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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Philosophy.", "Ethics.", "The naturalistic fallacy.", "Open-question argument.", "Good as indefinable.", "Good as a non-natural property.", "Moral knowledge.", "Proof of an external world.", "Moore's paradox.", "Organic wholes." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Moore was born in Upper Norwood, Croydon, Greater London, on 4 November 1873, the middle child of seven of Dr Daniel Moore and Henrietta Sturge. His grandfather was the author Dr George Moore. His eldest brother was Thomas Sturge Moore, a poet, writer and engraver. He was educated at Dulwich College and in 1892 went up to Trinity College, Cambridge to study classics and moral sciences. He became a Fellow of Trinity in 1898, and went on to hold the University of Cambridge chair of Mental Philosophy and Logic, from 1925 to 1939. Moore is best known today for his defence of ethical non-naturalism, his emphasis on common sense in philosophical method, and the paradox that bears his name. He was admired by and influential among other philosophers, and also by the Bloomsbury Group, but is (unlike his colleague and admirer Russell, who, for some years thought he fulfilled his \"ideal of genius\") mostly unknown today outside of academic philosophy. Moore's essays are known for their clear, circumspect writing style, and for his methodical and patient approach to philosophical problems. He was critical of modern philosophy for its lack of progress, which he believed was in stark contrast to the dramatic advances in the natural sciences since the Renaissance. Among Moore's most famous works are his book \"Principia Ethica\", and his essays, \"The Refutation of Idealism\", \"A Defence of Common Sense\", and \"A Proof of the External World\". Moore was an important and much admired member of the secretive Cambridge Apostles, a discussion group with members drawn from the British intellectual elite. At the time another member, a 22-year-old Bertrand Russell, wrote “I almost worship him as if he were a god. I have never felt such an extravagant admiration for anybody.” From 1918-19 he was president of the Aristotelian Society, a group committed to the systematic study of philosophy, its historical development and its methods and problems. G. E. Moore died at the Evelyn Nursing Home on 24 October 1958; he was cremated at Cambridge Crematorium on 28 October 1958 and his ashes interred at the Parish of the Ascension Burial Ground in Cambridge; his wife, Dorothy Ely (1892-1977) was buried there. Together they had two sons, the poet Nicholas Moore and the composer Timothy Moore.", "", "His influential work \"Principia Ethica\" is one of the main inspirations of the movement against ethical naturalism (see ethical non-naturalism) and is partly responsible for the twentieth-century concern with meta-ethics.", "Moore asserted that philosophical arguments can suffer from a confusion between the use of a term in a particular argument and the definition of that term (in all arguments). He named this confusion the naturalistic fallacy. For example, an ethical argument may claim that if a thing has certain properties, then that thing is 'good.' A hedonist may argue that 'pleasant' things are 'good' things. Other theorists may argue that 'complex' things are 'good' things. Moore contends that, even if such arguments are correct, they do not provide definitions for the term 'good'. The property of 'goodness' cannot be defined. It can only be shown and grasped. Any attempt to define it (X is good if it has property Y) will simply shift the problem (Why is Y-ness good in the first place?).", "Moore's argument for the indefinability of 'good' (and thus for the fallaciousness in the \"naturalistic fallacy\") is often called the open-question argument; it is presented in §13 of \"Principia Ethica\". The argument hinges on the nature of statements such as \"Anything that is pleasant is also good\" and the possibility of asking questions such as \"Is it \"good\" that x is pleasant?\". According to Moore, these questions are \"open\" and these statements are \"significant\"; and they will remain so no matter what is substituted for \"pleasure\". Moore concludes from this that any analysis of value is bound to fail. In other words, if value could be analysed, then such questions and statements would be trivial and obvious. Since they are anything but trivial and obvious, value must be indefinable. Critics of Moore's arguments sometimes claim that he is appealing to general puzzles concerning analysis (cf. the paradox of analysis), rather than revealing anything special about value. The argument clearly depends on the assumption that if 'good' were definable, it would be an analytic truth about 'good', an assumption that many contemporary moral realists like Richard Boyd and Peter Railton reject. Other responses appeal to the Fregean distinction between sense and reference, allowing that value concepts are special and \"sui generis\", but insisting that value properties are nothing but natural properties (this strategy is similar to that taken by non-reductive materialists in philosophy of mind).", "Moore contended that goodness cannot be analysed in terms of any other property. In \"Principia Ethica\", he writes: Therefore, we cannot define 'good' by explaining it in other words. We can only point to an \"action\" or a \"thing\" and say \"That is good.\" Similarly, we cannot describe to a person born totally blind exactly what yellow is. We can only show a sighted person a piece of yellow paper or a yellow scrap of cloth and say \"That is yellow.\"", "In addition to categorising 'good' as indefinable, Moore also emphasized that it is a non-natural property. This means that it cannot be empirically or scientifically tested or verifiedit is not within the bounds of \"natural science\".", "Moore argued that, once arguments based on the naturalistic fallacy had been discarded, questions of intrinsic goodness could be settled only by appeal to what he (following Sidgwick) called \"moral intuitions\": self-evident propositions which recommend themselves to moral reflection, but which are not susceptible to either direct proof or disproof (PE § 45). As a result of his view, he has often been described by later writers as an advocate of ethical intuitionism. Moore, however, wished to distinguish his view from the views usually described as \"Intuitionist\" when \"Principia Ethica\" was written: Moore distinguished his view from the view of deontological intuitionists, who held that \"intuitions\" could determine questions about what \"actions\" are right or required by duty. Moore, as a consequentialist, argued that \"duties\" and moral rules could be determined by investigating the \"effects\" of particular actions or kinds of actions (PE § 89), and so were matters for empirical investigation rather than direct objects of intuition (PE § 90). On Moore's view, \"intuitions\" revealed not the rightness or wrongness of specific actions, but only what things were good in themselves, as \"ends to be pursued\".", "One of the most important parts of Moore's philosophical development was his break from the idealism that dominated British philosophy (as represented in the works of his former teachers F. H. Bradley and John McTaggart), and his defence of what he regarded as a \"common sense\" form of realism. In his 1925 essay \"A Defence of Common Sense\", he argued against idealism and scepticism toward the external world, on the grounds that they could not give reasons to accept that their metaphysical premises were more plausible than the reasons we have to accept the common sense claims about our knowledge of the world, which sceptics and idealists must deny. He famously put the point into dramatic relief with his 1939 essay \"Proof of an External World\", in which he gave a common sense argument against scepticism by raising his right hand and saying \"Here is one hand\" and then raising his left and saying \"And here is another\", then concluding that there are at least two external objects in the world, and therefore that he knows (by this argument) that an external world exists. Not surprisingly, not everyone inclined to sceptical doubts found Moore's method of argument entirely convincing; Moore, however, defends his argument on the grounds that sceptical arguments seem invariably to require an appeal to \"philosophical intuitions\" that we have considerably less reason to accept than we have for the common sense claims that they supposedly refute. (In addition to fueling Moore's own work, the \"Here is one hand\" argument also deeply influenced Wittgenstein, who spent his last years working out a new approach to Moore's argument in the remarks that were published posthumously as \"On Certainty\".)", "Moore is also remembered for drawing attention to the peculiar inconsistency involved in uttering a sentence such as \"It is raining, but I do not believe it is raining,\" a puzzle now commonly called \"Moore's paradox\". The puzzle arises because it seems impossible for anyone to consistently \"assert\" such a sentence; but there doesn't seem to be any \"logical contradiction\" between \"It is raining\" and \"I don't believe that it is raining\", because the former is a statement about the weather and the latter a statement about a person's belief about the weather, and it is perfectly logically possible that it may rain whilst a person does not believe that it is raining. In addition to Moore's own work on the paradox, the puzzle also inspired a great deal of work by Ludwig Wittgenstein, who described the paradox as the most impressive philosophical insight that Moore had ever introduced. It is said that when Wittgenstein first heard this paradox one evening (which Moore had earlier stated in a lecture), he rushed round to Moore's lodgings, got him out of bed and insisted that Moore repeat the entire lecture to him.", "Moore's description of the principle of organic unity is extremely straightforward, nonetheless, and a variant on a pattern that began with Aristotle: According to Moore, a moral actor cannot survey the 'goodness' inherent in the various parts of a situation, assign a value to each of them, and then generate a sum in order to get an idea of its total value. A moral scenario is a complex assembly of parts, and its total value is often created by the relations between those parts, and not by their individual value. The organic metaphor is thus very appropriate: biological organisms seem to have emergent properties which cannot be found anywhere in their individual parts. For example, a human brain seems to exhibit a capacity for thought when none of its neurons exhibit any such capacity. In the same way, a moral scenario can have a value far greater than the sum of its component parts. To understand the application of the organic principle to questions of value, it is perhaps best to consider Moore's primary example, that of a consciousness experiencing a beautiful object. To see how the principle works, a thinker engages in \"reflective isolation\", the act of isolating a given concept in a kind of null-context and determining its intrinsic value. In our example, we can easily see that per \"sui\", beautiful objects and consciousnesses are not particularly valuable things. They might have some value, but when we consider the total value of a consciousness experiencing a beautiful object, it seems to exceed the simple sum of these values (Principia 18:2)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Overview.", "1920 and 1921 Arab riots.", "1931 Irgun split.", "1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine.", "Support from Poland.", "1939 White Paper.", "\"Patria\" disaster.", "World War II participation.", "1944 Lord Moyne assassination and the Season.", "Post World War II.", "Reorganisation.", "War of Independence.", "Pal-Heib Unit." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The evolution of Jewish defense organisations in Palestine and later Israel went from small self-defense groups active during Ottoman rule, to ever larger and more sophisticated ones during the British Mandate, leading through the Haganah to the national army of Israel, the IDF. The evolution went step by step from Bar-Giora, to Hashomer, to Haganah, to IDF. The Jewish paramilitary organisations in the New Yishuv (the Zionist enterprise in Palestine) started with the Second Aliyah (1904 to 1914). The first such organization was Bar-Giora, founded in September 1907. It consisted of a small group of Jewish immigrants who guarded settlements for an annual fee. At no time did Bar-Giora have more than 100 members. It was converted to Hashomer (; \"The Watchman\") in April 1909, which operated until the British Mandate of Palestine came into being in 1920. Hashomer was an elitist organization with narrow scope, and was mainly created to protect against criminal gangs seeking to steal property. During World War I, the forerunners of the Haganah/IDF were the Zion Mule Corps and the Jewish Legion, both of which were part of the British Army. After the Arab riots against Jews in April 1920, the Yishuv's leadership saw the need to create a nationwide underground defense organization, and the Haganah was founded in June of the same year. The Haganah became a full-scale defense force after the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine with an organized structure, consisting of three main units—the Field Corps, Guard Corps, and the Palmach strike force. During World War II the successor to the Jewish Legion of World War I was the Jewish Brigade, which was joined by many Haganah fighters. During the 1947–48 civil war between the Arab and Jewish communities in what was still Mandatory Palestine, a reorganised Haganah managed to defend or wrestle most of the territory it was ordered to hold or capture. At the beginning of the ensuing 1948–49 full-scale conventional war against regular Arab armies, the Haganah was reorganised to become the core of the new Israel Defense Forces.", "After the 1920 Arab riots and 1921 Jaffa riots, the Jewish leadership in Palestine believed that the British, to whom the League of Nations had given a mandate over Palestine in 1920, had no desire to confront local Arab gangs that frequently attacked Palestinian Jews. Believing that they could not rely on the British administration for protection from these gangs, the Jewish leadership created the Haganah to protect Jewish farms and kibbutzim. The first head of the Haganah was a 28 year-old named Yosef Hecht, a veteran of the Jewish Legion. In addition to guarding Jewish communities, the role of the Haganah was to warn the residents of and repel attacks by Palestinian Arabs. In the period between 1920–1929, the Haganah lacked a strong central authority or coordination. Haganah \"units\" were very localized and poorly armed: they consisted mainly of Jewish farmers who took turns guarding their farms or their kibbutzim. Following the 1929 Palestine riots, the Haganah's role changed dramatically. It became a much larger organization encompassing nearly all the youth and adults in the Jewish settlements, as well as thousands of members from the cities. It also acquired foreign arms and began to develop workshops to create hand grenades and simple military equipment, transforming from an untrained militia to a capable underground army.", "Many Haganah fighters objected to the official policy of \"havlagah\" (restraint) that Jewish political leaders (who had become increasingly controlling of the Haganah) had imposed on the militia. Fighters had been instructed to only defend communities and not initiate counterattacks against Arab gangs or their communities. This policy appeared defeatist to many who believed that the best defense is a good offense. In 1931, the more militant elements of the Haganah splintered off and formed the \"Irgun Tsva'i-Leumi\" (National Military Organization), better known as \"Irgun\" (or by its Hebrew acronym, pronounced \"Etzel\").", "During the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine, the Haganah worked to protect British interests and to quell Arab rebellion using the FOSH, and then Hish units. At that time, the Haganah fielded 10,000 mobilized men along with 40,000 reservists. Although the British administration did not officially recognize the Haganah, the British security forces cooperated with it by forming the Jewish Settlement Police, Jewish Supernumerary Police and Special Night Squads, which were trained and led by Colonel Orde Wingate. The battle experience gained during the training was useful in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War.", "During the interwar period, as part of its policy of supporting a Jewish state in Palestine in order to facilitate mass Jewish emigration from its territory, the Second Polish Republic provided military training and weapons to Zionist paramilitary groups, including Haganah. Envoys from Haganah headed by Yehuda Arazi received dozens of shipments with military supplies, including 2750 Mauser rifles, 225 RKM machine guns, 10,000 hand grenades, two million bullets for rifles and machine guns, and a large number of pistols with ammunition. The British exerted heavy pressure on the Polish government to stop these deliveries. One of the last purchases of Arazi were two airplanes and two gliders. When he fled Poland to France, around 500 rifles were abandoned in a Warsaw warehouse. Members of the Haganah were also trained in a military camp in Rembertow along with Betar members between the years 1931 and 1937; it is estimated that training courses at the camp were attended by around 8,000 to 10,000 participants during their existence.", "By 1939, the British had issued the White Paper, which severely restricted Jewish immigration to Palestine, deeply angering the Zionist leadership. David Ben-Gurion, then chairman of the Jewish Agency, set the policy for the Zionist relationship with the British: \"We shall fight the war against Hitler as if there were no White Paper, and we shall fight the White Paper as if there were no war.\" In reaction to the White Paper, the Haganah built up the Palmach as the Haganah's elite strike force and organized illegal Jewish immigration to Palestine. Approximately 100,000 Jews were brought to Palestine in over one hundred ships during the final decade of what became known as Aliyah Bet. The Haganah also organized demonstrations against British immigration quotas.", "In 1940 the Haganah sabotaged the \"Patria\", an ocean liner being used by the British to deport 1,800 Jews to Mauritius, with a bomb intended to cripple the ship. However the ship sank, killing 267 people and injuring 172.", "In the first years of World War II, the British authorities asked Haganah for cooperation again, due to the fear of an Axis breakthrough in North Africa. After Rommel was defeated at El Alamein in 1942, the British stepped back from their all-out support for Haganah. In 1943, after a long series of requests and negotiations, the British Army announced the creation of the Jewish Brigade Group. While Palestinian Jews had been permitted to enlist in the British army since 1940, this was the first time an exclusively Jewish military unit served in the war under a Jewish flag. The Jewish Brigade Group consisted of 5,000 soldiers and was initially deployed with the 8th Army in North Africa and later in Italy in September 1944. The brigade was disbanded in 1946. All in all, some 30,000 Palestinian Jews served in the British army during the war. On May 14, 1941, the Haganah created the Palmach (an acronym for \"Plugot Mahatz\"—strike companies), an elite commando section, in preparation against the possibility of a British withdrawal and Axis invasion of Palestine. Its members, young men and women, received specialist training in guerilla tactics and sabotage. During 1942 the British gave assistance in the training of Palmach volunteers but in early 1943 they withdrew their support and attempted to disarm them. The Palmach, then numbering over 1,000, continued as an underground organisation with its members working half of each month as kibbutz volunteers, the rest of the month spent training. It was never large—by 1947 it amounted to merely five battalions (about 2,000 men)—but its members had not only received physical and military training, but also acquired leadership skills that would subsequently enable them to take up command positions in Israel's army.", "In 1944, after the assassination of Lord Moyne (the British Minister of State for the Middle East), by members of the Lehi, the Haganah worked with the British to kidnap, interrogate, and in some cases, deport Irgun members. This action, which lasted from November 1944 to February 1945, was called the \"Saison\", or the Hunting Season, and was directed against the Irgun and not the Lehi. Future Jerusalem mayor Teddy Kollek was later revealed to be a Jewish Agency liaison officer working with the British authorities who had passed on information that led to the arrest of many Irgun activists. Many Jewish youth, who had joined the Haganah in order to defend the Jewish people, were greatly demoralized by operations against their own people. The Irgun, paralyzed by the Saison, were ordered by their commander, Menachem Begin, not to retaliate in an effort to avoid a full blown civil war. Although many Irgunists objected to these orders, they obeyed Begin and refrained from fighting back. The Saison eventually ended due to perceived British betrayal of the Yishuv becoming more obvious to the public and increased opposition from Haganah members.", "The Saison officially ended when the Haganah, Irgun and the Lehi formed the Jewish Resistance Movement, in 1945. Within this new framework, the three groups agreed to operate under a joint command. They had different functions, which served to drive the British out of Palestine and create a Jewish state. The Haganah was less active in the Jewish Rebellion than the other two groups, but the Palmach did carry out anti-British operations, including a raid on the Atlit detainee camp that released 208 illegal immigrants, the Night of the Trains, the Night of the Bridges, and attacks on Palestine Police bases. The Haganah withdrew on 1 July 1946, but \"remained permanently unco-operative\" with the British authorities. It continued to organize illegal Jewish immigration as part of the Aliyah Bet program, in which ships carrying illegal immigrants attempted to breach the British blockade of Palestine and land illegal immigrants on the shore (most were intercepted by the Royal Navy), and the Palmach performed operations against the British to support the illegal immigration program. The Palmach repeatedly bombed British radar stations being used to track illegal immigrant ships, and sabotaged British ships being used to deport illegal immigrants, as well as two British landing and patrol craft. The Palmach performed a single assassination operation in which a British official who had been judged to be excessively cruel to Jewish prisoners was shot dead. The Haganah also organized the Birya affair. Following the expulsion of the residents of the Jewish settlement of Birya for illegal weapons possession, thousands of Jewish youth organized by the Haganah marched to the site and rebuilt the settlement. They were expelled by British shortly afterward while showing passive resistance, but after they returned a third time, the British backed off and allowed them to remain. In addition to its operations, the Haganah continued to secretly prepare for a war with the Arabs once the British left by building up its arms and munitions stocks. It maintained a secret arms industry, with the most significant facility being an underground bullet factory underneath Ayalon, a kibbutz that had been established specifically to cover it up. British estimates of the Haganah's strength at this time were a \"paper strength of 75,000 men and women\" with an effective strength of 30,000. After the British army, the Haganah was considered the most powerful military force in the Middle East. In July 1947, eager to maintain order with the visit of UNSCOP to Palestine and under heavy pressure from the British authorities to resume collaboration, the Jewish Agency reluctantly came into brief conflict with the Irgun and Lehi, and ordered the Haganah to put a stop to the operations of the other two groups for the time being. As Palmach members refused to participate, a unit of about 200 men from regular Haganah units was mobilized, and foiled several operations against the British, including a potentially devastating attack on the British military headquarters at Citrus House in Tel Aviv, in which a Haganah member was killed by an Irgun bomb. The Haganah also joined the search for two British sergeants abducted by the Irgun as hostages against the death sentences of three Irgun members in what became known as the Sergeants' affair. The Jewish Agency leadership feared the damage this act would do to the Jewish cause, and also believed that holding the hostages would only jeopardize the fates of the three condemned Irgun members. The attempts to free the sergeants failed, and following the executions of the three Irgun members, the two sergeants were killed and hanged in a eucalyptus grove. However, the campaign soon disintegrated into a series of retaliatory abductions and beatings of each other's members by the Haganah and Irgun, and eventually petered out. The campaign was dubbed the \"Little Season\" by the Irgun.", "After 'having gotten the Jews of Palestine and of elsewhere to do everything that they could, personally and financially, to help Yishuv,' Ben-Gurion's second greatest achievement was his having successfully transformed Haganah from being a clandestine paramilitary organization into a true army. Ben-Gurion appointed Israel Galili to the position of head of the High Command counsel of Haganah and divided Haganah into 6 infantry brigades, numbered 1 to 6, allotting a precise theatre of operation to each one. Yaakov Dori was named Chief of Staff, but it was Yigael Yadin who assumed the responsibility on the ground as chief of Operations. Palmach, commanded by Yigal Allon, was divided into 3 elite brigades, numbered 10–12, and constituted the mobile force of Haganah. Ben-Gurion's attempts to retain personal control over the newly formed IDF lead later in July to The Generals' Revolt. On 19 November 1947, obligatory conscription was instituted for all men and women aged between 17 and 25. By end of March 21,000 people had been conscripted. On 30 March the call-up was extended to men and single women aged between 26 and 35. Five days later a General Mobilization order was issued for all men under 40. \"From November 1947, the Haganah, (...) began to change from a territorial militia into a regular army. (...) Few of the units had been well trained by December. (...) By March–April, it fielded still under-equipped battalion and brigades. By April–May, the Haganah was conducting brigade size offensive. The brigades of the Haganah which merged into the IDF once this was created on 26 May 1948: The northern Levanoni Brigade, located in the Galilee, was split on February 22, 1948 into the 1st and 2nd Brigades. To the initial six brigades, three were added later during the war: The Palmach brigades which merged into the IDF:", "After the British announced they would withdraw from Palestine, and the United Nations approved the partition of Palestine, the 1947-48 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine broke out. The Haganah played the leading role in the Yishuv's war with the Palestinian Arabs. Initially, it concentrated on defending Jewish areas from Arab raids, but after the danger of British intervention subsided as the British withdrew, the Haganah went on the offensive and seized more territory. Following the Israeli Declaration of Independence and the start of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War on May 15, 1948, the Haganah, now the army of the new state, engaged the invading armies of the surrounding Arab states. On May 28, 1948, less than two weeks after the creation of the state of Israel on May 15, the provisional government created the Israel Defense Forces, merging the Haganah, Irgun, and Lehi, although the other two groups continued to operate independently in Jerusalem and abroad for some time after. The re-organisation led to several conflicts between Ben-Gurion and the Haganah leadership, including what was known as The Generals' Revolt and the dismantling of the Palmach. Famous members of the Haganah included Yitzhak Rabin, Ariel Sharon, Rehavam Ze'evi, Dov Hoz, Moshe Dayan, Yigal Allon and Dr. Ruth Westheimer. The Museum of Underground Prisoners in Jerusalem commemorates the activity of the underground groups in the pre-state period, recreating the everyday life of those imprisoned there.", "Some Bedouins had longstanding ties with nearby Jewish communities. They helped defend these communities in the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine. During the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, some Bedouins of Tuba formed an alliance with the Haganah defending Jewish communities in the Upper Galilee against Syria. Some were part of a Pal-Heib unit of the Haganah. Sheik Hussein Mohammed Ali Abu Yussef of Tuba was quoted in 1948 as saying, \"Is it not written in the Koran that the ties of neighbors are as dear as those of relations? Our friendship with the Jews goes back many years. We felt we could trust them and they learned from us too\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early history.", "Founding and incorporation.", "1900 to World War II.", "Post-World War II explosive growth.", "1960s to present.", "Geography.", "Demographics.", "Economy.", "Culture.", "Performing arts.", "Museums.", "Fine arts.", "Architecture.", "Tourism.", "Other attractions and annual events.", "Cuisine.", "Sports.", "Major league.", "Other sports.", "Parks and recreation.", "Government.", "State government facilities.", "Federal government facilities.", "Crime.", "Cultural Heritage Resources.", "Education.", "Post-secondary education.", "Media.", "Infrastructure.", "Transportation.", "Air.", "Rail and bus.", "Roads and freeways.", "Alternate forms of transportation.", "Utilities.", "Health care.", "Sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The Hohokam people occupied the Phoenix area for 2,000 years. They created roughly of irrigation canals, making the desert land arable, and paths of these canals were used for the Arizona Canal, Central Arizona Project Canal, and the Hayden-Rhodes Aqueduct. They also carried out extensive trade with the nearby Ancient Puebloans, Mogollon, and Sinagua, as well as with the more distant Mesoamerican civilizations. It is believed periods of drought and severe floods between 1300 and 1450 led to the Hohokam civilization's abandonment of the area. After the departure of the Hohokam, groups of Akimel O'odham (commonly known as Pima), Tohono O'odham, and Maricopa tribes began to use the area, as well as segments of the Yavapai and Apache. The O'odham were offshoots of the Sobaipuri tribe, who in turn were thought to be the descendants of the Hohokam. The Akimel O'odham were the major group in the area. They lived in small villages with well-defined irrigation systems that spread over the Gila River Valley, from Florence in the east to the Estrellas in the west. Their crops included corn, beans, and squash for food as well as cotton and tobacco. They", "The history of the city of Phoenix begins with Jack Swilling, a Confederate veteran of the Civil War. He was traveling through the Salt River Valley in 1867 and saw a potential for farming. He formed a small community that same year about four miles (six km) east of the city. Lord Darrell Duppa was one of the original settlers in Swilling's party, and he suggested the name \"Phoenix\", as it described a city born from the ruins of a former civilization. The Board of Supervisors in Yavapai County officially recognized the new town on May 4, 1868, and the first post office was established the following month with Swilling as the postmaster. On February 12, 1871, the territorial legislature created Maricopa County by dividing Yavapai County; it was the sixth one formed in the Arizona Territory. The first election for county office was held in 1871 when Tom Barnum was elected the first sheriff. He ran unopposed when the other two candidates (John A. Chenowth and Jim Favorite) fought a duel; Chenowth", "On February 25, 1901, Governor Oakes Murphy dedicated the permanent Capitol building, and the Carnegie Free Library opened seven years later, on February 18, 1908, dedicated by Benjamin Fowler. The National Reclamation Act was signed by President Theodore Roosevelt in 1902, which allowed for dams to be built on waterways in the west for reclamation purposes. The first dam constructed under the act, Salt River Dam#1, began in 1903. It supplied both water and electricity, becoming the first multi-purpose dam, and Roosevelt himself attended the official dedication on May 18, 1911. At the time, it was the largest masonry dam in the world, forming a lake in the mountain east of Phoenix. The dam would be renamed after Teddy Roosevelt in 1917, and the lake would follow suit in 1959. On February 14, 1912, Phoenix became a state capital, as Arizona was admitted to the Union as the 48th state under President William Howard Taft. This occurred just six months after Taft had vetoed a joint congressional resolution granting statehood to Arizona, due to his disapproval", "A town that had just over 65,000 residents in 1940 became America's sixth largest city by 2010, with a population of nearly 1.5 million, and millions more in nearby suburbs. When the war ended, many of the men who had undergone their training in Arizona returned bringing their new families. Learning of this large untapped labor pool enticed many large industries to move their operations to the area. In 1948 high-tech industry, which would become a staple of the state's economy, arrived in Phoenix when Motorola chose Phoenix as the site of its new research and development center for military electronics. Seeing the same advantages as Motorola, other high-tech companies such as Intel and McDonnell Douglas also moved into the valley and opened manufacturing operations. By 1950, over 105,000 people resided", "The continued rapid population growth led more businesses to the valley to take advantage of the labor pool, and manufacturing, particularly in the electronics sector, continued to grow. The convention and tourism industries saw rapid expansion during the 1960s, with tourism becoming the third largest industry by the end of the decade. In 1960 the Phoenix Corporate Center opened; at the time it was the tallest building in Arizona, topping off at 341 feet. The 1960s saw many other buildings constructed as the city expanded rapidly, including the Rosenzweig Center (1964), today called Phoenix City Square, the landmark", "Phoenix is in the southwestern United States, in the south-central portion of Arizona; about halfway between Tucson to the southeast and Flagstaff to the north. By car, the city is approximately north of the US-Mexico border at Sonoyta and north of the border at Nogales. The metropolitan area is known as the \"Valley of the Sun\" due to its location in the Salt River Valley. It lies at a mean elevation of 1,086 feet (331 m), in the northern reaches of the Sonoran Desert. Other than the mountains in and around the city, Phoenix's topography is generally flat, which allows the city's main streets to run on a precise grid with wide, open-spaced roadways. Scattered, low mountain ranges surround the valley: McDowell Mountains to the northeast, the White Tank Mountains to the west, the Superstition Mountains far to the east, and both South Mountain and the Sierra Estrella to the south/southwest. Camelback Mountain, North Mountain, Sunnyslope Mountain, and Piestewa Peak are within the heart of the valley. The city's outskirts have large fields of irrigated cropland and Native American reservation lands. The Salt River runs westward through Phoenix, but the riverbed is often dry or contains little water due to large irrigation diversions. South Mountain separates the community of Ahwatukee from the rest of the city. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of 517.9 square miles (1,341 km). 516.7 square miles (1,338 km) of it is land, and 1.2 square miles (0.6 km, or 0.2%) of it is water. Maricopa County grew by 811% from 186,000 in 1940 to 1,509,000 by 1980, thanks in part to air conditioning, cheap housing, and an influx of retirees. The once \"modest urban sprawl\" now \"grew by 'epic' proportions— not only a myriad of residential tract developments on both farmland and desert.\" Retail outlets and office complexes spread out and did not concentrate in the small downtown area. There was low population density and a lack of widespread and significant high-rise development. As a consequence Phoenix became a textbook case of urban sprawl for geographers. Even though it is the fifth most populated city, the large area gives it a low density rate of approximately 2,797 people per square mile. In comparison, Philadelphia, the sixth most populous city, has a density of over 11,000. Like most of Arizona, Phoenix does not observe daylight saving time. In 1973, Governor Jack Williams argued to the U.S. Congress that energy use would increase in the evening should Arizona observe DST. He went on to say energy use would also rise early in the day \"because there would be more lights on in the early morning.\" Additionally, he said daylight saving time would cause children to go to school in the dark.", "Phoenix is the sixth most populous city in the United States according to the 2010 United States Census, with a population of 1,445,632, making it the most populous state capital in the United States. Phoenix's ranking as the sixth most populous city was a drop from the number five position it had held since the U. S. Census Bureau released population estimates on June 28, 2007. Those statistics used data from 2006, which showed Phoenix's population at 1,512,986, which put it just ahead of Philadelphia. In 2016, Phoenix regained the position of 5th most populous city, with the census bureau estimating its population at 1,615,017, edging out Philadelphia with a population of 1,567,872. After leading the U.S. in population growth for over a decade, the sub-prime mortgage crisis, followed by the recession, led to a slowing in the growth of Phoenix. There were approximately 77,000 people added to the population of the Phoenix metropolitan area in 2009, which was down significantly from its peak in 2006 of 162,000. Despite this slowing, Phoenix's population grew by 9.4% since the 2000 census (a total of 124,000 people), while the entire Phoenix metropolitan area grew by 28.9% during the same period. This compares with an overall growth rate nationally during the same time frame of 9.7%. Not since 1940–50, when the city had a population of 107,000, had the city gained less than 124,000 in a decade. Phoenix's recent growth rate of 9.4% from the 2010 census is the first time it has recorded a growth rate under 24% in a census decade. However, in 2016, Phoenix once again became the fastest growing city in the United States, adding approximately 88 people per day during the preceding year. The Phoenix Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA) (officially known as the Phoenix-Mesa-Chandler MSA ), is one of 10 MSAs in Arizona, and was the 11th largest in the United States, with a 2018 U.S. Census population estimate of 4,857,962, up from the 2010 Census population of 4,192,887. Consisting of both Pinal and Maricopa counties, the MSA accounts for 65.5% of Arizona's population. Phoenix only contributed 13% to the total growth rate of the MSA, down significantly from its 33% share during the prior decade. Phoenix is also part of the Arizona Sun Corridor megaregion (MR), which is the 10th most populous of the 11 MRs, and the 8th largest by area. It had the 2nd largest growth by percentage of the MRs (behind only the Gulf Coast MR) between 2000 and 2010. The population is almost equally split between men and women, with men making up 50.2% of city's citizens. The population density is 2,797.8 people per", "The early economy of Phoenix focused on agriculture and natural resources, especially the \"5Cs\" of copper, cattle, climate, cotton, and citrus. With the establishment of the Southern Pacific rail line in 1926, the opening of the Union Station in 1923, and the creation of Sky Harbor airport by the end of the decade, the city became more easily accessible. The Great Depression affected Phoenix, but Phoenix had a diverse economy and by 1934 the recovery was underway. At the conclusion of World War II, the valley's economy surged, as many men who had completed their military training at the bases in and around Phoenix returned with their families. The construction industry, spurred on by the city's growth, further expanded with the development of Sun City. It became the template for suburban development in post-WWII America, and Sun City became the template for retirement communities when it opened in 1960. The city averaged a 4 percent annual growth rate over a 40-year period from the mid-1960s to the mid-2000s. As the national financial crisis of 2007–10 began, construction in Phoenix collapsed and housing prices plunged. Arizona jobs declined by 11.8% from peak to trough; in 2007 Phoenix had 1,918,100 employed individuals, by 2010 that number had shrunk by 226,500 to 1,691,600. By the end of 2015, the employment number in Phoenix had risen to 1.97 million,", "", "The city has numerous performing arts venues, most of which are in and around downtown Phoenix or Scottsdale. The Phoenix Symphony Hall is home to the Phoenix Symphony Orchestra, the Arizona Opera and Ballet Arizona. The Arizona Opera company also has intimate performances at its new Arizona Opera Center, which opened in March 2013. Another venue is the Orpheum Theatre, which is home to the Phoenix Opera. Ballet Arizona, in addition to the Symphony Hall, also has performances at the Orpheum Theatre as well at the Dorrance Theater. Concerts also regularly make stops in the area. The largest downtown performing art venue is the Herberger Theater Center,", "Dozens of museums exist throughout the valley. They include the Phoenix Art Museum, Arizona Capitol Museum, Scottsdale Museum of Contemporary Art, Arizona Military Museum, Hall of Flame Firefighting Museum, the Pueblo Grande Museum Archaeological Park, Children's Museum of Phoenix, Arizona Science Center, and the Heard Museum. In 2010, the Musical Instrument Museum opened their doors, featuring the biggest musical instrument collection in the world. In 2015 the Children's Museum of Phoenix was recognized as one of the top three children's museums in the United States. Designed by Alden B. Dow,", "The downtown Phoenix art scene has developed in the past decade. The Artlink organization and the galleries downtown have launched a First Friday cross-Phoenix gallery opening, as well as hosting Art Detour which has become central to the city's cultural identity. In April 2009, artist Janet Echelman inaugurated her monumental sculpture, \"Her Secret Is Patience\", a civic icon suspended above the new Phoenix Civic Space Park,", "Phoenix is the home of a unique architectural tradition and community. Frank Lloyd Wright moved to Phoenix in 1937 and built his winter home, Taliesin West, and the main campus for The Frank Lloyd Wright School of Architecture. Over the years, Phoenix has attracted notable architects who have made it their home and grown", "The tourist industry is the longest running of today's top industries in Phoenix. Starting with promotions back in the 1920s, the industry has grown into one of the top 10 in the city. Due to its climate, Phoenix and its neighbors have consistently ranked among the nation's top destinations in the number of Five Diamond/Five Star resorts. With more than 62,000 hotel rooms in over 500 hotels and 40 resorts, greater Phoenix sees over 16 million visitors each year, most of whom are leisure (as opposed to business)", "Due to its natural environment and climate, Phoenix has a number of outdoor attractions and recreational activities. The Phoenix Zoo is the largest privately owned, non-profit zoo in the United States. Since opening in 1962, the zoo has developed an international reputation for its efforts on animal conservation, including breeding and reintroducing endangered species back into the wild. Right next to the zoo, the Phoenix Botanical Gardens were opened in 1939, and are acclaimed worldwide for their art and flora exhibits and educational programs, featuring the largest collection of arid plants in the U.S. South Mountain Park, the largest municipal park in the U.S., is also the highest", "Like many other western towns, Phoenix's earliest restaurants were often steakhouses. Today, Phoenix is also renowned for its Mexican food, thanks to its large Hispanic population and its proximity to Mexico. Some of Phoenix's restaurants have a long history. The Stockyards steakhouse dates to 1947, while Monti's La Casa Vieja (Spanish for \"The Old House\") was in operation as a restaurant since the 1890s, but closed its doors November 17, 2014. Macayo's (a Mexican restaurant chain) was established in Phoenix in 1946, and other major Mexican restaurants include Garcia's (1956) and Manuel's (1964). The recent population boom has brought people from all", "", "Phoenix is home to several professional sports franchises, and is one of only 13 U.S. metropolitan areas to have representatives of all four major professional sports leagues, although only one of these teams actually carry the city name and two of them play within the city limits. The Phoenix Suns were the first major sports team in Phoenix, being granted a National Basketball Association (NBA) franchise in 1968. They had originally played at the Arizona Veterans Memorial Coliseum before moving to America West Arena (now", "The Phoenix area hosts two annual college football bowl games: the Fiesta Bowl, played at State Farm Stadium, and the Cheez-It Bowl, held at Sun Devil Stadium (though Chase Field has substituted as host while ASU's football stadium undergoes renovations). Phoenix has an indoor football team, the Arizona Rattlers of the Indoor Football League. Their games are also played at Talking Stick Resort Arena. They played in the Arena Football League from 1992 to 2016 and had won five AFL championships before leaving the league. The Greater Phoenix area is home to the Cactus League, one of two spring training leagues for Major League Baseball. With the move by the Colorado Rockies and the Diamondbacks to", "Phoenix is home to a large number of parks and recreation areas. The city of Phoenix includes national parks, county (Maricopa County) parks and city parks. Tonto National Forest forms part of the city's northeast boundary, while the county has the largest park system in the country. The city park system established to preserve the desert landscape in areas that would otherwise have succumbed to development includes South Mountain Park, the world's largest municipal park with. The system's 182 parks contain over, making it the", "In 1913, Phoenix adopted a new form of government, switching from the mayor-council system to the council-manager system, making it one of the first cities in the United States with this form of city government, where a city manager supervises all city departments and executes the policies adopted by the Council. Today, Phoenix represents the largest municipal government of this type in the country. The city council consists of a mayor and eight city council members. While the mayor is elected in a citywide election, Phoenix City Council members are elected by votes only in the districts they represent, with both the Mayor and the Council members serving four-year terms. The mayor of Phoenix is Kate Gallego. The mayor and city council members each have equal voting power in regards to setting city policy and passing rules and regulations. Sunshine Review gave the city's website a Sunny Award for its transparency efforts.", "As the capital of Arizona, Phoenix houses the state legislature, along with numerous state government agencies, many of which are in the State Capitol district immediately west of downtown. The Arizona Department of Juvenile Corrections operates the Adobe Mountain", "The Federal Bureau of Prisons operates the Federal Correctional Institution (FCI) Phoenix, which is within the city limits, near its northern boundary. The Sandra Day O'Connor U.S. Courthouse, the U.S. District Court of Arizona, is on Washington Street downtown. It is named in honor of retired U.S. Supreme Court Justice Sandra Day O'Connor, who was", "By the 1960s, crime was a major problem in Phoenix, and by the 1970s crime continued to increase in the city at a faster rate than almost anywhere else in the country. It was during this time frame when an incident occurred in Phoenix which would have national implications. On March 16, 1963, Ernesto Miranda was arrested and charged with rape. The subsequent Supreme Court ruling on June 13, 1966, Miranda v. Arizona, has led to practice in the United States of issuing a \"Miranda Warning\" to all suspected criminals. With Phoenix's rapid growth, one of the prime areas of criminal activity was land fraud. The practice became so widespread that newspapers would refer to Phoenix as \"the Tainted Desert\". These land frauds led to one of the more infamous murders in the history of the valley, when \"Arizona Republic\" writer Don Bolles was murdered by a car bomb in 1976. It was believed his investigative reporting on organized crime and land fraud in Phoenix made him a target. Bolles was the only reporter from a major U.S. newspaper to be", "Arizona has museums, journals, societies, and libraries that serve as sources of important cultural heritage knowledge. They include the Arizona State Archives Historic", "33 school districts provide public education in the Phoenix area. This is a legacy of numerous annexations over the years; many of the school districts were in existence prior to their territories becoming part of Phoenix. There are 21 elementary school districts, which have over 215 elementary schools, paired with 4 high school districts with 31 high schools serving Phoenix. Three of the high school districts (Glendale Union, Tempe Union, and Tolleson Union) only partially serve Phoenix. In addition, there are 4 unified districts, which cover grades K-12, which add an additional 58 elementary schools and 4 high schools to Phoenix's educational system. Of those four, only the Paradise Valley district completely serves Phoenix. With over 27,000 students, and spread over 220 square miles, Phoenix Union High School District is one of the largest high school districts in the country, containing 16 schools and nearly 3,000 employees. Phoenix is also served by an expanding number of charter schools, with well over 100 operating in the city.", "Arizona State University is the region's largest institution of higher education. While its main campus is in Tempe, ASU also has campuses in northwest Phoenix (ASU West Campus), downtown Phoenix (ASU Downtown Campus), Mesa (ASU Polytechnic Campus), and Glendale (Thunderbird School of Global Management). ASU is one of the largest public universities in the U.S., with a 2012 enrollment of 72,254. An independent, LCME accredited, four-year medical school of the University of Arizona College of Medicine is near ASU's downtown Phoenix campus. There is also a small satellite Phoenix Biomedical Campus for Northern", "Phoenix's first newspaper was the weekly \"Salt River Valley Herald\", established in 1878, which would change its name the following year to the \"Phoenix Herald\". The paper would go through several additional name changes in its early years before finally settling on the \"Phoenix Herald\", which still exists today in an online form. Today, the city is served by one major daily newspaper: \"The Arizona Republic\", which along with its online entity, \"azcentral.com\", serves the greater metropolitan area. The \"Jewish News of Greater Phoenix\" is an independent weekly newspaper established in 1948. In addition, the city is also served by numerous free neighborhood papers and alternative weeklies such as the \"Phoenix New Times\"' the \"East Valley Tribune\", which primarily serves the cities of the East Valley; and Arizona State University's \"The State Press\". The Phoenix metro area is served by many local television stations and is the largest designated market area (DMA) in the Southwest, and the 12th largest in the U.S., with over 1.8 million homes (1.6% of the", "", "", "Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport, one of the ten busiest airports in the United States, serves over 110,000 people on over 1000 flights per day. Centrally located in the metro area near several major freeway interchanges east of downtown Phoenix, the airport serves more than 100 cities with non-stop flights. Air Canada, British Airways, Condor, Volaris, and WestJet are among several international carriers as well as American carrier American Airlines (which maintains a hub at the airport) that provide flights to destinations such as", "Amtrak served Phoenix Union Station until 1996 when the Union Pacific Railroad (UP) threatened to abandon the route between Yuma, Arizona and Phoenix. Amtrak rerouted trains to Maricopa, south of downtown Phoenix, where passengers can board the \"Texas Eagle\" (Los Angeles-San Antonio-Chicago) and \"Sunset Limited\" (Los Angeles-New Orleans). Though UP retained the trackage and the station remains, Amtrak did not return.", "Phoenix auto traffic depends on both freeways and surface streets. Freeways fall under the auspices of the Arizona Department of Transportation (ADOT). Phoenix ranks first in the nation in the quality of its urban freeways, and the state as a whole ranks first in the nation in the quality of bridges. While being the fifth most populous city in the nation, Phoenix's freeways do not suffer from the same type of congestion seen in other large cities. In fact, in a recent study, there is not a single stretch of freeway in Phoenix ranked in the 100 worst freeways for either congestion or unreliability. Part of the reason for this is the extensive freeway system in the city, due to most of that system being funded by local, rather than federal funds, through a half-cent general sales tax measure approved by voters in 1985. Another offshoot of this local funding is that Phoenix is the largest city in the United States to", "The Maricopa Association of Governments has a bicycle advisory committee working to improve conditions for bicycling on city streets and off-road paths. Bicycling Magazine ranked Phoenix the 15th most bicycle friendly city of 50 cities in the United States with a population greater than 100,000.", "Being in the desert, Phoenix relies on a water supply delivered to the city via a system of canals which divert water from the region's rivers and lakes, with the largest portion of the city's water coming from the Colorado River through the Central", "In 2011 (the last year for which information is available), Phoenix had a slightly younger population than the country as a whole. While the United States had 13.3% of its population over the age of 65, Phoenix's percentage stood significantly lower, at 8.1%. Phoenix's percentage of 18.8% in the next age group, 45–64 was also a great deal lower than the national average of 26.6%. This results in 73% of Phoenix's population being 44 or younger, as compared to the national percentage of 60. In 2010 (the last year for nationally reported figures), Phoenix was at or below", "With the creation of the Phoenix Sister Cities (PSC) organization in 1972, Phoenix became a member of the international Sister City movement. It would take the organization several years to become official, not filing for Articles of Incorporation until 1975, and not entering into their first Sister City agreement until 1976, with Hermosillo, Mexico. The organization's mission statement states their purpose is to \"create people-to-people relationships between the residents of Phoenix and its sister cities through commercial, educational, cultural and artistic exchange programs and events that create and sustain global, long-term, international partnerships and business opportunities for the citizens of Phoenix.\" Phoenix has ten sister cities, as designated by the Phoenix Sister Cities Commission and Sister Cities International, shown in the table below. Phoenix and Prague have shared a Capital Cities relationship since May 1991, which was expanded to Sister City Status in 2013." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Types.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "There are several variants, of which the most common are:", "The first moshav, Nahalal, was established in the Jezreel Valley (also known as the Valley of Esdraelon) on September 11, 1921. By 1986 about 156,700 Israelis lived and worked on 448 moshavim; the great majority of these are divided among eight federations. Because the moshav organisation retained the family as the centre of social life, it was much more attractive to traditional Mizrahi immigrants in the 1950s and early 1960s; they eschewed bold experiments, like communal child-rearing or equality of the sexes, practiced by communal kibbutz. These so-called \"immigrants' moshavim\" (, \"moshav olim\") were one of the most-used and successful forms of absorption and integration of Oriental immigrants; it allowed them a much steadier ascent into the middle class than did life in some development towns. For this reason, the moshav became largely a Mizrahi institution, whereas the kibbutz movement remained basically an Ashkenazi institution. Since the Six-Day War in 1967, both moshavim and kibbutzim have relied increasingly on outside—including Palestinian—labour. Financial instabilities in the early 1980s hit many moshavim hard, as did their high birth rate and the problem of absorbing all the children who might wish to remain in the community. By the late 1980s, moshav members increasingly came to be employed in non-agricultural sectors outside the community, so that some moshavim began to resemble suburbs or commuter towns whose residents commute to work. In general, moshavim never enjoyed the \"political elite\" status afforded to kibbutzim during the period of Israeli Labor Party dominance; correspondingly the moshavim did not endure the decline in prestige experienced by kibbutzim in the 1970s and 1980s, during the period of Likud dominance starting in 1977." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Pre-colonial period.", "Spanish period.", "Mexican period.", "American period.", "Geography.", "Communities and neighborhoods.", "Cityscape.", "Climate.", "Ecology.", "Demographics.", "Economy.", "Defense and military.", "Tourism.", "International trade.", "Companies.", "Top employers.", "Real estate.", "Government.", "Local government.", "State and federal representation.", "Election History.", "Major scandals.", "Crime.", "Education.", "Primary and secondary schools.", "Colleges and universities.", "Libraries.", "Culture.", "Sports.", "Professional sports.", "College sports.", "Media.", "Infrastructure.", "Utilities.", "Street lights.", "Transportation.", "Sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The original inhabitants of the region are now known as the San", "The first European to visit the region was explorer Juan Rodríguez Cabrillo, sailing under the flag of Castile but possibly born in Portugal. Sailing his flagship \"San Salvador\" from Navidad, New Spain, Cabrillo claimed the bay for the Spanish Empire in 1542, and named the site \"San Miguel\". In November 1602, Sebastián Vizcaíno was sent to map the California coast. Arriving on his flagship \"San Diego\", Vizcaíno surveyed the harbor and what are now Mission Bay and Point Loma and named the area for the Catholic Saint Didacus, a Spaniard more commonly known as \"San Diego de Alcalá\". On November 12, 1602, the first Christian religious service of record in Alta California was conducted by Friar Antonio de la Ascensión, a member of Vizcaíno's expedition, to celebrate the feast day of San Diego. The permanent colonization of California and of San Diego", "In 1821, Mexico won its independence from Spain, and San Diego became part of the Mexican territory of Alta California. In 1822, Mexico began its attempt to extend its authority over the coastal territory of Alta California. The fort on Presidio Hill was gradually abandoned, while the town of San Diego grew up on the level land below Presidio Hill. The Mission was secularized by the Mexican government in 1834, and most of the Mission lands were granted to former soldiers. The 432 residents of the town petitioned the governor to form a pueblo, and Juan María Osuna", "The state of California was admitted to the United States in 1850. That same year San Diego has designated the seat of the newly established San Diego County and was incorporated as a city. Joshua H. Bean, the last alcalde of San Diego, was elected the first mayor. Two years later the city was bankrupt; the California legislature revoked the city's charter and placed it under control of a board of trustees, where it remained until 1889. A city charter was reestablished in 1889, and today's city charter was adopted in 1931. The original town of San Diego was located at the foot of Presidio Hill, in the area which is now Old Town San Diego State Historic Park. The location was not ideal, being several miles away from navigable water at its port at La Playa. In 1850, William Heath Davis promoted a new development by the bay shore called \"New San Diego\", several miles south of the original settlement; however,", "According to SDSU professor emeritus Monte Marshall, San Diego Bay is \"the surface expression of a north-south-trending, nested graben\". The Rose Canyon and Point Loma fault zones are part of the San Andreas Fault system. About east of the bay are the Laguna Mountains in the Peninsular Ranges, which are part of the backbone of the American continents. The city lies on approximately 200 deep canyons and hills separating its mesas, creating small pockets of natural open space scattered throughout the city and giving it a hilly geography. Traditionally, San Diegans have built their homes and businesses on the mesas, while leaving the urban canyons relatively wild. Thus, the canyons give parts of the city a segmented feel, creating gaps between otherwise proximate neighborhoods and contributing to a low-density, car-centered environment. The San Diego River runs through the middle of San Diego from east to west, creating a river valley that serves to divide the city into northern and southern segments. During the historic period and presumably earlier as well, the river has shifted its flow back and forth between San Diego Bay and Mission Bay, and its fresh water was the focus of the earliest Spanish explorers. Miguel Costansó, a cartographer, wrote in 1769, \"When asked by signs where the watering-place was, the Indians pointed to a grove which could be seen at a considerable distance to the northeast, giving to understand that a river or creek flowed through it, and that they would lead our men to it if they would follow.\" That river was the San Diego River. Several reservoirs and Mission Trails Regional Park also lie between and separate developed areas of the city. Notable peaks within the city limits include Cowles Mountain, the highest point in the city at ; Black Mountain at ; and Mount Soledad at. The Cuyamaca Mountains and Laguna Mountains rise to the east of the city, and beyond the mountains are desert areas. The Cleveland National Forest is a half-hour drive from downtown San Diego. Numerous farms are found in the valleys northeast and southeast of the city. In its 2013 ParkScore ranking, The Trust for Public Land reported that San Diego had the 9th-best park system among the 50 most populous U.S. cities. ParkScore ranks city park systems by a formula that analyzes acreage, access, and service and investment.", "The City of San Diego recognizes 52 individual areas as Community Planning Areas. Within a given planning area there may be several distinct neighborhoods. Altogether the city contains more than 100 identified neighborhoods. Downtown San Diego is located on San Diego Bay. Balboa Park encompasses several mesas and canyons to the northeast, surrounded by older, dense urban communities including Hillcrest and North Park. To the east and southeast lie City Heights, the College Area, and Southeast San Diego. To the north lies Mission Valley and Interstate 8. The communities north of the valley and freeway, and south of Marine Corps Air Station Miramar, include Clairemont, Kearny Mesa, Tierrasanta, and Navajo. Stretching north from Miramar are the northern suburbs of Mira Mesa, Scripps Ranch, Rancho Peñasquitos, and", "San Diego was originally centered on the Old Town district, but by the late 1860s the focus had shifted to the bayfront, in the belief that this new location would increase trade. As the \"New Town\" – present-day Downtown – waterfront location quickly developed, it eclipsed Old Town as the center of San Diego. The development of skyscrapers over in San Diego is attributed to the construction of the El Cortez", "San Diego has one of the top-ten best climates in the United States, according to the \"Farmers' Almanac\" and has one of the two best summer climates in the country as scored by The Weather Channel. Under the Köppen–Geiger climate classification system, the San Diego area has been variously categorized as having either a semi-arid climate (\"BSh\" in the original classification and \"BSkn\" in modified Köppen classification with the n denoting summer fog) or a Mediterranean climate (\"Csa\"). San Diego's climate is", "Like much of southern California, the majority of San Diego's current area was originally occupied on the west by coastal sage scrub and on the east by chaparral, plant communities made up mostly of drought-resistant shrubs. The steep and varied topography and proximity to the ocean create a number of different habitats within the city limits, including tidal marsh and canyons. The chaparral and coastal sage scrub habitats in low elevations along the coast are prone to wildfire, and the rates of fire increased in the 20th century, due primarily to fires starting near the borders of urban and wild areas. San Diego's broad city limits encompass a number of large nature preserves, including Torrey Pines State Reserve, Los Peñasquitos Canyon Preserve, and Mission Trails Regional Park. Torrey Pines State Reserve and a coastal strip continuing to the north constitute one of only two locations where the rare species of Torrey Pine, \"Pinus torreyana\", is found. Due to the steep topography that prevents or discourages building, along with", "The city had a population of 1,307,402 according to the 2010 census, distributed over a land area of. The urban area of San Diego extends beyond the administrative city limits and had a total population of 2,956,746, making it the third-largest urban area in the state, after that of the Los Angeles metropolitan area and San Francisco metropolitan area. They, along with the Riverside–San Bernardino, form those metropolitan areas in California larger than the San Diego metropolitan area, which had a total population of 3,095,313 at the 2010 census. The 2010 population represents an increase of just under 7% from the 1,223,400 people, 450,691 households, and 271,315 families reported in 2000. The estimated city population in 2009 was 1,306,300. The population density was. The racial makeup of San Diego was 58.9% White, 6.7% African American, 0.6% Native American, 15.9% Asian (5.9% Filipino, 2.7% Chinese, 2.5% Vietnamese, 1.3% Indian, 1.0% Korean, 0.7% Japanese, 0.4% Laotian, 0.3% Cambodian, 0.1% Thai). 0.5% Pacific Islander (0.2% Guamanian, 0.1% Samoan, 0.1% Native Hawaiian), 12.3% from other races, and 5.1% from two or more races. The ethnic makeup of the city was 28.8% Hispanic or Latino (of any race); 24.9% of the total population were Mexican American, 1.4% were Spanish American and 0.6% were Puerto Rican. Median age of Hispanics was 27.5 years, compared to 35.1 years overall and 41.6 years among non-Hispanic whites; Hispanics were the largest group in all ages under 18, and non-Hispanic whites constituted 63.1% of population 55 and older. , San Diego has the third-largest homeless population in the United States; the city's homeless population has the largest percentage of homeless veterans in the nation. The population of homeless veterans in San Diego decreased to 1,150", "The largest sectors of San Diego's economy are defense/military, tourism, international trade, and research/manufacturing. In 2014, San Diego was designated by a \"Forbes\" columnist as the best city in the country to launch a small business or startup company. San Diego recorded a median household income of $79,646 in 2018, an increase of 3.89% from $76,662 in 2017. The median property value in San Diego in 2018 was $654,700, and the average home has 2 cars per household.", "The economy of San Diego is influenced by its deepwater port, which includes the only major submarine and shipbuilding yards on the West Coast. Several major national defense contractors were started and are headquartered in San Diego, including General Atomics, Cubic, and NASSCO. San Diego hosts the largest naval fleet in the world: In 2008 it was home to 53 ships,", "Tourism is a major industry owing to the city's climate, beaches, and tourist attractions such as Balboa Park, Belmont amusement park, San Diego Zoo, San Diego Zoo Safari Park, and SeaWorld San Diego. San Diego's Spanish and Mexican heritage is reflected in many historic sites across the city, such as Mission San Diego de Alcalá and Old Town San Diego State Historic Park. Also, the local craft brewing industry attracts an increasing number of visitors for \"beer tours\" and the annual San Diego Beer Week in November; San Diego has", "San Diego's commercial port and its location on the United States–Mexico border make international trade an important factor in the city's economy. The city is authorized by the United States government to operate as a Foreign Trade Zone. The city shares a border with Mexico that includes two border crossings. San Diego hosts the busiest international border crossing in the world, in the San Ysidro neighborhood at the San Ysidro Port of Entry. A second, primarily commercial border crossing operates in the Otay Mesa area; it is the largest commercial crossing on", "San Diego hosts several major producers of wireless cellular technology. Qualcomm was founded and is headquartered in San Diego, and is one of the largest private-sector employers in San Diego. Other wireless industry manufacturers headquartered here include Nokia, LG Electronics, Kyocera International, Cricket Communications and Novatel Wireless. The largest software company in San Diego is security software company Websense Inc. San Diego also has the U.S. headquarters for the Slovakian security company ESET. San Diego has been designated as an iHub Innovation Center for potential collaboration", "According to the City's 2016 Comprehensive", "San Diego has high real estate prices. San Diego home prices peaked in 2005, and then declined along with the national trend. As of December 2010, prices were down 36 percent from the peak, median price of homes having declined by more than $200,000 between 2005 and 2010. As of May 2015, the", "", "The city is governed by a mayor and a nine-member city council. In 2006, its government changed from a council–manager government to a strong mayor government, as decided by a citywide vote in 2004. The mayor is in effect the chief executive officer of the city, while the council is the legislative body. The City of San Diego is responsible for police, public safety, streets, water and sewer service, planning and zoning, and similar services within its borders. San Diego is a sanctuary city, however, San Diego County is a participant of the Secure Communities program., the city had one employee for every 137 residents, with a payroll greater than $733 million. The members of the city council are each elected from single-member districts within the city. The mayor and city attorney are elected directly", "In the California State Senate, San Diego County encompasses the 38th, 39th and 40th districts, represented by,, and, respectively. In the California State Assembly, lying partially within the city of", "After narrowly supporting Lyndon B. Johnson in 1964, San Diego provided majorities to all six Republican presidential candidates from 1968–1988. However, in", "San Diego was the site of the 1912 San Diego free speech fight, in which the city restricted speech, vigilantes brutalized and tortured anarchists, and the San Diego Police Department killed a member of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW). In 1916, rainmaker Charles Hatfield was blamed for $4 million in damages and accused of causing San Diego's worst, during which about 20 Japanese American farmers died. Then-mayor Roger Hedgecock was forced to resign his post in 1985, after he was found guilty of one count of conspiracy and 12 counts of perjury, related to the alleged failure to report all campaign contributions. After a series of appeals, the 12 perjury counts were dismissed in 1990 based on claims of juror misconduct; the remaining conspiracy count was reduced to a misdemeanor and then dismissed. A 2002 scheme to underfund pensions for city employees led to the San Diego pension scandal. This resulted in the resignation of newly re-elected Mayor Dick Murphy and the criminal indictment of six", "San Diego was ranked as the 20th-safest city in America in 2013 by \"Business Insider\". According to \"Forbes\" magazine, San Diego was the ninth-safest city in the top 10 list of safest cities in the U.S. in 2010. Like most major cities, San Diego had a declining crime rate from 1990 to 2000. Crime in San Diego increased in the early 2000s. In 2004, San Diego had the sixth lowest crime rate of any U.S. city with over half a", "", "Public schools in San Diego are operated by independent school districts. The majority of the public schools in the city are served by the San Diego Unified School District, the second-largest school district in California, which includes 11 K–8 schools, 107 elementary schools, 24 middle", "According to education rankings released by the U.S. Census Bureau in 2017, 44.4% percent of San Diegans (city, not county) ages 25 and older hold bachelor's degrees, compared to 30.9% in the United States as a whole. The census ranks the city as the ninth-most educated city in the United States, based on these figures. Public colleges and universities in the city include San Diego State University (SDSU), the University of California, San Diego (UCSD), and the San Diego Community College District, which includes San Diego City College, San Diego Mesa College, and San Diego Miramar College. Private non-profit colleges", "The city-run San Diego Public Library system is headquartered downtown and has 36 branches throughout the city. The newest location is in Skyline Hills, which broke ground in 2015. The libraries have had reduced operating hours since 2003 due to the city's financial problems. In 2006 the city increased spending", "Many popular museums, such as the San Diego Museum of Art, the San Diego Natural History Museum, the San Diego Museum of Man, the Museum of Photographic Arts, and the San Diego Air & Space Museum, are located in Balboa Park, which is also the location of the San Diego Zoo. The Museum of Contemporary Art San Diego (MCASD) is located in La Jolla and has a branch located at the Santa Fe Depot downtown. The downtown branch consists of two buildings on two opposite streets. The Columbia district downtown is home to historic ship exhibits belonging to the San Diego Maritime Museum, headlined by the Star of India, as well as the unrelated San Diego Aircraft Carrier Museum", "", "The San Diego region is home to one major professional team—Major League Baseball's San Diego Padres, who play at Petco Park. From 1961 to the 2016 season, the team hosted a National Football League franchise, the San Diego Chargers. In 2017, they moved to Los Angeles and became the Los Angeles Chargers. In two separate stints, the National Basketball Association had a franchise in San Diego, the San Diego Rockets from 1967 to 1971, and the San Diego Clippers from 1978 to", "San Diego hosts three NCAA Division I universities: San Diego", "Published within the city are the daily newspaper, \"The San Diego Union Tribune\" and its online portal of the same name, and the alternative newsweeklies, the \"San Diego CityBeat\" and \"San Diego Reader\". \"Times of San Diego\" is a free online newspaper covering news in the metropolitan area. \"Voice of San Diego\" is a non-profit online news outlet covering government, politics, education, neighborhoods, and the arts. The \"San Diego Daily Transcript\" is a business-oriented online newspaper. San Diego led U.S. local markets with 69.6 percent broadband penetration in 2004 according to Nielsen//NetRatings. San Diego's first television station was KFMB, which began broadcasting on May 16, 1949. Since the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) licensed seven television stations in Los Angeles, two VHF channels were available for San Diego because of its relative proximity to the larger city. In 1952, however, the FCC began licensing UHF channels, making it possible for cities such as San Diego to acquire more stations. Stations based in Mexico (with ITU prefixes of XE and XH) also serve the San Diego market. Television stations today include XHTJB 3 (Once TV), XETV 6 (Canal 5), KFMB 8 (CBS, with CW/MNTV on DT2), KGTV 10 (ABC), XEWT 12 (Televisa Regional), KPBS 15 (PBS), KBNT-CD 17 (Univision), XHTIT-TDT 21 (Azteca 7), XHJK-TDT 27 (Azteca 13), XHAS 33 (Telemundo), K35DG-D 35 (UCSD-TV), KDTF-LD 51 (Telefutura), KNSD 39 (NBC), KZSD-LP 20 (Azteca America), KSEX-CD 42 (Infomercials), XHBJ-TDT 45 (Gala TV), XHDTV 49 (Milenio Televisión), KUSI 51", "", "Water is supplied to residents by the Water Department of the City of San Diego. The city receives most", "In the mid-20th century the city had mercury vapor street lamps. In 1978, the city decided to replace them with more efficient sodium vapor lamps. This triggered an outcry from astronomers at Palomar Observatory north of the city, concerned that the new lamps would increase light pollution and hinder astronomical observation. The city altered its lighting regulations to limit light pollution within of Palomar.", "With the automobile being the primary means of transportation for over 80 percent of residents, San Diego is served by a network of freeways and highways. This includes Interstate 5, which runs south to Tijuana and north to Los Angeles; Interstate 8, which runs east to Imperial County and the Arizona Sun Corridor; Interstate 15, which runs northeast through the Inland Empire to Las Vegas and Salt Lake City; and Interstate 805, which splits from I-5 near the Mexican border and rejoins I-5 at Sorrento Valley. Major state highways include SR 94, which connects downtown with I-805, I-15 and East County; SR 163, which connects downtown with the northeast part of the city, intersects I-805 and merges with I-15 at Miramar; SR 52, which connects", "San Diego has 17 sister cities, as designated by Sister Cities International:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "ASPI structure.", "History.", "Driver." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The ASPI manager software provides an interface between ASPI modules (device drivers or applications with direct SCSI support), a SCSI host adapter, and SCSI devices connected to the host adapter. The ASPI manager is specific to the host adapter and operating system; its primary role is to abstract the host adapter specifics and provide a generic software interface to SCSI devices. On Windows 9x and Windows NT, the ASPI manager is generic and relies on the services of SCSI miniport drivers. On those systems, the ASPI interface is designed for applications which require SCSI pass-through functionality (such as CD-ROM burning software). The primary operations supported by ASPI are discovery of host adapters and attached devices, and submitting SCSI commands to devices via SRBs (SCSI Request Blocks). ASPI supports concurrent execution of SCSI commands.", "Originally inspired by a driver architecture developed by Douglas W. Goodall for Ampro Computers in 1983, ASPI was developed by Adaptec around 1990. It was initially designed to support DOS, OS/2, Windows 3.x, and Novell NetWare. It was originally written to support SCSI devices; support for ATAPI devices was added later. Most other SCSI host adapter vendors (for example BusLogic, DPT, AMI, Future Domain, DTC) shipped their own ASPI managers with their hardware. Adaptec also developed generic SCSI disk and CD-ROM drivers for DOS (ASPICD.SYS and ASPIDISK.SYS). Microsoft licensed the interface for use with Windows 9x series. At the same time Microsoft developed SCSI Pass Through Interface (SPTI), an in-house substitute that worked on the NT platform. Microsoft did not include ASPI in Windows 2000/XP, in favor of its own SPTI. Users may still download ASPI from Adaptec. A number of CD/DVD applications also continue to offer their own implementations of ASPI layer. To support USB drives under DOS, Panasonic developed a universal ASPI driver (USBASPI.SYS) that bypasses the lack of native USB support by DOS.", "ASPI was provided by the following drivers." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Linguistic theory and description.", "Studies of grammar.", "Fundamental categories.", "Grammar as systemic.", "Grammar as functional.", "Language in society.", "Studies in child language development." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Halliday was born and raised in England. His parents nurtured his fascination for language: his mother, Winifred, had studied French, and his father, Wilfred, was a dialectologist, a dialect poet, and an English teacher with a love for grammar and Elizabethan drama. In 1942, Halliday volunteered for the national services' foreign language training course. He was selected to study Chinese on the strength of his success in being able to differentiate tones. After 18 months' training, he spent a year in India working with the Chinese Intelligence Unit doing counter-intelligence work. In 1945 he was brought back to London to teach Chinese. He took a BA honours degree in modern Chinese language and literature (Mandarin) through the University of London—an external degree for which he studied in China. He then lived for three years in China, where he studied under Luo Changpei at Peking University and under Wang Li at Lingnan University, before returning to take a PhD in Chinese linguistics at Cambridge under the supervision of Gustav Hallam and then J.R. Firth. Having taught languages for 13 years, he changed his field of specialisation to linguistics, and developed systemic functional linguistics, including systemic functional grammar, elaborating on the foundations laid by his British teacher J.R. Firth and a group of European linguists of the early 20th century, the Prague school. His seminal paper on this model was published in 1961. Halliday's first academic position was as assistant lecturer in Chinese, at Cambridge University, from 1954 to 1958. In 1958 he moved to Edinburgh, where he was lecturer in general linguistics until 1960, and reader from 1960 to 1963. From 1963 to 1965 he was the director of the Communication Research Centre at University College, London. During 1964, he was also Linguistic Society of America Professor, at Indiana University. From 1965 to 1971 he was professor of linguistics at UCL. In 1972–73 he was a fellow at the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioural Sciences, Stanford, and in 1973–74 professor of linguistics at the University of Illinois. In 1974 he briefly moved back to Britain to be professor of language and linguistics at Essex University. In 1976 he moved to Australia as foundation professor of linguistics at the University of Sydney, where he remained until he retired in 1987. While at the University of Sydney Halliday founded the Sydney School, a genre-based literacy pedagogy, in 1979 at the Working Conference on Language in Education. Halliday worked in multiple areas of linguistics, both theoretical and applied, and was especially concerned with applying the understanding of the basic principles of language to the theory and practices of education. In 1987 he was awarded the status of Emeritus Professor of the University of Sydney and Macquarie University, Sydney. He has honorary doctorates from University of Birmingham (1987), York University (1988), the University of Athens (1995), Macquarie University (1996), Lingnan University (1999) and Beijing Normal University(2011). He died in Sydney of natural causes on 15 April 2018 at the age of 93.", "Halliday's grammatical theory and descriptions gained wide recognition after publication of the first edition of his book \"An Introduction to Functional Grammar\" in 1985. A second edition was published in 1994, and then a third, in which he collaborated with Christian Matthiessen, in 2004. A fourth edition was published in 2014. Halliday's conception of grammar – or \"lexicogrammar\", a term he coined to argue that lexis and grammar are part of the same phenomenon – is based on a more general theory of language as a social semiotic resource, or \"meaning potential\" (see Systemic functional linguistics). Halliday follows Hjelmslev and Firth in distinguishing theoretical from descriptive categories in linguistics. He argues that \"theoretical categories, and their inter-relations, construe an abstract model of language... they are interlocking and mutally defining. The theoretical architecture derives from work on the description of natural discourse, and as such 'no very clear line is drawn between '(theoretical) linguistics' and 'applied linguistics'\". So the theory \"is continually evolving as it is brought to bear on solving problems of a research or practical nature\". Halliday contrasts theoretical categories with descriptive categories, defined as \"categories set up in the description of particular languages\". His descriptive work has focused on English and Mandarin. Halliday argues against some claims about language associated with the generative tradition. Language, he argues, \"cannot be equated with 'the set of all grammatical sentences', whether that set is conceived of as finite or infinite\". He rejects the use of formal logic in linguistic theories as \"irrelevant to the understanding of language\" and the use of such approaches as \"disastrous for linguistics\". On Chomsky specifically, he writes that \"imaginary problems were created by the whole series of dichotomies that Chomsky introduced, or took over unproblematized: not only syntax/semantics but also grammar/lexis, language/thought, competence/performance. Once these dichotomies had been set up, the problem arose of locating and maintaining the boundaries between them.\"", "", "Halliday's first major work on grammar was \"Categories of the theory of grammar\", in the journal \"Word\" in 1961. In this paper, he argued for four \"fundamental categories\" in grammar: \"unit\", \"structure\", \"class\", and \"system\". These categories are \"of the highest order of abstraction\", but he defended them as necessary to \"make possible a coherent account of what grammar is and of its place in language\" In articulating unit, Halliday proposed the notion of a \"rank scale\". The units of grammar form a hierarchy, a scale from largest to smallest, which he proposed as: \"sentence\", \"clause\", \"group/phrase\", \"word\" and \"morpheme\". Halliday defined structure as \"likeness between events in successivity\" and as \"an arrangement of elements ordered in places\". He rejects a view of structure as \"strings of classes, such as nominal group + verbalgroup + nominal group\", describing structure instead as \"configurations of functions, where the solidarity is organic\".", "Halliday's early paper shows that the notion of \"system\" has been part of his theory from its origins. Halliday explains this preoccupation in the following way: \"It seemed to me that explanations of linguistic phenomena needed to be sought in relationships among systems rather than among structures – in what I once called \"deep paradigms\" – since these were essentially where speakers made their choices\". Halliday's \"systemic grammar\" is a semiotic account of grammar, because of this orientation to choice. Every linguistic act involves choice, and choices are made on many scales. Systemic grammars draw on system networks as their primary representation tool as a consequence. For instance, a major clause must display some structure that is the formal realization of a choice from the system of \"voice\", i.e. it must be either \"middle\" or \"effective\", where \"effective\" leads to the further choice of \"operative\" (otherwise known as 'active') or \"receptive\" (otherwise known as \"passive\").", "Halliday's grammar is not just \"systemic\", but \"systemic functional\". He argues that the explanation of how language works \"needed to be grounded in a functional analysis, since language had evolved in the process of carrying out certain critical functions as human beings interacted with their... 'eco-social' environment\". Halliday's early grammatical descriptions of English, called \"Notes on Transitivity and Theme in English – Parts 1–3\" include reference to \"four components in the grammar of English representing four functions that the language as a communication system is required to carry out: the experiential, the logical, the discoursal and the speech functional or interpersonal\". The \"discoursal\" function was renamed the \"textual function\". In this discussion of functions of language, Halliday draws on the work of Bühler and Malinowski. Halliday's notion of language functions, or \"metafunctions\", became part of his general linguistic theory.", "The final volume of Halliday's 10 volumes of Collected Papers is called \"Language in society\", reflecting his theoretical and methodological connection to language as first and foremost concerned with \"acts of meaning\". This volume contains many of his early papers, in which he argues for a deep connection between language and social structure. Halliday argues that language does not exist merely to reflect social structure. For instance, he writes:", "In enumerating his claims about the trajectory of children's language development, Halliday eschews the metaphor of \"acquisition\", in which language is considered a static product which the child takes on when sufficient exposure to natural language enables \"parameter setting\". By contrast, for Halliday what the child develops is a \"meaning potential\". Learning language is \"Learning how to mean\", the name of his well-known early study of a child's language development. Halliday (1975) identifies seven functions that language has for children in their early years. For Halliday, children are motivated to develop language because it serves certain purposes or functions for them. The first four functions help the child to satisfy physical, emotional and social needs. Halliday calls them instrumental, regulatory, interactional, and personal functions. The next three functions are heuristic, imaginative, and representational, all helping the child to come to terms with his or her environment. According to Halliday, as the child moves into the mother tongue, these functions give way to the generalized \"metafunctions\" of language. In this process, in between the two levels of the simple protolanguage system (the \"expression\" and \"content\" pairing of the Saussure's sign), an additional level of content is inserted. Instead of one level of content, there are now two: lexicogrammar and semantics. The \"expression\" plane also now consists of two levels: phonetics and phonology. Halliday's work is sometimes seen as representing a competing viewpoint to the formalist approach of Noam Chomsky. Halliday's stated concern is with \"naturally occurring language in actual contexts of use\" in a large typological range of languages. Critics of Chomsky often characterise his work, by contrast, as focused on English with Platonic idealization, a characterization which Chomskyans reject (see Universal Grammar)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Structure.", "Scale degrees.", "Triad qualities.", "Relationship to major keys.", "Broader sense." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A major scale is a diatonic scale. The sequence of intervals between the notes of a major scale is: where \"whole\" stands for a whole tone (a red u-shaped curve in the figure), and \"half\" stands for a semitone (a red broken line in the figure). A major scale may be seen as two identical tetrachords separated by a whole tone. Each tetrachord consists of two whole tones followed by a semitone (i.e. whole, whole, half). The major scale is maximally even.", "\\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \\relative c' { </score> The scale degrees are:", "\\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f </score> The triads built on each scale degree follow a distinct pattern. The roman numeral analysis is shown in parentheses.", "If a piece of music (or part of a piece of music) is in a major key, then the notes \"in\" the corresponding major scale are considered \"diatonic\" notes, while the notes \"outside\" the major scale are considered \"chromatic\" notes. Moreover, the key signature of the piece of music (or section) will generally reflect the accidentals in the corresponding major scale. For instance, if a piece of music is in E major, then the seven pitches in the E major scale (E, F, G, A, B, C and D) are considered diatonic pitches, and the other five pitches (E, F/G, A, B, and C/D) are considered chromatic pitches. In this case, the key signature will have three flats (B, E, and A). The figure below shows all 12 relative major and minor keys, with major keys on the outside and minor keys on the inside arranged around the circle of fifths. The numbers inside the circle show the number of sharps or flats in the key signature, with the sharp keys going clockwise, and the flat keys counterclockwise from C major (which has no sharps or flats.) The circular arrangement depends on enharmonic relationships in the circle, usually reckoned at six sharps or flats for the major keys of F = G and D = E for minor keys. Seven sharps or flats make major keys (C major or C major) that may be more conveniently spelled with five flats or sharps (as D major or B major).", "The term \"major scale\" is also used in the names of some other scales whose first, third, and fifth degrees form a major triad. The harmonic major scale has a minor sixth. It differs from the harmonic minor scale only by raising the third degree. \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \\relative c' { </score> There are two scales that go by the name melodic major scale: The first is the fifth mode of the jazz minor scale, which can be thought of as the major scale (Ionian mode) with a lowered sixth and seventh degree or the natural minor scale (Aeolian mode) with a raised third. \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \\relative c' { </score> The second is the combined scale that goes as Ionian ascending and as the previous melodic major descending. It differs from melodic minor scale only by raising the third degree to a major third. \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \\relative c' { </score> The double harmonic major scale has a minor second and a minor sixth. It is the fifth mode of the Hungarian minor scale. \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \\relative c' { </score" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Natural minor scale.", "Relationship to relative major.", "Relationship to parallel major.", "Intervals.", "Harmonic minor scale.", "Construction.", "Harmony.", "Uses.", "Melodic minor scale.", "Construction.", "Uses.", "Key signature.", "Related modes." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "A natural minor scale (or Aeolian mode) is a diatonic scale that is built by starting on the sixth degree of its relative major scale. For instance, the A natural minor scale can be built by starting on the 6th degree of the C major scale: \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \\relative c' { \\override NoteHead.color = #red a \\override NoteHead.color = #black b c2 \\bar \"||\" </score> Because of this, the key of A minor is called the \"relative minor\" of C major. Every major key has a relative minor, which starts on the 6th scale degree or step. For instance, since the 6th degree of F major is D, the relative minor of F major is D minor.", "A natural minor scale can also be constructed by altering a major scale with accidentals. In this way, a natural minor scale is represented by the following notation: Each degree of the scale, starting with the tonic (the first, lowest note of the scale), is represented by a number. Their difference from the major scale is shown. Thus, a number without a flat represents a major (or perfect) interval. A number with a flat represents a minor interval. In this example, the numbers mean: Thus, for instance, the A natural minor scale can be built by lowering the third, sixth, and seventh degrees of the A major scale by one semitone: \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \\relative c' { </score> Because of this, the key of A minor is called the \"parallel minor\" of A major.", "The intervals between the notes of a natural minor scale follow the sequence below: where \"whole\" stands for a whole tone (a red u-shaped curve in the figure), and \"half\" stands for a semitone (a red broken line in the figure). The natural minor scale is maximally even.", "", "The harmonic minor scale (or Aeolian 7 scale) has the same notes as the natural minor scale except that the seventh degree is raised by one semitone, creating an augmented second between the sixth and seventh degrees. \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \\relative c' { </score> Thus, a harmonic minor scale is represented by the following notation: Thus, a harmonic minor scale can be built by lowering the 3rd and 6th degrees of the parallel major scale by one semitone. Because of this construction, the 7th degree of the harmonic minor scale functions as a leading tone to the tonic because it is a \"semitone\" lower than the tonic, rather than a \"whole tone\" lower than the tonic as it is in natural minor scales. The intervals between the notes of a harmonic minor scale follow the sequence below:", "The scale is called the \"harmonic\" minor scale because it is a common foundation for harmonies (chords) in minor keys. For example, in the key of A minor, the dominant (V) chord (the triad built on the 5th scale degree, E) is a minor triad in the natural minor scale. But when the seventh degree is raised from G to G, the triad becomes a major triad. Chords on degrees other than V may also include the raised 7th degree, such as the diminished triad on VII itself (vii), which has a dominant function, as well as an augmented triad on III (III), which is not found in any \"natural\" harmony (that is, harmony that is derived from harmonizing the seven western modes, which include \"major\" and \"minor\"). This augmented fifth chord (5 chord) played a part in the development of modern chromaticism. The triads built on each scale degree follow a distinct pattern. The roman numeral analysis is shown below. \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f </score> An interesting property of the harmonic minor scale is that it contains two chords that are each generated by just one interval: Because they are generated by just one interval, the inversions of augmented triads and diminished seventh chords introduce no new intervals (allowing for enharmonic equivalents) that are absent from its root position. That is, any inversion of an augmented triad (or diminished seventh chord) is enharmonically equivalent to a new augmented triad (or diminished seventh chord) in root position. For example, the triad E–G–B in first inversion is G–B–E, which is enharmonically equivalent to the augmented triad G–B–D. One chord, with various spellings, may therefore have various harmonic functions in various keys.", "While it evolved primarily as a basis for chords, the harmonic minor with its augmented second is sometimes used melodically. Instances can be found in Mozart, Beethoven (for example, the finale of his String Quartet No. 14), and Schubert (for example, in the first movement of the \"Death and the Maiden Quartet\"). In this role, it is used while descending far more often than while ascending. The harmonic minor is also occasionally referred to as the \"Mohammedan scale\" as its upper tetrachord corresponds to the Hijaz jins, commonly found in Middle Eastern music. The harmonic minor scale as a whole is called \"Nahawand\" in Arabic nomenclature, as \"Bûselik Hicaz\" in Turkish nomenclature, and as an Indian raga, it is called \"Kirwani\". The Hungarian minor scale is similar to the harmonic minor scale but with a raised 4th degree. This scale is sometimes also referred to as \"Gypsy Run\", or alternatively \"Egyptian Minor Scale\", as mentioned by Miles Davis who describes it in his autobiography as \"something that I'd learned at Juilliard\". In popular music, examples of songs in harmonic minor include Katy B's \"Easy Please Me\", Bobby Brown's \"My Prerogative\", and Jazmine Sullivan's \"Bust Your Windows\". The scale also had a notable influence on heavy metal, spawning a sub-genre known as neoclassical metal, with guitarists such as Yngwie Malmsteen, Ritchie Blackmore, and Randy Rhoads employing it in their music.", "", "The distinctive sound of the harmonic minor scale comes from the augmented second between its sixth and seventh scale degrees. While some composers have used this interval to advantage in melodic composition, others felt it to be an awkward leap, particularly in vocal music, and preferred a whole step between these scale degrees for smooth melody writing. To eliminate the augmented second, these composers either raised the sixth degree by a semitone or lowered the seventh by a semitone. The melodic minor scale is formed by using \"both\" of these solutions. In particular, the raised sixth appears in the ascending form of the scale, while the lowered seventh appears in the descending form of the scale. Traditionally, these two forms are referred to as: The ascending and descending forms of the A melodic minor scale are shown below: \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f\\relative c' { </score> The ascending melodic minor scale can be notated as while the descending melodic minor scale is Using these notations, the two melodic minor scales can be built by altering the parallel major scale.", "Composers have not been consistent in using the two forms of the melodic minor scale. Just as often, composers choose one form or the other based on whether one of the two notes is part of the most recent chord (the prevailing harmony). Composers frequently require the lowered 7th degree found in the natural minor in order to avoid the augmented triad (III) that arises in the ascending form of the scale. In jazz, only the ascending form of the scale is termed as \"melodic minor\". Examples of the use of melodic minor in rock and popular music include Elton John's \"Sorry Seems To Be The Hardest Word\", which makes, \"a nod to the common practice... by the use of F [the leading tone in G minor] as the penultimate note of the final cadence.\"", "In modern notation, the key signature for music in a minor key is typically based on the accidentals of the \"natural\" minor scale, not on those of the harmonic or melodic minor scales. For example, a piece in E minor will have one sharp in its key signature because the E natural minor scale has one sharp (F). Major and minor keys that share the same key signature are \"relative\" to each other. For instance, F major is the relative major of D minor since both have key signatures with one flat. Since the natural minor scale is built on the 6th degree of the major scale, the tonic of the relative minor is a major sixth above the tonic of the major scale. For instance, B minor is the relative minor of D major because the note B is a major sixth above D. As a result, the key signatures of B minor and D major both have two sharps (F and C).", "Sometimes scales whose root, third, and fifth degrees form a minor triad are considered \"minor scales\". In the Western system, derived from the Greek modes, the principal scale that includes the minor third is the Aeolian mode (the natural minor scale), with the minor third also occurring in the Dorian mode and the Phrygian mode. The Dorian mode is a minor mode with a major sixth, while the Phrygian mode is a minor mode with a minor second. The Locrian mode (which is \"very\" rarely used) has a minor third but not the perfect fifth, so its root chord is a diminished triad. Although various hemitonic pentatonic scales might be called \"minor\", the term is most commonly applied to the relative minor pentatonic scale, derived as a mode of the major pentatonic scale, using scale tones 1, 3, 4, 5, and 7 of the natural minor scale." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Nomenclature.", "History.", "Sources.", "Toads.", "\"Anadenanthera\" seeds.", "Other sources.", "Pharmacology.", "Uptake and elimination.", "Lethal dose.", "Effects in humans.", "Fabing & Hawkins (1955).", "Isbell (1956).", "Turner & Merlis (1959).", "McLeod and Sitaram (1985).", "Ott (2001).", "Association with schizophrenia and other mental disorders.", "Legal status.", "Australia.", "United Kingdom.", "United States.", "Sweden." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Bufotenin (bufotenine) is also known by the chemical names 5-hydroxy-\"N\",\"N\"-dimethyltryptamine (5-HO-DMT), \"N\",\"N\"-dimethyl-5-hydroxytryptamine, dimethyl serotonin, and mappine.", "Bufotenin was first isolated from toad skin, and named by the Austrian chemist Handovsky at the University of Prague during World War I. The structure of bufotenine was first confirmed in 1934 by Heinrich Wieland’s laboratory in Munich, and the first reported synthesis of bufotenine was by Toshio Hoshino and Kenya Shimodaira in 1935.", "", "Bufotenin is a chemical constituent in the poison and eggs of several species of toads belonging to the genus \"Bufo\", but most notably in the Colorado River toad (formerly \"Bufo alvarius\", now \"Incilius alvarius\") which is the only toad species in which bufotenin is present in large enough quantities for a psychoactive effect. Extracts of toad venom, containing bufotenin and other bioactive compounds, have been used in some traditional medicines such as \"ch’an su\" (probably derived from \"Bufo gargarizans\"), which has been used medicinally for centuries in China. The toad was \"recurrently depicted in Mesoamerican art\", which some authors have interpreted as indicating that the effects of ingesting \"Bufo\" secretions have been known in Mesoamerica for many years; however, others doubt that this art provides sufficient \"ethnohistorical evidence\" to support the claim. In addition to bufotenin, \"Bufo\" venoms also contain digoxin-like cardiac glycosides, and ingestion of the venom can be fatal. Ingestion of \"Bufo\" toad venom and eggs by humans has resulted in several reported cases of poisoning, some of which resulted in death. Contemporary reports indicate that bufotenin-containing toad venom has been used as a street drug; that is, as a supposed aphrodisiac (it is \"not\" an aphrodisiac but definitely \"is\" a lethal poison), ingested orally in the form of \"ch’an su\", and as a psychedelic, by smoking or orally ingesting \"Bufo\" toad venom or dried \"Bufo\" skins. The use of \"chan'su\" and \"love stone\" (a related toad venom preparation used as an aphrodisiac in the West Indies) has resulted in several cases of poisoning and at least one death. The practice of orally ingesting toad venom has been referred to in popular culture and in the scientific literature as toad licking and has drawn media attention. Albert Most, founder of the Church of the Toad of Light and a proponent of spiritual use of \"Bufo alvarius\" venom, published a booklet titled \"Bufo alvarius: The Psychedelic Toad of the Sonoran Desert\" in 1983 which explained how to extract and smoke the secretions. Bufotenin is also present in the skin secretion of three arboreal hylid frogs of the genus \"Osteocephalus\" (\"Osteocephalus taurinus\", \"Osteocephalus oophagus\", and \"Osteocephalus langsdorfii\") from the Amazon and Atlantic rain forests.", "Bufotenin is a constituent of the seeds of \"Anadenanthera colubrina\" and \"Anadenanthera peregrina\" trees. Anadenanthera seeds have been used as an ingredient in psychedelic snuff preparations by indigenous cultures of the Caribbean, Central and South America since pre-Columbian times.", "Bufotenin has been identified as a component in the latex of the takini (\"Brosimum acutifolium\") tree, which is used as a psychedelic by South American shamans, and in the seeds of \"Mucuna pruriens\"", "", "In rats, subcutaneously administered bufotenin (1–100 μg/kg) distributes mainly to the lungs, heart, and blood, and to a much lesser extent, the brain (hypothalamus, brain stem, striatum, and cerebral cortex), and liver. It reaches peak concentrations at one hour and is nearly completely eliminated within 8 hours. In humans, intravenous administration of bufotenin results in excretion of (70%) of injected drug in the form of 5-HIAA, an endogenous metabolite of serotonin, while roughly 4% is eliminated unmetabolized in the urine. Orally administered bufotenin undergoes extensive first-pass metabolism by the enzyme monoamine oxidase.", "The acute toxicity () of bufotenin in rodents has been estimated at 200 to 300 mg/kg. Death occurs by respiratory arrest. In April 2017, a South Korean man died of bufotenin poisoning after consuming toads that had been mistaken for edible Asian bullfrogs, while in Dec. 2019, five Taiwanese men became ill and one man died after eating Central Formosa toads that they mistook for frogs.", "", "In 1955, Fabing and Hawkins administered bufotenin intravenously at doses of up to 16 mg to prison inmates at Ohio State Penitentiary. A troubling toxic blood circulation effect causing a purpling of the face was seen in these tests. A subject given 1 mg reported “a tight feeling in the chest” and prickling “as if he had been jabbed by needles.” This was accompanied by a “fleeting sensation of pain in both thighs and a mild nausea.” Another subject given 2 mg reported “tightness in his throat”. He had tightness in the stomach, tingling in pretibial areas, and developed a purplish hue in the face indicating blood circulation problems. He vomited after 3 minutes. Another subject given 4 mg complained of “chest oppression” and that “a load is pressing down from above and my body feels heavy.” The subject also reported “numbness of the entire body” and “a pleasant Martini feeling-my body is taking charge of my mind”. The subject reported he saw red spots passing before his eyes and red-purple spots on the floor, and the floor seemed very close to his face. Within 2 minutes these visual effects were gone, and replaced by a yellow haze, as if he were looking through a lens filter. Fabing and Hawkins commented that bufotenin's psychedelic effects were \"reminiscent of LSD and mescaline but develop and disappear more quickly, indicating rapid central action and rapid degradation of the drug\".", "In 1956, Harris Isbell at the Public Health Service Hospital in Lexington, Kentucky experimented with bufotenin as a snuff. He reported “no subjective or objective effects were observed after spraying with as much as 40 mg bufotenine”; however subjects who received 10–12 mg injected intramuscularly reported “elements of visual hallucinations consisting of a play of colors, lights, and patterns”.", "Turner and Merlis (1959) experimented with intravenous administration of bufotenin (as the water-soluble creatinine sulfate salt) to schizophrenics at a New York state hospital. They reported that when one subject received 10 mg during a 50-second interval, “the peripheral nervous system effects were extreme: at 17 seconds, flushing of the face, at 22 seconds, maximal inhalation, followed by maximal hyperventilation for about 2 minutes, during which the patient was unresponsive to stimuli; her face was plum-colored\". Finally, Turner and Merlis reported that: After pushing doses to the morally admissible limit without producing visuals, Turner and Merlis conservatively concluded: “We must reject bufotenine...as capable of producing the acute phase of Cohoba intoxication”.", "A 1985 study by McLeod and Sitaram in humans reported that bufotenin administered intranasally at a dose of 1–16 mg had no effect, other than intense local irritation. When given intravenously at low doses (2–4 mg), bufotenin oxalate caused anxiety but no other effects; however, a dose of 8 mg resulted in profound emotional and perceptual changes, involving extreme anxiety, a sense of imminent death, and visual disturbance associated with color reversal and distortion, and intense flushing of the cheeks and forehead.", "In 2001, ethnobotanist Jonathan Ott published the results of a study in which he self-administered free base bufotenin via insufflation (5–100 mg), sublingually (50 mg), intrarectally (30 mg), orally (100 mg) and via vaporization (2–8 mg). Ott reported “visionary effects\" of intranasal bufotenin and that the \"visionary threshold dose\" by this route was 40 mg, with smaller doses eliciting perceptibly psychoactive effects. He reported that \"intranasal bufotenine is throughout quite physically relaxing; in no case was there facial rubescence, nor any discomfort nor disesteeming side effects\". At 100 mg, effects began within 5 minutes, peaked at 35–40 minutes, and lasted up to 90 minutes. Higher doses produced effects that were described as psychedelic, such as \"swirling, colored patterns typical of tryptamines, tending toward the arabesque\". Free base bufotenin taken sublingually was found to be identical to intranasal use. The potency, duration, and psychedelic action was the same. Ott found vaporized free base bufotenin active from 2–8 mg with 8 mg producing \"ring-like, swirling, colored patterns with eyes closed\". He noted that the visual effects of insufflated bufotenin were verified by one colleague, and those of vaporized bufotenin by several volunteers. Ott concluded that free base bufotenin taken intranasally and sublingually produced effects similar to those of Yopo without the toxic peripheral symptoms, such as facial flushing, observed in other studies in which the drug was administered intravenously.", "A study conducted in the late 1960s reported the detection of bufotenin in the urine of schizophrenic subjects; however, subsequent research has failed to confirm these findings. Studies have detected endogenous bufotenin in urine specimens from individuals with other psychiatric disorders, such as infant autistic patients. Another study indicated that paranoid violent offenders or those who committed violent behaviour towards family members have higher bufotenin levels in their urine than other violent offenders. A 2010 study utilized a mass spectrometry approach to detect levels of bufotenin in the urine of individuals with severe autism spectrum disorder (ASD), schizophrenia, and asymptomatic subjects. Their results indicate significantly higher levels of bufotenin in the urine of the ASD and schizophrenic groups when compared to asymptomatic individuals.", "", "Bufotenin is classified as a Schedule I controlled substance according to the Criminal Code Regulations of the Government of the Commonwealth of Australia. It is also listed as a Schedule 9 substance under the Poisons Standard (October 2015). A schedule 9 drug is outlined in the Poisons Act 1964 as \"Substances which may be abused or misused, the manufacture, possession, sale or use of which should be prohibited by law except when required for medical or scientific research, or for analytical, teaching or training purposes with approval of the CEO.\" Under the Misuse of Drugs Act 1981 is determined to be enough for court of trial and is considered intent to sell and supply.", "In the United Kingdom, bufotenin is a Class A drug under the 1971 Misuse of Drugs Act.", "Bufotenin (DEA Drug Code 7403) is regulated as a Schedule I drug by the Drug Enforcement Administration at the federal level in the United States and is therefore illegal to buy, possess, and sell.", "Sweden's public health agency suggested classifying Bufotenin as a hazardous substance, on May 15, 2019." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Examples.", "Major seventh chords for guitar." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In 1888, the French composer Erik Satie composed three slow waltzes, entitled \"Gymnopédies\". The first and best-known of these alternates two major seventh chords. The first eight measures (shown below) alternate between Gmaj and Dmaj. </score> Later examples of tonic major seventh chords include Jerome Kern's \"All the Things You Are\", Joseph Kosma's \"Autumn Leaves\", Antônio Carlos Jobim's \"The Girl from Ipanema\", The Beatles' \"This Boy\", Bread's \"Make It With You\", America's \"Tin Man\", Ambrosia's How Much I Feel, Blood Sweat & Tears' \"You've Made Me So Very Happy\", The Spinners' \"Could It Be I'm Falling in Love\", Al Wilson's \"Show and Tell\", third and main part of Paul McCartney and Wings' \"Band On The Run\", Carly Simon's \"The Right Thing To Do\", \"Raydio's \"You Can't Change That\", Rupert Holmes' \"Him\" and Chicago's \"Colour My World\". Common in jazz since the Jazz Age of the 1920s, major seventh chords appeared frequently in compositions of genres influenced by jazz in the subsequent decades, such as traditional pop, bossa nova, and easy listening. Moving into the 1970s to replace the prominence of the dominant seventh chord as a stable tonic more common in the first fifteen years of the rock era, the major seventh was common in all styles, \"pervading soul, country rock, soft rock, MOR (middle-of-the-road styles), jazz rock, funk, and disco.\" Music theorist Ken Stephenson continues: Pieces which feature prominent major seventh chords include: Chick Corea's \"Litha\", Vince Guaraldi Trio's Christmas Time Is Here, Joe Henderson's \"Inner Urge\", John Lennon's \"Imagine\", Freddie Hubbard's \"Little Sunflower\", Carole King's \"It's Too Late\", Michel Legrand's \"Watch What Happens\", Antonio Jobim's \"Dindi\", Red Hot Chili Peppers' \"Under The Bridge\", Tadd Dameron's \"Lady Bird\", Tyler the Creator's \"Earfquake\", Smashing Pumpkin's \"1979\", Sugar Ray's \"Someday\", \"This Guy's in Love with You\" by Burt Bacharach and Hal David, Hamilton, Joe Frank & Reynolds's Fallin' In Love, Nicolette Larson's Lotta Love, England Dan & John Ford Coley's \"We'll Never Have to Say Goodbye Again\", The Spinners' \"I'll Be Around\", and Tower of Power's \"So Very Hard to Go\".", "In standard tuning, the left is the low E string. To the right of the | is another way of playing the same chord. x means mute the string. (The Amaj demonstrates the movable chord shapes.)" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Wartime career.", "Death.", "Legacy.", "Orders and medals.", "Fokker Eindecker.", "The Immelmann turn." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Max Immelmann was born on 21 September 1890, in Dresden, to an industrialist father who died when Max was young. In 1905, he was enrolled in the Dresden Cadet School. He joined the \"Eisenbahnregiment (Railway Regiment) Nr. 2\" in 1911 as an Ensign, in pursuit of a commission. He left the army in March 1912 to study mechanical engineering in Dresden. He returned to service on the outbreak of war, as a reserve officer candidate. He was assigned to \"Eisenbahnregiment Nr. 1\", but soon transferred to aviation.", "When World War I started, Immelmann was called to active service, transferred to \"Die Fliegertruppe\" (later known as the \"Luftstreitkräfte\") and was sent for pilot training at Johannisthal Air Field in November 1914. He was initially stationed in northern France. Immelmann served as a pilot with \"Feldflieger Abteilung\" (Field Flier Detachment) 10 from February to April 1915, and then in \"FFA 62\" by early May 1915. On several occasions he engaged in combat while flying the L.V.G. two-seaters with which his units were equipped, but never with any success. On 3 June 1915, he was shot down by a French pilot, but managed to land safely behind German lines. Immelmann was decorated with the Iron Cross, Second Class, for preserving his aircraft. Two very early examples of the Fokker Eindecker fighters were delivered to the unit, one Fokker M.5K/MG production prototype numbered \"E.3/15\" for Oswald Boelcke's use, with Immelmann later in July receiving \"E.13/15\" as a production Fokker E.I for his own use before the end of July. It was with the \"E.13/15\" aircraft, armed with the synchronized MG 08 machine gun, that he gained his first \"confirmed\" air victory of the war on 1 August 1915, a fortnight after \"Leutnant\" Kurt Wintgens obtained the very first confirmed German aerial victory on 15 July 1915 with his own Fokker M.5K/MG production prototype \"E.5/15\" Eindecker, one of five built, following two unconfirmed ones on 1 and 4 July, all before Immelmann: Lieutenant William Reid fought back valiantly, flying with his left hand and firing a pistol with his right. Nonetheless, the 450 bullets fired at him took their effect; Reid suffered four wounds in his left arm, and his airplane's engine quit, causing a crash landing. The unarmed Immelmann landed nearby, and approached Reid; they shook hands and Immelmann said to the British pilot \"You are my prisoner\" and pulled Reid out of the wreckage and rendered first aid. Immelmann became one of the first German fighter pilots, quickly building an impressive score of air victories. During September, three more victories followed, and then in October he became solely responsible for the air defense of the city of Lille. Immelmann became known as \"The Eagle of Lille\" (\"Der Adler von Lille\"). Immelmann flirted with the position of Germany's leading ace, trading that spot off with Oswald Boelcke, another pioneer ace. Having come second to Boelcke for his sixth victory, he was second to be awarded the Royal House Order of Hohenzollern for this feat. On 15 December, Immelmann shot down his seventh British plane and moved into an unchallenged lead in the competition to be Germany's leading ace. Immelmann was the first pilot to be awarded the \"Pour le Mérite\", Germany's highest military honour, receiving it on the day of his eighth win, 12 January 1916. The medal became unofficially known as the \"Blue Max\" in the German Air Service in honor of Immelmann. His medal was presented by Kaiser Wilhelm II on 12 January 1916. Oswald Boelcke received his medal at the same time. Boelcke scored again two days later. Immelmann would chase him in the ace race for the next four months, drawing even on 13 March at 11 each, losing the lead on the 19th, regaining it on Easter Sunday (23 April) 14 to 13, losing it again forever on 1 May. It was about this time, on 25 April, that Immelmann received a salutary lesson in the improvement of British aircraft. As the German ace described his attack on two Airco DH.2s, \"The two worked splendidly together... and put 11 shots into my machine. The petrol tank, the struts on the fuselage, the undercarriage and the propeller were hit... It was not a nice business.\" On 31 May, Immelmann, Max von Mulzer, and another German pilot attacked a formation of seven British aircraft. Immelmann was flying a two-gun Fokker E.IV, and when he opened fire, the synchronizing gear malfunctioned. A stream of bullets cut off the tip of a propeller blade. The thrashing of the unbalanced air screw nearly shook the aircraft's Oberursel engine loose from its mounts before he could cut the ignition and glide to a dead-stick landing.", "In the late afternoon of 18 June 1916, Immelmann led a flight of four Fokker E.III Eindeckers in search of a flight of eight F.E.2b reconnaissance aircraft of 25 Squadron Royal Flying Corps over Sallaumines in northern France. The British flight had just crossed the lines near Arras, with the intent of photographing the German infantry and artillery positions within the area, when Immelmann's flight intercepted them. After a long-running fight, scattering the participants over an area of some 30 square miles, Immelmann brought down one of the enemy aircraft, wounding both the pilot and observer. This was his 16th victory claim, though it was to go unconfirmed. At 21:45 that same evening, Immelmann in Fokker E.III, serial 246/16 encountered No. 25 Squadron again, this time near the village of Lens. Immediately, he got off a burst which hit RFC Lt. J.R.B. Savage, pilot of FE.2b pusher serial 4909, mortally wounding him. This was his 17th victory claim, though Max Mulzer was later credited with the victory. The crew of the second aircraft he closed on was piloted by Second Lieutenant G.R. McCubbin with Corporal J. H. Waller as gunner/observer, and was credited by the British with shooting Immelmann down. On the German side, many had seen Immelmann as invincible and could not conceive the notion that he had fallen to enemy fire. Meanwhile, British authorities awarded McCubbin the Distinguished Service Order and the Distinguished Service Medal and sergeant's stripes for Waller. The German Air Service at the time claimed the loss was due to (friendly) anti-aircraft fire. Others, including Immelmann's brother, believed his aircraft's gun synchronisation (designed to enable his machine gun to fire between the whirling propeller blades without damaging them) had malfunctioned with catastrophic results. This is not unreasonable, as early versions of such gears frequently malfunctioned in this way. Indeed, this had already happened to Immelmann twice before, while testing two- and three-machine gun installations, although on each occasion, he had been able to land safely. McCubbin, in a 1935 interview, claimed that immediately after Immelmann shot down McCubbin's squadron mate, the German ace began an Immelmann turn, McCubbin and Waller swooped down from a greater altitude and opened fire, and the pioneer German ace fell out of the sky. Waller also pointed out later that the British bullets could have hit Immelmann's propeller. Damage to the propeller resulting in the loss of one blade could have been the primary cause of the structural failure evident in accounts of the crash of his aircraft. The resultant vibration of an engine at full throttle spinning half a propeller could have shaken the fragile craft to pieces. At 2,000 meters, the tail was seen to break away from the rest of Immelmann's Fokker, the wings detached or folded, and what remained of the fuselage fell straight down, carrying the 25-year-old Oberleutnant to his death. His body was recovered by the German 6 Armee from the twisted wreckage, lying smashed and lifeless over what was left of the surprisingly intact Oberursel engine (sometimes cited as under it), but was only identified because he had his initials embroidered on his handkerchief. Immelmann was given a state funeral and buried in his home of Dresden. His body was later exhumed, however, and cremated in the Dresden-Tolkewitz Crematorium. Immelmann, along with Max Ritter von Mulzer, scored all of his victories flying only different types of Eindeckers, becoming one of the most successful pilots in the type.", "The present-day Luftwaffe has dubbed Squadron AG-51 the \"Immelmann Squadron\" in his honour.", "Miscellaneous German Other", "Immelmann will forever be associated with the Fokker Eindecker, Germany's first fighter aircraft, and the first such aircraft to be armed with a machine gun synchronised to fire forward, through the propeller arc. Immelmann, along with Oswald Boelcke and other pilots, was one of the main exponents of the Fokker Eindecker, resulting in the Fokker Scourge which inflicted heavy losses upon British and French aircrews during 1915. Initially, Immelmann shared the same \"E.3/15\" machine with Oswald Boelcke, but late in the summer of 1915 would receive his own machine, bearing the IdFlieg serial number \"E.13/15\" on its fuselage. Both the E.3/15 machine earlier shared with Boelcke, and his own E.13/15 aircraft, both used to secure Immelmann's first five victories between them each had a seven-cylinder 80 horsepower Oberursel U.0 rotary engine for their power. According to Immelmann, the later E.13/15 aircraft was retired and shipped off to Berlin for display at the Zeughaus Museum, in March 1916., but was wrecked in the first bombing raids of the Royal Air Force in 1940, during World War II.", "This refers to two quite different aerobatic maneuvers. The first of these is the one now known as an \"Immelmann\" (also frequently spelled\" \"Immelman\",\" in literature and media)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "The Hohnsteiner style.", "Other modern Kaspars.", "Kasper’s cousins." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In 1920, Max Jacob introduced the form of Kasper Theater recognized today. Kasper became a positive hero, eventually stopped using the slapstick (except in Bavaria and Austria), and took on a more childlike quality. This form is called the Hohnsteiner style (after Hohnstein Castle in Saxony where Max Jacob and his troupe lived and Kasper performances were held). Modern Kasper plays involve Kasper helping his friends (Grandma, Seppel, the Princess, etc.) with various problems. For example, the Witch turns Seppel into a chicken or someone steals Grandma's cake. The structure of Kasper theater is also used to retell Grimm Fairy Tales such as Hansel and Gretel and Little Red Riding Hood. In Southern Germany and Austria, Kasper is known as Kasperle or Kasperl (the diminutive form of Kasper). Kasper and his friends come alive for children as soon as the play starts. When watching a skit, the children learn important values in a safe and healthy way. In this world of make-believe, children are free to express their thoughts and creativity. While role-playing, children relive their daily experiences learning to understand the feelings of others, freeing themselves from fears and worries. Adults, whether playing along or just watching, can gain valuable insight into children's motivations and feelings. At the same time, children are also developing their motor and verbal skills. Children spontaneously make up stories as the puppet play progresses. They quickly begin to create their own situations and dialog. The following pages provide several interesting stories and descriptions of the major characters. You will realize that puppet play isn't just about fairy tales. Modern topics and themes are easily expressed and developed.", "Bread and Puppet Theater, an American-based company under the direction of Silesian-born Peter Schumann, often presents short skits by the fictitious \"Rotten Idea Theater Company\", which features multiple Kaspars. The Kaspars are generally violent, dishonest tricksters, and play out some form of political or social satire while beating each other with clubs.", "Punch was introduced in Great Britain in the seventeenth century by an Italian performer named Pietro Gimonde. The original Pulcinella was a marionette. Over time, his name was anglicized to \"Punch,\" and he became a hand puppet. \"Pleased as punch\" and \"beat the devil\" probably originated from Punch and Judy puppet theater. Whereas the Max Jacob-inspired Kaspar has abandoned much of the bawdiness of 17th century street performance, Punch embraces it. The traditional Kasper and modern Punch use a slapstick to beat the crocodile, police, and even the Devil. \"Slapstick\" originates from the Commedia Dell'arte baton made of wooden slats fastened together like a castanet. On impact, the slapstick makes a loud slapping sound. The term has become synonymous with physical comedy. Punch is aggravated by his whining child, nagging wife (Judy), and ineffective bureaucracy. This eventually leads to Punch hitting other characters with his slapstick, but it is a very ritualized form of violence. Traditional shows ended with Punch defeating the ultimate evil and proclaiming \"Huzzah, Huzzah, I've killed the Devil!\" In modern endings, Punch is punished by being swallowed by the crocodile, scared into repentance by a ghost, or arrested by the police. Punch performances also differ from Kasper by use of a \"swazzle.\" The swazzle is used to give Punch a high pitched, squeaky sound. Punch performances are usually put on by \"professors\". In some cases, Punch may be unintelligible, and the \"professor\" must act as an interpreter. During the 19th Century, Punch performances could be easily found on the streets of England. Today, they are much less common. As a continuing English tradition, Punch performances are more likely to be found on the beach during holidays. Forms of Pulcinella can be found throughout Europe and even Turkey. The characters have different names in various countries. In France, he is known as Polichinelle (Guignol, a figure developed in the 19th century around Lyon, shares many features with Polichinelle but cannot be said to derive directly from Polichinelle). In the Netherlands, he is Jan Klaassen, a character whose personality varies greatly from region to region—sometimes sweet, sometimes a trickster. Turkey's Karagoz and the Greek Karaghiozis descend from a common Ottoman shadow puppet tradition; the origin of these traditions and the relationship, if any, to the Pulchinella \"family\" is unknown. Likewise, the Javanese shadow puppet figure of Petruk, shares characteristics with these European figures—some Javanese identify Petruk as a European—and it is tempting but impossible to confirm a historical relationship. Stravinsky made the Russian Petrushka famous with his ballet of the same name. This story involves three puppets (Petrushka, the Ballerina, and the Moor) that come to life. Eventually, Petrushka is murdered by the Moor out of jealousy for the Ballerina. In the final scene, it's discovered that Petrushka was just stuffed with hay all along." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "European encounters.", "Mining era.", "Establishment of Russian Orthodox Church.", "Development of mining.", "20th and 21st centuries.", "Geography.", "Border area.", "State Parks.", "Climate.", "Demographics.", "Economy.", "Culture.", "Government.", "Education.", "Primary and secondary schools.", "Colleges and universities.", "Transportation.", "Sea.", "Air.", "Roads.", "Juneau Access Project.", "Public transportation.", "Walking, hiking, and biking.", "Infrastructure.", "Healthcare.", "Utilities.", "Media.", "Print.", "Radio.", "Television.", "Sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Long before European settlement in the Americas, the Gastineau Channel was a favorite fishing ground for the Auke (\"A'akw Kwáan\") and Taku tribes, who had inhabited the surrounding area for thousands of years. The \"A'akw Kwáan\" had a village and burying ground here. In the 21st century it is known as Indian Point. They annually harvested herring during the spawning season, and celebrated this bounty. Since the late 20th century, the A'akw Kwáan, together with the Sealaska Heritage Institute, have resisted European-American development of Indian Point, including proposals by the National Park Service and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). They consider it sacred territory, both because of the burying ground and the importance of the point in their traditions of gathering sustenance from the sea. They continue to gather clams, gumboots, grass and sea urchins here, as well as tree bark for medicinal uses. The city and state supported Sealaska Heritage Institute in documenting the 78-acre site, and in August 2016 it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. \"It is the first traditional cultural property in Southeast Alaska to be placed on the register.\" Descendants of these indigenous cultures include the Tlingit people. Native cultures have rich artistic traditions expressed in carving, weaving, orating, singing, and dancing. Juneau has become a major social center for the Tlingit, Haida, and Tsimshian of Southeast Alaska.", "Although the Russians had a colony in the Alaska territory from 1784 to 1867, they did not settle in Juneau. They conducted extensive fur trading with Alaskan Natives of the Aleutian Islands and Kodiak. The first European to see the Juneau", "After the California gold rush, miners migrated up the Pacific Coast and explored the West, seeking other gold deposits. In 1880, Sitka mining engineer George Pilz offered a reward to any local Native in Alaska who could lead him to gold-bearing ore. A local Native arrived with some ore, and several prospectors were sent to investigate. On their first trip to Gold Creek, they found deposits of little interest. However,Pilz sent Joe Juneau and Richard Harris back to the Gastineau Channel, directing them to Snow Slide Gulch (the head of Gold Creek). According to the Rev. Samuel Young, in his book Alaska", "Perhaps because of the pressure of this European encroachment, some Tlingit appealed to the Russian Orthodox Church. It had given services in northern Tlingit settlements in local languages since 1800 and 1824. One of its priests had translated scripture and liturgy into the Tlingit language in the 1830s–1840s. The Tlingit arranged for", "During this period, prospector and placer miner John Lemon operated in what is today the Lemon Creek area. The neighborhood that developed there was named for him by early settlers, as have been several other landmarks in Juneau. Major mining operations in the Juneau mining district prior to World War II included", "In 1911, the United States Congress authorized funds for construction of a capitol building for the Alaska Territory. World War I delayed construction and there were difficulties purchasing the necessary land. Citizens of Juneau donated some of the required funds, and construction began on September 8, 1929. Construction of the capitol took less than two years, and the building was dedicated as the Federal and Territorial Building on February 14, 1931. It was designed by Treasury Department architects in the Art Deco architectural style. The building was originally used by the federal government to house the federal courthouse and post office for the territory. Since Alaska gained statehood in 1959, the building has been used by the state government. The", "According to the United States Census Bureau, the borough has an area of, making it the third-largest municipality in the United States by area (the largest is Yakutat City and Borough, Alaska). of it is land and of it (16.54%) is water. Central (downtown) Juneau is at. The City and Borough of Juneau includes Douglas Island, a tidal island to the west of mainland Juneau. Douglas Island can be reached via the Juneau-Douglas Bridge. As is the case throughout Southeast Alaska, the Juneau area is susceptible to damage caused by natural disasters. The 2014 Palma Bay earthquake caused widespread outages to telecommunications in the area due to damage to a fiber optic cable serving the area. In April 2008, a series of massive avalanches outside Juneau heavily damaged the electrical lines providing Juneau with power, knocking the hydroelectric system offline and forcing the utility to switch to a much more expensive diesel system.", "Juneau, Alaska, shares its eastern border with the Canadian province", "Alaska State Parks maintains the Juneau Trail System,", "The capital of Alaska is on a threshold between hot and cold temperate climates as well as hemiboreals with seasons and temperatures much milder than Eastern Canada. If considered the average temperature of January, 32 °F (0 °C), instead of another Juneau isotherm falls in a warm summer humid continental climate (\"Dfb\" for the Köppen classification), but with strong oceanic influences although moderate by the several islands that surround the city. Besides that it is too on the fringes of a subarctic climate (\"Dfc\"), since one of the 4 months has a temperature exactly on the threshold of 50 °F (10 °C, September). Other climate maps such as the University of Melbourne indicate the oceanic climate (\"Cfb\") as on the immediate coasts but in a close range with the climates above. The city is", "Juneau first appeared on the 1890 U.S. Census. It formally incorporated in 1900. As of the 2010 census, there were 31,275 people, 12,187 households, and 7,742 families residing in the city/borough. The population density was. There were 13,055 housing units at an average density of. The racial makeup of the city/borough was 69.4% White (67.4% Non-Hispanic White, down from 83.2% in 1980), 0.9% African American, 11.8% Native American or Alaska Native, 6.1% Asian (4.5% Filipino, 0.3% Other Asian, 0.3% Chinese, 0.3% Korean, 0.2% Japanese, 0.1% Vietnamese), 0.7% Pacific Islander, and 1.2% from other races, and 9.5% from two or more races. 5.1% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. 2.6% reported speaking Tagalog at home, and 2.4% reported speaking Spanish. There were 11,543 households out of which 36.7% had", "As the capital of Alaska, the primary employer in Juneau is government. This includes the state government, federal government (which has regional offices here, especially for resource agencies), municipal government (which includes the local airport, hospital, harbors, and school district), and the University of Alaska Southeast. State government offices and their indirect economic impact compose approximately one-quarter of Juneau's economy. Another large contributor to the local economy is the tourism industry, which generates most income in the summer months. In 2005, the cruise ship industry was estimated to bring nearly one million visitors to Juneau for up to 11 hours at a time, between May and September. While cruise ships provide an economic boost to segments of the economy, not all locals are appreciative. The Juneau Public Library, built atop a parking garage along South Franklin Street near the Red Dog Saloon, was designed to take advantage of the view of and across Gastineau Channel. This view is often blocked by docking cruise ships, which have become so large that they tower over the five-story structure. Bill Ray, who lived in Juneau from 1938 to 2000 and represented the community in the Alaska Legislature from 1965 to 1987, said when he paid a return visit in 2003: \"Juneau doesn't go forward. They've prostituted themselves to tourism. It looks like a poor man's Lahaina\". The", "Juneau hosts the annual Alaska Folk Festival, Juneau Jazz & Classics music festival, and Celebration, a biennial Alaska Native cultural festival. Juneau has a city-owned ski resort, Eaglecrest, located on Douglas Island. Juneau also has a city-owned ice-skating rink on Douglas Island, Treadwell Ice Rink. It is located on the south end Douglas Island in Juneau Alaska. It is named after the Treadwell Gold Mine, which is located right next to the rink. The rink is open for figure skating, hockey and free open skate. From September to April; when the ice is melted it is used for rollerblading, roller hockey, tennis, basketball, concerts. The city is home to Perseverance Theatre, Alaska's largest professional theater, and the non-profit Theatre in the", "The City and Borough of Juneau operates under a council–manager form of government. The mayor is the titular head of the city, is the presiding officer (or chair) of the Juneau Assembly (council), and is one of three members of that body elected at-large, or areawide. The remaining six members are elected by single-member districts: two districts have been defined by the Assembly, as of its last redistricting in 2003: These districts are nearly aligned with the boundaries of the 31st and 32nd election districts that were established by the state. The main difference is that the 32nd District includes communities outside the CBJ: Gustavus, Kupreanof, Petersburg, Skagway and Tenakee Springs. The Juneau Airport precinct is in the 31st district, which is otherwise identical to the 2nd Assembly District. Since Juneau was split into two state house districts by the state during redistricting in the early 1990s, the districts comprising downtown Juneau, Douglas Island and surrounding areas have exclusively elected Democrats to the Alaska House of Representatives, while the districts comprising Mendenhall Valley and surrounding areas have mostly elected Republicans. The 31st District is currently represented in the House by Democrat Andi Story, who has been in office since 2018. The", "", "Juneau is served by the Juneau School District and", "The University of Alaska Southeast is within the Auke Bay community along the shore of Auke Lake. Juneau-Douglas Community College, founded in 1956, and Southeastern", "Juneau is not directly accessible by road, although there are road connections to several areas immediately adjacent to the city. Primary access to the city is by air and sea. Cars and trucks are transported to and from Juneau by barge or the Alaska Marine Highway ferry system.", "The state-owned ferry system is called the Alaska Marine Highway. The Southeast ferries connect Juneau with 13 other cities in Southeast Alaska and other destinations north via Whittier, as well as with the continental road system in Bellingham, Washington,", "Juneau International Airport serves the city and borough of Juneau. Alaska Airlines services the airport year round, operating upwards of 11 daily departures. Alaska Airlines serves Juneau and other Southeast Alaska villages via \"Milk Run\" flights which make multiple stops to and from Seattle or Anchorage. Alaska also connects Juneau to other cities in the country through connections in Seattle or Anchorage. In the summer Delta Air Lines serves Juneau from its major West Coast hub in Seattle, providing global", "Avalanche hazards, steep slopes, cold weather and environmental protection concerns are factors that make road construction and maintenance both difficult and costly. The Juneau-Douglas Bridge connects the Juneau mainland with Douglas Island. There are no roads connecting Juneau to the rest of North America, although cars can use the ferries to connect to the road network. Juneau is one of only four state capitals not served by an Interstate highway. (The others are Dover, Delaware; Jefferson City, Missouri; and Pierre, South Dakota.)", "Juneau's roads remain separate from other roads in Alaska and in the Lower 48. There have been plans to connect Juneau to Haines and Skagway by road since before 1972, with funding for the first feasibility study acquired in 1987. The State of Alaska Department of Transportation and Public Facilities announced in 2005 that the connection was to be provided partly by road, and partly by fast ferry. A road would be built on the east side of Lynn Canal to a new ferry terminal at the Katzehin River estuary. A ferry would take cars from the terminal to Haines and Skagway, where the cars", "Local government operates a", "Residents walk, hike, or ride bicycles for both recreational purposes and as transportation. The downtown area of Juneau has sidewalks, and", "", "The city and borough is primarily served by Bartlett Regional Hospital in Juneau's Twin Lakes area. The hospital also serves the nearby", "Juneau is served", "", "Juneau's only daily newspaper, the \"Juneau Empire\", is published Sunday through Friday, with no Saturday", "Additionally, the studios of CoastAlaska (a regional public radio station consortium), are in Juneau.", "Juneau's major television affiliates are: KTOO (PBS), 360 North \"Alaska's public affairs channel\" (Operated by KTOO), KATH-LD (NBC), KXLJ-LD (CBS), and KJUD (ABC)/The CW on DT2.", "Juneau has six official sister cities." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Use." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "The chord occurs on the tonic when harmonizing the harmonic minor scale in seventh chords. That is, the first, third, fifth, and seventh scale degrees of the harmonic minor scale form a minor major seventh chord, as shown below. \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \\relative c' { </score> The harmonic minor scale has a raised seventh, creating a minor second (half step) between the seventh and the octave. This half step creates a pull (leading tone) to the tonic that is useful in harmonic context and is not present in the natural minor scale. Traditionally, in classical and jazz contexts, when building a chord on the dominant of the minor tonality, this raised seventh is present, and so both of these chords have a strong pull to the tonic. The minor major seventh chord is most often used in jazz, typically functioning as a minor tonic. Jazz musicians usually improvise with the melodic minor scale over this chord; the harmonic minor scale is also used. Additionally, Bernard Herrmann's use of this chord – most notoriously in his score for \"Psycho\" – has earned it the nickname, \"The Hitchcock Chord\". In flamenco, guitarists often use this chord as an abstract chord to create atmosphere and it gives a Moorish feel with the tension between the minor and major. This chord also appears in classical music, but it is used more in the late Romantic period than in the Classical and Baroque periods. One notable use is in the fourth movement of Samuel Barber's piano sonata; the subject of the fugue begins with a minor major seventh chord and the chord is heard many times throughout the fugue. The chord, infrequent in rock and popular music, is \"virtually always found on the fourth scale degree in the major mode\", thus making the seventh of the chord the third of the scale and perhaps explaining the rarity of the chord, given the \"propensity of the third scale degree to be lowered as a blues alteration.\" Examples occur in Lesley Gore's \"It's My Party\" (see also augmented triad), the Chiffons' \"One Fine Day\", Mariah Carey's \"Vision Of Love\", Pink Floyd's \"Us and Them\", Toni Braxton's \"I Don't Want To\", Radiohead's \"Life in a Glasshouse\", The Cure's \"In Your House\" (1:12) and Depeche Mode's \"Jezebel\". The chord, which has Forte number 4-19, \"may be regarded as the sonic emblem of music of the Second Viennese School because of its prevalence and multiple strategic functions.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Layout.", "Components.", "Camshaft.", "Pushrod.", "Rocker arm / bucket tappet.", "Valves." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The valvetrain layout is largely dependent on the location of the camshaft(s). The common valvetrain configurations for piston engines are:", "The valvetrain consists of all the components responsible for transferring the rotational movement of the camshaft into the opening and closing of the intake and exhaust valves. Typical components are listed below in order from the crankshaft to the valves.", "The timing and lift profile of the valve opening events are controlled by the camshaft, through use of a carefully shaped lobe on a rotating shaft. The camshaft is driven by the crankshaft and— in the case of a four-stroke engine— rotates at half the speed of the crankshaft. Motion is transferred from the crankshaft to the camshaft most commonly by a rubber timing belt, a metallic \"timing chain\" or a set of gears.", "Pushrods are long, slender metal rods that are used in overhead valve engines to transfer motion from the camshaft (located in the engine block) to the valves (located in the cylinder head). The bottom end of a pushrod is fitted with a lifter, upon which the camshaft makes contact. The camshaft lobe moves the lifter upwards, which moves the pushrod. The top end of the lifter pushes on the rocker arm, which opens the valve.", "Depending on the design used, the valves are actuated by a rocker arm, finger or bucket tappet. Overhead camshaft engines use fingers or bucket tappets, upon which the cam lobes contact. Overhead valve engines use rocker arms, which are actuated by a pushrod and pivot on a shaft or individual ball studs in order to actuate the valves.", "Most modern engines use poppet valves type, although sleeve valves, slide valves and rotary valves have also been used at times. Poppet valves are typically opened by the camshaft lobe or rocker arm, and closed by a coiled spring called a \"valve spring\". Valve float occurs when the valve spring is unable to control the inertia of the valvetrain at high engine speeds (RPM)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Introduction.", "Western/European culture.", "Historical divisions.", "Ancient Greek-Hellenistic worlds (13th–1st centuries BC).", "Ancient Roman world (509 BC–AD 476).", "Middle Ages: Byzantine Empire (AD 395–1450), Holy Roman Empire (AD 800/962–1806), East-West Schism (AD 1054), Protestant Reformation (1500s).", "Colonial West: discovery of America, mercantilism and imperialism (15th–20th centuries).", "Cold War context (1947–1991).", "Cold War II context.", "Modern definitions.", "Cultural definition.", "Economic definition.", "Latin America.", "Views on torn countries.", "Other views." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Western culture was influenced by many older civilizations of the ancient Near East, such as Phoenicia, Ancient Israel, Minoan Crete, Sumer, Babylonia, and also Ancient Egypt. It originated in the Mediterranean basin and its vicinity; Ancient Greece and Rome are often cited as its birthplaces. Over time, their associated empires grew first to the east and west to include the rest of Mediterranean and Black Sea coastal areas, conquering and absorbing. Later, they expanded to the north of the Mediterranean Sea to include Western, Central, and Southeastern Europe. Christianization of Ireland (5th century), Christianization of Bulgaria (9th century), Christianization of Kievan Rus' (Russia, Ukraine, Belarus; 10th century), Christianization of Scandinavia (Denmark, Norway, Sweden; 12th century) and Christianization of Lithuania (14th century) brought the rest of present-day European territory into Western civilization. Historians, such as Carroll Quigley in \"\"The Evolution of Civilizations\"\", contend that Western civilization was born around AD 500, after the total collapse of the Western Roman Empire, leaving a vacuum for new ideas to flourish that were impossible in Classical societies. In either", "The term \"Western culture\" is used very broadly to refer to a heritage of social norms, ethical values, traditional customs, religious beliefs, political systems, and specific artifacts and technologies. Specifically, Western culture may imply: The concept of Western culture is generally linked to the classical definition of the \"Western world\". In this definition, Western culture is the set of literary, scientific, political, artistic and philosophical principles that set it apart from other civilizations. Much of this", "The geopolitical divisions in Europe that created a concept of \"East\" and \"West\" originated in the ancient tyrannical and imperialistic Graeco-Roman times. The Eastern Mediterranean was home to the highly urbanized cultures that had Greek as their common language (owing to the older empire of Alexander the Great and of the Hellenistic successors.), whereas the West was much more rural in its character and more readily adopted Latin as its common language. After the fall of the Western Roman Empire and the beginning of the Medieval times (or \"Middle Ages\"), Western and Central Europe were substantially cut off from the East where \"Byzantine\" Greek culture and Eastern Christianity became founding influences in the Eastern European world such as the Eastern and Southern Slavic peoples. Roman Catholic Western and Central Europe, as such, maintained a distinct identity particularly as it began to redevelop during the Renaissance. Even following the Protestant Reformation, Protestant Europe continued to see itself as more tied to Roman Catholic Europe than other parts of the perceived \"civilized world\". Use of the term \"West\" as a specific cultural and geopolitical term developed over the course of the Age of Exploration as Europe spread its culture to other parts of the world. Roman Catholics were the first major religious group to immigrate to the New World, as settlers in the colonies of Portugal and Spain (and later, France) belonged to that faith. English and Dutch colonies, on the other hand, tended to be more religiously diverse. Settlers to these colonies included Anglicans, Dutch Calvinists, English Puritans and other nonconformists, English Catholics, Scottish Presbyterians, French Huguenots, German and Swedish Lutherans, as well as Quakers, Mennonites, Amish, and Moravians.", "Ancient Greek civilization had been growing in the first millennium BC into wealthy poleis, so-called city-states (geographically loose political entities which in time, inevitably end giving way to larger organisations of society, including the empire and the nation-state) such as Athens, Sparta, Thebes, and Corinth, by Middle and Near Eastern ones (Sumerian cities such as Uruk and Ur; Ancient Egyptian city-states, such as Thebes and Memphis; the Phoenician Tyre and Sidon; the five Philistine city-states; the Berber city-states of the Garamantes). The then Hellenic division between the barbarians (term used by Ancient Greeks for all non-Greek-speaking people) and the Greeks contrasted in many societies the Greek-speaking culture of the Greek settlements around the", "Ancient Rome (753 BC – AD 476) was a civilization that grew from a city-state founded on the Italian Peninsula about the 8th century BC to a massive empire straddling the Mediterranean Sea. In its 10-centuries expansion, Roman civilization shifted from a small monarchy (753 – 509 BC), to a republic (509 – 27 BC), to an autocratic empire (27 BC – AD 476). It came to dominate Western, Central and Southeastern Europe and the entire area surrounding the Mediterranean Sea through conquest using the Roman legions and then through cultural assimilation by eventually giving Roman citizenship privileges to the whole population. Nonetheless, despite its great legacy, a number of factors led to the eventual decline and fall of the Roman Empire. The Roman Empire succeeded the approximately 500-year-old Roman Republic ( 510 BC – 30 BC), which had been weakened", "In the early 4th century (AD 330), Roman Emperor Constantine the Great had established the city of Constantinople (formerly ancient Byzantium) as the capital of the Roman Empire, later called \"Byzantine Empire\" by modern historians. The Eastern Roman Empire included lands south-west of the Black Sea and bordering on the Eastern Mediterranean and parts of the Adriatic Sea. This division into Eastern and Western Roman Empires was reflected in the administration of the Roman Catholic and Eastern Greek Orthodox churches, with Rome and Constantinople debating over whether either city was the capital of Western religion. As the Eastern (Orthodox) and Western (Catholic) churches spread their influence, the line between Eastern and Western Christianity was moving. Its movement was affected by the influence of the Byzantine empire and the fluctuating power and influence of the Catholic church in Rome. The geographic line of religious division approximately followed a line of cultural divide. The influential American conservative political scientist, adviser and academic Samuel P. Huntington argued that this cultural division still existed during the Cold War as the approximate Western boundary of those countries that were allied", "Later concepts of a world of nation-states born by the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, coupled with the ideologies of the Enlightenment, the coming of modernity, the Scientific Revolution and the Industrial Revolution, would produce powerful social transformations, political and economic institutions that have come to influence (or been imposed upon) most nations of the world today. Historians agree that the Industrial Revolution has been one of the most important events in history. This process of influence (and imposition) began with the voyages of discovery, colonization, conquest, and exploitation of Portugal enforced as well by papal bulls in 1450s (by the fall of the Byzantine Empire), granting Portugal navigation, war and trade monopoly for any newly discovered lands, and competing Spanish navigators. It continued with the rise of the Dutch East India Company by the destabilising Spanish discovery of the New World, and the creation and expansion of the English and French colonial empires, and others. Due to the reach of these empires, Western institutions expanded throughout the world. Even after demands for self-determination from subject peoples within Western empires were met with decolonization, these institutions persisted. One specific example was the requirement that post-colonial societies were made to form nation-states (in the Western tradition), which often created arbitrary boundaries and borders that did not necessarily represent a whole nation, people, or culture (as in much of Africa), and are often the", "During the Cold War, a new definition emerged. Earth was divided into three \"worlds\". The First World, analogous in this context to what was called \"the West\", was composed of NATO members and other countries aligned with the United States. The Second World was the Eastern bloc in the Soviet sphere of influence, including the Soviet Union (15 republics including presently independent Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania) and Warsaw Pact countries like Poland, Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania, East Germany (now united with Germany), and Czechoslovakia (now split into the Czech Republic and Slovakia). The Third World consisted of countries, many of which were unaligned with either, and important members included India, Yugoslavia, Finland (Finlandization) and Switzerland (Swiss Neutrality); some include the People's Republic", "In a debated Cold War II, a new definition emerged inside the realm of western journalism. More specifically, Cold War II, also known as the Second Cold War, New Cold War, Cold War Redux, Cold War 2.0, and Colder War, refers to the tensions, hostilities, and political rivalry that intensified dramatically in 2014 between", "The exact scope of the \"Western world\" is somewhat subjective in nature, depending on whether cultural, economic, spiritual or political criteria are employed. It is a generally accepted western view to recognize the existence of at least three \"major worlds\" (or \"cultures\", or \"civilizations\"), broadly in contrast with the Western: the \"Eastern world\", the \"Arab\" and the \"African\" worlds, with no clearly specified boundaries. Additionally, \"Latin American\" and \"Orthodox\" worlds are sometimes separately considered \"akin\" to the West. Many anthropologists, sociologists and historians oppose \"the West and the Rest\" in a categorical manner. The same has been done by Malthusian demographers with a sharp distinction between European and non-European family systems. Among anthropologists, this includes Durkheim, Dumont and Lévi-Strauss. As the term \"\"Western world\"\" does not have a strict international definition, governments do not use the term in legislation of international treaties and instead rely on other definitions.", "In modern usage, \"Western world\" refers to Europe and to areas whose populations largely originate from Europe, through the Age of Discovery's imperialism. In the 20th century, Christianity declined in influence in many Western countries, mostly in the European Union where some member states have experienced falling church attendance and membership in recent years, and also elsewhere. Secularism (separating religion from politics and science) increased. However, while church attendance is in decline, in some western countries (i.e. Italy, Poland and Portugal) more than half the people state that religion is important, and most Westerners nominally identify themselves as Christians (e.g. 59% in the United Kingdom) and attend church on major occasions, such", "The term \"\"Western world\"\" is sometimes interchangeably used with the term First World or developed countries, stressing the difference between First World and the Third World or developing countries. This usage occurs despite the fact that many countries that may be culturally \"Western\" are developing countries – in fact, a significant percentage of the Americas are developing countries. It is also used despite many developed countries or regions not being Western (e.g. Japan, Singapore, South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Macao), and therefore left out when \"\"Western world\"\" is used to denote developed countries. Privatization policies (involving government enterprises and public", "American political scientist, adviser and academic Samuel P. Huntington considered Latin America as separate from the \"Western world\" for the purpose of his geopolitical analysis. However, he also states that, while in general researchers consider that the \"West\" has three main components (European, North American and Latin American), in his view, Latin America has followed a different development path from Europe and North America. Although it is a scion of European (mainly Spanish and Portuguese) civilization, it also incorporates, to an extent, elements of indigenous American civilizations, absent from North America and Europe. It has had a corporatist and authoritarian culture that Europe had to a much lesser extent. Both Europe and North America felt the effects of the Reformation and combined Catholic and Protestant culture. Historically, Latin America has been only Catholic, although this is changing due to the influx of Protestants into the region. Some regions in Latin America incorporate indigenous cultures, which did", "According to Samuel P. Huntington, some countries are torn on whether they are Western or not, with typically the national leadership pushing for Westernization, while historical, cultural and traditional forces remain largely non-Western. These include Turkey, whose political leadership has since the 1920s tried to Westernize the predominantly Muslim country with only 3% of its territory within Europe. It is his chief example of a \"torn country\"", "A series of scholars of civilization, including Arnold J. Toynbee, Alfred Kroeber and Carroll Quigley have identified and analyzed \"Western civilization\" as one of the civilizations that have historically existed and still exist today. Toynbee entered into quite an expansive mode, including as candidates those countries or cultures who became so heavily influenced by the West as to adopt these borrowings into their very self-identity. Carried to its limit, this would in practice include almost everyone within the West, in one way or another. In particular, Toynbee refers to the \"intelligentsia\" formed among the educated elite of countries impacted by the European expansion of centuries past. While often pointedly nationalist, these cultural and political leaders interacted within the West to such an extent as to change both themselves and the West. The theologian and paleontologist Pierre Teilhard de Chardin conceived of the West as the set of civilizations descended from the Nile Valley Civilization of Egypt. Palestinian-American literary critic Edward Said uses the term occident in his discussion of orientalism. According to his binary, the West, or Occident, created a romanticized vision of the East, or Orient, to justify colonial and imperialist intentions. This Occident-Orient binary focuses on the Western vision of the East instead of any truths about the East. His theories are rooted in Hegel's Master-slave dialectic: The Occident would not exist without the Orient and vice versa. Further, Western writers created this irrational, feminine, weak \"Other\" to contrast with the rational, masculine, strong West because of a need to create a difference between the two that would justify imperialist ambitions, according to the Said-influenced Indian-American theorist Homi K. Bhabha. From a very different perspective, it has also been argued that the idea of the West is, in part, a non-Western invention, deployed in the non-West to shape and define non-Western pathways through or against modernity." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Geography.", "Wildlife.", "Climate.", "Demographics.", "Languages.", "Economy.", "Arts.", "Sports.", "Government and politics.", "Education.", "Media.", "Health and utilities.", "Transportation.", "Major Highways.", "Highway to Highway.", "Public transit.", "Rail.", "Air transport.", "Sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Russian presence in south-central Alaska was well-established in the 19th century. In 1867, U.S. Secretary of State William H. Seward brokered a deal to purchase Alaska from Imperial Russia for $7.2 million, or about two cents an acre ($ million in dollars). His political rivals lampooned the deal as \"Seward's folly,\" \"Seward's icebox,\" and \"Walrussia.\" In 1888, gold was discovered along Turnagain Arm just south of modern-day Anchorage. Alaska became an organized incorporated United States territory in 1912. Anchorage, unlike every other large town in Alaska south of the Brooks Range, was neither a fishing nor mining camp. The area surrounding Anchorage lacks significant economic metal minerals. A number of Dena'ina settlements existed along Knik Arm for years. By 1911 the families of J. D. \"Bud\" Whitney and Jim St. Clair lived at the mouth of Ship Creek and were joined there by a young forest ranger, Jack Brown, and his bride, Nellie, in 1912. The city grew from its happenstance choice as the site, in 1914, under the direction of Frederick Mears, of a railroad-construction port for the Alaska Engineering Commission. The area near the mouth of Ship Creek, where the railroad headquarters was located, quickly became a tent city. A townsite was mapped out on higher ground to the south of the tent city, greatly noted in the years since for its order and rigidity compared with other Alaska town sites. In 1915, territorial governor John Franklin Alexander Strong encouraged residents to change the city's name to one that had \"more significance and local associations\". In the summer of that year, residents held a vote to change the city's name; a plurality of residents favored changing the city's name to \"Alaska City.\" However, the territorial government ultimately declined to change the city's name. Anchorage was incorporated on November 23, 1920. Construction of the Alaska Railroad continued until its completion in 1923. The city's economy in the 1920s and 1930s centered on the railroad. Col. Otto F. Ohlson, the Swedish-born general manager of the railroad for nearly two decades, became a symbol of residents' contempt due to the firm control he maintained over the railroad's affairs, which by extension became control over economic and other aspects of life in Alaska. Between the 1930s and the 1950s, the city experienced massive growth as air transportation and the military became increasingly important.", "Anchorage is in Southcentral Alaska. At 61 degrees north, it lies slightly farther north than Oslo, Stockholm, Helsinki and Saint Petersburg, but not as far north as Reykjavík or Murmansk. It is northeast of the Alaska Peninsula, Kodiak Island, and Cook Inlet, due north of the Kenai Peninsula, northwest of Prince William Sound and the Alaska Panhandle, and nearly due south of Denali. The city is on a strip of coastal lowland and extends up the lower alpine slopes of the Chugach Mountains. Point Campbell, the westernmost point of Anchorage on the mainland, juts out into Cook Inlet near its northern end, at which point it splits into two arms. To the south is Turnagain Arm, a fjord that has some of the world's highest tides. Knik Arm, another tidal inlet, lies to the west and north. The Chugach Mountains on the east form a boundary to development, but not to the city limits, which encompass part of the wild alpine territory of Chugach State Park. The city's sea coast consists mostly of treacherous mudflats. Newcomers and tourists are warned not to walk in this area because of extreme tidal changes and the very fine glacial silt. Unwary victims have walked onto the solid seeming silt revealed when the tide is out and have become stuck in the mud. The two recorded instances of this occurred in 1961 and 1988. According to the United States Census Bureau, the municipality has an area of 1,961.1 square miles (5,079.2 km); 1,697.2 square miles (4,395.8 km) of which is land and 263.9 square miles (683.4 km) of it is water. The total area is 13.46% water. Boroughs and census areas next to the Municipality of Anchorage are Matanuska-Susitna Borough to the north, Kenai Peninsula Borough to the south and Valdez-Cordova Census Area to the east. The Chugach National Forest, a national protected area, extends into the southern part of the municipality, near Girdwood and Portage.", "A diverse wildlife population exists within urban Anchorage and the surrounding area. Approximately 250 black bears and 60 grizzly bears live in the area. Bears are regularly sighted within the city. Moose are also a common sight; in the Anchorage Bowl, there is a summer population of approximately 250 moose, increasing to as many as 1,000 during the winter. They are a hazard to drivers, with over 100 moose killed by cars each year. Two people were stomped to death, in 1993 and 1995, in Anchorage. Cross-country skiers and dog mushers using city trails have been charged by moose on numerous occasions;", "Anchorage has a dry-summer subarctic climate (Köppen climate classification: Dsc) but with strong maritime influences that lead to a relatively moderate climate. Most of its precipitation falls in late summer. Average daytime summer temperatures range from approximately ; average daytime winter temperatures are about. Anchorage has a frost-free growing season that averages slightly over 101 days. According to local folklore, when a native plant called fireweed goes to seed after a full bloom, the first snowfall of winter is 6 weeks away. Average January low and high temperatures at Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport (ANC) are with an average winter snowfall of. The 2011–2012 winter had, which made it the snowiest winter on record, topping the 1954–1955 winter with. The coldest temperature ever recorded at the original weather station at Merrill Field on the", "Anchorage first appeared on the 1920 U.S. Census. It incorporated that same year. In 1975, it consolidated with its borough. According to the 2010 census, Anchorage had a population of 291,826 and its racial and ethnic composition was as follows: According to the 2010 census, the largest national ancestry groups were as follows: 17.3% German, 10.8% Irish, 9.1% English, 6.9% Scandinavian (3.6% Norwegian, 2.2% Swedish, 0.6% Danish) and 5.6% French/French Canadian ancestry. According to the 2010 American Community Survey, approximately 82.3% of residents over the age of five spoke only English at home. Spanish was spoken by 3.8% of the population; speakers of other Indo-European languages made up 3.0% of the population; those who spoke Asian and Pacific Islander languages at home were 9.1%; and speakers of other languages made up 1.8%. In 2010, there were 291,826 people, 107,332 households and 70,544 families residing in the municipality. The population density was 171.2 per square mile (59.2/km). There were 113,032 housing units at an average density of 59.1 per square mile (22.8/km). There were 107,332 households out of which 33.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.4% were married couples living together, 11.7% had a female householder with no husband present, 5.6% had a male householder with no wife present, and 34.3% were non-families. 24.9% of all households were made up of individuals and 4.9% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.64 and the average family size was 3.19. The age distribution was 26.0% under 18, 11.2% from 18 to 24, 29.0% from 25 to 44, 26.6% from 45 to 64, and 7.2% who were 65 or older. The median age was 32.9 years. 50.8% of the population was male and 49.2% were female. The median income for a household in the municipality was $73,004, and the median income for a family was $85,829. The per capita income for the municipality was $34,678. About 5.1% of families and 7.9% of the population were below the poverty line. Of the city's population over the age of 25, 33.7% held a bachelor's degree or higher, and 92.1% had a high school diploma or equivalent.", "In 2010, 83.7% (220,304) of Anchorage residents aged five and older spoke only English at home, while 4.47% (11,769) spoke Spanish, 2.53% (6,654) Tagalog, 1.56% (4,108) various Pacific Island languages, 1.38% (3,636) various Native American/Alaska Native languages, 1.14% (2,994) Korean,", "Anchorage's largest economic sectors include transportation, military, municipal, state and federal government, tourism, corporate headquarters (including regional headquarters for multinational corporations) and resource extraction. Large portions of the local economy depend on Anchorage's geographical location and surrounding natural resources. Anchorage's economy traditionally has seen steady growth, though not quite as rapid as many places in the lower 48 states. With the notable exception of a real estate-related crash in the mid-to-late 1980s, which saw the failure of numerous financial institutions, it does not experience as much pain during economic downturns. The Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport (TSAIA) is the world's fourth busiest airport for cargo traffic, surpassed only by Memphis, Hong Kong, and Shanghai Pudong. This traffic is strongly linked to Anchorage's location along great circle routes between Asia and the lower 48. In addition, the airport has an abundant supply of jet fuel from in-state refineries in North Pole and Kenai. This jet fuel is transported to the Port of Anchorage, then by rail or pipeline to the airport. The Port of Anchorage receives 95 percent of all goods destined for Alaska. Ships from Totem Ocean Trailer Express and Horizon Lines arrive twice weekly from the Port of Tacoma in Washington. Along with handling these activities, the port is a storage facility for jet fuel from Alaskan refineries, which is used at both TSAIA and Joint Base Elmendorf-Richardson (JBER). The existing port was substantially built in the late 1950s and is reaching the end of its useful life. Beginning in 2017, the Port of Anchorage is undertaking an extensive 7-year Anchorage Port Modernization Project to upgrade its aging infrastructure, support larger deeper draft vessels, and future proof the port seismically and environmentally for another 75 years. The United States military used to have two large installations, Elmendorf Air Force Base and Fort Richardson, which originally stemmed from the branching off of the U.S. Air Force from the U.S. Army following World War II. In a cost-cutting effort initiated by the 2005 BRAC proceedings, the bases were combined. JBER was", "Located next to Town Square Park in downtown Anchorage, the Alaska Center for the Performing Arts is a three-part complex that hosts numerous performing arts events each year. The facility can accommodate more than 3,000 persons. In 2000, nearly 245,000 people visited 678 public performances. It is home to eight resident performing arts companies and has featured mega-musicals performed by visiting companies. The center also hosts the International Ice Carving Competition as part of the Fur Rendezvous festival in February. The Anchorage Concert Association brings 20 to 30 events to the community each year, including Broadway shows like Disney's The Lion King, Les Misérables, Mamma", "National attention focuses on Anchorage on the first Saturday of each March, when the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race kicks off with its ceremonial start downtown on Fourth Avenue. Anchorage is also home to the Fur Rendezvous Open World Championship Sled Dog Races, a three-day dog sled sprint event consisting of 3 timed races of each. Held each February, the event is part of the annual Fur Rendezvous, a winter sports carnival. Anchorage is the home of three teams in the Alaska Baseball League. The Anchorage Bucs and Anchorage Glacier Pilots, which both play at Mulcahy Stadium, and the Chugiak-Eagle River Chinooks based at Lee Jordan Field in Chugiak. Anchorage has no professional sports teams. The most recent to call the city home was the Alaska Aces of the ECHL. The Aces were very successful during their time in Anchorage, claiming three league titles, four conference championships, and eight division championship during their 29-year history (1989–2017). The Aces affiliated with various National Hockey League teams during this time, including the Calgary Flames, Minnesota Wild, and Vancouver Canucks. Following the 2016–17 season, the team ceased operations and were sold to a group in Portland, Maine, where they became the Maine Mariners in the 2018–19 season. The University of Alaska Anchorage Seawolves are a member", "Anchorage is governed by an elected mayor and 11-member assembly, with the assistance of a city manager. These positions are non-partisan (as is the case with all municipal elected offices in Alaska), and thus no candidates officially run under any party banner. All eleven members are elected from districts known as sections. Five of the sections elect two members from designated seats, while the remaining section elects one member. Prior to the 1980 United States Census, the single-member section was the one centered around the northern Anchorage communities of Chugiak and Eagle River. Since that census, the area encompassing Downtown Anchorage and surrounding neighborhoods has served as the city's single-member section. The mayor (along with members of the school board) is elected in a citywide vote. In practice, however, the party affiliation and political ideology of major candidates are usually well known, and is highlighted by local media for the purposes of framing debate. The city's mayor is Ethan Berkowitz, a registered Democrat. Along with 7 sister cities in the SCI program, Anchorage has a cultural exchange program with the former Yugoslavia nation of Montenegro. The Anchorage Assembly gained national publicity following their 2017 municipal election, when two openly gay candidates (Christopher Constant and Felix Rivera) were successfully elected into the eleven-member council – becoming the first openly gay candidates ever elected into Anchorage public office. Anchorage generally leans toward Republican candidates in both state and presidential elections. However, since the establishment of the municipality in 1975, there have been two Democratic mayors (Tony Knowles and Mark Begich) who have been elected to two consecutive terms and later to statewide office. Downtown, Girdwood, and much of both the west and east parts of town trend Democratic. However, areas closest to the military bases – including Eagle River – and south Anchorage are the most Republican areas of the Municipality. Midtown is relatively moderate by comparison. Voting trends show that Downtown Anchorage votes Democratic in large margins, while Spenard, Turnagain/Inlet View, and University/Airport Heights are relatively moderate and swing in elections. The remaining Anchorage area votes Republican. In 2018, Anchorage began conducting municipal elections by mail (as directed by the assembly in 2015) and had the highest voter turnout in the city's history. Anchorage-Eagle River sends 16 representatives ( 9 Republicans and 7 Democrats) to the 40-member Alaska House of Representatives and eight senators (5 Republicans and 3 Democrats) to the 20-member Senate. When seats from the neighboring Mat-Su Borough are added, more than half of the Alaska state legislature comes from the Anchorage metropolitan area. This is often used as an argument in favor of moving the state capital from Juneau to a location in the Anchorage area.", "Public education in Anchorage, Eagle River, Chugiak, Fort Richardson and Elmendorf Air Force Base is managed by the Anchorage School District, the 87th largest district in the United States, with nearly 50,000 students attending 98 schools. There are also a number of choices in private education, including both religious and non-denominational schools. Anchorage has four higher-education facilities that offer bachelor's or master's degrees: the University of Alaska Anchorage, Alaska Pacific University, Charter College, and the Anchorage campus of Texas-based Wayland Baptist University. The University of Alaska Fairbanks also has a small Center for Distance Education downtown.", "Anchorage's leading newspaper is the \"Anchorage Daily News\", a citywide daily newspaper. Other newspapers include the \"Alaska Star\", serving primarily Chugiak and Eagle River, the \"Anchorage Press\", a free weekly covering mainly cultural topics, and \"The Northern Light\", the student newspaper of the University of Alaska Anchorage. Anchorage's major network television affiliates are KTUU 2 (NBC), KTBY 4 (Fox), KYES 5 (MyNetworkTV), KAKM 7 (PBS), KTVA", "Providence Alaska Medical Center on Providence Drive in Anchorage is the largest hospital in Alaska and is part of Providence Health & Services in Alaska, Washington, Oregon, and California. It features the state's most comprehensive range of services. Providence Health System has a history of serving Alaska, beginning when the Sisters of Providence of Montreal first brought health care to Nome in 1902. As the territory grew during the following decades, so did efforts to provide care. Hospitals were opened in Fairbanks in 1910 and Anchorage in 1937. Alaska Regional Hospital on DeBarr Road opened in 1958 as Anchorage Presbyterian Hospital, downtown at 825 L Street. This predecessor to Alaska Regional was a joint venture between local physicians and the Presbyterian Church. In 1976 the hospital moved to its present location on DeBarr Road, and is now a 254-bed licensed and accredited facility. Alaska Regional has expanded services and", "", "In everyday discourse, Alaskans do not use numerical route designations, preferring instead the named designations—in this case the Seward Highway and the Glenn Highway.", "On and off since the 1960s, the Alaska Department of Transportation & Public Facilities, in coordination with the Federal Highway Administration and the Municipality of Anchorage (or the lineal predecessors of those entities), have been exploring the concept of a roadway connecting the endpoints of the Seward and Glenn highways. The project is called \"Highway to Highway\", and the most recent concept for this project is that of a \"trenched\" freeway through the heart of Anchorage. Highway to Highway was included in the 2005 Long Range Transportation Plan, and would cost at least $575 million ($ million in dollars). – by far the largest urban infrastructure project in Alaska's history.", "Anchorage has a bus system called People Mover, with a hub in downtown Anchorage and satellite hubs at Dimond Center", "The Alaska Railroad offers year-round freight service along the length of its rail system between Seward (the southern terminus of the system), Fairbanks (the northern terminus of the system), and Whittier (a deep water, ice-free port). Daily passenger service is available during summer (May 15 – September 15), but is reduced to one round-trip per week between", "The Ted Stevens Anchorage International Airport, south of downtown Anchorage, is the airline hub for the state, served by many national and international airlines, including Seattle-based Alaska Airlines as well as many intrastate airlines and charter air services. The airport is the primary international air freight gateway in the nation. By weight, five percent of the value of all United States international air", "Anchorage has seven sister cities." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Personal and early life.", "Career.", "Early career.", "World Rally Championship.", "1993–1998: Subaru.", "1999–2002: Ford.", "2003: Citroën.", "Later career.", "Death.", "Funeral and celebration services.", "Reaction.", "Investigation.", "\"Colin McRae Rally\" video game series.", "Colin McRae R4.", "Racing record.", "Complete Porsche Supercup results." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "McRae was married to Alison, and had two children, Hollie and Johnny. McRae moved to the principality of Monaco in 1995, partly through his friendship with David Coulthard. However, as his young family grew up, he spent more time back at his home in Lanarkshire—accepting the higher tax liability of living in Scotland. The couple bought the 17th century Jerviswood House. Colin's uncle Hugh \"Shug\" Steele was also a former rally driver.", "", "Colin McRae began his competitive career in motorsport riding trial bikes at an early age, despite being more interested in four wheeled machines rather than two wheel bikes. At the age of sixteen, through the Coltness Car Club, McRae discovered autotesting, he soon traded his bike for a Mini Cooper and started competing. A year later, he began to negotiate with another club member to use his Hillman Avenger for the Kames Stages, a single-staged rally venue not far from McRae's home. McRae finished the event fourteenth; first in his class although he had run most of the event in a higher position. In 1986, driving a Talbot Sunbeam, McRae entered the Scottish Rally Championship and soon made a name for himself with his speed and exciting style of driving. His driving style drew many comparisons to Finnish ex-World Rally Champion Ari Vatanen, whom McRae had always idolised. In 1988 he performed a giant-killing act when he took the Scottish Rally Championship series crown in a humble Vauxhall Nova. Craving more power, his next car was a Ford Sierra XR 4x4. His first WRC event was the 1987 Swedish Rally behind the wheel of his Nova, and again two years later, driving the Sierra and finishing 15th overall. Later that year, he finished 5th overall at Rally New Zealand in a rear wheel drive Sierra Cosworth. By 1990 McRae was driving a Sierra Cosworth 4x4 and achieved sixth place in that year's RAC Rally, despite several accidents. 1991 saw McRae turn professional as he was signed by Prodrive boss David Richards to his Subaru team in the British Rally Championship for an annual wage of approximately £10,000. McRae was British Rally Champion in both 1991 and 1992, soon graduating to the Subaru factory team at World Rally Championship level. 1992 also saw Colin McRae make his début in the British Touring Car Championship, with a one-off appearance for the Prodrive-run BMW factory team at the Knockhill round. In the second of the two races of the event, McRae collided with Matt Neal. Race officials found McRae to have caused an avoidable collision and subsequently disqualified him.", "", "On his promotion for 1993, McRae initially drove the Prodrive-built Group A Subaru Legacy alongside Finns Ari Vatanen, Hannu Mikkola and Markku Alén. McRae then won his first WRC rally in the car at that year's Rally New Zealand. It was also the first rally win for the newly formed Subaru World Rally Team, shortly before the Legacy was due to be pensioned off in favour of the new Subaru Impreza 555. Such were the rising fortunes of his young Subaru factory team as they competed against the frontrunning Toyota-powered Team TTE, who were excluded from the championship after the 1995 Rally Catalunya due to the use of an illegal air restrictor. It took only until 1995 for McRae to win the drivers title, which he secured with a victory in a straight contest with his double champion teammate, Carlos Sainz, on the season-ending Rally of Great Britain. Although still a winner with the outfit in individual rallies in succeeding years, including, increasingly, more specialised events such as the Acropolis Rally, Safari Rally and the Tour de Corse, McRae could not better second place in the standings in either 1996 or 1997, on both occasions behind Finland and Mitsubishi Ralliart's Tommi Mäkinen. He helped Subaru complete their run of three consecutive manufacturers' titles during this time. In what would turn out to be his final season with the team, in 1998 he won three more rallies and placed third in the standings, as well as winning the Race of Champions in Gran Canaria, the Canary Islands.", "After several years of varying success, McRae switched to the M-Sport-run Ford factory team for 1999, driving the new Ford Focus rally car. The deal saw McRae earning six million pounds over two years, which at the time made him the highest earning rally driver in history. This move was immediately rewarded with two consecutive wins at the Safari Rally and Rally Portugal. A number of shunts and reliability issues for the new car for much of the rest of that season, however, resulted in only sixth place in the championship standings overall. Moreover, a rare personal pointless run had begun for McRae that year which was only to be halted with a podium on the following February's Swedish Rally, the beginning of a recovery which saw McRae victorious on the asphalt turns of Catalunya and the gravel of Greece, and post 4th in the 2000 overall standings. Midway through the 2000 season, the lacking reliability of the Focus had led to McRae threatening to leave the team if the problems continued. The upturn towards the end of the season resulted in him deciding to renew his contract with Ford for a further two years. McRae's intermittent success with Ford continued into 2001, where after failing to score in any of the first four rounds, including having momentarily led defending winner Tommi Mäkinen on the stages of the season opening Monte Carlo Rally prior to being forced into retirement, he then went on to score three consecutive victories in Argentina, Cyprus and Greece to tie with Mäkinen at the top of the points table. However, having again led the championship outright entering the final round in Great Britain, McRae once more missed out on a possible second title, crashing out and finishing second in the drivers championship, two points behind Subaru's Richard Burns. With victory in the Safari Rally in 2002, McRae made the record books as the driver with most event wins in the World Rally Championship. His record has since been broken by Carlos Sainz, Sébastien Loeb and Marcus Grönholm. McRae's contract with Ford came to an end following the 2002 season, and after reportedly asking for wages of five million pounds a year, Ford decided against renewing the contract, reluctant to commit such a high amount of their budget to a driver's salary. The two parties split on amicable terms, with Ford's European director of motorsport Martin Whitaker stating \"On behalf of all of us at Ford Motor Company I would like to publicly thank Colin and Nicky for their efforts during the past four years with the Ford team. I wish them both well in the future.\" McRae said of his time with Ford \"It's been a very successful four years, we've achieved a lot of very good results and I'm quite happy that myself and Ford have had a very successful partnership.\"", "For 2003, McRae signed for Citroën, a team of winning pedigree due to its successes of the previous year with young Frenchman Sébastien Loeb but otherwise undertaking its first complete campaign at World Rally Championship level. McRae's second-place finish on his début in Monte Carlo alongside Loeb and Carlos Sainz whom, aboard the Xsara WRC, helped complete a 1–2–3 finish, transpired to be the finest result he would achieve for the team, for the season was to end with seventh in the drivers' championship, with no victories. Rule changes that were to be brought in for the 2004 season changed the previous practice of having three nominated points-scorers within a team to two. With Loeb partway through a multiple year contract, this meant the Citroën factory team, under Guy Frequelin's leadership, were forced to choose between dropping McRae or Sainz. With Sainz being the more successful of the two during the 2003 season, it was McRae who had to look elsewhere for 2004. David Richards, McRae's former boss at Subaru, who had by now taken over WRC's commercial rights holders ISC and worried that the loss of a character like McRae would damage his ability to market the sport, set about trying to help McRae find a drive for 2004. McRae was unable to find a team, and for the first time in over ten years he would not be competing in the World Rally Championship.", "As the only other potential alternative suitors, Subaru instead eventually chose Mikko Hirvonen to partner Petter Solberg, McRae found himself without a drive for the 2004 season. He instead pursued other interests, including competing in the Dakar Rally and the 24 Hours of Le Mans (see below). In 2004 and 2005 McRae represented Great Britain in the Race of Champions alongside Formula One driver and fellow Scot, David Coulthard. For the 2006 event England and Scotland entered separate teams with McRae and Coulthard re-uniting to represent Scotland. McRae then returned to the series for one off drives for Skoda on the 2005 Rally GB and Rally Australia, respectively finishing seventh and retiring due to a clutch problem on the final leg of the rally, the latter dashing hopes for what may otherwise have been only the team's second ever podium place after the 2001 Safari Rally. On 5 August 2006, McRae competed for Subaru in the first live televised American rally in Los Angeles as part of the X-Games. McRae rolled the car on the penultimate corner after landing awkwardly from a jump, which damaged the front bumper and left front tyre. Despite this, McRae kept the car running and continued on to the finish, his time only 0.13 seconds slower than eventual winner Travis Pastrana. McRae was, though, to have one more opportunity at world championship level: he was unexpectedly entered for his final rally by semi-works Kronos Citroën at Rally Turkey in September, where he replaced Sébastien Loeb while the Frenchman recovered from an injury he sustained in a cycling accident immediately prior to the event. A final-stage alternator problem consigned him and returning co-driver Nicky Grist, to a final placing outside the top ten. McRae's competitive spirit also led him to compete in racing series other than the WRC. In September 2002 he tried his hand at oval racing when he took part in the Ascar (UK version of NASCAR) race at the Rockingham Motor Speedway, Northamptonshire; eventually finishing in sixth place. McRae rejoined Prodrive for the 2004 24 Hours of Le Mans where he took third place in the GTS class, and ninth position overall in a Ferrari 550-GTS Maranello partnering Darren Turner and Rickard Rydell. Fellow countryman, and Le Mans winner Allan McNish commented that \"Colin has adapted far better than people expected\" to endurance sportscar racing. McRae, made his debut on the gruelling Dakar Rally Raid with Nissan in January 2004, and impressed the team by scoring two stage wins on his way to a memorable finish on the gruelling Sahara event. He returned to the Dakar in 2005 and was fastest on two of the first three stages in Morocco, before crashing out of the rally towards the end of stage six. In August 2007, McRae claimed to still be working on finding a seat for the 2008 WRC season, stating that \"if it doesn't happen next year, then I won't (return) because you can only be out of something at that level for so long.\" In 2017, talking to Autosport podcast, David Richards confirmed that he and McRae had talked about McRae's comeback to Subaru for season 2008. Robert Reid was contacted by McRae who asked him to be his co-driver and the pair was due to test together, but unfortunately the test never happened because of McRae's fatal helicopter accident.", "McRae died on 15 September 2007 when his helicopter, a Eurocopter AS350, crashed north of Lanark, Scotland, close to the McRae family home. McRae's five-year-old son Johnny, and two family friends, Graeme Duncan and Johnny's six-year-old friend Ben Porcelli, also died in the crash. McRae's previously active website, \"ColinMcRae.com\", was later replaced with a memorial screen stating a few details about the crash, and then with a short statement released on behalf of McRae's father, Jimmy, and later a book of condolences. In November 2008 he was posthumously inducted into the Scottish Sports Hall of Fame.", "The funeral for Colin and Johnny took place on 26 September at Daldowie Crematorium near Glasgow, conducted by the Rev Tom Houston, who had married the McRaes, and the Rev Steven Reid, chaplain at Johnny's school. An address was given by Robbie Head, a former rally driver and commentator who was a close friend of McRae's, with the Rev Houston giving the benediction. McRae's niece and nephews performed the tune Highland Cathedral, a popular funeral song. The song \"(Sittin' on) the Dock of the Bay\" by Otis Redding, a favourite song of McRae's, was played when the family entered the chapel (coincidentally, Redding himself also died in an air crash). The Proclaimers' song \"I'm on My Way\" was played when they left. Colin and Johnny McRae were cremated in the same coffin. Among the attendees at the funeral were fellow Scottish racing drivers Jackie Stewart and Dario Franchitti. A \"Celebration of Life\" service took place at St Nicholas Church in Lanark on Sunday 30 September at 4 pm. Images from McRae's career and personal life were displayed on large video screens outside the church. Around 700 mourners filled the church, with crowds of up to 15,000 outside. Shortly before 4 pm, Martin Hewins, McRae's personal bagpiper for many years, played \"Flower of Scotland\" as the family arrived at the church. The service was conducted by the Rev Alison Meikle, who said \"Two weeks ago Lanark was struck by silence. A terrible silence bought at an enormous price. However, in our tears love is stronger than death.\" Later, the Kenny Rogers and Dolly Parton song \"Islands in the Stream\", a favourite of Johnny's, was played. Friends of the pair shared poems and anecdotes from the McRaes' lives. After the service, Colin McRae's widow, brother and father bowed and applauded the crowds who had gathered outside to pay tribute to the McRaes. In 2015, 20 years from when McRae clinched the 1995 WRC Championship, an exhibition of memorabilia, including cars, racing gears and pace notes, was displayed at a service park at 2015 Rally GB.", "McRae's death was met by much grief from former colleagues, rivals and fans alike. The announcement of his death took place during qualifying for the 2007 Belgian Grand Prix with ITV commentator James Allen informing viewers of his death. Formula One driver David Coulthard, a good friend of McRae, who was due to represent Scotland along with him in the Race of Champions at Wembley Stadium on 16 December, described him as \"an understated yet fantastically talented individual\", he also announced that he would race the 2007 Japanese Grand Prix with a helmet livery similar to that of McRae's as a tribute. During the finale of the 2007 Scottish Rally Championship, the \"Colin McRae Forest Stages\" held in Perth in September 2007, there was no number-1 car, as McRae had been due to drive the course car on the event. Instead, his car was parked at the starting point of the rally, where fans were able to sign a book of condolences. Following his win at the Brands Hatch meeting of the 2007 World Touring Car Championship season, Andy Priaulx dedicated it to McRae, commenting that his death \"shows how fragile life can be\". McRae's former rival, four-time World Rally Champion Tommi Mäkinen commented the helicopter accident as terrifying news, and described McRae as \"a pleasant fellow and a tough rival\". Valentino Rossi, who was taught the basics of driving a rally car by McRae, said he was shocked and saddened by the sudden departure of the former World Rally Champion. Valentino dedicated his win at Estoril MotoGP in 2007 to Colin McRae, saying to the media: \"I want to dedicate this to Colin McRae. He was one of my big idols when I was very young, and it's because of him I have a big passion for rally\". As a mark of respect for McRae, the Swedish Rally organisers set up an award for the longest jump over a crest on the Vargåsen stage of the rally. The inaugural winner of the award, named \"Colin's Crest\", was Ford's United Arab Emirates driver Khalid al-Qassimi, who recorded a distance of 30 m. On 27 September 2008, the \"Colin McRae Forest Stages Rally\" took place in Perth, Scotland. An enhanced entry list of several former big-name rally drivers took part in memory of Colin. The impressive entry list included ex-World Championship drivers Hannu Mikkola, Ari Vatanen (partnered by his 1981 WRC winning co-driver David Richards), Björn Waldegård, Stig Blomqvist, Malcolm Wilson, Russell Brookes, Jimmy McRae, Andrew Cowan and Louise Aitken-Walker, many competing in their original cars. A handful of current WRC drivers also took part including Matthew Wilson, Kris Meeke and Travis Pastrana. The event was deemed a great success, attracting record spectator numbers to the Perthshire forests. The outright winner was Stobart VK M-Sport Ford Rally Team driver Matthew Wilson in a Ford Focus WRC. Fittingly, Colin's brother Alister McRae won the classic category. In video game \"\" there is a race series named \"Colin McRae Challenge\" that is dedicated to him. Winning the race unlocks a video that is a tribute to him.", "After the crash, an investigative team from the UK Department for Transport Air Accidents Investigation Branch attended the scene in co-operation with Strathclyde Police. The wreckage of the helicopter was removed to Farnborough for further forensic investigation. A report into the accident was published on 12 February 2009. In it, the AAIB did not reach a definite conclusion as to the cause of the accident, stating instead that \"the helicopter crashed in a wooded valley while manoeuvering at high speed and low height. It was intact prior to impact, and the available evidence indicated that the engine was delivering power. The cause of the accident was not positively determined. Although no technical reason was found to explain the accident, a technical fault could not be ruled out entirely. However, it is more likely that the pilot attempted a turning manoeuvre at low height, during which the helicopter deviated from its intended flight path; whether due to the pilot encountering handling difficulties, misjudgement, spatial disorientation, distraction or a combination of such events. There were indications that the pilot had started a recovery but, with insufficient height in which to complete it, the helicopter struck trees in the valley and crashed, killing all four occupants.\" A fatal accident inquiry into the incident concluded, on 6 September 2011, that McRae was at fault for the avoidable helicopter crash that led to his death and the death of his passengers. Sheriff Nikola Stewart stated, after the 16-day inquiry, that McRae had been engaged in \"unnecessary and unsafe\" low-level flying at the time of the crash.", "Codemasters released the first \"Colin McRae Rally\" video game in 1998. Version \"2\", known as \"Colin McRae Rally 2.0\", was released in the year 2000, for Sony's PlayStation and Microsoft Windows; it was also ported to the Game Boy Advance in 2002. A third version found a wide audience on Windows and Xbox. Versions \"04\" and \"2005\" arrived in 2004 on all major platforms. \"2005\" was also remade for Sony's PlayStation Portable and Nokia's N-Gage. \"\" was the title for the next instalment of the series, which launched in 2007 for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360. The PlayStation 3 edition was released in the UK on 14 September, the day before McRae's death. A special edition for mobile phones was released by Codemasters Mobile. \"\" was released on the PlayStation 3, and Xbox 360 on 11 September 2009, the PC version was released on 8 December 2009. This was the last in the series to bear the 'Colin McRae' moniker. \"Dirt 3\" was released in Europe and North America on 24 May 2011, and two days later in Australia for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360. The spin-off \"\" took the series in a new direction, focusing on arcade racing and demolition derby-type events. It was released on PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 on 25 May 2012 in Europe and 12 July 2012 in North America, the Windows version was released 31 May 2012 in Europe and 23 May 2012 in North America. On 27 June 2013, a remastered version of \"Colin McRae Rally 2.0\", simply titled \"Colin McRae Rally\", was released for iOS devices. \"Dirt Rally\" was released on PC on 7 December 2015, the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One version was released on 5 April 2016. \"Dirt 4\" was released on 6 June 2017 in North America, and 3 days later in Europe and Australia. \"Dirt Rally 2.0\" was released worldwide on 26 February 2019 on the PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Microsoft Windows. \"Dirt 5\" was announced in May for an October 2020 release on PlayStation 4, PlayStation 5, Xbox One, Xbox Series X, Google Stadia and Steam. It will be the first game in the \"Dirt\" franchise to be released on ninth generation game consoles.", "Colin McRae chose the 2006 Goodwood Festival of Speed to unveil the McRae R4, which had been conceived at the beginning of 2005. The intention was to make a cheaper alternative to WRCs (World Rally Cars) with significantly lower running costs. The McRae R4 was designed for use in rallying, rally cross, circuit racing and ice racing events, with the possibility of a one-make race series. Designed by Colin McRae and Dave Plant and built by DJM Race Preparation, the McRae R4's chassis is based on a steel safety cage with carbon panelling front and rear, and a steel-covered cockpit area. Suspension consists of twin wishbones with Proflex dampers. The body styling has been done by Keith Burden and Tom Webster. It appears that some components of the vehicle have been taken from existing production cars, the doorline in particular appears very close to that of the Ford Ka. The engine is a naturally aspirated, 4-cylinder, 2.5-litre Millington Diamond Engine producing 350 BHP. Transmission is via a six-speed gearbox, manual or semi-automatic, and by mechanical front and rear differentials with the option of mechanical or active central differential. The car can be produced in either 2 or 4 wheel drive formats. Alison McRae has said that she would like production of the car to continue following Colin's death. The R4 appears in Codemasters titles \"\", \"\" and \"Dirt 3\".", "", "† — Did not finish the race, but was classified as he completed over 90% of the race distance. ‡ — Not eligible for points due to being a guest driver." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Origin and education.", "Military service. Scientific and pedagogical career.", "Scientific activity.", "Physics of X-ray and photoelectric effect.", "Matter and wave–particle duality.", "Conjecture of an internal clock of the electron.", "Non-nullity and variability of mass.", "Generalization of the principle of least action.", "Duality of the laws of nature.", "Neutrino theory of light.", "Hidden thermodynamics." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Louis de Broglie belonged to the famous aristocratic family of Broglie, whose representatives for several centuries occupied important military and political posts in France. The father of the future physicist, Louis-Alphonse-Victor, 5th duc de Broglie, was married to Pauline d’Armaille, the granddaughter of the Napoleonic General Philippe Paul, comte de Ségur. They had five children; in addition to Louis, these are: Albertina (1872-1946), subsequently the Marquise de Luppé; Maurice (1875-1960), subsequently a famous experimental physicist; Philip (1881-1890), who died two years before the birth of Louis, and Pauline, Comtesse de Pange (1888-1972), subsequently a famous writer. Louis was born in Dieppe, Seine-Maritime. As the youngest child in the family, Louis grew up in relative loneliness, read a lot, was fond of history, especially political. From early childhood, he had a good memory and could accurately read an excerpt from a theatrical production or give a complete list of ministers of the Third Republic of France. For him was predicted a great future as a statesman. De Broglie had intended a career in humanities, and received his first degree in history. Afterwards he turned his attention toward mathematics and physics and received a degree in physics. With the outbreak of the First World War in 1914, he offered his services to the army in the development of radio communications.", "After graduation, Louis de Broglie as a simple sapper joined the engineering forces to undergo compulsory service. It began at Fort Mont Valérien, but soon, on the initiative of his brother, he was seconded to the Wireless Communications Service and worked on the Eiffel Tower, where the radio transmitter was located. Louis de Broglie remained in military service throughout the First World War, dealing with purely technical issues. In particular, together with Leon Brillouin and brother Maurice, he participated in establishing wireless communications with submarines. Prince Louis was demobilized in August 1919 with the rank of adjudant. Subsequently, the scientist regretted talking about six years of his life, which were held in isolation from the fundamental problems of science that interested him. His 1924 thesis \"Recherches sur la théorie des quanta\" (Research on the Theory of the Quanta) introduced his theory of electron waves. This included the wave–particle duality theory of matter, based on the work of Max Planck and Albert Einstein on light. This research culminated in the de Broglie hypothesis stating that \"any moving particle or object had an associated wave\". De Broglie thus created a new field in physics, the \"mécanique ondulatoire,\" or wave mechanics, uniting the physics of energy (wave) and matter (particle). For this he won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1929. In his later career, de Broglie worked to develop a causal explanation of wave mechanics, in opposition to the wholly probabilistic models which dominate quantum mechanical theory; it was refined by David Bohm in the 1950s. The theory has since been known as the De Broglie–Bohm theory. In addition to strictly scientific work, de Broglie thought and wrote about the philosophy of science, including the value of modern scientific discoveries. De Broglie became a member of the Académie des sciences in 1933, and was the academy's perpetual secretary from 1942. He was asked to join \"Le Conseil de l'Union Catholique des Scientifiques Francais\", but declined because he was non-religious. On 12 October 1944, he was elected to the Académie Française, replacing mathematician Émile Picard. Because of the deaths and imprisonments of Académie members during the occupation and other effects of the war, the Académie was unable to meet the quorum of twenty members for his election; due to the exceptional circumstances, however, his unanimous election by the seventeen members present was accepted. In an event unique in the history of the Académie, he was received as a member by his own brother Maurice, who had been elected in 1934. UNESCO awarded him the first Kalinga Prize in 1952 for his work in popularizing scientific knowledge, and he was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society on 23 April 1953. Louis became the 7th duc de Broglie in 1960 upon the death without heir of his elder brother, Maurice, 6th duc de Broglie, also a physicist. In 1961, he received the title of Knight of the Grand Cross in the Légion d'honneur. De Broglie was awarded a post as counselor to the French High Commission of Atomic Energy in 1945 for his efforts to bring industry and science closer together. He established a center for applied mechanics at the Henri Poincaré Institute, where research into optics, cybernetics, and atomic energy were carried out. He inspired the formation of the International Academy of Quantum Molecular Science and was an early member. His funeral was held 23 March 1987 at the Church of Saint-Pierre-de-Neuilly. Louis never married. When he died in Louveciennes, he was succeeded as duke by a distant cousin, Victor-François, 8th duc de Broglie.", "", "The first works of Louis de Broglie (early 1920s) were performed in the laboratory of his older brother Maurice and dealt with the features of the photoelectric effect and the properties of x-rays. These publications examined the absorption of X-rays and described this phenomenon using the Bohr theory, applied quantum principles to the interpretation of photoelectron spectra, and gave a systematic classification of X-ray spectra. The studies of X-ray spectra were important for elucidating the structure of the internal electron shells of atoms (optical spectra are determined by the outer shells). Thus, the results of experiments conducted together with Alexandre Dauvillier, revealed the shortcomings of the existing schemes for the distribution of electrons in atoms; these difficulties were eliminated by Edmund Stoner.", "\"The fundamental idea of [my 1924 thesis] was the following: The fact that, following Einstein's introduction of photons in light waves, one knew that light contains particles which are concentrations of energy incorporated into the wave, suggests that all particles, like the electron, must be transported by a wave into which it is incorporated... My essential idea was to extend to all particles the coexistence of waves and particles discovered by Einstein in 1905 in the case of light and photons.\" \"With every particle of matter with mass m and velocity v a real wave must be 'associated'\", related to the momentum by the equation: where formula_2 is the wavelength, formula_3 is the Planck constant, formula_4 is the momentum, formula_5 is the rest mass, formula_6 is the velocity and formula_7 is the speed of light in a vacuum.\" This theory set the basis of wave mechanics. It was supported by Einstein, confirmed by the electron diffraction experiments of G P Thomson and Davisson and Germer, and generalized by the work of Schrödinger. However, this generalization was statistical and was not approved of by de Broglie, who said \"that the particle must be the seat of an internal periodic movement and that it must move in a wave in order to remain in phase with it was ignored by the actual physicists [who are] wrong to consider a wave propagation without localization of the particle, which was quite contrary to my original ideas.\" From a philosophical viewpoint, this theory of matter-waves has contributed greatly to the ruin of the atomism of the past. Originally, de Broglie thought that real wave (i.e., having a direct physical interpretation) was associated with particles. In fact, the wave aspect of matter was formalized by a wavefunction defined by the Schrödinger equation, which is a pure mathematical entity having a probabilistic interpretation, without the support of real physical elements. This wavefunction gives an appearance of wave behavior to matter, without making real physical waves appear. However, until the end of his life de Broglie returned to a direct and real physical interpretation of matter-waves, following the work of David Bohm. The de Broglie–Bohm theory is today the only interpretation giving real status to matter-waves and representing the predictions of quantum theory.", "In his 1924 thesis, de Broglie conjectured that the electron has an internal clock that constitutes part of the mechanism by which a pilot wave guides a particle. Subsequently, David Hestenes has proposed a link to the Zitterbewegung that was suggested by Erwin Schrödinger. While attempts at verifying the internal clock hypothesis and measuring clock frequency are so far not conclusive, recent experimental data is at least compatible with de Broglie's conjecture.", "According to de Broglie, the neutrino and the photon have rest masses that are non-zero, though very low. That a photon is not quite massless is imposed by the coherence of his theory. Incidentally, this rejection of the hypothesis of a massless photon enabled him to doubt the hypothesis of the expansion of the universe. In addition, he believed that the true mass of particles is not constant, but variable, and that each particle can be represented as a thermodynamic machine equivalent to a cyclic integral of action.", "In the second part of his 1924 thesis, de Broglie used the equivalence of the mechanical principle of least action with Fermat's optical principle: \"Fermat's principle applied to phase waves is identical to Maupertuis' principle applied to the moving body; the possible dynamic trajectories of the moving body are identical to the possible rays of the wave.\" This equivalence had been pointed out by Hamilton a century earlier, and published by him around 1830, in an era where no experience gave proof of the fundamental principles of physics being involved in the description of atomic phenomena. Up to his final work, he appeared to be the physicist who most sought that dimension of action which Max Planck, at the beginning of the 20th century, had shown to be the only universal unity (with his dimension of entropy).", "Far from claiming to make \"the contradiction disappear\" which Max Born thought could be achieved with a statistical approach, de Broglie extended wave–particle duality to all particles (and to crystals which revealed the effects of diffraction) and extended the principle of duality to the laws of nature. His last work made a single system of laws from the two large systems of thermodynamics and of mechanics: That idea seems to match the continuous–discontinuous duality, since its dynamics could be the limit of its thermodynamics when transitions to continuous limits are postulated. It is also close to that of Leibniz, who posited the necessity of \"architectonic principles\" to complete the system of mechanical laws. However, according to him, there is less duality, in the sense of opposition, than synthesis (one is the limit of the other) and the effort of synthesis is constant according to him, like in his first formula, in which the first member pertains to mechanics and the second to optics:", "This theory, which dates from 1934, introduces the idea that the photon is equivalent to the fusion of two Dirac neutrinos. It shows that the movement of the center of gravity of these two particles obeys the Maxwell equations—that implies that the neutrino and the photon both have rest masses that are non-zero, though very low.", "De Broglie's final idea was the hidden thermodynamics of isolated particles. It is an attempt to bring together the three furthest principles of physics: the principles of Fermat, Maupertuis, and Carnot. In this work, action becomes a sort of opposite to entropy, through an equation that relates the only two universal dimensions of the form: As a consequence of its great impact, this theory brings back the uncertainty principle to distances around extrema of action, distances corresponding to \"reductions in entropy\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Geography.", "Neighborhoods.", "Downtown.", "North Central.", "Northwest Side.", "South Side.", "East Side.", "West Side.", "Vegetation.", "Climate.", "Demographics.", "Economy.", "Military installations.", "Relocation losses.", "Culture.", "Attractions.", "Sports.", "Professional sports.", "College sports.", "Crime.", "Government.", "Growth policy.", "State and federal representation.", "Education.", "Higher Education.", "Secondary and Primary Education.", "Military.", "Media and entertainment.", "Print.", "Radio.", "Television.", "Annual events.", "Transportation.", "Air.", "Mass transit.", "Rail.", "Road.", "Bicycle paths.", "Bicycle sharing.", "Walkability.", "In popular culture.", "International relations.", "Sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "At the time of European encounter, Payaya Indians lived near the San Antonio River Valley in the San Pedro Springs area. They called the vicinity \"Yanaguana\", meaning \"refreshing waters\". In 1691, a group of Spanish explorers and missionaries came upon the river and Payaya settlement on June 13, the feast day of St. Anthony of Padua. They named the place and river \"San Antonio\" in his honor. It was years before any Spanish settlement took place. Father Antonio de Olivares visited the site in 1709, and he was determined to found a mission and civilian settlement there. The viceroy gave formal approval for a combined mission and presidio in late 1716, as he wanted to forestall any French expansion into the area from their colony of \"La Louisiane\" to the east, as well as prevent illegal trading with the Payaya. He directed Martín de Alarcón, the governor of Coahuila y Tejas, to establish the mission complex. Differences between Alarcón and Olivares resulted in delays, and construction did not start until 1718. Olivares built, with the help of the Payaya Indians, the Misión de San Antonio de Valero (The Alamo), the Presidio San Antonio de Bexar, the bridge that connected both, and the Acequia Madre de Valero. The families who clustered around the presidio and mission were the start of Villa de Béjar, destined to become the most important town in Spanish Texas. On May 1, the governor transferred ownership of the Mission San Antonio de Valero (later famous as The Alamo) to Fray Antonio de Olivares. On May 5, 1718 he commissioned the Presidio San Antonio de Béxar (\"Béjar\" in modern Spanish orthography) on the west side of the San Antonio River, one-fourth league from the mission. On February 14, 1719, the Marquis of San Miguel de Aguayo proposed to the king of Spain that 400 families be transported from the Canary Islands, Galicia, or Havana to populate the province of Texas. His plan was approved, and notice was given the Canary Islanders (\"isleños\") to furnish 200 families; the Council of the Indies suggested that 400 families should be sent from the Canaries to Texas by way of Havana and Veracruz. By June 1730, 25 families had reached Cuba, and 10 families had been sent to Veracruz before orders from Spain came to stop the re-settlement. Under the leadership of Juan Leal Goraz, the group marched overland from Veracruz to the Presidio San Antonio de Béxar, where they arrived on March 9, 1731. Due to marriages along the way, the party now included 15 families, a total of 56 persons. They joined the military community established in 1718. The immigrants formed the nucleus of the villa of San Fernando de Béxar, the first regularly organized civil government in Texas. Several older families of San Antonio trace their descent from the Canary Island colonists. María Rosa Padrón was the first baby born of Canary Islander descent in San Antonio. During the Spanish-Mexican settlement of Southwestern lands, which took place over the following century, Juan Leal Goraz Jr. was a prominent figure. He claimed nearly 100,000 sq miles (153,766 acres) as Spanish territory and held some control for nearly three decades; this area stretched across six present-day states. San Antonio was designated as Leal Goraz's capital. It represented Mexican expansion into the area. With his robust military forces, he led exploration and establishing Spanish colonial bases as far as San Francisco, California. Widespread bankruptcy forced Leal Goraz Jr.'s army back into the current boundaries of Mexico; they fell into internal conflict and turmoil with neighboring entities. San Antonio grew to become the largest Spanish settlement in", "San Antonio is approximately to the southwest of its neighboring city, Austin, the state capital, about west of Houston, and about south of the Dallas–Fort Worth area. The city has a total area of — of which is land and of which is water. The city's gently rolling terrain is dotted with oak trees, forested land, mesquite, and cacti. The Texas Hill Country reaches into the far northern portions of the city. San Antonio sits on the Balcones Escarpment. Its altitude is above sea level. The city's primary source of drinking water is the Edwards Aquifer. Impounded in 1962 and 1969, respectively, Victor Braunig Lake and Calaveras Lake were among the first reservoirs in the country built to use recycled treated wastewater for power plant cooling, reducing the amount of groundwater needed for electrical generation.", "", "Downtown San Antonio, the city and metro area's urban core, encompasses many of the city's famous structures, attractions, and businesses. The central business district is generally understood to", "North Central is home to several enclaves and upscale neighborhoods including Castle Hills, Hollywood Park, Elm", "Northwest Side is the location of the main campus of the University of Texas at San Antonio, the University of Texas Health Science Center at San", "The South Side area of San Antonio is characterized for its predominantly Latino and Hispanic neighborhoods, an average above", "The East Side of San Antonio is home to the San Antonio Stock", "The West Side is predominantly Hispanic and working class, with pockets of wealth in the northwest and far west. It includes the diverse neighborhoods of Avenida Guadalupe, Collins Garden, Las Palmas, Prospect Hill, San Juan Gardens, Loma Park, Loma Vista, Memorial Heights, and Westwood. It is also home to the historic Our Lady of the Lake University and St. Mary's University.", "Natural vegetation in the San Antonio area (where undisturbed by development) includes oak-cedar woodland, oak grassland", "San Antonio has a transitional humid subtropical climate that borders a semi-arid climate towards the west of the city (Köppen: Cfa) and (Köppen climate classification: BSh) featuring very hot, long, and humid summers and mild to cool winters. The area is subject to descending northern cold fronts in the winter with cool to cold nights, typically seeing night lows at or near freezing and is warm and rainy in the spring and fall. San Antonio falls in USDA hardiness zones 8b (15 °F to 20 °F) and 9a (20 °F to 25 °F). San Antonio receives about a dozen subfreezing nights each year, typically seeing snow, sleet, or freezing rain about once every two or three winters, but accumulation and snow itself are very rare. Winters may pass without any frozen precipitation at all, and up to a decade has passed between snowfalls. According to the National Weather Service, there have been 32 instances of snowfall (a trace or", "According to the 2010 U.S. Census, 1,327,407 people resided in San Antonio city proper, an increase of 16.0% since 2000. The racial composition of the city based on the 2010 U.S. Census is as follows: 72.6% White (non-Hispanic whites: 26.6%), 6.9% Black or African American, 0.9% Native American, 2.4% Asian, 0.1% Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander, 3.4% two or more races, and 13.7% other races. In addition, 63.2% of the city's population was of Hispanic or Latino origin, of any race. According to the 2000 U.S. Census, the city proper had a population of 1,144,646, ranking it the ninth-most populated city in the country. Due to San Antonio's low density rate and lack of significant metropolitan population outside the city limits, the metropolitan area ranked just 30th in the U.S. with a population of 1,592,383 in 2000. San Antonio has a large Hispanic population with a significant African American population. Subsequent population counts indicate continued rapid growth in the area. As stated above, the 2010 U.S. Census showed the city's population at 1,327,407, making it the second-most-populous city in Texas (after Houston), as well as the seventh-most-populous city in the United States. The 2011 U.S. census estimate for the eight-county metropolitan area placed its population at 2,194,927. The 2017 estimate for Greater San Antonio was 2,473,974, making it the third-most populous metro area in Texas (after the Dallas-Fort Worth metroplex and Greater Houston) and the 24th-most populous metro area in the U.S. The metropolitan area is bordered to the northeast by, and the two metropolitan areas together combine to form a region of over 4.7 million people known as the \"Austin-San Antonio Corridor\" or \"Austintonio\". About 405,474 households, and 280,993 families reside in San Antonio. The population density is 2,808.5 people per square mile (1,084.4 km). There are 433,122 housing units at an average density of 1,062.7 per square mile (410.3 km). The age of the city's population is distributed as 28.5% under the age of 18, 10.8% from 18 to 24, 30.8% from 25 to 44, 19.4% from 45 to 64, and 10.4% who are 65 years of age or older. The median age is 32 years. In San Antonio, 48% of the population are males, and 52% of the population are females. For every 100 females, there are 93.