elects three of Renfrewshire's forty councillors. The ward results in the most recent election are: Bridge of Weir also has one of Renfrewshire's twenty-seven community councils representing the village.",
"",
"Bisected by the River Gryffe, angling is available within the village. The river hosts brown trout, grayling and occasionally Atlantic salmon. Numerous outdoor pursuits are available at the nearby Clyde Muirshiel Regional Park. National Cycle Route 75 runs through the village. The village is also known for its golf history. At one point there were five golf courses in the vicinity; today there are two remaining: the Old Course Ranfurly and the Ranfurly Castle golf clubs. There was a thriving ice hockey team from around 1895 and in 1935 were Scottish National League Champions."
]
}
|
Henry Bessemer
| null |
The shallot is a type of onion, specifically a botanical variety of the species "Allium cepa". The shallot was formerly classified as a separate species, "A. ascalonicum", a name now considered a synonym of the currently accepted name.
| null |
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en-train-1398989
|
en-train-1398989
|
1398989
|
{
"title": [
"Names.",
"Description and cultivation.",
"Culinary uses.",
"Europe.",
"Asia."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2"
],
"content": [
"Shallots probably originated in Central or Southwest Asia, travelling from there to India and the eastern Mediterranean. The name \"shallot\" comes from Ashkelon, an ancient Canaanite city, where people in classical Greek times believed shallots originated. The name \"shallot\" is also used for the Persian shallot \"(A. stipitatum)\", from the Zagros Mountains in Iran and Iraq. The term \"shallot\" is further used for the French red shallot (\"Allium cepa\" var. \"aggregatum\", or the \"A. cepa\" Aggregatum Group) and the French gray shallot or griselle (\"Allium oschaninii\"), a species referred to as \"true shallot\"; it grows wild from Central to Southwest Asia. The name \"shallot\" is also used for a scallion in New South Wales, Australia and among English-speaking people in Quebec while the term \"French shallot\" refers to the plant referred to on this page. Anglophone Quebecers and British English speakers stress the second syllable of \"shallot\", as \"shall-OH\" and \"shall-OT\" respectively (Australians and New Zealanders also say \"shall-OT\"), while other varieties of English pronounce it as \"SHALL-ət\". The term \"eschalot\", derived from the French word \"échalote\", can also be used to refer to the shallot.",
"Like garlic, shallots are formed in clusters of offsets with a head composed of multiple cloves. The skin colour of shallots can vary from golden brown to gray to rose red, and their off-white flesh is usually tinged with green or magenta. Shallots are extensively cultivated for culinary uses, propagated by offsets. In some regions (\"long-season areas\"), the offsets are usually planted in autumn (September or October in the Northern Hemisphere). In some other regions, the suggested planting time for the principal crop is early spring (typically in February or the beginning of March in the Northern Hemisphere). In planting, the tops of the bulbs should be kept a little above ground, and the soil surrounding the bulbs is often drawn away when the roots have taken hold. They come to maturity in summer, although fresh shallots can now be found year-round in supermarkets. Shallots should not be planted on ground recently manured. Shallots suffer damage from leek moth larvae, which mine into the leaves or bulbs of the plant.",
"Shallots are used in cooking. They may be pickled. Finely-sliced deep-fried shallots are used as a condiment in Asian cuisine, often served with porridge. As a species of \"Allium\", shallots taste somewhat like a common onion, but have a milder flavor. Like onions, when sliced, raw shallots release substances that irritate the human eye, resulting in production of tears. Fresh shallots can be stored in cool, dry area (0 to 4 °C, 32 to 40 °F, 60 to 70% RH) for six months or longer. Chopped, dried shallots are available.",
"In Europe, the Pikant, Atlas, and Ed's Red types of shallots are the most common. In parts of southern France, the grey type is grown widely.",
"Shallots are the traditional choice for many dishes in Sri Lankan cuisine, including pol sambola, lunu miris and many meat, fish and vegetable dishes. In most Indian cuisines, the distinction between onions and shallots is weak; larger varieties of shallot are sometimes confused with small red onions and used interchangeably. Indeed, most parts of India use the regional name for onion interchangeably with shallot (Maharashtra, for instance, where both are called \"kanda\"). The southern regions of India distinguish shallots from onions in recipes more often, especially the much loved tiny varieties (about the width of a finger); these are widely used in curries and different types of \"sambar\", a lentil-based dish. Shallots pickled in red vinegar are common in many Indian restaurants, served along with sauces and papad on the condiments tray. Indians also use it as a home remedy for sore throats, mixed with jaggery or sugar. In Nepal, shallots are used as one of the ingredients for making \"momo\". In Kashmir shallots are widely used in preparation of Wazwan Kashmiri cuisine, as they add distinct flavor and prevent curry from becoming black, which is common with onions. In Iran shallots are used in various ways, the most common being grated shallot mixed into dense yogurt, a combination served in almost every restaurant when one orders grills or kebabs. Shallots are also used to make different types of \"torshi\" (ترشی), a sour Iranian side dish consisting of a variety of vegetables under vinegar, eaten with main dishes in small quantities. Shallot is also pickled—called \"shour\" (شور) in Persian—along with other vegetables to be served as \"torshi\". In Southeast Asian cuisines, such as those of Indonesia, Vietnam, Thailand, Cambodia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Brunei, both shallots and garlic are often used as elementary spices. Raw shallots can also accompany cucumbers when pickled in mild vinegar solution. They are also often chopped finely, then fried until golden brown, resulting in tiny crispy shallot chips called \"bawang goreng\" (fried shallots) in Indonesian, which can be bought ready-made from groceries and supermarkets. Shallots enhance the flavor of many Southeast Asian dishes, such as fried rice variants. Crispy shallot chips are also used in southern Chinese cuisine. In Indonesia, shallots are sometimes made into pickles that are added to several traditional foods; the pickles' sourness is thought to increase the appetite. The tubular green leaves of the plant can also be eaten and are very similar to the leaves of spring onions and chives."
]
}
|
Zaporizhia Oblast
| null |
Zaporizhia Oblast (, Bulgarian Запорожка област, translit. "Zaporiz'ka oblast’"); also referred to as Zaporizhia (), is an oblast (province) of southern Ukraine. Its capital is Zaporizhia. The oblast covers an area of, and its population was.
| null |
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en-train-716018
|
en-train-716018
|
716018
|
{
"title": [
"Geography.",
"History.",
"Points of interest.",
"Subdivisions.",
"Demographics.",
"Education."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The area of the oblast is 27,183 km2; its population (estimated as of 1 January 2013) was 1,785,243. Important cities include:",
"The area corresponding approximately to the modern Zaporizhia Oblast - according to Herodotus - was called in the antiquity as the land of Gerrhos. This area was the burial place of \"royal Scythians\" where they buried their kings. The modern Zaporizhia Oblast was created as part of the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic on 10 January 1939 out of the Dnipropetrovsk Oblast. During the 1991 referendum, 90.66% of votes in the oblast were in favor of the Declaration of Independence of Ukraine. The SBU thwarted an attempt to blow up a railway line in the Zaporizhia Oblast, and found that the suspects were carrying maps and explosives on 8 July 2014. A survey conducted in December 2014 by the Kyiv International Institute of Sociology found 2.1% of the oblast's population supported their region joining Russia, 80.7% did not support the idea, and the rest were undecided or did not respond.",
"The following sites were nominated for the Seven Wonders of Ukraine.",
"The Zaporizhia Oblast is administratively subdivided into 20 raions (districts) as well as 5 cities (municipalities) which are directly subordinate to the oblast government: Berdiansk, Enerhodar, Melitopol, Tokmak, and the administrative center of the oblast, Zaporizhia.",
"According to the 2001 Ukrainian Census the population of the oblast was 1,929,171. Some 70.8% considered themselves Ukrainians, while 24.7% were Russians, the rest were of assorted nationalities including Bulgarians (1.4%), Belarusians (0.7%), and others (1.6%). Just under half the population (48.2%) considered the Russian language to be their native tongue, while a majority (50.2%) considered the Ukrainian language to be their native tongue.",
"679 daytime and 11 evening state schools plus 6 daytime schools that are non-budget supported secondary schools involved 271400 pupils in 2001. 22 classical schools, 8 Lyceums, a Sichovy Collegium and 54 education-breeding complex bodies aren't out of reach to gifted children. New style 38 complex kindergarten-schools work too. Over 60,000 children develop their talents through out-of-school institutions. They attend 30 creative centres, 6 science-technical stations and four young naturalists stations, five tourists clubs, three training flotillas, 11 children's sport clubs and 20 sport schools. Extra-scholastic education system has such a unique body as the Small Academy of Science. Boys and girls work there in six main disciplines: physics-mathematics, chemistry-biology, history-geography, philology, industrial and information technologies. The Small Academy young members maintain close friendship relations with scientists of big institutes and universities. 26 youngsters became winners of the All-Ukrainian Academy contest, so Zaporizhia regional team gained the 1st place. 325 secondary schools, five classical schools, a Collegium and three complex-schools use the Ukrainian language. Nevertheless, the minorities have a free choice — 193 schools are Russian, a large Jewish school «Alef» works in Zaporizhia and smaller ones exist in other points, a Ukrainian-Bulgarian Lyceum is in Primorsky district. The Greek, Czech, Bulgarian languages are very popular in Yakimivsky, Berdyansky, Priazovsky and Melitopole rural districts. One may learn Hebrew, Yiddish, German, Polish, Tatar and other languages attending option courses anywhere. Specialists keep on looking for an adaptive school model. 26 institutions develop the humanization process using new teaching technologies. The Khortitsky multi-profile teaching-rehabilitation centre has worked out methods for complete support of sanatorium-boarding-schools' children. Berdyansk is the town where a Regional boarding school for orphans works out active socialization programs. 42 institutions provide vocational education. This system distribute well-trained workers to regional industry and business. The list of specialities includes over 100 names. Vocational schools give courses for improving qualification in cooperation with unemployment centres. More than 1500 jobless persons get new professions every year due it. The higher education system is the most flexible and advanced. Today 25 state-controlled technical colleges have I-II class rank and 8 higher institutions have III-IV class certificates. These are University and the Zaporizhia politehnika, the Medical University and the Institute of Law with Ministry of Internal Affairs in Zaporizhia City, the Pedagogical University, the Agricultural Academy in Melitopole and the Pedagogical Institute in Berdyansk. There are also five higher education private bodies — the Institute of Economics and Information Technologies, the State and Municipal Government Institute and the others. Over 65000 people are the students in this region. There are 212 Doctors of Science and 1420 Candidates of Science among their lecturers. Zaporizhia City is one of the biggest centres for foreigners' education in Ukraine. The International Astronomical Union named two minor planets «Khadzhinov» and «Vikchemov» in honour of our countrymen who made a significant contribution in science and education."
]
}
|
Berdyansk
| null |
Berdyansk or Berdiansk (, ) is a port city in the Zaporizhia Oblast (province) of south-east Ukraine. It is on the northern coast of the Sea of Azov, which is the northern extension of the Black Sea. It serves as an administrative center of Berdiansk Raion (district), though it does not belong to the raion. The city is named after the river Berda forming Berdyanska spit at the foot of which it is located. Berdyansk is a very attractive place, home to a safari zoo, water park, museums, health resorts with mud baths and climatic treatments, and numerous water sport activities.
| null |
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en-train-2311679
|
en-train-2311679
|
2311679
|
{
"title": [
"Name.",
"History.",
"Development.",
"Geography.",
"Demographics.",
"Culture.",
"Monuments.",
"Tourism.",
"Economy.",
"Industry.",
"Education.",
"Twin towns – sister cities."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
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"Its original name was Kutur-Ogly. The city name changed to \"Novo-Nogaisk\" in 1830 (New Nogaisk) (see Nogai). The present name was given to the city in 1841 by special decree of Nicholas I and named after the nearby river Berda. Between 1939 and 1958 the city was known as Osipenko, so named after Hero of the Soviet Union Polina Osipenko. This name has now been given to the nearby village Osypenko, where Polina Osipenko was born.",
"Berdyansk grew from a small settlement and a pier, built in 1673 by Zaporozhian and Azov Cossacks. In the 19th century, the Russian Imperial government began to plan building a sea port in the Northern Azov region. In 1824, Count Mikhail Vorontsov, Governor General of the Caucasus Viceroyalty, sent an expedition to the Azov Sea. Its task was to find a place to build a new seaport to assist in the defence of Russia's southern borders. Initially, the place for a future port was implied in the village of Obetochnoe that belonged to Count Orlov-Denisov, near the town of Nogaysk founded in 1821. In the autumn of 1824 Captain N. Kritsky, the expedition supervisor, reported on several prospective sites; the best being a place closed off from the sea by the Berdyansk Spit. In an official report to Vorontsov, Kritsky wrote: \"the quality of Berdyansk Spit surpasses that of Obytichna Spit; you can build a landing stage and port on it unless you concede to Sevastopol...\". In 1820s, the place of the future Berdyansk was just a small settlement of fishers with a few huts In 1825, merchant Nikolay Kobozev built a private wooden quay which was opened with a ceremony on July 1, 1830. Only by January 12, 1835, a state-owned quay had been built. In 1833, Nikolay Kobozev set up a wooden post to function as a navigation beacon; the modern stone lighthouse was built under the leadership of the Italian merchant Carlo Tomasini in 1838. It is a octahedral whitestone tower with an orange stripe in the middle. The beacon fires protected sailing ships and was first seen in 1840. Almost half a century later, in 1883, the oil lamps were replaced by electric lights. The old beacon was refurbished and upgraded with newer equipment. In 1836 the first foreign ship entered the port of Berdyansk. In 1841 the settlement at the Berdyansk bay received the city status. Grigory Chernyaev (1787—1868) was appointed the city governor (\"gradonachalnik\") and the head of the Berdyansk sea port. G. Chernyaev was an officer from landed gentry; he took part in the Battle of Borodino. After the defeat of Napoleon he was appointed a comendant of Valenciennes. Michael Vorontsov knew him from France, when the former was the commander of the Russian expedition forces. The son of the Nogaysk merchant who owned fisheries at the Berdyansk bay, Nikolay Kobozev was elected the first mayor of the city in 1841. During his office, the small township had turned into a flourishing city with a large number of foreign companies' offices and active international trade. He had built the first stone houses in the town and the famous Winter Theater, destroyed during WWII. 1842 Berdyansk became the district center. On January 31, 1845, the first Berdyansk coat of arms was created. At the top, on a green field, is a silver Nogay's nomadic tent together with a black plow; this denotes the semi-nomadic life lived in the Nogays and farming work done by local residents. In the bottom part, on a blue field, sits a black anchor to symbolize the district's affinity with the sea. By this time the customs outpost was already opened. Some foreign marine grain purchasing representatives (negotiators) moved their offices to Berdyansk from Mariupol and Odessa. Following the completion of the Crimea Bridge, and amidst hostile Ukrainian-Russian relations, Berdyansk sea port authority stated in November 2018 that year on year shipping had dropped 50%. This, they claim, was due to ships not getting permission from Russia to pass through the Kerch strait. Russia denied any disruption to Ukrainian shipping.",
"The city developed and grew, though construction was random and haphazard. In the center, private residences for the nobility, merchants, priests were built, as well as office accommodation. Suburbs arose in the outskirts of Berdyansk, such as: Sailor, German, Soldier (Liska), Dog beam Havrylivka, and Near and Far Makorty. In April 1862 Tsar Alexander II with assistance from the Mayor N. Kobozev confirmed the city district plan for Berdyansk. In the plan the streets were straight and led to the sea. This layout has remained to the present day in the central part of the city. It was forbidden to build houses above the second floor. Fine buildings decorate Berdyansk: the Winter Theatre, City Hall, the hotel \"Bristol\" (now House of Culture factory \"Pivdenhidromash\"), male classical school (now the main building of the Pedagogical Institute), Ascension Cathedral, the Lutheran Church and more. In Berdyansk the main employer was still the seaport, and on March 24, 1869 the breakwater was commissioned. This stone building is long with two port lights on the ends – pointers to the harbor, located at a distance of from the shore. The increasing importance of the port was mentioned in 1867 in a commemorative book on the Taurian province: \"Already there is no doubt, that for all the Azov coast the Berdyansk port will be the Odessa of the Black Sea coast\". In 1876 as part of the defense of Sevastopol, rear admiral P. P. Schmidt was appointed Town Governor and Port Chief. Being a progressive man, he did much to promote the development of both port and city. Soon there were small industrial enterprises and banks opening in the city. John Greaves' factory manufacturing harvesters became well known across Europe. A farming machine factory was opened by Schröder and Matias. There was the rope-making factory of Venz and Yanzen, Selstrem's candle-wax works, Litsmen sausage factory, Fetter's brewery, Klavdin macaroni factory, and Ediger's printing house. The Italians constructed the city power station. By this time, two daily newspapers, three libraries and four bookshops were established. The city had running water and electric light illumination. In 1899 Berdyansk was linked up to the railway. At the beginning of the 20th century the city population numbered 26,500. There were about ten orthodox temples, two Jewish and one Karaite synagogue, boys and girls grammar schools, nautical classes, a city college and some credit institutions. In addition to an extensive export trade in mainly grain and flour, Berdyansk conducted large amounts of inland trade. It became a substantial distributive market for goods received over a wide area. By the beginnings of the 20th century, Berdyansk had become a merchant trading port with well developed industry, strongly influenced by its infrastructure. In 1915 a French Consul, and the Vice-Consuls of Great Britain, Greece, Denmark, Spain, Italy, Sweden, and Norway, were in Berdyansk.",
"Berdyansk is located in a steppe zone that defines its varieties of flora and fauna. The climate on the Azov coast is unique: the summers are hot and dry, the winters are mild and warm. The main natural feature is the end of the Berdyansk spit. The spit flora is quite diverse. Here one can find more than 300 different kinds of plants. Some of them are documented in the Red Book (e.g. Carex colchica, Eryngium maritimum, Glycyrrhiza glabra). The vegetation is mostly made up of plants with powerful root systems. In spite of the fact that the spit is a populous territory, it exhibits a wide variety of fauna. Here it is possible to see hares, hedgehogs, martens, foxes, weasels and steppe cats. There also are: geese, sandpipers, swans, herons, ducks, magpies, seagulls, cormorants, warblers, lapwings, red-breasted geese and mute swans. Their numbers swell during the migration season. The islands of Big Dzendzik and Small Dzendzik, small islands in the Astapih's archipelago, contain most of the birds. Sea water temperatures off Berdyansk are higher than the Black Sea coast of the Crimea and the Caucasus. Already in May, the water warms up to, and in June it can reach. In the sea there are more than 70 fish species amongst them great sturgeon, Russian sturgeon, starred sturgeon, Azov turbot, haarder, mullets, kilka, anchovy, sea roach, shemaya and various species of gobies. There are predators too, pike perch and sterlet. The phytoplankton consists of diatomaceous, peridinium and cyanobacteria algae. At the bottom of the sea are large quantity of molluscs, such as cockles, sendesmiya, mussels and myas. They form an important food source for the fish. In coastal waters there are also dolphins.",
"Note: Historical population record is taken out of \"Encyclopedia of Ukraine\".",
"In the city of Berdyansk there are several art museums, Schmidt's Museum, Museum of World War II and Berdyansk History Museum. It is a host city to more than ten festivals a year. The list includes:",
"Berdyansk has unusual monuments. Along with monuments to Alexander Pushkin and Schmidt there are monuments to the goby-supporter, the sanitary technician, the boy-fisherman, an envious toad, and the children of lieutenant Schmidt. The armchair of desires is also popular. It is said if one sits down on it and thinks of a desire then it will come true. These unusual monuments are being restored on Azov avenue.",
"The status of the city has gradually changed from an Industrial centre to more of a tourist centre. Today Berdyansk is the main resort city on the Azov coast. Its population numbers about 130,000, and during the resort season this figure rises to about 600 thousand. The leisure facilities are highly developed and successfully compete with resorts on the Black Sea Coast and the Crimea. There are a large number of sanatoriums and resorts where it is possible to take medical and restorative courses for \"health improvement\". On the Berdyansk spit there are about: 7 sanatoriums, 17 children's and sports establishments, 45 recreation centres and boarding houses that receive up to 15 thousand persons. There is also the biggest Aquapark in Europe, the Kiev dolphinarium, a safari zoo, and a lot of pleasure and cultural establishments. Gradually Berdyansk is evolving into a modern European city. In 2001 it received first place in an All-Ukrainian competition for best city beautification. In the pedestrian area of Azov Avenue, the Seaside square and Berdyansk quays it is possible to travel on trishaws, a small steam locomotive and on real horses. On all beaches there are entertainments such as: driving on rubber bananas and tablets, water bicycles and motorcycles, slides and trampolines, and sailing. There is also nightlife, with many bars and restaurants located directly on the sea coast.",
"One of the main enterprises is the sea trading port, with clients from all over the world. It carries out metal processing, scrap metal, grain, coal, ore, clay, sunflower-seed oil, industrial oils, mineral oil, and pig-iron. There is a complex for processing fertilizers and mineral oil, the container terminal, and a railway depot. Tracks and roads approach all moorings, and all are equipped with electric cranes. Depth in port water area is. Berdyansk is also an important fisheries centre which is an integral part of the city's food industry. There is also a scientific organisation which does fish research in reservoirs of the Azov basin. It determines stock levels and calculates the annual volumes of withdrawal of such valuable food fish as sturgeon, pike perch, haarder, Azov turbot, Azov gobies, and flounder.",
"During the Soviet period Berdyansk was a powerful industrial centre. There were machine factories of all types, an oil refinery, a fiberglass factory, cable factory, ferroconcrete combine, factory of materials handling equipment, provisions factory, a bread-baking complex, milk plant, a meat-packing plant, a considerable quantity of construction and mounting organizations, commodity railway station and the sea trading port. However, in the early independence years the majority of the large industrial enterprises ceased or were reorganised into smaller private concerns. Chemical and the petroleum-refining industry is represented by two big enterprises: \"AZMOL\", and the Berdyansk state fiberglass factory, plus two small enterprises: Limited Liability Company \"Fibreglass\" and Closed Corporation \"Bertie\". Public corporation\"AZMOL\"is engaged in the manufacture of lubricants and packaging, and the development of new products using energy-efficient technologies. Transfer to municipal ownership of the city biological sewage treatment plant is planned.",
"As well as the state comprehensive schools there are private lyceums and gymnasiums, as well as branches of other high schools and professional colleges. There is the Berdyansk State Pedagogical University and the University of Management and Business. In the Schmidt park there is the Berdyansk musical school, and nearby, almost on the coast, an art school. A subject of pride in Berdyansk is the Centre of Children's and Youthful Creativity, numbering a large quantity of study groups and ensembles. According to Ben Eklof in \"Russian Peasant Schools\", education in Berdiansk was badly disrupted in the 1870s when the schools director, a government inspector, 'ran amok' and had to be removed from his post.",
"Berdyansk is twinned with:"
]
}
|
I'm Not a Girl, Not Yet a Woman
| null |
"I'm Not a Girl, Not Yet a Woman" is a song recorded by American singer Britney Spears for her third studio album, "Britney" (2001). It was written and produced by Max Martin and Rami, with additional writing from Dido. The song was released on February 5, 2002, by Jive Records. In the United States and Canada, the song was released as the second single from her third studio album "Britney"; internationally, it served as the third. "I'm Not a Girl, Not Yet a Woman" is a song that speaks about the angst and heartache of adolescence. Spears considered the song inspirational and one of her favorite songs to perform.
| null |
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] | null | null |
en-train-1489135
|
en-train-1489135
|
1489135
|
{
"title": [
"Background.",
"Composition.",
"Critical response.",
"Chart performance.",
"Music video.",
"Live performances.",
"Credits and personnel."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"In early 2001, Spears and her team developed a script for a movie where the singer could be the main role. \"I talked to [Rhimes] and told her what I wanted the movie to be about and she elaborated on it,\" Spears said. \"It was my little project. When you do a movie, I think you have to be really passionate about it. I was having a lot of offers, but this is something my heart was into.\" After finishing the script, the movie, which was later titled \"Crossroads\", had the working titles of \"What Are Friends For\" and \"Not a Girl\". \"I'm Not a Girl, Not Yet a Woman\", written by Dido, Max Martin and Rami, was originally intended to be included on the movie's soundtrack, but after Jive Records decided not to release a soundtrack, Spears later decided to use it on her third studio album, \"Britney\" (2001).",
"The song was produced and mixed by Max Martin and Rami Yacoub. Max Martin began working on the song at Maratone Studios in Stockholm, Sweden in mid-2001 and Spears recorded in June of the same year at Battery Studios in New York City, New York. The June 20, 2001 recording session aired on MTV Diary on September 1, 2001. Background vocals were provided by Martin and Jeanette Oison. Spears considered the song as one of her favorites, while praising Dido for her input into its songwriting, saying \"it was truly an honor for you to be part of my album. Thanks for your input.\" \"I'm Not a Girl, Not Yet a Woman\" is a pop power ballad, founded on a strong piano melody, that lasts for three minutes and 49 seconds. The song is composed in the key of E♭ major and is set in time signature of common time, with a moderately slow tempo of 76 beats per minute. After the bridge, it transposes to F major. The song's lyrics talk about the angst and heartache that teenage girls suffer with puberty, where Spears claims, \"I used to think I had the answers to everything.\" \"I'm Not a Girl, Not Yet a Woman\" has a basic sequence of E♭–A♭2–Fm7–B♭ as its chord progression.",
"\"I'm Not a Girl, Not Yet a Woman\" received positive reviews from music critics. \"Yale Daily News\" writer Catherine Halaby called it a \"well-executed ballad\", while observing that \"it comes across as a hybrid of advice to her young female fans on how to deal with puberty, and an explanation of her girly but not childlike attitude.\" Jim Farber of the \"Daily News\" while reviewing the Dream Within a Dream Tour, called the song \"sugar pop dittie\", along with Spears' previous ballad single \"Don't Let Me Be the Last to Know\". Nikki Tranker of PopMatters considered the song \"Britney's standout statement on [\"Britney\"], [...] a power ballad that allows [the singer] to showcase her expert vocals while still adhering to the rules of safe pop.\" Tranker compared the song to powerful ballads written by Diane Warren. Katie Perone of the \"Loyola Greyhound\" said the song \"clearly defines the theme of the record: Britney's growing up, and wants to do her own thing.\" Nayer Nissim, from \"Pink News\", called it \"a bit wet and safe, but a standout vocal performance and Britney’s real connection with the lyrics elevates this\". Shannon Barbour from \"Cosmopolitan\" called it Spears' 25th best song. Daniel Megarry from \"Gay Times\" wrote: \"after two albums of girl-next-door visuals and bubblegum pop songs, Brit was ready to embrace adulthood, and so her first self-titled album became a transition of sorts. No song represents this better than 'I’m Not A Girl, Not Yet A Woman' - a soaring ballad [...] which dealt with the struggles of entering adulthood\". The staff from \"Entertainment Weekly\" placed it at number 30 on their ranking of Spears's songs and called it \"her best introspection\". Nicholas Hautman, from \"Us Weekly\", deemed it a \"somewhat cheesy yet introspective power ballad\". Despite the positive response from critics, the song won a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Original Song in 2003.",
"\"I'm Not a Girl, Not Yet a Woman\" achieved moderate commercial success. The song did not make much impact in the United States, peaking at number two on the \"Billboard\" Bubbling Under Hot 100, but failing to reach the \"Billboard\" Hot 100. However, the song did manage to peak at number 21 on \"Billboard\" Pop Songs, and debuted in its peak position of number two in the United Kingdom. In Australia, the song peaked at number seven, and was certified Gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association for selling over 30,000 physical units of the single. It also peaked inside the top ten in Austria, Germany, Ireland, and Sweden.",
"The accompanying music video for the track was directed by Wayne Isham, who wanted it to show Spears \"out in nature\". The video was filmed from August 16–17, 2001 completely on location in Arizona, with none of the scenes shot on green screens. The video primarily consists of Spears, whilst wearing cowboy boots, performing the song whilst standing on the edge of a cliff, and inside a cave: despite her \"trepidation\" and heavy winds which \"almost dropped [her] over\", she performed the scene without a safety cable. Isham praised Spears' attitude to the filming of the scene, claiming that she \"had not a blink of fear\" during the shoot, Spears is sitting on top of a cliff, surrounded by cliffs. Isham also considered the music video one of his favorites, commenting that he had \"nothing but positive things to say about my experience with her and what she's doing right now\" and that Spears \"stepped into it with positive energy. She ended up stepping out and kicking ass.\" There are 3 versions of the video, versions 1 and 2 has clips from the movie \"Crossroads\" as well as additional scenes of Spears sitting at a bonfire and in a red motel room; version 3 is the original version. The music video won the award for \"International Music Video of the Year Short-Form\" on the 2003 Japan Gold Disc Awards.",
"\"I'm Not a Girl, Not Yet a Woman\" was performed on Spears's Dream Within a Dream Tour. After the performance of \"Boys\", Spears sat down next to a piano player and talked to the audience before moving into a performance of the song. Spears also performed the song in several television appearances, including on \"The Rosie O'Donnell Show\", the \"Late Show with David Letterman\", the American Music Awards of 2002, \"The Oprah Winfrey Show\", and \"Saturday Night Live\". \"I'm Not a Girl, Not Yet a Woman\" was also performed on the show \"Wetten, dass..?\" in Germany, and on \"The Tonight Show with Jay Leno\". An MTV special titled \"Total Britney Live\" included an exclusive performance of the song, along with performances of \"I'm a Slave 4 U\" and \"Stronger\".",
"Credits adapted from the liner notes of \"Britney\"."
]
}
|
Kilt
| null |
A kilt ( ) is a type of knee-length non-bifurcated skirt with pleats at the back, originating in the traditional dress of Gaelic men and boys in the Scottish Highlands. It is first recorded in the 16th century as the great kilt, a full-length garment whose upper half could be worn as a cloak. The small kilt or "modern" kilt emerged in the 18th century, and is essentially the bottom half of the great kilt. Since the 19th century, it has become associated with the wider culture of Scotland, and more broadly with Gaelic or Celtic heritage. It is most often made of woollen cloth in a tartan pattern.
| null |
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en-train-1962019
|
en-train-1962019
|
1962019
|
{
"title": [
"History.",
"Variants.",
"Scotland.",
"Design and construction.",
"Fabrics.",
"Setts.",
"Measurements.",
"Pleating and stitching.",
"Accessories.",
"Styles of kilt wear.",
"Ireland.",
"Other Celtic nations.",
"Contemporary designs."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"3",
"4",
"4",
"4",
"4",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"2",
"2"
],
"content": [
"The kilt first appeared as the great kilt, the'or belted plaid, during the 16th century, and is Gaelic in origin. The'or great kilt was a full-length garment whose upper half could be worn as a cloak draped over the shoulder, or brought up over the head. A version of the \"\" (philibeg), or small kilt (also known as the walking kilt), similar to the modern kilt was invented by an English Quaker from Lancashire named Thomas Rawlinson some time in the 1720s. He felt that the belted plaid was \"cumbrous and unwieldy\", and his solution was to separate the skirt and convert it into a distinct garment with pleats already sewn, which he himself began wearing. His associate, Iain MacDonnell, chief of the MacDonnells of Inverness, also began wearing it, and when clansmen employed in logging, charcoal manufacture and iron smelting saw their chief wearing the new apparel, they soon followed suit. From there its use spread \"in the shortest space\" amongst the Highlanders, and even amongst some of the Northern Lowlanders. It has been suggested there is evidence that the philibeg with unsewn pleats was worn from the 1690s.",
"The name \"kilt\" is applied to a range of garments: According to the \"Dictionary of the Scots Language\" and \"Oxford English Dictionary\", the noun derives from a verb \"to kilt\", originally meaning \"to gird up; to tuck up (the skirts) round the body\", which is apparently of Scandinavian origin.",
"Organisations that sanction and grade the competitions in Highland dancing and piping all have rules governing acceptable attire for the competitors. These rules specify that kilts are to be worn (except that in the national dances, the female competitors will be wearing the Aboyne dress).",
"The Scottish kilt displays uniqueness of design, construction, and convention which differentiate it from other garments fitting the general description. It is a tailored garment that is wrapped around the wearer's body at the natural waist (between the lowest rib and the hip) starting from one side (usually the wearer's left), around the front and back and across the front again to the opposite side. The fastenings consist of straps and buckles on both ends, the strap on the inside end usually passing through a slit in the waistband to be buckled on the outside; alternatively it may remain inside the waistband and be buckled inside. A kilt covers the body from the waist down to the centre of the knees. The overlapping layers in front are called \"aprons\" and are flat; the single layer of fabric around the sides and back is pleated. A kilt pin is fastened to the front apron on the free corner (but is not passed through the layer below, as its function is to add weight). Underwear may or may not be worn, as the wearer prefers, although tradition has it that a \"true Scotsman\" should wear nothing under his kilt. The Scottish Tartans Authority, however, warns that in some circumstances the practice could be \"childish and unhygienic\" and flying \"in the face of decency\".",
"The typical kilt as seen at modern Highland games events is made of twill woven worsted wool. The twill weave used for kilts is a \"2–2 type\", meaning that each weft thread passes over and under two warp threads at a time. The result is a distinctive diagonal-weave pattern in the fabric which is called the twill line. This kind of twill, when woven according to a given sett or written colour pattern \"(see below)\" is called tartan. In contrast kilts worn by Irish pipers are made from solid-colour cloth, with saffron or green being the most widely used colours. Kilting fabric weights are given in ounces per yard and run from the very-heavy, regimental worsted of approximately down to a light worsted of about. The most common weights for kilts are and. The heavier weights are more appropriate for cooler weather, while the lighter weights would tend to be selected for warmer weather or for active use, such as Highland dancing. Some patterns are available in only a few weights. A modern kilt for a typical adult uses about 6–8 yards of single-width (about 26–30 inches) or about 3–4 yards of double-width (about 54–60 inches) tartan fabric. Double-width fabric is woven so that the pattern exactly matches on the selvage. Kilts are usually made without a hem because a hem would make the garment too bulky and cause it to hang incorrectly. The exact amount of fabric needed depends upon several factors including the size of the sett, the number of pleats put into the garment, and the size of the person. For a full kilt, 8 yards of fabric would be used regardless of size and the number of pleats and depth of pleat would be adjusted according to their size. For a very large waist, it may be necessary to use 9 yards of cloth.",
"One of the most-distinctive features of the authentic Scots kilt is the tartan pattern, the \"sett\", it exhibits. The association of particular patterns with individual clans and families can be traced back perhaps one or two centuries. It was only in the 19th-century Victorian era that the system of named tartans known today began to be systematically recorded and formalised, mostly by weaving companies for mercantile purposes. Up until this point, Highland tartans held regional associations rather than being identified with any particular clan. Today there are also tartans for districts, counties, societies and corporations. There are also setts for states and provinces; schools and universities; sporting activities; individuals; and commemorative and simple generic patterns that anybody can wear (see History of the kilt for the process by which these associations came about). Setts are always arranged horizontally and vertically, never diagonally (except when adapted for women's skirts). They are specified by their thread counts, the sequence of colours and their units of width. As an example, the Wallace tartan has a thread count given as \"K/4 R32 K32 Y/4\" (K is black, R is red, and Y is yellow). This means that 4 units of black thread will be succeeded by 32 units of red, etc., in both the warp and the weft. Typically, the units are the actual number of threads, but as long as the proportions are maintained, the resulting pattern will be the same. This thread count also includes a pivot point indicated by the slash between the colour and thread number. The weaver is supposed to reverse the weaving sequence at the pivot point to create a mirror image of the pattern. This is called a symmetrical tartan. Some tartans, like Buchanan, are asymmetrical, which means they do not have a pivot point. The weaver weaves the sequence all the way through and then starts at the beginning again for the next sett. Setts are further characterised by their size, the number of inches (or centimetres) in one full repeat. The size of a given sett depends on not only the number of threads in the repeat but also the weight of the fabric. This is because the heavier the fabric, the thicker the threads will be, and thus the same number of threads of a heavier-weight fabric will occupy more space. The colours given in the thread count are specified as in heraldry, although tartan patterns are not heraldic. The exact shade which is used is a matter of artistic freedom and will vary from one fabric mill to another as well as in dye lot to another within the same mill. Tartans are commercially woven in four standard colour variations that describe the overall tone. \"Ancient\" or \"Old\" colours may be characterised by a slightly faded look intended to resemble the vegetable dyes that were once used, although in some cases \"Old\" simply identifies a tartan that was in use before the current one. Ancient greens and blues are lighter while reds appear orange. \"Modern\" colours are bright and show off modern aniline dyeing methods. The colours are bright red, dark hunter green, and usually navy blue. \"Weathered\" or \"Reproduction\" colours simulate the look of older cloth weathered by the elements. Greens turn to light brown, blues become grey, and reds are a deeper wine colour. The last colour variation is \"Muted\" which tends toward earth tones. The greens are olive, blues are slate blue, and red is an even deeper wine colour. This means that of the approximately 3500 registered tartans available in the Scottish Tartans Authority database as of 2004 there are four possible colour variations for each, resulting in around 14,000 recognised tartan choices. Setts were registered until 2008, with the \"International Tartan Index\" (\"ITI\") of the charitable organisation Scottish Tartans Authority (STA), which maintained a collection of fabric samples characterised by name and thread count, for free, which had its register, combined with others to form the \"Scottish Register of Tartans\" (\"SRT\") of the statutory body the National Archives of Scotland (NAS), if the tartan meets SRT's criteria, for UK£70 as of 2010. Although many tartans are added every year, most of the registered patterns available today were created in the 19th century onward by commercial weavers who worked with a large variety of colours. The rise of Highland romanticism and the growing Anglicisation of Scottish culture by the Victorians at the time led to registering tartans with clan names. Before that, most of these patterns were more connected to geographical regions than to any clan. There is therefore nothing symbolic about the colours, and nothing about the patterns is a reflection of the status of the wearer.",
"Although ready-to-wear kilts can be obtained in standard sizes, a custom kilt is tailored to the individual proportions of the wearer. At least three measurements, the waist, hips, and length of the kilt, are usually required. Sometimes the rise (distance above the waist) or the fell (distance from waistline to the widest part of the hips) is also required. A properly made kilt, when buckled on the tightest holes of the straps, is not so loose that the wearer can easily twist the kilt around their body, nor so tight that it causes \"scalloping\" of the fabric where it is buckled. Additionally, the length of the kilt when buckled at the waist reaches a point no lower than halfway across the kneecap and no higher than about an inch above it.",
"A kilt can be pleated with either box or knife pleats. A knife pleat is a simple fold, while the box pleat is bulkier, consisting of two knife pleats back-to-back. Knife pleats are the most common in modern civilian kilts. Regimental traditions vary. The Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders use box pleats, while the Black Watch make their kilts of the same tartan with knife pleats. These traditions were also passed on to affiliated regiments in the Commonwealth, and were retained in successor battalions to these regiments in the amalgamated Royal Regiment of Scotland. Pleats can be arranged relative to the pattern in two ways. In \"pleating to the stripe\", one of the vertical stripes in the tartan is selected and the fabric is then folded so that this stripe runs down the center of each pleat. The result is that along the pleated section of the kilt (the back and sides) the pattern appears different from the unpleated front, often emphasising the horizontal bands rather than creating a balance between horizontal and vertical. This is often called military pleating because it is the style adopted by many military regiments. It is also widely used by pipe bands. In \"pleating to the sett\", the fabric is folded so that the pattern of the sett is maintained and is repeated all around the kilt. This is done by taking up one full sett in each pleat, or two full setts if they are small. This causes the pleated sections to have the same pattern as the unpleated front. Any pleat is characterised by depth and width. The portion of the pleat that protrudes under the overlying pleat is the size or width. The pleat width is selected based on the size of the sett and the amount of fabric to be used in constructing the kilt, and will generally vary from about 1/2\" to about 3/4\". The depth is the part of the pleat which is folded under the overlying pleat. It depends solely on the size of the tartan sett even when pleating to the stripe, since the sett determines the spacing of the stripes. The number of pleats used in making kilts depends upon how much material is to be used in constructing the garment and upon the size of the sett. The pleats across the fell are tapered slightly since the wearer's waist is usually narrower than the hips and the pleats are usually stitched down either by machine or by hand. In Highland dancing, it is easy to see the effect of the stitching on the action of a kilt. The kilt hugs the dancer's body from the waist down to the hipline and, from there, in response to the dancer's movements, it breaks sharply out. The way the kilt moves in response to the dance steps is an important part of the dance. If the pleats were not stitched down in this portion of the kilt, the action, or movement, would be quite different.",
"The Scottish kilt is usually worn with kilt hose (woollen socks), turned down at the knee, often with garters and flashes, and a (Gaelic for \"purse\": a type of pouch), which hangs around the waist from a chain or leather strap. This may be plain or embossed leather, or decorated with sealskin, fur, or polished metal plating. Other common accessories, depending on the formality of the context, include:",
"Today most Scottish people regard kilts as formal dress or national dress. Although there are still a few people who wear a kilt daily, it is generally owned or hired to be worn at weddings or other formal occasions and may be worn by anyone regardless of nationality or descent. For semi-formal wear, kilts are usually worn with a Prince Charlie or an Argyll jacket. (Commercial suppliers have now produced equivalent jackets with Irish and Welsh themed styling.) Formal is white tie and requires a Regulation Doublet or higher. Kilts are also used for parades by groups such as the Boys' Brigade and Scouts, and in many places kilts are seen in force at Highland games and pipe band championships as well as being worn at Scottish country dances and ceilidhs. Certain regiments/units of the British Army and armies of other Commonwealth nations (including Australia, Canada, New Zealand and South Africa) with a Scottish lineage or heritage still continue to wear kilts as part of dress or duty uniform, though they have not been used in combat since 1940 Uniforms in which kilts are worn include Ceremonial Dress, Service Dress, and Barracks Dress. Kilts are considered appropriate for ceremonial parades, office duties, less formal parades, walking out, mess dinners, and classroom instruction or band practice. Ceremonial kilts have also been developed for the US Marine Corps, and the pipe and drum bands of the US Military Academy, US Naval Academy and Norwich University – The Military College of Vermont. It is not uncommon to see kilts worn at Irish pubs in the United States, and it is becoming somewhat less rare to see them in the workplace. Casual use of kilts dressed down with lace-up boots or moccasins, and with T-shirts or golf shirts, is becoming increasingly familiar at Highland Games. The kilt is associated with a sense of Scottish national pride and will often be seen being worn, along with a football top, when members of the Tartan Army are watching a football or rugby match. The small sgian-dubh knife is sometimes replaced by a wooden or plastic alternative or omitted altogether for security concerns: for example, it typically is not allowed to be worn or carried onto a commercial aircraft.",
"Though the origins of the Irish kilt continue to be a subject of debate, current evidence suggests that kilts originated in the Scottish Highlands and Isles and were worn by Irish nationalists from at least 1850s onwards and then cemented from the early 1900s as a symbol of Gaelic identity. A garment that has often been mistaken for kilts in early depictions is the Irish \"\", a long tunic traditionally made from solid colour cloth, with black, saffron and green. Solid coloured kilts were first adopted for use by Irish nationalists and thereafter by Irish regiments serving in the British Army, but they could often be seen in late 19th and early 20th century photos in Ireland especially at political and musical gatherings, as the kilt was re-adopted as a symbol of Gaelic nationalism in Ireland during this period. Within the world of Irish dancing, boys' kilts have been largely abandoned, especially since the worldwide popularity of Riverdance and the revival and interest in Irish dancing generally.",
"Although not a traditional component of national dress outside Scotland or Ireland, kilts have become recently popular in the other Celtic nations as a sign of Celtic identity. Kilts and tartans can therefore also be seen in Ireland, Wales, Cornwall, the Isle of Man, Brittany and Galicia. Although not considered a Celtic region, Northumbrian kilts in border tartan have also been adopted. There are currently sixteen Breton tartans officially recorded in the Scottish tartan registries. The Breton tartans are: Brittany National (Breton National), Brittany Walking, Lead it Of, and a further nine county tartans (Kerne, Leon, Tregor, Gwened, Dol, St. Malo, Rennes, Nantes, St. Brieuc). Others have been recently created for smaller areas in Brittany (Ushent, Bro Vigoudenn and Menez Du \"Black Mountain\"). There are two Galician tartans recorded in the Scottish registries: Galicia and \"Gallaecia – Galician National\". There is historical evidence of the use of tartan and kilt in Galicia up to the 18th century. Kilts are also traditionally worn by some people in Austria, especially in Carinthia and Upper Austria, due to their celtic heritage. It is also mentionable that the oldest european tartan was found in Hallstatt, Austria, dating to sometime between 1200 and 400BC.",
"Contemporary kilts (also known as modern kilts and, especially in the United States of America, utility kilts) have appeared in the clothing marketplace in Scotland, the US, and Canada in a range of fabrics, including leather, denim, corduroy, and cotton. They may be designed for formal or casual dress, for use in sports or outdoor recreation, or as white or blue collar workwear. Some are closely modelled on traditional Scottish kilts, but others are similar only in being knee-length skirt-like garments for men. They may have box pleats, symmetrical knife pleats and be fastened by studs or velcro instead of buckles. Many are designed to be worn without a sporran, and may have pockets or tool belts attached. In Canada, kilts are widely common as part of female dress at schools with a uniform policy. As well, due to the rich Scottish heritage of the country, they may frequently be seen at weddings and formal events. In Nova Scotia, they may even be worn as common daily attire. In 2008, a USPS letter carrier, Dean Peterson, made a formal proposal that the kilt be approved as an acceptable postal uniform—for reasons of comfort. The proposal was defeated at the convention of the 220,000-member National Association of Letter Carriers in 2008 by a large margin. 5.11 Tactical produced a Tactical Duty Kilt as a result of the corporate April Fools' joke. The contemporary hybrid kilts are made up of tartan-woven fabric material. Female athletes, especially lacrosse players, often wear kilts during games. They will typically wear compression shorts or spandex underneath. Kilts are popular among many levels of lacrosse, from youth leagues to college leagues, although some teams are replacing kilts with the more streamlined athletic skirt. Men's kilts are often seen in popular contemporary media. For example, in the Syfy series \"Tin Man\", side characters are shown wearing kilts as peasant working clothes. Trends in everyday fashion, especially in the Gothic subculture, have led to a popularisation of the kilt as an alternative to more conventional menswear. Some of these are made of PVC or cotton-polyester blends."