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there are 89.7 males. The median income for a household in the city is $36,214, and the median income for a family is $53,100. Males have a median income of $30,061 versus $24,444 for females. The per capita income for the city is $17,487. About 17.3% of the population and 14.0% of families are below the poverty line. Of the total population, 24.3% of those under the age of 18 and 13.5% of those 65 and older are living below the poverty line.", "San Antonio has a diversified economy with a gross domestic product (GDP) of approximately $96.8 billion. This ranks the city fourth in Texas and 38th in the United States. San Antonio's economy focuses primarily on military, health care, government-civil service, financial services, oil and gas, and tourism. Within the past twenty years, the city has become a significant location for American-based call centers and has added a sizable manufacturing sector centered around automobiles. Located about 10 miles northwest of Downtown is South Texas Medical Center, a conglomerate of various hospitals, clinics, and research (see Southwest Research Institute and Texas Biomedical Research Institute) and higher educational institutions. Over twenty million tourists visit the city and its attractions every year, contributing substantially to its economy, primarily due to The Alamo and the River Walk. The Henry B. Gonzalez Convention Center alone hosts over 300 events annually with more than 750,000 convention delegates from around the world. Tourism provided over 130,000 jobs, and it had an economic impact of $13.6 billion in the local economy. The city of San Antonio received $195 million in the same year from the hospitality industry, with revenues from hotel occupancy tax, sales taxes and others. San Antonio is the headquarters of six Fortune 500 companies: Valero Energy, Andeavor (formerly Tesoro Corp), USAA, iHeartMedia, NuStar Energy, and CST Brands, Inc.. H-E-B, the 13th-largest private company in the U.S. is also based in San Antonio. Other companies headquartered in the city include Bill Miller Bar-B-Q Enterprises, Carenet Health, Security Service Federal Credit Union, Visionworks of America, Frost Bank, Harte-Hanks, Kinetic Concepts, SWBC, NewTek, Rackspace, Taco Cabana, Broadway Bank, Zachry Holdings/Zachry Construction Company, Randolph-Brooks Federal Credit Union, SAS, and Whataburger. The North American Development Bank, a development institution jointly held by the governments of the U.S. and Mexico, is headquartered in San Antonio as well. Other notable companies that maintain sizable presences in the city include Hulu, OCI, Kaco New Energy, Silver Spring Networks, Toyota, Argo Group, EOG Resources, Microsoft, Cogeco Peer1, and Boeing.", "The city is home to one of the largest concentrations of military bases in the U.S., and has been nicknamed Military City, USA. The city is home", "San Antonio has lost several major company headquarters, the largest being the 2008 move of AT&T Inc. to Dallas \"to better serve customers and", "", "San Antonio is a popular tourist destination. The Alamo Mission in San Antonio (\"The Alamo\"), located in Downtown, is Texas' top tourist attraction. Because of the mission, San Antonio is often called \"Alamo City\". The River Walk, which meanders through the Downtown area, is the city's second-most-visited attraction, giving it the additional nickname of \"River City\". Extended an additional 13 miles between 2009–2013, the landscaped walking and bike path line the San Antonio River from the \"Museum Reach\" beginning in Brackenridge Park through downtown, \"Downtown Reach\", past the Blue Star's \"Eagleland\" to the \"Mission Reach\" ending near Loop 410 South past Mission Espada. Lined with numerous", "", "The city's only top-level professional sports team, and consequently the team most San Antonians follow, is the San Antonio Spurs of the National Basketball Association. Previously, the Spurs played at the Alamodome (which was speculatively built in an attempt to lure a professional football team to the region), and before that the HemisFair Arena. They moved into the SBC Center in 2002 (since renamed the AT&T Center), built with public funds. The AT&T Center is also home to the San Antonio Rampage of the American Hockey League. The team was owned by the Spurs organization until February 2020, when it was announced that the Vegas Golden Knights had purchased the franchise and planned to move", "The University of Texas at San Antonio fields San Antonio's main NCAA Division I athletic teams, known as the UTSA Roadrunners. The teams play in Conference USA. The university added football in 2011, hiring former University of Miami coach Larry Coker as its initial head coach. Roadrunner football began play in 2011, with a record of 4–6. UTSA set attendance records for both highest attendance at an inaugural game (56,743) and highest average attendance for a first year program (35,521). The Roadrunners moved to the Western Athletic Conference in 2012, and to Conference USA in 2013. University of the Incarnate Word also fields a full slate of NCAA Division I athletic teams, known as the Incarnate Word Cardinals; however, their football team competes in the football championship subdivision in the Southland Conference. Trinity University fields all the typical collegiate", "Crime in San Antonio began to rise in the early 1980s. In 1983 San Antonio had the 10th highest homicide rate in Texas with 18.5 homicides per 100,000 residents. The number of juveniles arrested in San Antonio for violent crimes tripled between 1987 and 1994, according to the Texas Law Enforcement Management and Administration Statistics Program. The number of youths arrested for unlawfully carrying firearms doubled over the same period. In 1993 San Antonio was nicknamed the \"Drive-By City\" after San Antonio Police Department recorded over 1,200 drive-by shootings or nearly 3.5 per day. That figure overshadowed the", "The City of San Antonio runs under the council-manager system of government. The city is divided into 10 council districts designed to be of equal population. Each district elects one person to the city council, with the mayor elected on a citywide basis. All members of the San Antonio City Council, including the mayor, are elected to two-year terms and are limited to four terms (except for those who were in office in November 2008 and are limited to a total of two terms). Houston and Laredo have similar term limits to San Antonio. All positions are elected on nonpartisan ballots, as required by Texas law. Council members are paid $45,722 and the mayor earns $61,725 a year. The current mayor is Ron Nirenberg, who was elected in 2017 with 54.59% of the vote. Nirenberg was narrowly reelected in 2019 against conservative challenger Greg Brockhouse. The council hires a city manager to handle day-to-day operations. The council effectively functions as the city's legislative body with the city manager acting as its chief executive, responsible for the management of day-to-day operations and execution of council legislation. The current city manager is Erik Walsh. The city operates its own electric and gas utility service, CPS Energy. The San Antonio Police Department (SAPD) is the city's municipal body of law enforcement. The San Antonio Fire Department (SAFD) provides the city with fire protection and EMS service. The city stretches into several national congressional districts and is represented in Congress by:", "Unlike most large cities in the U.S., San Antonio is not completely surrounded by independent suburban cities, and under Texas state law it exercises extraterritorial jurisdiction (ETJ) over much of the surrounding unincorporated land, including planning major thoroughfares and enforcing rules for platting and subdivision. It pursues an aggressive annexation policy and opposes the creation of other municipalities within its ETJ. Nearly three-fourths of its land area has been annexed since 1960. In the 2000s the city annexed several long narrow corridors along major thoroughfares in outlying areas to facilitate eventual annexation of growth developing along the routes. The city planned to annex nearly 40 additional square miles by 2009. In May 2010, the City of San Antonio agreed to release thousands of acres of land in its extraterritorial jurisdiction along Interstate 10 to", "The Texas Department of Criminal Justice (TDCJ) operates the Parole Division Region IV headquarters in the San Antonio Metro Parole Complex. San Antonio district parole offices I and III are", "", "San Antonio hosts over 100,000 students in its 31 higher-education institutions. Publicly supported schools include UT Health San Antonio, the University of Texas at San Antonio (UTSA), Texas A&M University–San Antonio, and the Alamo Community College District. UTSA is San Antonio's largest university. Private universities include Trinity University, St. Mary's University,", "The city is home to more than 30 private schools and charter schools. These schools include: Keystone School, St. Gerard Catholic High School, Central Catholic Marianist High School, Incarnate Word High School, Saint Mary's Hall, The Atonement Academy, Antonian College Preparatory High School, San Antonio", "San Antonio is home to U.S. Air Force Basic Military Training (AFBMT). The Air Force only has one location for enlisted basic training: the 737th Training Group, at Lackland Air Force Base. All new Air Force recruits go", "", "San Antonio has one major newspaper, the \"San Antonio Express-News\", which has served the area since 1865. The \"Express-News\" circulates as the largest newspaper service in South Texas. The Hearst Corporation, which owned a second newspaper, the \"San Antonio Light\", purchased the \"Express-News\" from News Corp. in 1992 and shut down the \"Light\" after failing to find a buyer. Hearst, using the Express-News brand, also produces \"Conexión\", a weekly magazine written by an entirely Hispanic staff with a Hispanic spin on weekly events. The San Antonio \"Current\"", "About 50 radio stations can be heard in the San Antonio area—30 of them are in the city proper. San Antonio is home to iHeartMedia, the largest operator of radio stations in the U.S. Its flagship, WOAI AM-1200, is known for its local news operation, considered among the best in the country. It is a 50,000-watt clear channel station that reaches most of North America at night. The first radio station to broadcast in south Texas was KTSA AM-550 in 1922. The region's National Public Radio member is Texas Public Radio, a group of three stations; KSTX 89.1 FM is NPR news/talk, KPAC 88.3 is a 24-hour classical music station, and KTXI 90.1 is a mix of NPR news/talk and classical music broadcast for the West Central Texas Hill Country. KSTX also broadcasts \"Riverwalk Jazz\", featuring Jim Cullum Jazz Band at The Landing, a fixture on the River Walk since 1963. KRTU 91.7 is a non-commercial radio station based at Trinity University. Unlike most other", "Despite the relatively large size of both the city proper and the metropolitan area, San Antonio has always been a medium-sized market. It presently ranks 33rd in the United States, according to marketing research firm ACNielsen. By comparison, the other two Texas cities with populations of over a million people, Houston and Dallas, are among the 10 largest markets. This is mainly", "Yearly events, such as Fiesta San Antonio (the city's signature event), Luminaria (a contemporary arts festival) and Fiesta Noche del Rio, add a variety of entertainment options to the area,", "", "The San Antonio International Airport (SAT) is located in uptown San Antonio, about eight miles north of Downtown. San Antonio International Airport is the 6th busiest airport based on passenger boardings in Texas and 44th in the United States. It has", "A bus and rubber tired streetcar (bus) system is provided by the city's metropolitan transit authority, VIA Metropolitan Transit. VIA's full fare monthly unlimited Big Pass is $38 per month. VIA began operating a Bus Rapid Transit line known as VIA Primo in December 2012, which connects Downtown San Antonio to the South Texas Medical Center, the main campus of the University of Texas at San Antonio, and the independent enclave city of Leon Valley. In August 2010, VIA Metropolitan Transit unveiled buses that are powered by diesel-electric hybrid technology. The 30 hybrid buses were put into service on VIA's express routes to serve daily commuters across", "San Antonio is served by two Amtrak routes - the daily Chicago to San Antonio \"Texas Eagle\" and the thrice-weekly New Orleans to Los Angeles \"Sunset Limited.\" On the days that the \"Sunset Limited\" operates, a section of the \"Texas Eagle\" continues west with it, offering Chicago to Los Angeles through service. The old Sunset Station is now an entertainment venue owned by VIA and neighbored by the current station and the Alamodome. Freight", "San Antonio is served by these major freeways: Other highways include: Along with FM 471, FM 1957, and State Highway 211 Also, the city", "San Antonio has about of bike lanes, routes or off-road paths. Off-road trails travel along the San Antonio River, linear greenways, or", "A bike sharing service was approved by the city council on June 17, 2010. The initial program consisted of 140 bikes at 14 locations supported by a \"central hub\". It", "San Antonio is one of the", "Movies predominantly filmed in San Antonio include \"Wings\" (1927), \"I Wanted Wings\" (1941), \"Viva Max!\" (1969), \"Sugarland Express\" (1974), \"Piranha\" (1978), \"Cloak and Dagger\"", "", "San Antonio" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life and career.", "Early years.", "Royal College of Music and Trinity College, Cambridge.", "Early career.", "Ravel; rising fame; First World War.", "Inter-war years.", "1939–1952.", "Second marriage and last years.", "Music.", "Symphonies.", "\"Sea\", \"London\" and \"Pastoral\" Symphonies (1910–1922).", "Symphonies 4–6 (1935–1948).", "\"Sinfonia antartica\", Symphonies 8 and 9 (1952–1957).", "Other orchestral music.", "Chamber and instrumental.", "Vocal music.", "Songs.", "Choral music.", "Stage works.", "Recordings.", "Honours and legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Vaughan Williams was born at Down Ampney, Gloucestershire, the third child and younger son of the vicar, the Reverend Arthur Vaughan Williams (1834–1875) and his wife, Margaret, \"née\" Wedgwood (1842–1937). His paternal forebears were of mixed English and Welsh descent; many of them went into the law or the Church. The judges Sir Edward and Sir Roland Vaughan Williams were respectively Arthur's father and brother. Margaret Vaughan Williams was a great-granddaughter of Josiah Wedgwood and niece of Charles Darwin. Arthur", "In July 1890 Vaughan Williams left Charterhouse and in September he was enrolled as a student at the Royal College of Music (RCM), London. After a compulsory course in harmony with Francis Edward Gladstone, professor of organ, counterpoint and harmony, he studied organ with Walter Parratt and composition with Hubert Parry. He idolised Parry, and recalled in his \"Musical Autobiography\" (1950): Vaughan Williams's family would have preferred him to have remained at Charterhouse for two more years and then go on to Cambridge University. They were", "Vaughan Williams had a modest private income, which in his early career he supplemented with a variety of musical activities. Although the organ was not his preferred instrument, the only post he ever held for an annual salary was as a church organist and choirmaster. He held the position at St Barnabas, in the inner London district of South Lambeth, from 1895 to 1899 for a salary of £50 a year. He disliked the job, but working closely with a choir was valuable experience for", "Ravel took few pupils, and was known as a demanding taskmaster for those he agreed to teach. Vaughan Williams spent three months in Paris in the winter of 1907–1908, working with him four or five times each week. There is little documentation of Vaughan Williams's time with Ravel; the musicologist Byron Adams advises caution in relying on Vaughan Williams's recollections in the \"Musical Autobiography\" written forty-three years after the event. The degree to which the French composer influenced the Englishman's style is debated. Ravel declared Vaughan", "During the war Vaughan Williams stopped writing music, and after returning to civilian life he took some time before feeling ready to compose new works. He revised some earlier pieces, and turned his attention to other musical activities. In 1919 he accepted an invitation from Hugh Allen, who had succeeded Parry as director, to teach composition at the RCM; he remained on the faculty of the college for the next twenty years. In 1921 he succeeded Allen as conductor of the Bach Choir, London. It was not until 1922 that he produced a major new composition, \"A Pastoral Symphony\"; the work was given its first performance in London in May conducted by Adrian Boult and its American premiere in", "During the Second World War Vaughan Williams was active in civilian war work, chairing the Home Office Committee for the Release of Interned Alien Musicians, helping Myra Hess with the organisation of the daily National Gallery concerts, serving on a committee for refugees from Nazi oppression, and on the Council for the Encouragement of Music and the Arts (CEMA), the forerunner of the Arts Council. In 1940 he composed his first film score, for the propaganda film \"49th Parallel\". In 1942 Michael Wood died suddenly of heart failure. At Adeline's behest the widowed Ursula was invited to stay with the Vaughan Williamses in Dorking, and thereafter was a regular visitor there, sometimes staying for weeks at a time. The critic Michael White suggests that Adeline \"appears, in the most amicable way, to have adopted Ursula as her successor\". Ursula recorded that during air raids all three slept in the same room in adjacent beds, holding hands for comfort. In 1943 Vaughan Williams conducted the premiere of his Fifth Symphony at the Proms. Its serene tone contrasted with the stormy Fourth, and led some commentators to think it a symphonic valediction. William Glock wrote", "In February 1953 Vaughan Williams and Ursula were married. He left the Dorking house and they took a lease of 10 Hanover Terrace, Regent's Park, London. It was the year of Queen Elizabeth II's coronation; Vaughan Williams's contribution was an arrangement of the Old Hundredth psalm tune, and a new setting of \"O taste and see\" from Psalm 34, performed at the service in Westminster Abbey. Having returned to live in London, Vaughan Williams, with Ursula's encouragement, became much more active socially and in \"pro bono publico\" activities. He was a leading figure in the Society for the Promotion of New Music, and in 1954 he set up and endowed the RVW Trust to support young composers and promote new or neglected music. He and his wife travelled extensively in Europe, and in 1954 he visited the US once again, having been invited to lecture at Cornell and other universities and to conduct. He received an enthusiastic welcome from large audiences, and was overwhelmed at the", "Michael Kennedy characterises Vaughan Williams's music as a strongly individual blending of the modal harmonies familiar from folk‐song with the French influence of Ravel and Debussy. The basis of his work is melody, his rhythms, in Kennedy's view, being unsubtle at times. Vaughan Williams's music is often described as visionary; Kennedy cites the masque \"Job\" and the Fifth and Ninth Symphonies. Vaughan Williams's output was prolific and wide-ranging. For the voice he composed songs, operas, and choral works ranging from simpler pieces suitable for amateurs to demanding works for professional choruses. His comparatively few chamber works are not among his better known compositions. Some of his finest works elude conventional categorisation, such as the \"Serenade to Music\" (1938) for sixteen solo singers and orchestra; \"Flos Campi\" (1925) for solo viola, small orchestra, and small chorus; and his most important chamber work, in Howes's view—not purely instrumental but a song cycle—\"On Wenlock Edge\" (1909) with accompaniment for string quartet and piano. In 1955 the authors of \"The Record Guide\", Edward Sackville-West and Desmond Shawe-Taylor, wrote that Vaughan Williams's music showed an exceptionally strong individual voice: Vaughan Williams's style is \"not remarkable for grace or politeness or inventive colour\", but expresses \"a consistent vision in which thought and feeling and their equivalent images in music never fall below a certain high level of natural distinction\". They commented that the composer's vision is expressed in two main contrasting moods: \"the one contemplative and trance-like, the other pugnacious and sinister\". The first mood, generally predominant in the composer's output, was more popular, as audiences preferred \"the stained-glass beauty of the Tallis Fantasia, the direct melodic appeal of the \"Serenade to Music\", the pastoral poetry of \"The Lark Ascending\", and the grave serenity of the Fifth Symphony\". By contrast, as in the ferocity of the Fourth and Sixth Symphonies and the Concerto for Two Pianos: \"in his grimmer moods Vaughan Williams can be as frightening as Sibelius and Bartók\".", "It is as a symphonist that Vaughan Williams is best known. The composer and academic Elliott Schwartz wrote (1964), \"It may be said with truth that Vaughan Williams, Sibelius and Prokofieff are the symphonists of this century\". Although Vaughan Williams did not complete the first of them until he was thirty-eight years old, the nine symphonies span nearly half a century of his creative life. In his 1964 analysis of the nine, Schwartz found it striking that no two of the symphonies are alike, either in structure or in mood. Commentators have found it useful to consider the nine in three groups of three—early, middle and late.", "The first three symphonies, to which Vaughan Williams assigned titles rather than numbers, form a sub-group within the nine, having programmatic elements, absent from the later six. \"A Sea Symphony\" (1910), the only one of the series to include a part for full choir, differs from most earlier choral symphonies in that the choir sings in all the movements. The extent to which it is a true symphony has been debated; in a 2013 study, Alain Frogley describes it as a hybrid work, with elements of symphony, oratorio and cantata. Its sheer length—about eighty minutes—was unprecedented for an English symphonic work, and within its thoroughly tonal construction it contains harmonic dissonances that pre-echo the early works of Stravinsky which were soon to follow. \"A London Symphony\" (1911–1913) which the composer later observed might more accurately be called a \"symphony by a Londoner\", is for the most part not overtly pictorial in its presentation of London. Vaughan Williams insisted that it is \"self-expressive, and must stand or fall as 'absolute' music\".", "The middle three symphonies are purely orchestral, and generally conventional in form, with sonata form (modified in places), specified home keys, and four-movement structure. The orchestral forces required are not large by the standards of the first half of the 20th century, although the Fourth calls for an augmented woodwind section and the Sixth includes a part for tenor saxophone. The Fourth Symphony (1935) astonished listeners with its striking dissonance, far removed from the prevailing quiet tone of the previous symphony. The composer firmly contradicted any notions that the work was programmatical in any respect, and Kennedy calls attempts to give the work \"a meretricious programme... a poor compliment to its musical vitality and self-sufficiency\". The Fifth Symphony (1943) was", "The seventh symphony, the \"Sinfonia antartica\" (1952), a by-product of the composer's score for \"Scott of the Antarctic\", has consistently divided critical opinion on whether it can be properly classed as a symphony. Alain Frogley in \"Grove\" argues that though the work can make a deep impression on the listener, it is neither a true symphony in the understood sense of the term nor a tone poem and is consequently the least successful of the mature symphonies. The work is in five movements, with wordless vocal lines for female chorus and solo soprano in the first and last movements. In addition to large woodwind and percussion sections the score features a prominent part for wind machine. The", "\"Grove\" lists more than thirty works by Vaughan Williams for orchestra or band over and above the symphonies. They include two of his most popular works—the \"Fantasia on a Theme by Thomas Tallis\" (1910, revised 1919), and \"The Lark Ascending\", originally for violin and piano (1914); orchestrated 1920. Other works that survive in the repertoire in Britain are the \"Norfolk Rhapsody No 1\" (1905–1906), \"The Wasps, Aristophanic suite\"—particularly the overture (1909), the \"English Folk Song Suite\"", "By comparison with his output in other genres, Vaughan Williams's music for chamber ensembles and solo instruments forms a small part of his oeuvre. \"Grove\" lists twenty-four pieces under the heading \"Chamber and instrumental\"; three are early, unpublished works. Vaughan Williams, like most leading British 20th-century composers, was not drawn to the solo piano and wrote little for it. From his mature years, there survive for standard chamber groupings two string quartets (1908–1909, revised 1921; and 1943–1944),", "Ursula Vaughan Williams wrote of her husband's love of literature, and listed some of his favourite writers and writings: In addition to his love of poetry, Vaughan Williams's vocal music is inspired by his lifelong belief that the voice \"can be made the medium of the best and deepest human emotion.\"", "Between the mid-1890s and the late 1950s Vaughan Williams set more than eighty poems for voice and piano accompaniment. The earliest to survive is \"A Cradle Song\", to Coleridge's words, from about 1894. The songs include many that have entered the repertory, such as \"Linden Lea\" (1902), \"Silent Noon\" (1904) and the song cycles \"Songs of Travel\" (1905 and 1907) and \"On Wenlock Edge\". To Vaughan Williams the human voice was \"the oldest and greatest of musical instruments\". He described his early songs as \"more or less simple and popular in character\", and the musicologist", "Despite his agnosticism Vaughan Williams composed many works for church performance. His two best known hymn tunes, both from c. 1905, are \"Down Ampney\" to the words \"Come Down, O Love Divine\", and \"\"Sine nomine\"\" \"For All the Saints\". \"Grove\" lists a dozen more, composed between 1905 and 1935. Other church works include a \"Magnificat and Nunc Dimittis\" (1925), the Mass (1920–1921), a Te Deum (1928) and the motets \"O Clap Your Hands\" (1920), \"Lord, Thou hast been our Refuge\" (1921) and \"O Taste and See\" (1953, first performed", "Vaughan Williams was wary of conventional labels; his best known ballet is described on the title page as \"a masque for dancing\" and only one of his operatic works is categorised by the composer simply as an opera. For some of his theatre pieces that could be classed as operas or ballets, he preferred the terms \"masque\", \"romantic extravaganza\", \"play set to music\", or \"morality\". In a 2013 survey of Vaughan Williams's stage works, Eric Saylor writes, \"With the possible exception of Tchaikovsky, no composer's operatic career was less emblematic of his success elsewhere.\" Although Vaughan Williams was a regular opera-goer, enthusiastic and knowledgeable about works by operatic masters from Mozart to Wagner and Verdi, his success in the operatic field was at best patchy. There is widespread agreement among commentators that this was partly due to the composer's poor choice of librettists for some, though not all, of his operas. Another problem was his keenness to encourage amateurs and student groups, which sometimes led to the staging of his", "Vaughan Williams conducted a handful of recordings for gramophone and radio. His studio recordings are the overture to \"The Wasps\", and the ballet \"Old King Cole\" (both made in 1925), \"Dona Nobis Pacem\" (1936), and the Fourth Symphony (1937). Live concert tapings include the \"Serenade to Music\", and the Fifth Symphony, recorded in 1951 and 1952, respectively. There is a recording of Vaughan Williams conducting the \"St Matthew Passion\" with his Leith Hill Festival forces. In the early days of LP in the 1950s Vaughan Williams was better represented in the record catalogues than most British composers. \"The Record Guide\" (1955) contained nine pages of listings of his music on disc, compared with five for Walton, and four apiece for Elgar and Britten. All the composer's major works and many of the minor", "Vaughan Williams refused a knighthood at least once, and declined the post of Master of the King's Music after Elgar's death. The one state honour he accepted was the Order of Merit in 1935, which confers no prenominal title: he preferred to remain \"Dr Vaughan Williams\". His academic and musical honours included an honorary doctorate of music from the University of Oxford (1919); the Cobbett medal for services to chamber music (1930); the gold medal of the Royal Philharmonic Society (1930); the Collard life fellowship of the Worshipful Company of Musicians (1934, in succession to Elgar); an honorary fellowship of Trinity College, Cambridge (1935); the Shakespeare prize of the University of Hamburg (1937); the Albert medal of the Royal Society of Arts (1955); and the Howland memorial prize of Yale University (1954). After Vaughan Williams's death, \"The Times\" summed up his legacy in a leading article: The Royal College of Music commissioned an official portrait of the composer from Sir Gerald Kelly (1952) which hangs in the college. The Manchester Art Gallery has a bronze sculpture of Vaughan Williams by Epstein (1952) and the National Portrait Gallery (NPG) has drawings by Joyce Finzi (1947) and Juliet Pannett (1957 and 1958); versions of a bronze head of the composer by David McFall (1956) are in the NPG and at the entrance to the Music reading room of the British Library. There is a statue of Vaughan Williams in Dorking, and a bust in Chelsea Embankment Gardens, near his old house in Cheyne Walk. In 1994 a group of enthusiasts founded the Ralph Vaughan Williams Society, with the composer's widow as its president and Roy Douglas and Michael Kennedy as vice presidents. The society, a registered charity, has sponsored and encouraged performances of the composer's works including complete symphony cycles and a Vaughan Williams opera festival. The society has promoted premieres of neglected works, and has its own record label, Albion Records. Composers of the generation after Vaughan Williams reacted against his style, which became unfashionable in influential musical circles in the 1960s; diatonic and melodic music such as his was neglected in favour of atonal and other modernist compositions. In the 21st century this neglect has been reversed. In the fiftieth anniversary year of his death two contrasting documentary films were released: Tony Palmer's \"O Thou Transcendent: The Life of Vaughan Williams\" and John Bridcut's \"The Passions of Vaughan Williams\". British audiences were prompted to reappraise the composer. The popularity of his most accessible works, particularly the \"Tallis Fantasia\" and \"The Lark Ascending\" increased, but a wide public also became aware of what a reviewer of Bridcut's film called \"a genius driven by emotion\". Among the 21st-century musicians who have acknowledged Vaughan Williams's influence on their development are John Adams, PJ Harvey, Sir Peter Maxwell Davies, Anthony Payne, Wayne Shorter, Neil Tennant and Mark-Anthony Turnage. The Clements Park development, located in Warley, Brentwood, Essex, has roads taking their names after the composer and his works, the most obvious being the main road \"Vaughan Williams Way\" which runs through the development. Vaughan Williams lectured in Brentwood on folk music, and collected 140 songs from villages in the region." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Stadium.", "Honours." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Vitória de Setúbal played in the inaugural Campeonato da Liga in 1934–35. In 1964–65, Vitória de Setúbal won their first Taca de Portugal, beating holders Benfica 3–1 in the final. After losing 1–0 to Braga in the next season's final, Vitória won the 1967 final by beating Académica de Coimbra 3–2 after extra-time. Vitoria competed in the European Cup-Winners' Cup in 1965-66 (losing 4–2 on aggregate in the first round to AGF Aarhus), and 1967-68 (losing 7–3 on aggregate to Bayern Munich in the second round). Vitória Setubal played in the Fairs Cup in 1969–70, knocking Liverpool out in the second round. In the next round, they were eliminated 2–1 on aggregate by Hertha BSC. In the 1973–74 season, Vitória de Setúbal finished in third place, four points behind champions Sporting CP. After another yo-yo period from the mid-1980s to the mid-2000s, Vitória returned to the Portuguese top flight for the 2004–05 season and have remained there since. The same season saw them win their third Cup, beating holders Benfica 2–1 in the final on 29 May. On 13 August, the two clubs played the Super Cup against each other at the Estádio do Algarve, with Benfica winning 1–0. On 14 May 2006, Vitória lost the cup final by one goal to FC Porto. On 22 March 2008, Vitória won the Taça da Liga for the first time. In the final, they defeated Sporting on penalties following a goalless draw; on-loan goalkeeper Eduardo saved three times. Ten years later, the final went to penalties against the same opponent, who won this time.", "Vitória plays at the Estádio do Bonfim, which was inaugurated in 1962 and has a capacity of 18,964.", "Source:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Signs and symptoms.", "Causes.", "Diagnosis.", "History and physical examination.", "Classification.", "Differential diagnosis.", "Treatment.", "Indigenous treatment.", "Epidemiology.", "China.", "Southeast Asia.", "Africa.", "U.S. and Europe.", "Society and culture.", "Chinese cultural beliefs.", "Etymology and geographical background." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Most patients report acute anxiety attacks due to perceived genital retraction and/or genital shrinkage, despite a lack of any objectively visible biological changes in the genitalia that are longstanding. \"Longstanding\" refers to changes that are sustained over a significant period and do not appear reversible, unlike the effect of cold temperatures on some genital regions that cause retraction. These changes may trigger a koro attack when observed, although the effects of cold temperatures are objectively reversible. According to literature, episodes usually last several hours, though the duration may be as long as two days. There are cases in which koro symptoms persist for years in a chronic state, indicating a potential co-morbidity with body dysmorphic disorder. In addition to retraction, other symptoms include a perception of alteration of penis shape and loss of penile muscle tone. In cases when sufferers have no perception of retraction, some patients may complain of genital paraesthesia or genital shortening. Among females, the cardinal symptom is nipple retraction in the breast, generally into the breast as a whole. Psychological components of koro anxiety include fear of impending death, penile dissolution and loss of sexual power. Feelings of impending death along with retraction and perceived spermatorrhea has a strong cultural link with Chinese traditional beliefs. This is demonstrated by the fact that Asians generally believe koro symptoms are fatal, unlike most patients in the West. Other ideational themes are intra-abdominal organ shrinkage, sex change to female or eunuch, non-specific physical danger, urinary obstruction, sterility, impending madness, spirit possession and a feeling of being bewitched. Extremely anxious sufferers and their family members may resort to physical methods to prevent the believed retraction of the penis. A man may perform manual or mechanical penile traction, or \"anchoring\" by a loop of string or some clamping device. Similarly, a woman may be seen grabbing her own breast, pulling her nipple, or even having iron pins inserted into the nipple. Physical injury may occur from these attempts. These forceful attempts often lead to injuries, even death.", "Psychosexual conflicts, personality factors, and cultural beliefs are considered as being of etiological significance to koro. Sexual adjustment histories of non-Chinese victims are often significant, such as premorbid sex inadequacy, sexual promiscuity, guilt over masturbation, and impotence.", "Several criteria are typically used to make a diagnosis of koro. The primary criteria is a patient's report of genital (typically penile or female nipple) retraction despite a lack of objective physical evidence demonstrating retraction. This is accompanied by severe anxiety related to the retraction, fear of death as a result of retraction, and use of mechanical means to prevent retraction. Cases that do not meet all the requirements are generally classified as koro-like symptoms or given a diagnosis of partial koro syndrome. It has been argued that the criteria are sufficient but not necessary to make a diagnosis of koro. Researchers have identified koro as a possible \"cultural relative\" of body dysmorphic disorder. DSM-IV explains the process of differential diagnosis between these two disorders.", "A medical, psychosexual and psychiatric history should be documented. The physician should explore the patient’s concerns about appearance and body image (ruling out body dysmorphic disorder). Additionally, the physician should inquire about overall beliefs, personal values, and assumptions that the patient is making about his or her genitals. Given that Koro is often an “attack” with a great deal of associated anxiety, the physician should ascertain the patient’s emotional state along with the timeline from onset to the presentation at the examination. A physical examination should involve an assessment of overall health along with a detailed genital examination. In men, genital examination should be performed immediately after penile exposure, to avoid changes due to external temperature. The primary intent of the male exam is to exclude genuine penile anomalies such as hypospadias, epispadias and Peyronie's disease. The presence of a significant suprapubic fat pad should be noted as well. Careful measurements of flaccid length, stretched length and flaccid girth will also be useful. If male patients insist that their penis is shrinking and disappearing, measurements after intracavernosal alprostadil may be used in the office to determine the true erect length and to diagnose any penile abnormalities in the erect state. A physical examination should note any injuries inflicted by the patient in an effort to \"prevent\" retraction as further confirmation of Koro.", "In DSM-IV-TR, koro is listed as one of the entries in the Glossary of Culture-Bound Syndromes of Appendix I. The manual gives koro's definition as \"a term, probably of Malaysian origin, that refers to an episode of sudden and intense anxiety that the penis (or, in females, the vulva and nipples) will recede into the body and possibly cause death.\" Attempts have been made by numerous authors to place koro into different classes. For example, koro may fit into the group of \"specific culture-imposed nosophobia\" (classification with cardinal sign), \"the genital retraction taxon\" (classification with common factors between syndromes), and the group with \"culture-related beliefs as causes for the occurrence\" (classification according to how the syndromes might be affected by cultural factors). Various authors have attempted to distinguish between complete and incomplete forms of koro, along with cultural and non-cultural forms. Cultural forms are said to involve a cultural belief or myth which plays a role in the genesis and spread of the disease in the community. These are regarded as complete forms of koro, matching all the symptoms required for diagnosis without significant co-morbidity. Differentiation into primary koro, a culture-bound expression, and secondary koro. Secondary koro is proposed to have co-morbidity with a CNS disorder, another psychiatric disorder, or possible drug use. Traditional Chinese medicine recognises koro as a sexual disease and classifies it into two categories, namely \"cold conglomeration in liver\" and \"depletion of kidney's yang\".", "Men who present with this complaint may have Koro, but they may also be misinformed about normal genital size. Additionally, they may be suffering from penile dysmorphophobia. Penile dysmorphophobia is related to body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), defined by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-Fourth Edition (Text Revision) (DSM-IV-TR) as a condition marked by excessive preoccupation with an imaginary or minor defect in a facial feature or localized part of the body. BDD is different from Koro. In Koro, a patient is overcome with the belief that his penis is actively shrinking, and it may be in imminent danger of disappearing. Clinical literature indicates that these two psychological conditions should be separated during differential diagnosis. In addition to differentiating Koro from body dysmorphic disorder, physicians also recommend that differential diagnosis separates Koro from physical urological abnormalities. For example, one physical disorder that causes loss of penile size is Peyronie's disease, where the tunica albuginea develops scar tissue that prevents the full expansion of an erection and causes flaccid penis retraction. Additionally, a buried penis is a normally developed penis, partially covered by the suprapubic fat which can be surgically removed.", "In historical culture-bound cases, reassurance and talks on sexual anatomy are given. Patients are treated with psychotherapy distributed according to symptoms and to etiologically significant points in the past. Prognosis appears to be better in cases with a previously functional personality, a short history and low frequency of attacks, and a relatively uncomplicated sexual life. For sporadic Western cases, careful diagnostic workup including searching for underlying sexual conflict is common. The choice of psychotherapeutic treatment is based on the psychiatric pathology found.", "In China, traditional treatment based on the causes suggested by cultural beliefs are administrated to the patient. Praying to gods and asking Taoist priests to perform exorcism is common. If a fox spirit is believed to be involved, people may hit gongs or beat the person to drive it out. The person will receive a yang- or yin-augmenting Chinese medicine potion, usually including herbs, pilose antler (stag of deer) or deer tail, and tiger penis, deer penis, or fur seal penis. Other foods for therapy are pepper soup, ginger soup and liquor.", "Among the Chinese, koro is confined to South China and the lower Yangtze Valley. A 1992 study of self-report questionnaires suggests that in the epidemic area of China, koro victims are mostly Han, male, young, single, poorly educated and fearful of supernatural forces and koro. The phenomenon is also found among oversea Chinese in Southeast Asia, especially Malaysia and Indonesia, and less frequently among the Malay and Indonesian inhabitants of the countries. Though there are speculations that the occurrence of koro among people in Malaysia and Indonesia was the result of Chinese migrants, this cultural diffusion view is challenged since koro epidemics have been reported in Thailand and India, involving masses of non-Chinese people. Sporadic cases of koro among people with non-Southeast-Asian ethnicity have been reported across the globe, for example, Nepali, Sudanese, Jordanian, Tanzanian, Nigerian, French, British, American and Canadian. In most of the non-Chinese cases in the Western hemisphere, genital shrinkage is reported but not all the other typical koro symptoms, such as fear of death, as in endemic countries. The incomplete forms of koro are regarded as the non-cultural forms, while the complete form with acute anxiety is the classical culture-bound type.", "Local official records indicate genital retraction endemics in Hainan Island and Leizhou Peninsula in Guangdong, China, as early as the late 19th century. There were a series of epidemic outbursts in 1948, 1955, 1966, and 1974, whenever there was social tension or impending disaster, followed by the last widespread episode in 1984–1985 and a much smaller outbreak in 1987. The 1984–1985 epidemics lasted for over a year and affected over 3,000 persons in 16 cities and provinces. A mental health campaign was conducted for the epidemic and since then no further episodes of the epidemic has occurred in China. Improvement in local economic conditions, associated with a better quality of life, is suggested to contribute to the fading of the episodic occurrences of koro.", "A koro epidemic struck Singapore in October 1967 for about ten days. Newspapers initially reported that some people developed koro after eating the meat of pigs inoculated with a vaccine for swine influenza. Rumours relating eating pork and koro spread after a further report of an inoculated pig dying from penile retraction. The cases reported amounted to 97 in a single hospital unit within one day, at five days after the original news report. Government and medical officials alleviated the outbreak only by public announcements over television and in the newspapers. An epidemic outbreak in November 1976 in Isan, Thailand caused at least 350 cases, most of them Thai and males. Popular opinion and news media echoed the victims' projection of viewing the epidemic as caused by Vietnamese food and tobacco poisoning in a hideous assault against the Thai people. Another large-scale epidemic in Thailand occurred in 1982. In 1982, a koro epidemic episode in Northeast India affected, in majority, poorly educated people from lower socio-economic strata. There was no evidence of significant premorbid or sexual psychopathology in most cases. Mass Koro epidemic was reported in Labour Camps in Kochi, Kerala in South India during August and September 2010 among migrant labour population from North and North-east India. Reportedly, the epidemic spread to about 100 individuals in 3 labour Camps within 2 weeks.", "In the 1970s and early 1980s, newspapers reported incidents of genital shrinking in Western Nigeria. Since late 1996, a small-scale epidemic of genital shrinking was reported in West African nations. Victims in the African outbreaks often interpreted the experience as genital theft, accusing someone with whom they had contact of \"stealing\" the organ and the spiritual essence, causing impotence. The perceived motive for theft was associated with local occult belief, the witchcraft of juju, to feed the spiritual agency or to hold the genital for ransom. Social representations about juju constitute consensual realities that propose both a means and motivation for genital-shrinking experience. The epidemic began in Nigeria and Cameroon, and spread to Ghana, Ivory Coast and Senegal by 1997. Cases were reported in Cotonou, Benin where mobs attacked individuals accused of the penis theft and authorities ordered security forces to curb the violence, following the deaths of five people by vigilantes. Later reports of outbreak suggest a spread beyond West Africa, including the coverage of episodes in Khartoum, Sudan in September 2003; Banjul, Gambia in October 2003; and Kinshasa, DR Congo in 2008. Comparing West African genital-shrinking epidemics with koro in Southeast Asia, the latter has symptoms centered on genital retraction (instead of shrinkage) and fear of death (which is absent in African cases). A study analyzing the West African epidemics from 1997 to 2003 concluded that rather than psychopathology, the episodes were product of normal psychological functioning in undisturbed individuals, who were influenced by the local cultural models or social representations.", "In the late Middle Ages in Europe, it was believed that men could lose their penises through magical attacks by witches. The \"Malleus Maleficarum\", a 15th-century European manual for witchcraft investigations, relates stories of men claiming that their genitals had disappeared, being \"hidden by the devil... so that they can be neither seen nor felt.\" They were said to have reappeared after the men had appeased the witches responsible. Witches were said to store the removed genitals in birds' nests or in boxes, where \"they move themselves like living members and eat oats and corn\". At least three publications of the 1880s, from U.S., Russia and England, reported genital retraction pathology, without using the Malay or Chinese term. Koro epidemics in China were first noticed in a French report in 1908 and descriptions of koro entered clinical books of western medicine in 1936. In the 1950s, koro is noted in nosological and diagnostic psychiatry.", "", "Most of the ancient literature concerning koro was related to Chinese ethnic groups. For example, koro (in its Chinese term of \"shuk yang\") is documented in the old medical book \"New Collection of remedies of value\" () which was published in Qing Dynasty. The book described the condition as \"yin type of cold qi invasion\" () which involved a sudden seizure during sexual intercourse with the penis retracting into the abdomen. It asserts that the patient will die if not treated with \"heaty\" drugs in time. Factors of cultural expectation in the genesis of koro can be built upon ideas of sex physiology in the traditional Chinese medicine, with free play of imagination which links fatality with genital retraction. In the ancient Chinese medical book \"Zhong Zang Jing\" (), retraction of the penis with distension of the abdomen was described as a certain sign of death. The yin and yang theory proposes that an unbalanced loss of the yang humour produces genital shrinkage. In Taoism and Traditional Chinese medicine, frequent ejaculation is regarded as detrimental to health, as semen is considered to be related to a man's vital energy, and hence excessive depletion of semen may lead to illness or death. Some authors believe that the idea of death caused by the semen depletion resembles the idea of death caused by genital disappearance, although such linkage between koro and Taoism, which influences Chinese medicine to some degree, is only speculative. The popularity of Chinese folklore also plays a role. The novel about ghost stories \"Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio\" describes a fox spirit which can make people weak physically and sexually and shrink their tissues. Belief in koro being caused by the fox ghost among the southern Chinese has been reported.", "The earliest Western reference to the term \"koro\" is found in B.F. Matthes' \"Dictionary of Buginese Language\" (1874) of South Sulawesi, Indonesia. The name could derived from a river, its surrounding valley, and a local tribe of the same name which is located at northwestern sector of Sulawesi, Indonesia. The word is also used in Makassarese language, meaning \"to shrink\"; the full expression is \"garring koro\". Koro may also be derived from Malay term \"Kura\" which means \"head of turtle\" or \"keruk\" which means \"to shrink\". The term \"shuk yang\" (缩阳), adapted from Chinese, means \"the shrinkage of penis\". The term \"koro\" is also known as \"rok loo\" (genital shrinkage disease) in Thailand, \"jinjinnia bemar\" in Assam, India, and \"lanuk e laso\" by Bogoba tribe in Philippines." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early years.", "Background.", "Childhood.", "Education and lecturing.", "Political aspects.", "Early political activity.", "Background.", "Opposition to the White Revolution.", "Opposition to capitulation.", "Life in exile.", "Supreme Leader of the Islamic Republic of Iran.", "Return to Iran.", "Islamic constitution.", "Hostage crisis.", "Relationship with Islamic and non-aligned countries.", "Iran–Iraq War.", "Fatwa against chemical weapons.", "Rushdie fatwa.", "Life under Khomeini.", "Women and child rights.", "Homosexuality.", "Emigration and economy.", "Suppression of opposition.", "Minority religions.", "Ethnic minorities.", "Death and funeral.", "Succession.", "Anniversary.", "Political thought and legacy.", "Appearance and habits.", "Mystique.", "Family and descendants.", "Bibliography." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Ruhollah Khomeini's ancestors migrated towards the end of the 18th century from their original home in Nishapur, Khorasan Province, in northeastern part of Iran, for a short stay, to the Kingdom of Awadh – a region in the modern state of Uttar Pradesh, India – whose rulers were Twelver Shia Muslims of also Nishapur origin. During their rule they extensively invited, and received, a steady stream of Persian scholars, poets, jurists, architects, and painters. The family eventually settled in the small town of Kintoor, near Lucknow, the capital of Awadh.", "Ruhollah Musavi Khomeini, whose first name means \"spirit of Allah\", was born on 24 September 1902 in Khomeyn, Markazi Province. He was raised by his mother, Hajieh Agha Khanum, and his aunt, Sahebeth, following the murder of his father, Mustapha Musavi, five months after", "After World War I arrangements were made for him to study at the Islamic seminary in Isfahan, but he was attracted instead to the seminary in Arak. He was placed under the leadership of Ayatollah Abdul Karim Haeri Yazdi. In 1920, Khomeini moved to Arak and commenced his studies. The following year, Ayatollah Haeri Yazdi transferred to the Islamic seminary in the holy city of Qom, southwest of Tehran, and invited his students to follow. Khomeini accepted the invitation, moved, and took up residence at the Dar al-Shafa school in Qom. Khomeini's studies included Islamic law (\"sharia\") and", "His seminary teaching often focused on the importance of religion to practical social and political issues of the day, and he worked against secularism in the 1940s. His first political book, \"Kashf al-Asrar\" (Uncovering of Secrets) published in 1942, was a point-by-point refutation of \"Asrar-e hezar sale\" (Secrets of a", "", "Most Iranians had a deep respect for the Shi'a clergy or Ulama, and tended to be religious, traditional, and alienated from the process of Westernization pursued by the Shah. In the late 19th century the clergy had shown themselves to be a powerful political force in Iran initiating the Tobacco Protest against a concession", "In January 1963, the Shah announced the \"White Revolution\", a six-point programme of reform calling for land reform, nationalization of the forests, the sale of state-owned enterprises to private interests, electoral changes to enfranchise women and allow non-Muslims to hold office, profit-sharing in industry, and a literacy campaign in the nation's schools. Some of these initiatives were regarded as dangerous, especially by the powerful and privileged Shi'a ulama (religious scholars), and as Westernizing trends by traditionalists (Khomeini viewed them as \"an attack on Islam\"). Ayatollah Khomeini summoned a meeting of the other senior marjas of Qom and persuaded them to decree a boycott of the referendum on the White Revolution. On 22 January 1963 Khomeini issued a strongly worded declaration denouncing the Shah and his plans. Two days later the Shah took an armored column to Qom, and delivered a speech harshly attacking the ulama as a class. Khomeini continued his", "On 26 October 1964, Khomeini denounced both the Shah and the United States. This time it was in response to the \"capitulations\" or diplomatic immunity granted by the Shah to American military personnel in Iran. The \"capitulation\" law (or \"status-of-forces agreement\") allowed members of the U.S. armed forces in Iran to be tried", "Khomeini spent more than 14 years in exile, mostly in the holy Iraqi city of Najaf. Initially, he was sent to Turkey on 4 November 1964 where he stayed in Bursa in the home of Colonel Ali Cetiner of the Turkish Military Intelligence. In October 1965, after less than a year, he was allowed to move to Najaf, Iraq, where he stayed until 1978, when he was expelled by then-Vice President Saddam Hussein. By this time discontent with the Shah was becoming intense and Khomeini visited Neauphle-le-Château, a suburb of Paris, France on a tourist visa on 6 October 1978. By the late 1960s, Khomeini was a marja-e taqlid (model for imitation) for \"hundreds of thousands\" of Shia, one of six or so models in the Shia world. While in the 1940s Khomeini accepted the idea of a limited monarchy under the Iranian Constitution of 1906–07 – as evidenced by his book \"Kashf al-Asrar\" – by the 1970s he had rejected the idea. In early 1970, Khomeini gave a series of lectures in Najaf on Islamic government, later published as a book titled variously \"Islamic Government\" or \"\" (\"Hokumat-e Islami: Velayat-e faqih\"). This was his best known and most influential work, and laid out his ideas on governance (at that time): A modified form of this \"wilayat al-faqih\" system was adopted after Khomeini and his followers took power, and Khomeini was the Islamic Republic's first \"Guardian\" or \"Supreme Leader\". In the meantime, however, Khomeini was careful not to publicize his ideas for clerical rule outside of his Islamic network of opposition to the Shah which he worked to build and strengthen over the next decade. In Iran, a number of actions of the Shah including his repression of opponents began to build opposition to his regime. Cassette copies of his lectures fiercely denouncing the Shah as (for example) \"the Jewish agent, the American serpent whose head must be smashed with a stone\", became common items in the markets of Iran, helping to demythologize the power and dignity of the Shah and his reign. Aware of the importance of broadening his base, Khomeini reached out to Islamic reformist and secular enemies of the Shah, despite his long-term ideological incompatibility with them. After the 1977 death of Ali Shariati (an Islamic reformist and political revolutionary author/academic/philosopher who greatly assisted the Islamic revival among young educated Iranians), Khomeini became the most influential leader of the opposition to the Shah. Adding to his mystique was the circulation among Iranians in the 1970s of an old Shia saying attributed to the Imam Musa al-Kadhem. Prior to his death in 799, al-Kadhem was said to have prophesied that \"A man will come out from Qom and he will summon people to the right path\". In late 1978, a rumour swept the country that Khomeini's face could be seen in the full moon. Millions of people were said to have seen it and the event was celebrated in thousands of mosques. He was perceived by many Iranians as the spiritual as well as political leader of the revolt. Additionally, the episode with Khomeini's face in the moon showed that in late 1978 he was increasingly regarded as a messianic figure in Iran. As protests grew, so did his profile and importance. Although several thousand kilometers away from Iran in Paris, Khomeini set the course of the revolution, urging Iranians not to compromise and ordering work stoppages against the regime. During the last few months of his exile, Khomeini received a constant stream of reporters, supporters, and notables, eager to hear the spiritual leader of the revolution.", "", "Khomeini was not allowed to return to Iran during the Shah's reign (as he had been in exile). On 16 January 1979, the Shah left the country for medical treatment (ostensibly \"on vacation\"), never to return. Two weeks later, on Thursday, 1 February 1979, Khomeini returned in triumph to Iran, welcomed by a joyous crowd estimated (by the BBC) to be of up to five million people. On his chartered Air France flight back to Tehran, he was accompanied by 120 journalists, including three women. One of the journalists, Peter Jennings, asked: \"Ayatollah, would you be so kind as to tell us how you feel about being back in Iran?\" Khomeini answered via his aide Sadegh Ghotbzadeh: \"\"Hichi\"\" (Nothing). This statement—much discussed at the time and since—was considered by some reflective of his", "Although revolutionaries were now in charge and Khomeini was their leader, some opposition groups claim that several secular and religious groups were unaware of Khomeini's plan for Islamic government by \"wilayat al-faqih\", which involved rule by a marja' Islamic cleric. They claim that this provisional constitution for the Islamic Republic did not include the post of supreme Islamic clerical ruler. The Islamic government was clearly defined by Khomeini in his book \"\" (Islamic Government: Governance of the Jurist) which was published while Khomeini was in exile in 1970, smuggled into Iran, and distributed to Khomeini's supporters. This book included Khomeini's notion of \"wilayat al-faqih\" (Governance of the Jurist) as well as the reasoning and in his", "On 22 October 1979, the United States admitted the exiled and ailing Shah into the country for cancer treatment. In Iran, there was an immediate outcry, with both Khomeini and leftist groups demanding the Shah's return to Iran for trial and execution. On 4 November, a group of Iranian college students calling themselves the Muslim Student Followers of the Imam's Line, took control of the American Embassy in Tehran, holding 52 embassy staff hostage for 444 days – an event known as the Iran hostage crisis. In the United States, the hostage-taking was seen as a flagrant violation of international law and aroused intense anger and anti-Iranian sentiments. In Iran, the takeover was immensely popular and earned the support of Khomeini under the slogan \"America can't do a damn thing against us.\"", "Khomeini believed in Muslim unity and solidarity and the export of his revolution throughout the world. He believed Shia and (the significantly more numerous) Sunni Muslims should be \"united and stand firmly against Western", "Shortly after assuming power, Khomeini began calling for Islamic revolutions across the Muslim world, including Iran's Arab neighbor Iraq, the one large state besides Iran with a Shia majority population. At the same time Saddam Hussein, Iraq's secular Arab nationalist Ba'athist leader, was eager to take advantage of Iran's weakened military and (what he assumed was) revolutionary chaos, and in particular to occupy Iran's adjacent oil-rich province of Khuzestan, and to undermine Iranian Islamic revolutionary attempts to incite the Shi'a majority of", "In an interview with Gareth Porter, Mohsen Rafighdoost, the eight-year war time minister of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps, disclosed how", "In early 1989, Khomeini issued a fatwā calling for the assassination of Salman Rushdie, an India-born British author. Rushdie's book, \"The Satanic Verses\", published in 1988, was alleged to commit blasphemy against Islam and Khomeini's juristic ruling (fatwā) prescribed Rushdie's assassination by any Muslim. The fatwā required not only Rushdie's execution, but also the execution of \"all those involved in the publication\" of the book. Khomeini's fatwā was condemned across the Western world by governments on the", "In a speech on 1 February 1979 delivered to a huge crowd after returning to Iran from exile, Khomeini made a variety of promises to Iranians for his coming Islamic regime: a popularly elected government that would represent the people of Iran and with which the clergy would not interfere. He promised that \"no one should remain homeless in this country,\" and that Iranians would have free telephone, heating, electricity, bus services and free oil at their doorstep. Under Khomeini's rule, Sharia (Islamic law) was introduced, with the Islamic dress code enforced for both men and women by Islamic Revolutionary Guards and other Islamic groups. Women were required to cover their hair, and men were not allowed to wear shorts. Alcoholic drinks, most Western movies, and the practice of men and women swimming or sunbathing together were banned. The Iranian educational curriculum was Islamized at all levels with the Islamic Cultural Revolution; the \"Committee for Islamization of Universities\" carried this out thoroughly. The broadcasting of any music other than martial or religious on Iranian radio and television was banned by Khomeini in July 1979. The ban lasted 10 years (approximately the rest of his life). According to Janet Afari, \"the newly established regime of Ayatollah Khomeini moved quickly to repress feminists, ethnic and religious minorities, liberals, and leftists - all in the name of Islam.\"", "Khomeini took on extensive and proactive support of the female populace during the ouster of Shah and his subsequent homecoming, advocating for mainstreaming of women into all spheres of life and even hypothesizing about a woman head of state. However, once he returned, his stances on women's rights exhibited drastic changes. He opposed the grant of the voting franchise to women and criticized a law that allowed Muslim women to divorce at will and remarry, which was allegedly contrary to Islamic scriptures, and hence equivalent to adultery. A mere three weeks after assuming power, under the pretext of reversing the Shah's excessive affinity for westernization and backed by a vocal conservative section of Iranian society, he revoked the divorce law. Khomeini went on to lower the minimum age of marriage for girls to 13 and even permitted girls", "Shortly after his accession as supreme leader in February 1979, Khomeini imposed capital punishment on homosexuals. Between February and March, sixteen Iranians were executed due to offenses related to sexual violations. Khomeini also created the \"Revolutionary Tribunals\". According to historian Ervand Abrahamian, Khomeini encouraged the clerical courts to continue implementing their version of the Shari’a. As part of the campaign to \"cleanse\" the society,", "Khomeini is said to have stressed \"the spiritual over the material\". Six months after his first speech he expressed exasperation with complaints about the sharp drop in Iran's standard of living, saying that: \"I cannot believe that the purpose of all these sacrifices was to have less expensive melons.\" On another occasion emphasizing the importance of martyrdom over material prosperity, he said: \"Could anyone wish his child to be martyred to obtain a good house? This is not the issue. The issue is another world.\" He also reportedly answered a question about", "In a talk at the Fayzieah School in Qom on 30 August 1979, Khomeini warned pro-imperialist opponents: \"Those who are trying to bring corruption and destruction to our country in the name of democracy will be oppressed. They are worse than Bani-Ghorizeh Jews, and they must be hanged. We will oppress them by God's order and God's call to prayer.\" However, in 1983, the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) helped him by providing a list of Soviet KGB agents and collaborators operating in Iran to Khomeini, who then executed up to 200 suspects and closed down the Communist Tudeh Party of Iran. The Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and his family left Iran and escaped harm, but hundreds of former members of the overthrown monarchy and military met their ends", "Zoroastrians, Jews, and Christians are officially recognized and protected by the government. Shortly after Khomeini's return from exile in 1979, he issued a fatwa ordering that Jews and other minorities (except Bahá'ís) be treated well. In power, Khomeini distinguished between Zionism as a secular political party that employs Jewish symbols and ideals and Judaism as the religion of Moses. Senior government posts were reserved for Muslims. Schools set up by Jews, Christians and Zoroastrians had to be run by Muslim principals. Conversion to Islam was encouraged by entitling converts to inherit the entire share of their parents (or even uncle's) estate if their siblings (or cousins) remain non-Muslim. Iran's non-Muslim population has decreased. For example, the Jewish population in Iran dropped from 80,000", "After the Shah left Iran in 1979, a Kurdish delegation traveled to Qom to present the Kurds' demands to Khomeini. Their demands included language rights and the provision for a degree of political autonomy. Khomeini responded that such demands were unacceptable since", "Khomeini's health declined several years prior to his death. After spending eleven days in Jamaran hospital, Ruhollah Khomeini died on 3 June 1989 after suffering five heart attacks in just ten days, at the age of 86 just before midnight. He was succeeded as Supreme Leader by Ali Khamenei. Large numbers of Iranians took to the streets to publicly mourn his death and in the scorching summer heat, fire trucks sprayed water on the crowds to cool them. At least 10 mourners were trampled to death, more than 400 were badly hurt and several thousand more were treated for injuries sustained in the ensuing pandemonium. According to Iran's official estimates, 10.2 million people lined the route to Tehran's Behesht-e Zahra cemetery on 11 June 1989, for the funeral of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. Western agencies estimated that 2 million paid their respects as the body lay in state. Figures about Khomeini's initial funeral attendance which took place on 4 June range around 2.5–3.5 million people. Early the following day, Khomeini's corpse was flown in by helicopter for burial at the Paradise of Zahra cemetery. Iranian officials postponed Khomeini's first funeral after a huge mob stormed the funeral procession, destroying Khomeini's wooden coffin in order to get a last glimpse of his body or touch of his coffin. In some cases, armed soldiers were compelled to fire warning shots in the air to restrain the crowds. At one point, Khomeini's body fell to the ground, as the crowd ripped off pieces of the death shroud, trying to keep them as if they were holy relics. According to journalist James Buchan: The second funeral was held under much tighter security five hours later. This time, Khomeini's casket was made of steel, and in accordance with Islamic tradition, the casket was only to carry the body to the burial site. In 1995, his son Ahmad was buried next to him. Khomeini's grave is now housed within a larger mausoleum complex.", "Grand Ayatollah Hussein-Ali Montazeri, a former student of Khomeini and a major figure of the Revolution, was chosen by Khomeini to be his successor as Supreme Leader and approved as such by the Assembly of Experts in November 1985. The principle of \"velayat-e faqih\" and the Islamic constitution called for the Supreme Leader to be a \"marja\" (a grand ayatollah), and of the dozen or so grand ayatollahs living in 1981 only Montazeri qualified as a potential Leader (this was either because only he accepted totally Khomeini's concept of rule by Islamic jurists, or, as at least one other source stated, because only Montazeri had the \"political credentials\" Khomeini found suitable for his successor). The execution of Mehdi Hashemi in September 1987 on charges of counterrevolutionary activities was a blow to Ayatollah Montazeri, who", "The anniversary of Khomeini's death is a public holiday. To commemorate Khomeini,", "According to at least one scholar, politics in the Islamic Republic of Iran \"are largely defined by attempts to claim Khomeini's legacy\" and that \"staying faithful to his ideology has been the litmus test for all political activity\" there. Throughout his many writings and speeches, Khomeini's views on governance evolved. Originally declaring rule by monarchs or others permissible so long as sharia law was followed Khomeini later adamantly opposed monarchy, arguing that only rule by a leading Islamic jurist (a marja') would ensure Sharia was properly followed (wilayat al-faqih), before finally insisting the ruling jurist need not be a leading one and Sharia rule could be overruled by that jurist if necessary to serve the interests of Islam and the \"divine government\" of the Islamic state. Khomeini's concept of (ولایت فقیه, \"velayat-e faqih\") as Islamic government did not win the support of the leading Iranian Shi'i clergy of the time. Towards the 1979 Revolution, many clerics gradually became disillusioned with the rule of the Shah, although none came around to supporting Khomeini's vision of a theocratic Islamic Republic. There is much debate to as whether Khomeini's ideas are or are not compatible with democracy and whether he intended the Islamic Republic to be a democratic republic. According to the state-run \"Aftab News\", both ultraconservative (Mohammad Taghi Mesbah Yazdi) and reformist opponents of the regime (Akbar Ganji and Abdolkarim Soroush) believe he did not, while regime officials and supporters like Ali Khamenei, Mohammad Khatami and Mortaza Motahhari believe Khomeini intended the Islamic republic to be democratic and that it is so. Khomeini himself also made statements at different times indicating both support and opposition to democracy. One scholar, Shaul Bakhash, explains this disagreement as coming from Khomeini's belief that the huge turnout of Iranians in anti-Shah demonstrations during the revolution constituted a'referendum' in favor of an Islamic republic. Khomeini also wrote that since Muslims must support a government based on Islamic law, Sharia-based government will always have more popular support in Muslim countries than any government based on elected representatives. Khomeini offered himself as a \"champion of Islamic revival\" and unity, emphasizing issues Muslims agreed upon – the fight against Zionism and imperialism – and downplaying Shia issues that would divide Shia from Sunni. Khomeini strongly opposed close relations with either Eastern or Western Bloc nations, believing the Islamic world should be its own bloc, or rather converge into a single unified power. He viewed Western culture as being inherently decadent and", "Khomeini was described as \"slim\", but athletic and \"heavily boned\". He was known for his punctuality: Khomeini was also known for his aloofness and austere demeanor. He is said to have had \"variously inspired admiration, awe, and fear from those around him.