]
}
|
Dražen Petrović
| null |
Dražen Petrović (; 22 October 1964 – 7 June 1993) was a Croatian professional basketball player. A shooting guard, he initially achieved success playing professional basketball in Europe in the 1980s, before joining the National Basketball Association (NBA) in 1989.
| null |
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en-train-1462970
|
en-train-1462970
|
1462970
|
{
"title": [
"Early years.",
"Šibenka.",
"Rise to European stardom.",
"Cibona.",
"Real Madrid.",
"NBA career.",
"Portland.",
"New Jersey.",
"National team career.",
"Yugoslavia.",
"Croatia.",
"Death and legacy.",
"Dražen Petrović Memorial Center."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Born in Šibenik, SR Croatia, SFR Yugoslavia, Dražen Petrović was the second child of Jovan \"Jole\", a police officer, and Biserka (née Mikulandra), a librarian. His father, of Serb ethnicity, was born in Zagora, near Trebinje in Bosnia and Herzegovina. His mother was born in Bilice, near Šibenik, and was from a traditional conservative Croatian family, devoutly Roman Catholic. The couple's eldest child, Aleksandar, was the first to play basketball. The Petrović brothers are second cousins to the Serbian basketball player Dejan Bodiroga.",
"At the age of 13, Petrović started playing in the youth selections of the local club Šibenka; at the age of 15 he had already made the first team, just as Šibenka earned a place in the Yugoslav national first division. With young Petrović as the star of the team, Šibenka reached the final of the FIBA Radivoj Korać Cup twice (1981–82 and 1982–83), losing to Limoges CSP both times. In 1983, the 18-year-old Petrović hit two free throws in Šibenka's victory over Bosna in the final playoff game of the Yugoslavian club championship, but the title was taken away from Šibenka the next day by the national basketball federation because of irregularities in refereeing and awarded to Bosna after Šibenka refused a rematch.",
"",
"After a year's mandatory service in the military, Petrović joined his brother and moved to Cibona to form, at that time, the best backcourt duo in Europe. The very first year in Cibona he won both the Yugoslav League championship and the Yugoslav National Cup. The 87–78 victory over the Spanish League club Real Madrid, to which Petrović contributed 36 points, brought him and Cibona their first European Cup title. The second came the following year, as Petrović scored 22 points and Cibona defeated the USSR Premier League club Žalgiris Kaunas, which starred the legendary Arvydas Sabonis. The same year brought another Yugoslav national cup title for Cibona, as Petrović scored 46 against old rival Bosna. In 1987, Petrović earned his third European trophy: a 2nd-tier European Cup Winners' Cup title against the Italian League club Scavolini Pesaro, scoring 28 points. Petrović's scoring average during the four years with Cibona stood at 37.7 points in the Yugoslavian first division and 33.8 in all of the Europe-wide competitions he played in, with personal bests of 112 (40/60 FG, 10/20 3Pts, 22/22 FT) in the Yugoslavian League, and 62 points in the 3rd-tier European league, the Korać Cup, respectively. His scoring sheet often showed 40, 50, even 60 in a single game; in a 1985–86 season European League game against Limoges, Petrović scored ten 3-pointers, including seven in a row during a first-half stretch, for a final tally of 51 points and 10 assists; the same season he had 45 points and 25 assists against the reigning Italian League champions Simac Milano. Petrović needed new challenges that Cibona and the Yugoslavian League could not offer. The Portland Trail Blazers of the NBA had already used their third-round pick on young Petrović in 1986, but he decided to postpone his departure to the United States. In 1988, he signed with Real Madrid instead, for around US$4 million. Yugoslav sporting laws stipulated that players could not professionally move abroad until reaching 28 years of age, while Petrović was still only 23 when he signed with Madrid. In 2014, José Antonio Arízaga, the sports agent who played a key role in Petrović's summer 1988 transfer from Cibona to Real, recalled a few details from this transaction: \"I spoke to Mirko Novosel, Dražen's coach at Cibona, and he told me two things. One, every problem in Yugoslavia can be taken care of with the right amount of money, and two, if Dražen leaves, every other player under 28 will be leaving and it'll be chaos. So, you can imagine all the individuals I had to bribe and all the places where I had to pay up in order to circumvent this law\".",
"The 1988–89 season saw Petrović wear the colors of the Spanish ACB League basketball club Real Madrid. Although they narrowly lost the Spanish national championship to FC Barcelona in the fifth and decisive game of the league's final series, Petrović helped Real to win the Spanish King's Cup title over their Catalan rivals. Petrović also led the club to victory in the 2nd-tier European Cup Winners' Cup final against the Italian League club Snaidero Caserta by tying his previous best scoring performance in European competitions (62 points). His first season in the ACB was also his last, but he still holds ACB single performance bests in a final series game in points made (42) and three-pointers made (8). Motivated by the challenge and pressured by the Trail Blazers, who had drafted him 60th overall back in 1986, Petrović finally decided to try to establish himself in the NBA. He left Spain rather abruptly at the end of the season; the Blazers assisted in buying out his contract with Real (for as much as US$1.5 million) and Petrović joined the Blazers for the 1989–1990 season.",
"",
"The Blazers valued Petrović as a shooter, but were concerned that he might not possess the quickness to play guard or the foot speed to play defense. They brought him onto the team primarily as an outside threat to shoot three-pointers. In the Blazers' offensive scheme he was to set up behind the line, receive a passed ball and go directly up to release his shot. Petrović was an aggressive, attacking player who was used to creating his shot and shots for his teammates. Taking the ball out of his hands and making him a static shooter was foreign to him. Making matters worse, the Blazers already had a full rotation of guards, with a starting backcourt of Clyde Drexler and Terry Porter, and with veteran Danny Young as a reserve. Consequently, the reigning La Gazzetta dello Sport Euroscar European Player of the Year saw limited playing time. He had difficulty being productive in the limited role the Blazers had for him. In his rookie year during the 1989–90 NBA season, he averaged 7.4 points in 12 minutes per game. The following season veteran guard Danny Ainge was added to the team, and Petrović's playing time dropped further to 7 minutes a game. In many statements made prior to arriving in Portland, Petrović had said he saw a lack of playing time as the only possible obstacle to his success in the NBA. He was determined to be a success in basketball's highest arena. His lack of playing time during his second season in the league brought Petrović's frustration to a climax: \"\"I have nothing to say to Adelman any more and vice versa. Eighteen months have passed by, too long. I have to leave to prove how much I am worth. Never in my life did I sit on the bench and I don’t intend to do that in Portland.\"\" At his insistence, 38 games into the season (20 of which held no playing time for Petrović), a three-way trade with the Denver Nuggets sent him to the New Jersey Nets in exchange for a first-round pick in the following draft and Walter Davis, who was sent from Denver to Portland.",
"On 23 January 1991, Petrović became a member of the New Jersey Nets. He joined a team that had not reached the playoffs since 1986, but had rookie Derrick Coleman, the number one selection from the 1990 draft. He was immediately given a role on the floor, with 20.5 minutes per game. His scoring over the remaining 43 games increased to 12.6 points per game, one of the league's best points-per-minute ratios. The following year, he and Coleman were joined by Kenny Anderson, giving the team a third talented new addition. Petrović was made a starter for the 1991–92 season, his first full season with the Nets. \"Petro\", as the Americans had dubbed him, did not miss a single game. His determination, hard work and aggressive on-court demeanor established him as a team leader. In 36.9 minutes on the floor he averaged 20.6 points. Petrovic led the Nets in field-goal shooting and free-throw shooting, and his field goal percentage of 51% placed him near the top of all NBA guards. More importantly, his success translated into success for the team. The Nets made the playoffs, recording 14 more wins than the previous year. The following season saw Petrović increase his scoring average to 22.3 ppg, 11th best in the league. On December 6, he was named MVP of the Week. For the second season in a row he shot 45% from the three-point arc. His field goal percentage of 52% was again near the top for all guards. American media honored him with a selection to the All-NBA Third Team. However, he did not receive an invitation to the 1993 All-Star game. Among the top 13 scorers in the NBA that season, he was the only one not invited. In an interview on the Scoop B Radio Podcast, Petrovic's Nets teammate, Chucky Brown marveled at Petrovic's healing ability. Brown told Brandon Scoop B Robinson that he remembered Petrovic spraining his knee and was slated to miss two months. Petrovic rehabbed so hard that he ended up only missing two weeks.",
"",
"Petrović's national team debut came at the age of 15, at the Under-18 Balkan Championship in Turkey, where the Yugoslavian junior team won the bronze. The young man regularly played for the Yugoslavian national team in the Balkan Championships, also winning gold with the junior team and silver with the senior team. He also brought back the silver from the 1982 FIBA Europe Under-18 Championship in Bulgaria. The 1984 Summer Olympics were Petrović's first competition of a grand scale with the Yugoslav senior national team, and the bronze medal won in Los Angeles that summer became his first Olympic medal. Third place was also earned at the 1986 FIBA World Championship, remembered for the last minute thriller in the semi-final game against the Soviet Union. At the 1987 EuroBasket, Petrović again returned with bronze, as Yugoslavia lost to the hosts and gold medalists Greece. The University Games, held in Zagreb in 1987, saw the Yugoslavian squad with Petrović win the gold. In the 1988 Summer Olympics, Yugoslavia with Petrović, earned 2nd place, as they lost once more to the Soviet powerhouse. An excellent club season with Real Madrid was topped by Petrović's 1989 accomplishment with the Yugoslav national team: at the EuroBasket in Zagreb, the young Yugoslavian team went all the way, defeating Greece more than comfortably in the championship game. Petrović was the tournament's second leading scorer and most valuable player. The very next year, the summer in between the two most frustrating seasons of his professional career, as he struggled for playing time with the Trail Blazers, Petrović was again making history with the national team, as Yugoslavia became world champions, after beating the Soviet Union for the gold in Buenos Aires, at the 1990 FIBA World Championship.",
"The 1992 Olympic Games in Barcelona, marked the first summer Olympics featuring the independent Croatia, and Petrović was the leader of the Croatian national basketball team at the Olympic basketball tournament. Losing only to the American Dream Team in group stage, a strong and inspired Croatian team emerged victorious from the Semifinals against the revamped Soviet team, thanks to clutch free throws executed by Petrović, and faced off against the Americans for the gold. Urged on by Petrović's competitiveness and confidence, the Croatians fared well in the first ten minutes of the game, taking a 25–23 lead on a Franjo Arapović dunk and the subsequent free throw. As the game progressed, however, the now-legendary team composed of NBA stars proved too tough for Croatia: the Americans won 117–85, sending Petrović, the game's leading scorer with 24 points, and his teammates, home with silver medals. In the period during which Petrović played for the Croatian national team (1992–1993), he appeared in 40 games and scored 1,002 points. His highest point tally came against Estonia, on 31 May 1993 (48 points).",
"In the summer of 1993, after his best NBA season and the Nets' first-round elimination by the Cleveland Cavaliers, Petrović traveled to Berlin, where the Croatian national team was playing a qualification tournament for the 1993 EuroBasket. He was contemplating departure from the Nets, disappointed with the fact that the Nets had not yet extended his contract. He told American reporters that the lack of recognition in the league made him also consider leaving the NBA completely and playing club basketball in Greece. There were at least two Greek clubs ready to offer Petrović three-year contracts worth US $7.5 million net. Petrović decided to skip the connection flight back to Zagreb and drive with his girlfriend back to Croatia. Petrović died in a traffic accident at about 5:20 P.M. on Monday, June 7, 1993. On the rain-drenched Autobahn 9, he was a passenger in a car that was cut off by a semi-truck at Denkendorf near Ingolstadt in the German state of Bavaria. According to the report of the Ingolstadt police, that afternoon a truck broke through the Autobahn median, the driver was trying to avoid a collision with a personal vehicle in his own lane and lost control of the truck, crashing through the median barrier and finally coming to a stop and blocking all three lanes of traffic going in the opposite direction. Seconds later, the Volkswagen Golf carrying a sleeping Petrović in the passenger seat crashed into the truck, killing him and leaving the driver, Klara Szalantzy, a Hungarian model and basketball player with whom Petrović was romantically involved, and Hilal Edebal, a female Turkish basketball player, with grave injuries. It was established that visibility on the road was very poor and that Petrović was not wearing a seatbelt. Petrović's tomb at Mirogoj Cemetery instantly became a sanctuary for his compatriots. The Cibona stadium was renamed the Dražen Petrović Basketball Hall on 4 October 1993, and the city of Zagreb dedicated a square in his name, which was later followed by Šibenik and Vukovar, while Petrinja dedicated him a street. Before beginning Game 1 of the 1993 NBA Finals, the NBA set a moment of silence out to Petrović, whose death occurred two days before the event began. The Nets retired his number 3 jersey on November 11, 1993. After 1994, the MVP award at the McDonald's Championship had borne the name Dražen Petrović Trophy, and the Croatian Olympic Committee's award for young athletes was named for him in 2006. On April 29, 1995, a statue commemorating Petrović's significance to the world of sports was erected in front of the Olympic Museum in Lausanne, Switzerland, thus making him only the second athlete to receive this honor. On July 9, 2001, having defeated Patrick Rafter to win the men's singles title at Wimbledon, Croatian tennis player Goran Ivanišević dedicated the win to Petrović; Ivanišević wore Petrović's Nets jersey amidst the 100,000 strong crowd celebrating his victory in Split. Petrović was inducted posthumously into the Basketball Hall of Fame in 2002. In 2006, the 13th anniversary of Petrović's death was marked with the opening of the Dražen Petrović Memorial Center in Zagreb, dedicated to his life and achievements, with ten themed galleries of multimedia content outlining his entire career and a statue of Dražen in shooting position in front of it. Petrović was enshrined in the FIBA Hall of Fame in 2007. The 2010 documentary, \"Once Brothers\" (part of the ESPN \"30 for 30\" series), portrays the achievements of the Yugoslavia national basketball team in the late 1980s and early 1990s, and how the Yugoslav Wars tore the team apart. It explores Petrović's broken friendship with Serbian/Yugoslav player Vlade Divac. In 2011, a statue of him as a little boy sitting on a bench with a ball was unveiled in Šibenik, and his old room was renovated the way it looked when he was young, as a first part of opening a Memorial Center in his hometown. During the 2012 Three Point Shootout, New Jersey Nets guard Anthony Morrow wore Petrović's jersey in the latter's honor. In 2015, Australian writer Todd Spehr released a 470-page biography on Petrović, titled \"Dražen: The Remarkable Life & Legacy of the Mozart of Basketball\". On June 3, 2015. Croatian basketball journalists Marjan Crnogaj and Vlado Radicevic released a 487-page (462 footnote) unofficial biography which global paperback edition (472 pages, 679 footnotes, 50 photos) was released on 14 October 2017.",
"A museum named \"The Dražen Petrović Memorial Center\" was founded in his honor, and constitutes a co-operative effort led by the Dražen Petrović Foundation in conjunction with the Croatian government, the city of Zagreb and the Croatian Museum of Sports. The memorial center idea originated from Petrović's parents, Biserka and Jole Petrovic, and was supported with the contributions of Croatian architects Andrija Rusan and Niksa Bilic. All of the articles presented in the center have been collected and categorized by the Croatian Museum of Sports. The organization and operations of the center have been provided by the Dražen Petrović Foundation, which is led by Petrović's family. The Center contains his No. 3 New Jersey Nets jersey and the watch that stopped when he died in a car crash. The center features 1,000 memorabilia items and a video of his basketball highlights. The official opening of the museum was held on 7 June 2006, while the official opening of the center to the public began at the end of December 2006. The square on which the center is operated upon has been renamed to \"Dražen Petrović Square\" in his honor. In 2013, former NBA MVP Derrick Rose visited the museum."
]
}
|
Platform screen doors
| null |
Platform screen doors (PSDs), also known as platform edge doors (PEDs), are used at some train or subway stations to separate the platform from trains. They are primarily used for passenger safety. They are a relatively new addition to many metro systems around the world, some having been retrofitted to established systems. They are widely used in newer Asian and European metro systems.
| null |
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en-train-2435064
|
en-train-2435064
|
2435064
|
{
"title": [
"History.",
"Reasons for use.",
"Types.",
"Platform screen doors and platform edge doors.",
"Automatic platform gate.",
"Use.",
"Argentina.",
"Australia.",
"Belarus.",
"Brazil.",
"Bulgaria.",
"Canada.",
"Chile.",
"China.",
"Denmark.",
"Finland.",
"France.",
"Germany.",
"Greece.",
"Hong Kong.",
"India.",
"Indonesia.",
"Italy.",
"Japan.",
"Malaysia.",
"Pakistan.",
"Qatar.",
"Russian Federation.",
"Singapore.",
"South Korea.",
"Spain.",
"Sweden.",
"Switzerland.",
"Taiwan.",
"Thailand.",
"Turkey.",
"United Arab Emirates.",
"United Kingdom.",
"United States.",
"Incidents."
],
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"content": [
"The first stations in the world with platform screen doors were the ten stations of the Saint Petersburg Metro's Line 2 that opened between 1961 and 1972. The platform \"doors\" are actually openings in the station wall, which supports the ceiling of the platform. The track tunnels adjoining the ten stations' island platforms were built with tunnel boring machines (TBMs), and the island platforms were actually located in a separate vault between the two track tunnels. Usually, TBMs bore the deep-level tunnels between stations, while the station vaults are dug out manually and contain both the tracks and the platform.",
"The main reason platform screen doors are installed is for passenger safety. Their use helps prevent suicides, accidents, objects falling on the track and stops people entering tunnels. Platform",
"Although the terms are often used interchangeably, platform screen doors can refer to both full-height and half-height barriers. Full height platform screen doors are total barriers between the station floor and ceiling, while the half-height platform screen doors are referred to as platform edge doors, as they do not reach the ceiling and thus do not create a total barrier. Platform gates are usually only half of the height of the full-screen doors, but they sometimes reach to the height of the train. These two types of platform screen doors are presently the main types in the world.",
"These doors help to: Their primary disadvantage is their cost; installing a system typically costs several million USD per station. When used to retrofit older systems, they limit the kind of rolling stock that may be used on a line, as train doors must have exactly the",
"Half-height platform doors, or automatic platform gates, are chest-height sliding doors at the edge of railway platforms to prevent passengers from falling off the platform edge onto the railway tracks. Like full-height platform screen doors, these platform gates slide open or close simultaneously with the train doors. Half-height platform gates are cheaper to install than platform screen/edge doors, which require more metallic framework for support.",
"",
"Line D of the Buenos Aires Subte is planned to",
"In Sydney, the first phase of the Sydney Metro (known as Sydney Metro Northwest) opened in May 2019, and was the first-fully automated rapid transit rail system in Australia. The stations are equipped with full-height platform screen doors on most underground platforms and half-height doors on at grade, elevated",
"Platform screen doors are being added to Line",
"The Platform Screen Doors are present in the São Paulo Metro since 2010, when the Sacomã Station was opened. As of 2019, 5 of the 6 lines of the São Paulo Metro have the equipment: Line 4 - Yellow and Line 15 - Silver have the equipment installed",
"Half-height platform screen doors will be in",
"Screen doors are in use at all three LINK Train stations and the Union and Pearson stations along the Union Pearson Express route to Toronto Pearson International Airport in Mississauga, Ontario. Greater Montreal's forthcoming Réseau express métropolitain (REM), the 67-kilometre-long driverless complementary suburban rapid transit network opening in three phases between 2021 and 2023",
"Platform edge doors are currently in use at Lines",
"All Chinese metro systems have platform screen doors installed on most of their lines. All stations built after the mid 2000s have some form of platform barrier. Only the Beijing Subway, Nanjing Metro, Dalian Metro and Wuhan Metro have stations without",
"The Copenhagen Metro uses Westinghouse",
"The Helsinki Metro had a trial run with Faiveley automatic platform gates installed on a single platform at Vuosaari metro station during phase one of the",
"All lines of the VAL automated subway system are equipped with platform screen doors at every station, starting with Lille subways in 1983. Those also include Toulouse and Rennes as well as the CDGVAL and Orlyval airport shuttles. Paris Métro's line 14 from Saint-Lazare to Bibliothèque François Mitterrand was inaugurated in 1998 with platform screen doors manufactured by Faiveley Transport. The new station Olympiades opened with",
"People movers at Frankfurt International Airport, Munich International Airport and Düsseldorf",
"Platform screen doors will be used on",
"Today, all heavy rail platforms except those on the East Rail Line have either platform screen doors or platform edge doors. Platform edge doors are only used on above-ground stations, while platform screen doors are used in both underground and above-ground stations. None of the light rail platforms has platform screen doors or platform edge doors. In 1998, the Tung Chung Line and Airport Express saw the earliest operations of platform screen doors in Hong Kong. The MTR Corporation had also, since mid-1996, been studying",
"On the Delhi Metro, all stations on the Delhi Airport Metro Express line, which links to Indira Gandhi International Airport have been equipped with full-height platform screen doors since November 2015 and the six busiest stations on the Yellow Line have also been equipped with half height platform gates. Automatic platform gates on all the stations of the Pink and Magenta",
"Platform screen doors are in use on the underground stations on the new Jakarta MRT and half-height doors are used on above-ground stations. Soekarno–Hatta Airport Rail Link stations, such as SHIA railway station, also uses platform",
"Platform screen doors are used in most newly built rapid transit lines and systems of new construction in Italy.",
"The Tokyo Metro and Toei Subway began using barriers with the 1991 opening of the Namboku Line (which has full-height platform screen doors), and subsequently installed automatic platform gates on the Mita, Marunouchi, and Fukutoshin lines. Some railway lines, including the subway systems in Sapporo, Sendai, Nagoya, Osaka, Kyoto, and Fukuoka, also utilize barriers to some extent. In August 2012, the Japanese government announced plans to install barriers at stations used by 100,000 or more people per day, and the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism",
"Platform screen doors (PSD) are installed at all underground stations, from to and, from to stations. The automated announcement message reading \"For safety reasons, please stand behind the yellow line\" in both English and Malay languages are",
"In Pakistan, platform screen doors are installed at all stations of bus rapid transits Lahore Metrobus",
"Platform screen doors are in",
"Park Pobedy (Russian: Парк Победы) is a station of the Saint Petersburg Metro that was the first station in the world with platform doors. The station was opened in 1961. Later, nine more stations of this type were built in Leningrad (nowadays Saint Petersburg): Petrogradskaya (Russian: Петроградская), Vasileostrovskaya (Russian: Василеостровская), Gostiny Dvor (Russian: Гостиный двор), Mayakovskaya (Russian: Маяковская), Ploshchad Alexandra Nevskogo I (Russian: Площадь Александра Невского-1), Moskovskaya (Russian: Московская), Yelizarovskaya (Russian: Елизаровская), Lomonosovskaya (Russian: Ломоносовская), and Zvyozdnaya (Russian: Звёздная). There was an electronic device to ensure",
"The Singapore Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) was the first rapid transit system in Asia to incorporate platform screen doors in its stations in 1987. Additionally, the Singapore Mass Rapid Transit (MRT) is the first and only rail system in the world to incorporate platform screen doors consistently at all stations on the network with half height \"psds\" on the overground stations. Full height PSDs mainly manufactured by Westinghouse are installed at all existing underground MRT and sub-surface stations in Singapore, as well as at",
"Yongdu Station of Seoul Subway Line 2 was the first station on the Seoul Subway to feature platform screen doors; the station opened in October 2005. By the end of 2009, many of the 289 stations operated by Seoul Metro had platform doors by Hyundai Elevator. Seoul Metro Line 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 were equipped with platform screen doors However, not all stations operated by Korail",
"Half platform screens were installed first in Provença FGC station (Barcelona) around 2003. Later doors were tested on Barcelona Metro line 11",
"Stockholm commuter rail has platform doors on two underground stations opened in July 2017, as part of the Stockholm City Line. The Stockholm metro will receive platform doors in two stations during",
"Zurich International Airport's Skymetro shuttle between the main building (hosting terminals A and B) and the detached terminal",
"Platform screen doors were first installed on the Wenhu line (then known as Muzha line) in 1996. These days, all platforms on the Wenhu line are",
"Platform Screen Doors were first installed on the Bangkok MRT System since it first operates. Followed by the Airport Rail Link System in Makkasan Station (Express Platform) and Suvarnabhumi Station (both City and Express Line Platform. BTS Skytrain system first installed the Platform screen doors at Siam Station. Followed by all the busy stations during rush hours. Today, Almost all stations on the Bangkok",
"Line M5 of the Istanbul Metro",
"Platform screen doors are installed on all the platforms in the fully automated",
"The Jubilee line extension project saw platform edge doors installed on its new stations that were underground, and were produced by Westinghouse. There are plans to install PEDs (which, similar to the Jubilee Line, will not reach to the ceiling) in existing London Underground stations along the Bakerloo, Central, Piccadilly, and Waterloo & City lines as part of New Tube for London.",
"Platform screen doors are generally rare in the United States, and are almost exclusively found on small-scale systems. The privately operated Las Vegas Monorail system is currently the only general-purpose rapid transit system in the US to use platform screen doors. Honolulu Rail Transit will become the first large-scale publicly run metro system in the United States to feature platform screen doors when it opens in late 2020. New York City's Metropolitan Transportation Authority has not committed to installing platform screen doors in its subway system, though it had been considering such an idea since the 1980s. Possible locations for platform doors include several stations along the Second Avenue Subway, but their installation presents substantial technical challenges, as there are different placements of doors on New York City Subway rolling stock. The MTA is also interested in retrofitting platform screen doors on the Canarsie Line, along the, and on the IRT Flushing Line, along the. However, it is unlikely that the entire New York City Subway system will get retrofitted with platform screen doors or automatic platform gates due to, again, the varying",
"On the Shanghai Metro in 2007, a man forcing his way onto a crowded train became trapped between the train door and platform door as they closed. He was pulled under the departing train and killed. An almost identical death occurred on the Beijing Subway in 2014the third death involving platform doors in China within the several years preceding it. In 2018, a woman was similarly trapped between the platform doors and train at Shanghai's Bao'an Highway station. She escaped injury by standing still as the train departed. Between 1999 and 2012, London Underground's platform doors were involved in 75 injuries, including strikes to heads and arms."
]
}
|
Judge Dee
| null |
Judge Dee (also, Judge Di) is a semi-fictional character based on the historical figure Di Renjie, county magistrate and statesman of the Tang court. The character appeared in the 18th-century Chinese detective and "gong'an" crime novel "Di Gong An". After Robert van Gulik came across it in an antiquarian book store in Tokyo, he translated the novel into English and then used the style and characters to write his own original Judge Dee historical mystery stories.
| null |
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en-train-913420
|
en-train-913420
|
913420
|
{
"title": [
"Dee Goong An.",
"Van Gulik's stories.",
"Other authors.",
"Bibliography.",
"By van Gulik.",
"By other authors.",
"Adaptations.",
"Comics.",
"TV."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2"
],
"content": [
"The Judge Dee character is based on the historical figure Di Renjie (c. 630–c. 700), magistrate and statesman of the Tang court. During the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644) in China, a \"folk novel\" was written set in former times, but filled with anachronisms. Van Gulik found in the 18th century \"Di Gong An\" (Chinese:狄公案 Pinyin: dí gōng àn, lit. \"Cases of Judge Dee\") an original tale dealing with three cases simultaneously, and, which was unusual among Chinese mystery tales, a plot that for the most part lacked an overbearing supernatural element which could alienate Western readers. He translated it into English and had it published in 1949 under the title \"Celebrated Cases of Judge Dee\".",
"This gave van Gulik the idea of writing his own novels, set with the similar Ming anachronisms, but using the historical character. Van Gulik was careful in writing the main novels to deal with cases wherein Dee was newly appointed to a city, thereby isolating him from the existing lifestyle and enabling him to maintain an objective role in the books. Van Gulik's novels and stories made no direct reference to the original Chinese work, and so \"Celebrated Cases of Judge Dee\" is not considered to be part of the Judge Dee series. Initially Dee is assisted only by his faithful clerk, Sergeant Hoong, an old family retainer. However, in \"The Chinese Gold Murders\", which describes Dee's initial appointment and first criminal cases, the judge encounters two highwaymen, euphemistically called \"men of the greenwood\", Ma Joong and Chiao Tai, who attempt to rob him but are so impressed with his character that they give up their criminal careers and join his retinue on the spot. (This encounter is recounted in a short flashback passage in the original \"Di Gong An\", taking place when the two are already long-serving loyal members of his retinue). A little later, in \"The Chinese Lake Murders\", a third criminal, Tao Gan, an itinerant confidence trickster and swindler, similarly joins. Judge Dee ends his career being promoted to the position of senior Metropolitan Judge in the capital, and his assistants obtain official ranks in the Army and civil service. Van Gulik also wrote a series of newspaper comics about Judge Dee in 1964-1967, which totalled 19 adventures. The first four were regular balloon strips, but the later 15 had the more typically Dutch textblock under the pictures. Judge Dee, naturally, is responsible for deciding sentences as well as assessing guilt or innocence, although van Gulik notes in the stories that all capital punishments must be referred to and decided by officials in the capital. One of the sentences he frequently has to deal with is slow slicing; if he is inclined to mercy, he orders the final, fatal, cut to be made first, thus rendering the ceremony anticlimactic.",
"Several other authors have created stories based on Van Gulik's Judge Dee character.",
"",
"The following novels and short stories were published in English by van Gulik. The short story collection \"Judge Dee at Work\" (published in 1967) contains a \"Judge Dee Chronology\" detailing Dee's various posts in specific years and stories set in these times. Van Gulik's last two books, \"Poets and Murder\" and \"Necklace and Calabash\", were not listed in the chronology, as they were written after \"Judge Dee at Work\", but they are both set in the time when Judge Dee was the magistrate in Poo-yang.",
"By the author (not yet translated into English) By the author Zhu Xiao Di By the author Sven Roussel By authors Eleanor Cooney & Daniel Alteri By Lin Qianyu (林千羽) By the author Hock G. Tjoa",
"",
"The stories have been adapted into comic strips by Dutch artists Fritz Kloezeman between 1964 and 1969 and Dick Matena in 2000.",
"Judge Dee has been adapted for television twice in English. Some of Robert van Gulik's Judge Dee stories have been adapted for Chinese TV by CCTV. As of 2012, four different DVD series are available with one series so far with English subtitles. CCTV produced series in 2004, 2006, 2008 and 2010. The series from 2010, entitled \"Detective Di Renjie\" has been produced on DVD by Tai Seng entertainment with English subtitles."
]
}
|
André Citroën
| null |
André-Gustave Citroën (; 5 February 1878 – 3 July 1935) was a French industrialist and the founder of French automaker Citroën. He is remembered chiefly for the make of car named after him, but also for his application of double helical gears.
| null |
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en-train-512487
|
en-train-512487
|
512487
|
{
"title": [
"Life and career.",
"Posthumous recognition."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Born in Paris in 1878, André-Gustave was the fifth and last child of Jewish parents, diamond merchant Levie Citroen from the Netherlands and Masza Amelia Kleinman from Warsaw, Poland. He was a cousin of the British philosopher Sir A. J. Ayer (the only son of his aunt Reine). The Citroen family moved to Paris from Warsaw in 1873. Upon arrival, the French diaeresis was added to the Dutch surname (reputedly by one of André's teachers), changing Citroen to Citroën. Citroen comes from a grandfather in the Netherlands who had been a greengrocer and seller of tropical fruit, and had taken the surname of \"Limoenman\", Dutch for \"lime man,\" his son however changed it to \"Citroen\", which in Dutch means \"lemon\". His father committed suicide when André was six years old (presumably after failure in a business venture in a diamond mine in South Africa). It is reputed that the young André was inspired by the works of Jules Verne and had seen the construction of the Eiffel Tower for the World Exhibition, making him want to become an engineer. André was a graduate of the \"École Polytechnique\" in 1900. In that year he visited Poland, the birthland of his mother, who had recently died. During that holiday he saw a carpenter working on a set of gears with a \"fish-bone\" structure. These gears were less noisy and more efficient. Citroën bought the patent for very little money, leading to the invention that is credited to Citroën: double helical gears. Also reputed to be the inspiration of the \"double chevron\" logo of the brand of Citroën. In 1908, he was installed as a chairman for the automotive company Mors, where he was very successful. During World War I, he was responsible for mass production of armaments. Citroën gained an international reputation during the war, and more as the leading production expert in France. His activities were extensive in connection with the Renault plant, which employed 35,000 men in the manufacture of munitions during the war. In the middle of 1919, Citroën was one of the directors of the Société Française Doble, Paris, to build steam cars in France. Some other directors of the company were Paul Sicault, of the Renault Co.; M. Mery, of the Turcat-Mery Co.; M. Delage, the automobile designer. The design was not feasible and Citroën turned to other projects. Citroën founded the Citroën automobile company in 1919, leading it to become the fourth largest automobile manufacturer in the world by the beginning of the 1930s (specifically 1932). Costs for developing the model Traction Avant, which improved the sales for the company, led to bankruptcy in 1934. It was taken over by the main creditor Michelin, who had provided tires for the cars. He died in Paris, France, of stomach cancer in 1935 and was interred in the \"Cimetière du Montparnasse\", the funeral being led by the Chief Rabbi of Paris.",
"On 9 October 1958, while the Motor show was running, the city fathers renamed the Quai de Javel as the \"Quai André-Citroën,\" in recognition of the transformation effected since the city's 15th arrondissement, two generations earlier characterized by market gardening, had been selected by Citroën as the location for Europe's first mass production car plant. This was the second celebrity name for the street which in 1843 had been baptised \"Quai de Javel,\" in recognition of the chemical factory that had been set up to produce a range of industrial acids, and which later numbered the well known eponymous (bleach) among its products. In 1992, the Parc André Citroën public garden in Paris was named after him. It was built on the site of the former automobile manufacturing plant of Citroën, which operated until its closure in the 1970s, and which had been demolished during an eight-year period between 1976 and 1984. In 1998, André-Citroën was inducted into the Automotive Hall of Fame in Dearborn, Michigan."
]
}
|
1992 United States men's Olympic basketball team
| null |
The 1992 United States men's Olympic basketball team, nicknamed the "Dream Team", was the first American Olympic team to feature active professional players from the National Basketball Association (NBA). The team has been described by American and international journalists as the greatest sports team ever assembled. Eleven of its players and three of its coaches were eventually inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame.
| null |
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en-train-408963
|
en-train-408963
|
408963
|
{
"title": [
"Forming the team.",
"Background.",
"Selections.",
"Isiah Thomas left off team.",
"Laettner makes team over O'Neal.",
"Success on the court.",
"Early scrimmages.",
"Tournament of the Americas.",
"Olympics.",
"Legacy.",
"Tournament of the Americas results.",
"Olympics results."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"",
"For many years, FIBA rules specifically prevented NBA players from participating in Olympic tournaments, although players in other professional leagues, outside the United States, were still eligible. In the 1988 Summer Olympics, the Americans lost to the USSR and settled for bronze, their worst finish in the history of the tournament. In 1989, FIBA voted to change the rule and allow NBA players to participate. The vote was 56-13 in favor of the change; USA Basketball actually voted against it.",
"USA Basketball asked the NBA to supply players for its 1992 roster. The league was initially unenthusiastic, not foreseeing the cultural phenomenon that the team would become. \"Sports Illustrated\" was the first to nickname the forthcoming American roster as the \"Dream Team,\" on the cover of its February 18, 1991, issue. The first ten players for the team were selected on September 21, 1991: Michael Jordan and Scottie Pippen of the Chicago Bulls, John Stockton and Karl Malone of the Utah Jazz, Magic Johnson of the Los Angeles Lakers, Larry Bird of the Boston Celtics, Patrick Ewing of the New York Knicks, Chris Mullin of the Golden State Warriors, David Robinson of the San Antonio Spurs, and Charles Barkley of the Philadelphia 76ers. Most of the players were at or near the peaks of their NBA careers. Bird had back trouble, but was selected due to the team's historic nature. Robinson had played with the 1988 Olympic team, and was eager to earn a gold medal at Barcelona. Johnson had retired from the Lakers in November 1991 after testing positive for HIV. His teammates expected Johnson to die from the disease, and he later described his selection for the Olympics as \"almost like a life saver,\" evidence that he could still overcome the illness and live a productive life. The Australian Olympic delegation prominently threatened to boycott the games in protest of Johnson's presence, fearing that he might infect other athletes. Their threats backfired, however, as Johnson received even more public support. Ewing, Jordan, and Mullin had won gold at the 1984 games but Malone, for instance, had not made the team and had seen his non-selection in 1984 as a challenge. On May 12, 1992, Clyde Drexler of the Portland Trail Blazers was chosen over Isiah Thomas of the Detroit Pistons for the final professional roster spot. As an acknowledgment to the previous amateur system, the U.S. basketball committee decided to include one collegiate player on the team. Christian Laettner of Duke University was added on May 12, 1992, chosen over Louisiana State University's Shaquille O'Neal. Jordan declined Daly's suggestion that he serve as the public face of the team, and Bird and Johnson were selected as co-captains. At the time of the 1992 Olympics, these three superstars over the previous 13 seasons combined for 10 NBA championships, seven NBA Finals MVP awards, and nine regular-season MVP awards.",
"There was speculation that Thomas was not part of the team because Jordan would participate only if Thomas was not on the roster. At the time, it was widely believed that Jordan did not like Thomas because he was seen as the \"ring leader\" of the Detroit Pistons teams of the late 1980s and early 1990s, known as the \"\", who employed overtly physical tactics against Jordan in the NBA Playoffs. In his 2012 book \"Dream Team\", author Jack McCallum quotes Jordan as saying to Team USA selection committee member Rod Thorn: \"Rod, I don’t want to play if Isiah Thomas is on the team\". In 2020, Thorn and Jordan denied directly mentioning Thomas's name in discussions. According to Jordan in \"The Last Dance\", he asked Thorn, \"Who’s all playing?\" Thorn responded, \"The guy you’re thinking about is not going to be playing.\" After the selection of the first ten members of the team, Johnson released an official statement in support of Thomas, but years later it was discovered that his support was less than enthusiastic. In the book \"When the Game Was Ours\", Johnson said, \"Isiah killed his own chances when it came to the Olympics. Nobody on that team wanted to play with him.\" Longtime NBA analyst Jan Hubbard claims that when John Stockton got injured at the 1992 Tournament of the Americas, his potential replacement would have been Thomas' teammate Joe Dumars.",
"The selection committee considered several college players including Harold Miner, Jimmy Jackson, and Alonzo Mourning in addition to O'Neal and Laettner. O'Neal was the number-one pick in the 1992 NBA draft, but Laettner's Duke Blue Devils teams won consecutive National Championships 1991 and 1992. Laettner was the Naismith College Player of the Year, and hit the game-winning shot in the 1992 NCAA Eastern Regional final. Although O'Neal was a two-time Consensus NCAA First Team All-American in 1991 and 1992, his team lost in the second round of the 1992 NCAA Men's Tournament. Laettner's college success ultimately secured his position on the team.",
"",
"To help the team prepare for the Olympics, a squad of the best NCAA college players was formed to scrimmage them. USA Basketball selected players whose style of play, it hoped, would resemble that of the Europeans the Dream Team would face. Members included the penetrating guard Bobby Hurley, all-around players Grant Hill and Penny Hardaway, outside shooter Allan Houston, and the tough Chris Webber and Eric Montross. Hill and Hardaway would play for the 1996 national team, and Houston on the 2000 team. In late June, the Dream Team first met together in La Jolla, California, astounding and intimidating the collegians who watched them practice. However, on June 24, the Dream Team lost to the NCAA team, 62–54, after underestimating the opposition. Daly intentionally limited Jordan's playing time and made non-optimal substitutions; assistant coach Mike Krzyzewski later said that the head coach \"threw the game\" to teach the NBA players that they could be beaten. The teams played again the following day, with the Olympians winning decisively in the rematch. Some of the college players visited Jordan's hotel room afterward and asked their hero for his personal items as souvenirs.",
"The Dream Team made its international debut on June 28 at the Tournament of the Americas, an Olympic qualifying event in Portland, Oregon. The team defeated Cuba 136–57, prompting Cuban coach Miguel Calderón Gómez to say, \"You can't cover the sun with your finger.\" Marv Albert, who announced the game, recalled that \"it was as if [the Americans] were playing a high school team, or grade school team. They were so overwhelming... a blowout after blowout.\" The Cubans were the first of many opponents who were more interested in taking photos with the Americans than playing them. The next five games were also easy victories for Team USA, which ended the tournament on July 5 with a 127–80 victory over Venezuela in the championship game to win the tournament and be one of four Americas squads to qualify for the Olympics.",
"The team trained for the Olympics in Monaco for six days, practicing two hours a day and playing exhibition games against other national teams. During their time away from the court, the squad spent time enjoying the nude beaches, Monte Carlo's casinos, and dining with royalty. There was no curfew; as Daly stated, \"I'm not putting in a curfew because I'd have to adhere to it, and Jimmy'z [a noted Monte Carlo nightclub] doesn't open until midnight.\" For one scrimmage, the group divided into two teams: Blue (led by Johnson, with Barkley, Robinson, Mullin, and Laettner) and White (led by Jordan, with Malone, Ewing, Pippen, and Bird). Drexler and Stockton did not play because of injuries. Daly told the teams to play \"All you got now. All you got.\" White won, 40 to 36, in what Jordan recalled as \"the best game I was ever in\" and \"Sports Illustrated\" later called \"the Greatest Game Nobody Ever Saw\". Because of the team's unique celebrity, the Dream Team did not stay in the Olympic Village with the other athletes. The Olympic Village had four guards at the gate when the team arrived to pick up their credentials; one of the guards, upon seeing the Dream Team, grabbed his camera and his child while the team members were mobbed by other Olympic athletes. Coach Chuck Daly also stated that the beds in the Village were a problem, as two of his athletes were over seven feet tall and he considered comfort a priority to keep the team rested. As a result, the team stayed at Barcelona's Hotel Ambassador, where USA Basketball occupied 80 of the hotel's 98 rooms. Fans were not allowed to enter the lobby, but did gather outside the hotel, hoping to see their favorite players. \"It was like Elvis and the Beatles put together,\" Daly said. Opposing basketball players and athletes from other sports often asked to have photographs taken with the players. In an interview years later, Charles Barkley recounted that \"we got death threats\". Despite that claim, Barkley walked around the city alone. When asked where his bodyguards were, he held up his fists and answered, \"This is my security.\" Jordan was the only player who studied the opposition, carefully watching game tapes. He and the other Americans enjoyed the opportunity to get to know each other in a casual setting, often playing cards all night and, for Jordan, playing several rounds of golf daily with little rest. Opposing teams were nonetheless overwhelmed by the talent of the American roster, losing by an average of 43.8 points per game. The Dream Team was the first to score more than 100 points in every game. Its 117.3 average was more than 15 points more than the 1960 US team. Johnson later recalled, \"I look to my right, there's Michael Jordan... I look to my left, there's Charles Barkley or Larry Bird... I didn't know who to throw the ball to!\" In a press conference before the team's first Olympic game against Angola, Barkley famously quipped \"I don't know anything about Angola. But Angola's in trouble.\" Herlander Coimbra of Angola recalled that \"those guys were on another level—a galaxy far, far away\". During the game, Barkley elbowed Coimbra in the chest and was unapologetic after the game, claiming he was hit first. Barkley was called for an intentional foul on the play. Coimbra's resulting free throw was the only point scored by Angola during a 46–1 run by the US. Although this incident had no bearing on the final result (a 116–48 USA win), at the time there was a concern about the image of America to the rest of the world. After the game, Jordan said, \"There just wasn't any place for it. We were dominating the game. It created mixed feelings, it caused a mixed reaction about the U.S. There's already some negative feelings about us.\" Even though this was the only incident of the game, it changed the narrative; instead of the Americans being viewed as a highly skilled team beating an underdog, some viewed them as bullies. Daly started Jordan in every game, and Johnson started in five of the six games he played, missing two games because of knee problems. Pippen, Bird, Mullin, Robinson, Ewing, Malone, and Barkley rotated in the other starting spots. Barkley was the Dream Team's leading scorer during the Olympics, averaging 18.0 points per game, although the player selection committee had been unsure of his inclusion, worried that he would not represent the United States well. The closest of the eight matches was Team USA's 117–85 victory over Croatia in the gold medal game. Croatia, participating as an independent nation in the Olympics for the first time since its separation from the former Yugoslavia, briefly led the Dream Team by a score of 25–23 in the first half. By the end of the game, Team USA had pulled away and Stockton agreed to a Croatian player's plea not to shoot. Pippen and Jordan aggressively sought the opportunity to guard Toni Kukoč of Croatia. He had just signed a contract with the Bulls for more money than Pippen, who believed that the team's negotiation with the Croatian had delayed his own contract. Tired of hearing about Kukoč's talent, Pippen and Jordan agreed to, as Jordan later said, \"not... let this guy do \"anything\" against us.\" McCallum described the two Bulls as \"rabid dogs\" against Kukoč. Croatia had lost to the Dream Team 103–70 in their first game. The only team besides Croatia to hold the margin under 40 points was Puerto Rico, which lost 115–77 in the quarterfinals.",
"\"Sports Illustrated\" later stated that the Dream Team was \"arguably the most dominant squad ever assembled in any sport\" and compared it to \"Johnny Cash at Folsom Prison, the Allman Brothers at the Fillmore East, Santana at Woodstock.\" In 2009, the team was elected to the U.S. Olympic & Paralympic Hall of Fame. The following year, the team was elected to the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame. Barkley later said, \"I don't think there's anything better to representing your country. I don't think anything in my life can come close to that.\" Bird called the medal ceremony and the playing of \"The Star-Spangled Banner\" \"the ultimate experience.\" Johnson said, \"The 92 Dream Team was the greatest moment of my life in terms of basketball, bar none.\" Jordan said that the biggest benefit for him from the Olympics was that he learned more about his teammates' weaknesses. He later defeated Barkley, Malone, and Stockton in three NBA finals. As of 2014, 11 of the 12 players on the roster (all except Laettner) and three of the four coaches (all except Carlesimo) have been elected to the Hall of Fame as individuals. Global interest in basketball soared due to the Dream Team. In one game, an opposing player guarding Magic Johnson was seen frantically waving to a camera-wielding teammate on the bench, signaling to make sure he got a picture of them together. Head coach Chuck Daly said of the opposing teams \"They'll go home and for the rest of their lives be able to tell their kids, 'I played against Michael Jordan and Magic Johnson and Larry Bird.' And the more they play against our best players, the more confident they're going to get\". International Olympic Committee head Juan Antonio Samaranch stated that \"the most important aspect of the [Barcelona] Games has been the resounding success of the basketball tournament, as we've witnessed the best basketball in the world.\" Subsequently, the number of international players in the NBA rose. On opening day of the 1991–92 season, NBA rosters included 23 international players from 18 countries. At the start of the 2011–12 season, there were 74 players from 35 countries. Many international players credited the Dream Team as their inspiration to take up basketball. Kobe Bryant and LeBron James said they believed their 2012 Olympic team would win against the Dream Team. Bryant said, \"[T]hey were a lot older, at kind of the end of their careers. We have just a bunch of young racehorses, guys that are eager to compete.\" Barkley said that he \"just started laughing\" upon hearing Bryant's comment and that the Dream Team would win by double digits. Jordan added, \"For [Bryant] to compare those two teams is not one of the smarter things he ever could have done... Remember now, they learned from us. We didn't learn from them.\" Bird joked, \"They probably could. I haven't played in 20 years and we're all old now.\" The team was elected to the FIBA Hall of Fame in 2017.",
"The team was undefeated, with their closest margin of victory being 38 points over Puerto Rico.",
"The team was again undefeated, with their closest outing being the 32-point victory over Croatia for the gold medal."
]
}
|
Karl Malone
| null |
Karl Anthony Malone (born July 24, 1963) is an American retired professional basketball player. Nicknamed "the Mailman", he played the power forward position and spent his first 18 seasons (1985–2003) in the National Basketball Association (NBA) with the Utah Jazz and formed a formidable duo with his teammate John Stockton. Malone also played one season for the Los Angeles Lakers. He was a two-time NBA Most Valuable Player, a 14-time NBA All-Star, and an 11-time member of the All-NBA first team. His 36,928 career points scored rank second all-time in NBA history behind Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, and he holds the records for most free throws attempted and made, in addition to being tied for the second-most first-team All-NBA selections with Kobe Bryant and behind LeBron James. He is considered one of the greatest power forwards in NBA history.
| null |
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en-train-2310150
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en-train-2310150
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2310150
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{
"title": [
"Early life and college.",
"NBA career.",
"Early years (1985–1987).",
"All-Star and team offense leader (1987–1996).",
"Western Conference championship years (1996–1998).",
"Later seasons with Jazz (1998–2003).",
"Final season with Lakers (2003–2004).",
"Free agency and retirement (2004–2005).",
"Olympic career.",
"Post-NBA career.",
"Player profile.",
"Personal life.",
"Family.",
"Politics.",
"Outdoor life.",
"Businesses.",
"Actor.",
"Professional wrestling.",
"Public image."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
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"content": [
"Born in Summerfield, Louisiana, Malone was the youngest of nine children and during his childhood lived on a farm with his single mother, Shirley. His father, Shedrick Hay, was raising a family with another woman he married and committed suicide when Karl Malone was 3; Malone first disclosed that suicide in 1994. As a child, Malone often worked at the farm and chopped trees, hunted, and fished. He attended Summerfield High School and led his basketball team to three consecutive Louisiana Class C titles from 1979 to his senior season in 1981. Although recruited by University of Arkansas basketball coach Eddie Sutton, Malone enrolled at Louisiana Tech University, which was closer to home. He joined the Louisiana Tech Bulldogs basketball team in his second year because his grades were too low for freshman eligibility; Malone played under coach Andy Russo. In his second season with Louisiana Tech (1983–84), Malone averaged 18.7 points and 9.3 rebounds per game. Louisiana Tech finished the 1984–85 season 29–3, at the top of the Southland Conference, and advanced to the NCAA tournament for the first time in school history; the team finished at the Sweet 16 round. In each of his three seasons with the Louisiana Tech Bulldogs, Malone was an All-Southland selection.",
"",
"In the 1985 NBA draft, the Utah Jazz selected Karl Malone with the 13th overall pick. According to Malone's official NBA biography: \"If professional scouts had correctly predicted the impact Karl Malone would have on the NBA, Malone would have been picked much higher than 13th in the 1985 NBA Draft.\" In fact, Malone was so convinced the Dallas Mavericks were going to select him with the eighth choice that he had already rented an apartment in Dallas. Instead, the Mavericks selected Detlef Schrempf. Under head coach Frank Layden, Malone averaged 14.9 points and 8.9 rebounds in his first season and made the 1986 NBA All-Rookie Team after coming in third for Rookie of the Year votes. On January 14, 1986, the Jazz beat the Houston Rockets 105–102 to snap the Rockets' 20-game winning streak at home. Malone scored 29 points in that game, including four free throws followed by a three-pointer by Pace Mannion to rally from a 96–89 deficit with 5 minutes and 36 seconds remaining to a 96–96 tie. For the third consecutive season, the Jazz made the postseason but lost the first round of the 1986 playoffs to the Dallas Mavericks. In the four playoff games, Malone improved in his scoring with a 20 points per game average but was still subpar in shooting (49.6% field goals) and rebounds (8.9). After his second season, Malone became the Jazz's leader in average scoring (21.7 points) and rebounding (10.4 rebounds); in 24 of 29 games between February 1 and April 3, 1987, he was the leading scorer of the game.",
"By the 1987–88 season, Malone was the foundation of the offense and John Stockton was the floor general. Malone made his first All-Star Game in 1988 on the strength of 27.1 points per game, and made his first All-NBA team at the end of the season. This was the first of 14 consecutive All-Star appearances for Malone. In the 1988 NBA All-Star Game, Malone led the Western Conference All-Star team with 22 points. The Jazz finished 47–35, third place in the Midwest Division, and defeated the Portland Trail Blazers in the first round. In the next round, the defending champions Los Angeles Lakers, led by perennial All-Stars Magic Johnson, James Worthy, and Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, defeated the Jazz in seven games. In the seventh game of the series, Malone scored 31 points and had 15 rebounds, but the Lakers beat the Jazz 109–98 and eventually won the 1988 NBA Finals. In 11 playoff games in 1988, Malone averaged 29.7 points and 11.8 rebounds. Malone signed a 10-year contract during the 1988 offseason worth $18 million. In December 1988, Jerry Sloan succeeded Layden as head coach as Layden became team president. Malone averaged 29.1 points in, good for second in the NBA behind Michael Jordan, and 10.7 rebounds, which was fifth in the league. This scoring average was Malone's highest so far in his career. At the 1989 NBA All-Star Game, Malone finished with 28 points, 9 rebounds and 3 assists en route to his first NBA All-Star MVP. The Jazz finished 51–31, but were swept in three games in the first round by the Golden State Warriors. This season marked Malone's first with the All-NBA First Team honor. During the, Malone increased his scoring to 31 points and his rebounding to 11.1 a game and again was selected to the All-NBA First Team. In the first game of the season, Malone recorded 40 points, 16 rebounds and 5 assists in a 122-113 win over the Denver Nuggets. On December 5, 1989, Malone scored 21 points and grabbed 19 rebounds in a 94-80 win over the home team, Cleveland Cavaliers. Seventeen days later, Malone recorded 52 points and 17 rebounds in a 114-100 road win over the Charlotte Hornets. On January 27, 1990, Malone scored a career-high 61 points in a 144–96 victory against the Milwaukee Bucks. He made 21 of 26 field goals and 19 of 23 free throws. It was the most points scored by a Jazz player since the team moved to Utah from New Orleans. Although Malone was voted to the NBA All-Star Game for the third consecutive season, because of an ankle injury he sat out the game. He led the team in scoring in 24 of the last 26 games of the season; on March 29, 1990 against the Golden State Warriors, Malone scored 49 points, and on April 12 against the Lakers he scored 45. The Jazz, finishing the season 55–27, lost to the Phoenix Suns within five games in the first round of the playoffs, in which Malone averaged 25.2 points and 10.2 rebounds. For the second straight season, Malone finished second in the league in points per game behind Michael Jordan. From January 19 to March 4, 1991, Malone led the Jazz in scoring for 19 straight games; after starting the season 7–8 the team went 21–9 in January and February 1991. Malone scored 16 points and took 11 rebounds in the 1991 NBA All-Star Game, his fourth consecutive All-Star appearance for the West, and averaged 29.0 points and 11.8 rebounds each regular season game. He was among four Jazz players with double-figure scoring averages, the others being the newly acquired Jeff Malone (no relation) as well as John Stockton and Thurl Bailey. In four games, the Jazz eliminated the Phoenix Suns in the first round of the 1991 playoffs but lost to the Portland Trail Blazers in the second round. Malone made the All-NBA First Team for the third consecutive season. As he had done in 1989–90, Malone finished the 1991–92 season second in the league in scoring, averaging 28.0 points per game. He made the All-NBA First Team for the fourth straight year. It was also a breakout season for the Jazz; during the 1992 NBA Playoffs, the team made the Western Conference Finals for the first time in franchise history. Malone scored 40 or more points in five games this season. Despite his continued success and achievements, Malone encountered trouble for committing a flagrant foul. On December 14, 1991, when the Jazz played against the Detroit Pistons, Malone elbowed the Pistons' Isiah Thomas on the forehead. Thomas needed 40 stitches over his eye, and the NBA suspended Malone for the next game without pay and fined him $10,000. In its first-ever franchise Western Conference Finals appearance, in six games the Jazz lost in the playoffs for the second straight season to the Portland Trail Blazers. Malone averaged 29.1 points on 52.1% shooting and 11.9 rebounds in the 1992 playoffs. Throughout the 1990s, Malone put up stellar numbers: in, he averaged 27.0 points and 11.2 rebounds per game, 25.2 points and 11.5 rebounds in, 26.7 points and 10.6 rebounds in, and 25.7 points and 9.8 rebounds in. Following the 1992 Summer Olympics in which Malone helped the American national team, dubbed the \"Dream Team\", win a gold medal, Malone expressed opposition to Magic Johnson, who had recently tested positive for HIV and retired from the NBA in 1991, making a comeback to the league. Malone's point of view diverged from the support for Johnson from his Olympic and Los Angeles Lakers teammates, and the NBA implemented AIDS-related precautions after Johnson's revelation. On February 4, 1993, in a game against the Lakers, Malone surpassed 16,000 career points. He and his teammate John Stockton shared the All-Star MVP award in 1993. In the West's 135–132 overtime win, Malone scored 28 points and pulled in 10 rebounds. Malone started all 82 games of 1993–94 and helped the Jazz make the Western Conference Finals for the second time in franchise history and his career. In his ninth season, Malone led the Jazz in scoring (25.2), rebounding (11.5), and blocked shots (126), made 49.7% of field goal attempts, and played 3,329 minutes, the second-most that season in the league behind Latrell Sprewell's 3,533. On March 29, 1994, Malone made a career-high 23 rebounds, but the Jazz lost to the Golden State Warriors 116–113. However, Malone made only 8 of 29 field goals that night and commented post-game: \"My rebounds are not going to be tomorrow's headline...Tomorrow's headline is going to be all those easy shots I missed.\" The eventual NBA champion Houston Rockets eliminated the Jazz from the Western Conference Finals in five games. Although Malone scored 32 points in the Jazz' 104–99 Game 2 loss, along with Stockton's 18, they and the Jazz were no match for the Rockets with high-scoring center Hakeem Olajuwon. Midway into the fourth quarter, Malone and Olajuwon scored in four consecutive possessions by their teams, leading up to a 93–93 tie. For the first time in team history, in 1994–95, the Utah Jazz won 60 games. In addition, the team won 15 consecutive away games (the best such streak by the team, then the second-best streak in the league). Malone's 26.7 points per game ranked fourth in the NBA, and Malone became the 19th NBA player to reach 20,000 career points on January 20, 1995. In the 1995 playoffs, the Jazz lost to the Houston Rockets for the second consecutive year, this time in the first round. The Rockets became NBA champions for the second straight season. On January 13, 1996, Malone renewed his contract with the Jazz. The Jazz only made it as far as the Western Conference Finals in this period, losing to the Portland Trail Blazers (1992), the Houston Rockets (1994) and the Seattle SuperSonics (1996).",
"Malone returned from a gold medal winning-effort at the 1996 Summer Olympics leading the Jazz to two consecutive NBA Finals appearances. During the 1996–97 season, Malone put up a resurgent 27.4 points per game while leading the Jazz to a 64–18 record, the most regular season wins in team history. Malone won his first NBA Most Valuable Player award, and the Jazz were the top team in the Western Conference and the playoff champions in that conference. After sweeping the Los Angeles Clippers and defeating the Los Angeles Lakers, the Jazz took on the Houston Rockets, led by the aging trio of Hakeem Olajuwon, Charles Barkley, and Clyde Drexler. The Jazz beat them in six games (the last victory coming on a last-second shot by Stockton). Malone finally reached the NBA Finals in 1997, where they played the Jordan-led Chicago Bulls. In a matchup of the two previous MVPs, the Bulls won the first two games at the United Center. Malone struggled from the field, going 6 of 20 for 20 points in Game 2. However the Jazz won the next two games at the Delta Center behind Malone's 37 points in Game 3 and 23 in Game 4, including a game-winning fastbreak lay-up off a spectacular assist by Stockton in the last minute. The Bulls won the next two games and the series, with Malone struggling from the foul line in Game 6. The next season saw the Jazz once again dominate. Malone put up 27 points per game and just missed out on his second MVP award, losing to Jordan. Nevertheless, the Jazz posted a 62–20 record, which was the best in the NBA. The Jazz once again were seated at the top of the Western Conference, and in the 1998 playoffs they defeated the Rockets, Spurs, and Lakers via a sweep en route to their second consecutive Finals appearance. The rematch with the Chicago Bulls would start differently, as Malone put up 21 points and the Jazz won Game 1, 88–85. Malone found himself unable to put up consistently high numbers, due in large part to the swarming defense of defenders Dennis Rodman and Scottie Pippen. In Game 5 of the 1998 Finals, Malone led the Jazz in scoring with 39 points, and the Jazz beat the Bulls 83–81 in Chicago. Malone scored his 39 points on 17-for-27 shooting and also made 9 rebounds, 5 assists, and 1 turnover. Many of his shots were \"mid-range turnaround jumpers from the left side\". A sixth game of the Finals was held at the Delta Center in Salt Lake City, and by trailing the series 3–2 the team was one loss away from losing the series. Malone scored 31 points and made 11 rebounds. Although the Jazz held leads of 49–45 by halftime and 66–61 after the third quarter, the team squandered their lead in the fourth and would lose after Malone lost a pass in the post. With 18.9 seconds left in the fourth quarter and the Jazz leading 86–85, Bulls guard/forward Michael Jordan stole the ball just passed to Malone and with 5.2 seconds left made a jump shot that gave the Bulls an 87–86 lead. John Stockton missed a game-winning jump shot. Jordan's shot has been dubbed the \"greatest shot\" of his career, and the Bulls' 1998 title was their third consecutive championship and sixth since 1991.",
"On November 12, 1998, during the lockout that shortened the 1998–99 season, Malone declared on his Los Angeles-based radio show that he would demand a trade from the Jazz after the end of the lockout, citing a lack of respect from the team owner Larry H. Miller and the Utah media, which he dubbed \"goons\". A week later, Malone backed off on his trade demands, stating in an interview that he would still love to play for the Jazz with \"everything else being equal\". The NBA regular season resumed in February and Malone won his second MVP award, with the Jazz going 37–13 during the 50-game regular season. They lost in the second round that year to the Trail Blazers, and for the next several years the Jazz fell out of title contention. The Jazz won Game 5 of the second-round 1999 round against the Blazers 88–71 to force a sixth game, and Malone scored 23 points. In that game, Malone elbowed the Blazers' Brian Grant, something he also did in Game 1 and for which he was fined $10,000. Despite the decline of his team and his advancing age, Malone averaged 25.5, 23.2, 22.4, and 20.6 points per game in his last four seasons with Utah. In the 2002–2003 season, Malone passed Wilt Chamberlain for second on the all-time scoring list with 36,374 points. He became a free agent in 2003, the year Stockton had retired. For the time Malone and point guard John Stockton played together on the Jazz (1984–2003), the two formed one of the most productive guard–forward combinations in NBA history. Playing coach Jerry Sloan's scrappy and tough style and perfecting the pick and roll to a maximum degree of efficiency, the Jazz regularly made the playoffs with a winning record. Malone led the Jazz to multiple 50-win seasons with the exception of 1992–93 (47–35).",
"Malone played in the NBA for one more season, joining the Los Angeles Lakers in an attempt to win a championship. All-Star point guard Gary Payton also joined the Lakers in an attempt to win his first NBA championship, and with Malone, Payton, Shaquille O'Neal and Kobe Bryant, the Lakers were favorites to win the title. The Lakers rolled out to a dominant 18–3 start to the season, but on December 21, Malone suffered a knee injury against the Phoenix Suns that forced him to miss 39 games. Malone returned by the season's end, as the Lakers entered the playoffs with 56 wins and the number 2 seed in the playoffs. In the first round against the Houston Rockets, Malone posted double-figure scoring in 4 games, including a 30-point and 13-rebound effort in the Lakers' game 4 victory. The Lakers advanced to face the San Antonio Spurs in the conference semifinals, where Malone played a critical role on defense against Tim Duncan, despite not scoring more than 13 points in any game during the series. The Lakers defeated the Spurs in 6 games in the conference semifinals before defeating the Minnesota Timberwolves in 6 games in the conference finals to advance to the NBA Finals. He scored 17 points on two occasions against Minnesota and averaged 11.5 points and 8.8 rebounds a game in the playoffs. The 40-year-old Malone's quest to win an NBA championship failed as the Lakers were defeated in five games by the Detroit Pistons in the 2004 NBA Finals. Malone sprained his right knee in game three and played injured in games three and four before missing the fifth and final game of the series.",
"After his season with the Lakers, Malone became a free agent. He had knee surgery during the summer of 2004, and personal problems with Lakers guard Kobe Bryant prompted Malone not to return for another season with the team. The New York Knicks sought to sign Malone for 2004–05. In early February 2005, prior to the 2005 NBA All-Star Game, Malone's agent speculated that Malone would sign with the San Antonio Spurs. Spurs head coach Gregg Popovich confirmed his team was interested in signing Malone, should he decide to play one more season. At a press conference on February 13, 2005, at the Delta Center, Malone officially announced his retirement from the NBA after 19 seasons.",
"In 1984, Malone and Stockton were both cut from the United States men's national basketball team but joined the team in 1992, when national basketball teams welcomed NBA players. Prior to that only professionals from leagues other than the NBA were allowed to compete, and that greatly disadvantaged the United States. The Oregon National Guard made Malone an honorary member after the U.S. national team beat the Venezuelan team 127–80 in the gold-medal game of the 1992 Olympic qualifier tournament. Malone played in the 1992 and 1996 Summer Olympics and won gold medals with the US team both years. In the 1996 Olympics, Malone averaged 8.4 points, 4.5 rebounds, and 1.4 assists per game and made 56.9% of two-point field goal attempts and 52.9% of free throw attempts. In 2010, he was inducted into Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame along with the rest of the original Dream Team.",
"The Utah Jazz retired Malone's jersey number 32 on March 23, 2006, when the Jazz hosted the Washington Wizards. He was also honored with the unveiling of a bronze statue outside the EnergySolutions Arena next to teammate John Stockton, and the renaming of a portion of 100 South in Salt Lake City in his honor. The location where the statues stand is now the intersection of Stockton and Malone. On May 31, 2007, Malone became director of basketball promotion and assistant strength and conditioning coach at his alma mater Louisiana Tech University and donated $350,000 to the university athletic department. On May 29, 2013, Malone returned to the Utah Jazz to work as a big man coach.",
"Malone is regarded as one of the best power forwards in the history of the NBA and was known as \"the Mailman\" for his consistent delivery. He collected two regular season MVP Awards, eleven NBA First Team nominations and was also selected to the NBA All-Defensive First Team three times. Malone led the NBA in free throws made a league-record seven times. He was a physical defender and rebounder, and one of the most durable players ever in the NBA. He maintained a high level of play even at age 40, becoming the oldest player to both log a triple-double and to be a starter on an NBA Finals-bound team. Malone's work ethic showed prominently in his formative years in the NBA, when he raised his free throw shooting percentage from below 50% to 75%. Malone wore number 32 for the Utah Jazz. He wore number 11 for the Los Angeles Lakers (number 32 was retired honoring Magic Johnson, though Johnson himself offered to have it unretired for Malone to wear, an offer Malone refused) and also for the Dream Team (the players wore 4 to 15 to adhere to FIBA rules). Malone was photographed with a number 32 jersey at his Lakers introductory press conference. Over 1,476 NBA games (fourth all-time), and 1,471 starts (most all-time, never coming off the bench after his rookie season), Malone scored 36,928 points (25.0 per game), second-best all-time, on.516 shooting. His high field goal percentage benefited from three factors, namely, the pick-and-roll offense; his physical power, enabling him to overpower most forwards, and his ability to run the court, allowing him to convert fastbreak dunks and lay-ups off assists by Stockton. Malone notched 10.1 rebounds and 1.41 steals per game for his career. In addition, Malone played 1,412 games with Stockton, most all time for two players on the same team, and missed just ten games out of a possible 1,444 games during his time with the Jazz (three because of suspension).",
"",
"Malone married Kay Kinsey, winner of the 1988 Miss Idaho USA pageant, on December 24, 1990. They have four children: daughter Kadee (born November 8, 1991), daughter Kylee (born April 7, 1993), son Karl, Jr. \"K.J.\" (born May 8, 1995), and daughter Karlee (born 1998). K.J. played football at LSU, and was invited to the 2018 NFL Combine. In 1998, the tabloid newspaper \"The Globe\" reported that Malone had been a defendant in paternity lawsuits, filed shortly after Malone began his professional basketball career in the late 1980s. The newspaper alleged that he was the father of three children: two by Bonita Ford, a woman approximately his age from his hometown of Summerfield, Louisiana, and one with Gloria Bell, who was 13 when she gave birth. Malone and Ford were both 17 when twins Daryl and Cheryl Ford were born; Malone was a 20-year-old college sophomore when Bell, at age 13, gave birth to Demetress Bell. In the aftermath of the \"Globe\" story, Malone met the Ford twins for the first time since visiting them in the hospital after they were born. Malone did not meet with Bell at that time, and his attorney insisted that Malone had settled the lawsuits before any conclusive establishment of paternity and thus still did not know whether he was truly the father of any of the children. The \"Tribune\" confirmed that the judge in the Bell lawsuit ruled Malone to be the father, not based on presented evidence, but rather because Malone did not respond to the suit. The paper also examined court documents detailing the evidence that was to have been presented had Malone responded and a trial ensued. One item listed was a laboratory blood test that concluded with over 99% certainty that Bell's father was either Malone or a brother of Malone. The paper also reported that applying the same blood sample to the Ford twins resulted in a similarly high probability of paternity by Malone. According to the \"Tribune\", Malone challenged the court's ruling with regard to Bell, claiming that the judgment holding him responsible for $125 per week in child support, plus past and future medical expenses, was excessive. Before Malone's appeal was adjudicated, the lawsuit was settled on confidential terms. In the case of the Ford twins, Malone was ruled to be their father when he violated a court order by refusing to reveal his assets or submit to a DNA test. Thereafter, another out-of-court settlement was reached. By the fall of 1998, Malone accepted his paternity of the Ford twins, and Kay Malone said publicly that the twins were members of the Malone family. Since that time, Karl Malone has maintained a relationship with the twins, each of whom later played college basketball at his alma mater, Louisiana Tech. Cheryl Ford went on to a professional basketball career with the Detroit Shock of the Women's National Basketball Association. Bell has played as an offensive lineman for the Buffalo Bills, Philadelphia Eagles, and Dallas Cowboys of the National Football League. In 2008, \"The Buffalo News\" reported that Bell's first and only meeting with Malone came shortly after Bell graduated from high school. According to Bell, Malone told him then that it was \"too late\" for them to have a father–son relationship. However, in 2014, the two repaired their relationship and were in regular contact by 2018. In 2018, Malone said about his relationship with his older children, \"I didn't handle it right; I was wrong... Father Time is the biggest thief that's out there, and you can't get that back.\" Karl Malone is not related to Hall of Famer Moses Malone.",
"Malone donated $4,000 to the 2004 reelection campaign of President George W. Bush and $2,000 to the 2004 U.S. Senate campaign of Lisa Murkowski, a Republican from Alaska. In 2002, Malone donated $1,000 to the campaign of incumbent U.S. Representative Jim Matheson, a Democrat representing Utah's 2nd congressional district. Malone appeared on the \"Great American Panel\" segment of the Fox News talk show \"Hannity\" in March 2009. He advocated support for farmers in Louisiana who were about to lose their jobs due to the closing of Pilgrim's Pride plants. Malone has served on the Board of Directors of the National Rifle Association (NRA), a national firearms advocacy organization in the USA.",
"Malone is an avid hunter and fisherman. He owns a summer home near the Kenai River in Alaska. In July 1998, Malone joined his Jazz teammates Chris Morris and Bryon Russell, some family members, corporate leadership of Q-Lube, and winners of a Q-Lube contest for a four-day fishing trip to Alaska.",
"Malone is the owner of Teriyaki Grill, Eskimoe's Ice Cream, and Arby's in Ruston, Louisiana. He also owns two car dealerships in Utah and one in Louisiana. Karl Malone Toyota is in the Salt Lake City suburb of Draper, Utah, while Karl Malone Chrysler Dodge Jeep Ram is in Heber City, Utah. Malone previously co-owned a Toyota dealership in Albuquerque, New Mexico, with Larry H. Miller Dealerships, but sold his share in 2010. He also co-owned a Honda dealership in Sandy, Utah, with John Stockton, but sold his share, again to Larry H. Miller Dealerships, in 2010. In 2019, he bought a Toyota dealership in Ruston, Louisiana, now called Karl Malone Toyota. Malone also owns three Jiffy Lube franchises in Utah, and is a part owner of Burger King franchises in Utah and Idaho.",
"Malone starred in the 1994 film \"Rockwell\" as a member of Porter Rockwell's team. He had a guest appearance as himself and as a superhero named \"Pulverizer\" on an episode of the animated show Static Shock in 2004. Malone also made a cameo appearance as himself in the 2004 comedy film \"Soul Plane\". He also has a recurring role in a skit called \"All Alone with Karl Malone\" on the television series \"Jimmy Kimmel Live!\"",
"After the 1998 NBA Finals, Malone and Chicago Bulls power forward Dennis Rodman participated in a professional wrestling match in World Championship Wrestling (WCW) at their Bash at the Beach event in July 1998. Malone, a wrestling fan, teamed with his friend, Diamond Dallas Page, against Rodman and Hulk Hogan. In a poorly received match by some wrestling critics, the two power forwards exchanged \"rudimentary headlocks, slams and clotheslines\" for 23 minutes. Malone and DDP lost to Rodman and Hogan. The event was a massive financial success for the company, drawing the highest pay-per-view buyrate of 1998 and one of the highest in the company's history.",
"Malone is known for frequently referring to himself in the third person."
]
}
|
Leonora Dori
| null |
Leonora Dori Galigaï (19 May 1568 – 8 July 1617) was a French courtier of Italian origin, an influential favourite of the French regent Marie de' Medici, mother of King Louis XIII of France. Galigaï was married to Concino Concini, the later marquis and then marshal d'Ancre, during Marie's reign as Queen Mother and Regent of France.
| null |
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en-train-851887
|
en-train-851887
|
851887
|
{
"title": [
"Life.",
"Legacy."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Galigaï, the daughter of a carpenter named Dori, grew up in Florence in the Palazzo Pitti as a young attendant of Marie de' Medici, who managed to buy her adoption from the \"Galigai\", a poor but noble Florentine family. In 1600, she followed her mistress to France who married King Henry IV of France, who named Galigaï Dame d'atour (lady-in-waiting) to the Queen Marie, immediately after her marriage to the Florentine nobleman Concini. Galigaï suffered from debilitating depressions and paralyzing spasms, which may have been symptoms of epilepsy, which the queen and her courtiers believed to be due to demonic possession, but which were resistant to exorcism. She was treated by the Portuguese-born, Italian-Jewish court physician of Marie and Louis XIII: Filotheo Eliau Montalto (died 1616). In an age when people believed in witchcraft, sorcery, magic and demonic possession, Galigaï was hired by the queen to perform exorcisms and white magic to counter black magic and curses. She earned huge sums of money by these tasks, as well as from bribes for giving people access to the queen. Galigaï amassed an enormous fortune, which she invested in banks and in real estate in France and Italy. In 1610 King Henri IV, the husband of Marie de' Medici, was assassinated, and his widow became the Queen Mother of Louis XIII and the Regent of France. After Concini was murdered by his political enemies in 1617, his wife Galigaï was arrested, imprisoned in Blois and charged with \"lèse majesté\" through practicing black magic, witchcraft and \"Judaizing\". Galigaï was judged guilty of having bewitched the regent. She was decapitated and her body subsequently burned at the stake at the Place de Grève in Paris.",
"Galigaï's life is the subject of Alfred de Vigny's 1831 tragedy \"La Maréchale d'Ancre\" and the 1839 opera La Marescialla d'Ancre, with a libretto by Giovanni Prati, based on the de Vigny work and music by Alessandro Nini."
]
}
|
Pieter Bruegel the Elder
| null |
Pieter Bruegel (also Brueghel or Breughel) the Elder (, ; ; – 9 September 1569) was the most significant artist of Dutch and Flemish Renaissance painting, a painter and printmaker from Brabant, known for his landscapes and peasant scenes (so-called genre painting); he was a pioneer in making both types of subject the focus in large paintings.
| null |
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en-train-2260778
|
en-train-2260778
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2260778
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{
"title": [
"Life.",
"Early life.",
"Travel.",
"Antwerp and Brussels.",
"Historical background.",
"Subjects.",
"Peasants.",
"Landscape elements.",
"Months of the year.",
"Prints and drawings.",
"Family.",
"Reception history.",
"Works.",
"Work referenced in others' work."