\" His practice of moving \"through the halls of the madresehs never smiling", "Khomeini was noted by many for his mystique. Before the revolution he benefited from the widespread circulation of a Hadith attributed to the Imam Musa al-Kazim who is said to have prophesied shortly before his death in 799 that: According to Baqer Moin, as part of Khomeini's personality cult, he \"had been transformed into a semi-divine figure. He was no longer a grand ayatollah and deputy of the Imam, one who represents the Hidden Imam, but simply 'The Imam'.\" Khomeini's personality cult fills a central position in foreign- and domestically-targeted Iranian publications. The methods used to create his personality cult have been compared to those used by such figures as Joseph Stalin, Mao Zedong and Fidel Castro. Khomeini was the first and only Iranian cleric to be addressed as \"Imam\", a title hitherto reserved in Iran for the twelve infallible leaders of the early Shi'a. He was also associated with the \"Mahdi\" or 12th Imam of Shia belief in a number of ways. One of his titles was \"Na'eb-e Imam\" (Deputy to the Twelfth Imam). His enemies were often attacked as \"taghut\" and \"Mofsed-e-filarz\", religious terms used for enemies of the Twelfth Imam. Many of the officials of the overthrown Shah's government executed by Revolutionary Courts", "In 1929, Khomeini married Khadijeh Saqafi, the 16-year-old daughter of a cleric in Tehran. Some sources claim that Khomeini married Saqafi when she was ten years old, while others claim she was fifteen years old. By all accounts their marriage was harmonious and happy. She died in 2009. They had seven children, though only five survived infancy. His daughters all married into", "Khomeini was a prolific writer and speaker (200 of his books are online) who authored commentaries on the Qur'an, on Islamic jurisprudence, the roots of Islamic law, and Islamic traditions. He also released books about philosophy, gnosticism, poetry, literature, government and politics. His books include:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Rise to power.", "Reinventing Egypt.", "Law under Muhammad Ali.", "Hakimas and the school of medicine for women.", "Role in the Arabic literary renaissance.", "Military campaigns.", "Arabian campaign.", "Conquest of Sudan.", "Greek rebellion.", "War against the sultan.", "Final years.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Muhammad Ali was born in Kavala, in Macedonia, Rumeli Eyalet of the Ottoman Empire, today a city in Greece. He was born to an Albanian family whose origins were from Korçë. He was the second son of a tobacco and shipping merchant named Ibrahim Agha, who also served as an Ottoman commander of a small unit in Kavala. His mother was Zeynep, the daughter of the \"Ayan of Kavala\" Çorbaci Husain Agha. When his father died at a young age, Muhammad was taken and raised by his uncle with his cousins. As a reward for Muhammad Ali's hard work, his uncle gave him the rank of", "The French withdrawal left a power vacuum in Egypt. Mamluk power had been weakened, but not destroyed, and Ottoman forces clashed with the Mamluks for power. During this period of turmoil Muhammad Ali used his loyal Albanian troops to work with both sides, gaining power and prestige for himself. As the conflict drew on, the local populace grew weary of the power struggle. In 1801, he allied with the Egyptian leader Umar Makram and Egypt's Grand Imam of al-Azhar. During the infighting between the Ottomans and Mamluks between 1801 and 1805, Muhammad Ali carefully acted to gain the support of the general public. In 1805, a group of prominent Egyptians led by the ulema (scholars, savants) demanded the replacement of \"Wāli\" (viceroy) Ahmad Khurshid Pasha by Muhammad Ali, and the Ottomans yielded. In 1809, though, Ali exiled Makram", "Sultan Selim III (reigned 1789–1807) had recognized the need to reform and modernize the Ottoman Empire, specifically the military, along European lines to ensure that his state could compete. Selim III, however, faced stiff local opposition from an entrenched clergy and military apparatus, especially from the Janissaries, the Ottoman infantry formed from the devshirme system. Consequently, Selim III was deposed and ultimately killed in 1808. Muhammad Ali, too, recognized the need to modernize, but unlike Selim, he had dispatched his chief rivals, giving him a free hand to attempt reforms similar to those first begun by Selim III. Muhammad Ali's goal was for Egypt to leave the Ottoman Empire and be ruled by his own hereditary dynasty. To do that, he had to reorganize Egyptian society, streamline the economy, train a professional bureaucracy, and build a modern military. His first task was to secure a revenue stream for Egypt. To accomplish this, Muhammad Ali 'nationalized' all the iltizam lands of Egypt, thereby officially owning all the production of the land. He accomplished the state annexation of property by raising taxes on the 'tax-farmers' who had previously owned the land throughout Egypt. The new taxes were intentionally high and when the tax-farmers could not extract the demanded payments from the peasants who worked the land, Muhammad Ali confiscated their properties. The other major source of revenue Muhammad Ali created was a new tax on waqf endowments, which were previously tax-free. Through these endowments, personal income could be set aside for schools or other charitable purposes. As well as raising revenue to fund his new military, this tax took revenue away from the local elite, Mamluks and the ulama, weakening opposition to Muhammad Ali's reforms. In practice, Muhammad Ali's land reform amounted to a monopoly on trade in Egypt. He required all producers to sell their goods to the state. The state in turn resold Egyptian goods, within Egypt and to foreign markets, and retained the surplus. The practice proved very profitable for Egypt with the cultivation of long staple cotton, a new cash crop. To", "The purpose of the law was to represent Muhammad Ali in his absence. Muhammad Ali started his renovations in law by moving towards a more effective control over crime within Egypt. Most notably he did this by passing his first penal legislation in 1829, in an effort to get a stronger hold over the population. By this time, Muhammad Ali was already moving towards an establishment of an independent state, which he first expressed in 1830, by creating a state of \"law and order\", where Christians within Egypt can be safe, which was a way Muhammad Ali was able", "In 1832, Muhammad Ali allowed Antoine Clot, known as \"Clot Bey\" in Egypt, to establish a School of Medicine for women. Clot-Bey had been invited in 1827 by Muhammad Ali to found the Qasral-‘Ayni School of Medicine at the Army hospital of Abou Zabel which later transferred to Cairo. The Army Medical School had a difficult beginning with religious officials against dissection of corpses for anatomy lessons. The medical school for women would produce hakimas, \"doctoress\", to treat women and children. French women adherents of the Saint-Simonian social reform movement were living in Egypt during 1833-36 and studied or provided medical care under Clot Bey's direction. French \"sage-femme\" (midwife) Suzanne Voilquin writes of assisting during the cholera epidemic of 1834. Several of the French women contracted cholera and died. Ali's military and economic goals required a healthy army and population from which young boys could be conscripted. Venereal diseases, especially syphilis, were common among soldiers and smallpox outbreaks led to high childhood mortality rates. Clot Bey argued that female-provided health care for women and children was crucial to maintain a healthy population. He believed that the untrained local dayas (midwives) were unable to provide appropriate care and under Egyptian law, male doctors could not treat women. Clot Bey's solution was a school to train female doctors. The school of medicine for women followed a French model. The first two years of training provided Arabic literacy in order to communicate with patients. The following four included training in: obstetrics, pre- and post-natal care, dressing wounds, cauterization, vaccination, scarification, cupping, application of leeches, identification/preparation of common medicines. Students were provided housing, food, clothes and a monthly allowance from the state.", "In the 1820s, Muhammad Ali sent the first educational \"mission\" of Egyptian students to Europe. This contact resulted in literature that is considered the dawn of the Arabic literary renaissance, known as the Nahda. To support the modernization of industry and the military, Muhammad Ali set up a number of schools in various fields where French texts were studied. Rifa'a al-Tahtawi supervised translations from French to Arabic on topics ranging from sociology and history to military technology, and", "Though Muhammad Ali's chief aim was to establish a European-style military, and carve out a personal empire, he waged war initially on behalf of the Ottoman Sultan, Mahmud II, in Arabia and Greece, although he later came into open conflict with the Ottoman Empire. He used several new strategies to ensure the success of his new military. First new recruits were isolated from the environment they were used to. They began housing soldiers in barracks, leadership enforced a strict regime of surveillance, roll call was done several times a day, and corporal punishment used to ensure the new fighting force grew to become a strong disciplined military. The army often used the bastinado and the whip to control and punish the soldiers. Muhammad not only wanted his soldiers to be disciplined, but he also created many military codes to regulate the definitions of crime and punishment, this helped to create blind obedience to the laws. A large part of Ali's goal of a European-style military was through the creation of new labelling and organizational systems to identify soldiers, distinguish officers from enlisted men, structure units, and properly distribute salaries. Soldiers were given a unique number that identified their unit and their role within it, and officers were expected to use lists with these numbers to keep a close watch on the men and ensure every man performed his clearly assigned duty. This was particularly useful in identifying deserters who often fled in the chaos of massed movement, such as during forced marches or relocation to a new encampment. The soldiers were placed under strict surveillance in the barracks. In order to accomplish this Muhammad Ali relied on the Bedouins to guard the troops that were sent to the training camps. Despite being hired to control the troops the Bedouins were actually a menace to the government who often had to use the army to control the Bedouins. In order to combat this the government slowly switched from using Bedouins to guard the soldiers and to capture deserters and instead attempted to set up the expectation of internment from the beginning of the soldiers stay at the training camps in order to deter them from deserting the military in the first place.", "Muhammad Ali's first military campaign was an expedition into the Arabian Peninsula. The holy cities of Mecca, and Medina had been captured by the House of Saud, who had recently embraced a literalist Hanbali interpretation of Islam. Armed with their newfound religious zeal, the Saudis began conquering parts of Arabia. This culminated in the capture of the Hejaz region by 1805. With the main Ottoman army tied up in Europe, Mahmud II turned to Muhammad Ali to", "Muhammad Ali next turned his attention to military campaigns independent of the Porte, beginning with the Sudan which he viewed as a valuable additional resource of territory, gold, and slaves. The Sudan at the time had no real central authority, as since the 18th century many petty kingdoms and tribal sheikhdoms had seceded from the declining Sultanate of Sennar, fighting each other with Medieval weaponry. In 1820 Muhammad Ali dispatched an army of 5,000 troops commanded by his third son, Ismail and Abidin Bey, south into Sudan with the intent of conquering the territory and subjugating", "While Muhammad Ali was expanding his authority into Africa, the Ottoman Empire was being challenged by ethnic rebellions in its European territories. The rebellion in the Greek provinces of the Ottoman Empire began in 1821. The Ottoman army proved ineffectual in its attempts to put down the revolt as ethnic violence spread as far as Constantinople. With his own army proving ineffective, Sultan Mahmud II offered Muhammad Ali the island of Crete in exchange for his support in putting down the revolt. Muhammad", "In compensation for his loss at Navarino, Muhammad Ali asked the Porte for the territory of Syria. The Ottomans were indifferent to the request; the Sultan himself asked blandly what would happen if Syria was given over and Muhammad Ali later deposed. But Muhammad Ali was no longer willing to tolerate Ottoman indifference. To compensate for his and Egypt's losses, the wheels for the conquest of Syria were set in motion. Like other rulers of Egypt before him, Ali desired to control Bilad al-Sham (the Levant), both for its strategic value and for its rich natural resources; nor was this a sudden, vindictive decision on the part of the Wāli since he had harboured this goal since his early years as Egypt's unofficial ruler. For not only had Syria abundant natural resources, it also had a thriving international trading community with well-developed markets throughout the Levant; in addition, it would be a captive market for the goods now being produced in Egypt. Yet perhaps most of all, Syria was desirable as a buffer state between Egypt and", "After 1843, fast on the heels of the Syrian debacle, and the treaty of Balta Liman, which forced the Egyptian government to tear down its import barriers, and to give up its monopolies, Muhammad Ali's mind became increasingly clouded and tended towards paranoia. Whether it was genuine senility or the effects of the silver nitrate he had been given years before to treat an attack of dysentery remains a subject of debate. In 1844 the tax receipts were in, and Sherif Pasha, the head of the diwan al-maliyya (financial ministry), was too fearful for his life to tell the Wāli the news that Egyptian debt now stood at 80 million francs (£2,400,000). Tax arrears came to 14,081,500 piastres out of a total estimated tax of 75,227,500 pts. Timidly he approached Ibrahim Pasha with these facts, and together came up with a report and a plan. Anticipating his father's initial reaction, İbrahim arranged for Muhammad Ali's favourite daughter to break the news. It did little, if any, good. The resulting rage was far beyond what any had been expected, and it took six full days for a tenuous peace to take hold. A year later while Ibrahim, progressively crippled by rheumatic pains and tuberculosis (he was beginning to cough up blood), was sent to Italy to take the waters, Muhammad Ali, in 1846, travelled to Constantinople. There he approached the Sultan, expressed his fears, and made his peace, explaining: \"[My son] Ibrahim is old and sick, [my grandson] Abbas is indolent (\"happa\"), and then", "The prevailing historical view of Muhammad Ali is as the 'Father of Modern Egypt', being the first ruler since the Ottoman conquest in 1517 to permanently divest the Porte of its power in Egypt. While failing to achieve formal independence for Egypt during his lifetime, he was successful in laying the foundation for a modern Egyptian state. In the process of building an army to defend and expand his realm, he built a central bureaucracy, an educational system that allowed social mobility, and an economic base that included an agricultural cash crop, cotton, and military-based manufacturing. His efforts established his progeny as the rulers of Egypt and Sudan for nearly 150 years and rendered Egypt a de facto independent state. Others, however, view him not as a builder, but rather as a conqueror. He was of Albanian origin rather than Egyptian, and throughout his reign, Turkish was the official language of his" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Career.", "2007–2009: First Doubles Title.", "2010: Three Doubles Titles.", "2011: Fourth Round at Wimbledon.", "2012: Stuttgart Open doubles title.", "2013: Wimbledon quarterfinal.", "2014: Australian Open doubles title.", "2016: Third Vienna Open doubles title and race to Rio.", "2017: Wimbledon doubles title and year-end No. 1 ATP doubles ranking.", "2018 No. 1 in the ATP doubles rankings, tied with Marcelo Melo.", "2019: Kubot's 25th Doubles Title and 6th ATP Doubles Finals appearance.", "Performance timelines.", "Doubles." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "In 2007 Kubot's two main-draw wins came in Davis Cup ties. In 2008 Kubot did not play a single main-draw match. Kubot started 2009 by competing in the qualifying rounds of Qatar ExxonMobil Open and the Australian Open, but he fell in the final round. He then qualified for the Brasil Open, where he recorded his first main-draw win in over one and a half year against Daniel Gimeno-Traver, but lost in the following round to Thomaz Bellucci. He then continued to play in qualifying, but failed to qualify. However, in the 2009 Serbia Open, he fell in the final round of the qualifying draw, but was granted a Lucky Loser spot after Steve Darcis withdrew due a shoulder injury. He defeated Arsenije Zlatanović, Igor Andreev, Kristof Vliegen, and an upset victory over second seed Ivo Karlović. He then lost in straight sets against World No. 3 and top seed Novak Djokovic, in his first final. He became the first Pole to reach an ATP final in 26 years (since Wojciech Fibak in 1983). He also reached the doubles final at the same event partnering Oliver Marach, which he won. At Roland Garros, he qualified, but lost to Viktor Troicki in the first round, in just around 4 hours. His next main-draw appearance came in MercedesCup in Stuttgart, where he recorded wins over Pablo Andújar and Philipp Kohlschreiber, but lost to Nicolas Kiefer in the quarterfinals. He then qualified in Cincinnati, but lost to José Acasuso, in the first round. In Beijing, he recorded the biggest win of his career by upsetting Andy Roddick in the very first round, but lost to Ivan Ljubičić the following round. He then lost in the first rounds of Shanghai and Vienna. In the 2009 BNP Paribas Masters, he defeated Andreas Beck, but lost to Marin Čilić, after qualifying. In doubles, he won the 2009 Grand Prix Hassan II, the 2009 Serbia Open, and the 2009 Bank Austria-TennisTrophy, all with his regular doubles partner Oliver Marach. They also reached the semifinals of the 2009 Australian Open, losing to Mahesh Bhupathi and Mark Knowles. They were able to qualify in the 2009 ATP World Tour Finals, falling in the round-robin stage despite winning two matches over the teams of Max Mirnyi and Andy Ram, and Lukáš Dlouhý and Leander Paes, only losing to Bob Bryan and Mike Bryan", "Kubot started his 2010 campaign in Doha, where he reached the quarterfinals, losing to Viktor Troicki, after recording straight-set wins over Karim Maamoun and Sergiy Stakhovsky. He then played in the Australian Open, where he reached his first fourth round in a Grand Slam tournament. He earned this spot by defeating Mischa Zverev, and Santiago Giraldo, and through the withdrawal of 20th seed Mikhail Youzhny. He was defeated by Novak Djokovic. In the Movistar Open, he lost to Marcel Granollers, after defeating Horacio Zeballos. In the 2010 Brasil Open, he reached the final, his second of his career. He earned that by defeating Óscar Hernández, Albert Montañés, and Fabio Fognini, in straight sets. He came back against fourth seed Igor Andreev in the semifinals. In the final, he lost to top seed Juan Carlos Ferrero, failing to hold serve in the whole match. He then suffered early losses in his next three tournaments to credible players in the 2010 Copa Telmex, losing to Juan Mónaco, in the 2010 Abierto Mexicano Telcel to Fernando Verdasco, and the 2010 BNP Paribas Open to David Nalbandian. He then regained form, reaching the quarterfinals of the 2010 Grand Prix Hassan II, losing to Potito Starace. However, he lost in the first round of the 2010 Monte-Carlo Rolex Masters to Viktor Troicki. In doubles, he won the 2010 Movistar Open in Santiago, the Mexican Open (tennis) in Acapulco, and the Romanian Open Trophy in Bucharest.", "At the 2011 French Open, Kubot was down two sets to none in his first-round match against 11th seed Nicolás Almagro. Kubot stormed back and won the match in five sets. He progressed to the third round, before he was ousted. He earned the nickname \"Lukasz the Lionhearted\" for his aggressive style of play. He then qualified for the 2011 Wimbledon Championships and advanced to the fourth round, defeating Arnaud Clément in five sets, Ivo Karlović in straight sets, and Gaël Monfils in four sets. In the fourth round, he led Feliciano López by two sets to love and had two match points in the third set tiebreak, but eventually lost in five sets.", "Kubot made the quarterfinals in Memphis, before losing to Benjamin Becker. He also made the quarterfinals in Bucharest, only to meet and lose to Gilles Simon. He made the third round of the French Open, losing to Belgian David Goffin. He made the quarterfinals in Gstaad, where he lost to Grigor Dimitrov. At Winston-Salem, he made the third round, only to lose again to Goffin. In doubles, he made three finals, including the Masters 1000 event in Rome, partnering Janko Tipsarević. He won the tournament in Stuttgart, partnering Jérémy Chardy.", "Ranked no. 130 in the world, Kubot reached the quarterfinals of 2013 Wimbledon Championships. He beat Igor Andreev in the first round before getting a walkover after second round opponent (and conqueror of Rafael Nadal in the first round) Steve Darcis withdrew through injury. He then beat Benoît Paire and Adrian Mannarino before losing in a historic all-Polish slam quarterfinal against Jerzy Janowicz.", "In January Kubot and Sweden's Robert Lindstedt won the Australian Open men's doubles title. The pair had played just two tennis tournaments together, losing in the first round of both, before entering the Australian Open. In the final they defeated American Eric Butorac and South African Raven Klaasen, who had knocked out top seeds Bob Bryan and Mike Bryan. Lindstedt said he had been slated to play with Jürgen Melzer, but the Austrian withdrew with injury before the tournament. \"I had to scramble up a partner in December and I'm thankful that Kubot said yes,\" stated Lindstedt.", "In August Kubot participated in the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Partnered with Marcin Matkowski, he defeated Indian tennis pair of Leander Paes and Rohan Bopanna. Subsequently, Kubot and Matkowski lost to the eighth seeded Spanish pair of Roberto Bautista Agut and David Ferrer in the second round. Kubot also participated in the mixed doubles, where he was partnered with the 2015 WTA Finals winner, Agnieszka Radwańska. Radwanska and Kubot lost to the Romanian pair of Irina Camelia Begu and Horia Tecau in the first round. In October, Kubot partnered with Marcelo Melo defeated Oliver Marach and Fabrice Martin to win the Vienna Open Doubles Title for the third time in his career.", "In March Kubot with his doubles partner Marcelo Melo reached the doubles final at Indian Wells Masters. Eighth seeded Lukasz Kubot and Marcelo Melo reached the BNP Paribas Open semi-finals after breezing past tricky wild card duo, Nick Kyrgios and Nenad Zimonjić. The Polish-Brazilian pair then defeated fourth seeds Jamie Murray and Bruno Soares to reach the final against the 6th seeds, South Africa’s Raven Klaasen and his American doubles partner, Rajeev Ram. At the 2017 Miami Open Kubot and Melo dropped only three sets en route to the final, defeating Marcus Daniell & Marcelo Demoliner, Jean-Julien Rojer & Horia Tecău, Jamie Murray & Bruno Soares in QF and Daniel Nestor & Brian Baker in SF to reach their second straight ATP Masters 1000 final. The sixth-seeded Kubot and Melo defeated American duo Nick Monroe and Jack Sock in straight sets. They made it all the way together at an ATP event for the first time this season. It was their first ever Masters 1000 title won as a team as well. Kubot and Melo have continued their streak of claiming at least one ATP doubles title together in a season for the third straight year. They're back-to-back Vienna doubles champions, having won the tournament together in 2015 and 2016. Miami Open was their 11th career tournament together, with a current overall 22-8 record and 12-6 record in 2017. In April Kubot and Melo reached the quarter-finals at the Monte-Carlo Masters, the season's third Masters 1000 tournament. The following month they reached their third ATP World Tour Masters 1000 final of the season after they defeated seventh seeds Ivan Dodig and Marcel Granollers at the Mutua Madrid Open (tennis). In the Mutua Madrid Open final they defeated French duo consisting of Nicolas Mahut and Edouard Roger-Vasselin to win their second Masters 1000 doubles title this season. Seeded fourth at the French Open Kubot and Melo overcame a first round challenge from Julien Benneteau and Jeremy Chardy to advance to the second round. In the 2nd round they lost to Ryan Harrison and Michael Venus. Kubot and Melo continued their outstanding season by taking the doubles title at the Ricoh Open, living up to their top seed status in's-Hertogenbosch by defeating second seeds Raven Klaasen and Rajeev Ram. “We’ve had a really good year. It’s another title for us, so we’re very happy with the way we’re playing,” said Kubot. As top seeds Kubot and Melo continued their dominance on grass courts by taking the doubles title at the Gerry Weber Open in Halle, outlasting brothers Alexander Zverev and Mischa Zverev. Their victory in Halle also further extended their lead in the Emirates ATP Doubles Race To London. They stayed perfect on the grass courts, ousting top seeds Henri Kontinen and John Peers in the Wimbledon semi-finals. In the Wimbledon final, the fourth seeds defeated 16th seeds Oliver Marach and Mate Pavic. The final lasted a marathon 4 hours 41 minutes and was only the fourth Wimbledon men's doubles final to go to five sets in the last 20 years. In November Kubot and Melo won the men’s doubles title at the Paris Masters tennis tournament. The pair beat Ivan Dodig and Marcel Granollers in the final. The Polish-Brazilian duo made the final after easing past Jamie Murray and Bruno Soares in the semifinal and Feliciano Lopez and Marc Lopez in the quarterfinals. The Paris victory marks Kubot and Melo’s sixth title of the season, after wins at Wimbledon, Miami, Madrid, Halle and s'Hertogenbosch. Following the Paris Masters Kubot officially moved up to world No. 2 in the Association of Tennis Professionals’ (ATP) doubles rankings. At the Nitto ATP Finals top seeds Kubot and Melo outclassed No. 7 seeds Ivan Dodig and Marcel Granollers to clinch year-end No. 1 ATP doubles ranking. \"This year has been amazing for me and Lukas, the first year we're playing together. Finishing as the No. 1 team in the world for me, it means a lot\", Melo said, \"We achieved this as a team. I'm very proud\". They also defeated four-time former season finale champions Bob Bryan and Mike Bryan and subsequently qualified for the semi-finals. In the semifinal they knocked out eighth seed Ryan Harrison and Michael Venus for a place in the title match. In the final Kubot and Melo, who were 49-17 for the season, fell to second seeds and defending champions Henri Kontinen and John Peers.", "At the start of the season top-seeds Lukasz Kubot and Marcelo Melo defeated Jan-Lennard Struff and Viktor Troicki to capture the Sydney International men's doubles title. Following Sydney Kubot attained No. 1 in the ATP Doubles Rankings, and has become the 51st player since 1976 to reach the pinnacle of the sport. \"It’s great for Poland,\" said Kubot. \"I’m happy that I’m one of the ambassadors for tennis in my country, putting Polish tennis on the map of the world. I’m grateful to Wojtek Fibak, who was No. 2 in doubles (1979) and Top 10 in singles (1977). He gave me a lot of advice from his experience, and motivation\". Top seeds Kubot and Melo advanced to the Australian Open quarter-finals after coming from a set down to beat 16th seeds Rajeev Ram and Divij Sharan. Unbeaten in 2018, they lost to Ben McLachlan and Jan-Lennard Struff in the quarterfinal. In Halle, Marcelo Melo and Lukasz Kubot—who went undefeated on grass last year—defended their title, beating Alexander and Mischa Zverev in the final. It was Melo and Kubot’s first title victory since January in Sydney. At Wimbledon, seeded second, Kubot and Melo lost to Jonathan Erlich and Marcin Matkowski in the second round. Fifth seeds Kubot and Melo advanced to the quarter-finals of the Western & Southern Open for the second year in a row, beating Rogers Cup finalists Raven Klaasen and Michael Venus. The Polish-Brazilian duo avenged a loss they suffered against the same team one week ago in Toronto. In the quarterfinal Kubot and Melo lost to fourth seeds Jamie Murray and Bruno Soares, who triumphed in Acapulco and Washington, D.C. earlier this season. It was the first Head2Head meeting between the two teams this year. Seeded seventh at the US Open, Kubot and Melo defeated Divij Sharan and Artem Sitak in the second round. In the third round they overpowered the 2018 French Open champions Nicolas Mahut and Pierre-Hugues Herbert. They continued their great form with a straight set win over Austin Krajicek and Tennys Sandgren to reach their first US Open semifinal. In the semifinal they defeated Malek Jaziri and Radu Albot for a spot in the final of the Men’s doubles event at the 2018 US Open. Kubot and Melo came into the tournament having lost five of their previous seven matches and also ended up losing to the third-seeded Americans Mike Bryan and Jack Sock in the final. No. 2 seeds Kubot and Melo beat top-seeded Oliver Marach and Mate Pavic in the China Open final to claim their third team title of the season. Following China Open they also won the Rolex Shanghai Masters doubles title. In the Shanghai final they defeated sixth-seeded Jamie Murray and Bruno Soares to continue their strong form and win back-to-back titles. For the second consecutive season Kubot and Melo qualified for the Nitto ATP Finals at The O2 Arena in London. No. 3 seeds Kubot and Melo secured a spot for the prestigious season-ending event after beating second-seeded Oliver Marach and Mate Pavic in the Rolex Shanghai Masters semi-final. Kubot and Melo were eliminated from the ATP Finals despite winning their final match against top-seeds Oliver Marach and Mate Pavic. For the third time in his career Kubot ended the season in the top 10 ATP doubles ranking at No. 9.", "At the start of the season Kubot's partner Marcelo Melo was sidelined from Australian Open due to suffering a back injury. As a result Kubot played doubles partnered with Horacio Zeballos. Kubot and Zeballos defeated Aljaz Bedene and Maximilian Marterer in the first round and Fabrice Martin and Jeremy Chardy in the second round. In his fifth career Australian Open doubles quarterfinal Kubot and his partner lost to Ryan Harrison and Sam Querrey in three sets. At the 2019 BNP Paribas Open sixth seeds Lukasz Kubot and Marcelo Melo rallied past Wesley Koolhof and Stefanos Tsitsipas in first round and defeated Nick Kyrgios and Taylor Fritz to reach the quarterfinal. They battled past Dominic Inglot and Franko Skugor in one hour and 23 minutes and defeated Novak Djokovic and Fabio Fognini for a spot in the final. Runners-up in 2017, Kubot and Melo lost a tight finals match to Nikola Mektic and Horacio Zeballos. Top seeds Lukasz Kubot and Marcelo Melo broke three times to return to the 2019 Miami Open semi-finals. The 2017 champions, swept fifth seeds Oliver Marach/Mate Pavic before falling to Bob Bryan/Mike Bryan in the last four. In August top seeds Kubot/Melo won their first ATP Tour team title of 2019. The Polish-Brazilian pairing beat American wild cards Nicholas Monroe and Tennys Sandgren to claim the Winston-Salem Open championship, their 13th doubles crown together. At the China Open Kubot and Melo recorded their sixth straight victory beating Mao-Xin Gong and Ze Zhang to reach the semi-finals. The defending champions claimed 82 per cent of first-serve points (27/33) and did not face a break point to advance after 68 minutes. Without dropping a set throughout the entire tournament the Polish-Brazilian duo defeated Karen Khachanov and Andrey Rublev for a place in the championship match. In the final they lost to Ivan Dodig and Filip Polasek. At the 2019 Rolex Shanghai Masters Kubot and Melo rolled past Nicolas Mahut and Edouard Roger-Vasselin to reach their third consecutive final-round appearance in Shanghai. In the final they lost to Mate Pavic and Bruno Soares. Despite that loss they became the second team to qualify for the Nitto ATP Finals following their quarterfinal win at the Shanghai Masters. In October top seeds Lukasz Kubot/Marcelo Melo defeated third seeds Pierre-Hugues Herbert/Nicolas Mahut to reach their second final at the 2019 Erste Bank Open in Vienna. In the championship match Kubot/Melo lost to the fourth seeds Rajeev Ram/Joe Salisbury. The 2015 Vienna champions had not dropped a set en route to their sixth ATP Tour doubles final of the season and had won 16 of their past 19 matches. At the Nitto ATP Finals Lukasz Kubot and Marcelo Melo made a winning start to Group Jonas Bjorkman after beating Ivan Dodig and Filip Polasek. Kubot and Melo hit seven aces, won 76 percent of their first serve points in an hour and 40 minutes of play. They reached their second team semifinal at The O2 Arena after edging out Rajeev Ram and Joe Salisbury to finish Group Jonas Bjorkman with a 2-1 record.", "", "\"Current through the 2019 French Open.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Operating frequencies.", "Hardware.", "WiDEN.", "History.", "Subscriber Units.", "Operators.", "Capitalization and pronunciation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The iDEN project originally began as MIRS (Motorola Integrated Radio System) in early 1991. The project was a software lab experiment focused on the utilization of discontiguous spectrum for GSM wireless. GSM systems typically require 24 contiguous voice channels, but the original MIRS software platform dynamically selected fragmented channels in the radio frequency (RF) spectrum in such a way that a GSM telecom switch could commence a phone call the same as it would in the contiguous channel scenario.", "iDEN is designed and licensed to operate on individual frequencies that may not be contiguous. iDEN operates on 25 kHz channels, but only occupies 20 kHz in order to provide interference protection via guard bands. By comparison, TDMA Cellular (Digital AMPS) is licensed in blocks of 30 kHz channels, but each emission occupies 40 kHz, and is capable of serving the same number of subscribers per channel as iDEN. iDEN uses frequency-division duplexing to transmit and receive signals separately, with transmit and receive bands separated by 39 MHz, 45 MHz, or 48 MHz depending on the frequency band being used. iDEN supports either three or six interconnect users (phone users) per channel, and six dispatch users (push-to-talk users) per channel, using time division multiple access. The transmit and receive time slots assigned to each user are deliberately offset in time so that a single user never needs to transmit and receive at the same time. This eliminates the need for a duplexer at the mobile end, since time-division duplexing of RF section usage can be performed.", "The first commercial iDEN handset was Motorola's L3000, which was released in 1994. Lingo, which stands for Link People on the Go, was used as a logo for its earlier handsets. Most modern iDEN handsets use SIM cards, similar to, but incompatible with GSM handsets' SIM cards. Early iDEN models such as the i1000plus stored all subscriber information inside the handset itself, requiring the data to be downloaded and transferred should the subscriber want to switch handsets. Newer handsets using SIM technology make upgrading or changing handsets as easy as swapping the SIM card. Four different sized SIM cards exist, \"Endeavor\" SIMs are used only with the i2000 without data, \"Condor\" SIMs are used with the two-digit models (i95cl, for example) using a SIM with less memory than the three-digit models (i730, i860), \"Falcon\" SIMs are used in the three-digit phones, (i530, i710) and will read the smaller SIM for backward compatibility, but some advanced features such as extra contact information is not supported by the older SIM cards. There is also the \"Falcon 128\" SIM, which is the same as the original \"Falcon\", but doubled in memory size, which is used on new 3 digit phones (i560, i930). The interconnect-side of the iDEN network uses GSM signalling for call set-up and mobility management, with the Abis protocol stack modified to support iDEN's additional features. Motorola has named this modified stack 'Mobis'. Each base site requires precise timing and location information to synchronize data across the network. To obtain and maintain this information each base site uses GPS satellites to receive a precise timing reference.", "Wideband Integrated Digital Enhanced Network, or WiDEN, is a software upgrade developed by Motorola and partners for its iDEN enhanced specialized mobile radio (or ESMR) wireless telephony protocol. WiDEN allows compatible subscriber units to communicate across four 25 kHz channels combined, for up to 100 kbit/s of bandwidth. The protocol is generally considered a 2.5G wireless cellular technology.", "iDEN, the platform which WiDEN upgrades, and the protocol on which it is based, was originally introduced by Motorola in 1993, and launched as a commercial network by Nextel in the United States in September 1996. WiDEN was originally anticipated to be a major stepping stone for United States wireless telephone provider Nextel Communications and its affiliate, Nextel Partners. However, beginning with the December 2004 announcement of the Sprint Nextel merger, Nextel's iDEN network was abandoned in favor of Sprint's CDMA network. WiDEN was deactivated on the NEXTEL National Network in October 2005 when rebanding efforts in the 800 MHz band began in an effort to utilize those data channels as a way to handle more cellular phone call traffic on the NEXTEL iDEN network. The original Nextel iDEN network was finally decommissioned by Sprint on June 30, 2013 and the spectrum refarmed for use in the Sprint LTE network.", "The first WiDEN-compatible device to be released was the Motorola iM240 PC card which allows raw data speeds up to 60 kbit/s. The first WiDEN-compatible telephones are the Motorola i850 and i760, which were released mid-summer 2005. The recent i850/i760 Software Upgrade enables WiDEN on both of these phones. The commercial launch of WiDEN came with the release of the Motorola i870 on 31 October 2005, however, most people never got to experience the WiDEN capability in their handsets. WiDEN is also offered in the i930/i920 Smartphone, however, Sprint shipped these units with WiDEN service disabled. Many in the cellular forum communities have found ways using Motorola's own RSS software to activate it. WiDEN was available in most places on Nextel's National Network. As stated above, it no longer is enabled on the Sprint-controlled towers. Since the Sprint Nextel merger the company determined that because Sprint's CDMA network was already 3G and going to EVDO (broadband speeds), and then EVDO Rev A, it would be redundant to keep upgrading the iDEN data network. WiDEN is considered a 2.5G technology.", "Countries which have operating iDEN networks include United States of America, Canada, Colombia, Israel, Singapore, Saudi Arabia, El Salvador, and Guatemala.", "Motorola originally referred to the platform as wiDEN, choosing to capitalize only the letters representing \"Digital Enhanced Network,\" as it had with iDEN. However, subsequent promotion from Motorola and Nextel has indicated that the preferred capitalization is WiDEN. The term has been pronounced, commonly, as a close combination to the words \"why\" and \"den\", or simply as the word \"widen\". The former is closer to the original pronunciation of iDEN, as \"eye\" and \"den\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "History.", "Overview.", "Upgrade progress." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Due to sections not being originally constructed to anywhere near Motorway standard and to the notoriously poor conditions of maintenance, and also to the difficult terrain along some of the route, the motorway has been often taken as a symbol of the backwardness and economical problems of southern Italy. Italian historian Leandra D'Antone has defined it \"a true Italian shame\". The European Union declines to classify the road as a “motorway” due to the decades-long roadwork restrictions on a supposedly modern road and seeks recompense for its financial contributions. On 22 December 2016 the Salerno-Reggio Calabria freeway was declared 'complete', 55 years after the first works started, with the opening of Larìa tunnel in Cosenza. In a ceremony held in Reggio Calabria, prime minister Paolo Gentiloni begged pardon \"for the delay\" and the road name was changed from \"\"A3 Salerno-to-Reggio Calabria\"\" to \"\"A2 Autostrada del Mediterraneo\"\" (Highway of the Mediterranean).", "The first stretch of the road to be completed was the Naples-Pompeii section, finished on 22 June 1929. The connection onward to Salerno was completed on 16 July 1961. In 1964 the Italian government decided to build a motorway which connected the rest of Italy to Calabria, so far considered a kind of \"Third Island\" (together with Sicily and Sardinia), due to the nature of its terrain, which made it problematic to reach the region. The new motorway was built in a total of 8 years, the works being delivered on 13 June 1974. The road built by 1974 is more similar to a sub-standard freeway (Italian: \"strada statale\", \"state road\") than to the other \"autostrade\" (motorways) in Italy. Queues became a common feature, especially in summer. To solve the situation, the Italian government funded renovation works in 1997., many of them are still ongoing, despite it being announced in 1993 that the works would be completed by 2003. The EU antifraud investigation of works undertaken between 2007 and 2010 together with the repayment of over €300m to the EU in July 2012 have delayed completion of the upgrade works even further. The cost of the upgrade (in August 2013) was projected to reach over €10bn by the time it was eventually completed, then envisaged as perhaps by 2018. The section from Salerno to Reggio Calabria alone, 442 km long, would cost €10bn with the rest spent on widening/upgrades already completed between Naples and Salerno. €7.443 Bn had been spent up to 2011 on parts of the 442 km section between Salerno and Reggio Calabria. Most of the works were completed by 2015.", "The entire road was constructed as a substandard freeway by the mid 1970s and later an upgrade program from Naples to Reggio Calabria started in the early 1990s. The section with three lanes in each direction has a length of 105 km, between Naples and RA02 which goes towards Potenza. The section from the interchange with the A1 motorway in Naples to the Pompeii exit, built during the 1920s, originated as a local turnpike, and was later retrofitted to motorway standard. Many of the junctions along the original A3 route completed in the 1970s had very tight corners and extremely limited deceleration fields; this is especially significant on the now more than 50-year-old Naples-Salerno section, where at some junctions there are stop-signs for traffic entering the motorway. Hard shoulders only appeared along the route as part of the post 1990 upgrades, with only occasional emergency bays at infrequent locations on the sections that have not been upgraded yet. Much of the route is often congested even where upgraded. The concession of the Northern part was owned by, a company listing in Borsa Italiana and a subsidiary of Autostrade per l'Italia, which in turn a subsidiary of Atlantia. The southern segment (Salerno-Reggio Calabria) is toll-free and is maintained by ANAS, the state agency for public routes. Located in a mountainous area, it is prone to very high levels of traffic (especially at the start and at the end of holiday periods) and is known for the bad state of maintenance compared to other Italian motorways. ANAS has been slowly upgrading this section during the last three decades.", "The motorway underwent heavy modernisation, in many cases a completely new parallel motorway was built alongside the original A3 and involved in most cases a complete rebuilding or replacement of the road where the alignment was retained. By August 2014, works on 391 km of the road (88%) were completed. 16 more km of rebuilding/modernization was then due to be completed. A number of new junctions were also to be constructed, in some cases to service certain towns with no direct access at present. In May 2015 then prime minister Renzi indicated that the upgrade programme would be terminated by 2016. By March 2016 68 km remained to be done. Plans to upgrade 58 km were abandoned and changed from Motorway Construction projects to \"Maintenance\" Sections to be'maintained' in future rather than upgraded to Motorway standard are: Morano Calabro - Firmo, from km 185 + 000 to km 206 + 500: 21 km *Former Macrolotto 3.4 Cosenza - Altilia, from km 259 + 700 to km 286: 26 km *Former Macrolottos 4.1 4.2.1 and 4.2.2 Pizzo Calabro - S.Onofrio, from km 337 + 800 to km 348 + 600: 11 km *Former Macrolotto 5 (originally scheduled for completion 2012) Maintenance will involve pavement and structural renewal and is projected to cost €1bn between 2016 and 2021 instead of the €3bn that ANAS projected as the cost of fully upgrading the 3 remaining sections. These total 58 km of the new length of 435 km from Salerno to Campo Calabria and do not include the final 10 km from Campo Calabria to Reggio Calabria which remains as constructed in the 1970s. also abandoned were a number of planned junctions. The motorway standard road will terminate at Campo Calabro approximately 10 km to the north of Reggio Calabria, and the remaining 10 km of old A3 into Reggio Calabria will not be upgraded to full motorway standards." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early years.", "World Hockey Association.", "NHL career.", "Edmonton Oilers (1979–1988).", "The Gretzky rule.", "Strategy and effect on NHL play.", "\"The Trade\".", "Los Angeles Kings (1988–1996).", "St. Louis Blues (1996).", "New York Rangers (1996–1999).", "International play.", "Skills and influences.", "Style of play.", "Size and strength.", "Stamina & athleticism.", "Major coaching influences.", "Early start.", "Study of game.", "Post-retirement.", "Phoenix Coyotes.", "Winter Olympics.", "Alumni games.", "Edmonton Oilers.", "Personal life.", "Family.", "Business ventures.", "Books.", "Political activity.", "Legacy.", "Career statistics.", "Regular season and playoffs.", "Head coaching record." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Wayne Gretzky was born on January 26, 1961, in Brantford, Ontario, the son of Phyllis Leone (Hockin) and Walter Gretzky. The couple had married in 1960, and lived in an apartment in Brantford, where Walter worked for Bell Telephone Canada. The family moved into a house on Varadi Avenue in Brantford seven months after Wayne was born, chosen partly because its yard was flat enough to make an ice rink on every winter. Wayne was joined by a sister, Kim (born 1963), and brothers Keith, Glen and Brent. The family would regularly visit the farm of Wayne's grandparents, Tony and Mary, and watch \"Hockey Night in Canada\" together. By age two, Wayne was trying to score goals against Mary using a souvenir stick. The farm was where Wayne skated on ice for the first time, aged two years, 10 months. Walter taught Wayne, Keith, Brent, Glen and their friends hockey on a rink he made in the back yard of the family home, nicknamed the \"Wally Coliseum\". Drills included skating around Javex bleach bottles and tin cans, and flipping pucks over scattered hockey sticks to be able to pick up the puck again in full flight. Additionally, Walter gave the advice to \"skate where the puck's going, not where it's been\". Wayne was a classic prodigy whose extraordinary skills made him the target of jealous parents. The team Gretzky played on at age six was otherwise composed of 10-year-olds. His first coach, Dick Martin, remarked that he handled the puck better than the 10-year-olds. According to Martin, \"Wayne was so good that you could have a boy of your own who was a tremendous hockey player, and he'd get overlooked because of what the Gretzky kid was doing.\" The sweaters for 10-year-olds were far too large for Gretzky,", "In 1978, the World Hockey Association (WHA) league was in competition with the established NHL. The NHL did not allow the signing of players under age 20, but the WHA had no rules regarding such signings. Several WHA teams courted Gretzky, notably the Indianapolis Racers and the Birmingham Bulls. Birmingham Bulls owner John F. Bassett wanted to confront the NHL by signing as many young and promising superstars as possible and saw Gretzky as the most promising young prospect. However, it was Racers owner Nelson Skalbania who, on June 12, 1978, signed 17-year-old Gretzky to a seven-year personal services contract worth US$1.75 million. Gretzky scored his first professional goal against Dave Dryden of the Edmonton Oilers in his fifth game, and his second goal four seconds later. Skalbania opted to have Gretzky sign a personal-services contract rather than a standard player contract in part because he knew a deal to take some WHA teams into the NHL was in the works. He also knew that the Racers could not hope to be included among those teams, and hoped to keep the Racers alive long enough to collect compensation from the surviving teams when the WHA dissolved, as well as any funds earned from selling the young star. Gretzky played only eight games for Indianapolis. The Racers were losing $40,000 per game. Skalbania told Gretzky he would be moved, offering him a choice between the Edmonton Oilers and the Winnipeg Jets. On the advice of his agent, Gretzky picked", "", "After the World Hockey Association folded in 1979, the Edmonton Oilers and three other teams joined the NHL. Under the merger agreement the Oilers, like the other surviving WHA teams, were to be allowed to protect two goaltenders and two skaters from being reclaimed by the established NHL teams in the 1979 NHL Expansion Draft. The Oilers kept Gretzky on their roster, making him a \"priority selection\". Gretzky's success in the WHA carried over into the NHL, despite some critics suggesting he would struggle in what was considered the bigger, tougher and more talented league. In his first NHL season, 1979–80, Gretzky was awarded the Hart Memorial Trophy as the NHL's Most Valuable Player (the first of eight in a row) and tied for the scoring lead with Marcel Dionne with 137 points. Although Gretzky played 79 games to Dionne's 80, Dionne", "In June 1985, as part of a package of five rule changes to be implemented for the 1985–86 season, the NHL Board of Governors decided to introduce offsetting penalties, where neither team lost a man when coincidental penalties were called. The effect of calling offsetting penalties was felt immediately in", "Gretzky had a major influence on the style of play of the Edmonton Oilers and in the NHL as a whole, helping to inspire a more team-based strategy. Using this approach, the Oilers, led by Gretzky, became the highest scoring team in NHL history. \"He was, I think, the first Canadian forward to play a true team game\", said hockey writer and former NHL goaltender Ken Dryden. The focus of the game prior to Gretzky's arrival, he said, especially among the Canadian teams, was on the player with the puck—in getting the puck to a star player who would make the big play. \"Gretzky reversed that. He knew he wasn't big enough, strong enough, or even fast enough to do what he wanted to do if others focused on him. Like a magician, he had to direct attention elsewhere, to his four teammates on the ice with him, to create the momentary distraction in order to move unnoticed into the open ice where size and strength didn't matter.... Gretzky made his opponents compete with five players, not one, and he", "Two hours after the Oilers won the Stanley Cup in 1988, Gretzky learned from his father that the Oilers were planning to deal him to another team. Walter Gretzky had known for months after having been tipped off by Skalbania, but kept the news from Wayne so as not to upset him. According to Walter, Wayne was being \"shopped\" to Los Angeles, Detroit, and Vancouver, and Pocklington needed money as his other business ventures were not doing well. At first, Wayne did not want to leave Edmonton, but he later received a call while on his honeymoon from Los Angeles Kings owner Bruce McNall asking permission to meet and discuss the deal. Gretzky informed McNall that his prerequisites for a deal to take place were that Marty McSorley and Mike Krushelnyski join him as teammates in Los Angeles. Both McNall and Pocklington quickly agreed. After the details of the trade were finalized by the two owners, one final condition had to be met: Gretzky had to call Pocklington and request a trade. When Pocklington told Oilers general manager and head coach Sather about his plans to trade Gretzky to Los Angeles, Sather tried to stop the deal, but", "The Kings named Gretzky their alternate captain. He made an immediate impact on the ice, scoring on his first shot on goal in the first regular season game. The Kings got off to their best start ever, winning four straight en route to qualifying for the playoffs. Despite being underdogs against the defending Stanley Cup Champion Edmonton Oilers in the Smythe Division semifinals, Gretzky led the Kings to a shocking upset of his old squad, spearheading the Kings' return from a 3–1 series deficit to win the series 4–3. He was nervous Edmonton would greet him with boos, but they were eagerly waiting for him. For only the second time in his NHL career, Gretzky finished second in scoring, but narrowly edged the Pittsburgh Penguins' Mario Lemieux (who scored 199 points) for the Hart Trophy as MVP. In 1990, the Associated Press named Gretzky Male Athlete of the Decade. Gretzky's first season in Los Angeles saw a marked increase in attendance and fan interest in a city not previously known for following hockey. The Kings now boasted of numerous sellouts. Many credit Gretzky's arrival with putting non-traditional American hockey markets on \"the NHL map\"; not only did", "On February 27, 1996, Gretzky joined the St. Louis Blues in a trade for Patrice Tardif, Roman Vopat, Craig Johnson and two draft picks (Peter Hogan and Matt Zultek). He partially orchestrated the trade after reports surfaced that he was unhappy in Los Angeles. At the time of the trade, the Blues and New York Rangers emerged as front-runners, but the Blues met his", "Gretzky ended his professional playing career with the New York Rangers, where he played his final three seasons and helped the team reach the Eastern Conference Finals in 1997. The Rangers were defeated in the Conference Finals in five games by the Philadelphia Flyers, despite Gretzky leading the Rangers in the playoffs with 10 goals and 10 assists. For the first time in his NHL career, Gretzky was not named captain, although he briefly wore the captain's \"C\" in 1998 when captain Brian Leetch was injured and out of the", "Gretzky made his first international appearance as a member of the Canadian national junior team at the 1978 World Junior Championships in Montreal, Quebec. The Canadian coach, Punch McLean, was originally skeptical of Gretzky's ability as he was the youngest player to compete in the tournament at the age of 16. He went on to lead the tournament in scoring with 17 points to earn All-Star Team and Best Forward honours. His 17 points remain the most scored by a 16-year-old in the World Junior Championships. Canada finished with the bronze medal. Gretzky debuted with the Team Canada's men's team at the 1981 Canada Cup. He led the tournament in scoring with 12 points en route to a second-place finish to the Soviet Union, losing 8–1 in the final. Seven months later, Gretzky joined Team Canada for the 1982 World Championships in Finland. He notched 14 points in 10 games, including a two-goal, two-assist effort in Canada's final game against Sweden to earn the bronze. Gretzky did not win his first international competition until the 1984 Canada Cup, when Canada defeated Sweden in a best-of-three finals. He led the tournament in scoring for the second consecutive time and was named to the All-Star Team. Gretzky's international career highlight arguably came three years later at the 1987 Canada Cup. Gretzky has called the tournament the best hockey he had played in his life. Playing on a line with Pittsburgh Penguins' superstar Mario Lemieux, he recorded a tournament-best", "", "Gretzky's size and strength were unimpressive—in fact, far below average for the NHL—but he is widely considered the smartest player in the history of the game. His reading of the game and his ability to improvise on the fly were unrivaled, and he could consistently anticipate where the puck was going to be and execute the right move at the right time. His coach at the Edmonton Oilers, Glen Sather, said, \"He was so much more intelligent. While they were using all this energy trying to rattle his teeth, he was just skating away, circling, analyzing things.\" He was also considered one of the most creative players in hockey. \"You never knew what he was going to do\", said hockey Hall of Famer Igor Larionov. \"He was improvising all the time. Every time he took the ice, there was some spontaneous decision he would make. That's what made him such a phenomenal player.\" Gretzky's ability to improvise came into the spotlight at the 1998 Olympics in Japan. Then an older player in the sunset of his career, he had been passed over for the captaincy of the team. But as the series continued, his unique skills made him a", "When he entered the league in 1979, critics opined that Gretzky was \"too small, too wiry, and too slow to be a force in the [NHL].\" His weight was, compared to the NHL average of at that time. But that year, Gretzky tied for first place in scoring, and won the Hart Trophy for", "However, he had remarkable physical stamina. Like his hero, Gordie Howe, Gretzky possessed \"an exceptional capacity to renew his energy resources quickly.\" In 1980, when an exercise physiologist tested the recuperative abilities of all of the Edmonton Oilers, Gretzky scored so high that the tester said he \"thought the machine had broken.\" His stamina is also indicated by the fact that Gretzky often scored late in the game. In the year he scored his record 92 goals, 22 of them went in the net during the first period, 30 in the second—and 40 in the third. He also had strong general athletic skills. Growing up, he was a", "However, Gretzky denied that he had any exotic innate abilities. He said that many of his advantages were a result of his father's brilliant coaching. Some say I have a \"sixth sense\"... Baloney. I've just learned to guess what's going to happen next. It's anticipation. It's not God-given, it's Wally-given. He used to stand on the blue line and say to me, \"Watch, this is how everybody else does it.\" Then he'd shoot a puck along the boards and into the corner and then go chasing after it. Then he'd come back and say, \"Now, this is how the smart player does it.\" He'd shoot it into the corner again, only this time he cut across to the other side and picked it up over there. Who says anticipation can't be taught? Gretzky learned much about hockey from his father on a backyard rink at his home. Walter Gretzky had been an outstanding Junior B hockey player.", "Where Gretzky differed from others in his development was in the extraordinary commitment of time on the ice. \"From the age of 3 to the age of 12, I could easily be out there for eight to 10 hours a day\", Gretzky has said. In his autobiography, he wrote: All I wanted to do in the winters was be on the ice. I'd get up in the morning, skate from 7:00 to 8:30,", "Much has been written about Gretzky's highly developed hockey instincts, but he once explained that what appeared to be instinct was, in large part, the effect of his relentless study and practice of the game, in co-operation with his coaches. As a result, he developed a deep understanding of its shifting patterns and dynamics. Peter Gzowski says that the best of the best athletes in all sports understand the game so well, and in such detail, that they can", "Gretzky was named honorary chairman of the Open Ice Summit, held in August 1999 to discuss ways to improve Canadian ice hockey. He stressed the need to play and practice hockey for the love of the game, and felt that skill was more important to develop than talent and that Canada had the potential to be world leaders in skill development. Gretzky was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame on November 22, 1999, becoming the tenth player to bypass the three-year waiting period. The Hall of Fame then announced that he would be the last player to do so. He was inducted into the IIHF Hall of Fame in 2000. In addition, Gretzky's jersey number 99 was retired league-wide at the 2000 NHL All-Star Game, a decision inspired by Major League Baseball's retirement of the number 42 worn by Jackie Robinson. In October 1999, Edmonton honoured Gretzky by renaming one of Edmonton's busiest freeways, Capilano Drive – which passes by Northlands Coliseum – to Wayne Gretzky Drive. Also in Edmonton, the local transit authority assigned a rush-hour bus route numbered No. 99 which also runs on Wayne Gretzky Drive for its commute. In 2002, the Kings held a jersey retirement ceremony and erected a life-sized statue of Gretzky outside the Staples Center; the ceremony was delayed until then so that Bruce McNall, who had recently finished a prison sentence, could attend. Also in 2002, Gretzky received a star on Canada's Walk of Fame in Toronto. His hometown of Brantford, Ontario, renamed Park Road North to \"Wayne Gretzky Parkway\" as well as renaming the North Park Recreation Centre to The Wayne Gretzky Sports Centre. Brantford further inducted Gretzky into its \"Walk of Fame\" in 2004. On May 10, 2010, he was awarded The Ambassador Award of Excellence by the LA Sports & Entertainment Commission. Gretzky was named one of the 100 Greatest NHL Players in 2017.", "Almost immediately after retirement, several NHL teams approached him about an ownership role. In May 2000, he agreed to buy a 10% stake in the Phoenix Coyotes in a partnership with majority owner Steve Ellman, taking on the roles of alternate governor, managing partner and head of hockey operations. The Coyotes were in the process of being sold and Ellman convinced Gretzky to come on board, averting a potential move to Portland, Oregon. The sale was not completed until the following year, on February 15, 2001, after two missed deadlines while securing financing and partners before Ellman and Gretzky could take over. Trucking magnate and Arizona Diamondbacks part-owner Jerry Moyes was added to the partnership. Gretzky convinced his long-time agent Michael Barnett to join the team as its General Manager. In 2005, rumours began circulating that Gretzky was about to name himself head coach of the Coyotes, but were denied by Gretzky and the team. Ultimately, Gretzky agreed to become head coach on August 8, 2005. Gretzky made his coaching debut on October 5, and", "Gretzky was Executive Director of the Canadian men's hockey team at the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City, Utah. On February 18, he lashed out at the media at a press conference, frustrated with media and fan comments regarding his team's uninspiring 1–1–1 start. His temper boiled over after Canada's 3–3 draw versus the Czech Republic, as he launched a tirade against the perceived negative reputation of Team Canada amongst other national squads, and called rumours of dissent in the dressing room the result of \"American propaganda\". \"They're loving us not doing well\", he said, referring to American hockey fans. American fans online began calling Gretzky a \"crybaby\"; defenders said he was merely borrowing a page from former coach Glen Sather to take the pressure off his players. Gretzky addressed those comments by saying he spoke out to protect the Canadian players, and the tirade was not \"staged\". The Canadian team won the gold medal, its first in 50 years. Gretzky again acted as Executive Director of Canada's men's hockey team at the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin, Italy, though not with the success of 2002; the team was eliminated in the quarterfinals and failed to win a", "Although Gretzky had previously stated he would not participate in any \"old-timers exhibition games\", on November 22, 2003, he took to the ice to help celebrate the Edmonton Oilers' 25th anniversary as an NHL team. The Heritage Classic, held at Commonwealth Stadium in Edmonton, was the first regular season NHL game to be played outdoors. It was preceded by the Mega Stars game, which featured Gretzky and many of his Oiler Dynasty", "In October 2016, Gretzky returned to the Oilers as a partner and vice-chairman of the team's parent", "Gretzky has made several TV appearances, including as a \"Dance Fever\" celebrity judge, and acted in a dramatic role alongside Victor Newman in \"The Young and the Restless\" in 1981. In 1984, he travelled to the Soviet Union to film a television program on Russian goaltender Vladislav Tretiak. Gretzky was a guest host of the American late night variety show \"Saturday Night Live\" in 1989. A fictional crime-fighting version of him served as one of the main characters in the cartoon \"ProStars\" in 1991. In December 2016, Gretzky appeared briefly in a cameo on a Christmas episode of \"The Simpsons\" as a winter character.", "While serving as a judge on \"Dance Fever\", Gretzky met actress Janet Jones. According to Gretzky, Jones does not recall his being on the show. They met regularly after that, but did not become a couple until 1987 when they ran into each other at a Los Angeles Lakers game that Gretzky and Alan Thicke were attending. Gretzky proposed in January 1988, and they were married on July 16, 1988, in a lavish ceremony the Canadian press dubbed \"The Royal", "Gretzky has owned or partnered in the ownership of two sports teams before becoming a partner in the Phoenix Coyotes. In 1985, Gretzky bought the Hull Olympiques of the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League for $175,000 CA. During his ownership, the team's colours were changed to silver and black, presaging the change in team jersey colours when he played for the Los Angeles Kings. For the first season that Gretzky played in Los Angeles, the Kings had their training camp at the Olympiques' arena. Gretzky eventually sold the team in 1992 for $550,000 CAD. In 1991, Bruce McNall purchased the Toronto Argonauts of the Canadian Football League (CFL) with Gretzky and John Candy as minority owners. The club won the Grey Cup championship in the first year of the partnership, but struggled in the two following seasons, and the partnership sold the team before the 1994 season. Only McNall's name was engraved on the Grey Cup as team owner, but in November 2007, the CFL corrected the oversight, adding Gretzky's and Candy's names. In 1992, Gretzky and McNall partnered in an investment to buy a rare", "Gretzky has written several books, including \"Gretzky: An Autobiography\" (1990), with Rick Reilly, and \"99: My Life in Pictures\" (1999), with John Davidson", "In 2003, while not criticizing Canada for declining to participate in the invasion of Iraq, Gretzky praised President of the United States George W. Bush and his handling of the conflict, saying: \"the President of the United States is a great leader, I happen to think he's a wonderful man and if he believes what he's doing is right, I back him", "Gretzky's career achievements include many awards and honours. He won a record nine Hart Trophies as the most valuable player in the NHL. Between 1981 and 1994, he won the Art Ross Trophy, presented to the NHL's season points leader, 10 times. Gretzky was named the MVP of the Stanley Cup playoffs in 1985 and 1988, receiving the Conn Smythe Trophy. In addition, he earned the Lester B. Pearson Award (now Ted Lindsay Award) on five occasions; the award is given to the NHL's", "", "Figures in boldface", "" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Range and habitat.", "Description.", "Similar-looking fish.", "Habitat.", "Feeding habits.", "Spawning.", "Fishing." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The common bream's home range is Europe north of the Alps and Pyrenees, as well as the Balkans. It is found as far as east as the Caspian Sea, the Black Sea and the Aral Sea. The common bream lives in ponds, lakes and canals, and in slow-flowing rivers.", "The bream is usually long, though some specimens of have been recorded; it usually weighs. The maximum length is 90 cm (35.5 in) with a maximum recorded weight of about 9.1 kg (20 lb). It has a laterally flattened and high-backed body and a slightly undershot mouth. It is a silvery grey colour, though older fish can be bronze-coloured especially in clear waters. The fins are greyish to black, but never reddish.", "The common bream can easily be confused with the silver or white bream (\"Blicca bjoerkna\"), in particular at the younger stages (see picture). The most reliable method of distinguishing these species is by counting the scales in a straight line downwards from the first ray of the dorsal fin to the lateral line. Silver bream have fewer than 10 rows of scales, while common bream have 11 or more. At the adult stage the reddish tint of the pectoral fin of the silver bream is diagnostic. Like other Cyprinidae, common bream can easily hybridise with other species, and hybrids with roach (\"Rutilus rutilus\") can be very difficult to distinguish from pure-bred bream.", "The common bream generally lives in rivers (especially in the lower reaches) and in nutrient-rich lakes and ponds with muddy bottoms and plenty of algae. It can also be found in brackish sea waters.", "The common bream lives in schools near the bottom. At night common bream can feed close to the shore and in clear waters with sandy bottoms feeding pits can be seen during daytime. The fish's protractile mouth helps it dig for chironomid larvae, \"Tubifex\" worms, bivalves, and gastropods. The bream eats water plants and plankton, as well. In very turbid waters, common bream can occur in large numbers, which may result in a shortage of bottom-living prey such as chironomids. The bream are then forced to live by filter feeding with their gill rakers, \"Daphnia\" water fleas being the main prey. As the fish grows, the gill rakers become too far apart to catch small prey and the bream will not then grow bigger than. If a common bream is malnourished, it can develop a so-called \"knife back\", a sharp edge along its back.", "The common bream spawns from April to June, when water temperatures are around. At this time, the males form territories within which the females lay 100,000 to 300,000 eggs on water plants. The fry hatch after three to 12 days and attach themselves to water plants with special adhesive glands, until their yolk is used up. Because of their slender shape, the young fish are often not recognised as bream, but they can be identified by their flat bodies and silvery colour. At this stage, the fish are still pelagic, but after a few months, they acquire their typical body shape and become bottom-dwellers. By three to four years old, the fish are sexually mature.", "The freshwater bream is not generally caught for consumption. Common Bream are popular with sport and match fishermen. However, bream are not as hard fighting as most other fish native to the UK, as due to their flat, disc-shaped profile they are relatively easy to bring to the bank. Bream will eat most baits, especially: Bream can be caught in rivers or lakes, with generous use of groundbait to attract the shoals. They are not shy fish. Float fishing on the bottom is another technique used. Ledgering (using just a lead weight to hold the bait down) with a cage feeder full of bait, often works better on larger rivers and lakes. The current (2017) record common bream is over 10 kg (22lbs), caught in 2012." ] }