],
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"",
"The two main early sources for Bruegel's biography are Lodovico Guicciardini's account of the Low Countries (1567) and Karel van Mander's 1604 \"Schilder-boeck\". Guicciardini recorded that Bruegel was born in Breda, but Van Mander specified that Bruegel was born in a village (\"dorp\") near Breda called \"Brueghel\", which does not fit any known place. Nothing at all is known of his family background. Van Mander seems to assume he came from a peasant background, in keeping with the over-emphasis on Bruegel's peasant genre scenes given by van Mander and many early art historians and critics. In contrast, scholars of the last sixty years have emphasized the intellectual content of his work, and conclude: \"There is, in fact, every reason to think that Pieter Bruegel was a townsman and a highly educated one, on friendly terms with the humanists of his time\", ignoring Van Mander's \"dorp\" and just placing his childhood in Breda itself. Breda was already a significant centre as the base of the House of Orange-Nassau, with a population of some 8,000, although 90% of the 1300 houses were destroyed in a fire in 1534. However, this reversal can be taken to excess; although Bruegel moved in highly educated humanist circles, it seems \"he had not mastered Latin\", and had others add the Latin captions in some of his drawings. From the fact that Bruegel entered the Antwerp painters' guild in 1551, it is inferred that he was born between 1525 and 1530. His master, according to Van Mander, was the Antwerp painter Pieter Coecke van Aelst, whose daughter Mayken Coecke Bruegel married in 1563. Between 1545 and 1550 he was a pupil of Pieter Coecke, who died on 6 December 1550. However, before this, Bruegel was already working in Mechelen, where he is documented between September 1550 and October 1551 assisting Peeter Baltens on an altarpiece (now lost), painting the wings in \"grisaille\". Bruegel possibly got this work via the connections of Mayken Verhulst, the wife of Pieter Coecke. Mayken's father and eight siblings were all artists or married an artist, and lived in Mechelen.",
"In 1551 Bruegel became a free master in the Guild of Saint Luke of Antwerp. He set off for Italy soon after, probably by way of France. He visited Rome and, rather adventurously for the period, by 1552 he had reached Reggio Calabria at the southern tip of the mainland, where a drawing records the city in flames after a Turkish raid. He probably continued to Sicily, but by 1553 was back in Rome. There he met the miniaturist Giulio Clovio, whose will of 1578 lists paintings by Bruegel; in one case a joint work. These works, apparently landscapes, have not survived, but marginal miniatures in manuscripts by Clovio are attributed to Bruegel. He left Italy by 1554, and had reached Antwerp by 1555, when the set of prints to his designs known as the \"Large Landscapes\" were published by Hieronymus Cock, the most important print publisher of northern Europe. Bruegel's return route is uncertain, but much of the debate over it was made irrelevant in the 1980s when it was realized that the celebrated series of large drawings of mountain landscapes thought to have been made on the trip were not by Bruegel at all. However, all the drawings from the trip that are considered authentic are of landscapes; unlike most other 16th-century artists visiting Rome he seems to have ignored both classical ruins and contemporary buildings.",
"From 1555 until 1563, Bruegel lived in Antwerp, then the publishing centre of northern Europe, mainly working as a designer of over forty prints for Cock, though his dated paintings begin in 1557. With one exception, Bruegel did not work the plates himself, but produced a drawing which Cock's specialists worked from. He moved in the lively Humanist circles of the city, and his change of name (or at least its spelling) in 1559 can be seen as an attempt to Latinize it; at the same time he changed the script he signed in from the Gothic blackletter to Roman capitals. In 1563 he was married in Brussels, where he lived for the remainder of his short life. While Antwerp was the capital of Netherlandish commerce as well as the art market, Brussels was the centre of government. Van Mander tells a story that his mother-in-law pushed for the move to distance him from his established servant girl mistress. By now painting had become his main activity, and his most famous works come from these years. His paintings were much sought after, with patrons including wealthy Flemish collectors and Cardinal Granvelle, in effect the Habsburg chief minister, who was based in Mechelen. Bruegel had two sons, both well known as painters, and a daughter about whom nothing is known. These were Pieter Brueghel the Younger (1564–1638) and Jan Brueghel the Elder (1568–1625); he died too early to train either of them. He died in Brussels on 9 September 1569 and was buried in the Kapellekerk. Van Mander records that before he died he told his wife to burn some drawings, perhaps designs for prints, carrying inscriptions \"which were too sharp or sarcastic...either out of remorse or for fear that she might come to harm or in some way be held responsible for them\", which has led to much speculation that they were politically or doctrinally provocative, in a climate of sharp tension in both these areas.",
"Bruegel was born at a time of extensive change in Western Europe. Humanist ideals from the previous century influenced artists and scholars. Italy was at the end of its High Renaissance of arts and culture, when artists such as Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci painted their masterpieces. In 1517, about eight years before Bruegel's birth, Martin Luther created his \"Ninety-five Theses\" and began the Protestant Reformation in neighboring Germany. Reformation was accompanied by iconoclasm and widespread destruction of art, including in the Low Countries. The Catholic Church viewed Protestantism and its iconoclasm as a threat to the Church. The Council of Trent, which concluded in 1563, determined that religious art should be more focused on religious subject-matter and less on material things and decorative qualities. At this time, the Low Countries were divided into Seventeen Provinces, some of which wanted separation from the Habsburg rule based in Spain. The Reformation meanwhile produced a number of Protestant denominations that gained followers in the Seventeen Provinces, influenced by the newly Lutheran German states to the east and the newly Anglican England to the west. The Habsburg monarchs of Spain attempted a policy of strict religious uniformity for the Catholic Church within their domains and enforced it with the Inquisition. Increasing religious antagonisms and riots, political manoeuvrings, and executions eventually resulted in the outbreak of Eighty Years' War. In this atmosphere Bruegel reached the height of his career as a painter. Two years before his death, the Eighty Years' War began between the United Provinces and Spain. Although Bruegel did not live to see it, seven provinces became independent and formed the Dutch Republic, while the other ten remained under Habsburg control at the end of the war.",
"",
"Pieter Bruegel specialized in genre paintings populated by peasants, often with a landscape element, though he also painted religious works. Making the life and manners of peasants the main focus of a work was rare in painting in Bruegel's time, and he was a pioneer of the genre painting. Many of his peasant paintings fall into two groups terms of scale and composition, both of which were original and influential on later painting. His earlier style shows dozens of small figures, seen from a high viewpoint, and spread fairly evenly across the central picture space. The setting is typically an urban space surrounded by buildings, within which the figures have a \"fundamentally disconnected manner of portrayal\", with individuals or small groups engaged in their own distinct activity, while ignoring all the others. His earthy, unsentimental but vivid depiction of the rituals of village life—including agriculture, hunts, meals, festivals, dances, and games—are unique windows on a vanished folk culture, though still characteristic of Belgian life and culture today, and a prime source of iconographic evidence about both physical and social aspects of 16th-century life. For example, his famous painting \"Netherlandish Proverbs\", originally \"The Blue Cloak\", illustrates dozens of then-contemporary aphorisms, many of which still are in use in current Flemish, French, English and Dutch. The Flemish environment provided a large artistic audience for proverb-filled paintings because proverbs were well known and recognizable as well as entertaining. \"Children's Games\" shows the variety of amusements enjoyed by young people. His winter landscapes of 1565, like \"The Hunters in the Snow\", are taken as corroborative evidence of the severity of winters during the Little Ice Age. Bruegel often painted community events, as in \"The Peasant Wedding\" and \"The Fight Between Carnival and Lent\". In paintings like \"The Peasant Wedding\", Bruegel painted individual, identifiable people, while the people in \"The Fight Between Carnival and Lent\" are unidentifiable, muffin-faced allegories of greed or gluttony. Bruegel also painted religious scenes in a wide Flemish landscape setting, as in the \"Conversion of Paul\" and \"The Sermon of St. John the Baptist\". Even if Bruegel's subject matter was unconventional, the religious ideals and proverbs driving his paintings were typical of the Northern Renaissance. He accurately depicted people with disabilities, such as in \"The Blind Leading the Blind\", which depicted a quote from the Bible: \"If the blind lead the blind, both shall fall into the ditch\" (Matthew 15:14). Using the Bible to interpret this painting, the six blind men are symbols of the blindness of mankind in pursuing earthly goals instead of focusing on Christ's teachings. Using abundant spirit and comic power, Bruegel created some of the very early images of acute social protest in art history. Examples include paintings such as \"The Fight Between Carnival and Lent\" (a satire of the conflicts of the Protestant Reformation) and engravings like \"The Ass in the School\" and \"Strongboxes Battling Piggybanks\". Over the 1560s Bruegel moved to a style showing only a few large figures, typically in a landscape background without a distant view. His paintings dominated by their landscapes take a middle course as regards both the number and size of figures.",
"Bruegel adapted and made more natural the world landscape style, which shows small figures in an imaginary panoramic landscape seen from an elevated viewpoint that includes mountains and lowlands, water, and buildings. Back in Antwerp from Italy he was commissioned in the 1550s by the publisher Hieronymus Cock to make drawings for a series of engravings, the \"Large Landscapes\", to meet what was now a growing demand for landscape images. Some of his earlier paintings, such as his \"Landscape with the Flight into Egypt\" (Courtauld, 1563), are fully within the Patinir conventions, but his \"Landscape with the Fall of Icarus\" (known from two copies) had a Patinir-style landscape, in which already the largest figure was a genre figure who was only a bystander for the supposed narrative subject, and may not even be aware of it. The date of Bruegel's lost original is unclear, but it is probably relatively early, and if so, foreshadows the trend of his later works. During the 1560s the early scenes crowded with multitudes of very small figures, whether peasant genre figures or figures in religious narratives, give way to a small number of much larger figures.",
"His famous set of landscapes with genre figures depicting the seasons are the culmination of his landscape style; the five surviving paintings use the basic elements of the world landscape (only one lacks craggy mountains) but transform them into his own style. They are larger than most previous works, with a genre scene with several figures in the foreground, and the panoramic view seen past or through trees. Bruegel was also aware of the Danube School's landscape style through prints. The series on the months of the year includes several of Bruegel's best-known works. In 1565, a wealthy patron in Antwerp, Niclaes Jonghelinck, commissioned him to paint a series of paintings of each month of the year. There has been disagreement among art historians as to whether the series originally included six or twelve works. Today, only five of these paintings survive and some of the months are paired to form a general season. Traditional Flemish luxury books of hours (e.g., the Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry; 1416) had calendar pages that included the Labours of the Months, depictions set in landscapes of the agricultural tasks, weather, and social life typical for that month. Bruegel's paintings were on a far larger scale than a typical calendar page painting, each one approximately three feet by five feet. For Bruegel, this was a large commission (the size of a commission was based on how large the painting was) and an important one. In 1565, the Calvinist riots began and it was only two years before the Eighty Years' War broke out. Bruegel may have felt safer with a secular commission so as to not offend Calvinist or Catholic. Some of the most famous paintings from this series included \"The Hunters in the Snow\" (December–January) and \"The Harvesters\" (August).",
"On his return from Italy to Antwerp, Bruegel earned his living producing drawings to be turned into prints for the leading print publisher of the city, and indeed northern Europe, Hieronymus Cock. At his \"House of the Four Winds\" Cock ran a well-oiled production and distribution operation efficiently turning out prints of many sorts that was more concerned with sales than the finest artistic achievement. Most of Bruegel's prints come from this period, but he continued to produce drawn designs for prints until the end of his life, leaving only two completed out of a series of the \"Four Seasons\". The prints were popular and it is reasonable to assume that all those published have survived. In many cases we also have Bruegel's drawings. Although the subject matter of his graphic work was often continued in his paintings, there are considerable differences in emphases between the two \"oeuvres\". To his contemporaries and for long after, until public museums and good reproductions of the paintings made these better known, Bruegel was much better known through his prints than his paintings, which largely explains the critical assessment of him as merely the creator of comic peasant scenes. The prints are mostly engravings, though from about 1559 onwards some are etchings or mixtures of both techniques. Only one complete woodcut was made from a Bruegel design, with another left incomplete. This, \"The Dirty Wife\", is a most unusual survival (now Metropolitan Museum of Art) of a drawing on the wooden block intended for printing. For some reason, the specialist block-cutter who carved away the block, following the drawing while also destroying it, had only done one corner of the design before stopping work. The design then appears as an engraving, perhaps soon after Bruegel's death. Among his greatest successes were a series of allegories, among several designs adopting many of the very individual mannerisms of his compatriot Hieronymus Bosch: \"The Seven Deadly Sins\" and \"The Virtues\". The sinners are grotesque and unidentifiable while the allegories of virtue often wear odd headgear. That imitations of Bosch sold well is demonstrated by his drawing \"Big Fish Eat Little Fish\" (now Albertina), which Bruegel signed but Cock shamelessly attributed to Bosch in the print version. Although Bruegel presumably made them, no drawings that are clearly preparatory studies for paintings survive. Most surviving drawings are finished designs for prints, or landscape drawings that are fairly finished. After a considerable purge of attributions in recent decades, led by Hans Mielke, sixty-one sheets of drawings are now generally agreed to be by Bruegel. A new \"Master of the Mountain Landscapes\" has emerged from the carnage. Mielke's key observation was that the lily watermark on the paper of several sheets was only found from around 1580 onwards, which led to the rapid acceptance of his proposal. Another group of about twenty-five pen drawings of landscapes, many signed and dated as by Bruegel, are now given to Jacob Savery, probably from the decade of so before Savery's death in 1603. A giveaway was that two drawings including the walls of Amsterdam were dated 1563 but included elements only built in the 1590s. This group appears to have been made as deliberate forgeries.",
"Around 1563 Bruegel moved from Antwerp to Brussels, in Brussels he married Mayken Coecke, the daughter of the painter Pieter Coecke van Aelst and Mayken Verhulst. As registered in the archives of the Cathedral of Antwerp, their deposition for marriage was registered 25 July, 1563. The marriage itself was concluded in the Chapel Church, Brussels in 1563. Pieter the Elder had two sons: Pieter Brueghel the Younger and Jan Brueghel the Elder (both kept their name as Brueghel). Their grandmother, Mayken Verhulst, trained the sons because \"the Elder\" died when both were very small children. The older brother, Pieter Brueghel copied his father's style and compositions with competence and considerable commercial success. Jan was much more original, and very versatile. He was an important figure in the transition to the Baroque style in Flemish Baroque painting and Dutch Golden Age painting in a number of its genres. He was often a collaborator with other leading artists, including with Peter Paul Rubens on many works including the \"Allegory of Sight\". Other members of the family include Pieter Coecke van Aelst and Mayken Verhulst (father-in-law and mother-in-law to Pieter Bruegel the Elder), Jan van Kessel the Elder (grandson of Jan Bruegel the Elder) and Jan van Kessel the Younger. Through David Teniers, the family is also related to the whole Teniers family of painters and the Quellinus family of painters and sculptors, since Jan-Erasmus Quellinus married Cornelia, daughter of David Teniers the Younger.",
"Bruegel's art was long more highly valued by collectors than critics. His friend Abraham Ortelius described him in a friendship album in 1574 as \"the most perfect painter of his century\", but both Vasari and Van Mander see him as essentially a comic successor to Hieronymus Bosch. But Bruegel's work was, as far as we know, always keenly collected. The banker Nicolaes Jonghelinck owned sixteen paintings; his brother Jacques Jonghelinck was a gentleman-sculptor and medallist, who also had significant business interests. He made medals and tombs in an international style for the Brussels elite, especially Cardinal Granvelle, who was also a keen patron of Bruegel. Granvelle owned at least two Bruegels, including the Courtauld \"Flight into Egypt\", but we do not know if he bought them directly from the artist. Granvelle's nephew and heir was strong-armed out of his Bruegels by Rudolf II, the very acquisitive Austrian Habsburg Emperor. The series of the \"Months\" entered the Habsburg collections in 1594, given to Rudolf's brother and later taken by the emperor himself. Rudolf eventually owned at least ten Bruegel paintings. A generation later Rubens owned eleven or twelve, which mostly passed to the Antwerp senator Pieter Stevens, and were then sold in 1668. Bruegel's son Pieter could still keep himself and a large studio team busy producing replicas or adaptations of Bruegel's works, as well as his own compositions along similar lines, sixty years or more after they were first painted. The most frequently copied works were generally not the ones that are most famous today, though this may reflect the availability of the full-scale detailed drawings that were evidently used. The most-copied painting is the \"Winter Landscape with (Skaters and) a Bird Trap\" (1565), of which the original is in Brussels; 127 copies are recorded. They include paintings after some of Bruegel's drawn print designs, especially \"Spring\". The next century's artists of peasant genre scenes were heavily influenced by Brueghel. Outside the Brueghel family, early figures were Adriaen Brouwer (c. 1605/6-1638) and David Vinckboons (1576–c.1632), both Flemish-born but spending much of their time in the northern Netherlands. As well as the general conception of such \"kermis\" subjects, Vinckboons and other artists took from Bruegel \"such stylistic devices as the bird's-eye perspective, ornamentalized vegetation, bright palette, and stocky, odious figures. Forty years after their deaths, and over a century after Bruegel's, Jan Steen (1626–79) continued to show a particular interest in Bruegelian treatments. The critical treatment of Bruegel as essentially an artist of comic peasant scenes persisted until the late 19th century, even after his best paintings became widely visible as royal and aristocratic collections were turned into museums. This had been partly explicable when his work was mainly known from copies, prints and reproductions. Even Henri Hymans, whose work of 1890/91 was the first important contribution to modern Bruegel scholarship, could describe him thus: \"His field of enquiry is certainly not of the most extensive; his ambition, too, is modest. He confines himself to a knowledge of mankind and the most immediate objects\", a line no modern scholar is likely to take. As his landscape paintings, in good colour reproduction, have become his best-loved works, so his importance in the history of landscape art has become understood.",
"There are about forty generally accepted surviving paintings, twelve of which are in the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna. A number of others are known to have been lost, including what, according to van Mander, Bruegel himself thought his best work, \"a picture in which Truth triumphs\". Bruegel only etched one plate himself, \"The Rabbit Hunt,\" but designed some forty prints, both engravings and etchings, mostly for the Cock publishing house. As discussed above, about sixty-one drawings are now recognized as authentic, mostly designs for prints or landscapes.",
"His painting \"Landscape with the Fall of Icarus\", now thought only to survive in copies, is the subject of the 1938 poem \"Musée des Beaux Arts\" by W. H. Auden: <poem> In Brueghel's Icarus, for instance: how everything turns away Quite leisurely from the disaster; the ploughman Have heard the splash, the forsaken cry, But for him it was not an important failure; the sun shone As it had to on the white legs disappearing into the green Water, and the expensive delicate ship that must have seen Something amazing, a boy falling out of the sky, Had somewhere to get to and sailed calmly on. </poem> It also was the subject of a 1960 poem by William Carlos Williams and was referenced in Nicolas Roeg's 1976 science fiction film \"The Man Who Fell to Earth\". Further, Williams' final collection of poetry references a number of Bruegel's work. Bruegel's painting \"Two Monkeys\" was the subject of Wisława Szymborska's 1957 poem, \"Brueghel's Two Monkeys\". Russian film director Andrei Tarkovsky referenced Bruegel's paintings in his films several times, notably in \"Solaris\" (1972) and \"The Mirror\" (1975). Director Lars von Trier also uses Bruegel's paintings in his film \"Melancholia\" (2011). This was used as a reference to Tarkovsky's \"Solaris\", a movie with related themes. His 1564 painting \"The Procession to Calvary\" inspired the 2011 Polish-Swedish film co-production \"The Mill and the Cross\", in which Bruegel is played by Rutger Hauer. Bruegel's paintings in the Kunsthistorisches Museum are shown in the 2012 film, \"Museum Hours\", where his work is discussed at length by a guide. Seamus Heaney referenced Brueghel in his poem \"The Seed Cutters\". David Jones references the painting \"The Blind Leading the Blind\" in his World War One prose-poem \"In Parenthesis\": \"the stumbling dark of the blind, that Breughel knew about - ditch circumscribed\". Michael Frayn, in his novel \"Headlong\", imagines a lost panel from the 1565 \"Months\" series resurfacing unrecognized, which triggers a mad conflict between an art (and money) lover and the boor who possesses it. Much thought is spent on Bruegel's secret motives for painting it. In his book \"American Barricade\", Danniel Schoonebeek references several Brueghel paintings in his poem \"Poem for a Seven-Hour Flight\", notably in the lines: \"I am the hounds in Brueghel / do you know the hounds // here is the single fox I have killed will you wear it around your shoulders are you ashamed.\" Author Don Delillo references Bruegel's painting \"The Triumph of Death\" in his novel \"Underworld\" and his short story \"Pafko at the Wall\". It is believed that the painting \"The Hunters in the Snow\" influenced the classic short story with the same title written by Tobias Wolff and featured in \"In the Garden of the North American Martyrs\". In the foreword to his novel \"The Folly of the World\", author Jesse Bullington explains that Bruegel's painting Netherlandish Proverbs not only inspired the title but also the plot to some extent. Various sections are introduced with a proverb depicted in the painting that alludes to a plot element."
]
}
|
Scottie Pippen
| null |
Scotty Maurice Pippen (born September 25, 1965), usually spelled Scottie Pippen, is an American former professional basketball player. He played 17 seasons in the National Basketball Association (NBA), winning six NBA championships with the Chicago Bulls. Pippen, along with Michael Jordan, played an important role in transforming the Bulls into a championship team and in popularizing the NBA around the world during the 1990s.
| null |
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en-train-1084586
|
en-train-1084586
|
1084586
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{
"title": [
"Early life.",
"NBA career.",
"Early career (1987–1990).",
"The Bulls' first three-peat (1991–1993).",
"The Dream Team (1992).",
"Pippen without Jordan (1993–1995).",
"The Bulls' second three-peat (1996–1998).",
"Houston Rockets (1998–1999).",
"Portland Trail Blazers (1999–2003).",
"Return to Chicago (2003–2004).",
"Retirement (2005–present).",
"Player profile.",
"Legacy.",
"Personal life."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
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],
"content": [
"Scotty Maurice Pippen was born in Hamburg, Arkansas, on September 25, 1965, the son of Ethel and Preston Pippen (1920–1990). He has 11 older siblings. His mother was tall and his father was, and all of their children were tall, with Pippen being the tallest. His parents could not afford to send their other children to college. His father worked in a paper mill until suffering from a stroke that paralyzed his right side, prevented him from walking, and affected his speech. Pippen attended Hamburg High School. Playing point guard, he led his",
"",
"Having eyed Pippen before the 1987 NBA Draft but selected too low, at No. 8 overall, the Chicago Bulls manufactured a trade with the Seattle SuperSonics that would send Pippen, selected fifth overall, to the Bulls, in exchange for Olden Polynice and future draft pick options. Pippen became part of Chicago's young forward duo with power forward Horace Grant (the 10th overall pick in 1987), although both came off the bench to back up Brad Sellers and Charles Oakley, respectively, during their rookie seasons. Scottie made his NBA debut on November 7, 1987, when the Chicago Bulls opened against the Philadelphia 76ers. He finished with 10 points, 2 steals, 4 assists, and 1 rebound in 23 minutes of play, and the Bulls won 104–94. With teammate",
"In the 1990–91 NBA season, Pippen emerged as the Bulls' primary defensive stopper and a versatile scoring threat in Phil Jackson's 'triangle offense'. Alongside the help of Michael Jordan, Pippen continued to improve his game. He had his first triple-double on November 23 when the Bulls faced the Los Angeles Clippers as he had 13 points, 12 assists and 13 rebounds in 30 minutes in a 105–97 win. He had his second triple-double against the Indiana Pacers on December 22 as the Bulls defeated the Pacers 128–118. Pippen finished the game with 18 points, 11 assists and 10 rebounds in 41 minutes of play, in addition to 1 steal and 1 block while shooting 54.5% from the field. Pippen scored a season-high of 43 points on February 23 in a 129–108 win against the Charlotte Hornets. In addition, he also grabbed 4 rebounds, dished out 6 assists and had 6 steals in 31 minutes of play. He had a career-high field goal percentage that game with 94.1% as he was 16–17 from the field.",
"On September 21, 1991, amongst 9 other players (2 more would be later selected), Pippen was announced as",
"Michael Jordan retired before the 1993–94 season and in his absence Pippen emerged from Jordan's shadow. That year, he earned All-Star Game MVP honors and led the Bulls in scoring, assists, and blocks, and was second in the NBA in steals per game, averaging 22.0 points, 8.7 rebounds, 5.6 assists, 2.9 steals, and 0.8 blocks per game, while shooting 49.1% from the field and a career-best 32% from the 3-point line. For his efforts, he earned the first of three straight All-NBA First Team selections, and he finished third in MVP voting. The Bulls (with key additions of Toni Kukoč, Steve Kerr and Luc Longley) finished the season with 55 wins, only two fewer than the year before. However, one of the most controversial moments of Pippen's career came in his first year without Jordan. In the 1994 NBA Playoffs, the Eastern Conference Semifinals pitted the Bulls against the New York Knicks, whom the Bulls had dispatched en route",
"With the return of Michael Jordan and the addition of multiple NBA rebound leader Dennis Rodman, the Bulls posted the best regular-season record in NBA history at the time (72–10) in en route to winning their fourth title against the Seattle SuperSonics. Later that year, Pippen became the first person to win an NBA championship and an Olympic gold medal in the same year twice, playing for Team USA at the Atlanta Olympics. The Bulls opened 1996–97 NBA season with a 17–1 record and had a league-best record of 42–6 when entering the All-Star break. Both Pippen and Jordan were selected among the NBA's 50 Greatest Players as part of the league celebrating its 50th season. The ceremony was held at half-time of the 1997 NBA All-Star Game, which took place on February",
"After 11 seasons with the Chicago Bulls, Pippen, the franchise's second all-time leader in points, assists, and steals, was traded in 1998 to the Houston Rockets in exchange for Roy Rogers and a 2nd round pick in the 2000 NBA draft (Jake Voskuhl). Pippen's trade to Houston for the lockout-shortened season received much publicity, including his only solo cover of \"Sports Illustrated\". In order for the Rockets to create enough salary-cap room to acquire Pippen, Charles Barkley said that he sacrificed greatly as he signed a five-year $67.2 million contract before the previous",
"Pippen claimed the starting small forward position with the Portland Trail Blazers in the 1999–2000 NBA season. Playing alongside new stars such as Rasheed Wallace and Steve Smith, Pippen continued to demonstrate his defensive capabilities, even past his prime. On January 3, when the Trail Blazers faced the Bulls, Pippen was honored with a video tribute highlighting his best moments in his 11-year career with the Bulls. Pippen later commented on the tribute by saying: \"It was very emotional for me, but I tried to handle it as well as possible",
"After the season, Pippen left Portland in order to sign with the Chicago Bulls, where he had begun his NBA career and won six championships. The Bulls' general manager John Paxson pursued Pippen to return to his old team, which had little success following the breakup of the Bulls dynasty in 1998. The deal was made official on July 20, 2003, as Pippen signed a two-year, $10 million contract with the franchise. Pippen assumed a veteran role on the team in order to guide the young Bulls team, but was faced with numerous",
"The Chicago Bulls retired Pippen's jersey number in a ceremony on December 9, 2005. The team played against the Los Angeles Lakers that night and Pippen was reunited with Phil Jackson, Michael Jordan, Dennis Rodman, and Horace Grant during the ceremony. Pippen's 33 joined Michael Jordan's 23, Bob Love's 10, and Jerry Sloan's 4 as the only numbers retired by the Bulls. In 2007, Pippen had attempted to make an NBA comeback as he expressed that he would like to play for a championship contender in hopes of getting his 7th Championship ring. Pippen had spent the winter working out in Fort Lauderdale, Florida and announced that he was hoping for a late-season return to the league. Dwyane Wade, who was the Finals MVP of the 2006 NBA Finals and the captain of",
"Pippen was famed for his defensive abilities, having made the NBA All Defensive Team ten consecutive years during his career and leading the league in steals in. Jackson once described him as a \"one-man wrecking crew\", capable of guarding anyone from the point guard to the center position. Pippen is one of three players in NBA history (along with Jordan and Olajuwon) to record 200 steals and 100 blocks in a season, and he has the record for second most career steals in the playoffs (395) behind James. He",
"Pippen is remembered as one of the greatest basketball defenders of all time, and one of the most versatile and agile players overall. Much like fellow Bulls teammate Michael Jordan, he provided tenacious on-the-ball perimeter defense or tough interior defense, and was particularly effective as a help defender. He was gifted with extraordinary athleticism, even compared with other professional athletes, and skills in areas that bode well for basketball. Pippen's unusually long arms (with a wingspan) and jumping agility helped him clog the passing lanes on defense, block shots from behind on players that had managed to pass him by, grab seemingly out-of-reach rebounds, make unusual plays in mid-air, and make passes around defenders that most players are physically unable to make. He often led the Bulls in assists and blocks as a result. He",
"Although his given name is spelled \"Scotty\" on his birth certificate, Pippen usually goes by \"Scottie\". His nephew, Kavion Pippen, plays basketball for the Austin Spurs. Pippen has been married twice, first marrying Karen McCollum in 1988. They had a son named Antron (born 1987) before divorcing in 1990. He married \"Real Housewives of Miami\" star Larsa Younan in 1997. They had four children named Scotty Jr. (born 2000), Preston (born 2002), Justin (born 2005), and Sophia (born 2008) before divorcing in 2018. Scotty Jr. is a freshman on the basketball team at Vanderbilt University. Sophia appeared on the first season of \"\". Pippen also has a daughter named Sierra (born 1995) with his former fiancée Yvette De Leon, and a daughter named Taylor (born 1994) with his former girlfriend Sonya Roby. Taylor's twin sister, Tyler, died nine days after birth. Taylor played volleyball at Southern Illinois University, but now works as an accountant in Chicago. Pippen developed a reputation for being a poor tipper at restaurants, earning him the nickname \"No Tippin' Pippen\". Shortly after retiring, Pippen learned that Robert Lunn, a financial adviser whom he claimed had been recommended by the Bulls, was under investigation for bank fraud. He had invested over $20 million through Lunn, who was sentenced to three years in prison in March 2016 on multiple fraud counts, including one count of forging Pippen's signature on a $1.4 million loan that Lunn used to pay off personal debts. On July 11, 2013, Camran Shafighi filed a $4 million lawsuit against Pippen in Los Angeles Superior Court over an incident that had occurred on June 23 at the restaurant Nobu in Malibu, California. Shafighi said that he was physically attacked by Pippen after taking pictures of Pippen inside and outside the restaurant, and was then taken to a hospital. On August 27, the district attorney's office announced that charges would not be filed against Pippen."
]
}
|
Patrick Ewing
| null |
Patrick Aloysius Ewing (born August 5, 1962) is a Jamaican-American basketball coach and former professional player who is the head coach of the Georgetown University men's basketball team. He played most of his career as the starting center of the NBA's New York Knicks and also played briefly with the Seattle SuperSonics and Orlando Magic.
| null |
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en-train-1715901
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en-train-1715901
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1715901
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{
"title": [
"Early life.",
"College career.",
"NBA career.",
"New York Knicks.",
"After the Knicks.",
"Awards and honors.",
"Coaching career.",
"Other work.",
"Endorsements.",
"Personal life."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
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"1",
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],
"content": [
"Ewing was born August 5, 1962 in Kingston, Jamaica. As a child, he excelled at cricket and soccer. In 1975, 12-year-old Ewing moved to the United States and joined his family in Cambridge, Massachusetts. He learned to play basketball at Cambridge Rindge and Latin School with the help of John Fountain. With only a few years of playing experience, Ewing developed into one of best high school players in the country, and among the most intimidating forces ever seen at the level given his size and athleticism. Due to his stature and the team's dominance, Ewing was subject to racially fueled taunts and jeers from hostile away crowds. Once rival fans even rocked the team bus when Ewing's squad arrived to play an away game. In order to prepare for college, Ewing joined the MIT-Wellesley Upward Bound Program.",
"As a senior in high school, Ewing signed a letter of intent to play for coach John Thompson at Georgetown University. Ewing made his announcement in Boston, in a room full of fans who were hoping for him to play for local schools Boston College or Boston University; when Ewing announced his decision to play at Georgetown, the fans left the room. During his recruitment, Ewing was very close to signing a letter of intent to play for Dean Smith and the University of North Carolina, however, while on his recruiting visit, he witnessed a nearby rally for the Ku Klux Klan, which dissuaded him from going there. Ewing made six recruiting visits in all; he also visited UCLA and Villanova. As a freshman during the 1981–82 season, Ewing became one of the first college players to start and star on the varsity team as a freshman. That year, Ewing led the Hoyas to their second Big East Tournament title in school history and a #1 seed in the NCAA Tournament. In the tournament, the Hoyas advanced to their first Final Four since 1943, where they defeated the University of Louisville 50–46, to set up a showdown in the NCAA Final against North Carolina. In one of the most star-studded championship games in NCAA history, Ewing was called for goaltending five times in the first half (later revealed to be intentional at the behest of coach John Thompson), setting the tone for the Hoyas and making his presence felt. The Hoyas led late in the game, but a shot by future NBA superstar Michael Jordan gave North Carolina the lead. Georgetown still had a chance at winning the game in the final seconds, but Freddy Brown mistakenly threw a bad pass directly to opposing player James Worthy. For the 1982–83 season, Ewing and the Hoyas began the season as the second-seeded ranked team in the country. An early-season showdown with #1 ranked Virginia and their star center Ralph Sampson was dubbed the \"Game of the Decade\". Virginia's veteran team won, 68–63, but Ewing at one point slam-dunked right over Sampson, a play which established Ewing as a dominating \"big man\". The Hoyas posted a 22–10 record for the season and made another NCAA Tournament appearance, but Georgetown was defeated in the second round of the tournament by Memphis State. This would be the only season in Ewing's Georgetown career where they did not make it at least as far as the National Championship game. In the 1983–84 season, Ewing led Georgetown to the Big East regular season championship, the Big East Tournament championship and another #1 seed in the NCAA Tournament. Also, he was named the Big East Player of the Year. The Hoyas ultimately advanced to the Final Four for the third time in school history (and second time with Ewing) to face Kentucky, a team which had never lost a national semifinal game and was led by the \"Twin Towers\", Sam Bowie and Melvin Turpin. Georgetown was able to turn an early 12 point deficit into a 53–40 win to advance to the National Championship game. In the final, the Hoyas faced the University of Houston, led by future Hall of Fame center Hakeem Olajuwon. Ewing and Georgetown prevailed with an 84–75 victory, giving the school its first and only NCAA Championship in school history. Ewing was named the tournament's Most Outstanding Player. For the 1984–85 season, Ewing's senior year, Georgetown was ranked #1 in the nation for the majority of the campaign. Ewing was again named the Big East Player of the Year and the team won the Big East tournament title yet again. They entered the NCAA tournament as the #1 overall seed of the East Region, where they wound up advancing to another Final Four, their third in four years. In the National Semifinal game, Georgetown faced their Big East rivals, St. John's and Chris Mullin, the fourth meeting between the schools that year. The Hoyas easily defeated the Redmen 77–59, setting up a matchup with another Big East rival in unranked Villanova for the title. An overwhelming favorite going into the game, Georgetown was upset by the Wildcats 66–64, who shot a record 78.6 percent (22 of 28) from the floor, denying Ewing and Georgetown back-to-back titles. At the conclusion of the season, Ewing was awarded the Naismith Player of the Year Award and the Associated Press Player of the Year. Ewing's four-year college career is cited as one of the most successful college runs of all time. Among his many accomplishments, he helped Georgetown reach the final game of the NCAA Tournament three out of four years, win three Big East Tournament titles, four Big East Defensive Player of the Year awards and was named a first-team All-American three times. He also left a cultural impact on the sport in a variety of ways. He was one of the first freshmen to not only start for but lead a major college basketball team, something unheard of back in his era. Also, he developed a habit of wearing a short-sleeved T-shirt underneath his jersey, which started a fashion trend among young athletes that lasts to this day.",
"",
"Ewing was expected to be the top pick in the 1985 NBA draft. The team that selected him would be making history by doing so. From 1966 until 1984, the NBA draft was conducted similarly to the NFL draft, where teams are awarded draft positions based on winning percentage. The difference was that instead of the team with the lowest percentage automatically being awarded the top pick, the NBA held a coin toss between the teams with the worst records in each conference and the winner of the coin toss selected first with the loser automatically picking second. This practice tended to encourage teams to purposely lose games in order to improve their draft position and potentially get into the coin toss. The only way two teams from the same conference could have the first two picks would have been if one of the two aforementioned teams traded their pick to another team (as the Indiana Pacers had done with what eventually became the number-two pick in the previous year's draft). Beginning with the 1985 draft, the NBA handled matters differently. Every team that qualified for the playoffs received positions based on their winning percentage, and the teams that did not were placed in a lottery. In the first lottery, the NBA did not determine the positions as they do now. In this case, the seven teams that did not qualify for the playoffs were each given an equal chance to get the top pick. Each team had its name and logo put in an envelope, and the envelopes were placed into a hopper and spun to shuffle them. Once done, Commissioner David Stern then drew an envelope from inside to determine who would pick first. In a move that would create controversy for years to come, the envelope Stern drew was the one belonging to the New York Knicks. They drafted Ewing, as expected, beginning a 15-year relationship. They then signed him to a 10-year, $32 million contract, a contract which \"The New York Times\" years later described as \"a tremendous contract at that time or any time.\" Although injuries marred his first year in the league, he was voted NBA Rookie of the Year and named to the NBA All-Rookie First Team after averaging 20 points, 9 rebounds, and 2 blocks per game. Soon after he was considered one of the premier centers in the league. Ewing enjoyed a successful career; eleven times named an NBA All-Star, once named to the All-NBA First Team, six times a member of the All-NBA Second Team, and named to the NBA All-Defensive Second Team three times. He was a member of the original Dream Team at the 1992 Olympic Games. He was also given the honor of being named one of the 50 Greatest Players in NBA History. In the 1992 Eastern Conference Semifinals, the Knicks played the defending NBA champion Chicago Bulls and Michael Jordan. Ewing was unstoppable in Game 1, finishing with 34 points, 16 rebounds, and 6 blocks, and the Knicks beat Chicago 94–89. The Knicks were facing elimination in Game 6 when Ewing had one of the greatest games of his career. The team trailed 3–2 in the series, and Ewing was limited physically by a bad ankle sprain, but he helped the Knicks beat the Bulls 100–86 by scoring 27 points. NBC announcer Marv Albert called it a \"Willis Reed-type performance\", but the Knicks were ultimately eliminated in Game 7 in a blowout, 110–81. In an April 14, 1993 game, between the Knicks and the Charlotte Hornets, the Ewing suffered a moment of embarrassment when Muggsy Bogues, a point guard for the Hornets, managed to block his shot. The team looked like it was going to advance to the NBA Finals when they took a 2–0 lead over Michael Jordan and the Chicago Bulls. Both teams battled well, each winning on its home court in the first 4 games. However, the Bulls stunned the Ewing-led Knicks, winning Game 5 in New York 97–94 after Ewing's teammate, Charles Smith, was repeatedly blocked down low by Bulls defenders on the game's final possession. The Bulls would go on to win Game 6 96–88 and then claim their third straight NBA title. This would be one more season in which Ewing had to deal with no championships, despite the fact that the Knicks had the best regular season record in the Eastern Conference at 60–22 and had the second-best record in the NBA, behind the Phoenix Suns, who were 62–20. With Jordan out of the league, 1993–94 was considered a wide open year in the NBA, and Ewing had declared that 1994 would be the Knicks' year. He was a main contributor to the Knicks' run to the 1994 NBA Finals, in which the Knicks—in the Finals for the first time since 1973—lost in the final seconds of Games 6 and 7 to Hakeem Olajuwon's Houston Rockets. The Knicks, with Ewing leading them, had to survive a grueling trek through the playoffs simply to reach the Finals. They defeated the Bulls and Scottie Pippen in seven games in the 1994 Eastern Conference Semifinals (all seven games were won by the home team), and defeated Reggie Miller's Indiana Pacers in the Conference Finals, which also took seven games to decide. In the Finals, the Knicks stole Game 2 in Houston, but could not hold court at home, dropping Game 3 at the Garden. The Knicks then won the next two games to return to Houston ahead 3–2. However, the Rockets won the next two games. Ewing made the most of his playoff run by setting a record for most blocked shots in a Finals series (broken by Tim Duncan in 2003). He also set an NBA Finals record for most blocked shots in a single game, with 8 (surpassed by Dwight Howard in 2009). The following year, a potential game-tying finger roll by Ewing rimmed out in the dwindling seconds of Game 7 of the Eastern Conference Semifinals, resulting in a loss to the Indiana Pacers. In the 1995–96 season, Ewing and the Knicks were eliminated in the Eastern Conference Semifinals in five games by the record-setting 1995–96 Bulls, who won 72 games that year en route to their fourth championship. In the 1997 playoffs, the Knicks faced the Miami Heat in the Eastern Conference Semifinals. Ewing was involved in a Game 5 brawl where both teams' benches got involved. The Knicks, who were up 3–1 in the series going into Game 5, lost the next three games and were eliminated. In the next season, Ewing's career almost came to an end due to an injury. On December 20, 1997, in a game against the Milwaukee Bucks at the Bradley Center, Ewing was fouled by Andrew Lang while attempting a dunk. Ewing fell awkwardly and landed with all of his weight on his shooting hand. The result was a severely damaged wrist, with Ewing suffering a displaced fracture, a complete dislocation of the lunate bone, and torn ligaments. These injuries required emergency surgery to prevent nerve damage, and it was said that Ewing suffered injuries that were usually reserved for victims of vehicular accidents. Ewing, who had only missed 20 games in the previous ten seasons, missed the remaining 56 games of the season. However, he was able to rehabilitate the injury faster than expected and as the playoffs began, Ewing was talking about returning. The Heat and Knicks met in the playoffs for the second straight year. This time, the two teams met up in the first round of the playoffs. The series went to a decisive fifth game, but the Knicks avenged their loss to Miami the year before by beating the Heat in Miami 98–81. Ewing returned for Game 2 of the Eastern Conference Semifinals against the Pacers. His presence was not enough, however, as the Knicks fell to the Pacers in five games. The following season, Ewing and the Knicks qualified as the East's eighth seed in a lockout-shortened season. Although battling an achilles tendon injury, Ewing led the Knicks to another victory over the Heat in the first round, 3–2. They followed that up by sweeping the Atlanta Hawks, and defeated the Pacers in the Conference Finals in 6 games, despite Ewing's injury finally forcing him out of action. However, the Knicks could not complete their Cinderella run, as they lost in the Finals to the San Antonio Spurs, 4–1. In Ewing's final season with the Knicks in 1999–2000, the team finished as the third seed in the East behind the Pacers and Heat. The team advanced to the Conference Finals again, sweeping the Toronto Raptors and beating the Heat for the third straight year in seven games, but could not defeat the Pacers and fell in six games. In his last year with the Knicks, Ewing had a game-winning slam dunk over Alonzo Mourning in Game 7 of the Eastern Conference Semifinals to lead the Knicks to the Eastern Conference Finals. During his final season with the Knicks, Ewing played in his 1,000th NBA game, finishing his Knick career with a franchise-record 1,039 games played in a Knick uniform (he is the only player to play 1,000 games with the Knicks).",
"In 2000, he left the Knicks as part of a trade to the Seattle SuperSonics. In the trade, the Knicks sent Ewing to Seattle and Chris Dudley to Phoenix, and received Glen Rice, Luc Longley, Travis Knight, Vladimir Stepania, Lazaro Borrell, Vernon Maxwell, two first-round draft picks (from the Los Angeles Lakers and Seattle) and two second-round draft picks from Seattle. After a year with the SuperSonics and another with the Orlando Magic, he announced his retirement on September 18, 2002. After that season, he took a job as an assistant coach with the Washington Wizards. In 1,183 games over 16 seasons, Ewing averaged 21.0 points, 9.8 rebounds, and 2.4 blocks per game, and averaged better than a 50% shooting percentage. As of 2014, Ewing was ranked 18th on the NBA scoring list with 24,815 points. In 2001, Ewing testified in part of the Atlanta's Gold Club prostitution and fraud federal trial. The owner, Thomas Sicignano, testified that he arranged for dancers to have sex with professional athletes. Ewing admitted that he went to the club, where he received oral sex twice. Ewing was never charged with a crime. Ewing played 1,039 games for the Knicks. On February 28, 2003, his jersey number 33 was retired by the team in a large ceremony at Madison Square Garden. For the first time ever, Ewing represented the Knicks during the NBA draft lottery on May 14, 2019. They got the third overall pick in the 2019 NBA draft.",
"Ewing was a defensive stalwart throughout his basketball career, although he often had difficulty placing on the NBA All-Defensive Team due to the defensive prowess of his contemporaries Hakeem Olajuwon and David Robinson. In 1993, he led the NBA with 789 defensive rebounds. He was top ten in field goal percentage eight times, top ten in rebounds per game and total rebounds eight times, top ten in points and points per game eight times, and top ten in blocks per game for 13 years. In 1999, Ewing became the 10th player in NBA history to record 22,000 points and 10,000 rebounds.",
"From 2003 through 2006, Ewing was an assistant with the Houston Rockets, before resigning to spend more time with his family. On July 3, 2007, Ewing was one of four assistants hired to serve under first-year Orlando Magic head coach Stan Van Gundy for the 2007–08 season. Ewing was a key factor in the Magic's run to the 2009 NBA Finals, where they lost to the Los Angeles Lakers. He correctly predicted a win in Game 7 of the second round against the defending champion Boston Celtics. The Magic beat the Celtics 101 to 82 to win the series 4–3. As a result, Ewing saw Magic captain Dwight Howard set a new NBA Finals record, for most blocked shots in a single finals game, with 9 in Game 4 of the finals, surpassing the previous record of 8, which Ewing himself set in Game 5 of the 1994 Finals. In 2010, Ewing finally got the opportunity to coach his son Patrick Ewing Jr. in the 2010 summer league. Ewing Jr. played for the Magic. In 2013, Ewing became an assistant coach with the Charlotte Bobcats (now Charlotte Hornets). On November 8, 2013, Ewing would end up coaching for the Bobcats as their interim head coach due to the team's regular head coach Steve Clifford having heart surgery during that time. He would end up losing in his first stint by the score of 101–91 against his former team, the New York Knicks. On April 3, 2017, Ewing was hired as head coach of his former college team, the Georgetown Hoyas. In his first season as head coach, the Hoyas were 15–15 (5–13 in the Big East). The season ended without any postseason tournament play. In Ewing's second season Georgetown was 19–14, and finished tied in third place in the Big East with a 9–9 record. The Hoyas were awarded a bid into the National Invitational Tournament, their first postseason tournament since 2015. James Akinjo was named the Big East Rookie of the Year, and fellow freshmen Mac McClung and Josh Leblanc joined him on the All-Freshman Team.",
"In the summer of 1984 Ewing had an internship in the office of Senator Bob Dole. Ewing was in the 1996 movie \"Space Jam\" as himself, one of five NBA players whose talent was stolen (along with Charles Barkley, Shawn Bradley, Larry Johnson, and Muggsy Bogues). Ewing had a brief appearance, again as himself, in the movie \"Senseless\" starring Marlon Wayans. Ewing made cameos as himself in the sitcoms \"Spin City\", \"Herman's Head\", \"Mad About You\", and \"Webster\". Most recently, he appeared in a 2009 ad for Snickers, suggesting that those who eat the candy bar might \"get dunked on by Patrick Chewing\". He also made a silent cameo as the Angel of Death in \"The Exorcist III\". He co-wrote \"In the Paint\", a painting how-to book for children. In 2014, Ewing and sports agent David Falk announced a $3.3 million donation to the John R. Thompson, Jr. Intercollegiate Athletics Center under construction at Georgetown University. The amount is a reference to Ewing's number, 33.",
"Ewing's first sneaker endorsement was with Adidas in 1986. In 1991, Next Sports signed a licensing deal to release footwear under Ewing's name in the United States under a new company, Ewing Athletics, which would operate until 1996. In 2012, David Goldberg and his company GPF Footwear LLC successfully teamed up with Ewing to resurrect the old Ewing Athletics line, and bring it back into stores, capitalizing on the current retro trend in the footwear market.",
"Ewing was married to Rita Williams from 1990 to 1998. He has three children, including Patrick Ewing, Jr. After friend and rival NBA center Alonzo Mourning was diagnosed with a kidney ailment in 2000, Ewing promised that he would donate one of his kidneys to Mourning if he ever needed one. In 2003, Ewing was tested for kidney compatibility with Mourning, but Mourning's cousin was found to be the better match. Ewing, Jr, transferred to his father's alma mater, Georgetown University after two years at Indiana University Bloomington. Ewing, Jr. wore the same jersey number that his father wore, #33. He was drafted by the Sacramento Kings in the second round with the 43rd pick of the 2008 NBA draft, but was then traded to the New York Knicks, his father's old team. He did not make the Knicks' final roster, however. He has spent most of his career in the NBA D-League and in Europe. On May 22, 2020, Ewing announced that he had tested positive for COVID-19."
]
}
|
Chord letters
| null |
Musicians use various kinds of chord names and symbols in different contexts to represent musical chords. In most genres of popular music, including jazz, pop, and rock, a chord name and its corresponding symbol typically indicate one or more of the following:
| null |
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en-train-8562
|
en-train-8562
|
8562
|
{
"title": [
"Purpose.",
"Chord quality.",
"Major, minor, augmented, and diminished chords.",
"Altered fifths.",
"Common types of chords.",
"Triads.",
"Seventh chords.",
"Extended chords.",
"Ninth chords.",
"Eleventh chords.",
"Thirteenth chords.",
"Added tone chords.",
"Suspended chords.",
"Power chords.",
"Slash chords.",
"Polychords.",
"Other symbols."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"These chord symbols are used by musicians for a number of purposes. Chord-playing instrumentalists in the rhythm section, such as pianists, use these symbols to guide their improvised performance of chord voicings and fills. A rock or pop guitarist or keyboardist might literally play the chords as indicated (e.g., the C major chord would be played by playing the notes C, E and G at the same time). In jazz, particularly for music from the 1940s bebop era or later, players typically have latitude to add in the sixth, seventh, and/or ninth of the chord. Jazz chord voicings often omit the root (leaving it to the bass player) and fifth. As such, a jazz guitarist might voice the C major chord with the notes E, A and D—which are the third, sixth, and ninth of the chord. The bassist (electric bass or double bass) uses the chord symbols to help improvise a bass line that outlines the chords, often by emphasizing the root and other key scale tones (third, fifth, and in a jazz context, the seventh). The lead instruments, such as a saxophonist or lead guitarist, use the chord chart to guide their improvised solos. The instrumentalist improvising a solo may use scales that work well with certain chords or chord progressions, according to the chord-scale system. For example, in rock and blues soloing, the pentatonic scale built on the root note is widely used to solo over straightforward chord progressions that use I, IV, and V chords (in the key of C major, these would be the chords C, F, and G). In a journal of the American Composers Forum the use of letters to indicate chords is defined as, \"a reductive analytical system that views music via harmonic motion to and from a target chord or tonic.\" In 2003 Benjamin, Horvit, and Nelson describe the use of letters to indicate chord root as, \"popular music ([and/specifically] jazz) lead sheet symbols.\" The use of letters, \"is an analytical technique that may be employed along with, or instead of, more conventional methods of analysis [such as Roman numeral analysis]. The system employs letter names to indicate the roots of chords, accompanied by specific symbols to depict chord quality.\" Other notation systems for chords include:",
"Chord qualities are related to the qualities of the component intervals that define the chord. The main chord qualities are: Some of the symbols used for chord quality are similar to those used for interval quality: In addition, Chord qualities are sometimes omitted. When specified, they appear immediately after the root note or, if the root is omitted, at the beginning of the chord name or symbol. For instance, in the symbol Cm (C minor seventh chord) C is the root and m is the chord quality. When the terms minor, major, augmented, diminished, or the corresponding symbols do not appear immediately after the root note, or at the beginning of the name or symbol, they should be considered interval qualities, rather than chord qualities. For instance, in Cm (minor major seventh chord), m is the chord quality and M refers to the M7 interval.",
"Three-note chords are called triads. There are four \"basic triads\" (major, minor, augmented, diminished). They are all tertian—which means defined by the root, a third, and a fifth. Since most other chords are made by adding one or more notes to these triads, the name and symbol of a chord is often built by just adding an interval number to the name and symbol of a triad. For instance, a C augmented seventh chord is a C augmented triad with an extra note defined by a minor seventh interval: In this case, the quality of the additional interval is omitted. Less often, the full name or symbol of the additional interval (minor, in the example) is provided. For instance, a C augmented major seventh chord is a C augmented triad with an extra note defined by a major seventh interval: In both cases, \"the quality of the chord is the same as the quality of the basic triad it contains\". This is not true for all chord qualities: the chord qualities \"half-diminished\" and \"dominant\" refer not only to the quality of the basic triad but also the quality of the additional intervals.",
"A more complex approach is sometimes used to name and denote augmented and diminished chords. An augmented triad can be viewed as a major triad in which the perfect fifth interval (spanning 7 semitones) has been substituted with an augmented fifth (8 semitones). A diminished triad can be viewed as a minor triad in which the perfect fifth has been substituted with a diminished fifth (6 semitones). In this case, the augmented triad can be named \"major triad sharp five\", or \"major triad augmented fifth\" (M, M, maj). Similarly, the diminished triad can be named \"minor triad flat five\", or \"minor triad diminished fifth\" (m, m, min). Again, the terminology and notation used for triads affects the terminology and notation used for larger chords, formed by four or more notes. For instance, the above-mentioned C augmented major seventh chord, is sometimes called \"C major seventh sharp five\", or \"C major seventh augmented fifth\". The corresponding symbol is CM, CM, or Cmaj: In this case, the chord is viewed as a C major seventh chord (CM) in which the third note is an augmented fifth from root (G), rather than a perfect fifth from root (G). All chord names and symbols including altered fifths, i.e., augmented (5, +5, aug5) or diminished (5, 5, dim5) fifths can be interpreted in a similar way.",
"",
"As shown in the table below, there are four triads, each made up of the root, the third (either major [M3] or minor [m3]) above the root, and the fifth (perfect [P5], augmented [A5], or diminished [d5]) above the root. The table below shows the names, symbols, and definition for the four triads, using C as the root.",
"A seventh chord is a triad with a seventh. The seventh is either a major seventh [M7] above the root, a minor seventh [m7] above the root (flatted 7th), or a diminished seventh [d7] above the root (double flatted 7th). Note that the diminished seventh note is enharmonically equivalent to the major sixth above the root of the chord. The table below shows the names, symbols, and definitions for the various kinds of seventh chords, using C as the root.",
"Extended chords add further notes to seventh chords. Of the seven notes in the major scale, a seventh chord uses only four (the root, third, fifth, and seventh). The other three notes (the second, fourth, and sixth) can be added in any combination; however, just as with the triads and seventh chords, notes are most commonly stacked – a seventh implies that there is a fifth and a third and a root. In practice, especially in jazz, certain notes can be omitted without changing the quality of the chord. In a jazz ensemble with a bass player, the chord-playing instrumentalists (guitar, organ, piano, etc.) can omit the root, as the bass player typically plays it. Ninth, eleventh, and thirteenth chords are known as \"extended\" tertian chords. These notes are enharmonically equivalent to the second, fourth, and sixth, respectively, except they are more than an octave above the root. However, this does not mean that they must be played in the higher octave. Although changing the octave of certain notes in a chord (within reason) does change the way the chord sounds, it does not change the essential characteristics or tendency of it. Accordingly, using the ninth, eleventh, or thirteenth in chord notation implies that the chord is an extended tertian chord rather than an added chord. The convention is that using an odd number (7, 9, 11, or 13) implies that all the other lower odd numbers are also included. Thus C implies that 3, 5, 7, 9, and 11 are also there. Using an even number such as 6, implies that only that one extra note has been added to the base triad e.g. 1, 3, 5, 6. Remember that this is theory, so in practice they do not have to be played in that ascending order e.g. 5, 1, 6, 3. Also, to resolve the clash between the third and eleventh, one of them may be deleted or separated by an octave. Another way to resolve might be to convert the chord to minor by lowering the third, which generates a clash between the 3 and the 9.",
"Ninth chords are built by adding a ninth to a seventh chord, either a major ninth [M9] or a minor ninth [m9]. A ninth chord includes the seventh; without the seventh, the chord is not an extended chord but an added tone chord—in this case, an add 9. Ninths can be added to any chord but are most commonly seen with major, minor, and dominant seventh chords. The most commonly omitted note for a voicing is the perfect fifth. The table below shows the names, symbols, and definitions for the various kinds of ninth chords, using C as the root.",
"Eleventh chords are theoretically ninth chords with the 11th (or fourth) added. However, it is common to leave certain notes out. The major third is often omitted because of a strong dissonance with the 11th, making the third an avoid note. Omission of the third reduces an 11th chord to the corresponding 9sus4 chord (suspended 9th chord). Similarly, omission of the third as well as fifth in C results in a major chord with alternate base B/C, which is characteristic in soul and gospel music. For instance: If the ninth is omitted, the chord is no longer an extended chord but an added tone chord. Without the third, this added tone chord becomes a 7sus4 (suspended 7th chord). For instance: The table below shows the names, symbols, and definitions for the various kinds of eleventh chords, using C as the root. Alterations from the natural diatonic chords can be specified as C... etc. Omission of the fifth in a raised 11th chord reduces its sound to a 5 chord.",
"Thirteenth chords are theoretically eleventh chords with the 13th (or sixth) added. In other words, theoretically they are formed by all the seven notes of a diatonic scale at once. Again, it is common to leave certain notes out. After the fifth, the most commonly omitted note is the 11th (fourth). The ninth (second) may also be omitted. A very common voicing on guitar for a 13th chord is just the root, third, seventh and 13th (or sixth). For example: C–E–(G)–B–(D)–(F)–A, or C–E–(G)–A–B–(D)–(F). On the piano, this is usually voiced C–B–E–A. The table below shows the names, symbols, and definitions for some thirteenth chords, using C as the root. Alterations from the natural diatonic chords can be specified as C... etc.",
"There are two ways to show that a chord is an added tone chord, and it is very common to see both methods on the same score. One way is to simply use the word 'add', for example, C. The second way is to use 2 instead of 9, implying that it is not a seventh chord, for instance, C. Note that this provides other ways of showing a ninth chord, for instance, C, C, or C. Generally however, this is shown as simply C, which implies a seventh in the chord. Added tone chord notation is useful with seventh chords to indicate partial extended chords, for example, C, which indicates that the 13th is added to the 7th, but without the 9th and 11th. The use of 2, 4, and 6 rather than 9, 11, and 13 indicates that the chord does not include a seventh unless explicitly specified. However, this does not mean that these notes must be played within an octave of the root, nor the extended notes in seventh chords should be played outside of the octave, although it is commonly the case. 6 is particularly common in a minor sixth chord (also known as minor/major sixth chord, as the 6 refers to a major sixth interval). It is possible to have added tone chords with more than one added note. The most commonly encountered of these are 6/9 chords, which are basic triads with the sixth and second notes of the scale added. These can be confusing because of the use of 9, yet the chord does not include the seventh. A good rule of thumb is that if any added note is less than 7, then no seventh is implied, even if there are some notes shown as greater than 7.",
"Suspended chords are notated with the symbols \"\" or \"\". When \"\" is alone, the suspended fourth chord is implied. This \"sus\" indication can be combined with any other notation. For example, the notation C refers to a ninth chord with the third replaced by the fourth: C–F–G–B–D. However, the major third can also be added as a tension above the fourth to \"colorize\" the chord: C–F–G–B–D–E. A sus4 chord with the added major third (sometimes called a major 10th) can also be voiced quartally as C–F–B–E.",
"Though power chords are not true chords \"per se\", as the term \"chord\" is generally defined as three or more different pitch classes sounded simultaneously, and a power chord contains only two (the root, the fifth, and often a doubling of the root at the octave), power chords are still expressed using a version of chord notation. Most commonly, power chords (e.g., C–G–C) are expressed using a \"5\" (e.g., C). Power chords are also referred to as \"fifth chords\", \"indeterminate chords\", or \"neutral chords\" (not to be confused with the quarter tone neutral chord, a stacking of two neutral thirds, e.g. C–E–G) since they are inherently neither major nor minor; generally, a power chord refers to a specific doubled-root, three-note voicing of a fifth chord. To represent an extended neutral chord, e.g., a seventh (C–G–B), the chord is expressed as its corresponding extended chord notation with the addition of the words \"no3rd,\" \"no3\" or the like. The aforementioned chord, for instance, could be indicated with C.",
"An inverted chord is a chord with a bass note that is a chord tone but not the root of the chord. Inverted chords are noted as slash chords with the note after the slash being the bass note. For instance, the notation C/E bass indicates a C major triad in first inversion i.e. a C major triad with an E in the bass. Likewise the notation C/G bass indicates that a C major chord with a G in the bass (second inversion). See figured bass for alternate method of notating specific notes in the bass. Upper structures are notated in a similar manner to inversions, except that the bass note is not necessarily a chord tone. For example: Chord notation in jazz usually gives a certain amount of freedom to the player for how the chord is voiced, also adding tensions (e.g., 9th, 11th, 13th, etc.) at the player's discretion. Therefore, upper structures are most useful when the composer wants musicians to play a specific tension array. These are also commonly referred as \"slash chords\". A slash chord is simply a chord placed on top of a different bass note. For example: Slash chords generally do not indicate a simple inversion (which is usually left to the chord player's discretion anyway), especially considering that the specified bass note may not be part of the chord to play on top. The bass note may be played instead of or in addition to the chord's usual root note, though the root note, when played, is likely to be played only in a higher octave to avoid \"colliding\" with the new bass note.",
"Polychords, as the name suggests, are combinations of two or more chords. The most commonly found form of a polychord is a bichord (two chords played simultaneously) and is written as follows:, for example: (C–E–G—B–D–F).",
"The right slash / or diagonal line written above the staff where chord symbols occur is used to indicate a beat during which the most recent chord symbol is understood to continue. It is used to help make uneven harmonic rhythms more readable. For example, if written above a measure of standard time, \"C / F G\" would mean that the C chord symbol lasts two beats while F and G last one beat each. The slash is separated from the surrounding chord symbols so as not to be confused with the chord-over-a-bass-note notation that also uses a slash. Some fake books extend this slash rhythm notation further by indicating chords that are held as a whole note with a diamond, and indicating unison rhythm section rhythmic figures with the appropriate note heads and stems. A simile mark in the middle of an otherwise empty measure tells the musician to repeat the chord or chords of the preceding measure. When seen with two slashes instead of one it indicates that the previous measure's chords should be repeated for two further measures, called a \"double simile\", and is placed on the measure line between the two empty bars. It simplifies the job of both the music reader (who can quickly scan ahead to the next chord change) and the copyist (who doesn't need to repeat every chord symbol). The chord notation N.C. indicates the musician should play no chord. The duration of this symbol follows the same rules as a regular chord symbol. This is used by composers and songwriters to indicate that the chord-playing musicians (guitar, keyboard, etc.) and the bass player should stop accompanying for the length covered by the \"No Chord\" symbol. Often the \"No Chord\" symbol is used to enable a solo singer or solo instrumentalist to play a pickup to a new section or an interlude without accompaniment. An even more stringent indication for the band to tacet (stop playing) is the marking \"solo break\". In jazz and popular music, this indicates that the entire band, including the drummer and percussionist, should stop playing to allow a solo instrumentalist to play a short cadenza, often one or two bars long. This rhythm section tacet creates a change of texture and gives the soloist great rhythmic freedom to speed up, slow down, or play with a varied tempo."
]
}
|
Karl Lachmann
| null |
Karl Konrad Friedrich Wilhelm Lachmann (; 4 March 1793 – 13 March 1851) was a German philologist and critic. He is particularly noted for his foundational contributions to the field of textual criticism.
| null |
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en-train-1835770
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en-train-1835770
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1835770
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{
"title": [
"Biography.",
"Importance in scholarship."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Lachmann was born in Brunswick, in present-day Lower Saxony. He studied at Leipzig and Göttingen, devoting himself mainly to philological studies. In Göttingen, he founded a critical and philological society in 1811, in conjunction with Dissen, Schulze, and Bunsen. In 1815, he joined the Prussian army as a volunteer \"chasseur\" and accompanied his detachment to Paris, but did not see active service. In 1816, he became an assistant master in the Friedrichswerder gymnasium at Berlin, and a \"Privatdozent\" at the university. The same summer he became one of the principal masters in the Friedrichs-Gymnasium of Königsberg, where he assisted his colleague, the Germanist Friedrich Karl Köpke, with his edition of Rudolf von Ems' \"Barlaam und Josaphat\" (1818), and also assisted his friend in a contemplated edition of the works of Walther von der Vogelweide. In January 1818, he became professor extraordinarius of classical philology in the University of Königsberg, and at the same time began to lecture on Old German grammar and the Middle High German poets. He devoted himself during the following seven years to an extraordinarily detailed study of those subjects, and in 1824, obtained a leave of absence in order to search the libraries of middle and south Germany for further materials. In 1825, Lachmann was nominated extraordinary professor of classical and German philology at the Humboldt University, Berlin (ordinary professor 1827); in 1830, he was admitted a member of the Academy of Sciences. He died in Berlin.",
"Lachmann is a figure of considerable importance in the history of German philology. Early in his career, Lachmann translated the first volume of P.E. Müller's \"Sagabibliothek des skandinavischen Altertums\" (1816). In his \"\"Habilitationsschrift\" über die ursprungliche Gestalt des Gedichts von der Nibelungen Noth\" (1816), and in his review of Hagen's \"Nibelungen\" and Benecke's \"Bonerius\", contributed in 1817 to the \"Jenaische Literaturzeitung\", he had already laid down the rules of textual criticism and elucidated the phonetic and metrical principles of Middle High German in a manner which marked a distinct advance in that branch of investigation. The rigidly scientific character of his method becomes increasingly apparent in the \"Auswahl aus den hochdeutschen Dichtern des dreizehnten Jahrhunderts\" (1820); in the edition of Hartmann's \"Iwein\" (1827); in those of Walther von der Vogelweide (1827) and Wolfram von Eschenbach (1833); in the papers \"\"Über das Hildebrandslied\",\" \"\"Über althochdeutsche Betonung und Verskunst\",\" \"\"Über den Eingang des Parzivals\",\" and \"\"Über drei Bruchstücke niederrheinischer Gedichte\"\" published in the \"Abhandlungen\" of the Berlin Academy; and in \"Der Nibelunge Not und die Klage\" (1826), which was followed by a critical commentary in 1836. Lachmann's \"Betrachtungen über Homer's Iliad\", first published in the \"Abhandlungen\" of the Berlin Academy in 1837 and 1841, in which he sought to show that the \"Iliad\" consists of eighteen independent \"layers\" variously enlarged and interpolated, had considerable influence on 19th century Homeric scholarship, although his views are no longer accepted. His smaller edition of the New Testament appeared in 1831, the 3rd edition in 1846, and the larger second edition, in two volumes, between 1842 and 1850. The plan of Lachmann's edition, which he explained in his \"Studia Krit.\" of 1830, is a modification of the unaccomplished project of Richard Bentley. Lachmann was the first major editor to break from the Textus Receptus, seeking to restore the most ancient reading current in manuscripts of the Alexandrian text-type, using the agreement of the Western authorities (Old Latin and Greek Western Uncials) as the main proof of antiquity of a reading where the oldest Alexandrian authorities differ. Lachmann's edition of Lucretius (1850), which was the principal occupation of his life from 1845, is perhaps his greatest achievement of scholarship. He demonstrated how the three main manuscripts all derived from one archetype, containing 302 pages of 26 lines to a page. Further, he was able to show that this archetype was a copy of a manuscript written in a minuscule hand, which was in turn a copy of a manuscript of the 4th or 5th centuries written in rustic capitals. To say his recreation of the text was accepted is anticlimactic; HAJ Munro characterized this accomplishment as \"a work which will be a landmark for scholars as long as the Latin language continues to be studied.\" Lachmann also edited Propertius (1816); Catullus (1829); Tibullus (1829); Genesius (1834); Terentianus Maurus (1836); Babrius (1845); Avianus (1845); Gaius (1841–1842); the \"Agrimensores Romani\" (1848–1852); and Lucilius (edited after his death by Vahlen, 1876). He also translated Shakespeare's sonnets (1820) and \"Macbeth\" (1829)."
]
}
|
Julius Caesar Scaliger
| null |
Julius Caesar Scaliger (; April 23, 1484 – October 21, 1558), or Giulio Cesare della Scala, was an Italian scholar and physician, who spent a major part of his career in France. He employed the techniques and discoveries of Renaissance humanism to defend Aristotelianism against the New Learning. In spite of his arrogant and contentious disposition, his contemporary reputation was high. Jacques Auguste de Thou claimed that none of the ancients could be placed above him and that he had no equal in his own time.
| null |
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en-train-38441
|
en-train-38441
|
38441
|
{
"title": [
"Biography.",
"His own account.",
"Later account.",
"Life at Agen.",
"Works.",
"Family."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Scaliger's father, Benedetto Bordone, was a miniaturist and illuminator. Scaliger himself was known in his youth by the family name Bordone, but later insisted that he was a scion of the house of La Scala, for a hundred and fifty years lords of Verona. He was born in 1484 at the Rocca di Riva, on Lake Garda. There are two accounts of his life, his own and that of his critics.",
"When he was twelve, his kinsman the emperor Maximilian placed him among his pages. He remained for seventeen years in the service of the emperor, distinguishing himself as a soldier and as a captain. He studied art under Albrecht Dürer. In 1512 at the Battle of Ravenna, where his father and elder brother were killed, his conduct earned him Order of the Golden Spur, augmented with the collar and the eagle of gold. He left the service of Maximilian, and after a brief employment by another kinsman, the duke of Ferrara, he decided to quit the military life, and in 1514 entered as a student at the University of Bologna. He decided to take holy orders, expecting that he would become cardinal, and then pope, when he would wrest from the Venetians his duchy of Verona, which the republic had taken from his ancestors. He soon gave up this plan, but remained at the university until 1519. The next six years he passed at the castle of Vico Nuovo, in Piedmont, as a guest of the Della Rovere, at first dividing his time between military expeditions in the summer, and study, chiefly of medicine and natural history, in the winter, until a severe attack of rheumatic gout brought his military career to a close. Henceforth his life was wholly devoted to study. In 1525 he accompanied Antonio della Rovera, bishop of Agen, to that city as his physician.",
"It was not until some time after his death that the enemies of his son first alleged that he was not of the family of La Scala, but was the son of Benedetto Bordone, an illuminator or schoolmaster of Verona; that he was educated at Padua, where he took the degree of M.D.; and that the story of his life before arriving at Agen was pure invention. It is supported by no other evidence than his own statements, some of which are inconsistent with well-ascertained facts.",
"The remaining thirty-two years of his life were passed almost wholly at Agen. On his death in 1558 he had a high scientific and literary reputation, though his books gave rise to disputes. He was charged with heresy in 1538 but was acquitted, one of the judges being his friend Arnoul Le Ferron. Scaliger died at Agen in 1558.",
"In 1531 he printed his first oration against Erasmus, in defence of Cicero and the Ciceronians (\"Oratio pro Cicerone contra Erasmum\", Paris 1531), dismissing Erasmus as a literary parasite, a mere corrector of texts. It is notable for its vigorous invective and, like his subsequent writings, its excellent Latin. It has been said of it, however, that it misses the point of his opponent's treatise \"Ciceronianus\". Erasmus did not reply, thinking it was the work of a personal enemy, Meander. Scaliger then wrote a second oration (published in 1536), also full of invective. The orations were followed by a large amount of Latin verse, which appeared in successive volumes in 1533, 1534, 1539, 1546 and 1547. This verse appeared in numerous editions, but was less appreciated by later critics. (One of them, Mark Pattison, agreed with the judgment of Pierre Daniel Huet, who said: \"par ses poésies brutes et informes Scaliger a déshonoré le Parnasse\".) He also published a brief tract on comic metres (\"De comicis dimensionibus\") and a work \"De causis linguae Latinae\" (Lyons 1540; Geneva 1580; Frankfurt 1623), in which he analyzes the style of Cicero and indicates 634 mistakes of Lorenzo Valla and his humanist predecessors, claimed to be the earliest Latin grammar using scientific principles and method. He published no other purely literary works in his lifetime. His \"Poetices libri septem\" (\"Seven books on Poetics\", Lyons 1561; Leyden 1581) appeared after his death. They contained many paradoxes and some elements of personal animosity (especially in his reference to Etienne Dolet), but also contain acute criticism based on the \"Poetics\" of Aristotle, \"imperator noster; omnium bonarum artium dictator perpetuus\" (\"our Emperor, dictator forever of all good qualities in the arts\"), an influential treatise in the history of literary criticism. Like many of his generation Scaliger prized Virgil above Homer. His praise of the tragedies of Seneca over those of the Greeks influenced both Shakespeare and Pierre Corneille. Scaliger intended to be judged primarily as a philosopher and a man of science and regarded classical studies as a means of relaxation. He was noted for his powers of observation and his tenacious memory. His scientific writings are all in the form of commentaries. It was not until he was seventy that (with the exception of a brief tract on the \"De insomniis\" of Hippocrates) he felt that any of them were ready for publication. In 1556 he printed his \"Dialogue\" on the \"De plantis\" attributed to Aristotle, and in 1557 his \"Exotericarum exercitationum\" (\"Exoteric Exercises\", or simply \"Exercitationes\") on Gerolamo Cardano's \"De Subtilitate\". His other scientific works, commentaries on Theophrastus' \"De causis plantarum\" and Aristotle's \"History of Animals\", he left in a more or less unfinished state, and they were not printed until after his death. His work shows no sign of the inductive reasoning attributed to the scientific method. Unlike his contemporary Konrad von Gesner, he was not led by his botanical studies to a natural system of classification. He rejected the discoveries of Copernicus. He was guided by Aristotle in metaphysics and in natural history and by Galen in medicine, but did not follow them uncritically. He is best known for his critical \"Exotericarum Exercitationes\" on Cardan's \"De Subtilitate\" (1557), a book approaching natural philosophy and which had a long popularity. The \"Exercitationes\" display encyclopaedic knowledge and accurate observation; but, as noted by Gabriel Naudé, they are not flawless. They had an influence upon natural historians, philosophers and scientists such as Lipsius, Francis Bacon, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and Johannes Kepler. Charles Nisard wrote that Scaliger's object seems to be to deny all that Cardan affirms and to affirm all that Cardan denies. Yet Leibniz and Sir William Hamilton recognize him as the best modern exponent of the physics and metaphysics of Aristotle.",
"A few days after his arrival at Agen he fell in love with an orphan of thirteen, Andiette de Roques Lobejac; she was a distant relative of the aristocratic house of Rochepozay (also Roche-Pozay or Roche-Posay), associates of Jacques Auguste de Thou, one of Scaliger's close friends and supporters. Her friends objected to her marriage, as he was then undistinguished. By 1528 he was a successful physician and at forty-five he married Andiette, who was then sixteen. The marriage lasted for twenty-nine years and produced fifteen children, including Joseph Justus Scaliger."
]
}
|
Playground slide
| null |
Playground slides are found in parks, schools, playgrounds and backyards. The slide is an example of the simple machine known as the inclined plane, which makes moving objects up and down easier, or in this case more fun. The slide may be flat, or half cylindrical or tubular to prevent falls. Slides are usually constructed of plastic or metal and they have a smooth surface that is either straight or wavy. The user, typically a child, climbs to the top of the slide via a ladder or stairs and sits down on the top of the slide and slides down the chute.
| null |
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en-train-144730
|
en-train-144730
|
144730
|
{
"title": [
"History.",
"Types of slides.",
"Safety."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The earliest known playground slide was erected in the playground of Washington DC's \"Neighborhood House\" sometime between the establishment of the \"Neighborhood House\" in early 1902 and the publication of an image of the slide on August 1, 1903 in Evening Star (Washington DC) The first bamboo slide at Coney Island opened for business in May 1903, so it is unclear which slide was first the playground slide or the amusement park slide. Early slides were frequently referred to as \"Slide, Kelly, Slide\" (after the song of the same name), \"Helter Skelter\" (after the slide at Coney Island), or \"Shoot the Chutes\" (after the water slide made famous by \"Captain\" Paul Boyton). The manufacturer, Wicksteed, ballyhoo claim that the playground slide was invented by founder, Charles Wicksteed, and installed in Wicksteed Park in 1922, The discovery of Wicksteed's oldest slide was announced by the company in 2013. However, this has been countered by a 1916-07-25 US Patent and others who refer to a roof-top slide in NYC around 1900, the nursery slide of the young Tsar Alexei, at Alexander Palace in Tsarkoye Selo built around 1910, the 45-foot (13.7 m) slide at the Smith Memorial Playground in Philadelphia, which was installed in 1904 (renovated and reopened in 2005), or the Coney Island Slide around 1905. Indeed, Arthur Leyland's book \"Playground Technique and Playcraft\", volume 1, originally published in 1909 and revised in 1913, gives full instructions for the construction of a metal playground slide.",
"Here is a list of slide styles: There are several other different types and styles of slides. Slides can also be sub-classified as either free-standing slides, slides that stand on their own, or composite slides, which are slides that are connected to another or several pieces of playground equipment.",
"Playground slides are associated with several types of injury. The most obvious is that when a slide is not enclosed and is elevated above the playground surface, then users may fall off and incur bumps, bruises, sprains, broken bones, or traumatic head injuries. Some materials, such as metal, may become very hot during warm, sunny weather. Plastic slides can also be vulnerable to melting by arson. Some efforts to keep children safe on slides may do more harm than good. Rather than letting young children play on slides by themselves, some parents seat the children on the adult's lap and go down the slide together. If the child's shoe catches on the edge of the slide, however, this arrangement frequently results in the child's leg being broken. If the child had been permitted to use the slide independently, then this injury would not happen, because when the shoe caught, the child would have stopped sliding rather than being propelled down the slide by the adult's weight."
]
}
|
Vasco da Gama, Goa
| null |
Vasco da Gama (), often shortened to Vasco is a city in the state of Goa on the west coast of India. It is named after the Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama. It is the headquarters of the Mormugão taluka (subdistrict). The city lies on the western tip of the Mormugao peninsula, at the mouth of the Zuari River, about from Panaji, Goa's capital, and about from Dabolim Airport.
| null |
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en-train-2418952
|
en-train-2418952
|
2418952
|
{
"title": [
"History.",
"Renovation of Clock Tower.",
"Transport.",
"Industry.",
"Tourism and culture.",
"Sports.",
"Politics.",
"Research."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"This city, in the former Portuguese territory of Goa, is named after the famous Portuguese explorer and navigator Vasco da Gama, who held the title of Governor of Portuguese India. This city serves as the headquarters of the Mormugao sub-district. It was founded in 1543 and remained in Portuguese hands until 1961, when the territory was lost to India. Vasco da Gama, 1st Count of Vidigueira was the first European to reach India by sea. His initial voyage to India (1497–1499) was the first to link Europe and Asia by an ocean route, connecting the Atlantic and the Indian oceans and, in this way, the West and the East. He reached Goa on 11 September 1524 but died at Kochi three months later. His remains were eventually returned to Portugal and interred at St Jeronimos monastery. The city is sometimes referred to as Sambhaji Nagar. Chatrapati Sambhaji Raje Bhosale was the eldest son of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj, the founder of the Maratha Empire. An attempt was made to change the city's name to Sambhaji Nagar, and this is reflected in a few government records. However, no official records have been found as to when the city was renamed. It is thus dismissed as a political move.",
"In 2015, after a campaign by the Goa Heritage Action Group and the History Lovers Group, the Mormugao Municipal Council (MMC) decided to renovate the clock tower of the municipal market in the heart of the city. Built in 1938, the complex is an example of Art Deco style of architecture. The renovation work was completed in 2017 with funding provided by the Rajaram and Tarabai Bandekar Charitable Trust, and the clock was brought in from Nashik.",
"Vasco is connected by road by the National Highway 17A & National Highway 17B, by rail by the Vasco da Gama railway station, by the sea through the Mormugao Port and by air through Dabolim Airport, thus serving as the main hub for most tourists visiting the state of Goa.",
"Vasco is heavily reliant on the port for most of its economic activity. Manganese ore mined in interior regions is brought to Mormugao by barges navigating the rivers Mandovi and Zuari, and then either collected in the Mormugao Port to be loaded onto bulk carrier ships or directly loaded onto the ships using trans-shippers. Ore which is collected on the port is handled by machinery called MOHP (Mechanical Ore-Handling Plant). This includes massive bucket wheel loaders and miles of conveyor belts. The port has berthing facilities for large cruise liners as well as a floating dry dock. There are shipping and freight forwarding agents as well as offices of major mining companies based in the city. The Mormugao Port Trust which operates the port is the largest employer in the Vasco region and has a complete mini-township in Headland Sada which includes schools, residential complexes and amenities for employees of the Port.",
"Bogmalo Beach is from Vasco. This beach is quite risky as it has underwater currents. Hollant (Issorcim) and Baina are two smaller beaches around Vasco. Apart from the nearby beaches, the city of Vasco is bereft of any major tourist attractions, the salient monument being the 400-year-old \"Igreja de Santo André\" (St. Andrew's Church), located at the entrance of the city. However the Naval Aviation Museum near the airport is a popular tourist spot and is one of three such museums in India. It profiles the evolution and history of Indian naval aviation through aircraft exhibits and rare photographs. One of Goa's premier musical groups, Diamond Orchestra, which was established in 1976, hails from Vasco. The town is also home to several English bands from Goa, notably Lynx and Kollectiv Soul. Vasco is known for the annual Shri Damodar Bhajani Saptah fair held in Shravan month of Hindu lunar calendar preceding the festival of Nag panchami. Vasco da Gama hosted the relics of Saint John Bosco, albeit temporarily, on 21 August 2011, at the St. Andrew's Church, while the relics were on their world tour. Like all towns and cities in Goa, Vasco celebrates the Shigmo; and carnival annually with a street parade where floats from all over Goa participate.",
"As in the rest of Goa, football is the most popular sport in Vasco. Two teams from the town have participated in the I-League – Vasco Sports Club and Salgaocar Sports Club. Salgaocar SC were Champions of the 1998–99 season of the erstwhile NFL. Tilak Maidan is a 6,000-seat football ground based in the city. The stadium sporting a magnificent turf hosted I-league matches during April 2013, as the home ground for the four teams from Goa in the league, when Fatorda Stadium was closed down for renovation. Although cricket is not as popular as football, a Vasco resident Shadab Jakati plays for Goa in the Ranji Trophy first-class competition and has also been selected to play for the Chennai Super Kings IPL franchise. Railway Stadium is a cricket ground in Vasco da Gama. The only recorded match held on the ground was a first-class match between Goa and Kerala in the 1986/87 Ranji Trophy, which Kerala won by 6 wickets.",
"The city of Vasco falls under the boundaries of the South Goa (Lok Sabha constituency) previously Mormugao Lok Sabha constituency in the Lok Sabha. The current Member of Parliament is Francisco Sardinha of the Indian National Congress. The extended city of Vasco / Mormugao elects three representatives to the Goa Legislative Assembly:",
"The National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research (NCAOR) located at Headland Sada is a research and development institution administered by the Ministry of Earth Sciences. It is responsible for administering the Indian Antarctic Program and maintains the Indian government's Antarctic research station, Maitri. In addition to laboratories for marine sample processing/analyses, it hosts a special low-temperature ice core sample storage facility. It is also the nodal agency for Indian scientific participation in the deep sea drilling research under the aegis of International Ocean Discovery Program (IODP)."
]
}
|
Pope Benedict XIII
| null |
Pope Benedict XIII (; 2 February 1649 – 21 February 1730), born Pietro Francesco Orsini and later called Vincenzo Maria Orsini, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 29 May 1724 to his death in 1730.
| null |
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en-train-2164144
|
en-train-2164144
|
2164144
|
{
"title": [
"Early life.",
"Rise to the papacy.",
"Pontificate.",
"Actions.",
"Beatifications and canonizations.",
"Doctor of the Church.",
"Other activities.",
"Death and burial.",
"Cause of beatification."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"3",
"2",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"He was born in Gravina in Puglia, the eldest of six sons of Ferdinando III Orsini, duke of Gravina, and Giovanna Frangipani della Tolfa, from Toritto. A member of the Orsini of Rome, he was the third and last member of that family to become Pope. At the age of eighteen he resigned his inheritance and entered the Dominican Order where he received the name of \"Vincenzo Maria\". He was ordained to the priesthood in February 1671. Through the influence of his family, he was named, by Pope Clement X, Cardinal-Priest of San Sisto on 22 February 1672 (allegedly against his will). He also lectured in philosophy at Brescia. Later he was bishop of Manfredonia, bishop of Cesena and then archbishop of Benevento. After an earthquake in 1688 and another in 1702 he organized relief efforts for the victims. He remained a close friend of a local mystic, Serafina di Dio.",
"Upon the death of Pope Innocent XIII in 1724, a conclave was convoked to elect a successor. There were four divisions in the College of Cardinals and there were no clear candidates. At the conclave, Orsini was considered one of the papabili. Orsini was then proposed to be elected because he led a modest, austere life, considered to be a pastor. His lack of political expertise suggested that he would be neutral and malleable. Orsini refused to be elected prior to the final ballot, explaining that he was unworthy of it. Eventually he was persuaded to accept by Agustín Pipia, Master of the Order of Preachers and on 29 May 1724, Orsini was elected pontiff. He chose the regnal name of \"Benedict XIII\" in honour of Pope Blessed Benedict XI because he was also of the Dominican Order. On 4 June 1724, he was crowned by Benedetto Pamphili, the cardinal protodeacon. On the following 24 September, he took possession of the Basilica of St. John Lateran. At first, he called himself Benedict XIV, but afterwards altered the title to Benedict XIII (the previous Benedict XIII having been considered an antipope).",
"",
"Not a man of worldly matters, Benedict XIII made an effort to maintain his monastic lifestyle. He endeavoured to put a stop to the decadent lifestyles of the Italian priesthood and of the cardinalate. He also abolished the lottery in Rome and the Papal States, which only served to profit the neighboring states that maintained the public lottery. A man fond above all of asceticism and religious celebrations, he built several hospitals, but according to Cardinal Lambertini (later Pope Benedict XIV) \"did not have any idea about how to rule\". In 1727 he inaugurated the famous Spanish Steps and founded the University of Camerino. In 1728, Benedict's intervention settled a controversy, regarding the relics of St Augustine, that erupted in Pavia, Italy. He ultimately confirmed the authenticity of Augustine's bones, that had been discovered in 1695 in the Basilica San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro. (Stone, Harold Samuel (2002). \"Augustine's Bones: A Microhistory.\" pp. 90–93) The government of the Papal States was effectively held in Benedict XIII's stead by Cardinal Niccolò Coscia, who had been the pope's secretary when he was archbishop of Benevento, and who committed a long series of financial abuses to his own advantage, causing the ruin of the Papal treasury. Coscia and his associates effectively isolated Benedict from other advisors. According to Montesquieu, \"All the money of Rome goes to Benevento... as the Beneventani direct [Benedict's] weakness\". In foreign relations, he struggled with both John V of Portugal and the Jansenists in France.",
"Benedict XIII beatified Bernardine of Feltre in 1728 and also beatified Peter Fourier on 20 January 1730. He also beatified Hyacintha of Mariscotti on 1 September 1726, Fidelis of Sigmaringen on 24 March 1729, Vincent de Paul on 13 August 1729 and John del Prado on 24 May 1728. Through the process of equipollent canonization, Benedict XIII canonized Pope Gregory VII on 24 May 1728. He conferred sainthood upon Agnes of Montepulciano in 1726, Aloysius Gonzaga on 31 December 1726, Boris of Kiev in 1724, Francis Solano on 27 March 1726, Gleb in 1724, James of the Marches and Turibius of Mogroveio on 10 December 1726, John of Nepomuk on 19 March 1729, John of the Cross and Peregrine Laziosi on 27 December 1726, Margaret of Cortona on 16 May 1728 and Serapion of Algiers on 14 April 1728.",
"The pope named Peter Chrysologus as a Doctor of the Church in 1729.",
"Benedict XIII elevated 29 new cardinals into the cardinalate in a total of 12 consistories; one such new cardinal was Prospero Lambertini, who later became Pope Benedict XIV. Benedict XIII, whose orders were descended from Scipione Rebiba, personally consecrated at least 139 bishops for various important European sees, including German, French, English and New World bishops. These bishops in turn consecrated bishops almost exclusively for their respective countries causing other episcopal lineages to die. As a result, more than 90% of present-day bishops trace their episcopal lineage through him to Cardinal Rebiba. With the papal bull \"Pretiosus\" dated May 26, 1727 Benedict XIII granted to all Dominicans major houses of study and in particular to the Roman College of St. Thomas, the future Pontifical University of St. Thomas Aquinas, \"Angelicum\" the right of conferring academic degrees in theology to students outside the Order.",
"Benedict XIII was suddenly attacked by a catarrh caused by his officiating at the funeral service of Cardinal Marco Antonio Ansidei, of which he died on 21 February 1730 at the age of 81. His death was made public to the people the next day. The pope was of middling size; his countenance was mild, his nose aquiline and he had a broad forehead. At the autopsy, it was discovered that his heart was remarkably large. His funeral ceremonies were performed at the Vatican, whence he was removed to the Santa Maria sopra Minerva where he was buried in a tomb completed by Pietro Bracci and others. After the next papal election elevated Pope Clement XII to the pontificate, Clement excommunicated Benedict XIII's corrupt deputy, Cardinal Coscia. Coscia fled Rome and his punishment, but was later restored and took part in the conclaves of 1730 and 1740. Pope Benedict XIV would later say of Benedict XIII: \"We respectfully love that pontiff who backed his carriage rather than dispute the passage with a cartman.\" On that occasion Benedict XIII had exclaimed to his coachman: \"Non ci far impicci\"—\"Do not involve us in a quarrel.\" On the other hand, this anonymous satirical comment on Benedict XIII's death was posted at the Pasquino:",
"The process for his beatification was opened in Tortona in 1755 under Pope Benedict XIV but it did not at all advance and so was stalled. On 21 February 1931, also in Tortona, the process was revitalized but the presumed doubts about the morality of the late pontiff's Cardinal Secretary of State, Niccolò Coscia, caused its closing in 1940. The process was reopened on 17 January 2004. The official diocesan process commenced in Rome in early 2012 and the official opening of that process was held in the Basilica of Saint John Lateran, presided by Agostino Vallini. The diocesan phase for the beatification process concluded on 24 February 2017 at the Basilica of Saint John Lateran with Vallini celebrating the conclusion of the inquest. He now has the posthumous title of Servant of God. The current postulator of the cause is the Dominican priest Francesco Maria Ricci."