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{ "title": [ "General information.", "Name.", "Coat of arms.", "History.", "Sport.", "Twin towns - Sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "In Norse times the city was just called \"Borg\" (from \"borg\" which means \"castle\"). The background for this was the fortification built by Olav Haraldsson (see History section). Later the genitive case of the name of the waterfall \"Sarpr\" (Sarp Falls) was added. In Norse times Østfold county was called \"Borgarsýsla\" which means \"the county (sýsla) of Borg\" and the law district of southeast Norway was called \"Borgarþing\" meaning \"the thing/court of Borg\". The old name has been revived in the diocese of Borg (1968) and Borgarting Court of Appeal (1995).", "The coat-of-arms is from modern times and was granted on 13 November 1991. It is based on a coat of arms dating from 1556 and shows a bear above a castle. The bear was introduced as early as some time in the 13th century, by the earl of Sarpsborg \"(Comes de Saresburgh)\", Alv Erlingsson. He used the bear to symbolise his strength. The castle symbolises the fortress (borg) that gave the city its original name.", "The city was founded as \"Borg\" by the Viking King Olav Haraldsson (Saint Olaf) in 1016. It was burned to the ground by Swedish invaders in 1567 during the Northern Seven Years' War. Half the population was evacuated down the river to what is today known as Fredrikstad, about downstream. Much of the rebuilt town disappeared into the river Glomma during a 1702 mudslide. Again Borg was rebuilt, and it was recreated as a city in 1839, and separated from Tune as a municipality of its own. The rural municipalities of Tune, Skjeberg, and Varteig were merged with the city on 1 January 1992. The population is steadily growing, and during the summer of 2005 it reached 50,000 inhabitants. In 2016 the town celebrated its 1,000th anniversary, and the entire year was commemorated by a special programme that encouraged historic preservation within the town.", "During the 1950s and 1960s, Sarpsborg was famous for its football (soccer) team, Sarpsborg FK, but is now more known for its ice hockey team, Sparta Warriors. In football, Sarpsborg 08 FF has taken over the local throne, currently playing at the highest national level. On 6 November 2009, they sent arch-rival FFK down from the top division in a play-off game in Fredrikstad stadion. Sarpsborg 08 has a women's football team that was promoted to the women's Division 1 at the end of 2011, at the same time as the club's under-19 girls reached the Junior Cup Final. Sarpsborg BK plays in the highest bandy division. Sarpsborg is famous for its two elite leagues teams in floorball, Sarpsborg IBK and Greåker IBK. \"Harald Dahl, father of the British writer Roald Dahl, also came from Sarpsborg.\"", "Sarpsborg has several sister cities:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Formation and early years (1976–81).", "Rollins era (1981–1985).", "Later period and break up (1985–86).", "Post-Black Flag and reunions (1987–2012).", "Official reformation, Flag, \"What The...\", and Trademark Infringement Suit (2013–present).", "Style and legacy.", "Iconography.", "Discography." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Initially called Panic, Black Flag was formed in 1976 in Hermosa Beach, California located in the South Bay region of Los Angeles. Ginn insisted that the band rehearse several hours a day. This work ethic proved too challenging for some early members; Ginn and singer Keith Morris had an especially difficult time finding a reliable bass guitarist, and often rehearsed without a bassist, a factor that contributed to the development of Ginn's distinctive guitar sound. Ginn's brother Raymond Pettibon and SST house record producer-to-be Spot filled in during rehearsals. In the beginning, Ginn and Morris were inspired by the raw, stripped-down attitude of bands such as the Ramones and the Stooges. Ginn has said \"We were influenced by the Stooges and then the Ramones; they inspired us. Keith and myself saw the Ramones when they first toured LA in 1976. After we saw them, I said if they could do it", "Twenty-year-old fan Henry Rollins (birth name Henry Garfield)—then living in Washington, D.C. and singing for hardcore band State of Alert. S.O.A. drummer Ivor Hanson had a father who was a top admiral in the US Navy and his family shared living quarters with the Vice President of the United States in the United States Naval Observatory. The band held their practices there and would have to be let in by United States Secret Service agents. S.O.A. had corresponded with Black Flag, and met them when they performed on the U.S. east coast. At an impromptu show at A7 in New York City, Rollins had asked the band to perform \"Clocked In\", and the band offered to let him sing the song. Since vocalist Dez Cadena was switching to guitar, the band then invited Rollins to audition. Impressed by his stage demeanor, they asked him to become their permanent vocalist. Despite some doubts, he accepted, due in part to Ian MacKaye's encouragement. Rollins acted as roadie for the remainder of the tour while learning Black Flag's songs during sound checks and encores, while Cadena crafted guitar parts that meshed with Ginn's. Rollins also impressed Black Flag with his broad musical interests during an era when punk rock music and fans were increasingly factionalized; he introduced Black Flag to Washington D.C.'s go-go, a distinctive take on funk music. Rollins was Black Flag's longest-lasting vocalist. When he joined Black Flag, he brought a different attitude and perspective than previous singers. Some earlier songs, such as \"Six Pack\" (a song written about original singer Keith Morris) blended a sense of black humor with driving punk rock. Rollins was an intense performer, who usually appeared onstage wearing only shorts. Ginn once stated that after Rollins joined, \"We couldn't do songs with a sense of humor anymore; he got into the serious way-out poet thing.\"", "Despite 1984–85 being the most fruitful period for the band and their record label, Ginn and Rollins would ultimately decide to eject Roessler from Black Flag, citing erratic behavior. It has also been suggested that Ginn's accommodating Roessler's college schedule created tension in the band. Her absence, and the lack of a steady drummer (Stevenson quit and was replaced by Anthony Martinez), contributed to the comparatively weak reputation of the last few Black Flag tours. By 1986, Black Flag's members had grown tired of the tensions of their relentless touring schedule, infighting, and of living in near-poverty. The band had been together almost a decade,", "Since Black Flag's break-up, Rollins has had the most visible public profile as a musician, writer, and actor. Most Black Flag members have also remained active in music, especially Ginn, who continued playing with bands such as Gone, October Faction, and Screw Radio, and Stevenson, who continued on with the Descendents, All, Only Crime, and the reformed Lemonheads. Kira Roessler continues to record and perform with the band dos, a duet with then-husband and Minutemen bassist Mike Watt. In September 2003, Black Flag played three reunion shows, two at the Hollywood Palladium and one at Alex's Bar in Long Beach,", "On January 25, 2013, it was announced that guitarist Greg Ginn and vocalist Ron Reyes would reform Black Flag, joined by Gregory Moore on drums, and 'Dale Nixon' on bass (Dale Nixon is a pseudonym sometimes used by Ginn, most prominently as the bassist on \"My War\"). The band would tour as well as release a new album, their first since 1985's \"In My Head\". In March, it was announced that Screeching Weasel bassist Dave Klein had joined the band. On May 2, 2013, the band released a new song entitled \"Down in the", "Black Flag are primarily a hardcore punk band and are considered to be one of the first hardcore punk bands. According to Ryan Cooper of About.com and author Doyle Greene, Black Flag is one of the pioneers of the genre for the experimental style they later started playing. Black Flag experimented with a sludge metal sound on their album \"My War\". Black Flag also have used elements of styles such as jazz, blues, spoken word, heavy metal, blues rock, free jazz, math rock and. Throughout their ten-year career as a band, Black Flag's experiences became legendary, especially in the Southern California area. Much of the band's history is chronicled in Henry Rollins' own published tour diary \"Get in the Van\". Black Flag were reportedly blacklisted by the LAPD and Hollywood rock clubs because of the destructiveness of their fans, though Rollins has claimed that police caused far more problems than they solved. SST Records, an independent American record label that was initially founded to release Black Flag's debut single, released recordings by influential bands such as Bad Brains, Minutemen, Descendents, Meat Puppets, and Hüsker Dü. As well, SST released some albums by Negativland, Soundgarden, and Sonic Youth. SST was founded in 1966 by Greg as Solid State Transmitters – later rebranded to release Black Flag albums. Black Flag's career is chronicled in \"Our Band Could Be Your Life\", a study of several important American underground rock bands. Many members of the grunge scene cited Black Flag's", "Black Flag's visual imagery and artwork complemented the themes found in the band's music. Greg Ginn's brother Raymond Ginn, under the pseudonym Raymond Pettibon, created the artwork for all of the band's studio releases with the exceptions of \"Damaged\" and the \"TV Party\" single, as well as providing artwork for the band members to transform into merchandise and gig flyers. When the band found it necessary to change their name from Panic in 1977, it was Pettibon who suggested the new name Black Flag and designed their iconic logo: four vertical black rectangles comprising a stylized rippling black flag. The logo evoked a number of meanings: it was the polar opposite of a white flag of surrender, as well as a symbol for anarchism and a traditional emblem of pirates. As the band gained popularity the logo was graffitied on numerous highway overpasses and other public and private surfaces in and around Los Angeles, drawing the attention of the authorities and contributing to an increase in police presence at Black Flag shows. Pettibon's artwork for the band's albums and flyers was equally stark and confrontational. He typically worked in one panel using only pen and ink, so the message conveyed had to be direct and powerful due to lack of space and color. According to Michael Azerrad in \"Our Band Could Be Your Life\", the artwork \"was a perfect visual analogue to the music it promoted – gritty, stark, violent, smart, provocative, and utterly American.\" It also provided a cerebral aspect to the band's image: as the mainstream media caricatured Black Flag as a mindlessly aggressive act, the pairing of their music with high-concept artwork hinted at a greater intelligence at work that was unknown to outsiders. Henry Rollins, in his journal collection \"Get in the Van\", notes that Pettibon's artwork became synonymous with Black Flag and that before Rollins joined the band he would collect photocopies of their flyers that had circulated from California to Washington, D.C. The album cover for \"Nervous Breakdown\" had a particularly strong impact on Rollins: \"The record's cover art said it all. A man with his back to the wall baring his fists. In front of him another man fending him off with a", "Studio albums" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Construction.", "The Fiat track.", "Dangers and safety concerns.", "Doubling.", "The highway today.", "Electronic speed control.", "Fossano Junction." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The motorway was built in stages starting in 1956. It began with the Savona – Ceva stretch being inaugurated on January 27, 1960. Work began shortly after in 1961 on the Ceva – Fossano stretch, including a connection to the city of Fossano and to the SS 28 for Turin. In May 1970, the Moncalieri – La Rotta section opened, followed by the Marene – Fossano stretch in July of the same year. Finally, in 1972, the initial Turin – Moncalieri – La Rotta section was built, with a separate roadway to Carmagnola.", "In 1972, a second roadway was put into operation in direction to Savona. This roadway was located in the stretch between Carmagnola and the Rio Coloré West service area. This roadway was used exclusively by FIAT as a test track for higher speeds. The track began three kilometers (approximately 1.86 miles) from the Carmagnola junction, with the terminal square being just before the service area. There is also a square that was used as a technical track at overpass number 33, just 25.400 km in. Claudio Maglioli was known to have used the track to try and bring a Lancia LC2 to the record speed of 387 km/hr in preparation for the Le Mans race.", "The single roadway of the highway was considered very dangerous from marker 13 to 110 km, as the middle lane was used regularly for passing by both directions. Head-on collisions were common, with 91 incidents and three deaths in 1971 alone. For this, the highway was dubbed the \"highway of death\". At one point in 1980, the amount of fatal accidents were so high, judicial authorities ordered the closure of the highway in the Ceva – Altare section towards Savona. This was ordered July 17, 1980, and not long after on October 1 of the same year, the highway was reopened. The central passing lane was removed, and the speed limit was lowered to 70 km/h.", "In 1973, the doubling of Savona – Altare began, with the inauguration being in 1976. Later on in 1989, plans to double the stretch from Priero to Altare began. Work began in December 1993 and ended in July 1995. Four exits ceased use: Moncalieri \"La Rotta\" at the 3 km marker, the Vicoforte sanctuary at 67 km, Montezemolo at 92 km, and Carcare. Sections of the plain were affected by works starting from Carmagnola using the sediment from the FIAT track. This began in 1991 and ended in 2001, which was also the end of the entire doubling plan.", "Since 2001, the A6, known as \"La Verdemare\", has safety regulations similar to main Italian roadways. The system develops through landscapes and open territories, such as the border between Piedmont and Liguria, most notably the Savona – Altare Apennine stretch. The A6 also passes the Colle di Cadibona at 435m, a watershed between the Ligurian Apennines and the Po Valley in 14 km with an uninterrupted route of tunnels and viaducts and, exclusive to Italy, a helical curve in the south roadway. The A6 is also connected to the new Autostrada A33 Asti – Cuneo. The Asti East tollgate of the A21 Torino – Piacenza – Brescia will take you through Alba to the tollgate of the A6. The concessionary company is Autostrada dei Fiori, which is controlled by SIAS (Gavio group). The entire route coincides with the European road E717 and, at the junction for Fossano, branches off to a link that leads to the SS28.", "In two sections of each roadway, the average speed is monitored by the Tutor system, implemented between the Carmagnola and Marene stations (both roadways), near Priero (north roadway only), and Quiliano (south roadway only). The effectiveness of the system in the Carmagnola – Marene section is considered limited due to the presence of the Rio Coloré Service Area in the section.", "The Fossano Junction, which is only a single roadway, have signs indicating the beginning and end of the highway. Signs indicate the overpass as being a part of the A6 highway. According to the internal numbering of Autostrade per l'Italia, the link is classified as a \"D06 branch.\" The Legislative Decree #461 of October 29, 1999 included the link as national interest and classified it as part of the A6. The junction extends for 6.1 km from the start of the junction." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Physical aspects.", "References in culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Egyptologist David Lorton says that many ancient texts refer to autofellatio within the religion of Egypt, both in the realm of the gods and among the followers performing religious rituals. According to Lorton, in the Papyrus Bremner-Rhind 28, 20–24, in a document called \"Book of Overthrowing Apophis\", there is a poem narrating how the sun god Ra had created the god Shu and goddess Tefnut by fellating himself and spitting out his own semen onto the ground. In ancient Egyptian texts, this act is usually performed by the god Atum, and most texts depict only the spitting of the semen or only the masturbation, but not both. Michel Foucault cites Artemidorus' \"Oneirocritica\" as identifying the act of \"taking [one's] sex organ into one's [own] mouth\" as one of three ways to commit \"relations with oneself.\" Artemidorus thought that dreams of this \"unnatural\" act portended the death of one's children, loss of one's mistresses, or extreme poverty.", "Few men possess sufficient flexibility and penis length to safely perform the necessary frontbend. However, increased flexibility achieved via gravity-assisted positions, and physical training such as gymnastics, contortion, or yoga may make it possible for some. American biologists Craig Bartle and Alfred Charles Kinsey reported that fewer than 1% of males can successfully orally contact their own penis and that only 2 or 3 men in a thousand could perform a full autofellatio. Previously, autofellatio was considered by behavioristic science a problem rather than as a variety in sexual practice.", "Autofellatio is a niche in pornography. While relatively few pornographic films involve autofellatio, some pornographic actors are noted for this skill, including Ron Jeremy for his 1970s examples on film. Other actors including Scott O'Hara, Cole Youngblood, Steve Holmes, and Ricky Martinez have also been featured performing autofellatio and the practice has become a pornographic masturbation subgenre. In Brian W. Aldiss' 1970 semi-autobiographical novel \"The Hand-Reared Boy\", he describes group masturbation practices at a British boys' boarding school. One boy with an especially large penis is capable of fellating himself, a fact which the narrator, Horatio Stubbs, verifies. Comedian Bill Hicks elaborated an oft-quoted riff on the subject of fellatio, \"A woman one night yelled out, 'Yeah, you ever try it?' I said 'Yeah. Almost broke my back.'\" Kevin Smith later developed a similar theme (\"He broke his neck trying to suck his own dick\") in his 1994 debut film \"Clerks\". Writer/director Larry David, in his 1998 film \"Sour Grapes\", used autofellatio as a recurring plot device with several mentions and muted shots of a lead actor fellating himself (back trouble allowing) throughout the movie. In the 26th season (2000–2001) of the popular \"Saturday Night Live\" comedy show Will Ferrell plays a character who joins a yoga class with the sole purpose to be able to fellate himself as a part of reaching Samadhi. In the skit the character is shown to have been successful after three years of efforts. In the 2001 film \"Scary Movie 2\", Professor Dwight Hartman (David Cross) performs autofellatio after rebuffing Theo's (Kathleen Robertson) offer to perform oral sex on him while she attempts to seduce him to steal keys. She ultimately knocks him unconscious with a telephone and steals the keys. The opening sequence of the 2006 film \"Shortbus\" shows James (Paul Dawson) fellating himself on videotape; like all of \"Shortbus\"s sexual content, the scene was unsimulated. In 1993, American feminist artist Kiki Smith created a beeswax life-size sculpture titled \"Mother/Child\" which included a depiction of a man performing autofellatio. The term may be insulting to a man's masculinity, implying that someone performs autofellatio due either to extremely high self-regard or inability to get someone else to do it for him. This was the sense in which the term was used by President Donald Trump's former White House Communications Director Anthony Scaramucci, when he said of strategist Steve Bannon, \"I'm not Steve Bannon, I'm not trying to suck my own cock.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Personnel." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "It is the band’s only album with lead guitarist Michael Schenker – just 16 at the time of the recording – as a full-time member. He soon left to join UFO and was replaced by Ulrich Roth. Schenker would, however, rejoin briefly during the recording and touring of 1979’s \"Lovedrive\". Apart from occasional performances of “In Search of the Peace of Mind” up to 1978 and between 1996 and 2006, Scorpions have played no song from \"Lonesome Crow\" since the tour in support of their third album \"In Trance\". The songs \"Action\" and \"I'm Goin' Mad\" are re-recordings of the songs for their unreleased 1970 single on CCA label that were later released on the compilation \"Psychedelic Gems 2\", making them the earliest released Scorpions recordings. The album had several different sleeves and was re-titled \"Action\" for its initial release in Scandinavia, \"The Scorpions\" for one 1976 release, and \"The Original Scorpions\", with a different running order, for a Japanese release in 1981 and its first-ever CD issue in 1986. The 1982 German reissue cover art was created by the artist Rodney Matthews. \"My biggest skeleton in the closet is my Scorpions collection,\" confessed Uffe Cederlund of Swedish death metal band Entombed. \"Actually, I have four different pressings of the first album, \"Lonesome Crow\". In fact – and I've got to admit this, really – I still like them, too.\"", "Credits for \"Lonesome Crow\" adapted from Allmusic. Scorpions Production" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Versions and variations.", "NFSv2.", "NFSv3.", "NFSv4.", "Other extensions.", "Platforms.", "Typical implementation.", "Protocol development.", "1990s.", "2000s." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Sun used version 1 only for in-house experimental purposes. When the development team added substantial changes to NFS version 1 and released it outside of Sun, they decided to release the new version as v2, so that version interoperation and RPC version fallback could be tested.", "Version 2 of the protocol (defined in RFC 1094, March 1989) originally operated only over User Datagram Protocol (UDP). Its designers meant to keep the server side stateless, with locking (for example) implemented outside of the core protocol. People involved in the creation of NFS version 2 include Russel Sandberg, Bob Lyon, Bill Joy, Steve Kleiman, and others. The Virtual File System interface allows a modular implementation, reflected in a simple protocol. By February 1986, implementations were demonstrated for operating systems such as System V release 2, DOS, and VAX/VMS using Eunice. NFSv2 only allows the first 2 GB of a file to be read due to 32-bit limitations.", "Version 3 (RFC 1813, June 1995) added: The first NFS Version 3 proposal within Sun Microsystems was created not long after the release of NFS Version 2. The principal motivation was an attempt to mitigate the performance issue of the synchronous write operation in NFS Version 2. By July 1992, implementation practice had solved many shortcomings of NFS Version 2, leaving only lack of large file support (64-bit file sizes and offsets) a pressing issue. This became an acute pain point for Digital Equipment Corporation with the introduction of a 64-bit version of Ultrix to support their newly released 64-bit RISC processor, the Alpha 21064. At the time of introduction of Version 3, vendor support for TCP as a transport-layer protocol began increasing. While several vendors had already added support for NFS Version 2 with TCP as a transport, Sun Microsystems added support for TCP as a transport for NFS at the same time it added support for Version 3. Using TCP as a transport made using NFS over a WAN more feasible, and allowed the use of larger read and write transfer sizes beyond the 8 KB limit imposed by User Datagram Protocol.", "Version 4 (RFC 3010, December 2000; revised in RFC 3530, April 2003 and again in RFC 7530, March 2015), influenced by Andrew File System (AFS) and Server Message Block (SMB, also termed CIFS), includes performance improvements, mandates strong security, and introduces a stateful protocol. Version 4 became the first version developed with the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) after Sun Microsystems handed over the development of the NFS protocols. NFS version 4.1 (RFC 5661, January 2010) aims to provide protocol support to take advantage of clustered server deployments including the ability to provide scalable parallel access to files distributed among multiple servers (pNFS extension). Version 4.1 includes Session trunking mechanism (Also known as NFS Multipathing) and available in some enterprise solutions as VMware ESXi. NFS version 4.2 (RFC 7862) was published in November 2016 with new features including: server-side clone and copy, application I/O advise, sparse files, space reservation, application data block (ADB), labeled NFS with sec_label that accommodates any MAC security system, and two new operations for pNFS (LAYOUTERROR and LAYOUTSTATS). One big advantage of NFSv4 over its predecessors is that only one UDP or TCP port, 2049, is used to run the service, which simplifies using the protocol across firewalls.", "WebNFS, an extension to Version 2 and Version 3, allows NFS to integrate more easily into Web-browsers and to enable operation through firewalls. In 2007 Sun Microsystems open-sourced their client-side WebNFS implementation. Various side-band protocols have become associated with NFS. Note:", "NFS is often used with Unix operating systems (such as Solaris, AIX, HP-UX), Apple's macOS, and Unix-like operating systems (such as Linux and FreeBSD). It is also available to operating systems such as Acorn RISC OS,<ref name=\"Sunfish/Moonfish by Alex Waugh\"> </ref> AmigaOS, the classic Mac OS, OpenVMS, MS-DOS, Microsoft Windows, Novell NetWare, and IBM AS/400.<ref name=\"OS/400-NFS\"></ref> Alternative remote file access protocols include the Server Message Block (SMB, also termed CIFS), Apple Filing Protocol (AFP), NetWare Core Protocol (NCP), and OS/400 File Server file system (QFileSvr.400). SMB and NetWare Core Protocol (NCP) occur more often than NFS on systems running Microsoft Windows; AFP occurs more often than NFS in Apple Macintosh systems; and QFileSvr.400 occurs more often in AS/400 systems. Haiku in 2012 added NFSv4 support as part of a Google Summer of Code project.", "Assuming a Unix-style scenario in which one machine (the client) needs access to data stored on another machine (the NFS server): Note that automation of the NFS mounting process may take place — perhaps using codice_5 and/or automounting facilities.", "During the development of the ONC protocol (called SunRPC at the time), only Apollo's Network Computing System (NCS) offered comparable functionality. Two competing groups developed over fundamental differences in the two remote procedure call systems. Arguments focused on the method for data-encoding — ONC's External Data Representation (XDR) always rendered integers in big-endian order, even if both peers of the connection had little-endian machine-architectures, whereas NCS's method attempted to avoid byte-swap whenever two peers shared a common endianness in their machine-architectures. An industry-group called the Network Computing Forum formed (March 1987) in an (ultimately unsuccessful) attempt to reconcile the two network-computing environments. In 1987, Sun and AT&T announced they would jointly develop AT&T's UNIX System V Release 4. This caused many of AT&T's other licensees of UNIX System to become concerned that this would put Sun in an advantaged position, and ultimately led to Digital Equipment, HP, IBM, and others forming the Open Software Foundation (OSF) in 1988. Ironically, Sun and AT&T had formerly competed over Sun's NFS versus AT&T's Remote File System (RFS), and the quick adoption of NFS over RFS by Digital Equipment, HP, IBM, and many other computer vendors tipped the majority of users in favor of NFS. NFS interoperability was aided by events called \"Connectathons\" starting in 1986 that allowed vendor-neutral testing of implementations with each other. OSF adopted the Distributed Computing Environment (DCE) and the DCE Distributed File System (DFS) over Sun/ONC RPC and NFS. DFS used DCE as the RPC, and DFS derived from the Andrew File System (AFS); DCE itself derived from a suite of technologies, including Apollo's NCS and Kerberos.", "Sun Microsystems and the Internet Society (ISOC) reached an agreement to cede \"change control\" of ONC RPC so that the ISOC's engineering-standards body, the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), could publish standards documents (RFCs) related to ONC RPC protocols and could extend ONC RPC. OSF attempted to make DCE RPC an IETF standard, but ultimately proved unwilling to give up change control. Later, the IETF chose to extend ONC RPC by adding a new authentication flavor based on Generic Security Services Application Program Interface (GSSAPI), RPCSEC GSS, to meet IETF requirements that protocol standards have adequate security. Later, Sun and ISOC reached a similar agreement to give ISOC change control over NFS, although writing the contract carefully to exclude NFS version 2 and version 3. Instead, ISOC gained the right to add new versions to the NFS protocol, which resulted in IETF specifying NFS version 4 in 2003.", "By the 21st century, neither DFS nor AFS had achieved any major commercial success as compared to SMB-CIFS or NFS. IBM, which had formerly acquired the primary commercial vendor of DFS and AFS, Transarc, donated most of the AFS source code to the free software community in 2000. The OpenAFS project lives on. In early 2005, IBM announced end of sales for AFS and DFS. In January, 2010, Panasas proposed an NFSv4.1 based on their \"Parallel NFS\" (pNFS) technology claiming to improve data-access parallelism capability. The NFSv4.1 protocol defines a method of separating the filesystem meta-data from file data location; it goes beyond the simple name/data separation by striping the data amongst a set of data servers. This differs from the traditional NFS server which holds the names of files and their data under the single umbrella of the server. Some products are multi-node NFS servers, but the participation of the client in separation of meta-data and data is limited. The NFSv4.1 pNFS server is a set of server resources or components; these are assumed to be controlled by the meta-data server. The pNFS client still accesses one meta-data server for traversal or interaction with the namespace; when the client moves data to and from the server it may directly interact with the set of data servers belonging to the pNFS server collection. The NFSv4.1 client can be enabled to be a direct participant in the exact location of file data and to avoid solitary interaction with one NFS server when moving data. In addition to pNFS, NFSv4.1 provides:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Writing.", "Theater." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Born to a Jewish family in London, Phillip Klass moved to New York City with his parents before his second birthday and grew up in Brooklyn, the oldest of three children. After serving in the United States Army during World War II as a combat engineer in Europe, he held a job as a technical editor with an Air Force radar and radio laboratory and was employed by Bell Labs. Phillip and Fruma Klass married in 1957, and they moved in 1966 to State College, Pennsylvania, where he taught English and comparative literature at Penn State University for 22 years. Students of his who would go on to professional careers as writers included \"Rambo\" creator David Morrell, screenwriter Steven E. de Souza, technology writer Steven Levy and crime novelist Ray Ring. Phil's wife, Fruma Klass (b. 1935), grew up in New York City and graduated from the Bronx High School of Science and Brooklyn College to work as a lab technician, a medical editor and a Harper & Row copy editor. At Penn State, she was a writing instructor and a copy editor for the Penn State University Press. When Phil Klass retired, the couple moved to the Pittsburgh suburb of Mt. Lebanon in 1988, and she took a job as an editor with Black Box Corporation. That same year, her first short story, \"Before the Rainbow,\" was published in the anthology \"Synergy 3\". In 1996, her second story, \"After the Rainbow,\" won a Writers of the Future prize; the story was published in \"Writers of the Future, Vol. XII\". In 2004, she entered a worldwide essay competition, the Power of Purpose Awards, sponsored by the John Templeton Foundation. Competing against 7,000 entrants from 97 countries, she won $25,000 for her essay, \"Streets of Mud, Streets of Gold.\" Phil and Fruma Klass were members of the Pittsburgh Area Real Time Science Fiction Enthusiasts Consortium (PARSEC), and were frequent speakers at its local conference, Confluence. Phil Klass was a Guest of Honor at Noreascon 4, the 2004 World Science Fiction Convention. He was the Author Guest of Honor at Loscon 33 at the LAX Marriott in Los Angeles in 2006. He has published most of his fiction as William Tenn and much of his nonfiction as Phil (or Philip) Klass. He is sometimes confused with UFO debunker Philip J. Klass, who was born six months earlier and who died August 9, 2005. Klass was related to other writers, including his nieces, Perri Klass and Judy Klass, his nephew David Klass, and his brother Morton Klass. He died on February 7, 2010, of congestive heart failure, and was survived by his wife Fruma, daughter Adina, and sister Frances Goldman-Levy.", "Klass published academic articles, essays, two novels and more than 60 short stories. He began writing while working at Bell Labs, and his radar lab experience prompted his first story, \"Alexander the Bait\", about a radar beam aimed at the moon. It was published in \"Astounding Science Fiction\" (May 1946), and within months a Signal Corps lab bounced a radar beam off the moon, making his story obsolete. He commented, \"It was a bad story, just good enough to be published. Others in the same magazine were much better, so I really worked hard on my second one. I did as well as I knew how.\" Some of the nonfiction articles in the trade periodical \"TWX Magazine\" have been attributed to Klass during his employment at Bell Labs, although most were published without by-lines. His second story, the widely reprinted \"Child's Play\" (1947), told of a lawyer who creates people with his Bild-A-Man kit, a Christmas gift intended for a child of the future. After publication in \"Astounding Science Fiction\" (May 1946), Tenn was soon hailed as the science fiction field's reigning humorist, and during the early 1950s, readers of \"Galaxy Science Fiction\" looked forward to issues featuring his satirical science fiction. Many stories followed, including \"Venus and the Seven Sexes\" (1951), \"Down Among the Dead Men\" (1954), \"The Liberation of Earth\", \"Time in Advance\" (1956) and \"On Venus, Have We Got a Rabbi\" (1974). One of his non-fiction articles, \"Mr. Eavesdropper,\" was later collected in \"Best Magazine Articles, 1968\". His essay and interview collection, \"Dancing Naked\", was nominated for a Hugo Award for Best Related Book in 2004. He was given the Author Emeritus honor by the Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers of America in 1999. \"The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction\" ranked Tenn as \"one of the genre's very few genuinely comic, genuinely incisive writers of short fiction.\" Theodore Sturgeon summed up Tenn's humorous viewpoint on life: Tenn wrote two novels, both published in 1968. \"Of Men and Monsters\" is an expansion of his story \"The Men in the Walls\", originally in \"Galaxy Science Fiction\" (October 1963). \"A Lamp for Medusa\" was published as a double novel with Dave Van Arnam's \"The Players of Hell\". This novella was an expansion of his story \"Medusa Was a Lady!\" from the October, 1951 issue of \"Fantastic Adventures\".", "In 1978, the University Readers at Penn State University presented a dramatization, directed by Joseph Wigley, of four of Tenn's short stories under the title \"Four From Tenn\". The selected stories were \"The Discovery of Morniel Mathaway\", \"Bernie the Faust\", \"The Tenants\", and \"My Mother Was a Witch\". Pittsburgh's Malacandra Productions staged a nine-character play adapted by John Regis from the classic Tenn science fiction short story, \"Winthrop Was Stubborn\". Directed by David Brody for the Three Rivers Arts Festival, this production ran from June 2 through June 17, 2006." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Varieties and names.", "Blends.", "Manufacture.", "Tea grading.", "Brewing.", "Research." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Generally, unblended black teas are named after the region in which they are produced. Often, different regions are known for producing teas with characteristic flavors.", "Black tea is often blended and mixed with various other plants in order to obtain a beverage.", "The tea is then ready for packaging.", "Black tea is usually graded on one of four scales of quality. Whole-leaf teas are the highest quality, with the best whole-leaf teas graded as \"orange pekoe.\" After the whole-leaf teas, the scale degrades to broken leaves, fannings, then dusts. Whole-leaf teas are produced with little or no alteration to the tea leaf. This results in a finished product with a coarser texture than that of bagged teas. Whole-leaf teas are widely considered the most valuable, especially if they contain leaf tips. Broken leaves are commonly sold as medium-grade loose teas. Smaller broken varieties may be included in tea bags. Fannings are usually small particles of tea left over from the production of larger tea varieties, but are occasionally manufactured specifically for use in bagged teas. Dusts are the finest particles of tea left over from production of the above varieties, and are often used for tea bags with very fast and harsh brews. Fannings and dusts are useful in bagged teas because the greater surface area of the many particles allows for a fast, complete diffusion of the tea into the water. Fannings and dusts usually have a darker colour, lack of sweetness, and stronger flavor when brewed.", "Generally, of tea per of water. Unlike green teas, which turn bitter when brewed at higher temperatures, black tea should be steeped in water brought up to 90–95 °C. The first brew should be 60sec., the second brew 40sec., and the third brew 60sec. If the tea is of high quality, it may be brewed several times by progressively adding 10sec. to the brew time following the third infusion (note: when using a larger tea pot the ratio of tea to water will need to be adjusted to achieve similar results). A cold vessel lowers the steep temperature; to avoid this, always rinse the vessel with ≥90 °C (≥194 °F) water before brewing. The more delicate black teas, such as Darjeeling, should be steeped for 3 to 4 minutes. The same holds for broken leaf teas, which have more surface area and need less brewing time than whole leaves. Whole-leaf black teas, and black teas to be served with milk or lemon, should be steeped 4 to 5 minutes. Longer steeping times makes the tea bitter (at this point, it is referred to as being \"stewed\" in the UK). When the tea has brewed long enough to suit the drinker's taste, it should be strained before serving. The ISO Standard 3103 defines how to brew tea for tasting.", "Plain black tea without sweeteners or additives contains caffeine, but negligible quantities of calories or nutrients. Black teas from \"Camellia sinensis\" contain polyphenols, such as flavonoids, which are under preliminary research for their potential to affect blood pressure and blood lipids as risk factors for cardiovascular disease, but overall this research remains inconclusive. Long-term consumption of black tea only slightly lowered systolic and diastolic blood pressures (about 1–2mmHg). Black tea consumption may be associated with a reduced risk of stroke, but there is only limited research to evaluate this possibility. Meta-analyses of observational studies concluded that black tea consumption does not affect the development of oral cancers in Asian or Caucasian populations, esophageal cancer or prostate cancer in Asian populations, or lung cancer." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Classical antiquity and the ancient Armenian Kingdom.", "Medieval period.", "Persian and Russian rules.", "Modern history.", "Geography and climate.", "Demographics.", "Population.", "Religion.", "Culture.", "Museums and art.", "Music.", "Monuments.", "Local customs.", "Media.", "Transportation.", "Air transportation.", "Railway.", "Public vans and taxis.", "Economy.", "Education.", "Sport.", "Football.", "Futsal.", "Olympic individual sports.", "International relations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The area of modern-day Gyumri was known as Armenian Kumayri during the period of the Kingdom of Urartu. It is likely that the name was derived from the Cimmerians who conquered the region and probably founded the settlement. Under the domination of Turkic tribes, \"Kumayri\" was Turkified as \"Gümrü\". In 1837, Kumayri was renamed Alexandropol after Czar Nicholas I's wife, Princess Alexandra Fyodorovna. Between 1924 and 1990, the city was known as Leninakan in honor of Vladimir Lenin. Following independence, the original name Kumayri was used until 1992, when Gyumri was chosen as the name of the city.", "", "Archaeological excavations conducted throughout the Soviet period have shown that the area of modern-day Gyumri has been populated since at least the third millennium BC. The area was mentioned as Kumayri in the historic Urartian inscriptions dating back to the 8th century BC. This name is probably phonetically associated with Cimmerians, who migrated to the western banks of the Black Sea region from European Lowlands. Historians believe that Xenophon passed through Kumayri during his return to the Black Sea, a journey immortalized in his Anabasis. At the decline of the Urartu Kingdom by the second half of the 6th century BC, Kumayri became part of the Achaemenid Empire. The remains of a royal settlement found just to the south of Gyumri near the village of Beniamin dating back to the 5th to 2nd centuries BC, are a great example of the Achemenid influence in the region. However, at the beginning of the 5th century BC, Kumayri became part of the Satrapy of Armenia under the rule of the Orontids. An alternative theory suggests that Kumayri has been formed as an urban settlement in the late 5th century BC, ca. 401 BC, by Greek colonists. Later in 331 BC, the entire territory was included in the Ayrarat province of Ancient Armenian Kingdom as part of the Shirak canton. Between 190 BC and 1 AD Kumayri was under the rule of the Artaxiad dynasty of Armenia. During the 1st century AD, Shirak was granted to the Kamsarakan family, who ruled over Kumayri during the Arsacid Kingdom of Armenia.", "Following the partition of Armenia in 387 between the Byzantines and the Persians, and as a result of the fall of the Arsacid Kingdom of Armenia in 428, Shirak including Kumayri became part of the Sasanian Empire of Persia. In 658 AD, at the height of the Arab Islamic invasions, Kumayri was conquered during the Muslim conquest of Persia to become part of the Emirate of Armenia under the Umayyad Caliphate. Kumayri was a significant and quite-developed urban settlement during the Middle Ages. According to the Armenian scholar \"Ghevond the Historian\", the town was a centre of the Armenian rebellion led by \"Artavazd Mamikonian\" against the Islamic Arab Caliphate, between 733 and 755. After 2 centuries of Islamic rule over Armenia, the Bagratids declared independence in 885 establishing the Bagratid Kingdom of Armenia. Kumayri entered e new era of growth and progress, particularly when the nearby city of Ani became the capital of the kingdom in 961. By the second half of the 10th century, Kumayri was under the influence of the Armenian Pahlavuni family, who were descendants of the Kamsarakans. The Pahlavunis had a great contribution in the progress of Shirak with the foundation of many fortresses, monastic complexes, educational institutions, etc. After the fall of Armenia to the Byzantine Empire in 1045 and later to the Seljuk invaders in 1064. Under the foreign rulers, the town had gradullay lost its significance during the following centuries, until the establishment of the Zakarid Principality of Armenia in 1201 under the Georgian protectorate. During the Zakarid rule, the Eastern Armenian territories, mainly Lori and Shirak, entered into a new period of growth and stability, becoming a trade centre between the east and the west. After the Mongols captured Ani in 1236, Armenia turned into a Mongol protectorate as part of the Ilkhanate, and the Zakarids became vassals to the Mongols. After the fall of the Ilkhanate in the mid-14th century, the Zakarid princes ruled over Lori, Shirak and Ararat plain until 1360 when they fell to the invading Turkic tribes. By the last quarter of the 14th century, the Ag Qoyunlu Sunni Oghuz Turkic tribe took over Armenia, including Shirak. In 1400, Timur invaded Armenia and Georgia, and captured more than 60,000 of the survived local people as slaves. Many districts including Shirak were depopulated. In 1410, Armenia fell under the control of the Kara Koyunlu Shia Oghuz Turkic tribe. According to the Armenian historian Thomas of Metsoph, although the Kara Koyunlu levied heavy taxes against the Armenians, the early years of their rule were relatively peaceful and some reconstruction of towns took place. Under the rule of the Turkic tribes, Kumayri was known to the Turks as \"Gümrü\".", "In 1501, most of the Eastern Armenian territories including Kumayri were conquered by the emerging Safavid dynasty of Iran led by Shah Ismail I. Soon after in 1502, Kumayri became part of the newly formed \"Erivan Beglarbegi\", a new administrative territory of Iran formed by the Safavids. During the first half of the 18th century, Kumayri became part of the Erivan Khanate under the rule of the Afsharid dynasty and later under the Qajar dynasty of Persia. In June 1804, the Russian forces controlled over Shirak region at the beginning of the Russo-Persian War of 1804 and 1813. Kumayri became officially part of the Russian Empire at the Treaty of Gulistan signed on 1 January 1813 between Imperial Russia and Qajar Persia. During the period of the Russian rule, Gyumri became one of the developing cities in the Transcaucasus. In 1829, in the aftermath of the Russo-Turkish War, there was a big influx of Armenian population, as around 3,000 families who had migrated from territories in the Ottoman Empire -in particular from the towns of Kars, Erzurum, and Doğubeyazıt- settled in and around Gyumri. The Russian poet Alexander Pushkin visited Gyumri during his journey to Erzurum in 1829. In 1837 Russian Tsar Nicholas I arrived in Gyumri and changed the name into Alexandropol. The name was chosen in honour of Tsar Nicholas I's wife, Princess Charlotte of Prussia, who had changed her name to \"Alexandra Fyodorovna\" after converting to Orthodox Christianity. A major Russian fortress was built on the site in 1837. Alexandropol was finally formed as a town in 1840 to become the centre of the newly established Alexandropol Uyezd, experiencing rapid growth during its first decade. In 1849, the Alexandropol Uyezd became part of the Erivan Governorate. The town was an important outpost for the Imperial Russian armed forces in the Transcaucasus where their military barracks were established (e.g., at Poligons, Severski, Kazachi Post). The Russians built the Sev Berd fortress at the western edge of the city during the 1830s in response to the Russo-Turkish War of 1828–1829. Alexandropol had been quickly transformed to become one of the major centres of the Russian troops during the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78. After the establishment of the railway station in 1899, Alexandropol witnessed a significant growth and became the largest city in Eastern Armenia. By the end of the 19th century, Alexandropol was home to 430 shopping stores as well as several workshops and cultural institutions.", "In 1902, the first bank in the city was opened. Until the sovietization of Armenia in 1920, Alexandropol had 31 manufacturing centres including beer, soap, textile, etc. After the October Revolution of 1917 and the Russian withdrawal from the South Caucasus, the Ottoman forces launched a new offensive capturing the city of Alexandropol on 11 May 1918, during the Caucasus Campaign in World War I. However, the Ottomans withdrew from the city on 24 December 1918, as a result of the Armistice of Mudros. The newly established Republic of Armenia proclaimed on 28 May 1918, included the city of Alexandropol. On 10 May 1920, the local Bolshevik Armenians aided by the Muslim population, attempted a coup d'état in Alexandropol against the Dashnak government of Armenia. The uprising was suppressed by the Armenian government on May 14 and its leaders were executed. However, during another Turkish invasion, Turkish troops attacked Alexandropol and occupied the city on 7 November 1920. Armenia was forced to sign the Treaty of Alexandropol on December 3 to stop the Turkish advance towards Yerevan, however a concurrent Soviet invasion led to the fall of the Armenian government on December 2. The Turkish forces withdrew from Alexandropol after the Treaty of Kars was signed in October 1921 by the unrecognized Soviet and Turkish governments. Being under the Soviet rule, the name of the city was changed in 1924 to Leninakan after the deceased Soviet leader Vladimir Lenin. The city suffered an earthquake in 1926, when many of its significant buildings were destroyed including the Greek church of Saint George. Leninakan became a major industrial centre in the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic and its second-largest city, after the capital Yerevan. The city suffered major damage during the 1988 Armenian earthquake, which devastated many parts of the country. The earthquake occurred along a known thrust fault with a length of. Its strike was parallel to the Caucasus range and dipped to the north-northeast. Bruce Bolt, a seismologist and a professor of earth and planetary science at the University of California, Berkeley, walked the fault scarp in 1992 and found that the vertical displacement measured along most of the length with the southwest end reaching. The earthquake had a disastrous impact on the city, as many buildings are still not recovered., according to some news websites, between 4,000 and 5,000 residents of Gyumri remain homeless, although there are no official figures provided by the local authorities of the city. At the time of the breakup of the Soviet Union, the city was renamed \"Kumayri\" between in 1990 until 1992 when it was finally given the name \"Gyumri\". The Russian 102nd Military Base is located in the city. Gyumri was celebrated as the Capital of Culture of the Commonwealth of Independent States for 2013. Major events took place in the city on 30 June 2013. On 12 January 2015, Valery Permyakov, a serviceman from the Russian 102nd Military Base, murdered seven members of an Armenian family in Gyumri. On 25 June 2016, Pope Francis delivered a Holy Mass at Gyumri's Vartanants Square. Catholicos of All Armenians Garegin II also took part in the ceremony.", "Gyumri is north of the capital Yerevan at the central part of the Shirak plateau. It has an approximate height of above sea level, the high altitude line being. The Akhurian River passes through the western suburbs. The Shirak plateau is surrounded with the Pambak Mountains from the east and Aragats volcanic range from the south. The city of Gyumri is away from the Black Sea. The surrounding lands near the city are rich in tufa, basalt and clay. Gyumri has a humid continental climate (Köppen \"Dfb\"), characterized by freezing and snowy winters where the minimum temperature in extreme spells can plummet to. On the other hand, summer in Gyumri is relatively hot with temperatures reaching up to. The annual precipitation averages.", "", "The population of Gyumri has gradually grown since 1840 after gaining the status of town. A huge decline of the population was due to the disastrous earthquake of 1988. The residents here have a distinct look and style, and a boundless pride in their city. The dialect of Gyumri is a variant of Karin dialect, closely related to Western Armenian. Population and ethnic groups chart of Gyumri throughout history:", "The majority of the population in Gyumri belongs to the Armenian Apostolic Church. The Cathedral of the Holy Mother of God of Gyumri -also known as the Cathedral of the Seven Wounds of the Holy Mother of God- is the seat of the Diocese of Shirak of the Armenian Church. The Armenian Catholic Church is a minority in Armenia and is under the jurisdiction of the Ordinariate of Armenia, Georgia, Russia, and Eastern Europe, based in Gyumri. There are around 16,000 Armenian Catholics in the Shirak Province. The seat of the Ordinariate for Armenia, Georgia, Russia, and Eastern Europe for the Armenian Catholic Church is the Cathedral of the Holy Martyrs in Gyumri. The presence of the small Russian Orthodox community along with the Russian military base personnel is marked with the Saint Alexandra the Martyr's Church (within the Russian base), the Church of Saint Michael the Archangel and the Church of Saint Arsenije. However, many historic churches in Gyumri were either ruined or destroyed, including: , Gyumri is home to the following church buildings:", "", "Gyumri is home to many prominent museums of Armenia, including the House-Museums of sculptor Sergey Merkurov, poets Avetik Isahakyan and Hovhannes Shiraz, and actor Mher Mkrtchyan. The Aslamazyan Sisters House-Museum, built in the 1880s, is home to more than 700 drawings, paintings and other works of the Aslamazyan sisters who were the Soviet-era artists. The Dzitoghtsyan Museum of Social Life and National Architecture of Gyumri is an old mansion, housing collections related to both history and the everyday-life of Gyumri, as well as paintings and other works of art. Throughout centuries, Kumayri-Gyumri was labelled as the \"city of crafts and arts\", being famous for its schools, theaters and gusans. In 1865, an amateur theatre group in Gyumri performed H. Karinyan's \"Shushanik\". In 1912, Gyumri was home to the first opera show ever staged in Armenia, when composer Armen Tigranian presented Anoush to the public in Alexandropol. In 1923, the first Armenian opera theatre was opened in Gyumri (where the first ballet performance in Armenia took place in 1924), while the Vardan Ajemian State Drama Theatre was founded in 1928. Prominent directors Ruben Simonov and Vardan Ajemian, actors Mher Mkrtchyan, Azat Sherents and Varduhi Varderesyan worked in theatre. The theatre's new building was opened in 1972. The artistic director is Nikolay Tsaturyan. Gyumri is known for its 19th-century architecture and urban constructions. The first printing house of Gyumri was founded in 1876 by G. Sanoyan and operated until 1918. It published literary works (including Avetik Isahakyan's first book), calendars, textbooks. Another printing house, Ayg (founded 1892), published historical books and the first periodical of Gyumri, \"Akhuryan\". Gyumri is home to the Gyumri Biennial, organized by the artist Azat Sargsyan and the Gyumri Centre of Contemporary Art (GCCA). Gyumri was officially declared Commonwealth of Independent States cultural capital in 2013.", "The city of Gyumri has a great contribution in Armenian folk music. Throughout the 19th century, Alexandrapol was considered the centre of folk and traditional Armenian music. The musical culture of Alexandrapol has greatly influenced the art of Jivani, who is considered the founder of modern Armenian folk music during the 19th century. Another 19th-century ashik Sheram who was born in Alexandropol, is one of the earliest gusans of traditional Armenian music in the modern history of Armenia. He is one of the most celebrated Armenian composers of folk music. The mystic philosopher of Alexandropol George Gurdjieff has produced many influential works of music during the 20th century. Different genres of music became popular in the city during the 2nd half of the 20th century. Rock, folk rock and ethnic rock are widely popular through the local famous rock band Bambir, active since 1978. In 1986, the Gyumri State Orchestra of Folk Instruments was founded, followed by the Gyumri State Symphonic Orchestra founded in 1993. In 1997, the KOHAR Symphony Orchestra and Choir was founded in Gyumri through the efforts of the Lebanese-Armenian philanthropist Harout Khatchadourian. Soon after, KOHAR became one of the most celebrated choirs in Armenia as well as throughout the Armenian diaspora. Influenced by Gurdjieff, the Armenian musician Levon Eskenian founded The Gurdjieff Ensemble in 2008. The award-winning ensemble gathers many of Armenia's leading practitioners of traditional music, performing on duduk, sring, kamancha, oud, kanōn, santur, tar, saz, daf, dhol, and tombak. The \"Renaissance\" international music festival of Gyumri is held annually since 2009. In 2011 WhoCares, a supergroup formed by Ian Gillan and Tony Iommi with the participation of a great number of rock artists, raised money to build the \"Octet\" music school in Gyumri (opened two years later).", "The restoration process of the damaged buildings of Gyumri has been spearheaded by Earthwatch to preserve the city's unique architecture. In spite of suffering severe damages during the disastrous earthquake in December 1988, Gyumri is still preserving its own architectural characteristics.", "The residents are Gyumri are widely known as conservative people. Traditions and local customs are widely preserved by the local citizens. It is very common among Armenians to refer to the \"dignity of Gyumri\" ( \"Gyumrva tasib\"). Gyumri is considered to be the \"laughter and humor capital\" of Armenia. The jokes and anecdotes of famous local humorists like \"Jgher Khachik\" and \"Poloz Mukuch\" are widely known by the local citizens. Many works have been published to narrate about the legacy and heritage of the humor in Gyumri. The city celebrates the \"Gyumri Day\" annually on the first Sunday of October. It is marked with many cultural and entertainment activities.", "Gyumri has 4 regional TV stations: \"Shrjapat\" weekly is the local newspaper of Gyumri.", "", "Gyumri is served by the international Shirak Airport, about to the southeast of the city centre. It was inaugurated in 1961 and is the second largest airport in Armenia. At the beginning of 2006, the government of Armenia felt the importance of having a second international airport, when adverse weather conditions meant that many flights had to be diverted from Yerevan's Zvartnots International Airport into Gyumri's Shirak Airport. New air traffic control equipment allowed airport workers to identify planes in a radius. Following moderate use in 2005 and 2006 during which annual passenger traffic was at about 46,000 and several hundred aircraft movements took place each year, the airport's activity quickly declined again to the point where in 2016 passenger traffic amounted to only 12,421 and a mere 54 aircraft movements took place. However, in the beginning of 2017, as part of new efforts to develop Gyumri and its tourism industry, the government focused on revitalizing the airport. Multiple new airlines began operating flights to the airport, including Taron Avia, a new Armenian airline based in Gyumri. In order attract more customers, the Ministry of Nature Protection made meteorological services free for all airlines flying to Gyumri, lowering ticket costs. The Gyumri Technology Center also participated in helping revitalize the airport by adding interior design details to improve the airport's look.", "The railway junction of Gyumri is the oldest and the largest one in Armenia. It was formed in 1897 and the first railway link to Alexandropol that connected the city with Tiflis was completed in 1899. The rail line was then extended from Alexandropol to Yerevan (in 1902), Kars (in 1902), Jolfa (in 1906), and Tabriz. As a result, Alexandropol became an important rail hub. , the Gyumri Railway Station operates regular trips to Yerevan and Batumi. The South Caucasus Railway CJSC, is the current operator of the railway sector in Armenia.", "Public transport is dominated by the private sector in Gyumri. Public transit is mainly served by public vans, locally-known as \"marshrutka\". Most of the \"marshrutkas\" Russian-made GAZelle vans with 13 seats that operate with certain routes and stops. As of 2017, the one-way trip fee is AMD 100 (around US$0.21). Passengers need to pay the money directly to the driver when getting out of the vehicle, with no established ticketing system. The central station of the city serves as bus terminal for inter-city transport, serving outbound routes towards other major cities and towns in Armenia, as well as cities in Georgia. The M-7 Motorway passes across the Shirak Province from east to west, connecting the city of Gyumri with the rest of Armenia. Armenia is among the top 10 safest countries where one can wander around and go home alone safely at night. Taxis are available in the city at any time of the day or night.", "During the pre-Soviet era, Alexandropol was considered the third-largest trade and cultural centre in Transcaucasia after Tiflis and Baku (Yerevan would not rise to prominence until being proclaimed as the capital of independent Armenia in 1918 and Armenian SSR in 1920). At the end of the 19th century, the population of Alexandropol had grown to 32,100 inhabitants, with a majority of Armenians. The economy of Gyumri is mainly based on industry and construction. However, tourism and banking services are also among the developed sectors in the city. The industrial sector in the provincial centre Gyumri includes the production of building materials (tufa and basalt), hosiery and textile manufacturing, food processing and dairy products, alcoholic drinks, electronic machines, etc. The largest industrial plant in Gyumri is the \"Gyumri-Beer\" Brewery opened in 1972. The factory produces a variety of lager beer under the brands \"Gyumri\", \"Ararat\" and \"Aleksandrapol\". The city is also home to the \"Factory of Bending Machinses\" opened in 1912, the \"Arshaluys\" hosiery manufacturing enterprise established in 1926, the \"Karhat\" machine tools plant opened in 1959, the \"Chap Chemical LLC\" since 1999, the \"Armtex Group\" clothing factory since 2000, and the \"Lentex\" hosiery manufacturing plant is operating since 2001. Other industrial firms of the city include the \"Aleqpol\" factory for dairy products, the \"Anusharan\" confectionery plant, and the \"Gold Plast\" plant for building materials. The nearby village of Akhuryan is home to the \"Lusastgh-Sugar\" factory (opened in 2010), the largest sugar producers in the Southern Caucasus region.", "Gyumri has a large number of educational institutions, following the capital Yerevan in the number of educational institutions. It is considered the cultural and educational centre of northern Armenia. As of 2017, Gyumri is home to the following higher educational centers: In 2014, the Gyumri Technology Center was opened in the city, in an attempt to turn Gyumri into a regional and international center of information and high technologies. The Gyumri branch of Tumo Center for Creative Technologies was opened in May 2015, following a fundraising initiative by Shant TV. It will move to the old theatre building of Gyumri upon the completion of the reconstruction process, expected in June 2019. , the city is home to 47 public education schools, 23 pre-school kindergartens, as well as 7 special schools for music.", "", "Gyumri is home to the Armenian football club FC Shirak. They play their home games at the Gyumri City Stadium, the oldest football stadium in Armenia dating back to 1924. Shirak are one of the most popular football teams in Armenia, having won the championship of the Armenian Premier League four times, with the most recent one in the 2012–13 season. Shirak have also won the Armenian Independence Cup once. The native of Gyumri and former Shirak player Artur Petrosyan was the all-time leading scorer for the Armenia national football team until his record was surpassed by Henrikh Mkhitaryan in 2013. Aragats FC was the second football club that represented the city. However, the club was dissolved in 2002 due to financial difficulties. The Gyumri Football Academy of the Football Federation of Armenia was opened on 13 September 2014. It is home to four natural-grass and two artificial turf regular-sized football training pitches.", "Futsal is also very popular in Gyumri. Being one of the most successful Futsal teams in Armenia, FC Gyumri played at the Armenian Futsal Premier League. Starting from 2017–18 season, FC Gyumri became known as \"Shirak Futsal\", representing the futsal branch of FC Shirak. The newly founded \"Sh.S.U. Futsal\" -representing the Shirak State University- will also participate in the domestic league competition. The futsal teams of Gyumri regularly play their home games at the Armen Sargsyan Sports Hall, located in the Ani district at the northwest of the city.", "Gyumri has made a major contribution to the sporting life of Armenia. Many Olympic and world champion wrestlers, weightlifters and boxers are from Gyumri. The city is notable for its worldwide champions in individual sports, such as Robert Emmiyan in long jump, Yurik Vardanyan and Nazik Avdalyan in weightlifting and Artur Aleksanyan in Greco-Roman wrestling. Many special sport schools are serving the young generation of Gyumri such as the Robert Emmiyan school of athletics, Levon Ishtoyan football school, Tigran Petrosian school of chess, Ludvig Mnatsakanyan school of winter sports, Artur Aleksanyan school of wrestling, Yurik Vardanyan school of weightlifting, Aleksan Haobyan school of tennis and table tennis, as well as other special schools for boxing, artistic gymnastics, sambo-judo, fencing, and chess. The city is also home to the Gyumri Swimming Complex. The National Federation of Black Belts of Aikido (NFBBA) is based in Gyumri since its establishment in 2012. The Gyumri State Sports College of Olympic Reserve and Gyumri School of Sport Masters are among the prominent sport schools in Armenia that produced many champions in several individual sports.", "Gyumri is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Operating system support.", "Bandwidth and connectivity.", "95th percentile method.", "Unmetered method.", "Total transfer method.", "Bandwidth pooling.", "Management.", "Security.", "Software.", "Limitations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Availability, price and employee familiarity often determines which operating systems are offered on dedicated servers. Variations of Linux and Unix (open source operating systems) are often included at no charge to the customer. Commercial operating systems include Microsoft Windows Server, provided through a special program called Microsoft SPLA. Red Hat Enterprise is a commercial version of Linux offered to hosting providers on a monthly fee basis. The monthly fee provides OS updates through the Red Hat Network using an application called Yum. Other operating systems are available from the open source community at no charge. These include CentOS, Fedora Core, Debian, and many other Linux distributions or BSD systems FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD. Support for any of these operating systems typically depends on the level of management offered with a particular dedicated server plan. Operating system support may include updates to the core system in order to acquire the latest security fixes, patches, and system-wide vulnerability resolutions. Updates to core operating systems include kernel upgrades, service packs, application updates, and security patches that keep the server secure and safe. Operating system updates and support relieves the burden of server management from the dedicated server owner.", "Bandwidth refers to the data transfer rate or the amount of data that can be carried from one point to another in a given time period (usually a second) and is often represented in bits (of data) per second (bit/s).", "Line speed, billed on the 95th percentile, refers to the speed in which data flows from the server or device, measured every 5 minutes for the month, and dropping the top 5% of measurements that are highest, and basing the usage for the month on the next-highest measurement. This is similar to a median measurement, which can be thought of as a 50th percentile measurement (with 50% of measurements above, and 50% of measurements below), whereas this sets the cutoff at 95th percentile, with 5% of measurements above the value, and 95% of measurements below the value. This is also known as Burstable billing. Line speed is measured in bits per second (or kilobits per second, megabits per second or gigabits per second).", "The second bandwidth measurement is unmetered service where providers cap or control the “top line” speed for a server. Top line speed in unmetered bandwidth is the total Mbit/s allocated to the server and configured on the switch level. Unmetered bandwidth services usually incur an additional charge.", "Some providers will calculate the Total Transfer, which is the measurement of actual data leaving and arriving, measured in bytes. Although it is typically the sum of all traffic into and out of the server, some providers measure only outbound traffic (traffic from the server to the internet).", "One of the reasons for choosing to outsource dedicated servers is the availability of high powered networks from multiple providers. As dedicated server providers utilize massive amounts of bandwidth, they are able to secure lower volume based pricing to include a multi-provider blend of bandwidth. To achieve the same type of network without a multi-provider blend of bandwidth, a large investment in core routers, long term contracts, and expensive monthly bills would need to be in place. The expenses needed to develop a network without a multi-provider blend of bandwidth does not make sense economically for hosting providers. Many dedicated server providers include a service level agreement based on network up-time. Some dedicated server hosting providers offer a 100% up-time guarantee on their network. By securing multiple vendors for connectivity and using redundant hardware, providers are able to guarantee higher up-times; usually between 99-100% up-time if they are a higher quality provider. One aspect of higher quality providers is they are most likely to be multi-homed across multiple quality up-link providers, which in turn, provides significant redundancy in the event one goes down in addition to potentially improved routes to destinations. Bandwidth consumption over the last several years has shifted from a per megabit usage model to a per gigabyte usage model. Bandwidth was traditionally measured in line speed access that included the ability to purchase needed megabits at a given monthly cost. As the shared hosting model developed, the trend towards gigabyte or total bytes transferred, replaced the megabit line speed model so dedicated server providers started offering per gigabyte.", "Dedicated hosting services primarily differ from managed hosting services in that managed hosting services usually offer more support and other services. As such, managed hosting is targeted towards clients with less technical knowledge, whereas dedicated hosting services, or unmanaged hosting services, are suitable for web development and system administrator professionals. To date, no industry standards have been set to clearly define the management role of dedicated server providers. What this means is that each provider will use industry standard terms, but each provider will define them differently. For some dedicated server providers, fully managed is defined as having a web based control panel while other providers define it as having dedicated system engineers readily available to handle all server and network related functions of the dedicated server provider. Server management can include some or all of the following: Dedicated hosting server providers define their level of management based on the services they provide. In comparison, fully managed could equal self managed from provider to provider. Administrative maintenance of the operating system, often including upgrades, security patches, and sometimes even daemon updates are included. Differing levels of management may include adding users, domains, daemon configuration, or even custom programming. Dedicated server hosting providers may provide the following types of server managed support:", "Dedicated hosting server providers utilize extreme security measures to ensure the safety of data stored on their network of servers. Providers will often deploy various software programs for scanning systems and networks for obtrusive invaders, spammers, hackers, and other harmful problems such as Trojans, worms, and crashers (Sending multiple connections). Linux and Windows use different software for security protection.", "Providers often bill for dedicated servers on a fixed monthly price to include specific software packages. Over the years, software vendors realized the significant market opportunity to bundle their software with dedicated servers. They have since started introducing pricing models that allow dedicated hosting providers the ability to purchase and resell software based on reduced monthly fees. Microsoft offers software licenses through a program called the Service Provider License Agreement. The SPLA model provides use of Microsoft products through a monthly user or processor based fee. SPLA software includes the Windows Operating System, Microsoft SQL Server, Microsoft Exchange Server, Microsoft SharePoint and shoutcast hosting, and many other server based products. Other software applications available are specialized web hosting specific programs called control panels. Control panel software is an all-inclusive set of software applications, server applications, and automation tools that can be installed on a dedicated server. Control panels include integration into web servers, database applications, programming languages, application deployment, server administration tasks, and include the ability to automate tasks via a web based front end.", "Many providers do not allow IRC (bots, clients or daemons). This is due to rogue IRC users triggering DDoS attacks against the provider, which may overwhelm their networks, lowering service quality for all customers." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Spathic iron ore." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Although spathic (carbonate) iron ores, such as siderite, have been economically important for steel production, they are far from ideal as an ore. Their hydrothermal mineralisation tends to form them as small ore lenses, often following steeply dipping bedding planes. This makes them not amenable to opencast working, and increases the cost of working them by mining with horizontal stopes. As the individual ore bodies are small, it may also be necessary to duplicate or relocate the pit head machinery, winding engine and pumping engine, between these bodies as each is worked out. This makes mining the ore an expensive proposition compared to typical ironstone or haematite opencasts. The recovered ore also has drawbacks. The carbonate ore is more difficult to smelt than a haematite or other oxide ore. Driving off the carbonate as carbon dioxide requires more energy and so the ore 'kills' the blast furnace if added directly. Instead the ore must be given a preliminary roasting step. Developments of specific techniques to deal with these ores began in the early 19th century, largely with the work of Sir Thomas Lethbridge in Somerset. His 'Iron Mill' of 1838 used a three-chambered concentric roasting furnace, before passing the ore to a separate reducing furnace for smelting. Details of this Mill were the invention of Charles Sanderson, a steel maker of Sheffield, who held the patent for it. These differences between spathic ore and haematite have led to the failure of a number of mining concerns, notably the Brendon Hills Iron Ore Company. Spathic iron ores are rich in manganese and have negligible phosphorus. This led to their one major benefit, connected with the Bessemer steel-making process. Although the first demonstrations by Bessemer in 1856 had been successful, later attempts to reproduce this were infamously failures. Work by the metallurgist Robert Forester Mushet discovered that the reason for this was the nature of the Swedish ores that Bessemer had innocently used, being very low in phosphorus. Using a typical European high-phosphorus ore in Bessemer's converter gave a poor quality steel. To produce high quality steel from a high-phosphorus ore, Mushet realised that he could operate the Bessemer converter for longer, burning off all the steel's impurities including the unwanted phosphorus and the essential carbon, but then re-adding carbon, with manganese, in the form of a previously obscure ferromanganese ore with no phosphorus, spiegeleisen. This created a sudden demand for spiegeleisen. Although it was not available in sufficient quantity as a mineral, steelworks such as that at Ebbw Vale in South Wales soon learned to make it from the spathic siderite ores. For a few decades, spathic ores were now in demand and this encouraged their mining. In time though, the original 'acidic' liner, made from siliceous sandstone or ganister, of the Bessemer converter was replaced by a 'basic' liner in the developed Gilchrist Thomas process. This removed the phosphorus impurities as slag, produced by chemical reaction with the liner, and no longer required spiegeleisen. From the 1880s demand for the ores fell once again and many of their mines, including those of the Brendon Hills, closed soon after." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and high school career.", "UCLA.", "Professional career.", "Milwaukee Bucks (1969–1975).", "Los Angeles Lakers (1975–1989).", "Post-NBA career.", "Player profile.", "Skyhook.", "Legacy.", "Film and television.", "Writing and activism.", "Government appointments.", "Cultural ambassador.", "President's Council on Fitness, Sports, and Nutrition.", "Citizens Coinage Advisory Committee.", "Personal life.", "Religion and name.", "Health problems.", "Non-athletic honors." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Ferdinand Lewis Alcindor Jr. was born in New York City, the only child of Cora Lillian, a department store price checker, and Ferdinand Lewis Alcindor Sr., a transit police officer and jazz musician. He grew up in the Dyckman Street projects in the Inwood neighborhood of Upper Manhattan. Alcindor was unusually large and tall from a young age. At birth he weighed and was long, and by the age of nine he was already tall. By the eighth grade (age 13–14)", "Alcindor did not play during his first year at UCLA because the \"freshman rule\" was in effect, though his prowess was already well known. Now tall, he made his debut as a sophomore in 1966 and received national coverage: \"Sports Illustrated\" described him as \"The New Superstar\" after he scored 56 points in his first game, which set a UCLA single-game record. He was the main contributor to the team's three-year record of 88 wins and only two losses: one to the University of Houston in which Alcindor had an eye injury, and the other to crosstown rival USC who played a \"stall game\" (i.e., there was no shot clock in those days, so a team could hold the ball as long as it wanted before attempting to score). During his college career, Alcindor was twice named Player of the Year (1967, 1969); was a three-time First Team All-American (1967–1969); played on three NCAA basketball champion teams (1967, 1968 and 1969); was honored as the Most Outstanding Player in the NCAA Tournament three times and became the first-ever Naismith College Player of the Year in 1969. In 1967 and 1968, he also won USBWA College Player of the Year, which later became the Oscar Robertson Trophy. Alcindor became the only player to win the Helms Foundation Player of the Year award three times. The 1965–66 UCLA Bruin team was the preseason #1. On November 27, 1965, the freshman team, led by Alcindor, defeated the varsity 75–60 in the first game in the new Pauley Pavilion. Alcindor scored 31 points and had 21 rebounds in what was a good indication of things to come. After the game, the UCLA varsity was #1 in the country but #2 on campus. If the \"freshman rule\" had not been in effect at that time, UCLA would have had a much better chance of winning the 1966 National Championship. Alcindor had considered transferring to Michigan because of unfulfilled recruiting promises. UCLA player Willie Naulls introduced Alcindor and teammate Lucius Allen to athletic booster Sam Gilbert, who convinced the pair to remain at UCLA. The dunk was banned in college basketball after the 1967 season, primarily because of Alcindor's dominant use of the shot. The rule was not rescinded until the 1976–77 season, which was shortly after Wooden's retirement. During his junior year, Alcindor suffered a scratched left cornea on January 12, 1968, in a game against Cal when he was struck by Tom Henderson in a rebound battle. He would miss the next two games against Stanford and Portland. This happened right before the showdown game against Houston. His cornea would again be scratched during his pro career, which subsequently caused him to wear goggles for eye protection.", "", "The Harlem Globetrotters offered Alcindor $1 million to play for them, but he declined and was picked first in the 1969 NBA draft by the Milwaukee Bucks, who were in only their second season of existence. The Bucks won a coin-toss with the Phoenix Suns for first pick. He was also chosen first overall in the 1969 American Basketball Association draft by the New York Nets. The Nets believed that they had the upper hand in securing Alcindor's services because he was from New York; however, when Alcindor told both the Bucks and the Nets that he would accept only one offer from each team, the Nets bid too low. Sam Gilbert negotiated", "In 1975, the Lakers acquired Abdul-Jabbar and reserve center Walt Wesley from the Bucks for center Elmore Smith, guard Brian Winters, and rookie \"blue chippers\" Dave Meyers and Junior Bridgeman. In the 1975–76 season, his first with the Lakers, he had a dominating season, averaging 27.7 points per game and leading the league in rebounding, blocked shots, and minutes played. His 1,111 defensive rebounds remains the NBA single-season record (defensive rebounds were not recorded prior to the 1973–74 season). He earned his fourth MVP award, but missed the post-season for the second straight year. Once he joined the Lakers, Abdul-Jabbar began wearing his trademark goggles (he briefly ditched them in the 1979–80 season). Years of battling under", "Abdul-Jabbar had been interested in coaching since his retirement, and given the influence that he exerted on the league during his playing days, he thought that the opportunity would present itself. However, during his playing years, Abdul-Jabbar had developed a reputation for being introverted and sullen. He did not speak to the press, which led to the impression that he disliked journalists. In his biography \"My Life\", Magic Johnson recalls instances when Abdul-Jabbar brushed him off when he was a ball boy and asked him for an autograph. Abdul-Jabbar also froze out reporters who gave him a too-enthusiastic handshake or even hugged him, and he refused to stop reading the newspaper while giving an interview. Abdul-Jabbar believes that his reticence, whether through disdain for the press or simply because of introversion, contributed to the dearth of coaching opportunities offered to him by the NBA. In his words, he said he had a mindset he could not overcome, and proceeded through his career oblivious to the effect", "On offense, Abdul-Jabbar was a dominant low-post threat. In contrast to other low-post specialists like Wilt Chamberlain, Artis Gilmore or Shaquille O'Neal, Abdul-Jabbar was a relatively slender player, standing tall but only weighing (though in his latter years the Lakers listed Abdul-Jabbar's weight as ). However, he made up for his relative lack of bulk by showing textbook finesse, strength and was famous for his ambidextrous skyhook shot. It contributed to his high.559 field goal accuracy, making him the eighth most accurate scorer of all time and a feared clutch shooter. Abdul-Jabbar was also quick enough to run the Showtime fast break led by Magic Johnson and was well-conditioned, standing on the hardwood an average 36.8 minutes. In contrast to other big men, Abdul-Jabbar also could reasonably hit his free throws, finishing with a career 72% average. Abdul-Jabbar maintained a dominant presence on defense. He was selected to the NBA All-Defensive Team eleven times. He frustrated opponents with his superior shot-blocking ability and denied an average of 2.6 shots a game. After the pounding he endured early in his career, his rebounding average fell to between six or eight a game in his latter years. As a teammate, Abdul-Jabbar exuded natural leadership and was affectionately called \"Cap\" or \"Captain\" by his colleagues. He had an even temperament, which Riley said made him coachable. A strict fitness regime made him one of the most durable players of all time. In the NBA, his 20 seasons and 1,560 games are performances surpassed only by former Celtics center Robert Parish.", "Abdul-Jabbar was well known for his trademark \"skyhook\", a hook shot in which he bent his entire body (rather than just the arm) like a straw in one fluid motion to raise the ball and then release it at the highest point of his arm's arching motion. Combined with his long arms and great height, the skyhook was", "Abdul-Jabbar is the NBA's all-time leading scorer with 38,387 points, and he won a league-record six MVP awards. He earned six championship rings, two Finals MVP awards, 15 NBA First or Second Teams, a record 19 NBA All-Star call-ups and averaging 24.6 points, 11.2 rebounds, 3.6 assists and 2.6 blocks per game. He is ranked as the NBA's third leading all-time rebounder (17,440). He is also the third all-time in registered blocks (3,189), which is even more impressive because this stat had not been recorded until the fourth year of his career (1974). Abdul-Jabbar combined dominance during his career peak with the longevity and sustained excellence of his later years. He credited Bruce Lee with teaching him \"the discipline and spirituality of martial arts, which was greatly responsible for me being able to play competitively in the NBA for", "An episode of \"Black Journal\" produced by WNET and broadcast on May 2, 1972, features Kareem Abdul Jabbar discussing his boycott of the 1968 Olympics to his practice of the Islamic religion. Playing in Los Angeles facilitated Abdul-Jabbar's trying his hand at acting. He made his film debut in Bruce Lee's 1972 film \"Game of Death\", in which his character Hakim fights Billy Lo (played by Lee). In 1980, he played co-pilot Roger Murdock in \"Airplane!\". Abdul-Jabbar has a scene in which a little boy looks at him and remarks that he is in fact Abdul-Jabbar—spoofing the appearance of football star Elroy \"Crazylegs\" Hirsch as an airplane pilot in the 1957 drama that served as the inspiration for \"Airplane!\", \"Zero Hour!\". Staying in character, Abdul-Jabbar states that he is merely Roger Murdock, an airline co-pilot, but the boy continues to insist that Abdul-Jabbar is \"the greatest\", but that, according to his father, he doesn't \"work hard on defense\" and \"never really tries, except during the playoffs\". This causes Abdul-Jabbar's character to snap, \"The hell I don't!\", then grab the boy and snarl he has \"[heard] that crap ever since... UCLA\", he \"busts his buns every night\" and the boy should tell his \"old man to drag [Bill] Walton and [Bob] Lanier up and down the court for 48 minutes\". When Murdock loses consciousness later in the film, he collapses at the controls wearing Abdul-Jabbar's goggles and yellow Lakers' shorts. Abdul-Jabbar has had numerous other television and film appearances, often playing himself. He has had roles in movies such as \"Fletch\",", "Abdul-Jabbar is also a best-selling author and cultural critic. His first book, his autobiography \"Giant Steps\", was written in 1983 with co-author Peter Knobler. (The book's title is an homage to jazz great John Coltrane, referring to his album \"Giant Steps\".) Others include \"On the Shoulders of Giants: My Journey Through the Harlem Renaissance\", co-written with Raymond Obstfeld, and \"Brothers in Arms: The Epic Story of the 761st Tank Battalion, World War II's Forgotten Heroes\", co-written with Anthony Walton, which is a history of an all-black armored unit that served with distinction in Europe. Abdul-Jabbar has also been a regular contributor to discussions about issues of race and religion, among other topics, in national magazines and on television. He has written a regular column for \"Time\", for example, and he appeared on \"Meet the Press\" on Sunday, January 25, 2015, to talk about a recent column, which pointed out that Islam should not be blamed for the actions of violent extremists,", "", "In January 2012, United States Secretary of State Hillary Clinton announced that Abdul-Jabbar had accepted a position as a cultural ambassador for the United States. During the announcement press conference, Abdul-Jabbar commented on the", "Former President Barack Obama announced in his last days of office that he", "In January 2017, Abdul-Jabbar was appointed to the Citizens Coinage Advisory Committee by United States Secretary of the Treasury Steven Mnuchin. According to the", "Abdul-Jabbar met Habiba Abdul-Jabbar (born Janice Brown) at a Lakers game during his senior year at UCLA. They eventually married and together had three children: daughters Habiba and Sultana and son Kareem Jr, who played basketball at Western Kentucky after attending Valparaiso. Abdul-Jabbar and Janice divorced in 1978. He has another son, Amir, with Cheryl Pistono. Another son, Adam, made an appearance on the TV sitcom \"Full House\" with him.", "At age 24 in 1971, he converted to Islam and became Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, which means \"noble one, servant of the Almighty.\" He was named by Hamaas Abdul Khaalis. Abdul-Jabbar purchased and donated 7700 16th Street NW, a house in Washington, D.C., for Khaalis to use as the Hanafi Madh-Hab Center. Eventually, Kareem \"found that [he] disagreed with some of Hamaas' teachings about the Quran, and [they] parted ways.\" He then studied the Quran on his own, and “emerged from this pilgrimage with my beliefs clarified and my faith renewed.” Abdul-Jabbar has spoken about the thinking that was behind his name change when he converted to Islam. He stated that he was \"latching on to something that was part of my heritage, because many of the", "Abdul-Jabbar suffers from migraines, and his use of cannabis to reduce the symptoms has had legal ramifications. In November 2009, Abdul-Jabbar announced that he was suffering from a form of leukemia, Philadelphia chromosome-positive chronic myeloid leukemia, a cancer of the blood and bone marrow. The disease was diagnosed in December 2008, but Abdul-Jabbar said his condition could be managed by taking oral medication daily, seeing his specialist every other month and having his blood analyzed regularly. He expressed", "In 2011, Abdul-Jabbar was awarded the Double Helix Medal for his work in raising awareness for cancer research. Also" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "History.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Economy and transport.", "Population.", "Demographics.", "Languages.", "Religion.", "Culture and education.", "Highlights of the city.", "Vanuatu Cultural Centre.", "World Heritage.", "Education.", "Institutions.", "Municipality.", "Constituency.", "Twin towns – sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Locally the town is most commonly referred to simply as \"Vila\", whether in French or Bislama or in English (not like English \"villa\"). The name of the area is \"Efil\" in the native South Efate language and \"Ifira\" in neighbouring Mele-Fila language. \"Vila\" is a variant of these names. Ifira is a small island in Vila harbour where many of the area's traditional landowners reside.", "The area occupied by Port Vila has been inhabited by Melanesian people for thousands of years. In Autumn of 2004, an archaeological expedition known as \"Teouma\" discovered a burial site of 25 tombs containing three dozen skeletons of members of the Lapita culture. Pieces of ceramics found at the site were dated to the 13th century BC. In May 1606, the first Europeans arrived at the island, led by the Portuguese explorers Pedro Fernandes de Queirós and Luis Vaz de Torres. In the 19th century when the islands were known as the New Hebrides, the British possessed economic control of the zone, though by the end of 1880, the economic balance began to favour the French; this transition can be seen in its nickel mines of New Caledonia and plantations. French citizen Ferdinand Chevillard began buying and clearing land around Port Vila to be converted into the largest French plantation on the island. Instead, it was converted into the municipality of Franceville, which declared independence on August 9, 1889, though this only lasted until June of the following year. It was the first self-governing nation to practice universal suffrage without distinction of sex or race. Although the population at the time consisted of about 500 native islanders and fewer than fifty whites, only the latter were permitted to hold office. One of the elected presidents was a US citizen by birth, R. D. Polk, a relative of American president James K. Polk. After 1887, the territory was jointly administered by the French and the British. This was formalized in 1906 as an Anglo-French Condominium. During World War II, Port Vila was an American and Australian airbase. In 1987, Cyclone Uma severely damaged the city. A powerful earthquake in January 2002 caused minor damage in the capital and surrounding areas. The city suffered massive damage from a category 5 cyclone named Cyclone Pam in March 2015, whose eye wall passed just to the east of Port Vila.", "", "Port Vila has a tropical climate, more specifically a tropical rainforest climate, with noticeably wetter and drier months. As the trade winds are almost permanent and cyclones are not rare in Port Vila, the climate is not equatorial but maritime trade-wind tropical climate. Rainfall averages about 2,360 millimetres (94 in.) per year, and the wettest month is April. The driest month is September. There are 113 wet days in an average year. The area also has south-east trade winds. Temperatures do not vary very much at all throughout the year, and the record high is 34 C (93.2 F). The coldest month, August, has an average high of 24 C (75.2 F), and an average low of 18 C (64.4 F). The hottest month, February, has an average high of 29 C (84.2 F) and an average low of 23 C (73.4 F). The record low for Port Vila is 12 C (53.6 F). Humidity is often high.", "Port Vila is Vanuatu's most important harbour and the center of the country's trade. The international airport, Bauerfield International (VLI) is also located in the city. Air Vanuatu has its head office in Vanuatu House in Port Vila. Major industries in the city remain agriculture and fishing. Tourism is also becoming important, especially from Australia and New Zealand. There were over 50,000 visitors in 1997. Vanuatu is a tax haven, and offshore financing in Port Vila is an important part of the economy. Vanuatu is still dependent on foreign aid, most of which comes from Australia and New Zealand, although in recent years aid has also come from the People's Republic of China. One example was New Zealand paying to train doctors selected from the local community, then paying part of their wages during the first year after qualification. Australia has paid consultants to work in Port Vila Central Hospital. 35.7% of exports leave from Port Vila and 86.9% of imports arrive in Port Vila.", "", "The population is around 45,000; predominately Melanesian, with small Polynesian, Asian, Australian and European populations, mainly French and British.", "Port Vila is home to many languages, reflecting the country's high linguistic diversity. The day-to-day lingua franca in the capital city is Bislama. In addition, English and French are also widespread. Among Vanuatu's 100 indigenous languages, many are spoken in the capital, as people from rural areas come to live in the city, either temporarily or permanently.", "Christianity is the predominant religion across Vanuatu, followed by more than 90% of the population. The largest denomination is the Presbyterian Church in Vanuatu, followed by one third of the population. Roman Catholicism and the Church of Melanesia are also common, each about 15%. Cathédrale du Sacré-Cœur is a modern Roman Catholic cathedral in Port Vila. The seat of the Diocese of Port Vila, the church is dedicated to the Sacred Heart of Jesus.", "", "The capital of Vanuatu has various sights to offer. There are several memorials, e.g. opposite the Parliament where two traditional totem poles and a monument representing a pig's tusk can be seen. The Presbyterian Church of Port Vila is an impressive and sightworthy building opposite the Independence Park. A colourful wall painting can be seen on the administration building opposite the market hall. Another noteworthy wall painting is on the façade of the post office. The City Hall of Port Vila is an oblong and sightworthy building on a hill in the city centre.", "The Vanuatu Cultural Centre, hosting the Vanuatu National Museum, is located at the Saralana Park in front of the national parliament, close to the National Library and the Malvatumauri (Vanuatu National Council of Chiefs). This institution is an important place for the preservation and promotion of the different aspects of the local culture. Traditional artifacts from several islands are on display in the museum. The centre host also the National Audiovisual Archives which is the most important fund of documents from the late 19th century until today.", "Port Vila was the location in August 1999 for the ”2nd World Heritage Global Strategy Meeting for the Pacific Islands Region\" held by UNESCO. One of the major topics related to Vanuatu and the Pacific region was the question of the suitability of underwater heritage for inscription on the World Heritage List.", "Port Vila is one location of the University of the South Pacific, an educational institution co-owned by twelve Pacific countries. The Vanuatu campus is the only law school in the university, and it also teaches languages. Upper secondary (sixth form/senior high school) institutions include: Junior secondary (seventh form to tenth form) institutions include:", "", "The municipality of Port Vila is divided into four wards and administered by a council consisting of 14 members. The four wards are: Malapoa-Tagabe and South are allotted three representatives each to the council while Anabrou-Melcofe-Tassiriki and Centre have four. The municipality handles primary education, primary health care, regional planning, road maintenance and construction, trash collection, cemeteries, parks and open spaces and the promotion of tourism. There are also unplanned settlements such as Blacksands which are effectively suburbs of Vila but are outside the municipality. Living conditions in some of these neighbourhoods are very poor, and lack of service provision and insecure land tenure are major problems.", "Port Vila is one of the eighteen constituencies in Vanuatu, and elects six Members of Parliament. Following the 2016 general election, its representatives are:", "Port Vila is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Origins.", "Early history.", "World War II.", "Post-war.", "Moving the town.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Transportation.", "Economy.", "Space research.", "Mining.", "Tourism." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Archaeological findings have shown that the region around Kiruna has been inhabited for at least 6,000 years. Centuries before Kiruna was founded in 1900, the presence of iron ore at Kiirunavaara and Luossavaara had been known by the local Sami population. In 1696, Samuel Mört, a bookkeeper of the Kengis works, wrote on rumours about the presence of iron in the two hills. The ore became better known after it was reported by Mangi, a Sami man, in 1736 to Swedish authorities that had gathered in Jukkasjärvi Church. Soon after the reported finding Swedish senior enforcement officer and cartographer and mapper Anders Hackzell mapped the Kiruna area in 1736 and gave the mountains of the area their Swedish language names \"Fredriks berg\" (original Finnish name still in use as well: Kiirunavaara) and \"Berget Ulrika Eleonora\" (original Finnish name still in use as well: Luossavaara), after the King of Sweden Fredrik I and his wife Ulrika Eleonora. Despite the findings of large amounts of ore, no mining was initiated because of the remote location and the harsh climate. Some ore was extracted in the 19th century. It was extracted in summer and transported in winter, using sleds drawn by reindeer and horses. However, the costs were high and the quality of the phosphorus ore poor, until, in 1878, the Gilchrist-Thomas process, invented by Sidney Gilchrist Thomas and Percy Gilchrist, allowed for the separation of phosphorus from the ore. In 1884, a concession for a railway from Luleå to Narvik was granted to \"The Northern of Europe Railway Company\". The provisional railway between Luleå and Malmberget was finished in 1888 and the first train left Malmberget in March. Around the same time, the English company went bankrupt and had to sell the line to the Swedish state for 8 million Swedish crowns, around half the amount initially invested. After a significant rebuild, the railway to Gällivare could be used again and iron ore was extracted at Malmberget by Aktiebolaget Gellivare Malmfält (AGM). At the initiative of Robert Schoug, the Luossavaara-Kiirunavaara Aktiebolag (LKAB) was founded in 1890. In 1893, Gustaf Broms became CEO of both LKAB and AGM. LKAB pressed for continuing Malmbanan via Luossavaara and Kiirunavaara to the ice-free coast of Norway. The continuation of the railway line to Narvik was controversial, because opponents feared the influence of Russia (then controlling Finland and already connected to Sweden at Haparanda–Tornio) on an international railway line. The decision to build was finally taken in 1898. The railway came to Kiruna 15 October 1899 and the Swedish and Norwegian sections were joined 15 November 1902. For LKAB, the great expense almost led to bankruptcy in 1901, just after the ore mining at Kiirunavaara had started. King Oscar II only opened the railway line 14 July 1903, preferring summer over winter to travel north. The architects Per Olof Hallman and Gustaf Wickman were appointed to design the city, to be built at Haukivaara, near both iron ore mines, with then-revolutionary consideration of geographical and climatological circumstances; being built on a hill, winter temperatures are much milder than in other towns, and due to the street plan and the positioning, wind is limited. On 27 April 1900, Hallman's plan was officially accepted. Gustaf Broms proposed to name the settlements \"Kiruna\", a short and practical name that could also be pronounced by Swedish speaking inhabitants. The name means rock ptarmigan in Lappish and Finnish. LKAB appointed Hjalmar Lundbohm, who had finished neither high school nor his geology studies, as local manager in Kiruna.", "Before the design for the settlement had been accepted, houses were built in a disorganized manner with illegal slums similar to those in the other mining town, Malmberget, south of Kiruna. Also, provisional buildings served as a church, a school, a hospital, a hotel and a police station. However, official residences were built at a high pace, and when the king opened the railway in 1903, all illegal residences and most other provisional buildings had been demolished and replaced. The very first building, \"B:1\", is preserved and can be seen at \"Hjalmar Lundbohmsgården\". In 1899, 18 people were registered as living in soon-to-be Kiruna. This increased to 222 in 1900, 7,438 in 1910 and 12,884 in 1930. The residences did not fully keep up with this rapid growth; by 1910, there were 1,877 official rooms and some unrecognised residences, which meant that an average of three to four people lived in a single room; this density decreased steadily during the decades to follow. Kiruna became a municipalsamhälle (a community within a municipality) in 1908. This caused unhappiness in local organisations, such as \"Luossavaara-Kiirunavaara Arbetareförening\", that had hoped for status as köping, which would have kept more of the mining income inside the locality. In return, the mining company LKAB paid for a hospital, fire station, sewage, roads, a church (opened 1912) and the priest's home. In April 1907, a tram began operation in Kiruna, the northernmost in the world. This meant miners would no longer have to walk several kilometres through the sub-arctic cold, nor would they need to climb a hundred meters up the mining hill. The network consisted of three lines: \"bergbanan\" (funicular), \"stadsspårvägen\" (city tramway) and \"gruvspårvägen\" (mine tramway). The funicular closed in 1955 after a road up the mine was built 1949. The city line had a maximum length of and was unique due to the 1-meter gauge, double windows and heated wagons. It closed in 1958 after gradually being replaced by buses. Between 1941 and 1964, a tram was used inside the mine, with wagons bought from closed tramlines throughout Sweden. The iron ore industry was good in the early 20th century. Before the start of the work, Hjalmar Lundbohm worried whether the Kiruna winter would allow for working outside at all, but despite early research into underground mining, mountaintop removal mining was the primary method in the early years. Mechanisation was attempted early using steam powered excavators, but the cold climate led to considerable difficulties and only when electrical machinery became available in the 1910s, significant mechanisation was achieved. The peak of Kiirunavaara, \"Statsrådet\", was above Luossajärvi until it was spectacularly blown off in 1910. A general strike hit Sweden in 1909 and Kiruna was no exception. Hoping for a better future, thousands of people left Kiruna, including a group of 500 inhabitants emigrating to Brazil. Most of them returned, disappointed that life in Latin America was not what they had hoped it to be, Hjalmar Lundbohm personally lent money for the trip home to some of the emigrants. During World War I, iron ore production dropped to the lowest level in LKAB's history, and when exports increased again, a successful three-month strike in 1920 led to a 20% increase in salaries for the miners. Production dropped to a minimum in 1922 and a three-day work week was introduced, but during the \"fabulous twenties\", it increased to a record nine million tonnes in 1927. In 1921, mining started at Kiruna's other hill, Luossavaara. However, the total amount of ore that could be mined in open pit mining here was small compared to Kiirunavaara, and LKAB preferred to concentrate resources in one place. Nevertheless, mining here continued until 1974 and later it became a research mine. While 19th-century mining in Kiruna had focused on Luossavaara the large-scale operation of LKAB focused on the Kiruna ore proper because it was both larger and not subject to legal restrictions that mandate Luossavaara ore to be refined in Sweden. During the first decades of Kiruna's existence, no road connected it to the outside world. The only connection was by railway or, as in the time before the railway, by boat (in summer) via the Torne and Kalix rivers to Jukkasjärvi and Håmojåkk and then proceed by foot. A road from Kiruna was built to Tuolluvaara in 1901, Poikkijärvi in 1909, Alttajärvi in 1913 and connected to Svappavaara in 1926, from where roads already connected via Vittangi to Pajala and via Lappesuando to Gällivare and further south. The Great Depression led to a 70% drop in ore production, a drop that would turn into a dramatic increase on the eve of World War II. Although some tourists had already started coming to the area in the 19th century, the completion of the railway line truly made tourism possible. Tourists came for the rivers and the mountains, but also geologists and entire classes of students came to see the mine. Additionally, a yearly winter sports festival was started, which attracted people from a wide area. The Sami population was already a tourist attraction in the early days of Kiruna's existence.", "The municipality of Kiruna shares borders with Norway and Finland and Kiruna is located relatively close to both countries. This led to many soldiers being transported to the area whenever mobilisation was requested; first in September 1939 after the German invasion of Poland, then in November 1939 after the Russian invasion of Finland, but in both cases, Swedish soldiers did not engage in any fighting. In March 1940, Churchill requested permission to transport soldiers from Narvik in Norway to Finland via Kiruna and Haparanda in \"Operation Catherine\". Out of fear that the presence of British soldiers near the Kiruna ore mine would provoke a German attack on Sweden, the request was declined. After the German invasion of Norway, at least ten soldiers were stationed along every bridge along Malmbanan, to blow up the bridges should the German army invade Sweden. Additionally, foreigners were banned from visiting Kiruna or the iron ore line, and only the Sami, military personnel, locals and people working for the government were permitted to travel between Kiruna and Riksgränsen. After the battle at Bjørnfjell, 15 April 1940, wounded and fallen Norwegian soldiers were transported to Kiruna. Despite the conditions for Swedish neutrality, rail cars with food, skis and helmets were transported from Kiruna to the Norwegian soldiers in Bjørnfjell. Swedish iron ore from Kiruna was of major importance to the German war machine. A group of people working at LKAB organised in the Wollweberliga, planning to sabotage transports to Germany. In late November 1941, Edvard Nyberg, Ernst Wollweber and others produced a mine to be attached to the ore cars. Nyberg was caught, was fired from LKAB and spent 31⁄2 years in prison. Upon his release, he founded \"Nybergs Mekaniska Verkstad\" which is still one of Kiruna's biggest companies. Germany requested that Sweden provide use of the railway network to transport military equipment, but the Swedish government agreed only to \"transitering av human karaktär, men ej underhåll till stridande trupp\" (transit of humanitarian character, but no supply of fighting soldiers). Germany argued that, now that Norway was occupied, the German soldiers there were no longer fighting, and thus transported a large amount of military equipment, ammunition and, secretly, troops from southern to northern Norway, via Malmbanan and Kiruna. Troops were often transported in transports declared as material transports. Despite being strictly against the rules, there was considerable interaction between the German soldiers and the Swedish locals, including trading and football matches. During the war, up to 2000 refugees from 20 countries were kept in Kiruna. German prisoners of war, for example, from crashed airplanes, were kept in Kiruna before being transported south. However, small-scale sabotage, such as sand in the engines, was common and loose weapons often ended up at the bottom of the Luossajärvi lake, next to the railway stop. North of Torneträsk, at Kaivare, a radio base \"Kari\" was built in secrecy and used by the Norwegian resistance. It was also used for the smuggling of arms to Norway and refugees from Norway.", "In 1948, Kiruna gained city rights and started to receive large amounts of money from the mine. The city centre was renovated starting in 1953; most buildings built before 1920 were demolished and replaced, and many of the current buildings were built in the following period. The town grew and new neighborhoods were built, as well as new apartment buildings and villas in existing neighborhoods. The area is currently known as \"Lombolo\" was built in the 1960s. After World War II, the economy of Kiruna started to diversify. Initially, the mechanisation of the mining industry led to more mechanical workshops developing machinery for the mine, still dependent on the mining, but individual companies with spinoffs that could be sold to other areas than the Kiruna mine alone. In the 1950s, a fund, \"Norrlandsfonden\" was established, in which profits from LKAB would be invested in order to diversify the local economy. The municipality started to lend money to starting companies against very beneficial rates, a scheme that lasted until 1959 because the banks, that insisted this was false competition, had established more relaxed rules for lending out money. The industrial area east of the city was built in the 1950s to separate industry from neighborhoods. On 10 November 1960, Kiruna Airport opened to separate civilian air traffic from the military airplanes that had landed at Kalixfors airport and at Luossajärvi since World War I. A road to Nikkaluokta was opened in 1971 and to Riksgränsen and Narvik in 1984. The latter had been debated heavily, for alternative plans existed to build the road to Norway on the northern side of Torneträsk, via Laimo, Kattuvuoma, Salmi to Innset and Bardu in Norway. This road was never built, but a 25 km long track between Laimo and Salmi was built at the initiatives of the locals and finished in 1962; however, this track, called Talmavägen, is not connected to any other road. Increased communications were also beneficial for tourism. Swedish Railways had already run special trains before World War II, but started a special Dollar train in the summer months between Gothenburg and Kiruna, connecting to cruise ships from the United States. The canoe club Kiruna Långfärdspaddlare was founded in 1972 and rafting for tourists restarted after it had been discontinued for 20 years due to the drowning of Valfrid Johansson. Until the 1980s, tourism had been mainly a summer business, but touristic exploitation of dog sledging was started in 1983 in Jukkasjärvi. In 1990, the first Icehotel was built in Jukkasjärvi and advertised as the world's largest igloo. It had been built using techniques from the building of Malmbanan 90 years before and was also inspired by the Snow Festival, that had started in 1986 to celebrate the Swedish Viking satellite. Since 1998, a special tourist area exists in the mine and since 1999, tourists can visit the various areas of research going on in Kiruna. In 1957, the \"Kiruna Geophysical Observatory\" (KGO) (now the Swedish Institute of Space Physics) was founded and established by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. Esrange Space Centre is established in 1966. Here, rocket operations and ground-based observations are carried out since 1966, balloon operations since 1974, satellite operations since 1978 and testing operations since 2000 (with the Swedish Defence Material Administration). ESA has operated a satellite station at Salmajärvi, near Esrange, since 1989. In 1987, Umeå University started a space engineering program in Kiruna, and GIS education was started by Luleå University of Technology in 1991. In 1993, The Umeå space engineers moved to the same building housing IRF and a year later another Luleå University programme, civil engineering with specialisation in space technology, started at the same location. Since 2006, the \"Erasmus Mundus Master Course in Space Science and Technology\" has started with at least one semester spent at LTU. In 2007, education along IRV was split and only the Department of Space Science, belonging to Luleå University of Technology, remained, while the Umeå University programme in Space Engineering quit. The Kiruna Icehotel has been built in Jukkasjärvi each winter since 1990 and is a major tourist attraction.", "The re-development of Kiruna is a reconstruction project, as the Kirunavaara mine, run by LKAB, undermines the current town center. Several buildings are to be moved or demolished. The town center is to be moved 3 kilometers to the east. In 2004, it was decided that the present centre of the municipality would have to be relocated to counter mining-related subsidence. The relocation would be made gradually over the coming decade. On January 8, 2007, a new location was proposed, northwest to the foot of the Luossavaara mountain, by the lake of Luossajärvi. The first actual work on moving the town was done in November 2007, when work on the new main sewage pipe started. In the same week, first sketches for the layout of the new part of the town became available. The sketches include a travel centre, the new locations for the city hall and the church, an artificial lake and an extension of the Luossavaara hill into the city. The location of the new section of the E10 is still uncertain, as is the location of the railway and the railway station. A more official sketch was published early in spring 2008, which was then discussed with various interest groups before a further version is to be produced. In June 2010 the municipal council decided that the town would be moved eastwards (to ), in the direction of Tuolluvaara, instead of the proposed northwestern location. The moving of the town was started in 2014 and the plan describes a process that continues to 2100. The years 2012-2013 an international architectural competition concerning the vision, strategy and design of a new city centre for a new Kiruna was arranged by the Municipality of Kiruna in partnership with the Swedish Association of Architects. White Arkitekter AB based in Stockholm togheter with Ghilardi + Hellsten Arkitekter based in Oslo, SPACECAPE AB, VECTURA CONSULTING AB and EVIDENS BLW AB won the competition with their masterplan and strategy for moving the city. The competition team was led by White Arkitekter AB, Lead Architect Mikael Stenqvist Architect SAR/MSA, in collaboration with Ghilardi + Hellsten Arkitekter, Lead architect Ellen Hellsten, Together with researchers from Luleå and Delft universities, which envisages a denser city centre with a greater focus on sustainability, green and blue infrastructure, pedestrians and public transport rather than automobiles. In 2018, Swedish government announced that it would help arrange replacement work for radio corporation Radiotjänst after the city had been moved from its original location.", "Kiruna is located in the north of Sweden, north of the Arctic circle. The city centre is built on the Haukavaara hill at an altitude of 530 m, high above the Torne river to the north and the Kalix river to the south. Other parts of the town are Lombolo and Tuolluvaara. Near Kiruna are the mountains Kiirunavaara and Luossavaara. Kiirunavaara is an iron ore mine that is the town's primary economic resource. Luossavaara is a former mine and now used as a skiing slope. The city is built near the lake Luossajärvi with outflow to the Luossajoki that flows in the Torne river at Laxforsen. The area around Kiruna is very sparsely populated. The northwest, west and southwest of Kiruna are dominated by the Scandinavian mountains, visible from the city centre. Sweden's highest mountain, Kebnekaise, is from the city centre and can be seen from it as well. To the west is Nikkaluokta and to the northwest are Abisko, Björkliden, Riksgränsen and the Norwegian town of Narvik, via the road. north of Kiruna is Kurravaara, on the edge of the Torne River. The land north of Kurravaara is roadless, uninhabited, partly barren and partly birch forest, up to the Norwegian and Finnish borders at Treriksröset. The lower-lying east is dominated by boreal forest, stretching hundreds (if not thousands) of kilometers into Finland and Russia. Around 15 km east of Kiruna is a group of villages at the Torne River, most notably Jukkasjärvi, where an ice hotel is built in winter, attracting tourists from all over the world. The twin cities Gällivare and Malmberget are some 120 km south of Kiruna. Kiruna became a Swedish city on January 1, 1948, and was at one time listed as the largest city in the world by area, even if most of its territory was non-urban. After the Swedish municipality reform in the 1970s, the term \"city\" has been legally discontinued. Today only the built-up area is considered a \"de facto\" city.", "Being located 145 km (90 miles) north of the Arctic Circle, Kiruna has a subarctic (\"Dfc\") climate with short, cool summers and long, cold winters, although the city itself can be considerably milder than the surrounding forest. Snow cover generally lasts from late September to mid-May, but snowfall can occur year-round. The sun does not set between 28 May and 16 July (50 days), and white nights lasts from early May to early August. The period that the sun does not rise lasts from 11 December to 1 January (22 days), the exact boundaries depending on local topography. Even though Kiruna's winters are very cold by Swedish standards, they are still much less severe than winters on similar latitudes in North America and Siberia, and even more southerly areas in other parts of the world due to some maritime influence. Similar winter temperatures go as far south as below the 45th parallel in the Russian Far East. Kiruna however, has cooler summers than such areas, but still warm enough to stay above polar climate and below the northern tree line. Winter temperatures however are significantly colder than areas immediately affected by the Gulf Stream such, where in fact the regular lows of Kiruna during January and February are colder than or similar to Tromsø's all-time record low. The coldest confirmed temperature ever in Kiruna was recorded at the nearby weather station with recorded in January 1999. The weather station recorded in July 1945, which is the all-time record. The warmest month on record at the weather station was July 2018, with average high temperatures of. Kiruna has a gloomy climate, affected by Atlantic low-pressure systems. Due to its extreme daylight cycle, the period between April to August account for 73% of Kiruna's annual sunshine according to the 1961-1990 normals, whereas the five darkest months between October and February contain only around 10% of the annual sunshine.", "Kiruna is on the E10 road, connecting Luleå with Norway and passing near Gällivare (south of Kiruna) and Narvik (on the Norwegian coast). A short road connects to Kurravaara at the Torne river and ends there. Another road connects Kiruna with Nikkaluokta close to Kebnekaise and is used by tourists to get to the mountains. It passes by or nearby several villages in the Kalix river valley. Buses connect Kiruna with major towns in Norrbotten province and villages nearby and in the wider region. The railway connects Luleå with Gällivare, Kiruna and Narvik. Although built to serve the mine, Swedish Rail runs daily passenger traffic on the line: a night train from Narvik to Stockholm, a day train from Narvik to Luleå (connecting with a second night train to Stockholm and Gothenburg), and trains to Luleå and Narvik that start and finish in Kiruna. The latter is known as \"Karven\" and popular for day trips to the mountains near Abisko, Björkliden and Riksgränsen, particularly in winter. Additional long-distance trains are run by Transdev in summer. In 2013, the railway station was moved 2 km away from the city centre, so walking is possible but not recommended. There is a free shuttlebus for every departure and arrival which starts from Kiruna bustation in the city centre. Kiruna Airport is southeast of the city, 8 km by road. A few daily flights connect Kiruna with Stockholm, either directly or via Luleå or Umeå. An airport bus is available for most Stockholm-Arlanda flights and starting from end of August 2015 the airport bus will be available for all flights to/from Stockholm-Arlanda.", "", "Space research started in the late 1940s. The ESTRACK Kiruna Station of ESA, the European Space Agency, is located in the municipality. So is Esrange, the European Space and Sounding Rocket Range, as well as an EISCAT station and EISCAT scientific headquarters. Also in Kiruna are the Institute of Space Physics and the Department of Space Science belonging to Luleå University of Technology. In 2007, the Swedish government announced that Kiruna would be the host of Spaceport Sweden, signing an agreement with Virgin Galactic.", "Mining plays a major role as a source of national income and employment for Kiruna and the surrounding region. As with most of Northern Sweden the area is rich with Magnetite which is mined to produce various Iron ore products which are then transported by rail to Narvik port in Norway to be shipped to customers around the world. Large-scale mining in Kiruna started in the 19th century right around the time the major Swedish mining company LKAB was founded in 1890.", "In winter, the Icehotel and northern lights attract tourists. The long and certain snow cover, which generally lasts from October to May, and frozen lakes and rivers facilitate cross-country and alpine skiing, dog sledding and snowmobiling. There are ice climbing in the mountains and ice skating on lakes or rivers. The annual Snow festival is held over the last weekend of January and includes scooter jumping, reindeer racing and an ice sculpture contest." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Uses.", "Production.", "Finishing, jacketing, and insulating.", "Forms of wire.", "Solid wire.", "Stranded wire.", "Number of strands.", "Prefused.", "Braided wire." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "In antiquity, jewelry often contains, in the form of chains and applied decoration, large amounts of wire that is accurately made and which must have been produced by some efficient, if not technically advanced, means. In some cases, strips cut from metal sheet were made into wire by pulling them through perforations in stone beads. This causes the strips to fold round on themselves to form thin tubes. This strip drawing technique was in use in Egypt by the 2nd Dynasty. From the middle of the 2nd millennium BCE most of the gold wires in jewellery are characterised by seam lines that follow a spiral path along the wire. Such twisted strips can be converted into solid round wires by rolling them between flat surfaces or the strip wire drawing method. The strip twist wire manufacturing method was superseded by drawing in the ancient Old World sometime between about the 8th and 10th centuries AD. There is some evidence for the use of drawing further East prior to this period. Square and hexagonal wires were possibly made using a swaging technique. In this method a metal rod was struck between grooved metal blocks, or between a grooved punch and a grooved metal anvil. Swaging is of great antiquity, possibly dating to the beginning of the 2nd millennium BCE in Egypt and in the Bronze and Iron Ages in Europe for torcs and fibulae. Twisted square-section wires are a very common filigree decoration in early Etruscan jewelry. In about the middle of the 2nd millennium BCE, a new category of decorative tube was introduced which imitated a line of granules. True beaded wire, produced by mechanically distorting a round-section wire, appeared in the Eastern Mediterranean and Italy in the seventh century BCE, perhaps disseminated by the Phoenicians. Beaded wire continued to be used in jewellery into modern times, although it largely fell out of favour in about the tenth century CE when two drawn round wires, twisted together to form what are termed 'ropes', provided a simpler-to-make alternative. A forerunner to beaded wire may be the notched strips and wires which first occur from around 2000 BCE in Anatolia. Wire was drawn in England from the medieval period. The wire was used to make wool cards and pins, manufactured goods whose import was prohibited by Edward IV in 1463. The first wire mill in Great Britain was established at Tintern in about 1568 by the founders of the Company of Mineral and Battery Works, who had a monopoly on this. Apart from their second wire mill at nearby Whitebrook, there were no other wire mills before the second half of the 17th century. Despite the existence of mills, the drawing of wire down to fine sizes continued to be done manually. Wire is usually drawn of cylindrical form; but it may be made of any desired section by varying the outline of the holes in the draw-plate through which it is passed in the process of manufacture. The draw-plate or die is a piece of hard cast-iron or hard steel, or for fine work it may be a diamond or a ruby. The object of utilising precious stones is to enable the dies to be used for a considerable period without losing their size, and so producing wire of incorrect diameter. Diamond dies must be rebored when they have lost their original diameter of hole, but metal dies are brought down to size again by hammering up the hole and then drifting it out to correct diameter with a punch.", "Wire has many uses. It forms the raw material of many important manufacturers, such as the wire netting industry, engineered springs, wire-cloth making and wire rope spinning, in which it occupies a place analogous to a textile fiber. Wire-cloth of all degrees of strength and fineness of mesh is used for sifting and screening machinery, for draining paper pulp, for window screens, and for many other purposes. Vast quantities of aluminium, copper, nickel and steel wire are employed for telephone and data cables, and as conductors in electric power transmission, and heating. It is in no less demand for fencing, and much is consumed in the construction of suspension bridges, and cages, etc. In the manufacture of stringed musical instruments and scientific instruments, wire is again largely used. Carbon and stainless spring steel wire have significant applications in engineered springs for critical automotive or industrial manufactured parts/components. Pin and hairpin making; the needle and fish-hook industries; nail, peg, and rivet making; and carding machinery consume large amounts of wire as feedstock. Not all metals and metallic alloys possess the physical properties necessary to make useful wire. The metals must in the first place be ductile and strong in tension, the quality on which the utility of wire principally depends. The principal metals suitable for wire, possessing almost equal ductility, are platinum, silver, iron, copper, aluminium, and gold; and it is only from these and certain of their alloys with other metals, principally brass and bronze, that wire is prepared. By careful treatment, extremely thin wire can be produced. Special purpose wire is however made from other metals (e.g. tungsten wire for light bulb and vacuum tube filaments, because of its high melting temperature). Copper wires are also plated with other metals, such as tin, nickel, and silver to handle different temperatures, provide lubrication, and provide easier stripping of rubber insulation from copper. Metallic wires are often used for the lower-pitched sound-producing \"strings\" in stringed instruments, such as violins, cellos, and guitars, and percussive string instruments such as pianos, dulcimers, dobros, and cimbaloms. To increase the mass per unit length (and thus lower the pitch of the sound even further), the main wire may sometimes be helically wrapped with another, finer strand of wire. Such musical strings are said to be \"overspun\"; the added wire may be circular in cross-section (\"round-wound\"), or flattened before winding (\"flat-wound\").", "Wire is often reduced to the desired diameter and properties by repeated drawing through progressively smaller dies, or traditionally holes in draw plates. After a number of passes the wire may be annealed to facilitate more drawing or, if it is a finished product, to maximise ductility and conductivity.", "Electrical wires are usually covered with insulating materials, such as plastic, rubber-like polymers, or varnish. Insulating and jacketing of wires and cables is nowadays done by passing them through an extruder. Formerly, materials used for insulation included treated cloth or paper and various oil-based products. Since the mid-1960s, plastic and polymers exhibiting properties similar to rubber have predominated. Two or more wires may be wrapped concentrically, separated by insulation, to form coaxial cable. The wire or cable may be further protected with substances like paraffin, some kind of preservative compound, bitumen, lead, aluminum sheathing, or steel taping. Stranding or covering machines wind material onto wire which passes through quickly. Some of the smallest machines for cotton covering have a large drum, which grips the wire and moves it through toothed gears; the wire passes through the centre of disks mounted above a long bed, and the disks carry each a number of bobbins varying from six to twelve or more in different machines. A supply of covering material is wound on each bobbin, and the end is led on to the wire, which occupies a central position relatively to the bobbins; the latter being revolved at a suitable speed bodily with their disks, the cotton is consequently served on to the wire, winding in spiral fashion so as to overlap. If many strands are required the disks are duplicated, so that as many as sixty spools may be carried, the second set of strands being laid over the first. For heavier cables that are used for electric light and power as well as submarine cables, the machines are somewhat different in construction. The wire is still carried through a hollow shaft, but the bobbins or spools of covering material are set with their spindles at right angles to the axis of the wire, and they lie in a circular cage which rotates on rollers below. The various strands coming from the spools at various parts of the circumference of the cage all lead to a disk at the end of the hollow shaft. This disk has perforations through which each of the strands pass, thence being immediately wrapped on the cable, which slides through a bearing at this point. Toothed gears having certain definite ratios are used to cause the winding drum for the cable and the cage for the spools to rotate at suitable relative speeds which do not vary. The cages are multiplied for stranding with many tapes or strands, so that a machine may have six bobbins on one cage and twelve on the other.", "", "Solid wire, also called solid-core or single-strand wire, consists of one piece of metal wire. Solid wire is useful for wiring breadboards. Solid wire is cheaper to manufacture than stranded wire and is used where there is little need for flexibility in the wire. Solid wire also provides mechanical ruggedness; and, because it has relatively less surface area which is exposed to attack by corrosives, protection against the environment.", "Stranded wire is composed of a number of small wires bundled or wrapped together to form a larger conductor. Stranded wire is more flexible than solid wire of the same total cross-sectional area. Stranded wire is used when higher resistance to metal fatigue is required. Such situations include connections between circuit boards in multi-printed-circuit-board devices, where the rigidity of solid wire would produce too much stress as a result of movement during assembly or servicing; A.C. line cords for appliances; musical instrument cables; computer mouse cables; welding electrode cables; control cables connecting moving machine parts; mining machine cables; trailing machine cables; and numerous others. At high frequencies, current travels near the surface of the wire because of the \"skin effect\", resulting in increased power loss in the wire. Stranded wire might seem to reduce this effect, since the total surface area of the strands is greater than the surface area of the equivalent solid wire, but ordinary stranded wire does not reduce the skin effect because all the strands are short-circuited together and behave as a single conductor. A stranded wire will have higher resistance than a solid wire of the same diameter because the cross-section of the stranded wire is not all copper; there are unavoidable gaps between the strands (this is the circle packing problem for circles within a circle). A stranded wire with the same cross-section of conductor as a solid wire is said to have the same equivalent gauge and is always a larger diameter. However, for many high-frequency applications, \"proximity effect\" is more severe than skin effect, and in some limited cases, simple stranded wire can reduce proximity effect. For better performance at high frequencies, litz wire, which has the individual strands insulated and twisted in special patterns, may be used.", "The more individual wire strands in a wire bundle, the more flexible, kink-resistant, break-resistant, and stronger the wire becomes. However, more strands increases manufacturing complexity and cost. For geometrical reasons, the lowest number of strands usually seen is 7: one in the middle, with 6 surrounding it in close contact. The next level up is 19, which is another layer of 12 strands on top of the 7. After that the number varies, but 37 and 49 are common, then in the 70 to 100 range (the number is no longer exact). Even larger numbers than that are typically found only in very large cables. For application where the wire moves, 19 is the lowest that should be used (7 should only be used in applications where the wire is placed and then does not move), and 49 is much better. For applications with constant repeated movement, such as assembly robots and headphone wires, 70 to 100 is mandatory. For applications that need even more flexibility, even more strands are used (welding cables are the usual example, but also any application that needs to move wire in tight areas). One example is a 2/0 wire made from 5,292 strands of No. 36 gauge wire. The strands are organized by first creating a bundle of 7 strands. Then 7 of these bundles are put together into super bundles. Finally 108 super bundles are used to make the final cable. Each group of wires is wound in a helix so that when the wire is flexed, the part of a bundle that is stretched moves around the helix to a part that is compressed to allow the wire to have less stress.", "Prefused wire is stranded wire made up of strands that are heavily tinned, then fused together. Prefused wire has many of the properties of solid wire, except it is less likely to break.", "A braided wire consists of a number of small strands of wire braided together. Braided wires do not break easily when flexed. Braided wires are often suitable as an electromagnetic shield in noise-reduction cables." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "College career.", "Professional playing career.", "Rookie season in the NBA (1979–1980).", "Ups and downs (1980–1983).", "Battles against the Celtics (1983–1987).", "Repeat and falling short (1987–1991).", "HIV announcement and Olympics (1991–1992).", "Post-Olympics and later life.", "Return to the Lakers as coach and player (1994, 1996).", "Magic Johnson All-Stars.", "Brief period in Scandinavia.", "Basketball executive career.", "Outside basketball.", "Personal life.", "Relationship with Jerry Buss.", "Media figure and business interests.", "Sports franchise ownership.", "Politics.", "HIV activism.", "Career achievements.", "Books.", "Biographies." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Earvin Johnson Jr. was born in Lansing, Michigan, the son of General Motors assembly worker Earvin Sr. and school janitor Christine. Johnson, who had six siblings (and three half-siblings by his father's previous marriage), was influenced by his parents' strong work ethic. His mother spent many hours after work each night cleaning their home and preparing the next day's meals, while his father did janitorial work at a used car lot and collected garbage, all while never missing a day at General Motors. Johnson would often help his father on the garbage route, and he was teased by neighborhood children who called him \"Garbage Man\". Johnson came to love basketball as a young man. His favorite basketball player was Bill Russell, whom he admired more for his many championships than his athletic ability. He also idolized players such as Earl Monroe and Marques Haynes, and practiced \"all day\". Johnson came from an athletic family. His father played high school basketball in his home state of Mississippi, and Johnson learned the finer points about the game from him. Johnson's mother, originally from North Carolina, had also played basketball as a child, and she grew up watching her brothers play the game. By the time he had reached the eighth grade, Johnson had begun to think about a future in basketball. He had become a dominant junior high player, once scoring 48 points in a game. Johnson looked forward to playing at Sexton High School, a school with a very successful basketball team and history that also happened to be", "Although Johnson was recruited by several top-ranked colleges such as Indiana and UCLA, he decided to play close to home. His college decision came down to Michigan and Michigan State in East Lansing. He ultimately decided to attend Michigan State when coach Jud Heathcote told him he could play the point guard position. The talent already on Michigan State's roster also drew him to the program. Johnson did not initially aspire to play professionally, focusing instead on his communication studies major and on his desire to become a television commentator. Playing with future NBA draftees Greg Kelser, Jay Vincent and Mike Brkovich, Johnson averaged 17.0 points, 7.9 rebounds, and 7.4 assists per game", "", "Johnson was drafted first overall in 1979 by the Los Angeles Lakers. Johnson said that what was \"most amazing\" about joining the Lakers was the chance to play alongside Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, the team's 7 ft 2 in (2.18 m) center who became the leading scorer in NBA history. Despite Abdul-Jabbar's dominance, he had failed to win a championship with the Lakers, and Johnson was expected to help them achieve that goal. Lakers coach Jack McKinney had the rookie Johnson, who some analysts thought should play forward, be a point guard, even though incumbent Norm Nixon was already one of the best in the league. Johnson averaged 18.0 points, 7.7 rebounds, and 7.3 assists per game for the season,", "Early in the 1980–81 season, Johnson was sidelined after he suffered torn cartilage in his left knee. He missed 45 games, and said that his rehabilitation was the \"most down\" he had ever felt. Johnson returned before the start of the 1981 playoffs, but the Lakers' then-assistant and future head coach Pat Riley later said Johnson's much-anticipated return made the Lakers a \"divided team\". The 54-win Lakers faced the 40–42 Houston Rockets in the first round of playoffs, where Houston upset the Lakers 2–1 after Johnson airballed a last-second shot in Game 3. In 1981, after the 1980–81 season, Johnson signed a 25-year, $25 million contract with the Lakers, which was the highest-paying contract in sports history up to that point. Early in the 1981–82 season, Johnson had a heated dispute with Westhead, who Johnson said made the Lakers \"slow\" and \"predictable\". After Johnson demanded to be traded, Lakers owner Jerry Buss fired Westhead and replaced him with Riley. Although Johnson denied responsibility for Westhead's firing, he was booed across the league, even by Laker fans. However, Buss was also unhappy", "Prior to Johnson's fifth season, West—who had become the Lakers general manager—traded Nixon to free Johnson from sharing the ball-handling responsibilities. Johnson that season averaged a double-double of 17.6 points and 13.1 assists, as well as 7.3 rebounds per game. The Lakers reached the Finals for the third year in a row, where Johnson's Lakers and Bird's Celtics met for the first time in the post-season. The Lakers won the first game, and led by two points in Game 2 with 18 seconds to go, but after a layup", "Before the 1987–88 NBA season, Lakers coach Pat Riley publicly promised that they would defend the NBA title, even though no team had won consecutive titles since the Celtics did so in the 1969 NBA Finals. Johnson had another productive season with averages of 19.6 points, 11.9 assists, and 6.2 rebounds per game despite missing 10 games with a groin injury. In the 1988 playoffs, the Lakers swept the San Antonio Spurs in 3 games, then survived two 4–3 series against", "After a physical before the 1991–92 NBA season, Johnson discovered that he had tested positive for HIV. In a press conference held on November 7, 1991, Johnson made a public announcement that he would retire immediately. He stated that his wife Cookie and their unborn child did not have HIV, and that he would dedicate his life to \"battle this deadly disease\". Johnson initially said that he did not know how he contracted the disease, but later acknowledged that it was through having numerous sexual partners during his playing career. He admitted to having \"harems of women\" and talked openly about his sexual activities because \"he was convinced that heterosexuals needed to know that they, too, were at risk\". At the time, only a small percentage of HIV-positive American men had contracted it from heterosexual sex, and it was initially rumored that Johnson was gay or bisexual, although he denied both. Johnson later accused Isiah Thomas of spreading the rumors, a claim Thomas denied. Johnson's HIV announcement became a major news story in the United States, and in", "Before the 1992–93 NBA season, Johnson announced his intention to stage an NBA comeback. After practicing and playing in several pre-season games, he retired again before the start of the regular season, citing controversy over his return sparked by opposition from several active players. In an August 2011 interview, Johnson said that in retrospect he wished that he had never retired after being diagnosed with HIV, saying, \"If I knew what I know now, I wouldn't have retired.\" Johnson said that despite the physical, highly competitive practices and scrimmages leading up to the 1992 Olympics, some of those same teammates still expressed concerns about his return to the NBA.", "Johnson returned to the NBA as coach of the Lakers near the end of the 1993–94 NBA season, replacing Randy Pfund, and Bill Bertka, who served as an interim coach for two games. Johnson, who took the job at the urging of owner Jerry Buss, admitted \"I've always had the desire (to coach) in the back of my mind.\" He insisted that his health was not an issue, while downplaying questions about returning as a player, saying, \"I'm retired. Let's leave it at that.\" Amid speculation from general manager Jerry West that he may only coach until the end of the season, Johnson took over a team that had a 28–38 record, and won his first", "Determined to play competitive basketball despite being out of the NBA, Johnson formed the Magic Johnson All-Stars, a barnstorming team composed of former NBA and college players. In 1994, Johnson joined with former pros Mark Aguirre, Reggie Theus, John Long, Earl Cureton, Jim Farmer, and Lester Conner, as his team played games in Australia, Israel, South America, Europe, New Zealand, and Japan. They also toured the United States, playing five games against teams from the CBA. In the final game of the CBA series, Johnson had 30 points, 17 rebounds, and 13 assists, leading the All-Stars to a 126–121 victory over the Oklahoma City Cavalry. By the time he returned to the Lakers in 1996, the Magic", "In 1999, Johnson joined the Swedish squad M7 Borås (now known as 'Borås Basket'), and was undefeated in five games with the team. Johnson also became a co-owner of the club; however, the project failed after one season and the club was forced into reconstruction. He later joined the Danish team The Great Danes.", "On February 21, 2017, Johnson replaced Jim Buss as the president of basketball operations for the Los Angeles Lakers. Under Johnson, the Lakers sought to acquire multiple star players and cleared existing players, including future All-Star D'Angelo Russell, off of their roster in an attempt to free up", "", "Johnson first fathered a son in 1981, when Andre Johnson was born to Melissa Mitchell. Although Andre was raised by his mother, he visited Johnson each summer, and later worked for Magic Johnson Enterprises as a marketing director. In 1991, Johnson married Earlitha \"Cookie\" Kelly in a small wedding in Lansing which included guests Thomas, Aguirre, and Herb Williams. Johnson and Cookie have one son, Earvin III (EJ), who is openly gay and a star on the reality show \"Rich Kids of Beverly", "Magic Johnson had an extremely close relationship with Lakers owner Jerry Buss, whom he saw as a mentor and a father figure. Calling Buss his \"second father\" and \"one of [his] best friends\", Johnson spent five hours visiting Buss at the hospital just a few months before his death from cancer. Speaking to media just hours after Buss had died, Johnson was emotional, saying, \"Without Dr. Jerry Buss, there is no Magic.\" Buss acquired the team from Jack Kent Cooke in 1979, shortly before he drafted Johnson with the #1 pick in the 1979 NBA draft. In addition to playing 13 seasons for the Lakers and coaching the team briefly in 1994, Johnson also had an ownership stake in the team for nearly twenty years. Buss took a special interest", "In 1998, Johnson hosted a late night talk show on the Fox network called \"The Magic Hour\", but the show was canceled after two months because of low ratings. Shortly after the cancellation of his talk show, Magic Johnson started a record label. The label, initially called Magic 32 Records, was renamed Magic Johnson Music when Johnson signed a joint venture with MCA in 2000. Magic Johnson Music signed R&B artist Avant as its first act. Johnson also co-promoted Janet Jackson's Velvet Rope Tour through his company Magicworks. He has also worked as a motivational speaker, and was an NBA commentator for Turner Network Television for seven years, before becoming a studio analyst", "In January 2012, Johnson joined with Guggenheim Partners and Stan Kasten in a bid for ownership of the Los Angeles Dodgers baseball team. In March 2012, Johnson's ownership group was announced as the winner of the proceedings to buy the Dodgers. The Johnson-led group, which also includes movie executive Peter Guber, paid $2 billion for the Dodgers, the largest amount paid for a professional sports team. While Johnson is considered the leader of the ownership group, the controlling owner is Mark Walter, chief executive officer for Guggenheim Partners. Peter Guber, who is", "Johnson is a supporter of the Democratic Party. In 2006, he publicly endorsed Phil Angelides for Governor of California, in 2007 he supported Hillary Clinton in her presidential campaign, and in 2010 he endorsed Barbara Boxer in her", "After announcing his infection in November 1991, Johnson created the Magic Johnson Foundation to help combat HIV, although he later diversified the foundation to include other charitable goals. In 1992, he joined the National Commission on AIDS, a committee appointed by members of Congress and the Bush Administration. Johnson left after eight months, saying that the White House had \"utterly ignored\" the work of the panel, and had opposed the commission's recommendations, which included universal healthcare and the expansion of Medicaid to cover all low-income people with AIDS. He was also", "In 905 NBA games, Johnson tallied 17,707 points, 6,559 rebounds, and 10,141 assists, translating to career averages of 19.5 points, 7.2 rebounds, and 11.2 assists per game, the highest assists per game average in NBA history. Johnson shares the single-game playoff record for assists (24), holds the Finals record for assists in a game (21), and has the most playoff assists (2,346). He is the only player to average 12 assists in an NBA Finals series, achieving it six times. He holds the All-Star Game single-game record for assists (22), and the All-Star Game record for career assists (127). Johnson introduced a fast-paced style of basketball called \"Showtime\", described as a mix of \"no-look passes off the fastbreak, pin-point alley-oops from halfcourt, spinning feeds and overhand bullets under the basket through triple teams.\" Fellow Lakers guard Michael Cooper said, \"There have been times when [Johnson] has thrown passes and I wasn't sure where he was going. Then one of our guys catches the ball and scores, and I run back up the floor convinced that he must've thrown it through somebody.\" Johnson could dominate a game without scoring, running the offense and distributing the ball with flair. In the 1982 NBA Finals, he was named the Finals MVP averaging just 16.2 points, the lowest average of any Finals MVP award recipient in the three-point shot era. Johnson was exceptional because he played point guard despite being 6 ft 9 in (2.06 m), a size reserved normally for frontcourt players. He combined the size of a power forward, the one-on-one skills of a swingman, and the ball handling talent of a guard, making him one of the most dangerous triple-double threats of all time; his 138 triple-double games are second only to Oscar Robertson's 181. Johnson is the only player in NBA Finals history to have triple-doubles in multiple series-clinching games. For his feats, Johnson was voted as one of the 50 Greatest Players of All Time by the NBA in 1996, and was inducted into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in 2002. ESPN's \"SportsCentury\" ranked Johnson #17 in their \"50 Greatest Athletes of the 20th Century\" In 2006, ESPN.com rated Johnson the greatest point guard of all time, stating, \"It could be argued that he's the one player in NBA history who was better than Michael Jordan.\" Several of his achievements in individual games have also been named among the top moments in the NBA. At the 2019 NBA Awards, Johnson received the NBA Lifetime Achievement Award (shared with Larry Bird).", "", "Johnson's autobiography" ] }