]
}
|
Debrecen
| null |
Debrecen (, is Hungary's second largest city after Budapest. It is the regional center of the Northern Great Plain region and the seat of Hajdú-Bihar county. It was the largest Hungarian city in the 18th century and it is one of the Hungarian people's most important cultural centres. Debrecen was also the capital city of Hungary during the revolution in 1848–1849. During the revolution, the dethronement of the Habsburg dynasty was declared in the Reformed Great Church. The city also served as the capital of Hungary by the end of the World War II in 1944–1945. It is home of the University of Debrecen.
| null |
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en-train-1862856
|
en-train-1862856
|
1862856
|
{
"title": [
"Etymology.",
"History.",
"Demographics.",
"Languages.",
"Ethnic groups.",
"Religion.",
"Reformed Church in Debrecen.",
"Jewish community.",
"Climate.",
"Culture.",
"Economy.",
"Location.",
"Transport.",
"Sports.",
"Politics.",
"List of mayors.",
"Twin towns - sister cities."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The city is first documented in 1235, as \"Debrezun\". The name derives from the Turkic word, which means 'live' or'move' and is also a male given name. Another theory says the name is of Slavic origin and means 'well-esteemed' (e.g. ). In other languages, the name of the city varies more in spelling than in pronunciation: Romanian \"Debrețin\", German, Serbian, Yiddish, Czech and Slovak.",
"The settlement was established after the Hungarian conquest. Debrecen became more important after some of the small villages of the area (Boldogasszonyfalva, Szentlászlófalva) were deserted due to the Mongol invasion of Europe. It experienced rapid development after the middle of the 13th century. In 1361, Louis I of Hungary granted the citizens of Debrecen the right to choose the town's judge and council. This provided some opportunities for self-government for the town. By the early 16th century, Debrecen was an important market town. King Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor, as part of a treaty with Serbian ruler Stefan Lazarević, gave him the opportunity to rule Debrecen in September 1411. A year after Lazarević's death in 1426, his role was taken over by his successor, Đurađ Branković. Between 1450 and 1507, it was a domain of the Hunyadi family. During the Ottoman period, being close to the border and having no castle or city walls, Debrecen often found itself in difficult situations and the town was saved only by the diplomatic skills of its leaders. Sometimes the town was protected by the Ottoman Empire, sometimes by the Catholic European rulers or by Francis II Rákóczi, prince of Transylvania. Debrecen later embraced the Protestant Reformation quite early, earning the monikers \"the Calvinist Rome\" and \"the Geneva of Hungary\". At this period the inhabitants of the town were mainly Hungarian Calvinists. Debrecen came under Turkish control as a sanjak between 1558 and 1693 and orderly bounded to the eyalets of Budin (1541–1596), Eğri (1596–1660) and Varat (1660–1693) as \"Debreçin\". In 1693, Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor elevated Debrecen to free royal town status. In 1715, the Roman Catholic Church returned to Debrecen, and the town gave them a place to build a church, so the Piarist monks could build the St. Ann's Cathedral. By this time the town was an important cultural, commercial and agricultural centre, and many future scholars and poets attended its Protestant College (a predecessor of today's University of Debrecen and also of Debrecen Reformed Theological University). In 1849, Debrecen was the capital of Hungary for a short time when the Hungarian revolutionary government fled there from Pest-Buda (modern-day Budapest). In April 1849, the dethronization of Habsburgs (neglected after the fall of the revolution) and the independence of Hungary was proclaimed here by Lajos Kossuth at the Great (Calvinist) Church (\"Nagytemplom\" in Hungarian.) The last battle of the war of independence was also close to Debrecen. The Russians, allied to Habsburgs, defeated the Hungarian army close to the western part of the town. After the war, Debrecen slowly began to prosper again. In 1857, the railway line between Budapest and Debrecen was completed, and Debrecen soon became a railway junction. New schools, hospitals, churches, factories, and mills were built, banks and insurance companies settled in the city. The appearance of the city began to change too: with new, taller buildings, parks and villas, it no longer resembled a provincial town and began to look like a modern city. In 1884, Debrecen became the first Hungarian city to have a steam tramway. After World War I, Hungary lost a considerable portion of its eastern territory to Romania, and Debrecen once again became situated close to the border of the country. It was occupied by the Romanian army for a short time in 1919. Tourism provided a way for the city to begin to prosper again. Many buildings (among them an indoor swimming pool and Hungary's first stadium) were built in the central park, the \"Nagyerdő\" (\"Big Forest\"), providing recreational facilities. The building of the university was completed. Hortobágy, a large pasture owned by the city, became a tourist attraction. During World War II, Debrecen was almost completely destroyed, 70% of the buildings suffered damage, 50% of them were completely destroyed. A major battle involving combined arms, including several hundred tanks (Battle of Debrecen), occurred near the city in October 1944. Debrecen was captured by Soviet troops of the 2nd Ukrainian Front on 20 October. After 1944, the reconstruction began and Debrecen became the capital of Hungary for a short time once again. The citizens began to rebuild their city, trying to restore its pre-war status, but the new, Communist government of Hungary had other plans. The institutions and estates of the city were taken into public ownership, private property was taken away. This forced change of the old system brought new losses to Debrecen; half of its area was annexed to nearby towns, and the city also lost its rights over Hortobágy. In 1952, two new villages – Ebes and Nagyhegyes – were formed from former parts of Debrecen, while in 1981, the nearby village Józsa was annexed to the city.",
"",
"According to the 2011 census, the total population of Debrecen were 211,320, of whom 209,782 people (99.3%) speak Hungarian, 49,909 (23.6%) English, 22,454 (10.6%) German, and 5,416 (2.6%) speak Russian.",
"According to the 2011 census, there were 177,435 (84.0%) Hungarians, 1,305 (0.6%) Romani, 554 (0.3%) Germans and 504 (0.2%) Romanians in Debrecen. 31,931 people (15.1% of the total population) did not declare their ethnicity. Excluding these people Hungarians made up 98.9% of the total population. In Hungary people can declare more than one ethnicity, so the sum of ethnicities is higher than the total population.",
"According to the 2011 census, there were 52,459 (24.8%) Hungarian Reformed (Calvinist), 23,413 (11.1%) Roman Catholic, 10,762 (5.1%) Greek Catholic, 899 (0.4%) Baptist, 885 (0.4%) Jehovah's Witnesses, and 812 (0.4%) Lutheran in Debrecen. 54,909 people (26.0%) were irreligious, 3,877 (1.8%) atheist, while 59,955 people (28.4%) did not declare their religion.",
"From the 16th century, the Reformation took roots in the city, first Lutheranism, later Calvin's teachings become predominant. From 1551, the Calvinist government of the city banned the moving of Catholics in Debrecen. Catholic churches were taken over by the Reformed church. In 1552, the Catholic faith vanished in the city, until 1715 when they regained a church. Several Reformed church leaders like Peter Melius Juhasz who translated the Genevan Psalms lived and worked here. In 1567, a synod was formed in the city when the Second Helvetic Confession was adopted. Famous Reformed Colleges and schools were formed. Nickname of Debrecen commonly used in Hungary is the \"Calvinist Rome\" or the \"Geneva of Hungary\" because of the great percentage of the Reformed faith in the city as well as the Reformed church has significant influence in the city and the region. Debrecen is the home of the Reformed Theological University of Debrecen. (Debreceni Református Hittudományi Egyetem). The Reformed Theological University was founded in 1538. This was the only Reformed Theological Institute that was allowed to function in Hungary during communist rule. The Hungarian Reformed Church has about 20 congregations in Debrecen, including the famous Reformed Great Church of Debrecen, which can easily accommodate about 5000 people (with 3000 seats).",
"Jews were first allowed to settle in Debrecen in 1814, with an initial population count of 118 men within 4 years. Twenty years later, they were allowed to purchase land and homes. By 1919, they consisted 10% of the population (with over 10,000 community members listed) and owned almost half of the large properties in and around the town. The Hungarian antisemitic laws of 1938 caused many businesses to close, and in 1939 many Jews were enslaved and sent to Ukraine, where many died in minefields. In 1940, the Germans estimated that 12,000 Jews were left in the town. In 1941, Jews of Galician and Polish origin were expelled, reducing the number of Jews to 9142. In 1942, more Jews were drafted into the Hungarian forced labor groups and sent to Ukraine. German forces entered the city on 20 March 1944, (Two and a half weeks before Passover) ordering a Judenrat (Jewish Council) headed by Rabbi Pal (Meir) Weisz, and a Jewish police squad was formed, headed by former army captain Bela Lusztbaum. On 30 March 1944, (a week before Passover) the Jews were ordered to wear the Yellow star of David. Jewish cars were confiscated and phone lines cut. During the Passover week, many Jewish dignitaries were taken to a nearby prison camp, eventually reaching the number of 300 prisoners. A week later all Jewish stores were closed, and a public book-burning of Jewish books was presided over by the antisemitic newspaper editor Mihaly Kalosvari Borska. An order to erect a ghetto was issued on 28 April 1944, in the name of the town mayor Sandor Kolscey, who opposed the act, and was ousted by the Germans. Jews were forced to build the Ghetto walls, finishing it within less than a month on 15 May 1944. On 7 June 1944, all movement in or out of the Ghetto was prohibited and a week later all Debrecen Jews were deported to the nearby Serly brickyards, and stripped of their belongings, joining Jews from other areas. Ten families of prominent Jews, including those of Rabbi Weisz and orthodox chief Rabbi Strasser, along with the heads of the Zionist (non orthodox) movement joined the Kasztner train. (According to some sources, the Strasshoff camps were filled with Jews for negotiations in case the Germans could receive something for releasing these Jews, among them 6841 from Debrecen.) 298 of these Debrecen Jews were shot by the SS in Bavaria, after being told they would reach Theresienstadt. Some young Debrecen Jews escaped the town, led by the high school principal Adoniyahu Billitzer and reached Budapest, joining resistance movements and partisans. Most of the remaining Debrecen Jews were deported to Auschwitz, reaching there on 3 July 1944. Debrecen was occupied by the Soviet Army on 20 October 1944. Some 4,000 Jews of Debrecen and its surroundings survived the war, creating a community of 4,640 in 1946 – the largest in the region. About 400 of those moved to Israel, and many others moved to the west by 1970, with 1,200 Jews left in the town, using two synagogues, one of them established prior to World War I.",
"Debrecen, typically for its Central European location, has a humid continental climate (Köppen \"Dfb\").",
"Chiefly thanks to the reformation and the prestigious Calvinist College, founded in 1538, Debrecen has been the intellectual and cultural centre of the surrounding area since the 16th century. Over the centuries, the college was transformed into a university, and its intellectual life developed a sphere of influence between Eger and Oradea (Hu: \"Nagyvárad\", now in Romania). In 1949–1950, several departments of the university were shut down, due to Communist takeover, with many students and teachers being expelled. The University of Debrecen, as it is now called, is still widely recognized work of architecture (mostly thanks to its main building). The university is the largest university in Hungary, has more than 100 departments and is a major research facility in Europe. The university is well known for the cactus research laboratory in the botanic gardens behind the main building. In the second half of the 19th century, the Debrecen press attracted several notable figures to the city. Endre Ady, Gyula Krúdy, and Árpád Tóth all began their journalistic careers in Debrecen. Prominent literary figures from the city have included Magda Szabó, and. One of Hungary's best known poets, Mihály Csokonai Vitéz, was born and lived in the city. The city's theatre, built in 1865, was named in his honour in 1916, but can trace its roots back to the National Theatre Company founded in Debrecen in 1789, which at first gave performances in the carthouse of an inn. Celebrated actress Lujza Blaha is among those to have performed there. Debrecen is home to Tankcsapda, one of Hungary's most successful rock bands. There is also a rock school in the city which offers training and mentoring to young musicians. Classic media in the city include the newspaper Napló, two TV channels, a range of local radio stations and several companies and associations producing media material. Debrecen is the site of an important choral competition, the Béla Bartók International Choir Competition, and is a member city of the European Grand Prix for Choral Singing. Every August the city plays host to a flower festival.",
"The development of Debrecen is mainly financed by agricultural, health and educational enterprises. The city is the main center of shopping centers in Eastern Hungary. The Forum Debrecen is the largest shopping center in the region. Debrecen is one of the most developed cities in Hungary, the regional center of international companies such as National Instruments, IT Services Hungary, BT, Continental, BMW and Healthcare Manufacturers (Teva Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd. and Gedeon Richter Plc.).",
"Debrecen is located on the Great Hungarian Plain, east of Budapest. Situated nearby is the Hortobágy National Park.",
"The city used to be somewhat isolated from Budapest, Hungary's main transport hub. However, the completion of the motorway M35 means Budapest can now be reached in under two hours. Debrecen Airport (the second largest in Hungary) has recently undergone modernisation in order to be able to handle more international flights, although almost all flights to and from Hungary still use Budapest's Ferihegy Airport (now called Budapest Ferenc Liszt International Airport). Cities that can be reached from the Debrecen Airport include Brussels, Eindhoven, London, Malmö, Milan, Tel Aviv, Moscow and Paris. There have also been improvements to some parts of the railway between the capital and Debrecen as part of Hungary's mainly EU-funded National Development Plan for 2004 to 2006. There are many railway stations in Debrecen, the most significant is the main station of Debrecen, in addition other smaller stations exist, these include Debrecen-Csapókert, Debrecen-Kondoros, Debrecen-Szabadságtelep and Tócóvölgy. Debrecen's proximity to Ukraine, Slovakia and Romania enables it to develop as an important trade centre and transport hub for the wider international region. Local transport in the city consists of buses, trolleybuses, and trams. There are 2 tram lines, 5 trolleybus lines, and 60 bus lines. It is provided by the DKV (\"Debreceni Közlekedési Vállalat\", or \"Transport Company of Debrecen\"). Nearby towns and villages are linked to the city by Hajdú Volán bus services.",
"The city's most famous association football club is Debreceni VSC which won the Nemzeti Bajnokság I seven times, the last one in 2014. Debreceni VSC also known at international level since they reached the 2009-10 UEFA Champions League group stage and the 2010-11 UEFA Europa League group stage. The club's newly built stadium was opened in 2014, where the club could celebrate their seventh title by winning the 2014-15 Nemzeti Bajnokság I. The stadium is also the occasional home of the Hungary national football team. The team hosted Denmark in 2014 and Lithuania in 2015. The city had other association football clubs competing in the Nemzeti Bajnokság I. One of them was Bocskai FC who could also won the Magyar Kupa once in 1930. The other club from the city was Dózsa MaDISz TE who competed in the 1945-46 Nemzeti Bajnokság I. The city has hosted several international sporting events in recent years, such as the second World Youth Championships in Athletics in July 2001 and the first IAAF World Road Running Championships in October 2006. The 2007 European SC Swimming Championships and World Artistic Gymnastics Championships of 2002 also took place in Debrecen. Most recently, the city hosted the 19th FAI World Hot Air Balloon Championship in October 2010. In 2012, Debrecen hosted the 31st LEN European Swimming Championships.",
"The current mayor of Debrecen is Dr. László Papp (Fidesz-KDNP). The local Municipal Assembly, elected at the 2019 local government elections, is made up of 33 members (1 Mayor, 23 Individual constituencies MEPs and 9 Compensation List MEPs) divided into this political parties and alliances:",
"List of City Mayors from 1990:",
"Debrecen is twinned with:"
]
}
|
N. F. S. Grundtvig
| null |
Nikolaj Frederik Severin Grundtvig (; 8 September 1783 – 2 September 1872), most often referred to as N. F. S. Grundtvig, was a Danish pastor, author, poet, philosopher, historian, teacher and politician. He was one of the most influential people in Danish history, as his philosophy gave rise to a new form of nationalism in the last half of the 19th century. It was steeped in the national literature and supported by deep spirituality.
| null |
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en-train-2302252
|
en-train-2302252
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2302252
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{
"title": [
"Early life and education.",
"Career.",
"Christian thinking.",
"Thought on education.",
"Beowulf and Anglo-Saxon literature.",
"Marriage and family.",
"Bibliography.",
"Editions.",
"Further reading.",
"In English.",
"In other languages."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2"
],
"content": [
"Called Frederik rather than Nikolaj by those close to him. N. F. S. Grundtvig was the son of a Lutheran pastor in Udby, Johan Ottosen Grundtvig (1734–1813) and was born there. He was brought up in a very religious atmosphere, although his mother also had great respect for old Norse legends and traditions. He was schooled in the tradition of the European Enlightenment, but his faith in reason was also influenced by German romanticism and the ancient history of the Nordic countries. In 1791 he was sent to Thyregod in Sydjylland to live and study with pastor Laurids Svindt Feld (1750–1803). He subsequently studied at the Aarhus Katedralskole, the cathedral school of Aarhus, from 1798 until graduation. He left for Copenhagen in 1800 to study theology and was accepted to the University of Copenhagen in 1801. At the close of his university life, Grundtvig began to study Icelandic and the Icelandic Sagas.",
"In 1805 Grundtvig took a position as tutor in a house on the island of Langeland. The next three years he used his free time to study writers Shakespeare, Schiller, and Fichte. In 1802 his cousin, the philosopher Henrich Steffens, returned to Copenhagen full of the teaching of Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling. His lectures and the early poetry of Adam Oehlenschläger opened Grundtvig's eyes to the new era in literature. His first work, \"On the Songs in the Edda\", attracted no attention. Returning to Copenhagen in 1808, Grundtvig achieved greater success with his \"Northern Mythology\", and again in 1809 with a long drama, \"The Fall of the Heroic Life in the North\". Grundtvig boldly denounced the clergy of the city in his first sermon in 1810. When Grundtvig published the sermon three weeks later it offended the ecclesiastical authorities, and they demanded him punished. In 1810 Grundtvig underwent a religious crisis and converted to a strongly held Lutheranism. He retired to his father's country parish in Udby as his chaplain. His new-found conviction was expressed in his \"The First World Chronicle\" () of 1812, a presentation of European history in which he attempted to explain how belief in God has been viewed throughout human history and in which he criticized the ideology of many prominent Danes. It won him notoriety among his peers and cost him several friends, notably the historian Christian Molbech. Upon his father's death in 1813, Grundtvig applied to be his successor in the parish but was rejected. In the following years his rate of publication was staggering: aside from a continuing stream of articles and poems, he wrote a number of books, including two more histories of the world (1814 and 1817); the long historical poem \"Roskilde-Riim\" (\"Rhyme of Roskilde\"; 1813); and a book-sized commentary, \"Roskilde Saga\". From 1816 to 1819 he was editor of and almost sole contributor to a philosophical and polemical journal entitled \"Danne-Virke\", which also published poetry. From 1813 to 1815, he attempted to form a movement to support the Norwegians against the Swedish government. Later he preached on how the weakness of the Danish faith was the cause of the loss of Norway in 1814. His sermon was met by an enthusiastic congregation in Copenhagen. Grundtvig withdrew from the pulpit because of lacking his own parish, and being barred by other churches. In 1821 he resumed preaching briefly when granted the country living of Præstø, and returned to the capital the year after. In 1825 Grundtvig published a pamphlet, \"The Church's Rejoinder\" (), a response to Henrik Nicolai Clausen's work on the doctrines, rites and constitutions of Protestantism and Roman Catholicism. A professor of theology at the University of Copenhagen, Clausen argued that although the Bible was the principal foundation of Christianity, it was in itself an inadequate expression of its full meaning. He described the church as a \"community for the purpose of advancing general religiousness.\" In his reply, Grundtvig denounced Clausen as an anti-Christian teacher and argued that Christianity was not a theory to be derived from the Holy Bible and elaborated by scholars. He questioned the right of theologians to interpret the Bible. Grundtvig was publicly prosecuted for libel and fined. The Church of Denmark forbade him to preach for seven years. During this time he published a collection of theological works, visited England three times (1829–31), and studied Anglo-Saxon. In 1832 Grundtvig obtained permission to again enter active ministry. In 1839 he was called as pastor of the workhouse church of Vartov hospital in Copenhagen, a post he held until his death. Between 1837 and 1841 he published \"Sang-Værk til den Danske Kirke\" (Song Work for the Danish Church), a rich collection of sacred poetry; in 1838 he brought out a selection of early Scandinavian verse; in 1840 he edited the Anglo-Saxon poem \"The Phoenix\", with a Danish translation. In 1843 he visited England for a fourth time. From 1844 until after the First Schleswig War, Grundtvig took a prominent part in politics, developing from a conservative into an absolute liberal. In 1848 he was part of the Danish Constituent Assembly which wrote the first constitution of Denmark. In 1861 he received the titular rank of Bishop in the Church of Denmark, but without a see. He continued to write and publish until his death. He spoke from the pulpit at Vartov Church every Sunday until a few days before his death. His preaching attracted large congregations, and he soon had a following. His hymn book effected a great change in Danish church services, substituting the hymns of the national poets for the slow measures of the orthodox Lutherans. In all Grundtvig wrote or translated about 1500 hymns, including \"God's Word Is Our Great Heritage\" and \"Det kimer nu til julefest\".",
"Grundtvig's theological development continued over his lifetime, and took a number of important turns. He moved from his \"Christian awakening\" of 1810 to believing in a congregational and sacramental Christianity in later years. He was most notable for the latter thinking. He always called himself a pastor, not a theologian, reflecting the distance between his ideas and academic theology. The chief characteristic of his theology was the substitution of the authority of the \"living word\" for the apostolic commentaries. He desired to see each congregation act as a practically independent community.",
"Grundtvig is the ideological father of the folk high school, though his own ideas on education had another focus. He advocated reforming the ailing Sorø Academy into a popular school aiming at another form of higher education than what was common at the university. Rather than educating learned scholars, he believed the university should educate its students for active participation in society and popular life. Thus practical skills as well as national poetry and history should form an essential part of the instruction. This idea came very close to implementation during the reign of King Christian VIII, whose wife Caroline Amalie was an ardent supporter of Grundtvig. The death of the monarch in 1848 and the dramatic political development in Denmark during this and the following years put an end to these plans. However, by that time, one of Grundtvig's supporters, Kristen Kold, had already established the first folk high school. Grundtvig's ambitions for school reform were not limited to the popular folk high school. He also dreamed of forming a Great Nordic University (the School for Passion) to be situated at the symbolic point of intersection between the three Scandinavian countries in Gothenburg, Sweden. The two pillars of his school program, the School for Life (folk high school) and the School for Passion (university) were aimed at quite different horizons of life. The popular education should mainly be taught within a national and patriotic horizon of understanding, yet always keeping an open mind towards a broader cultural and intercultural outlook, while the university should work from a strictly universal, i.e. humane and scientific, outlook. The common denominator of all Grundtvig's pedagogical efforts was to promote a spirit of freedom, poetry and disciplined creativity, within all branches of educational life. He promoted values such as wisdom, compassion, identification and equality. He opposed all compulsion, including exams, as deadening to the human soul. Instead Grundtvig advocated unleashing human creativity according to the universally creative order of life. Only \"willing hands make light work\". Therefore, a spirit of freedom, cooperation and discovery was to be kindled in individuals, in science, and in the civil society as a whole.",
"In 1815 Grímur Jónsson Thorkelin published the first edition of the titled in a Latin translation. Despite his lack of knowledge of Anglo-Saxon literature, Grundtvig quickly discovered a number of flaws in Thorkelin's rendering of the poems. After his heated debate with Thorkelin, Johan Bülow (1751–1828), who had sponsored Thorkelin's work, offered to support a new translation by Grundtvig — this time into Danish. The result, Bjovulfs Drape (1820), was the first full translation of Beowulf into a modern language (previously, only selections of the poem had been translated into modern English by Sharon Turner in 1805). Grundtvig went on to explore the extensive literature of the Anglo-Saxons which survived in Old English and Latin. In both poetry and prose, it revealed the spirituality of the early Church in Northern Europe. Grundtvig was very influenced by these ancient models of Christian and historical thought (notably the 8th-century Bede's \"Ecclesiastical History\", written in Latin). Using the resources of the Royal Library in Copenhagen and of the libraries at the universities of Exeter, Oxford and Cambridge in three successive summer visits to England (1829–31), he went on to make transcriptions of two of the four great codices of Anglo-Saxon poetry: the \"Exeter Book\" and the codex designated \"Junius 11\" in the Bodleian Library at Oxford. Although he thought to publish them, this project was never realized. \"Beowulf\" and Anglo-Saxon literature continued to be a major source of inspiration to Grundtvig. It had a wide-ranging influence upon his work.",
"Grundtvig was married three times, the last time in his seventy-sixth year. His first wife, Elisabeth Blicher (1787–1851), was a clergyman's daughter. They were married in 1818 and had three children. His second wife, Marie Toft (1813–54) was the daughter of a landowner. She died a few months after giving birth to a son. In 1858, he married Asta Reedtz (1826–1890) of an old aristocratic Danish family. His son Svend Grundtvig (1824–83) collected and edited Danish ballads.",
"",
"No comprehensive foreign language edition of his work exists. A three-volume edition in German, however, is under preparation and projects for an English edition are in progress as well. Grundtvig's secular poetical works were published in a nine-volume edition, the first seven volumes by his second son, the philologist Svend Grundtvig. The philological practice of this work, however, is not up to the standards of modern philology. His hymns have been collected in the philologically more stable five-volume edition \"Grundtvigs Sang-Værk\". The best overall collection of his writings is the 10 volume edition \"Grundtvigs udvalgte Skrifter\" edited by Holger Begtrup (1859–1937). His enormous oeuvre is presented in Steen Johansen: \"Bibliografi over N.F.S. Grundtvigs Skrifter\" (I-IV, 1948–54). The most important editions are: Holm, Anders (2019). The Essential N.F.S. Grundtvig. Translated by Edward Broadbridge. Aarhus: Filo.",
"",
"Important, too, are the numerous articles in English published in the yearbook \"Grundtvig-Studier\" (Grundtvig Studies) from 1948 and onwards. Danish is the main language of the journal, but the English articles are prominent and increasing in recent years.",
"The most important works on Grundtvig are a series of dissertations published since the founding of \"Grundtvig-selskabet\" (The Grundtvig Society). All of them contain summaries in major languages, most of them in English. This series includes:"
]
}
|
Caliban (moon)
| null |
Caliban is the second-largest retrograde irregular satellite of Uranus. It was discovered on 6 September 1997 by Brett J. Gladman, Philip D. Nicholson, Joseph A. Burns, and John J. Kavelaars using the 200-inch Hale telescope together with Sycorax and given the temporary designation S/1997 U 1.
| null |
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en-train-534671
|
en-train-534671
|
534671
|
{
"title": [
"Orbit.",
"Physical characteristics.",
"Origin."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Caliban follows a distant orbit, more than 10 times further from Uranus than the furthest regular moon Oberon. Its orbit is retrograde, moderately inclined and slightly eccentric. The orbital parameters suggest that it may belong to the same dynamic cluster as Stephano and Francisco, suggesting common origin. The diagram illustrates the orbital parameters of the retrograde irregular satellites of Uranus (in polar co-ordinates) with the eccentricity of the orbits represented by the segments extending from the pericentre to the apocentre.",
"Caliban's diameter is estimated to be around 42 km, based on thermal measurements by the Herschel Space Observatory. Its albedo is estimated at around 0.22, which is unusually high compared to those of other Uranian irregular satellites. Neptune's largest irregular satellite, Nereid, has a similarly high albedo as Caliban. Somewhat inconsistent reports put Caliban in \"light-red\" category (, ), redder than Himalia but still less red than most Kuiper belt objects. Caliban may be slightly redder than Sycorax. It also absorbs light at 0.7 μm, and one group of astronomers think this may be a result of liquid water that modified the surface. Measurements of Caliban's light curve by the Kepler space telescope indicate that its rotation period is about 9.9 hours.",
"Caliban is hypothesized to be a captured object: it did not form in the accretionary disk that existed around Uranus just after its formation. The exact capture mechanism is not known, but capturing a moon requires the dissipation of energy. The possible capture processes include: gas drag in the protoplanetary disk, many body interactions and the capture during the fast growth of the Uranus' mass (so-called \"pull-down\")."
]
}
|
Inuvik
| null |
Inuvik ("place of man") is a town in the Northwest Territories of Canada within Inuit Nunangat and is the administrative centre for the Inuvik Region.
| null |
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en-train-2058695
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en-train-2058695
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2058695
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{
"title": [
"History.",
"Demographics.",
"Geography.",
"Transportation.",
"Climate.",
"Tourism.",
"Famous attractions.",
"Annual events of note.",
"Facilities.",
"Media.",
"Print.",
"Television.",
"Communications.",
"Planetary nomenclature."
],
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"content": [
"Inuvik was conceived in 1953 as a replacement administrative centre for the hamlet of Aklavik on the west of the Mackenzie Delta, as the latter was prone to flooding and had no room for expansion. Initially called \"New Aklavik\", it was renamed Inuvik in 1958. The school was built in 1959 and the hospital, government offices and staff residences in 1960, when people, including Inuvialuit, Gwich’in (Dene) and Métis, began to live in the community. Naval Radio Station (NRS) Inuvik, later CFS Inuvik, callsign CFV, was commissioned on 10 September 1963 after operations had been successfully transferred from NRS Aklavik. Station CFV was part of the SUPRAD (Supplementary Radio) network of intercept and direction finding stations. CFS Inuvik closed on 1 April 1986 and the site was transferred to the Department of Transport for use as a telecommunications station. Nothing remains of CFS Inuvik today. Even now, many people of all backgrounds still lament its closing. The Navy Operations base at the end of Navy Road was completely dismantled and removed. Inuvik achieved village status in 1967 and became a full town in 1979 with an elected mayor and council. In 1979, with the completion of the Dempster Highway, Inuvik became connected to Canada's highway system, and simultaneously the most northerly town to which one could drive in the summer months — although an ice road through the Mackenzie River delta connects the town to Tuktoyaktuk, on the coast of the Arctic Ocean, and Aklavik, in the winter, and an all-weather road connecting Inuvik and Tuktoyaktuk opened in November 2017, replacing that portion of the ice road. Between 1971 and 1990, the town's economy was supported by the local Canadian Forces Station, CFS Inuvik, (originally a Naval Radio Station, later a communications research/signals intercept facility) and by petrochemical companies exploring the Mackenzie Valley and the Beaufort Sea for petroleum. This all collapsed in 1990 for a variety of reasons, including disappearing government military subsidies, local resistance to petroleum exploration, and low international oil prices. Since then the economy has been based on some minor tourism and subsidy provided by the Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada (INAC), Health Canada (for the regional hospital) and the Royal Canadian Mounted Police.",
"The population as of the 2016 Census was 3,243, a decrease of 6.4% from the 2011 Census and a decrease of 7.0% from the 2006 Census. The two previous census counts show wide fluctuations due to economic conditions: 2,894 in 2001 and 3,296 in 1996. As of the 2016 Census there were 2,080 people who identified as Indigenous. 63.2% were Inuvialuit (Inuit, predominantly Uummarmiut), 31.0% First Nations and 5.3%; Métis. The non-native population of Inuvik was 36.7%. The main language spoken in Inuvik is English, though schools teach and a handful of local people still speak Inuinnaqtun (Inuvialuktun), and Gwich’in. Local CBC Radio, CHAK (AM), broadcasts an hour of programming a day in each of these languages. Local Gwich'in are enrolled in the Inuvik Native Band. There are also about 100 Muslims, most of whom came there for economic opportunities. A small mosque (dubbed \"Little mosque on the tundra\" in reference to the CBC show \"Little Mosque on the Prairie\") was established in 2010. In 2017 the Government of the Northwest Territories reported that the population was 3,192 with an average yearly growth rate of -1.2% from 2007.",
"Inuvik is located on the East Channel of the Mackenzie Delta, approximately from the Arctic Ocean and approximately north of the Arctic Circle. The tree line lies north of Inuvik and it is surrounded by boreal forest. Due to its northern location, Inuvik experiences an average of 56 days of continuous sunlight every summer and 30 days of polar night every winter.",
"Most roads in Inuvik are paved. There are both concrete and metal-grill sidewalks alongside the roads. The Dempster Highway provides access to Inuvik for the majority of the year. However, the highway relies on ferries and ice bridges to get across the rivers. It is thus closed during the time of freeze-up (roughly late-October to mid-December), for ice to form and allow ice bridges, and thaw (roughly mid-May to mid-June) to allow the ferry to run. At these times, there is air access only. The main airport is Inuvik (Mike Zubko) Airport. There is also a general aviation airport, Inuvik/Shell Lake Water Aerodrome. When the Mackenzie River is ice-free, Northern Transportation Company Limited provides a commercial barge service from Hay River, on Great Slave Lake to the regional terminal in Inuvik. The annual sealift moves supplies as far east as Taloyoak, Nunavut and west to Utqiagvik, Alaska. A distinct feature of Inuvik is the use of \"utilidors\" – above-ground utility conduits carrying water and sewage – which are covered by corrugated steel. They run throughout town connecting most buildings, and as a result there are many small bridges and underpasses. The utilidors are necessary because of the permafrost underlying the town. Another feature is an \"Inuksuk\" placed outside the Mackenzie Hotel, which was rebuilt in 2006.",
"Inuvik has a subarctic climate (Köppen \"Dfc\"). Summers are typically wetter and cool, with temperatures varying wildly throughout the months due to its peculiar location near the cold Arctic Ocean. The average hottest month of the year, July, has a mean high of and mean low of. Unlike many other North American continental climates, Inuvik warms up very quickly during the months of May and June due to the rapidly increasing day length, and that remaining snow cools down until May. June is a warmer month than August. Seasonal transitions are extremely short, with mean daily temperatures rising or falling as fast as per day. Winters are long and extremely frigid; the coldest month of the year, January, having a mean high of and a mean low of. Freezing temperatures can occur any month of the year. Inuvik has a great variation of temperatures during the year, usually peaking below in the winter and above in the summer. The highest temperature ever recorded in Inuvik was on 17 June 1999 and 20 July 2001. The coldest temperature ever recorded was on 4 February 1968. Snow that falls from October onward usually stays until the spring thaw in mid-May. By March, the median snow depth has reached its greatest, about.",
"",
"Inuvik's Our Lady of Victory Church, often called \"Igloo Church\", is a famous landmark in the region. It is the most-photographed building in the town. Inuvik has North America's northernmost mosque, which opened in November 2010 after being built in Winnipeg and moved by truck and barge. Some media reports have mistakenly called the mosque \"the world's northernmost mosque\", but in fact mosques in Norilsk, Russia, and Tromsø, Norway, are both slightly farther north than Inuvik.",
"The Great Northern Arts Festival has been held annually for 10 days in the middle of July since 1989. The Festival has hosted over 3000 artists from across Canada's north, and from as far away as Japan and Australia over 31 years and is the largest annual tourism event in the Beaufort Delta. Featuring on-site demonstrations, 50+ arts workshops, a 3500-piece gallery, an outdoor carving village, an interactive artist studio zone, nightly cultural performances, northern film screenings, family activities and an Arctic fashion show, the Festival attracts visitors from around the world to travel the Dempster Highway to visit Inuvik and the Gwich'in and Inuvialuit Settlement Regions. The annual Sunrise Festival happens on the second weekend of the new year, when the sun finally breaks the horizon after about thirty days of darkness. The Festival is an all-day community event highlighted by dog-sled races, a long-program fireworks show and community bonfire. This Festival was highlighted in the award-winning 2010 national Tropicana Orange Juice commercial \"Arctic Sun\". Inuvik celebrates the Muskrat Jamboree each year in late March or early April. Started in 1957, the event brings together thousands of people to participate in traditional games, watch the dog-sled and snowmobile races and dance (jig) the night away in town. Most events are held on the Mackenzie River where several community groups operate concessions in stove-heated traditional McPherson tents, preparing hot soup, bannock, baked goods, coffee, Labrador tea, hot chocolate and other traditional refreshments. Many participants and spectators wear traditional clothing and often local artisans will have something to sell. In conjunction with the Muskrat Jamboree, the Town of Inuvik hosts the annual Muskrat Cup 3-on-3 Pond Hockey Tournament on the frozen Mackenzie River, the world's most northerly cash tournament. The weekend closest to the summer solstice (21 June) each year features the Midnight Sun Fun Run, a 5K, 10K and Half-Marathon that starts at midnight under the blazing 24-hours of sunlight experienced for 50+ days each summer in Inuvik. Runners from around the world make their way north to participate in this unique event under the midnight sun.",
"A new hospital opened in early 2003, providing service to an area extending from Sachs Harbour on Banks Island, to Ulukhaktok on Victoria Island, and from Paulatuk into the Sahtu Region including Norman Wells, Tulita, Deline, Fort Good Hope, and Colville Lake. The Midnight Sun Complex, a stage-built multi-use facility, was completed in 2006. Featuring the Roy 'Sugloo' Ipana Memorial Arena, with an NHL-sized ice surface; the Inuvik Curling Club with 3 sheets and a well-situated licensed lounge/viewing area; the Inuvik Pool, an award-winning Class B recreational pool with lane swimming, waterpark features including a two-story waterslide, hot tub, sauna and steam room; two squash courts; a multi-use community hall with stage; on-site business centre/production office; full building wireless; video-conferencing facility; on-site catering/kitchen; and meeting rooms for groups of 5 to 500. At full-building use, the Complex can host conferences, conventions and trade shows with up to 1200 delegates/exhibitors. The community has a state-of-the-art school called East 3. The construction budget for the school exceeded $110 million, and it features modern technologies such as'smartboards' and videoconferencing facilities as well as a large gym.",
"",
"The town is served by the \"Inuvik Drum\", a community newspaper published weekly by Northern News Services.",
"Inuvik was previously served by CHAK-TV, VHF channel 6, a CBC North television repeater of CFYK-DT (Yellowknife); that station closed down on 31 July 2012 due to budget cuts affecting the CBC.",
"Landline telephone service is provided by Northwestel, and cellular service by Ice Wireless and Arctic Digital (Bell Mobility). Cable television is also offered in Inuvik by New North Networks. Fibre optic communications were added in Inuvik in June 2017 with the completion of the Mackenzie Valley Fibre Link; the $82 million line adds new capability to the town. However, the dependence on this single trunk line occasionally causes widespread Internet outages during Dempster or Alaska Highway maintenance or construction. A backup trunk line between Fort Simpson and Inuvik is currently under construction.",
"In 1988, the International Astronomical Union's Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature (IAU/WGPSN) officially adopted the name Inuvik for a crater on Mars, at 78.7° north latitude and 28.6° west longitude. The crater's diameter is."
]
}
|
Martin Opitz
| null |
Martin Opitz von Boberfeld (23 December 1597 – 20 August 1639) was a German poet, regarded as the greatest of that nation during his lifetime.
| null |
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en-train-2346015
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en-train-2346015
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2346015
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{
"title": [
"Biography."
],
"section_level": [
"1"
],
"content": [
"Opitz was born in Bunzlau (Bolesławiec) in Lower Silesia, in the Principality of Schweidnitz-Jauer, the son of a prosperous citizen. He received his early education at the gymnasium of his native town, of which his uncle was rector, and in 1617 attended the high school—\"Schonaichianum\"—at Beuthen an der Oder (Bytom Odrzański), where he made a special study of French, Dutch and Italian poetry. In 1618 he entered the University of Frankfurt-on-Oder as a student of \"literae humaniores\", and in the same year published his first essay, \"Aristarchus, sive De contemptu linguae Teutonicae\", which presented the German language as suitable for poetry. In 1619 Opitz went to Heidelberg, where he became the leader of the school of young poets which at that time made that university town remarkable. Visiting Leiden in the following year he sat at the feet of the famous Dutch lyric poet Daniel Heinsius (1580–1655), whose \"Lobgesang Jesu Christi\" and \"Lobgesang Bacchi\" he had already translated into alexandrines. At the invitation of Gabriel Bethlen, the lord of Transylvania, he spent a year (1622) as professor of philosophy at the gymnasium of Weißenburg (Alba Iulia). After this he led a wandering life in the service of various territorial nobles. In 1624 Opitz was appointed councilor to Duke George Rudolf of Liegnitz (Legnica) and Brieg (Brzeg) in Silesia, and in 1625, as reward for a requiem poem composed on the death of Archduke Charles of Austria, was crowned poet laureate by Emperor Ferdinand II, who a few years later ennobled him under the title \"von Boberfeld.\" He was elected a member of the Fruitbearing Society in 1629, and in 1630 he went to Paris, where he made the acquaintance of Hugo Grotius. He settled in 1635 in the Hanseatic city of Danzig (Gdańsk) in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, where King Władysław IV Vasa of Poland made him his historiographer and secretary. There he died of the plague on 20 August 1639 in Danzig. Opitz was the head of the so-called First Silesian School of poets, and was during his life regarded as the greatest German poet. Although he would not today be considered a poetical genius, he may justly claim to have been the \"father of German poetry\" in respect at least of its form; his \"Buch von der deutschen Poeterey\" (1624) put an end to the hybridism that had until then prevailed, and established rules for the \"purity\" of language, style, verse and rhyme. Opitz's own poems are in accordance with the rigorous rules which he laid down. They are mostly a formal and sober elaboration of carefully considered themes, and contain little beauty and less feeling. To this didactic and descriptive category belong his best poems, \"Trost-Gedichte in Widerwãrtigkeit des Krieges\" (written 1621, but not published until 1633); \"Zlatna, oder von der Ruhe des Gemüths\" (1622); \"Lob des Feldlebens\" (1623); \"Vielgut, oder vom wahren Glück\" (1629), and \"Vesuvius\" (1633). These contain some vivid poetical descriptions, but are in the main treatises in poetical form. In 1624 Opitz published a collected edition of his poetry under the title \"Acht Bücher deutscher Poematum\" (though, owing to a mistake on the part of the printer, there are only five books); his \"Dafne\" (1627), to which Heinrich Schütz composed the music, is the earliest German opera. In 1637 (printed at Danzig in 1638) he dedicated the \"Geistliche Poemata\" (Religious Poems) to the Duchess of Silesia \"Der Durchlauchtigen Hochgebornen Fürstin und Frawen/ Frawen Sibyllen Margarethen, gebornen Hertzogin in Schlesien/ zur Lignitz und Briegk: Vermähleten deß Heiligen Röm. Reichs Gräffin von Dönhoff... Dantzig/den6.Tag deß intermonats/im 1637. Jahr.\" Sibylle Margarethe was the daughter of Dorothea of Brandenburg and the wife of Gerhard Dönhoff, brother of Ernst Magnus Dönhoff and Kasper Dönhoff. In 1625 he lived in Wittenberg in Saxony. Besides numerous translations, Opitz edited (1639) \"Das Annolied\", a Middle High German poem of the end of the 11th century, and thus preserved it from oblivion since the original manuscript is now lost. Opitz also wrote a pastoral novel, \"Schäferei der Nymphe Hercinie\" (The Idyll of the Nymph Hercinie, 1630). Opitz died in Danzig on 20 August 1639."
]
}
|
Alternative metal
| null |
Alternative metal (also known as alt-metal) is a rock music fusion genre that infuses heavy metal with influences from alternative rock and other genres not normally associated with metal. Alternative metal bands are often characterized by heavily downtuned, mid-paced guitar riffs, a mixture of accessible melodic vocals and harsh vocals and sometimes unconventional sounds within other heavy metal styles. The term has been in use since the 1980s, although it came into prominence in the 1990s.
| null |
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en-train-2129137
|
en-train-2129137
|
2129137
|
{
"title": [
"Characteristics.",
"History.",
"Origins and early success (1980s – mid 1990s).",
"Emergence of nu metal and commercial peak (late 1990s – early 2000s).",
"Current status (mid 2000s – present)."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2"
],
"content": [
"The genre is generally considered a fusion between alternative rock and heavy metal, although Allmusic states \"alt-metal is a far-reaching term that has been used to describe everyone from Hammerlock to Neurosis to Ministry to Limp Bizkit\". They also remarked that alternative metal was originally \"a style united by its nonconformist sensibility rather than any immediately classifiable sound.\" One of the main characteristics of alternative metal and its subgenres are heavily downtuned, mid-paced \"chug\"-like guitar riffs. However, funk metal bands often use a more conventional riffing style influenced by 1980s thrash metal. Alternative metal features clean and melodic vocals, influenced by those of alternative rock, in contrast to other heavy metal subgenres. Later bands frequently incorporated vocal styles that alternated between clean singing, growls and screaming. Examples include alternative metal bands associated with the nu metal movement, such as Korn and Deftones, who have been described as having \"bipolar vocals\". Jonathan Gold of the \"Los Angeles Times\" wrote in 1990 \"Just as rock has an alternative, [left] wing-bands like the Replacements and Dinosaur Jr.-so does metal. Alternative metal is alternative music that rocks. And alternative metal these days can reach 10 times the audience of other alternative rock. Jane's Addiction plays an intense brand of '70s-influenced arty metal; so does Soundgarden. In fact, the arty meanderings of Sab and the Zep themselves would be considered alternative metal.\" \"Houston Press\" has described the genre as being a \"compromise for people for whom Nirvana was not heavy enough but Metallica was too heavy.\" The first wave of alternative metal bands emerged from many backgrounds, including hardcore punk (Bad Brains, Rollins Band, Life of Agony, Corrosion of Conformity), noise rock (Helmet, The Jesus Lizard, Today is the day, White Zombie), Seattle's grunge scene (Alice in Chains, Soundgarden), stoner rock (Clutch, Kyuss), sludge metal (Fudge Tunnel, Melvins), gothic metal (Type O Negative) and industrial (Godflesh, Nine Inch Nails). These bands never formed a distinct movement or scene; rather they were bound by their incorporation of traditional metal influences and openness to experimentation. Jane's Addiction borrowed from art rock and progressive rock, Quicksand blended post-hardcore and Living Colour injected funk into their sound, for example, while Primus were influenced by progressive rock, thrash metal and funk and Faith No More mixed progressive rock, R&B, funk and hip hop. Fudge Tunnel's style of alternative metal included influences from both sludge metal and noise rock.",
"",
"The origins of the genre can be traced back to funk rock music of the early to mid-1980s, when alternative bands like Fishbone, Faith No More and the Red Hot Chili Peppers started mixing heavy metal with funk, creating the alternative metal subgenre funk metal. Other early bands in the genre also came from hardcore punk backgrounds. Bands such as Faith No More, Jane's Addiction and Soundgarden are recognized as some of the earliest alternative metal acts, with all three of these bands emerging around the same time, and setting the template for the genre by mixing heavy metal music with a variety of different genres in the mid to late 1980s. During the 1980s, alternative metal appealed mainly to alternative rock fans, since virtually all 1980s alt-metal bands had their roots in the American independent rock scene. The emergence of grunge as a popular style of rock music in the early 1990s helped make alternative metal more acceptable to a mainstream audience, with alternative metal soon becoming the most popular metal style of the 1990s. Several bands associated with the genre denied their status as metal bands. Helmet drummer John Stanier said \"We fell into the whole metal thing by accident, we always hated it when people mentioned metal in conjunction with us.\" Saby Reyes-Kulkarni of \"Pitchfork Media\" stated \"bands like Faith No More, Soundgarden, Primus, Helmet, the Rollins Band, and dozens more were initially marketed as quasi-metal acts. This was only possible in a climate where record labels, journalists, and college radio DJs understood that the metal audience could embrace new, albeit arty variations on the form.\" The alternative music festival Lollapalooza conceived by Jane's Addiction singer Perry Farrell, helped bands associated with the movement such as Tool, Rage Against the Machine, Primus, Nine Inch Nails, Soundgarden and Alice in Chains gain exposure. The progressive rock-influenced band Tool became a leading band in the alternative metal genre with the release of their 1993 debut album \"Undertow\"; Tool's popularity in the mid-'90s helped kick off an era of bands with alt-metal tendencies also classified in other genres like industrial (Nine Inch Nails) and rap rock (Rage Against the Machine). \"Spin\" stated in August 1998 that \"It was Helmet that spawned the idea of alternative metal with the punk crutch of 1992's \"Meantime\" [and] bands such as Rage Against the Machine took the concept a crucial step further, integrating hip hop to connect with skate rat kids raised on Metallica and Run D.M.C..\" Many established 1980s metal bands released albums in the 1990s that were described as alternative metal, including Anthrax, Metallica and Mötley Crüe.",
"In the latter part of the 1990s, a second, more aggressive wave of alternative metal emerged; dubbed nu metal, it often relied on hardcore punk, groove/thrash metal, industrial and hip hop influences, as opposed to the influences of the first wave of alternative metal bands, with this style subsequently becoming more popular than regular alternative metal. It resulted in a more standardized sound among alternative metal bands, in contrast to the more eccentric and unclassifiable early alternative metal bands. Korn, a band formed in 1993, released their self-titled debut the following year, which is widely considered to be the first nu metal release. MTV stated that Korn \"arrived in 1993 into the burgeoning alternative metal scene, which would morph into nü-metal the way college rock became alternative rock.\" \"Stereogum\" similarly claimed that nu metal was a \"weird outgrowth of the Lollapalooza-era alt-metal scene\". During the late 1990s and early 2000s, nu metal was prevalent in the mainstream, with bands such as Korn, Limp Bizkit, Linkin Park, Slipknot and Staind all attaining success. AllMusic has compared nu and alternative metal's commercial success during this period to the rise of the glam metal phenomenon in the 1980s, stating that it is \"ironic, given alternative metal's vehement rejection of hair metal's attitude.\" Some nu metal bands managed to push musical boundaries while still remaining commercially viable, such as Mudvayne (who combined progressive elements) and Deftones, who have incorporated post-hardcore and dream pop influences. Joel McIver believes that the band Tool is important to the development of this genre; he wrote in his book \"Unleashed: The Story of Tool\", \"By 1996 and '97 the wave of alternative metal spearheaded by Tool in the wake of grunge was beginning to evolve into nu-metal\". However, Tool's vocalist Maynard James Keenan was quick to separate himself from this movement saying \"I'm sick of that whole attitude. The one that puts Tool in with [nu] metal bands. The press... can't seem to distinguish between alternative and metal.\" Other alternative metal bands considered influential to the nu metal genre such as Helmet have also tried to distance themselves from the movement.",
"A number of bands from the nu metal era — such as System of a Down, Godsmack, Karnivool and Deftones — are still primarily classed as alternative metal, due to lacking specific elements associated with the nu metal genre. In 2016, Jason Heller of \"Vice\" wrote \"The term alternative metal still pops up from time to time, but it’s no more relevant or meaningful today than alternative rock. Instead, it’s a relic. But the brief, nebulous era of alternative metal in the late 80s and early 90s remains a snapshot of a vibrant time when a brash new generation of heavy-leaning bands threw everything against the wall to see what stuck.\""
]
}
|
Community service
| null |
Community service is a non-paying job performed by one person or a group of people for the benefit of their community or its institutions. Community service is distinct from volunteering, since it is not always performed on a voluntary basis. Although personal benefits may be realized, it may be performed for a variety of reasons including citizenship requirements, a substitution of criminal justice sanctions, requirements of a school or class, and requisites for the receipt of certain benefits.
| null |
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en-train-2338628
|
en-train-2338628
|
2338628
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{
"title": [
"Background.",
"Reasons.",
"High school graduation and community work.",
"Colleges.",
"Community service-learning.",
"Definition.",
"Court ordered service.",
"Corporate social responsibility.",
"Worldwide examples.",
"Community service for institutions.",
"Religious reasons for serving.",
"Christian service.",
"Personal benefits of serving.",
"Choosing the right strategy."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"3",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"3",
"2",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Community service is a non-paying job performed by one person or a group of people for the benefit of their community or its institutions. Community service is distinct from volunteering, since it is not always performed on a voluntary basis. It may be performed for a variety of reasons.",
"",
"Some educational jurisdictions in the United States require students to perform community service hours to graduate from high school. In some high schools in Washington, for example, students must finish 200 hours of community service to get a diploma. Some school districts in Washington, including Seattle Public Schools, differentiate between community service and \"service learning,\" requiring students to demonstrate that their work has contributed to their education. If a student in high school is taking an Advancement Via Individual Determination (AVID) course, community service is often needed. Whether American public schools could require volunteer hours for high school graduation was challenged in \"Immediato v. Rye Neck School District\", but the court found no violation. Many other high schools do not require community service hours for graduation, but still see an impressive number of students get involved in their communities. For example, in Palo Alto, California, students at Palo Alto High School log about 45,000 hours of community service every year. As a result, the school's College and Career Center awards 250–300 students the President's Volunteer Service Award every year for their hard work.",
"Though not technically considered a requirement, many colleges include community service as an unofficial requirement for acceptance. However, some colleges prefer work experience over community service, and some require that their students also continue community service for some specific number of hours to graduate. Some schools also offer unique \"community service\" courses, awarding credit to students who complete a certain number of community service hours. Some academic honor societies, along with some fraternities and sororities in North America, require community service to join and others require each member to continue doing community service. Many student organizations exist for the purpose of community service, the largest of which is Alpha Phi Omega. Community service projects are also done by sororities and fraternities. Beginning in the 1980s, colleges began using service-learning as a pedagogy. A partnership of college presidents began in 1985 with the initiative of boosting community service in their colleges. This alliance called Campus Compact, led the way for many other schools to adopt service-learning courses and activities. Service-learning courses vary widely in time span, quality, and in the balance of \"service\" and \"learning\" stressed in the course. A typical service-learning course, however, has these factors in common: Reflection is sometimes symbolized by the hyphen in the term \"service-learning\" to indicate that it has a central role in learning by serving. Reflection is simply a scheduled consideration of one's own experiences and thoughts. This can take many forms, including journals, blogs, and discussions. Service-learning courses present learning the material in context, meaning that students often learn effectively and tend to apply what was learned. As the book \"Where’s the Learning in Service-Learning?\" notes, \"Students engaged in service-learning are engaged in authentic situations; they get to know real people whose lives are affected by these issues... As a result, they have lots of questions—real questions that they want to have answered.\" Thus, students become interested and motivated to learn the materials to resolve their questions. Community service learning strives to connect or re-connect students with serving their community after they finish their course. It creates a bridge for the lack of community service found among college-age people in the United States.",
"The one serving may be able to take something away from the experience and be able to use any newfound knowledge or interpersonal discoveries to improve their future servitude and the people around them. To gain the most from community service requires balancing learning with serving. Learning and serving at the same time improves a student's community while teaching life lessons and building character. Community service-learning is \"about leadership development as well as traditional information and skill acquisition\". Therefore, the combination of people doing service and learning at the same time teaches them how to be effective and how to be effective regarding what is important to them. It can improve their overall experience and application opportunities they gain from it. By adding service to learning, and balancing the two, community service can become more than just the act of serving. The goal of service-learning is to achieve large change through small actions. By being a classroom, a hands-on learning experience, and an opportunity to change the community, people are able to not only serve, but impact themselves as well.",
"According to Fayetteville State University, \"service learning is a process of involving students in community service activities combined with facilitated means for applying the experience to their academic and personal development. It is a form of experiential education aimed at enhancing and enriching student learning in course material. When compared to other forms of experiential learning like internships and cooperative education, it is similar in that it is student-centered, hands-on and directly applicable to the curriculum.\" Professor Freddy Cardoza defines community service-Learning as \"a pedogogy (or a specific teaching-learning approach) that has few lectures, and is a more interactive hands on educational strategy which provides students with instruction while leading them through meaningful community service experiences and engaging them in personal reflection on those experiences in order to build character and to teach problem-solving skills and civic responsibility.\" Cardoza stressed that it was important for a student take some time and reflect on what they are experiencing, seeing, doing, and what problems they are encountering and how they are going to apply what they have been learning to solve these problems. In other words, service-learning aims to link the personal and interpersonal development with cognitive development, as well as equipping the student with critical knowledge to help them understand the world. Character.org defines service-learning as \"different than community service in several key ways. Service learning includes student leadership, reflective and academic components, and chances for celebration once the service activity has been successfully completed. Students reflect on community needs, ways to help, and once their service has been completed, they can internalise how their efforts have helped, while learning more about academics such as geography, math, or science.\"",
"People convicted of a crime may be required to perform community service or to work for agencies in the sentencing jurisdiction either entirely or partially as a substitution of other judicial remedies and sanctions, such as incarceration or fines. For instance, a fine may be reduced in exchange for a prescribed number of hours of community service. The court may allow the defendant to choose their community service, which must then be documented by \"credible agencies\", such as non-profit organizations, or may mandate a specific service. Sometimes the sentencing is specifically targeted to the defendant's crime, for example, a litterer may have to clean a park or roadside, or a drunk driver might appear before school groups to explain why drunk driving is a crime. Also, a sentence allowing for a broader choice may prohibit certain services that the offender would reasonably be expected to perform anyway.",
"Some employers involve their staff in some kind of community service programming, such as with the United Way of America. This may be completely voluntary or a condition of employment, or anything in between. In addition, approximately 40% of Fortune 500 companies offer volunteer grant programs where companies provide monetary donations to nonprofit organizations in recognition of their employee's volunteerism (e.g. $500 volunteer grant after 25 hours of community service).",
"Community service in the United States is often similar to that in Canada. In Europe and Australia, community service is an option for many criminal sentences as an alternative to incarceration. In the United Kingdom, community service is now officially referred to by the Home Office as more straightforward \"compulsory unpaid work\". Compulsory unpaid work includes up to 300 hours of activities, such as conservation work, cleaning up graffiti, or working with a charity. The Howard League for Penal Reform (the world's oldest prison reform organization) is a prominent advocate for increased community sentencing to reduce prison population and improve rehabilitation. Starting in 2010, Danish high school students receive a special diploma if they complete at least 20 hours of voluntary work. The International Baccalaureate program formerly required 50 hours of community service, together with a written reflection on the service performed, to fulfill the requirement of 150 hours of CAS (creativity, action, and service) and receive an IB Diploma. Florence Nightingale organized fundraisers to raise money for the hospital and arrange more stable living conditions to improve the health of the soldiers in the hospital. Florence Nightingale served a specific group of people and benefited the public—which is an example of community service.",
"Many institutions require and/or give incentive to students or employees alike to volunteer their time to community service programs. From volunteering to participating in such charity events like walks or runs, institutes continue the practice or requiring their employees or students to grow in camaraderie while giving back to various communities. Many institutions also provide opportunities for employees and students to work together, and most student groups participate in their own form of community service. Each is unique in its own right; all are incredibly popular with employees; and in all of these programs, human resources plays an integral role. One such program, Johns Hopkins University, under the leadership of Johns Hopkins University president Ronald J. Daniels and the chief executive officer of Baltimore City Schools, the university's human resources and community affairs departments worked with the school system to develop the Johns Hopkins Takes Time for Schools program in 2009, launching it on March 3, 2010. The program is a service partnership aimed at providing support and assistance to Baltimore City Schools (BCS) while providing faculty and staff an avenue for community service, offering their talents to the city's youth and improving the administrative and educational capacities of the area's school system. Some institutes even give their students or employees a guaranteed number of days or weeks of leave for certain acceptable community service programs. One example is East Carolina University, which gives 24 hours of community service leave for full-time employees per year as an incentive and compensation for community service.",
"Beyond required community service, some religious groups emphasize serving one's community. These groups and churches reach out by holding Vacation Bible Schools for children, hosting Red Cross blood drives, having fall carnivals, or offering free meals. Through these services, churches are able to benefit neighborhoods and families. Some churches create non-profit organizations that can help the public. Crisis pregnancy centers are often run by religious groups to promote pro-life values in local families. To meet impoverished people's needs, some churches provide a food pantry or start a homeless shelter. Also, certain churches provide day care so that busy parents can work.",
"Christianity promotes community service. According to Freddy Cardoza, a teacher at biblical Biola University, Christians are called to serve people because Christians see the importance of community service to show God's love and to further spread the Gospel. Some non-governmental (NGO) community service organizations were founded by Christians seeking to put their beliefs into practice. Three prominent examples are Samaritan's Purse, Salvation Army, and Habitat for Humanity. Samaritan's Purse was inspired by a prayer of evangelist Robert Pierce, \"Let my heart be broken for the things which break the heart of God.\" After traveling through Asia and seeing first-hand the suffering of impoverished children, lepers, and orphans—in 1970, Pierce founded Samaritan's Purse. Today, Samaritan's Purse reaches millions of people across the globe by providing aid such as disaster relief, medical assistance, and child care. A notable Samaritan's Purse project is Operation Christmas Child headed by Franklin Graham. The Salvation Army was founded by William Booth and his wife Catherine Booth in 1865. Booth was a Methodist minister and preacher on the streets of London. His tent meetings gathered crowds of drunkards, prostitutes and thieves who eventually became the first \"soldiers\" in the army, which has grown to 1,442,388 members in 126 countries. The Salvation Army's motto is \"Doing the Most Good\" and does so by providing aid such as shelter, food, clothing, spiritual training and disaster relief. Habitat for Humanity provides housing for people in need. Founded by Millard Fuller, its vision is to \"...put God’s love into action by bringing people together to build homes, communities and hope\". Habitat for Humanity has built or repaired over 800,000 homes and served more than 4 million people worldwide since its creation in 1976. They describe their vision as \"...a world where everyone has a decent place to live\".",
"Community service also allows those participating to reflect on the difference they are making in society. Some participants of a community service project may find themselves gaining a greater understanding of their roles in the community, as well as the impact of their contributions towards those in need of service. Because community service outlets vary, those who serve are exposed to many different kinds of people, environments, and situations. With each new community service project, some participants may gain insightful experience in a variety of areas. Participants may also internalize the information that they found personally insightful for future use. While simply performing community service is valuable to the recipients, those serving often find it beneficial to pause and reflect on how they are changing society for the better. Schools often take students on community service projects so they can learn how their individual actions affect the well-being of the public. Participants may find that serving the public fosters a more solidified view of self and purpose. Those involved in community service learning may also find that after serving the community for an extended period of time, they have an advantage in real-world experience. Eventually, the skills and knowledge obtained while working with the community may be applied in future areas of work. Community service may also increase a participant's social connectivity. Because most community service opportunities allow others to interact and work with other individuals, this service may help volunteers network and connect with others towards a common goal. People gain the most from their community service projects when they volunteer their time to help people that they have never interacted with before. This direct contact allows people to see life from a different perspective and reevaluate their opinions of others. Many young people who get involved in community service come out with a more well-rounded worldview. Another benefit in participating in community service is a greater understanding and appreciation for diversity. Appreciating other cultures and breaking down stereotypes is important to becoming a responsible citizen and better person. By participating in a community service project where interaction is required, personal relationships can begin to grow. These personal relationships help people have informal and consistent interactions that through time, often breakdown negative stereotypes. These relationships can also facilitate more opinions and viewpoints surrounding various topics that help participants to grow in diversity. Stereotypes can be defined as, \"believing unfairly that all people or things with a specific characteristic are the same.\" Stereotypes often reveal themselves in quick judgments based solely off of visible characteristics. These judgments move into a biased opinion when you believe that these judgments are always true. These stereotypes can be harmful to both personal relationships and relationships within the work place. Community Service helps people to realize that everyone does not fall into these preconceived ideas. Along with breaking down stereotypes, community service work can assist people in realizing that those they are helping and working with are no different from themselves. This realization can lead to empathizing with others. Learning to understand the needs and motivations of others, especially those who live different lives from our own, is an important part of living a productive life. This leads to a view of humanity that can help a person stay free of biased opinions of others and can lead to a more diverse and ultimately more productive and thought provoking life.",
"As pointed out by de Tocqueville, America, in sharp contrast with other developed countries, has had a formidable ability to form associations. Civilians have a desire and aptitude to organize themselves apart from government to address the needs in their communities. However, making sure an effort has a positive effect on society requires clear analysis and a strategy. Analysis identifies root causes of problems that project implementation must address. Individuals, like neighborhoods, enjoy permanent change only if it is an inner one—and the greatest form of community service is encouraging that inner change. Abraham Kuyper advocates \"sphere sovereignty\", which honors the independence and autonomy of the \"intermediate bodies\" in society, such as schools, press, business, and the arts. He champions the right of every community to operate its own organizations and manage its own groups, with the foundational belief that parents know what their child really needs, and that local people are more capable of helping fellow locals. Those who agree with his views perceive community service as a tool of empowerment that can help people achieve better employment and lifestyle, avoiding what they see as destructive decision making for mal-established goals by poorly developed community service efforts. Amy L. Sherman, in her book \"Restorers of Hope\", suggests that community service planning should be made with the valuable opinion of the local residents, since they have firsthand knowledge of the inside realities of their community's current state. Making them a part of the movement, change or project creates in the members of the community a sense of belonging and hope."
]
}
|
Diamonds Are Forever (film)
| null |
Diamonds Are Forever is a 1971 spy film and the seventh in the "James Bond" series produced by Eon Productions. It is the sixth and final Eon film to star Sean Connery, who returned to the role as the fictional MI6 agent James Bond, having declined to reprise the role in "On Her Majesty's Secret Service" (1969).
| null |
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en-train-1200900
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{
"title": [
"Plot.",
"Production.",
"Writing.",
"Richard Maibaum.",
"Tom Mankiewicz.",
"Casting.",
"Filming.",
"Music.",
"Release and reception.",
"Contemporary reviews.",
"Retrospective reviews."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"2",
"2"
],
"content": [
"James Bond—agent 007—pursues Ernst Stavro Blofeld and eventually finds him at a facility where Blofeld look-alikes are being created through surgery. Bond kills a test subject, and later the \"real\" Blofeld, by drowning him in a pool of superheated mud. While assassins Mr. Wint and Mr. Kidd systematically kill several diamond smugglers, M suspects South African diamonds are being stockpiled to depress prices by dumping, and orders Bond to uncover the smuggling ring. Posing as professional smuggler and assassin Peter Franks, Bond travels to Amsterdam to meet contact Tiffany Case. The real Franks shows up, but Bond intercepts and kills him, and switches IDs to make it seem like Franks is Bond. Case and Bond then go to Los Angeles, smuggling the diamonds inside Franks' corpse. At the airport Bond meets his CIA ally Felix Leiter, then travels to Las Vegas. At a funeral home, Franks' body is cremated and the diamonds passed on to another smuggler, Shady Tree. Bond is nearly killed by Wint and Kidd when they put him in a casket to be burned in a cremation retort, but Tree stops the process when he discovers that the diamonds in Franks' body were fakes planted by Bond and the CIA. Bond tells Leiter to ship him the real diamonds. Bond then goes to the Whyte House, a casino-hotel owned by the reclusive billionaire Willard Whyte, where Tree works as a stand-up comedian. Bond discovers there that Tree has been killed by Wint and Kidd, who did not know that the diamonds were fake. At the craps table Bond meets the opportunistic Plenty O'Toole, and after gambling, brings her to his room. Gang members ambush them, throwing O'Toole out the window and into the pool. Bond spends the rest of the night with Tiffany Case, instructing her to retrieve the real diamonds at the Circus Circus casino. Tiffany reneges on her deal to meet back with Bond and instead flees, passing off the diamonds to the next smuggler. However, seeing that O'Toole was killed after being mistaken for her, Tiffany changes her mind. She drives Bond to the airport, where the diamonds are given to Professor Metz, a laser refraction specialist, who is followed to a remote facility. Bond enters the apparent destination of the diamonds; a research laboratory owned by Whyte, where a satellite is being built by Metz. When Bond's cover is blown, he escapes by stealing a moon buggy and reunites with Tiffany. Bond scales the walls to the Whyte House's top floor to confront Whyte. He is instead met by two identical Blofelds, who use an electronic device to sound like Whyte. Bond kills one of the Blofelds, which turns out to be a look-alike. He is then knocked out by gas, picked up by Wint and Kidd, and taken out to Las Vegas Valley, where he is placed in a pipeline and left to die. Bond escapes, then calls Blofeld, using a similar electronic device to pose as Whyte's assistant Saxby. He finds out Whyte's location and rescues him, Saxby being killed in the gunfight. In the meantime, Blofeld abducts Case. With the help of Whyte, Bond raids the lab and uncovers Blofeld's plot to create a laser satellite using the diamonds, which by now has already been sent into orbit. With the satellite, Blofeld destroys nuclear weapons in China, the Soviet Union and the United States, then proposes an international auction for global nuclear supremacy. Whyte identifies an oil platform off the coast of Baja California as Blofeld's likely base of operations. After Bond's attempt to change the cassette containing the satellite control codes fails due to a mistake by Tiffany, a helicopter attack on the oil rig is launched by Leiter and the CIA. Blofeld tries to escape in a midget submarine, but Bond gains control of the submarine's launch crane and crashes the sub into the control room, causing both the satellite control and the base to be destroyed. Bond and Tiffany then head for Britain on a cruise ship, where Wint and Kidd pose as room-service stewards and attempt to kill them with a hidden bomb, but Bond discovers their plan and kills the two henchmen instead. As they immediately reconcile afterwards, Tiffany asks Bond \"How the Hell are we gonna get those diamonds back?\".",
"The producers originally intended to have \"Diamonds Are Forever\" re-create commercially successful aspects of \"Goldfinger\", including hiring its director, Guy Hamilton. Peter R. Hunt, who had directed \"On Her Majesty's Secret Service\" and worked in all previous Bond films as editor, was invited before Hamilton, but due to involvement with another project could only work on the film if the production date was postponed, which the producers declined to do.",
"",
"While \"On Her Majesty's Secret Service\" was in post-production, Richard Maibaum wrote initial treatments and a script for \"Diamonds Are Forever\" as a revenge-themed sequel with Irma Bunt and Marc-Ange Draco returning, and Bond mourning his deceased wife Tracy while Louis Armstrong's \"We Have All the Time in the World\" played in the background. When George Lazenby departed from the role prior to the film's release, a complete rewrite was requested, in addition to Maibaum's script failing to impress Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman. Following this, an original plot had as a villain Auric Goldfinger's twin, seeking revenge for the death of his brother. The plot was later changed after Broccoli had a dream, where his close friend Howard Hughes was replaced by an imposter. So the character of Willard Whyte was created, and Tom Mankiewicz was chosen to rework the script.",
"Mankiewicz says he was hired because Broccoli wanted an American writer to work on the script, since so much of it was set in Las Vegas \"and the Brits write really lousy American gangsters\" — but it had to be someone who also understood the British idiom, since it had British characters. David Picker from United Artists had seen the stage musical \"Georgy\" written by Mankiewicz, and recommended him; he was hired on a two-week trial and kept on for the rest of the movie. Mankiewicz later estimated the novel provided around 45 minutes of the film's final running time. The adaptation eliminated the main villains from the source Ian Fleming novel, mobsters called Jack and Seraffimo Spang, but used the henchmen Shady Tree, Mr. Wint and Mr. Kidd. Maibaum's original idea for the ending was a giant boat chase across Lake Mead, with Blofeld being pursued by Bond and all the Las Vegas casino owners, who would be sailing in their private yachts. Bond was to rouse the allies into action with a spoof of Lord Nelson's famous cry, \"Las Vegas expects every man to do his duty.\" Maibaum was misinformed; there were no Roman galleys or Chinese junks in Las Vegas, and the idea was too expensive to replicate, so it was dropped. Maibaum may have thought the eventual oil-rig finale a poor substitute, but it was originally intended to be much more spectacular. Armed frogmen would jump from the helicopters into the sea and attach limpet mines to the rig's legs (this explains why frogmen appear on the movie's poster). Blofeld would have escaped in his BathoSub and Bond would have pursued him, hanging from a weather balloon. The chase would have continued across a salt mine, with the two mortal enemies scrambling over white hills of salt before Blofeld would fall to his death in a salt granulator. Permission was not granted by the owners of the salt mine. It also made the sequence too long. Further problems followed when the explosives for the finale were set off too early; fortunately, a handful of cameras were ready and able to capture the footage.",
"George Lazenby was originally offered a contract for seven Bond films, but declined and left after just one, \"On Her Majesty's Secret Service\", on the advice of his agent. Producers contemplated replacing him with John Gavin, though actors Adam West and Burt Reynolds had also been considered; Reynolds and West had stated that Bond should not be played by an American actor. Michael Gambon rejected an offer, telling Broccoli that he was \"in terrible shape.\" United Artists' chief David Picker was unhappy with this decision and made it clear that Connery was to be enticed back to the role and that money was no object. When approached about resuming the role of Bond, Connery demanded the fee of £1.25 million. To entice the actor to play Bond once more, United Artists offered two back-to-back films of his choice. After both sides agreed to the deal, Connery used the fee to establish the Scottish International Education Trust, where Scottish artists could apply for funding without having to leave their country to pursue their careers. Since John Gavin was no longer in the running for the role, his contract was paid in full by United Artists. The first film made under Connery's deal was \"The Offence\", directed by his friend Sidney Lumet. The second was to be an adaptation of \"Macbeth\" by William Shakespeare, using only Scottish actors and in which Connery himself would play the title role. This project was abandoned because Roman Polanski's version of \"Macbeth\" (1971) was already in production. Charles Gray was cast as villain Ernst Stavro Blofeld, after playing a Bond ally named Dikko Henderson in \"You Only Live Twice\" (1967). Jazz musician Putter Smith was invited by Harry Saltzman to play Mr. Kidd, after a Thelonious Monk Band show. Musician Paul Williams was originally cast as Mr. Wint. When he couldn't agree with the producers on compensation, Bruce Glover replaced him. Glover said he was surprised at being chosen, because at first producers said he was too normal and that they wanted a deformed, Peter Lorre-like actor. Bruce Cabot, who played the part of Bert Saxby, died the following year; \"Diamonds\" turned out to be his final film role. Jimmy Dean was cast as Willard Whyte after Saltzman saw a presentation of him. Dean was very worried about playing a Howard Hughes pastiche, because he was an employee of Hughes at the Desert Inn. Jill St. John had originally been offered the part of Plenty O'Toole, but landed the female lead after Sidney Korshak, who assisted the producers in filming in Las Vegas locations, recommended his client St. John, who became the first American Bond girl. Linda Thorson met with Cubby Broccoli hoping to be considered for the part of Case, but he never considered her for the role, although he did briefly list her as a possibility for the part of Plenty O'Toole. Some time later, Broccoli told Thorson she was never cast in a Bond film because she didn't have long hair. Lana Wood was cast as Plenty O'Toole, following a suggestion of screenwriter Tom Mankiewicz. Denise Perrier, Miss World 1953, played \"Marie\", the woman in the bikini who is forced by Bond to disclose the location of Blofeld. A cameo appearance by Sammy Davis, Jr. playing on the roulette table was filmed, but his scene was eventually deleted. Initially, the character of Miss Moneypenny did not feature in the movie, partly because Lois Maxwell had held out for a pay increase, but it was decided during production to add the scene where, disguised as a customs officer, Moneypenny gives Bond his travel documents at the port of Dover. The additional scene was a last-minute rewrite, as the producers felt it important to incorporate Maxwell after her issue was resolved. Maxwell and Connery filmed their lines separately for the short scene.",
"Filming began on 5 April 1971, with the South African scenes actually shot in the desert near Las Vegas, and finished on 13 August 1971. The film was shot primarily in the United States, with locations including the Los Angeles International Airport, Universal City Studios and eight hotels of Las Vegas. Besides the Pinewood Studios in Buckinghamshire, other places in England were Dover and Southampton. The climactic oil rig sequence was shot off the shore of Oceanside, California. Other filming locations included Cap D'Antibes in France for the opening scenes, Amsterdam and Lufthansa's hangar at Frankfurt Airport, Germany. Filming in Las Vegas took place mostly in hotels owned by Howard Hughes, since he was a friend of Cubby Broccoli. Getting the streets empty to shoot was achieved through the collaboration of Hughes, the Las Vegas police and shopkeepers' association. The Las Vegas Hilton doubled for the Whyte House, and since the owner of the Circus Circus was a Bond fan, he allowed the Circus to be used on film and even made a cameo. The cinematographers said filming in Las Vegas at night had an advantage: no additional illumination was required due to the high number of neon lights. Sean Connery made the most of his time on location in Las Vegas. \"I didn't get any sleep at all. We shot every night, I caught all the shows and played golf all day. On the weekend I collapsed – boy, did I collapse. Like a skull with legs.\" He also played the slot machines, and once delayed a scene because he was collecting his winnings. While shooting in Las Vegas Connery dated his co-star Lana Wood. The site used for the Willard Whyte Space Labs (where Bond gets away in the Moon Buggy) was actually, at that time, a Johns-Manville gypsum plant located just outside Las Vegas. The home of Kirk Douglas was used for the scene in Tiffany's house, while the Elrod House in Palm Springs, designed by John Lautner, became Willard Whyte's house. The exterior shots of the Slumber mortuary were of the Palm Mortuary in Henderson, Nevada. The interiors were a set constructed at Pinewood Studios, where Ken Adam imitated the real building's lozenge-shaped stained glass window in its nave. During location filming, Adam visited several funeral homes in the Las Vegas area, the inspiration behind the gaudy design of the Slumber mortuary (the use of tasteless Art Nouveau furniture and Tiffany lamps) came from these experiences. Production wrapped with the crematorium sequence, on 13 August 1971. Since the car chase in Las Vegas would have many car crashes, the filmmakers had an arrangement with Ford to use their vehicles. Ford's only demand was that Sean Connery had to drive the 1971 Mustang Mach 1 which serves as Tiffany Case's car. The Moon Buggy was inspired by the actual NASA vehicle, but with additions such as flailing arms since the producers didn't find the design \"outrageous\" enough. Built by custom car fabricator Dean Jeffries on a rear-engined Corvair chassis, it was capable of road speeds. The fibreglass tires had to be replaced during the chase sequence because the heat and irregular desert soil ruined them. Hamilton had the idea of making a fight scene inside a lift, which was choreographed and done by Sean Connery and stuntman Joe Robinson. The car chase where the red Mustang comes outside of the narrow street on the opposite side in which it was rolled, was filmed over three nights on Fremont Street in Las Vegas. The alleyway car roll sequence is actually filmed in two locations. The entrance was at the car park at Universal Studios and the exit was at Fremont Street, Las Vegas. It eventually inspired a continuity mistake, as the car enters the alley on the right side tires and exits the street driving on the left side. During the car chase where the police are chasing Bond in a small parking lot the Mustang was to jump a small ramp over several cars. Bill Hickman did this stunt; the hired stunt driver they had couldn't perform this and wrecked two or three cars. The stunt team had only one automobile left so they called Hickman – who drove for hours to the location, jumped into the Mustang, and did the stunt in one take. While filming the scene of finding Plenty O'Toole drowned in Tiffany's swimming pool, Lana Wood actually had her feet loosely tied to a cement block on the bottom. Film crew members held a rope across the pool for her, with which she could lift her face out of the water to breathe between takes. The pool's sloping bottom made the block slip into deeper water with each take. Eventually, Wood was submerged but was noticed by on-lookers and rescued before actually drowning. Wood, being a certified diver, took some water but remained calm during the ordeal, although she later admitted to a few \"very uncomfortable moments and quite some struggling until they pulled me out.\"",
"\"Diamonds Are Forever\", the title song, was the second James Bond theme to be performed by Shirley Bassey, after \"Goldfinger\" in 1964. In an interview for the television programme \"James Bond's Greatest Hits\", composer John Barry revealed that he told Bassey to imagine she was singing about a penis. Bassey would later return for a third performance for 1979's \"Moonraker\". The original soundtrack was once again composed by John Barry, his sixth time composing for a Bond film. With Connery back in the lead role, the \"James Bond Theme\" was played by an electric guitar in the somewhat unusual, blued gun barrel sequence accompanied with prismatic ripples of light, in the pre-credits sequence, and in a full orchestral version during a hovercraft sequence in Amsterdam.",
"\"Diamonds are Forever\" premiered at the Odeon Leicester Square. It was released on 14 December 1971. It grossed $116 million worldwide, of which $43 million was from the United States.",
"Roger Ebert of the \"Chicago Sun-Times\" noted, in a positive review, the irrelevance of the plot and \"moments of silliness\", such as Bond finding himself driving a moon buggy with antennae revolving and robot arms flapping. He praised the Las Vegas car chase scene, particularly the segment when Bond drives the Mustang on two wheels. Vincent Canby of \"The New York Times\" enthusiastically praised the film as \"a nostalgic journey down memory lane—by jet, by helicopter, by hearse, by moon machine, and by bare foot across deep-pile rugs to king-sized beds in hotel rooms as big as Nevada. A lot of things have changed since \"You Only Live Twice\" (1967), the last real Bond adventure, but 007 has remained a steadfast agent for the military-industrial complex, a friend to the C.I.A. and a triumphant sexist. It's enough to make one weepy with gratitude. I mean, not everything must be mutable. \"Diamonds Are Forever\" is also great, absurd fun, not only because it recalls the moods and manners of the sixties (which, being over, now seem safely comprehensible), but also because all of the people connected with the movie obviously know what they are up to.\" Jay Cocks, reviewing for \"Time\", felt \"Diamonds Are Forever\" was \"in some ways the best of the lot. It is by all odds the broadest—which is to say wackiest, not sexiest.\" He further praised Connery as \"a fine, forceful actor with an undeniable presence [who] turns his well-publicized contempt for the Bond character into some wry moments of self-parody. He is capable of doing better thing, but whether he likes it or not, he is the perfect, the only James Bond.\" Also from \"The New York Times\", Peter Schjeldahl described \"Diamonds Are Forever\" as \"a pretty good movie—not great art, but fantastic packaging. The best (or, anyway, the best worst) of the classic formulae—notably, gimmickry and exoticism a go go—have been retained, some up‐dating elements have been added and other elements have been fudged.\" \"Variety\" wrote that James Bond \"still packs a lethal wallop in all his cavortings, still manages to surround himself with scantily-clad sexpots. Yet \"Diamonds Are Forever\" doesn't carry the same quality or flair as its many predecessors. Apparently Messrs. Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman, who have made a fortune producing these Ian Fleming-inspired mellers, have reached that point where a sustained story means little in prepping an 007 picture. That is what this latest in the series lacks, and for this reason there can be no suspense. But action there is, plenty of it in the familiar Bond manner.\"",
"Twenty-five years after its release, James Berardinelli criticised the concept of a laser-shooting satellite, and the performances of Jill St. John, Norman Burton and Jimmy Dean. Christopher Null called St. John \"one of the least effective Bond girls – beautiful, but shrill and helpless\". Steve Rhodes said, \"looking and acting like a couple of pseudo-country bumpkins, [Putter Smith and Bruce Glover] seem to have wandered by accident from the adjoining sound stage into the filming of this movie.\" But he also extolled the car chase as \"classic\". According to Danny Peary, \"Diamonds are Forever\" is \"one of the most forgettable movies of the entire Bond series\" and that \"until Blofeld's reappearance we must watch what is no better than a mundane diamond-smuggling melodrama, without the spectacle we associate with James Bond: the Las Vegas setting isn't exotic enough, there's little humour, assassins Mr. Kidd and Mr. Wint are similar to characters you'd find on \"The Avengers\", but not nearly as amusing – and the trouble Bond gets into, even Maxwell Smart could escape.\" IGN chose it as the third worst James Bond film, behind only \"The Man with the Golden Gun\" and \"Die Another Day\". \"Total Film\" listed Mr. Wint and Mr. Kidd, and Bambi and Thumper, as the first and second worst villains in the Bond series (respectively). The film was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Sound for Gordon McCallum, John W. Mitchell and Al Overton. It lost to \"Fiddler on the Roof\"."
]
}
|
Cinnabar
| null |
Cinnabar () or cinnabarite (), likely deriving from the (), is the bright scarlet to brick-red form of mercury(II) sulfide (HgS). It is the most common source ore for refining elemental mercury, and is the historic source for the brilliant red or scarlet pigment termed vermilion and associated red mercury pigments.
| null |
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en-train-1267696
|
en-train-1267696
|
1267696
|
{
"title": [
"Etymology.",
"Properties and structure.",
"Properties.",
"Structure.",
"Occurrence.",
"Mining and extraction of mercury.",
"Toxicity.",
"Decorative use."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The name comes from (), a Greek word most likely applied by Theophrastus to several distinct substances. Other sources say the word comes from the (Arabicized as ), a word of uncertain origin. In Latin, it was sometimes known as \"minium\", meaning also \"red cinnamon\", though both of these terms now refer specifically to lead tetroxide.",
"",
"Cinnabar is generally found in a massive, granular or earthy form and is bright scarlet to brick-red in color, though it occasionally occurs in crystals with a nonmetallic adamantine luster. It resembles quartz in its symmetry. It exhibits birefringence, and it has the second highest refractive index of any mineral. Its mean refractive index is 3.08 (sodium light wavelengths), versus the indices for diamond and the non-mineral gallium(III) arsenide (GaAs), which are 2.42 and 3.93, respectively. The hardness of cinnabar is 2.0–2.5 on the Mohs scale, and its specific gravity 8.1.",
"Structurally, cinnabar belongs to the trigonal crystal system. It occurs as thick tabular or slender prismatic crystals or as granular to massive incrustations. Crystal twinning occurs as simple contact twins. Note, mercury(II) sulfide, HgS, adopts the cinnabar structure described, and one additional structure, i.e. it is dimorphous. Cinnabar is the more stable form, and is a structure akin to that of HgO: each Hg center has two short Hg−S bonds (each 2.36 Å), and four longer contacts (with 3.10, 3.10, 3.30, and 3.30 Å separations). In addition, HgS is found in a black, non-cinnabar polymorph (metacinnabar) that has the zincblende structure.",
"Cinnabar generally occurs as a vein-filling mineral associated with recent volcanic activity and alkaline hot springs. Cinnabar is deposited by epithermal ascending aqueous solutions (those near surface and not too hot) far removed from their igneous source. It is associated with native mercury, stibnite, realgar, pyrite, marcasite, opal, quartz, chalcedony, dolomite, calcite and barite. Cinnabar is essentially found in all mineral extraction localities that yield mercury, notably Almadén (Spain). This mine was exploited from Roman times until 1991, being for centuries the most important cinnabar deposit in the world. Good cinnabar crystals have also been found there. Cinnabar deposits also appear in Giza (Egypt); Puerto Princesa (Philippines); New Almaden (California); Hastings Mine and St. John's Mine, Vallejo, California (United States); Idrija (Slovenia); New Idria, California (United States); near Obermoschel in the Palatinate; La Ripa, at the foot of the Apuan Alps and in the Mount Amiata (Tuscany, Italy); the mountain Avala (Serbia); Huancavelica (Peru); Murfreesboro, Arkansas (United States); Terlingua, Texas (United States); and the province of Guizhou in China, where fine crystals have been obtained. It was also mined near Red Devil, Alaska on the middle Kuskokwim River. Red Devil was named after the Red Devil cinnabar mine, a primary source of mercury. It has been found in Dominica near its sulfur springs at the southern end of the island along the west coast. Cinnabar is still being deposited at the present day, such as from the hot waters of Sulphur Bank Mine in California and Steamboat Springs, Nevada.",
"As the most common source of mercury in nature, cinnabar has been mined for thousands of years, even as far back as the Neolithic Age. During the Roman Empire it was mined both as a pigment, and for its mercury content. To produce liquid mercury (quicksilver), crushed cinnabar ore is roasted in rotary furnaces. Pure mercury separates from sulfur in this process and easily evaporates. A condensing column is used to collect the liquid metal, which is most often shipped in iron flasks.",
"Associated modern precautions for use and handling of cinnabar arise from the toxicity of the mercury component, which was recognized as early as in ancient Rome. Because of its mercury content, cinnabar can be toxic to human beings. Overexposure to mercury, mercurialism, was seen as an occupational disease to the ancient Romans. Though people in ancient South America often used cinnabar for art, or processed it into refined mercury (as a means to gild silver and gold to objects) \"the toxic properties of mercury were well known. It was dangerous to those who mined and processed cinnabar, it caused shaking, loss of sense, and death. Data suggests that mercury was retorted from cinnabar and the workers were exposed to the toxic mercury fumes.\" \"Mining in the Spanish cinnabar mines of Almadén, southwest of Madrid, was regarded as being akin to a death sentence due to the shortened life expectancy of the miners, who were slaves or convicts.\"",
"Cinnabar has been used for its color since antiquity in the Near East, including as a rouge-type cosmetic, in the New World since the Olmec culture, and in China for writing on Oracle bones as early as the Zhou dynasty. Later in the Song dynasty it was used in coloring lacquerware. Cinnabar's use as a color in the New World, since the Olmec culture, is exemplified by its use in royal burial chambers during the peak of Maya civilization, most dramatically in the 7th-century Tomb of the Red Queen in Palenque, where the remains of a noble woman and objects belonging to her in her sarcophagus were completely covered with bright red powder made from cinnabar. The most popularly known use of cinnabar is in Chinese carved lacquerware, a technique that apparently originated in the Song dynasty. The danger of mercury poisoning may be reduced in ancient lacquerware by entraining the powdered pigment in lacquer, but could still pose an environmental hazard if the pieces were accidentally destroyed. In the modern jewellery industry, the toxic pigment is replaced by a resin-based polymer that approximates the appearance of pigmented lacquer. Two female mummies dated A.D. 1399 to 1475 found in Cerro Esmeralda in Chile in 1976 had clothes colored with the deadly toxin."
]
}
|
Nineveh
| null |
Nineveh (; ""; ; ) was an ancient Assyrian city of Upper Mesopotamia, located on the outskirts of Mosul in modern-day northern Iraq. It is located on the eastern bank of the Tigris River and was the capital of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Today it is a common name for the half of Mosul that lies on the eastern bank of the Tigris and the Nineveh Governorate takes its name from it.
| null |
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en-train-2412430
|
en-train-2412430
|
2412430
|
{
"title": [
"Name.",
"Geography.",
"History.",
"Early history.",
"Ninevite 5 period.",
"Old Assyrian period.",
"Mitanni period.",
"Middle Assyrian period.",
"Imperial Nineveh.",
"Neo-Assyrians.",
"Sennacherib's development of Nineveh.",
"After Ashurbanipal.",
"Later history.",
"Biblical Nineveh.",
"Archaeology.",
"Excavation history.",
"Archaeological remains.",
"City wall and gates.",
"Threats to the site.",
"Rogation of the Ninevites (Nineveh's Wish).",
"Popular culture."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"3",
"3",
"3",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"2",
"2",
"2",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"The English placename Nineveh comes from Latin'and Septuagint Greek \"Nineuḗ\" () under influence of the Biblical Hebrew \"Nīnewēh\" (), from the Akkadian'( \"Ninâ\") or Old Babylonian \"\". The original meaning of the name is unclear but may have referred to a patron goddess. The cuneiform for \"Ninâ\" () is a fish within a house (cf. Aramaic \"nuna\", \"fish\"). This may have simply intended \"Place of Fish\" or may have indicated a goddess associated with fish or the Tigris, possibly originally of Hurrian origin. The city was later said to be devoted to \"the goddess Ishtar of Nineveh\" and \"Nina\" was one of the Sumerian and Assyrian names of that goddess. The city was also known as \"Ninuwa\" in Mari; \"Ninawa\" in Aramaic; in Syriac; and \"Nainavā\" () in Persian. \"Nabī Yūnus\" is the Arabic for \"Prophet Jonah\". \"Kuyunjiq\" was, according to Layard, a Turkish name, and it was known as \"Armousheeah\" by the Arabs, and is thought to have some connection with the Kara Koyunlu dynasty.",
"The remains of ancient Nineveh, the mound-ruins of Kuyunjiq and Nabī Yūnus, are located on a level part of the plain near the junction of the Tigris and the Khosr Rivers within an area of circumscribed by a brick rampart. This whole extensive space is now one immense area of ruins overlaid in parts by new suburbs of the city of Mosul. Nineveh was an important junction for commercial routes crossing the Tigris on the great highway between the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean, thus uniting the East and the West, it received wealth from many sources, so that it became one of the greatest of all the region's ancient cities, and the capital of the Neo-Assyrian Empire.",
"",
"Nineveh was one of the oldest and greatest cities in antiquity. The area it occupied was originally settled as early as 6000 BC during the late Neolithic period. Deep sounding at Nineveh uncovered soil layers that have been dated to early in the era of the Hassuna archaeological culture. By 3000 BC, the area had become an important religious center for the Mesopotamian goddess Ishtar. The early city (and subsequent buildings) was constructed on a fault line and, consequently, suffered damage from a number of earthquakes. One such event destroyed the first temple of Ishtar, which was rebuilt in 2260 BC by the Akkadian king Manishtushu. Texts from the Hellenistic period later offered an eponymous Ninus as the founder of Nineveh, although there is no historical basis for this.",
"The regional influence of Nineveh became particularly pronounced during the archaeological period known as \"Ninevite 5\", or \"Ninevite V\" (2900–2600 BC). This period is defined primarily by the characteristic pottery that is found widely throughout northern Mesopotamia. Also, for the northern Mesopotamian region, the \"Early Jezirah\" chronology has been developed by archaeologists. According to this regional chronology, 'Ninevite 5' is equivalent to the Early Jezirah I–II period. Ninevite 5 was preceded by the Late Uruk period. Ninevite 5 pottery is roughly contemporary to the Early Transcaucasian culture ware, and the Jemdet Nasr ware. Iraqi \"Scarlet Ware\" culture also belongs to this period; this colourful painted pottery is somewhat similar to Jemdet Nasr ware. Scarlet Ware was first documented in the Diyala River basin in Iraq. Later, it was also found in the nearby Hamrin Basin, and in Luristan.",
"The historic Nineveh is mentioned in the Old Assyrian Empire during the reign of Shamshi-Adad I (1809-1775) in about 1800 BC as a centre of worship of Ishtar, whose cult was responsible for the city's early importance.",
"The goddess's statue was sent to Pharaoh Amenhotep III of Egypt in the 14th century BC, by orders of the king of Mitanni. The Assyrian city of Nineveh became one of Mitanni's vassals for half a century until the early 14th century BC.",
"The Assyrian king Ashur-uballit I reclaimed it in 1365 BC while overthrowing the Mitanni Empire and creating the Middle Assyrian Empire (1365–1050 BC). There is a large body of evidence to show that Assyrian monarchs built extensively in Nineveh during the late 3rd and 2nd millenniums BC; it appears to have been originally an \"Assyrian provincial town\". Later monarchs whose inscriptions have appeared on the high city include the Middle Assyrian Empire kings Shalmaneser I (1274–1245 BC) and Tiglath-Pileser I (1114–1076 BC), both of whom were active builders in Assur (Ashur).",
"",
"During the Neo-Assyrian Empire, particularly from the time of Ashurnasirpal II (ruled 883–859 BC) onward, there was considerable architectural expansion. Successive monarchs such as Tiglath-pileser III, Sargon II, Sennacherib, Esarhaddon, and Ashurbanipal maintained and founded new palaces, as well as temples to Sîn, Ashur, Nergal, Shamash, Ninurta, Ishtar, Tammuz, Nisroch and Nabiu.",
"It was Sennacherib who made Nineveh a truly magnificent city (c. 700 BC). He laid out new streets and squares and built within it the South West Palace, or \"palace without a rival\", the plan of which has been mostly recovered and has overall dimensions of about. It comprised at least 80 rooms, many of which were lined with sculpture. A large number of cuneiform tablets were found in the palace. The solid foundation was made out of limestone blocks and mud bricks; it was tall. In total, the foundation is made of roughly of brick (approximately 160 million bricks). The walls on top, made out of mud brick, were an additional tall. Some of the principal doorways were flanked by colossal stone \"lamassu\" door figures weighing up to ; these were winged Mesopotamian lions or bulls, with human heads. These were transported from quarries at Balatai, and they had to be lifted up once they arrived at the site, presumably by a ramp. There are also of stone Assyrian palace reliefs, that include pictorial records documenting every construction step including carving the statues and transporting them on a barge. One picture shows 44 men towing a colossal statue. The carving shows three men directing the operation while standing on the Colossus. Once the statues arrived at their destination, the final carving was done. Most of the statues weigh between. The stone carvings in the walls include many battle scenes, impalings and scenes showing Sennacherib's men parading the spoils of war before him. The inscriptions boasted of his conquests: he wrote of Babylon: \"Its inhabitants, young and old, I did not spare, and with their corpses I filled the streets of the city.\" A full and characteristic set shows the campaign leading up to the siege of Lachish in 701; it is the \"finest\" from the reign of Sennacherib, and now in the British Museum. He later wrote about a battle in Lachish: \"And Hezekiah of Judah who had not submitted to my yoke...him I shut up in Jerusalem his royal city like a caged bird. Earthworks I threw up against him, and anyone coming out of his city gate I made pay for his crime. His cities which I had plundered I had cut off from his land.\" At this time, the total area of Nineveh comprised about, and fifteen great gates penetrated its walls. An elaborate system of eighteen canals brought water from the hills to Nineveh, and several sections of a magnificently constructed aqueduct erected by Sennacherib were discovered at Jerwan, about distant. The enclosed area had more than 100,000 inhabitants (maybe closer to 150,000), about twice as many as Babylon at the time, placing it among the largest settlements worldwide. Some scholars believe that the garden which Sennacherib built next to his palace, with its associated irrigation works, comprised the original Hanging Gardens of Babylon.",
"The greatness of Nineveh was short-lived. In around 627 BC, after the death of its last great king Ashurbanipal, the Neo-Assyrian empire began to unravel through a series of bitter civil wars between rival claimants for the throne, and in 616 BC Assyria was attacked by its own former vassals, the Babylonians, Chaldeans, Medes, Persians, Scythians and Cimmerians. In about 616 BC Kalhu was sacked, the allied forces eventually reached Nineveh, besieging and sacking the city in 612 BC, following bitter house-to-house fighting, after which it was razed. Most of the people in the city who could not escape to the last Assyrian strongholds in the north and west were either massacred or deported out of the city and into the countryside where they founded new settlements. Many unburied skeletons were found by the archaeologists at the site. The Assyrian empire then came to an end by 605 BC, the Medes and Babylonians dividing its colonies between themselves. It is not clear whether Nineveh came under the rule of the Medes or the Neo-Babylonian Empire in 612. The Babylonian \"Chronicle Concerning the Fall of Nineveh\" records that Nineveh was \"turned into mounds and heaps\", but this is literary hyperbole. The complete destruction of Nineveh has traditionally been seen as confirmed by the Hebrew \"Book of Ezekiel\" and the Greek \"Retreat of the Ten Thousand\" of Xenophon (d. 354 BC). To the Greek historians Ctesias and Herodotus (c. 400 BC), Nineveh was a thing of the past; and when Xenophon passed the place in the 4th century BC he described it as abandoned. There are no later cuneiform tablets in Akkadian from Nineveh. Although devastated in 612, the city was never completely abandoned.",
"The earliest piece of written evidence for the persistence of Nineveh as a settlement is possibly the Cyrus Cylinder of 539/538 BC, but the reading of this is disputed. If correctly read as Nineveh, it indicates that Cyrus the Great restored the temple of Ishtar at Nineveh and probably encouraged resettlement. A number of cuneiform Elamite tablets have been found at Nineveh. They probably date from the time of the revival of Elam in the century following the collapse of Assyria. The Hebrew \"Book of Jonah\", written in the 4th century BC, attempts to explain the failure of prophecies of the destruction of Nineveh, such as that of Nahum, implying the city's continued existence. Archaeologically, there is evidence of repairs at the temple of Nabu after 612 and for the continued use of Sennacherib's palace. There is evidence of syncretic Hellenistic cults. A statue of Hermes has been found and a Greek inscription attached to a shrine of the Sebitti. A statue of Herakles Epitrapezios dated to the 2nd century AD has also been found. The library of Ashurbanipal may still have been in use until around the time of Alexander the Great. The city was actively resettled under the Seleucid Empire. There is evidence of more changes in Sennacherib's palace under the Parthian Empire. The Parthians also established a municipal mint at Nineveh coining in bronze. According to Tacitus, in AD 50 Meherdates, a claimant to the Parthian throne with Roman support, took Nineveh. By Late Antiquity, Nineveh was restricted to the east bank of the Tigris and the west bank was uninhabited. Under the Sasanian Empire, Nineveh was not an administrative centre. By the 2nd century AD there were Christians present and by 554 it was a bishopric of the Church of the East. King Khosrow II (591–628) built a fortress on the west bank, and two Christian monasteries were constructed around 570 and 595. This growing settlement was not called Mosul until after the Arab conquests. It may have been called Hesnā ʿEbrāyē (Jews' Fort). In 627, the city was the site of the Battle of Nineveh between the Eastern Roman Empire and the Sasanians. In 641, it was conquered by the Arabs, who built a mosque on the west bank and turned it into an administrative centre. Under the Umayyad dynasty, it eclipsed Nineveh, which was reduced to a Christian suburb with limited new construction. By the 13th century, Nineveh was mostly ruins. A church was converted into a Muslim shrine to the prophet Jonah, which continued to attract pilgrims until its destruction by ISIS in 2014.",
"In the Hebrew Bible, Nineveh is first mentioned in Genesis 10:11: \"Ashur left that land, and built Nineveh\". Some modern English translations interpret \"Ashur\" in the Hebrew of this verse as the country \"Assyria\" rather than a person, thus making Nimrod, rather than Ashur, the founder of Nineveh. Sir Walter Raleigh's notion that Nimrod built Nineveh, and the cities in Genesis 10:11–12, has also been refuted by scholars. The discovery of the fifteen Jubilees texts found amongst the Dead Sea Scrolls, has since shown that, according to the Jewish sects of Qumran, Genesis 10:11 affirms the apportionment of Nineveh to Ashur. The attribution of Nineveh to Ashur is also supported by the Greek Septuagint, King James Bible, Geneva Bible, and by Historian Flavius Josephus in his Antiquities of the Jews (Antiquities, i, vi, 4). Nineveh was the flourishing capital of the Assyrian Empire and was the home of King Sennacherib, King of Assyria, during the Biblical reign of King Hezekiah (יְחִזְקִיָּהוּ) and the lifetime of Judean prophet Isaiah (ישעיה). As recorded in Hebrew scripture, Nineveh was also the place where Sennacherib died at the hands of his two sons, who then fled to the vassal land of \"`rrt\" Urartu. The book of the prophet Nahum is almost exclusively taken up with prophetic denunciations against Nineveh. Its ruin and utter desolation are foretold. Its end was strange, sudden, and tragic. According to the Bible, it was God's doing, His judgment on Assyria's pride (). In fulfillment of prophecy, God made \"an utter end of the place\". It became a \"desolation\". The prophet Zephaniah also predicts its destruction along with the fall of the empire of which it was the capital. Nineveh is also the setting of the Book of Tobit. The Book of Jonah, set in the days of the Assyrian empire, describes it as an \"exceedingly great city of three days' journey in breadth\", whose population at that time is given as \"more than 120,000\". Genesis 10:11-12 lists four cities \"Nineveh, Rehoboth, Calah, and Resen\", ambiguously stating that either Resen or Calah is \"the great city.\" The ruins of Kuyunjiq, Nimrud, Karamles and Khorsabad form the four corners of an irregular quadrangle. The ruins of the \"great city\" Nineveh, with the whole area included within the parallelogram they form by lines drawn from the one to the other, are generally regarded as consisting of these four sites. The description of Nineveh in Jonah likely was a reference to greater Nineveh, including the surrounding cities of Rehoboth, Calah and Resen The Book of Jonah depicts Nineveh as a wicked city worthy of destruction. God sent Jonah to preach to the Ninevites of their coming destruction, and they fasted and repented because of this. As a result, God spared the city; when Jonah protests against this, God states He is showing mercy for the population who are ignorant of the difference between right and wrong (\"who cannot discern between their right hand and their left hand\") and mercy for the animals in the city. Nineveh's repentance and salvation from evil can be found in the Hebrew Tanakh, aka the Old Testament, and used by Christians Bible and Muslims Quran. To this day, Syriac and Oriental Orthodox churches commemorate the three days Jonah spent inside the fish during the Fast of Nineveh. The Christians observing this holiday fast by refraining from food and drink. Churches encourage followers to refrain from meat, fish and dairy products.",
"The location of Ninevah was known, to some, continuously through the Middle Ages. Benjamin of Tudela visited it in 1170; Petachiah of Regensburg soon after. Carsten Niebuhr recorded its location during the 1761–67 Danish expedition. Niebuhr wrote afterwards that \"I did not learn that I was at so remarkable a spot, till near the river. Then they showed me a village on a great hill, which they call Nunia, and a mosque, in which the prophet Jonah was buried. Another hill in this district is called Kalla Nunia, or the Castle of Nineveh. On that lies a village Koindsjug.\"",
"In 1842, the French Consul General at Mosul, Paul-Émile Botta, began to search the vast mounds that lay along the opposite bank of the river. The locals whom he employed in these excavations, to their great surprise, came upon the ruins of a building at the mound of Khorsabad, which, on further exploration, turned out to be the royal palace of Sargon II, in which large numbers of reliefs were found and recorded, though they had been damaged by fire and were mostly too fragile to remove. In 1847 the young British diplomat Austen Henry Layard explored the ruins. Layard did not use modern archaeological methods; his stated goal was \"to obtain the largest possible number of well preserved objects of art at the least possible outlay of time and money.\" In the Kuyunjiq mound, Layard rediscovered in 1849 the lost palace of Sennacherib with its 71 rooms and colossal bas-reliefs. He also unearthed the palace and famous library of Ashurbanipal with 22,000 cuneiform clay tablets. Most of Layard's material was sent to the British Museum, but two large pieces were given to Lady Charlotte Guest and eventually found their way to the Metropolitan Museum. The study of the archaeology of Nineveh reveals the wealth and glory of ancient Assyria under kings such as Esarhaddon (681–669 BC) and Ashurbanipal (669–626 BC). The work of exploration was carried on by George Smith, Hormuzd Rassam (a modern Assyrian), and others, and a vast treasury of specimens of Assyria was incrementally exhumed for European museums. Palace after palace was discovered, with their decorations and their sculptured slabs, revealing the life and manners of this ancient people, their arts of war and peace, the forms of their religion, the style of their architecture, and the magnificence of their monarchs. The mound of Kuyunjiq was excavated again by the archaeologists of the British Museum, led by Leonard William King, at the beginning of the 20th century. Their efforts concentrated on the site of the Temple of Nabu, the god of writing, where another cuneiform library was supposed to exist. However, no such library was ever found: most likely, it had been destroyed by the activities of later residents. The excavations started again in 1927, under the direction of Campbell Thompson, who had taken part in King's expeditions. Some works were carried out outside Kuyunjiq, for instance on the mound of Tell Nebi Yunus, which was the ancient arsenal of Nineveh, or along the outside walls. Here, near the northwestern corner of the walls, beyond the pavement of a later building, the archaeologists found almost 300 fragments of prisms recording the royal annals of Sennacherib, Esarhaddon, and Ashurbanipal, beside a prism of Esarhaddon which was almost perfect. After the Second World War, several excavations were carried out by Iraqi archaeologists. From 1951 to 1958 Mohammed Ali Mustafa worked the site. The work was continued from 1967 through 1971 by Tariq Madhloom. Some additional excavation occurred by Manhal Jabur in 1980, and Manhal Jabur in 1987. For the most part, these digs focused on Tell Nebi Yunus. The British archaeologist and Assyriologist Professor David Stronach of the University of California, Berkeley conducted a series of surveys and digs at the site from 1987 to 1990, focusing his attentions on the several gates and the existent mudbrick walls, as well as the system that supplied water to the city in times of siege. The excavation reports are in progress. Most recently, an Iraqi-Italian Archaeological Expedition by the Alma Mater Studiorum - University of Bologna and the Iraqi SBAH, led by prof. Nicolò Marchetti, begun in September-November 2019 a long term project aiming at the excavation, conservation and public presentation of Eastern Nineveh (NINEV_E project). Work was carried out in seven excavation areas, from the Adad Gate - now completely repaired after removing hundreds of tons of debris from Isis' destructions, explored and protected with a new roof - deep into the Nebi Yunus town. In three areas a very thick later stratigraphy was encountered, but the late 7th century BC stratum was reached everywhere (actually in one area in the pre-Sennacherib lower town the excavations already exposed an 11th century BC stratum, aiming in the future at exploring the first settlement therein). The site is really endangered with dumping of debris, illegal settlements and quarrying as the main threats.",
"Today, Nineveh's location is marked by two large mounds, Kuyunjiq and \"Nabī Yūnus\" \"Prophet Jonah\", and the remains of the city walls (about in circumference). The Neo-Assyrian levels of Kuyunjiq have been extensively explored. The other mound, \"Nabī Yūnus\", has not been as extensively explored because there was an Arab Muslim shrine dedicated to that prophet on the site. On July 24, 2014, the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant destroyed the shrine as part of a campaign to destroy religious sanctuaries it deemed \"un-Islamic.\" The ruin mound of Kuyunjiq rises about above the surrounding plain of the ancient city. It is quite broad, measuring about. Its upper layers have been extensively excavated, and several Neo-Assyrian palaces and temples have been found there. A deep sounding by Max Mallowan revealed evidence of habitation as early as the 6th millennium BC. Today, there is little evidence of these old excavations other than weathered pits and earth piles. In 1990, the only Assyrian remains visible were those of the entry court and the first few chambers of the Palace of Sennacherib. Since that time, the palace chambers have received significant damage by looters. Portions of relief sculptures that were in the palace chambers in 1990 were seen on the antiquities market by 1996. Photographs of the chambers made in 2003 show that many of the fine relief sculptures there have been reduced to piles of rubble. Tell Nebi Yunus is located about south of Kuyunjiq and is the secondary ruin mound at Nineveh. On the basis of texts of Sennacherib, the site has traditionally been identified as the \"armory\" of Nineveh, and a gate and pavements excavated by Iraqis in 1954 have been considered to be part of the \"armory\" complex. Excavations in 1990 revealed a monumental entryway consisting of a number of large inscribed orthostats and \"bull-man\" sculptures, some apparently unfinished. Following the Mosul liberation, the tunnels under Tell Nebi Yunus were explored in 2018, in which a 3000-year-old palace was discovered, including a pair of reliefs, each showing a row of women, along with reliefs of \"lamassu\".",
"The ruins of Nineveh are surrounded by the remains of a massive stone and mudbrick wall dating from about 700 BC. About 12 km in length, the wall system consisted of an ashlar stone retaining wall about high surmounted by a mudbrick wall about high and thick. The stone retaining wall had projecting stone towers spaced about every. The stone wall and towers were topped by three-step merlons. Five of the gateways have been explored to some extent by archaeologists: Translated \"Gate of the Water Carriers\", (\"Mashki\" from Persian root word \"Mashk\", meaning waterskin), also \"Masqi Gate\" (Arabic: بوابة مسقي), it was perhaps used to take livestock to water from the Tigris which currently flows about to the west. It has been reconstructed in fortified mudbrick to the height of the top of the vaulted passageway. The Assyrian original may have been plastered and ornamented. Named for the god Nergal, it may have been used for some ceremonial purpose, as it is the only known gate flanked by stone sculptures of winged bull-men (\"lamassu\"). The reconstruction is conjectural, as the gate was excavated by Layard in the mid-19th century and reconstructed in the mid-20th century. Adad Gate was named for the god Adad. A reconstruction was begun in the 1960s by Iraqis but was not completed. The result was a mixture of concrete and eroding mudbrick, which nonetheless does give some idea of the original structure. The excavator left some features unexcavated, allowing a view of the original Assyrian construction. The original brickwork of the outer vaulted passageway was well exposed, as was the entrance of the vaulted stairway to the upper levels. The actions of Nineveh's last defenders could be seen in the hastily built mudbrick construction which narrowed the passageway from. Around April 13, 2016, ISIL demolished both the gate and the adjacent wall by flattening them with a bulldozer. Named for the Sun god Shamash, it opens to the road to Erbil. It was excavated by Layard in the 19th century. The stone retaining wall and part of the mudbrick structure were reconstructed in the 1960s. The mudbrick reconstruction has deteriorated significantly. The stone wall projects outward about from the line of main wall for a width of about. It is the only gate with such a significant projection. The mound of its remains towers above the surrounding terrain. Its size and design suggest it was the most important gate in Neo-Assyrian times. Near the south end of the eastern city wall. Exploratory excavations were undertaken here by the University of California, Berkeley expedition of 1989–1990. There is an outward projection of the city wall, though not as pronounced as at the Shamash Gate. The entry passage had been narrowed with mudbrick to about as at the Adad Gate. Human remains from the final battle of Nineveh were found in the passageway.",
"Already in 2003, the site of Nineveh was exposed to decay of its reliefs by a lack of proper protective roofing, vandalism and looting holes dug into chamber floors. Future preservation is further compromised by the site's proximity to expanding suburbs. The ailing Mosul Dam is a persistent threat to Nineveh as well as the city of Mosul. This is in no small part due to years of disrepair (in 2006, the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers cited it as the most dangerous dam in the world), the cancellation of a second dam project in the 1980s to act as flood relief in case of failure, and occupation by ISIL in 2014 resulting in fleeing workers and stolen equipment. If the dam fails, the entire site could be under as much as 45 feet (14 m) of water. In an October 2010 report titled \"Saving Our Vanishing Heritage\", Global Heritage Fund named Nineveh one of 12 sites most \"on the verge\" of irreparable destruction and loss, citing insufficient management, development pressures and looting as primary causes. By far, the greatest threat to Nineveh has been purposeful human actions by ISIL, which first occupied the area in the mid-2010s. In early 2015, they announced their intention to destroy the walls of Nineveh if the Iraqis tried to liberate the city. They also threatened to destroy artifacts. On February 26 they destroyed several items and statues in the Mosul Museum and are believed to have plundered others to sell overseas. The items were mostly from the Assyrian exhibit, which ISIL declared blasphemous and idolatrous. There were 300 items in the museum out of a total of 1,900, with the other 1,600 being taken to the National Museum of Iraq in Baghdad for security reasons prior to the 2014 Fall of Mosul. Some of the artifacts sold and/or destroyed were from Nineveh. Just a few days after the destruction of the museum pieces, they demolished remains at major UNESCO world heritage sites Khorsabad, Nimrud, and Hatra.",
"Assyrians of the Ancient Church of the East, Chaldean Catholic Church, Syriac Catholic Church, Syriac Orthodox Church, Assyrian Church of the East and Saint Thomas Christians of the Syro-Malabar Catholic Church observe a fast called \"Ba'uta d-Ninwe\" (ܒܥܘܬܐ ܕܢܝܢܘܐ) which means \"Nineveh's Prayer\". Copts and Ethiopian Orthodox also maintain this fast.",
"The English Romantic poet Edwin Atherstone wrote an epic \"The Fall of Nineveh\". The work tells of an uprising against its king Sardanapalus of all the nations that were dominated by the Assyrian empire. He is a great criminal. He has had one hundred prisoners of war executed. After a long struggle the town is conquered by Median and Babylonian troops led by prince Arbaces and priest Belesis. The king sets his own palace on fire and dies inside together with all his concubines. Atherstone's friend, the artist John Martin, created a painting of the same name inspired by the poem. The English poet John Masefield's well-known, fanciful 1903 poem \"Cargoes\" mentions Nineveh in its first line. Nineveh is also mentioned in Rudyard Kipling's 1897 poem \"Recessional\" and in Arthur O'Shaughnessy's 1873 poem \"Ode\". The 1962 Italian peplum movie, \"War Gods of Babylon\", is based on the sacking and fall of Nineveh by the combined rebel armies led by the Babylonians."
]
}
|
Oswald Boelcke
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Oswald Boelcke (; 19 May 1891 – 28 October 1916) was a German flying ace of the First World War credited with 40 victories; he was one of the most influential patrol leaders and tacticians of the early years of air combat. Boelcke is honored as the father of the German fighter air force, as well as considered the "Father of Air Fighting Tactics".
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en-train-2116506
|
en-train-2116506
|
2116506
|
{
"title": [
"Early years.",
"Interests and personal characteristics.",
"Entry into military service.",
"World War I.",
"1914.",
"1915.",
"The catalyst for action.",
"Advent of the flying gun.",
"The beginning of fighter warfare.",
"The ace race.",
"1916.",
"The ace race continues.",
"The ace race ends.",
"Journey to the east.",
"Creation of Jasta Boelcke.",
"Into battle.",
"Boelcke's final mission.",
"In memoriam.",
"Legacy.",
"Awards and honors.",
"References."
],
"section_level": [
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"content": [
"Oswald Boelcke was born on 19 May 1891, in Giebichenstein (since 1900 a City district of Halle (Saale)), Prussian Province of Saxony as the son of a schoolmaster. The Boelcke family had returned to the German Empire from Argentina six months before Oswald's birth. His family name was originally spelt Bölcke, but Oswald and his elder brother Wilhelm dispensed with the umlaut and adopted the Latin spelling in place of the German. The pronunciation is the same for both spellings. Oswald Boelcke caught whooping cough at age three, which resulted in lifelong asthma. In his fourth year, his father moved the family to Dessau near the Junkers",
"Boelcke never did become very large; in later life, he was described as being about 5 feet 7 inches (1.7 meters) tall. However, he was broad-shouldered and well proportioned, with great agility and \"inexhaustible strength\". He got along well in school with both his fellow students and the teachers; his frank and friendly demeanor, blond hair, and intense blue eyes made him memorable. One source says Oswald Boelcke was studious as well as athletic, excelling at mathematics and physics. He played soccer and tennis, skated and danced. As a gymnast, he was considered the best in his school. He was an oarsman, and a prizewinning swimmer and diver.",
"After leaving school Boelcke joined a telegraph battalion in Koblenz as a \"Fahnenjunker\" (cadet officer) on 15 March 1911. As he learned his general military duties, he saw more airplanes than he had seen at home. He went on holiday leave on 23 December 1911. In January 1912, he began attending Kriegsschule (Military Academy) in Metz, at that time a German town. As the advent of spring lengthened the days, he took advantage of his early class dismissal to spend the rest of his daylight hours watching airplanes at a nearby airfield. In June, he stood his final exams.",
"",
"Without informing his family, Boelcke applied for a transfer to the \"Fliegertruppen des deutschen Kaiserreiches\" (Flying Troops of the German Empire). On 29 May 1914, he was accepted for pilot's training. On 2 June, he began instruction at the \"Halberstädter Fliegerschule\" (Halberstadt Flying School) in a six-week course. He passed his final pilot's exam on 15 August 1914. His first assignment was training 50 neophyte pilots on an Aviatik B.I. World War I having begun on 4 August, Boelcke was anxious to see action. On 31 August, he connived his",
"",
"There was little ground combat and little need for air support during early 1915. Oswald spent a spell in hospital with asthma. Both brothers went on home leave. Meanwhile, the Boelckes' new commanding officer wished to reassign the brothers into separate air crews. In late March, matters came to a head when the brothers refused to fly separately and jumped the chain of command to complain. However, in April, they were parted. As Wilhelm returned to Germany, Oswald was posted to \"Feldflieger Abteilung 62\" (Field Flyer Detachment 62, or FFA 62) in La Brayelle, Douai, France on 25 April. He was quickly passed on to",
"The Fokker E.I \"Eindecker\" (monoplane) was a hasty response to these first air to air victories achieved by French fliers. The nose of the first five \"Eindeckers\" - the production prototype M.5K/MG series, numbered E 1/15 through 5/15 by IdFlieg - were each fitted with a forward-firing air-cooled Parabellum machine gun slaved to Fokker's pioneering \"Stangensteuerung\" design gun synchronizer that prevented bullets from accidentally hitting the Fokker's propeller. Now when a pilot pointed his Fokker at an enemy aircraft, that aircraft became a potential target. The \"Eindecker's\" machine gun could spew hundreds of bullets from its belted ammunition without reloading; those few British Lewis guns in use had",
"On both 15 and 16 June 1915, Boelcke and his observer used an LVG C.I two-seater armed solely with a rear gun to fight a series of inconclusive combats against French and British aircraft. On the 17th, on the French side of the lines, Gilbert shot down his fifth German airplane. On 21 June, also operating from the Allied side of the lines, British pilot Lanoe Hawker scored his first victory in near anonymity. In July 1915, Boelcke (with E.3/15), Immelmann (with E.13/15, an lMG 08-armed early production E.I machine), Parschau (with E.1/15, his second \"Eindecker\"), and Wintgens (with E.5/15) began to fly the \"Eindecker\" aircraft in combat. As the German single-seat pilots began waging war in the third dimension, they had no tactical knowledge for reference. Their early combat sorties relied on the naked aggression of headlong solo attacks upon unwitting enemies.",
"September 1915 saw improved models of the \"Eindecker\" posted to the front; engine power was increased, and a second gun mounted on the nose. September also saw Boelcke and Immelmann score two victories apiece. On 22 September, Boelcke was moved to Metz, joining the secretive \"Brieftauben-Abteilung-Metz\" (Carrier Pigeons Department Metz) to counter a French offensive. On 1 November, the day after his sixth victory, Boelcke won the Royal House Order of Hohenzollern. Immelmann duplicated the feat six days later. By now, the deadly effect of the new",
"",
"On 5 January 1916, the winter weather finally improved enough for flying. Boelcke shot down a British Royal Aircraft Factory BE.2. Landing near the downed craft, he found that the German-speaking pilot knew of him. Boelcke had the two British airmen taken to hospital. He later visited the observer, bearing reading materials. By now, Boelcke was so well known that this incident was front-page news. On 12 January, Buddecke submitted his ninth combat claim; however, four had not been verified. Both Boelcke and Immelmann shot down their eighth victims that same day. These two were both immediately presented the",
"Immelmann was killed on 18 June 1916 after his 17th victory. Boelcke, who then had 18 victories, was left the preeminent ace of the war. Upon Boelcke's return from Immelmann's funeral, Kaiser Wilhelm II ordered Boelcke grounded for a month to avoid losing him in combat soon after Immelmann. He had become such an important hero to the German public, as well as such an authority on aerial warfare, that he could not be risked. Boelcke downed his 19th victim before reporting to headquarters on 27 June. There the disgruntled flier was detailed to share his expertise with the head of German military aviation, Hermann von der Lieth-Thomsen, who was planning",
"On 10 July, Boelcke left on a tour of the Balkans. He transited Austria-Hungary to visit Turkey. From his diary notes, the journey seemed a combination of military facility inspections, a celebrity tour, and a holiday. He held attendance at social obligations to a minimum, but had to oblige such important hosts as Enver Pasha and Otto Liman von Sanders. Making his rounds of the Turkish flying",
"When the message from headquarters reached the Boelcke brothers, it was followed by an extraordinary authorization. Six KEKs were expanded into \"Jagdstaffeln\" (fighter squadrons), by orders issued on 10 August. The seventh planned squadron would be raised from scratch. This squadron, \"Jagdstaffel 2\" (Fighter Squadron 2, or \"Jasta 2\"), was designated as Oswald Boelcke's to command. He was given a free hand to recruit fighter pilots for his new unit. Upon Wilhelm's recommendation, Oswald recruited a pair of pilots at Kovel, both of whom he had previously met. One was a young cavalry officer, Manfred von Richthofen. The other was 37-year-old Erwin Böhme, a civil engineer returned from six years in Africa to reenlist in the military. After choosing three other pilots, Oswald Boelcke returned to France to organize his squadron. Boelcke started with only four empty buildings vacated by FFA 32 in the Vélu Woods. His new squadron was authorized 14 aircraft, the pilots to fly them, and ground crew to support them. As of 27",
"New fighters arrived on 16 September. There was a prototype Albatros D.II for Boelcke, and five Albatros D.Is to be shared by his pilots. The new aircraft outclassed any previous German aircraft, as well as those of their enemies. With more powerful engines, the new arrivals were faster, climbed more quickly to a higher ceiling, and carried two nose machine guns instead of one. With these new airplanes, \"Jasta 2\" flew its first squadron missions on 17 September. Boelcke shot down his 27th victim, while his men shot down four more. Despite this initial success, squadron training continued. Boelcke now discussed flights beforehand and listened to his pilots' input. He then issued orders for the mission. Post flight, he debriefed his men. On 22 September, rainy weather had aggravated Boelcke's asthma to the point he could not fly. He refused to go to hospital, but devolved command on \"Oberleutnant\" Gunther Viehweger. That night, \"Jasta 2\" transferred from Bertincourt to Lagnicourt because British artillery was beginning to shell the \"jasta\". The next day, in a letter home, Boelcke noted he was still trying to impress his pilots that they",
"On the evening of 27 October, a depressed and wornout Boelcke left the \"jasta\" mess early to return to his room. He complained of the racket in the mess to his batman, then sat staring into the fire. Böhme showed up and joined him, also stating the mess was too noisy. They shared a long talk, ending only when the orderly suggested bedtime. Though the following day was misty with a cloud layer, the squadron flew four missions during the morning, as well as another later in the day. On the sixth mission of the day, Boelcke and five of his pilots attacked a pair of British airplanes from No. 24 Squadron RFC. Boelcke and Böhme chased the Airco DH.2 of Captain",
"Pilots from \"Jasta 2\" rushed forward to the artillery position where Boelcke had crashed, hoping he was still alive. The gunners handed over his body to them. Despite Boelcke being Protestant, his memorial service was held in the Catholic Cambrai Cathedral on 31 October. Among the many wreaths, there was one from Captain Wilson and three of his fellow prisoners; its ribbon was addressed to \"The opponent we admired and esteemed so highly\". Another wreath of British origin had been air dropped at the authorization of the Royal Flying Corps; it read \"To the memory of Captain Boelcke, our brave and chivalrous opponent.\" Crown Prince Rupert was the most socially prominent guest at the rites. Two generals spoke at",
"Boelcke is deemed to be the progenitor of air to air combat tactics, fighter squadron organization, early warning systems, and the German air force; he has been dubbed \"the father of air combat\". From his first victories onward, the news of his success both instructed and motivated both his fellow fliers and the German public. It was at his instigation that the Imperial German Air Service founded its \"Jastaschule\" (Fighter School) to teach aerial tactics. The promulgation of his \"Dicta Boelcke\" set tactics for the German fighter force. The concentration of fighter airplanes into squadrons gained Germany air supremacy on the Western Front, and was the basis for their wartime successes. \"Jasta 2\", renamed \"Jagdstaffel Boelcke\" in his honor, remained one of Germany's premier fighter squadrons after Boelcke's death, outscoring all but one other \"jasta\". The 336 victories the \"jasta\" scored during the war came at the price of 44 casualties. Of the first 15 pilots chosen by Boelcke, eight became aces—seven of them within the squadron. Three of the 15, at various times, commanded the \"jasta\". By war's end, 25 aces had served in the squadron and accounted for 90% of its victories. Four of its",
"Prussian/Imperial German awards Other German awards Duchy of Anhalt: Kingdom of Bavaria: Duchies",
"Footnotes Notes Bibliography"
]
}
|
Arkady Gaidar
| null |
Arkady Petrovich Golikov (; – 26 October 1941), better known as Arkady Gaidar (), was a Russian Soviet writer, whose stories were very popular among Soviet children, and a Red Army commander.
| null |
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en-train-178383
|
en-train-178383
|
178383
|
{
"title": [
"Biography.",
"Literary work.",
"Recognition and remembrance.",
"Pseudonym.",
"Family."
],
"section_level": [
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1",
"1"
],
"content": [
"Gaidar was born in the town of Lgov, Kursk Governorate, Russian Empire (now in Kursk Oblast, Russia), to a family of teachers of Russian aristocratic descent. Through his noble mother, he was a descendant of Mikhail Lermontov. In 1912, the family moved to Arzamas where in 1914 Arkady enrolled in a local secondary school. In 1917, as an ardent 13-year-old Bolshevik follower, Gaidar started to distribute leaflets and patrol the streets. During one such mission, he received his first wound, a stab in the chest. In 1918, Golikov applied for Communist Party membership and started working for the local newspaper Molot as a correspondent. In August 1918, he became a party member and in December volunteered for the Red Army, having lied about his age. In January 1919, Golikov went to the front as a Special Unit commander's adjutant, to fight what Soviet biographies referred to as the 'kulak gangs'. Fresh from the 7th Moscow Red Commanders' courses, Gaidar went to the Ukrainian (later Polish) front as a company commander. In December 1919, injured and shell-shocked, he was demobilised, but in March 1920 returned to the Red Army, to the Caucasian Front's 9th Army, 37th Kuban Division, as a company commander again. In summer 1920, Gaidar took part in operations against the units of generals Geyman and Zhitikov. In 1921, Gaidar participated in the suppression of several anti-communist uprisings, among them Antonovshchina. In 1922, he was moved to the Mongolian border (where the Red Army was fighting White Army units led by colonels Oliferov and Solovyov), but later that year he was hospitalised with traumatic neuroses. He retired from the army in 1924 due to a contusion. As the Great Patriotic War broke out, Gaidar was sent to the front as a special correspondent for the newspaper \"Komsomolskaya Pravda\". In the fall of 1941, Gaidar and other soldiers were surrounded by German troops. He joined the partisans and became a machine gunner. On 26 October, Gaidar was killed in combat near the village of Lyuplyava. He was buried in the town of Kaniv.",
"In 1925, Gaidar's debut novel \"In the Days of Defeats and Victories\" was published, followed by \"Life For Nothing\" and \"The Mystery of a Mountain\", a sci-fi novel and, most notably, \"R.V.S.\" (1925) which formed a blueprint for his career as a children's writer, telling stories of front-line camaraderie and the romanticism of the revolutionary struggle. In 1927, Gaidar moved to Moscow. A year later, he went to Archangelsk to work for a local newspaper, \"Pravda Severa\". Back in Moscow, in 1930, he published the novel \"School\" (originally titled \"The Plain Biography\"). In the early 1930s, several articles on Gaidar's works appeared in the Soviet press, Konstantin Fedin being his major supporter and mentor. In 1939, Gaidar was awarded the Order of the Badge of Honour. Short stories \"The Military Secret\" (1935), \"The Blue Cup\" (1936) and the novel \"Blue Stars\" (1939) were followed by his most famous work, \"Timur and His Squad\" (1940), its hero named after, and partially based on the character of, the author's son. A captivating account of an altruistic pioneer youth gave birth to the mass Timur movement among Young Pioneers and other children's organisations all over the Soviet Union. A number of films were made based on his stories. Gaidar's books have been translated into many languages.",
"Gaidar was awarded two orders and several medals. A monument honouring him was erected in Kaniv in 1953. Three biographical movies about Arkady Gaidar were released in the USSR: \"Serebryanye truby\" (Russian: \"Silver Trumpets\") (1970), \"Konets imperatora taygi\" (Russian: \"The Death of the Taiga Emperor\") (1978), and \"Ostayus s vami\" (Russian: \"I'll Stay with You\") (1981). The latter was a story of Arkady Gaidar's last days.",
"Arkady's son, Timur Gaidar published two versions of the pseudonym's origin:",
"Arkady Gaidar's father, Pyotr Isidorovich Golikov, a teacher (after the 1917 Revolution a Red Army commissar), came from a working-class family. His mother, Natalya Arkadyevna Golikova (née Salkova), also a teacher (after the Revolution a doctor), was a daughter of a Tsarist Army officer. Arkady was the first of the couple's four children. His three sisters were Natalya, Olga and Yekaterina. The Russian economist Yegor Gaidar was Arkady Gaidar's grandson. Yegor Gaidar's father, Rear Admiral Timur Gaidar, was his son. Maria Gaidar (born 1982), Russian activist, is a daughter of Yegor Gaidar."
]
}
|
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