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{ "title": [ "UEFA coefficients.", "Current champions.", "Full list by country.", "Albania.", "Andorra.", "Armenia.", "Austria.", "Azerbaijan.", "Belarus.", "Belgium.", "Bosnia and Herzegovina.", "Bulgaria.", "Croatia.", "Cyprus.", "Czech Republic.", "Denmark.", "England.", "Estonia.", "Faroe Islands.", "Finland.", "France.", "Georgia.", "Germany.", "Gibraltar.", "Greece.", "Hungary.", "Iceland.", "Italy.", "Kazakhstan.", "Kosovo.", "Latvia.", "Lithuania.", "Luxembourg.", "Malta.", "Moldova.", "Montenegro.", "Netherlands.", "North Macedonia.", "Northern Ireland.", "Norway.", "Poland.", "Portugal.", "Romania.", "Russia.", "San Marino.", "Scotland.", "Serbia.", "Slovakia.", "Slovenia.", "Spain.", "Sweden.", "Switzerland.", "Turkey.", "Ukraine.", "Wales." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The UEFA league coefficients, also known as the UEFA rankings, are used to rank the leagues of Europe, and thus determine the number of clubs from a league that will participate in UEFA Champions League and UEFA Europa League. A country's ranking determines the number of teams competing in the season after the next; the 2009 rankings determined qualification for European competitions in the 2010–11 season. A country's ranking is calculated based on the results of its clubs in UEFA competitions over the past five seasons. Two points are awarded for each win by a club, and one for a draw. If a game goes to extra time, the result at the end of time is used to calculate ranking points; if the match goes to a penalty shootout, it is considered to be a draw for the purposes of the coefficient system. The number of points awarded to a country's clubs are added together, and then divided by the number of clubs that participated in European competitions that season. This number is then rounded to three decimal places; two and two-thirds would become 2.667. For the league coefficient the season's league coefficients for the last five seasons must be added up. In the preliminary rounds of both the Champions League and Europa League, the awarded points are halved. Bonus points for certain achievements are added to the number of points scored in a season. Bonus points are allocated for:", "The below map displays the locations of the current champions of the UEFA countries (except Liechtenstein, which does not organise a domestic championship).", "", "The top division of Albanian football was formed in 1930, and the inaugural title was won by SK Tirana (now known as KF Tirana). Tirana are the most successful team in the league's history, having won the competition on 24 occasions, followed by FK Dinamo Tirana (now playing in the second division) with 18 championships, and Partizani with 16. The league became affiliated with UEFA in 1954. Since the 2014–15 season, 10 teams compete in the division. The teams finishing in the bottom two places are relegated to the Albanian First Division and are replaced by the champions of each of that league's two groups. \"Clubs and locations as of 2019–20 season:\"", "Andorra's national league system was formed in 1993, and the Andorran Football Federation gained UEFA membership in 1996. Records from the league's first three seasons are incomplete, but FC Santa Coloma have won more First Division titles than any other team, with at least 13. Another Andorran football club, FC Andorra, play in the Spanish football league system. In recent years, eight teams have competed in the First Division. Each team plays two matches against the other seven clubs. After fourteen games, the league splits into two groups, with teams carrying their previous points totals forward. The top four teams play each other a further two times in the championship round to decide 1st–4th places, while the bottom four teams do likewise in the relegation round, to determine the 5th–8th positions. At the end of the season, the bottom-placed team is relegated, while the seventh-placed team plays a two-legged play-off against the second-placed team in the Second Division to decide which team plays in which division for the following season. \"Clubs and locations as of 2019–20 season:\"", "Armenia gained independence in 1991, following the break-up of the Soviet Union. Organised football had been played in Armenia since 1936, as part of the Soviet football system. The Football Federation of Armenia gained UEFA affiliation in 1992, and the league ran as the national championship for the first time in the same year. Since independence, the country's most successful team is Pyunik, who has won 14 league titles. \"Clubs and locations as of 2019–20 season:\"", "\"Clubs and locations as of 2019–20 season:\"", "Although the country was part of the Soviet Union, the first Azerbaijan-wide football competition took place in 1928, and became an annual occurrence from 1934. Following the break-up of the Soviet Union in 1991, the first independent Azeri championship took place in 1992, and the Association of Football Federations of Azerbaijan gained UEFA affiliation in 1994 Since independence, the country's most successful team is Neftçi Baku, with eight league titles. In recent years, 10 teams had competed in the Azerbaijan Premier League, but two teams that otherwise would have competed in the 2016–17 season were denied professional licenses, making it an eight-team league at present. \"Clubs and locations as of 2019–20 season:\"", "Belarus declared independence from the Soviet Union in 1990. Its independence was widely recognised within Europe in 1991, an independent national championship began in 1992, and UEFA membership followed in 1993. Through the 2018 season, the most successful team is BATE Borisov, with 15 league championships, including an ongoing streak of 13 titles. The 2016 season saw the league expand from 14 teams to 16, accomplished by promoting three clubs from the Belarusian First League and relegating only the last-place team in the 2015 Premier League. At the end of the season, the bottom two teams are relegated to the First League and replaced by that league's top two finishers. \"Clubs and locations as of 2019 season:\"", "Organised football reached Belgium in the 19th century; the Royal Belgian Football Association was founded in 1895, and FC Liégeois became the country's first champions the following year. Belgium joined European football's governing body, UEFA, upon its formation in 1954. Historically the country's most successful team are Anderlecht, with 34 league titles as of 2019. The Belgian First Division A, historically known as the First Division and also known as the Pro League from 2008–09 through 2015–16, currently consists of 16 teams. Initially, each team plays the other clubs twice for a total of 30 matches. At this point, the league proceeds as follows (as of the current 2016–17 season): \"Clubs and locations as of 2019–20 season:\"", "Prior to gaining independence from Yugoslavia, clubs from Bosnia and Herzegovina were eligible to compete in the Yugoslav First League, which they won three times. The country gained independence in 1992, and its Football Association gained UEFA membership in 1998. Due to political tensions between Bosniaks, Bosnian Serbs and Bosnian Croats, the country did not have a single national top division until the 2002–03 season, but rather two or three. Since then, Zrinjski Mostar have won six titles, Željezničar and Sarajevo have each won three, Široki Brijeg have won twice and three other teams have won it once each. Since the 2016–17 season, the Premier League has consisted of 12 clubs, reduced from 16 in previous seasons. The 2016–17 season was the first for a two-stage season. In the first stage, each team plays all others home and away, after which the league splits into two six-team groups that also play home and away. The top six teams play for the championship and European qualifying places; the bottom six play to avoid relegation. At the end of the second stage, the bottom two clubs of the relegation group drop to either the First League of Bosnia and Herzegovina or the First League of the Republika Srpska. \"Clubs and locations as of 2019–20 season:\"", "A national Bulgarian championship has been held in every year since 1924, although the 1924, 1927 and 1944 seasons were not completed. The country gained UEFA membership in 1954. Historically, the most successful teams in Bulgarian football have been CSKA Sofia and Levski Sofia; no other team has won more than ten league titles. In recent years, Ludogorets Razgrad has dominated the league; although the team did not make its first appearance in the top flight until 2011–12, it has won the championship in each of its first eight seasons at that level. The 2015–16 season was intended to have 12 teams, but was reduced to 10 after four clubs (the two clubs that would otherwise have been promoted to what was then known as the A Group, plus two from the previous season's A Group) were denied professional licenses. Following that season, the Bulgarian Football Union revamped the country's professional league structure, expanding the top flight to 14 teams and changing that league's name from \"A Group\" to \"First League\". Under the current structure that began in 2016–17, each team plays the others twice, once at each club's stadium. At the end of the season the league splits into separate playoffs, with table points and statistics carrying over in full. The top six teams enter a championship playoff, with each team playing the others home and away. The top finisher is league champion and enters the UEFA Champions League; the second-place team earns a place in the UEFA Europa League; and the third-place team (or fourth-place team, should the winner of that season's Bulgarian Cup finish in the top three) advances to a playoff for the country's final Europa League place. The bottom eight split into two four-team groups, playing home and away within each group. The top two teams from each group enter a knockout playoff consisting of two-legged matches (note, however, that if one of these four teams is the Bulgarian Cup winner, it is withdrawn from the playoff and its opponent receives a bye into the final). The winner of this playoff then plays the third-place team in a one-off match for the final Europa League place. The bottom two clubs from each group enter an identical knockout playoff. The winner remains in the First League; the other three teams face a series of relegation playoffs that also include the second- and third-place clubs from the Second League, with places for only two of these five teams in the next season's First League. \"Clubs and locations as of 2019–20 season:\"", "National Croatian leagues were organised in 1914 and during the Second World War, but during peacetime Croatia's biggest clubs competed in the Yugoslav First League. After Croatia declared independence from Yugoslavia in 1991, a national football league was formed in 1992, and the Croatian Football Federation gained UEFA membership in 1993. Since its formation, the Croatian First League has been dominated by Dinamo Zagreb and Hajduk Split; as of the end of the 2018–19 season, one of these teams has won the title in all but two of the league's 28 seasons. Since the 2013–14 season, the First League has consisted of 10 teams. At the end of the season, the 10th-placed team is relegated directly to the second division, while the 9th-placed team enters a relegation play-off. \"Clubs and locations as of 2019–20 season:\"", "\"Clubs and locations as of 2019–20 season:\"", "\"Clubs and locations as of 2019–20 season:\"", "\"Clubs and locations as of 2019–20 season:\"", "Founded in 1888, the Football League was the world's first national football league. The inaugural competition was won by Preston North End, who remained unbeaten throughout the entire season. It was the top level football league in England from its foundation until 1992, when the 22 clubs comprising the First Division resigned from the Football League to form the new FA Premier League. As of the 2019–20 season the Premier League comprises 20 clubs; each team plays every other team twice, with the bottom 3 clubs at the end of the season relegated to the EFL Championship. The most successful domestic club is Manchester United, who have won the league 20 times, while the most successful English club in Europe is Liverpool, who have won 6 European Cups, 3 UEFA Cups and 4 UEFA Super Cups, more than any other English team. \"Clubs and locations as of 2019–20 season\":", "An independent Estonian league took place between 1921 and 1940. However, after the Second World War it became part of the Soviet Union, and became a regional system. Estonia regained independence after the dissolution of the USSR, organising the first national championship in 52 years in 1992, the same year that the Estonian Football Association joined UEFA. FC Flora is the most successful team in the modern era, with 11 league titles as of the end of the 2018 season. Since 2005, the Premier Division has consisted of 10 teams, which play one another four times. At the end of the season the bottom team is relegated to the second level of Estonian football, while the ninth-placed team enters into a relegation playoff. \"Clubs and locations as of 2019 season:\"", "The Faroe Islands are a constituent country of the Kingdom of Denmark, which also comprises Greenland and Denmark itself. The league was formed in 1942, and has been contested annually since, with the exception of 1944 due to a lack of available balls. The Faroe Islands gained UEFA recognition in 1992. The most successful teams are HB and KI, with 23 and 17 Premier League titles respectively as of the most recently completed 2018 season. Since the 1988 season, the Premier League has consisted of 10 teams. They play each other three times, with the bottom two teams relegated to the First Division. \"Clubs and locations as of 2019 season:\"", "Finland's current league has been contested annually since 1898, with the exceptions of 1914 and 1943. The most successful team are HJK with 29 titles; as of 2018, no other team has won 10 or more. However, between 1920 and 1948 a rival championship operated, organised by the Finnish Workers' Sports Federation. Frequent champions in that competition before it came under the jurisdiction of the Football Association of Finland included Kullervo Helsinki, Vesa Helsinki and Tampereen Pallo-Veikot. The Premier League consists of 12 teams. Since 2019 season teams play one another two times, then the top 6 teams play the championship round, and the bottom 6 the relegation round. At the end of the season the bottom club is relegated to the First Division, and the second-last club contests a in a play-off with the 2nd team of the First Division. \"Clubs and locations as of 2019 season:\"", "France's first football team—Le Havre AC—formed in 1872. The first French championship was first held in 1894, but only featured teams from the capital, Paris. Between 1896 and 1912, national championships were organised by several competing federations; the first universally recognised national championship took place in the 1912–13 season. However, it only lasted two seasons; from the outbreak of the First World War in 1914, French football operated on a regional basis until 1932. A national league resumed between 1932 and 1939, and has operated annually since the conclusion of the Second World War in 1945. Ligue 1 and its predecessors have featured 20 teams since the 1946–47 season. Each team plays the other nineteen sides home and away, and at the end of the season the bottom three teams are relegated to Ligue 2. So far, Olympique de Marseille are the only French club to have won the UEFA Champions League, in 1993. \"Clubs and locations as of 2019–20 season:\"", "A Georgian football championship first took place in 1926, as part of the Soviet football system. The first independent championship took place in 1990, despite the fact that Georgia remained a Soviet state until 1991. Upon independence, Georgia subsequently joined UEFA and FIFA in 1992. When Georgia organised its first independent championship, it operated with a spring-to-autumn season contained entirely within a calendar year. After the 1991 championship, the country transitioned to an autumn-to-spring season spanning two calendar years. This format continued through the 2015–16 season, after which it returned to a spring-to-autumn format. This was accomplished by holding an abbreviated 2016 season in autumn; the transition was completed for the 2017 season. Before the most recent transition, 16 teams had competed in the top flight, but the league was reduced to 14 teams for the 2016 season, and was reduced further to 10 for 2017 and beyond. \"Clubs and locations as of 2019 season:\"", "The Bundesliga consists of 18 teams, who play each other twice, for a total of 34 matches. The teams finishing in 17th and 18th places are relegated directly to the 2. Bundesliga, while the team finishing in 16th place enters into a two-legged play-off with the team finishing 3rd in the lower division. \"Clubs and locations as of 2019–20 season:\"", "The Gibraltar Football Association was founded in 1895, making it one of the ten oldest active football associations in the world. League football has been organized by the GFA since 1905. The first league season after Gibraltar were accepted as full members of UEFA was 2013–14, making qualification to the UEFA Champions League and UEFA Europa League possible since the 2014–15 season, provided the relevant club has received a UEFA licence. The Premier Division has consisted of 10 teams since the 2015–16 season. All league matches are held at Victoria Stadium. \"Clubs as of 2019–20 season:\"", "\"Clubs and locations as of 2019–20 season:\"", "\"Clubs and locations as of 2019–20 season:\"", "\"Clubs and locations as of 2019 season:\" \"Clubs and locations as of 2019–20 season:\"", "\"Clubs and locations as of 2019–20 season:\"", "\"Clubs and locations as of 2019 season:\"", "\"Clubs and locations as of 2019–20 season:\"", "\"Clubs and locations as of 2019 season:\"", "\"Clubs and locations as of 2019 season:\"", "\"Clubs and locations as of 2019–20 season:\"", "\"Clubs and locations as of 2019–20 season:\"", "\"Clubs and locations as of 2019 season:\"", "\"Clubs and locations as of 2019–20 season:\"", "\"Clubs and locations as of 2019–20 season:\"", "\"Clubs and locations as of 2019–20 season:\"", "\"Clubs and locations as of 2019–20 season:\"", "\"Clubs and locations as of 2020 season:\"", "\"Clubs and locations as of 2019–20 season:\"", "\"Clubs and locations as of 2019–20 season:\" \"Clubs and locations as of 2019 season:\"", "\"Clubs and locations as of 2019–20 season:\"", "\"Clubs and locations as of 2019–20 season:\"", "This is a complete list of football clubs in San Marino (as San Marino has only one level domestic amateur league), apart from San Marino Calcio, the only professional Sammarinese club, which as of 2019–20 competes in Serie D, the fourth level of the Italian football league system. \"Clubs and locations as of 2019–20 season:\" Because there is no promotion or relegation in the league, the same 15 teams compete in the league.", "\"Clubs and locations as of 2019–20 season:\"", "\"Clubs and locations as of 2019–20 season:\"", "\"Clubs and locations as of 2019–20 season:\"", "\"Clubs and locations as of 2019–20 season:\"", "\"Clubs and locations as of 2019–20 season:\"", "A Swedish championship was first organised in 1896, and the champions were decided by a knockout cup format until 1925, when Allsvenskan was formed. Sweden was one of the founding members of UEFA in 1954. As of the most recently completed 2018 season, Malmö FF have won the most national titles with 20, followed by IFK Göteborg with 18 and IFK Norrköping with 13. Malmö also have the most league titles, with 23 to 13 for both IFK Götebörg and IFK Norrköping. Since 2008, Allsvenskan has featured 16 teams. They each play one another home and away, for a total of 30 games. The bottom two teams are relegated to the Superettan (\"The Super One\"), and the 14th-placed Allsvenskan team enters into a relegation playoff with the 3rd-placed Superettan team to decide which will play in Allsvenskan for the following season. \"Clubs and locations as of 2019 season:\"", "\"Clubs and locations as of 2019–20 season:\"", "Turkish football operated on a regional basis until the 1950s. A national knockout tournament took place in 1957 and 1958, to decide European qualification. The Turkish Football Federation retrospectively recognised these tournaments as deciding the Turkish champions; both competitions were won by Beşiktaş. A national league was formed in 1959, and has been held annually from then onwards. Since the formation of a national league, the most successful teams are Galatasaray and Fenerbahçe, with 22 and 19 league titles respectively, as of the most recently completed 2018–19 season. Currently, 18 teams compete in the Süper Lig. Each team plays the other teams home and away, with the bottom three teams relegated to the TFF First League for the following season. \"Clubs and locations as of 2019–20 season:\"", "As a member of the Soviet Union, Ukraine's league operated as a feeder to the national Soviet leagues, meaning that until 1992 the strongest Ukrainian teams did not take part. The Football Federation of Ukraine was formed shortly after the country achieved independence in 1991, and gained UEFA membership the following year. Since the formation of a national league, Dynamo Kyiv have won 15 titles, Shakhtar Donetsk 12, and Tavriya Simferopol one, as of the most recently completed 2018–19 season. Through the 2013–14 season, 16 teams participated in the Premier League. However, during that season's winter break, the Euromaidan protests began, soon followed by Russia's annexation of the Crimean peninsula and the still-ongoing war in the country's east. These developments led to the league dropping to 14 teams in 2014–15 and 12 in 2016–17. Beginning with the 2016–17 season, the league season is divided into two stages. In the first stage, the teams play one another home and away, after which the league splits into two groups, each playing a home-and-away schedule within the group and with table points carrying over intact. The top six teams play to determine the league champion and European qualifying spots, while the bottom six teams play to avoid relegation, with the bottom two at the end of the second stage dropping to the Ukrainian First League. \"Clubs and locations as of 2019–20 season:\"", "Although Wales joined UEFA in 1954, Welsh football operated on a regional basis until 1992, with no national championship. Five Welsh clubs play not in the Welsh football league system, but in the English football league system. Currently, there are no Welsh clubs competing in the Premier League. Welsh club Swansea City was relegated to the second level, the EFL Championship, at the end of the 2017–18 season, while Cardiff City were relegated following the 2018–19 season. Three other Welsh clubs participate lower down the English football league system: Newport County, Wrexham, and Merthyr Town. Despite competing in Football Association competitions, the latter three are under the jurisdiction of the Football Association of Wales. Until 2011 Swansea City and Cardiff City had similar arrangements with the FAW but are now under the jurisdiction of The Football Association. The most successful Welsh club since the formation of the Welsh Premier League is The New Saints, with 13 league titles after having clinched their eighth straight league crown in 2018–19. Since the 2010–11 season, the Welsh Premier League has featured 12 teams. Relegation to and promotion from lower regional leagues is in part dictated by whether or not clubs can obtain a Premier League licence; only clubs able to obtain a licence are eligible for promotion, and clubs which fail to obtain one are relegated regardless of their final league position. \"Clubs and locations as of 2019–20 season:\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "English school.", "United States.", "Europe.", "20th and 21st centuries.", "Watercolor paint.", "Commercial watercolors.", "Transparency." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Watercolor painting is extremely old, dating perhaps to the cave paintings of paleolithic Europe, and has been used for manuscript illustration since at least Egyptian times but especially in the European Middle Ages. However, its \"continuous\" history as an art medium begins with the Renaissance. The German Northern Renaissance artist Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528), who painted several fine botanical, wildlife, and landscape watercolors, is generally considered among the earliest exponents of watercolor. An important school of watercolor painting in Germany was led by Hans Bol (1534–1593) as part of the Dürer Renaissance. Despite this early start, watercolors were generally used by Baroque easel painters only for sketches, copies or cartoons (full-scale design drawings). Notable early practitioners of watercolor painting were Van Dyck (during his stay in England), Claude Lorrain, Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione, and many Dutch and Flemish artists. However, botanical illustration and wildlife illustration perhaps form the oldest and most important traditions in watercolor painting. Botanical illustrations became popular during the Renaissance, both as hand-tinted woodblock illustrations in books or broadsheets and as tinted ink drawings on vellum or paper. Botanical artists have traditionally been some of the most exacting and accomplished watercolor painters, and even today, watercolors—with their unique ability to summarize, clarify, and idealize in full color—are used to illustrate scientific and museum publications. Wildlife illustration reached its peak in the 19th century with artists such as John James Audubon, and today many naturalist field guides are still illustrated with watercolor paintings.", "Several factors contributed to the spread of watercolor painting during the 18th century, particularly in England. Among the elite and aristocratic classes, watercolor painting was one of the incidental adornments of a good education; mapmakers, military officers, and engineers used it for its usefulness in depicting properties, terrain, fortifications, field geology, and for illustrating public works or commissioned projects. Watercolor artists were commonly brought with the geological or archaeological expeditions, funded by the Society of Dilettanti (founded in 1733), to document discoveries in the Mediterranean, Asia, and the New World. These expeditions stimulated the demand for topographical painters, who churned out memento paintings of famous sites (and sights) along the Grand Tour to Italy that was undertaken by every fashionable young man of the time. In the late 18th century, the English cleric William Gilpin wrote a series of hugely popular books describing his picturesque journeys throughout rural England, and illustrated them with self-made sentimentalized monochrome watercolors of river valleys, ancient castles, and abandoned churches. This example popularized watercolors as a form of personal tourist journal. The confluence of these cultural, engineering, scientific, tourist, and amateur interests culminated in the celebration and promotion of watercolor as a distinctly English \"national art\". William Blake published several books of hand-tinted engraved poetry, provided illustrations to Dante's \"Inferno\", and he also experimented with large monotype works in watercolor. Among the many other significant watercolorists of this period were Thomas Gainsborough, John Robert Cozens, Francis Towne, Michael Angelo Rooker, William Pars, Thomas Hearne, and John Warwick Smith. From the late 18th century through the 19th century, the market for printed books and domestic art contributed substantially to the growth of the medium. Watercolors were used as the basic document from which collectible landscape or tourist engravings were developed, and hand-painted watercolor originals or copies of famous paintings contributed to many upper class art portfolios. Satirical broadsides by Thomas Rowlandson, many published by Rudolph Ackermann, were also extremely popular. The three English artists credited with establishing watercolor as an independent, mature painting medium are Paul Sandby (1730–1809), often called the \"father of the English watercolor\"; Thomas Girtin (1775–1802), who pioneered its use for large format, romantic or picturesque landscape painting; and Joseph Mallord William Turner (1775–1851), who brought watercolor painting to the highest pitch of power and refinement, and created hundreds of superb historical, topographical, architectural, and mythological watercolor paintings. His method of developing the watercolor painting in stages, starting with large, vague color areas established on wet paper, then refining the image through a sequence of washes and glazes, permitted him to produce large numbers of paintings with \"workshop efficiency\" and made him a multimillionaire, partly by sales from his personal art gallery, the first of its kind. Among the important and highly talented contemporaries of Turner and Girtin were John Varley, John Sell Cotman, Anthony Copley Fielding, Samuel Palmer, William Havell, and Samuel Prout. The Swiss painter Abraham-Louis-Rodolphe Ducros was also widely known for his large format, romantic paintings in watercolor. The confluence of amateur activity, publishing markets, middle class art collecting, and 19th-century technique led to the formation of English watercolor painting societies: the \"Society of Painters in Water Colours\" (1804, now known as the Royal Watercolour Society) and the \"New Water Colour Society\" (1832, now known as the Royal Institute of Painters in Water Colours). (A \"Scottish Society of Painters in Water Colour\" was founded in 1878, now known as the Royal Scottish Society of Painters in Watercolour.) These societies provided annual exhibitions and buyer referrals for many artists. They also engaged in petty status rivalries and aesthetic debates, particularly between advocates of traditional (\"transparent\") watercolor and the early adopters of the denser color possible with body color or gouache (\"opaque\" watercolor). The late Georgian and Victorian periods produced the zenith of the British watercolor, among the most impressive 19th-century works on paper, due to artists Turner, Varley, Cotman, David Cox, Peter de Wint, William Henry Hunt, John Frederick Lewis, Myles Birket Foster, Frederick Walker, Thomas Collier, Arthur Melville and many others. In particular, the graceful, lapidary, and atmospheric watercolors (\"genre paintings\") by Richard Parkes Bonington created an international fad for watercolor painting, especially in England and France in the 1820s. The popularity of watercolors stimulated many innovations, including heavier and more sized wove papers, and brushes (called \"pencils\") manufactured expressly for watercolor. Watercolor tutorials were first published in this period by Varley, Cox, and others, establishing the step-by-step painting instructions that still characterize the genre today; \"The Elements of Drawing\", a watercolor tutorial by English art critic John Ruskin, has been out of print only once since it was first published in 1857. Commercial brands of watercolor were marketed and paints were packaged in metal tubes or as dry cakes that could be \"rubbed out\" (dissolved) in studio porcelain or used in portable metal paint boxes in the field. Breakthroughs in chemistry made many new pigments available, including synthetic ultramarine blue, cobalt blue, viridian, cobalt violet, cadmium yellow, aureolin (potassium cobaltinitrite), zinc white, and a wide range of carmine and madder lakes. These pigments, in turn, stimulated a greater use of color with all painting media, but in English watercolors, particularly by the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood.", "Watercolor painting also became popular in the United States during the 19th century; outstanding early practitioners included John James Audubon, as well as early Hudson River School painters such as William H. Bartlett and George Harvey. By mid-century, the influence of John Ruskin led to increasing interest in watercolors, particularly the use of a detailed \"Ruskinian\" style by such artists as John W. Hill Henry, William Trost Richards, Roderick Newman, and Fidelia Bridges. The \"American Society of Painters in Watercolor\" (now the American Watercolor Society) was founded in 1866. Late-19th-century American exponents of the medium included Thomas Moran, Thomas Eakins, John LaFarge, John Singer Sargent, Childe Hassam, and, preeminently, Winslow Homer.", "Watercolor was less popular in Continental Europe. In the 18th century, gouache was an important medium for the Italian artists Marco Ricci and Francesco Zuccarelli, whose landscape paintings were widely collected. Gouache was used by a number of artists in France as well. In the 19th century, the influence of the English school helped popularize \"transparent\" watercolor in France, and it became an important medium for Eugène Delacroix, François Marius Granet, Henri-Joseph Harpignies, and the satirist Honoré Daumier. Other European painters who worked frequently in watercolor were Adolph Menzel in Germany and Stanisław Masłowski in Poland. Unfortunately, the careless and excessive adoption of brightly colored, petroleum-derived aniline dyes (and pigments compounded from them), which all fade rapidly on exposure to light, and the efforts to properly conserve the twenty thousand J. M. W. Turner paintings inherited by the British Museum in 1857, led to an examination and negative reevaluation of the permanence of pigments in watercolor. This caused a sharp decline in their status and market value. Nevertheless, isolated practitioners continued to prefer and develop the medium into the 20th century. Gorgeous landscape and maritime watercolors were done by Paul Signac, and Paul Cézanne developed a watercolor painting style consisting entirely of overlapping small glazes of pure color.", "Among the many 20th-century artists who produced important works in watercolor, Wassily Kandinsky, Emil Nolde, Paul Klee, Egon Schiele, and Raoul Dufy must be mentioned. In America, the major exponents included Charles Burchfield, Edward Hopper, Georgia O'Keeffe, Charles Demuth, and John Marin (80% of his total work is watercolor). In this period, American watercolor painting often imitated European Impressionism and Post-Impressionism, but significant individualism flourished in \"regional\" styles of watercolor painting from the 1920s to 1940s. In particular, the \"Cleveland School\" or \"Ohio School\" of painters centered around the Cleveland Museum of Art, and the California Scene painters were often associated with Hollywood animation studios or the Chouinard Art Institute (now California Institute of the Arts). The California painters exploited their state's varied geography, Mediterranean climate, and \"automobility\" to reinvigorate the outdoor or \"plein air\" tradition. The most influential among them were Phil Dike, Millard Sheets, Rex Brandt, Dong Kingman, and Milford Zornes. The California Water Color Society, founded in 1921 and later renamed the National Watercolor Society, sponsored important exhibitions of their work. The largest watercolor in the world at the moment is \"Building 6 Portrait: Interior.\" Produced by American artist Barbara Ernst Prey on commission for MASS MoCA, the work can be seen at MASS MoCA's Robert W. Wilson Building. Although the rise of abstract expressionism, and the trivializing influence of amateur painters and advertising- or workshop-influenced painting styles, led to a temporary decline in the popularity of watercolor painting after c. 1950, watercolors continue to be utilized by artists like Martha Burchfield, Joseph Raffael, Andrew Wyeth, Philip Pearlstein, Eric Fischl, Gerhard Richter, Anselm Kiefer, and Francesco Clemente. In Spain, Ceferí Olivé created an innovative style followed by his students, such as Rafael Alonso López-Montero and Francesc Torné Gavaldà. In Mexico, the major exponents are Ignacio Barrios, Edgardo Coghlan, Ángel Mauro, Vicente Mendiola, and Pastor Velázquez. In the Canary Islands, where this pictorial technique has many followers, there are stand-out artists such as Francisco Bonnín Guerín, José Comas Quesada, and Alberto Manrique.", "Watercolor paint consists of four principal ingredients: a pigment; gum arabic as a binder to hold the pigment in suspension; additives like glycerin, ox gall, honey, and preservatives to alter the viscosity, hiding, durability or color of the pigment and vehicle mixture; and evaporating water, as a solvent used to thin or dilute the paint for application. The more general term \"watermedia\" refers to any painting medium that uses water as a solvent and that can be applied with a brush, pen, or sprayer. This includes most inks, watercolors, temperas, caseins, gouaches, and modern acrylic paints. The term \"watercolor\" refers to paints that use water-soluble, complex carbohydrates as a binder. Originally (in the 16th to 18th centuries), watercolor binders were sugars and/or hide glues, but since the 19th century, the preferred binder is natural gum arabic, with glycerin and/or honey as additives to improve plasticity and solubility of the binder, and with other chemicals added to improve product shelf life. The term \"bodycolor\" refers to paint that is opaque rather than transparent. It usually refers to opaque watercolor, known as gouache. Modern acrylic paints use an acrylic resin dispersion as a binder.", "Watercolor painters before the turn of the 18th century had to make paints themselves using pigments purchased from an apothecary or specialized \"colorman\", and mixing them with gum arabic or some other binder. The earliest commercial paints were small, resinous blocks that had to be wetted and laboriously \"rubbed out\" in water to obtain a usable color intensity. William Reeves started his business as a colorman around 1766. In 1781, he and his brother, Thomas Reeves, were awarded the Silver Palette of the Society of Arts, for the invention of the moist watercolor \"paint-cake\", a time-saving convenience, introduced in the \"golden age\" of English watercolor painting. The \"cake\" was immediately soluble when touched by a wet brush. Modern commercial watercolor paints are available in two forms: tubes or pans. The majority of paints sold today are in collapsible small metal tubes in standard sizes and formulated to a consistency similar to toothpaste by being already mixed with a certain water component. For use, this paste has to be further diluted with water. Pan paints (actually small dried cakes or bars of paint in an open plastic container) are usually sold in two sizes, full pans and half pans. Owing to modern industrial organic chemistry, the variety, saturation, and permanence of artists' colors available today has been vastly improved. Correct and non-toxic primary colors are now present through the introduction of hansa yellow, phthalo blue and quinacridone (PV 122). From such a set of three colors, in principle all others can be mixed, as in a classical technique no white is used. The modern development of pigments was not driven by artistic demand. The art materials industry is too small to exert any market leverage on global dye or pigment manufacture. With rare exceptions such as aureolin, all modern watercolor paints utilize pigments that have a wider industrial use. Paint manufacturers buy, by industrial standards very small, supplies of these pigments, mill them with the vehicle, solvent, and additives, and package them. The milling process with inorganic pigments, in more expensive brands, reduces the particle size to improve the color flow when the paint is applied with water.", "In the partisan debates of the 19th-century English art world, gouache was emphatically contrasted to traditional watercolors and denigrated for its high hiding power or lack of \"transparency\"; \"transparent\" watercolors were exalted. The aversion to opaque paint had its origin in the fact that well into the 19th century lead white was used to increase the covering quality. That pigment tended to soon discolor into black under the influence of sulphurous air pollution, totally ruining the artwork. The traditional claim that \"transparent\" watercolors gain \"luminosity\" because they function like a pane of stained glass laid on paper—the color intensified because the light passes through the pigment, reflects from the paper, and passes a second time through the pigment on its way to the viewer—is false. Watercolor paints typically do not form a cohesive paint layer, as do acrylic or oil paints, but simply scatter pigment particles randomly across the paper surface; the transparency is caused by the paper being visible between the particles. Watercolors may appear more vivid than acrylics or oils because the pigments are laid down in a purer form, with few or no fillers (such as kaolin) obscuring the pigment colors. Typically, most or all of the gum binder will be absorbed by the paper, preventing the binder from changing the visibility of the pigment. The absorption of the gum increases the adhesion of the pigment to the paper, and the pigment particles will penetrate the fibres more easily. In fact, an important function of the gum is to facilitate the \"lifting\" (removal) of color, should the artist want to create a lighter spot in a painted area. Furthermore, the gum prevents flocculation of the pigment particles." ] }

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{ "title": [ "How peering works.", "Motivations for peering.", "Physical interconnections for peering.", "Public peering.", "Private peering.", "Peering agreement.", "History of peering.", "Depeering.", "Modern peering.", "Donut peering model.", "Multilateral peering.", "Peering locations.", "Exchange points.", "Peering and BGP.", "Law and policy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Internet is a collection of separate and distinct networks referred to as autonomous systems, each one operating under a common framework of globally unique IP addressing and global BGP routing. The relationships between these networks are generally described by one of the following three categories: Furthermore, in order for a network to reach any specific other network on the Internet, it must either: The Internet is based on the principle of \"global reachability\" (sometimes called \"end-to-end reachability\"), which means that any Internet user can reach any other Internet user as though they were on the same network. Therefore, any Internet connected network must by definition either pay another network for transit, or peer with every other network which also does not purchase transit.", "Peering involves two networks coming together to exchange traffic with each other freely, and for mutual benefit. This'mutual benefit' is most often the motivation behind peering, which is often described solely by \"reduced costs for transit services\". Other less tangible motivations can include:", "The physical interconnections used for peering are categorized into two types:", "Public peering is accomplished across a Layer 2 access technology, generally called a \"shared fabric\". At these locations, multiple carriers interconnect with one or more other carriers across a single physical port. Historically, public peering locations were known as network access points (NAPs). Today they are most often called exchange points or \"Internet exchanges\" (\"IXP\"). Many of the largest exchange points in the world can have hundreds of participants, and some span multiple buildings and colocation facilities across a city. Since public peering allows networks interested in peering to interconnect with many other networks through a single port, it is often considered to offer \"less capacity\" than private peering, but to a larger number of networks. Many smaller networks, or networks which are just beginning to peer, find that public peering exchange points provide an excellent way to meet and interconnect with other networks which may be open to peering with them. Some larger networks utilize public peering as a way to aggregate a large number of \"smaller peers\", or as a location for conducting low-cost \"trial peering\" without the expense of provisioning private peering on a temporary basis, while other larger networks are not willing to participate at public exchanges at all. A few exchange points, particularly in the United States, are operated by commercial carrier-neutral third parties, which are critical for achieving cost-effective data center connectivity.", "Private peering is the direct interconnection between only two networks, across a Layer 1 or 2 medium that offers dedicated capacity that is not shared by any other parties. Early in the history of the Internet, many private peers occurred across \"telco\" provisioned SONET circuits between individual carrier-owned facilities. Today, most private interconnections occur at carrier hotels or carrier neutral colocation facilities, where a direct crossconnect can be provisioned between participants within the same building, usually for a much lower cost than telco circuits. Most of the traffic on the Internet, especially traffic between the largest networks, occurs via private peering. However, because of the resources required to provision each private peer, many networks are unwilling to provide private peering to \"small\" networks, or to \"new\" networks which have not yet proven that they will provide a mutual benefit.", "Throughout the history of the Internet, there have been a spectrum of kinds of agreements between peers, ranging from handshake agreements to written contracts as required by one or more parties. Such agreements set forth the details of how traffic is to be exchanged, along with a list of expected activities which may be necessary to maintain the peering relationship, a list of activities which may be considered abusive and result in termination of the relationship, and details concerning how the relationship can be terminated. Detailed contracts of this type are typically used between the largest ISPs, as well as the ones operating in the most heavily regulated economies. As of 2011, such contracts account for less than 0.5% of all peering agreements.", "The first Internet exchange point was the Commercial Internet Exchange (CIX), formed by Alternet/UUNET (now Verizon Business), PSI, and CERFNET to exchange traffic without regard for whether the traffic complied with the acceptable use policy (AUP) of the NSFNet or ANS' interconnection policy. The CIX infrastructure consisted of a single router, managed by PSI, and was initially located in Santa Clara, California. Paying CIX members were allowed to attach to the router directly or via leased lines. After some time, the router was also attached to the Pacific Bell SMDS cloud. The router was later moved to the Palo Alto Internet Exchange, or PAIX, which was developed and operated by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC). Because the CIX operated at, rather than, and because it was not neutral, in the sense that it was operated by one of its participants rather than by all of them collectively, and it conducted lobbying activities supported by some of its participants and not by others, it would not today be considered an Internet exchange point. Nonetheless, it was the first thing to bear that name. The first exchange point to resemble modern, neutral, Ethernet-based exchanges was the Metropolitan Area Ethernet, or MAE, in Tysons Corner, Virginia. When the United States government de-funded the NSFNET backbone, Internet exchange points were needed to replace its function, and initial governmental funding was used to aid the preexisting MAE and bootstrap three other exchanges, which they dubbed NAPs, or \"Network Access Points,\" in accordance with the terminology of the National Information Infrastructure document. All four are now defunct or no longer functioning as Internet exchange points: As the Internet grew, and traffic levels increased, these NAPs became a network bottleneck. Most of the early NAPs utilized FDDI technology, which provided only 100 Mbit/s of capacity to each participant. Some of these exchanges upgraded to ATM technology, which provided OC-3 (155 Mbit/s) and OC-12 (622 Mbit/s) of capacity. Other prospective exchange point operators moved directly into offering Ethernet technology, such as gigabit Ethernet (1000 Mbit/s), which quickly became the predominant choice for Internet exchange points due to the reduced cost and increased capacity offered. Today, almost all significant exchange points operate solely over Ethernet, and most of the largest exchange points offer 10, 40, and even 100 gigabit service. During the dot-com boom, many exchange point and carrier neutral colocation providers had plans to build as many as 50 locations to promote carrier interconnection in the United States alone. Essentially all of these plans were abandoned following the dot-com bust, and today it is considered both economically and technically infeasible to support this level of interconnection among even the largest of networks.", "By definition, peering is the voluntary and free exchange of traffic between two networks, for mutual benefit. If one or both networks believes that there is no longer a mutual benefit, they may decide to cease peering: this is known as depeering. Some of the reasons why one network may wish to depeer another include: In some situations, networks which are being depeered have been known to attempt to fight to keep the peering by intentionally breaking the connectivity between the two networks when the peer is removed, either through a deliberate act or an act of omission. The goal is to force the depeering network to have so many customer complaints that they are willing to restore peering. Examples of this include forcing traffic via a path that does not have enough capacity to handle the load, or intentionally blocking alternate routes to or from the other network. Some notable examples of these situations have included:", "", "The \"donut peering\" model describes the intensive interconnection of small and medium-sized regional networks that make up much of the Internet. Traffic between these regional networks can be modeled as a toroid, with a core \"donut hole\" that is poorly interconnected to the networks around it. As detailed above, some carriers attempted to form a cartel of self-described Tier 1 networks, nominally refusing to peer with any networks outside the oligopoly. Seeking to reduce transit costs, connections between regional networks bypass those \"core\" networks. Data takes a more direct path, reducing latency and packet loss. This also improves resiliency between consumers and content providers via multiple connections in many locations around the world, in particular during business disputes between the core transit providers.", "While more attention is paid to bilateral peering, and bilateral peering agreements numerically predominate, the majority of BGP AS-AS adjacencies are more likely the product of multilateral peering agreements. In multilateral peering, an unlimited number of parties agree to exchange traffic on common terms, using a single agreement that they all accede to, and using a route server or route reflector (which differ from looking glasses in that they serve routes back out to participants, rather than just listening to inbound routes) to redistribute routes via a BGP hub-and-spoke topology, rather than a partial-mesh topology. The two primary criticisms of multilateral peering are that it breaks the shared fate of the forwarding and routing planes, since the layer-2 connection between two participants could hypothetically fail while their layer-2 connections with the route server remained up, and that they force all participants to treat each other with the same, undifferentiated, routing policy. The primary benefit of multilateral peering is that it minimizes configuration for each peer, while maximizing the efficiency with which new peers can begin contributing routes to the exchange. While optional multilateral peering agreements and route servers are now widely acknowledged to be a good practice, mandatory multilateral peering agreements (MMLPAs) have long been agreed to not be a good practice.", "The modern Internet operates with significantly more peering locations than at any time in the past, resulting in improved performance and better routing for the majority of the traffic on the Internet. However, in the interests of reducing costs and improving efficiency, most networks have attempted to standardize on relatively few locations within these individual regions where they will be able to quickly and efficiently interconnect with their peering partners.", "The largest exchange points in the world are DE-CIX in Frankfurt, AMS-IX in Amsterdam, LINX in London, the Moscow Internet Exchange, Equinix Ashburn in Washington D.C., and JPNAP in Tokyo. The United States, with a historically larger focus on private peering and commercial public peering, has much less traffic visible on public peering switch-fabrics compared to other regions that are dominated by non-profit membership exchange points. Collectively, the many exchange points operated by Equinix are generally considered to be the largest, though traffic figures are not generally published. Other important but smaller exchange points include LIPEX and LONAP in London, NYIIX in New York, and NAP of the Americas in Miami. URLs to some public traffic statistics of exchange points include:", "A great deal of the complexity in the BGP routing protocol exists to aid the enforcement and fine-tuning of peering and transit agreements. BGP allows operators to define a policy that determines where traffic is routed. Three things commonly used to determine routing are local-preference, multi exit discriminators (MEDs) and AS-Path. Local-preference is used internally within a network to differentiate classes of networks. For example, a particular network will have a higher preference set on internal and customer advertisements. Settlement free peering is then configured to be preferred over paid IP transit. Networks that speak BGP to each other can engage in multi exit discriminator exchange with each other, although most do not. When networks interconnect in several locations, MEDs can be used to reference that network's interior gateway protocol cost. This results in both networks sharing the burden of transporting each other's traffic on their own network (or \"cold potato\"). \"Hot-potato\" or nearest-exit routing, which is typically the normal behavior on the Internet, is where traffic destined to another network is delivered to the closest interconnection point.", "Internet interconnection is not regulated in the same way that public telephone network interconnection is regulated. Nevertheless, Internet interconnection has been the subject of several areas of federal policy in the United States. Perhaps the most dramatic example of this is the attempted MCI Worldcom/Sprint merger. In this case, the Department of Justice blocked the merger specifically because of the impact of the merger on the Internet backbone market (thereby requiring MCI to divest itself of its successful \"internetMCI\" business to gain approval). In 2001, the Federal Communications Commission's advisory committee, the Network Reliability and Interoperability Council recommended that Internet backbones publish their peering policies, something that they had been hesitant to do beforehand. The FCC has also reviewed competition in the backbone market in its Section 706 proceedings which review whether advanced telecommunications are being provided to all Americans in a reasonable and timely manner. Finally, Internet interconnection has become an issue in the international arena under something known as the International Charging Arrangements for Internet Services (ICAIS). In the ICAIS debate, countries underserved by Internet backbones have complained that it is unfair that they must pay the full cost of connecting to an Internet exchange point in a different country, frequently the United States. These advocates argue that Internet interconnection should work like international telephone interconnection, with each party paying half of the cost. Those who argue against ICAIS point out that much of the problem would be solved by building local exchange points. A significant amount of the traffic, it is argued, that is brought to the US and exchanged then leaves the US, using US exchange points as switching offices but not terminating in the US. In some worst-case scenarios, traffic from one side of a street is brought all the way to a distant exchange point in a foreign country, exchanged, and then returned to another side of the street. Countries with liberalized telecommunications and open markets, where competition between backbone providers occurs, tend to oppose ICAIS." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Foundation and the \"Idrisids\".", "Golden age and the Marinid period.", "Modern period.", "Climate.", "Subdivisions.", "Landmarks.", "Medina of Fez.", "Places of worship.", "Madrasas.", "Fortifications.", "City walls and gates.", "Forts and kasbahs.", "Tanneries.", "Tombs and mausoleums.", "Gardens.", "Funduqs/foundouks (historic merchant buildings).", "Historic palaces and residences.", "Education.", "Universities.", "Transport.", "Sport.", "International relations.", "Twin towns — sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Fez or Fas was derived from the Arabic word \"Faʾs\" which means pickaxe, which legends say Idris I of Morocco used when he created the lines of the city. One noticeable thing was that the pickaxe was made from silver and gold. During the rule of the Idrisid dynasty, Fez consisted of two cities: \"Fas\", founded by Idris I, and \"al-ʿĀliyá\", founded by his son, Idris II. During Idrisid rule the capital city was known as al-ʿĀliyá, with the name Fas being reserved for the separate site on the other side of the river; no Idrisid coins have been found with the name Fez, only al-ʿĀliyá and \"al-ʿĀliyá Madinat Idris\". It is not known whether the name al-ʿĀliyá ever referred to both urban areas. It wasn't until 1070 that the two agglomerations were united and the name Fas was used for the combined site.", "", "The city was founded on a bank of the Jawhar river by Idris I in 789, founder of the Idrisid dynasty. His son, Idris II (808), built a settlement on the opposing river bank. These settlements would soon develop into two walled and largely autonomous sites, often in conflict with one another: \"Madinat Fas\" and \"Al-'Aliya\". In 808 Al-'Aliya replaced Walili as the capital of the Idrisids. Arab emigration to Fez, including approximately 800 Andalusi families of mixed Arab and Iberian descent in 817–818 expelled after a rebellion against the Umayyads of Córdoba, Andalusia, and 2000 Arab families banned from Kairouan (modern Tunisia) after another rebellion in 824, gave the city its Arabic character. The Andalusians settled in what was called the Fez, while the Tunisians found their home in al-'Aliya. These two waves of immigrants would subsequently give their name to the sites 'Adwat Al-Andalus and 'Adwat al-Qarawiyyin. With the influx of Arabic-speaking Andalusians and Turnisians, the majority of the population was Arab, but rural Berbers from the surrounding countryside settled there throughout this early period, mainly in Madinat Fas (the Andalusian quarter) and later in Fes Jdid during the Marinid period. Upon the death of Idris II in 828, the dynasty’s territory was divided among his sons. The eldest, Muhammad, received Fez. The newly fragmented Idrisid power would never again be reunified. During Yahya ibn Muhammad's rule in Fez the Kairouyine mosque, one of the oldest and largest in Africa, was built and its associated University of Al Quaraouiyine was founded (859). Comparatively little is known about Idrisid Fez, owing to the lack of comprehensive historical narratives and that little has survived of the architecture and infrastructure of early Fez (Al-'Aliya). The sources that mention Idrisid Fez, describe a rather rural one, not having the cultural sophistication of the important cities of Al-Andalus and Ifriqiya. In the 10th century, the city was contested by the Caliphate of Córdoba and the Fatimid Caliphate of Tunisia, who ruled the city through a host of Zenata clients. The Fatimids took the city in 927 and expelled the Idrissids, after which their Miknasa were installed there. The Miknasa were driven out of Fez in 980 by the Maghrawa, their fellow Zenata, allies of the Caliphate of Córdoba. It was in this period that the great Andalusian ruler Almanzor commissioned the Maghrawa to rebuild and refurnish the Al-Kairouan mosque, giving it much of its current appearance. According to the \"Rawd al-Qirtas\" and other Marinid era sources, the Maghrawi emir Dunas Al-Maghrawi filled up the open spaces between the two medinas and the banks of the river, dividing them with new constructions. Thus, the two cities grew into each other, being now only separated by their walls and the river. His sons fortified the city to a great extent. This could not keep the Almoravid emir Ibn Tashfin from conquering it in 1070, after more than a decade of battling the Zenata warriors in the area and constant besieging of the city. In 1033, several thousand Jews were killed in the Fez Massacre.", "Madinat Fas and Al-'Aliya were united in 1070 by the Almoravid dynasty: The walls dividing them were destroyed, bridges connecting them were built, and connecting walls were constructed that unified the medinas. Under Almoravid patronage the largest expansion and renovation of the Great Mosque of al-Qarawiyyin took place (1134-1143). Although the capital was moved to Marrakesh under the Almoravids, Fez acquired a reputation for Maliki legal scholarship and became an important centre of trade. Almoravid impact on the city's structure was such that the second Almoravid ruler, Yusuf ibn Tashfin, is often considered to be the second founder of Fez. Like many Moroccan cities, Fez was greatly enlarged during the Almohad Caliphate and saw its previously dominating rural aspect lessen. This was accomplished partly by the settling there of Andalusians and the further improvement of the infrastructure. At the start of the 13th century they broke down the Idrisid city walls and constructed new ones, which covered a much wider space. These Almohad walls exist to this day as the outline of Fes el Bali. Under Almohad rule the city grew to become one of the largest in the world between 1170 and 1180, with an estimated 200,000 people living there. In 1250 Fez regained its capital status under the Marinid dynasty. In 1276 after a massacre by the population to kill all Jews that was stopped by intervention of the Emir, they founded Fes Jdid, which they made their administrative and military centre. Fez reached its golden age in the Marinid period, which marked the beginning of its official, historical narrative. It is from the Marinid period that Fez's reputation as an important intellectual centre largely dates. They established the first madrasas in the city and country. The principal monuments in the medina, the residences and public buildings, date from the Marinid period. The madrasas are a hallmark of Marinid architecture, with its striking blending of Andalusian and Almohad traditions. Between 1271 and 1357 seven madrassas were built in Fez, the style of which has come to be typical of Fassi architecture. Ibn Battuta described the city of Fa's, which he passed through on his way to Sijilmasa. The Jewish quarter of Fez, the Mellah was built in 1438, near the royal residence in Fez Jdid. The Mellah at first consisted of Jews from Fez el Bali and soon saw the arrival of Berber Jews from the Atlas range and Jewish immigrants from al-Andalus. The Marinids spread the influence Idris I and encouraged Malikism, financing sharifian families as a way some say to legitimize their rule: In the 14th century, hundreds of families throughout Morocco tried to claim descent from Idris I, especially in Fez and the Rif mountains. In this regard, the Alaouite Sultan of Morocco, Moulay Ismail, established a syndicate responsible of verifying, through thorough historical, genealogical and scientific evidence, Moroccan families' sharifian ancestries of Idrissi and Alaouite descent which is still operating to this day under the official name in Arabic of (الرابطة الوطنية للشرفاء الأدارسة وأبناء عمومتهم بالمغرب), their official website is the following: chorafae.com. The 1465 Moroccan revolt in 1465 overthrew the last Maranid sultan. In 1474 the Marinids were replaced by their relatives of the Wattasid dynasty, who faithfully (but for a large part unsuccessfully) continued Marinid policies.", "After the fall of the Marinids, the city remained the capital of Morocco under the Wattasids. However, in the 16th century, the Saadis, based in Marrakech, would attempt to overthrow the Wattasids. In the meanwhile, the Ottoman Empire came close to Fez after the conquest of Oujda in the 16th century. In January 1549 the Saadi sultan Mohammed ash-Sheikh took Fez and ousted the last Wattasid sultan Ali Abu Hassun. They later retook the city in 1553 with Ottoman support. However, this reconquest was short-lived, and in 1554 the Wattasids were decisively defeated in the battle of Tadla by the Saadis. The Ottomans would try to invade Morocco after the assassination of Mohammed ash-Sheikh in 1558, but were defeated by his son Abdallah al-Ghalib at the battle of Wadi al-Laban north of Fez. Hence, Morocco remained the only North-African state to deter and defeat the Ottomans. After the death of Abdallah al-Ghalib a new power struggle would emerge, after Abd al-Malik would take Fez with Ottoman support and oust his nephew Abu Abdullah. The latter would flee to Portugal where he asked king Sebastian of Portugal for help to regain his throne. This would lead to the Battle of Alcacer Quibir where Abd al-Malik's army would defeat the invading Portuguese army with the support of his Ottoman allies, ensuring Moroccan independence. Abd al-Malik himself also died during the battle and would be succeeded by Ahmad al-Mansur. After the fall of the Saadi dynasty (1649), Fez was a major trading post of the Barbary Coast of North Africa. Until the 19th century it was the only source of fezzes (also known as the \"tarboosh\"). Then manufacturing began in France and Turkey as well. Originally, the dye for the hats came from a berry that was grown outside the city, known as the Turkish \"kızılcık\" or Greek \"akenia\" (\"Cornus mas\"). Fez was also the end of a north-south gold trading route from Timbuktu. Fez was a prime manufacturing location for embroidery and leather goods such as the Adarga. The city became independent in 1790, under the leadership of Yazid (1790–1792) and later of Abu ́r-Rabi Sulayman. In 1795 control of the city returned to Morocco. Fez took part in a rebellion in 1819-1821, led by Ibrahim ibn Yazid, as well as in the 1832 rebellion led by Muhammad ibn Tayyib. The Tijani Sufi order, started by Ahmad al-Tijani (d. 1815), had its spiritual center in Fes. The order spread quickly among the literary elite of North West Africa, and its \"ulama\", or theologians, had significant religious, intellectual, and political influence in Fes and beyond. Fes played a central role in the \"Hafidhiya\", the brief civil war that erupted when Sultan Abd al-Hafid challenged his heavily Europe-allied brotherAbdelaziz for the throne. The French Colonel Charles Émile Moinier arrived in Fes March 15, 1908 at the head of the 4e Zouaves, an infantry unit composed of Tunisian \"troupes coloniales\". Moinier established himself in Fes to protect Sultan Abd al-Hafid from threats, including the pretension of Ahmed al-Hiba, son of Ma al-'Aynayn, to the sultanate. Following the implementation of the Treaty of Fes, the city was heavily damaged in the 1912 Intifada of Fes and belonged to French Morocco until 1956. Fez was the capital of Morocco until 1912. Rabat then remained the capital even after Morocco achieved independence in 1955. Despite its traditional character, there is a modern section: the \"New City\". Today it is a bustling commercial center. Place Lalla Yeddouna at the heart of the Medina is currently undergoing reconstruction and preservation measures following a design competition sponsored by the Millennium Challenge Corporation (Washington D.C.) and the Government of the Morocco. The construction projects scheduled for completion in 2016 encompass historic preservation of particular buildings, construction of new buildings that fit into the existing urban fabric and regeneration of the riverfront. The intention is to not only preserve the quality and characteristics of the UNESCO World Heritage Site, but to encourage the development of the area as a sustainable, mixed-use area for artisanal industries and local residents.", "Located by the Atlas Mountains, Fez has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen climate classification \"Csa\") with a strong continental influence, shifting from relatively cool and wet in the winter to dry and hot days in the summer months between June and September. Rainfall can reach up to in good years. The winter highs typically reach around in December–January. Frost is not uncommon during the winter period. The highest and lowest temperatures ever recorded in the city are and, respectively.(\"see weather-table below\"). Fez's climate is strongly similar to that of Seville and Córdoba, Andalusia, Spain. Snowfall on average occurs once every 3 to 5 years. Fez recorded snowfall in three straight years in 2005, 2006 and 2007.", "The prefecture is divided administratively into the following:", "", "The historic city of Fez consists of Fes el-Bali, the original city founded by the Idrisid dynasty on both shores of the Oued Fes (River of Fez) in the late 8th and early 9th centuries, and the smaller Fez el-Jdid, founded on higher ground to the west in the 13th century. It is distinct from Fez's now much larger Ville Nouvelle (new city) originally founded by the French. Fes el-Bali is the site of the famous Qarawiyyin University and the Mausoleum of Moulay Idris II, the most important religious and cultural sites, while Fez el-Jdid is the site of the enormous Royal Palace, still used by the King of Morocco today. These two historic cities are linked together and are usually referred to together as the \"medina\" of Fez, though this term is sometimes applied more restrictively to Fes el-Bali only. Fez is becoming an increasingly popular tourist destination and many non-Moroccans are now restoring traditional houses (riads and dars) as second homes in the medina. Fez is also considered the cultural and spiritual capital of Morocco. In 1981, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) proclaimed \"Medina of Fez\" a World Cultural Heritage site, as \"[they] include a considerable number of religious, civil and military monuments that brought about a multi-cultural society. This architecture is characterised by construction techniques and decoration developed over a period of more than ten centuries, and where local knowledge and skills are interwoven with diverse outside inspiration (Andalusian, Oriental and African). The Medina of Fez is considered as one of the most extensive and best conserved historic towns of the Arab-Muslim world.\"", "There are numerous historic mosques in the medina, some of which are part of a madrasa or zawiya. Among the oldest mosques still standing today are the highly prestigious Mosque of al-Qarawiyyin, founded in 857 (and subsequently expanded), the Mosque of the Andalusians founded in to 859-860, the Bou Jeloud Mosque from the late 12th century, and possibly the Mosque of the Kasbah en-Nouar (which may have existed in the Almohad period but was likely rebuilt much later). The very oldest mosques of the city, dating back to its first years, were the Mosque of the Sharifs (or Shurafa Mosque) and the Mosque of the Sheikhs (or al-Anouar Mosque); however, they no longer exist in their original form. The Mosque of the Sharifs was the burial site of Idris II and evolved into the Zawiya of Moulay Idris II that exists today, while the al-Anouar Mosque has left only minor remnants. A number of mosques from the important Marinid era, when Fes el-Jdid was created to be the capital of Morocco, include the Great Mosque of Fez el-Jdid from 1276, the Abu al-Hassan Mosque from 1341, the Chrabliyine Mosque from 1342, the al-Hamra Mosque from around the same period (exact date unconfirmed), and the Bab Guissa Mosque, also from the reign of Abu al-Hasan (1331-1351) but modified in later centuries. Other major mosques from the more recent Alaouite period are the Moulay Abdallah Mosque, built in the early to mid-18th century with the tomb of Sultan Moulay Abdallah, and the R'cif Mosque, built in the reign of Moulay Slimane (1793-1822). The Zawiya of Moulay Idriss II (previously mentioned) and the Zawiya of Sidi Ahmed al-Tijani include mosque areas as well, as do several other prominent zawiyas in the city. Elsewhere, the Jewish quarter (Mellah) is the site of the 17th-century Ibn Danan Synagogue and multiple other synagogues, though none of them are functioning today. The \"Ville Nouvelle\" (New City) also includes many modern mosques.", "The city has traditionally retained the influential position as a religious capital in the region, exemplified by the Madrasa (or University) of al-Qarawiyyin which was established in 859 by Fatima al-Fihri originally as a mosque. The madrasa is the oldest existing and continually operating degree-awarding educational institution in the world according to UNESCO and Guinness World Records. The Marinid dynasty (13th-15th century) devoted great attention to the construction of madrasas following the Maliki orthodoxy, resulting in the unprecedented prosperity of the city's religious institutions. The first madrasa built during the Marinid era was the Saffarin Madrasa in Fes el Bali by Sultan Abu Yusuf in 1271. Sultan Abu al-Hassan was the most prolific patron of madrasa construction, completing the Al-Attarine, Mesbahiyya and Sahrij Madrasa in Fez alone, and several other madrasas as well in other cities such as Salé and Meknes. His son Abu Inan Faris built the famed Bou Inania Madrasa, and by the time of his death, every major city in the Marinid Empire had at least one madrasa. The library of the Madrasa of al-Qarawiyyin was also established under Marinid rule around 1350, which stores a large selection of valuable manuscripts dating back to the medieval era. The largest madrasa in the medina is Cherratine Madrasa commissioned by the Alaouite sultan Al-Rashid in 1670, which is the only major non-Marinid foundation besides the Madrasa of al-Qarawiyyin.", "", "The entire medina of Fez was heavily fortified with crenelated walls with watchtowers and gates, a pattern of urban planning which can be seen in Salé and Chellah as well. City walls were placed into the current positions during the 11th century, under the Almoravid rule. During this period, the two formerly divided cities known as \"Madinat Fas\" and \"al-'Aliya\" were united under a single enclosure. The Almoravid fortifcations were later destroyed and then rebuilt by the Almohad dynasty in the 12th century, under Caliph Muhammad al-Nasir. The oldest sections of the walls today thus date back to this time. These fortifications were restored and maintained by the Marinid dynasty from the 12th to 16th centuries, along with the founding of the royal citadel-city of Fes el-Jdid. Construction of the new city's gates and towers sometimes employed the labour of Christian prisoners of war. The gates of Fez, scattered along the circuit of walls, were guarded by the military detachments and shut at night. Some of the main gates have existed, in different forms, since the earliest years of the city. The oldest gates today, and historically the most important ones of the city, are Bab Mahrouk (in the west), Bab Guissa (in the northeast), and Bab Ftouh (in the southeast). After the foundation of Fes Jdid by the Marinids in the 13th century, new walls and three new gates such as Bab Dekkakin, Bab Semmarine, and Bab al-Amer were established along its perimeter. Later, in modern times, the gates became more ceremonial rather than defensive structures, as reflected by the 1913 construction of the decorative Bab Bou Jeloud gate at the western entrance of Fes el-Bali by the French colonial administration.", "Along with the city walls and gates, several forts were constructed along the defensive perimeters of the medina during the different time periods. The military watchtowers built in its early days during the Idrisid era were relatively small. However, the city rapidly developed as the military garrison center of the region during the Almoravid era, in which the military operations were commanded and carried out to other North African regions and Southern Europe to the north, and Senegal river to the south. Subsequently, it led to the construction of numerous forts, kasbahs, and towers for both garrison and defense. A \"kasbah\" in the context of Maghrebi region is the traditional military structure for fortification, military preparation, command and control. Some of them were occupied as well by citizens, certain tribal groups, and merchants. Throughout the history, 13 kasbahs were constructed surrounding the old city. Among the most prominent among them is the Kasbah An-Nouar, located at the western or north-western tip of Fes el-Bali, which dates back to the Almohad era but was restored and repurposed under the Alaouites. Today, it is an example of a kasbah serving as a residential district much like the rest of the medina, with its own neighborhood mosque. The Kasbah Bou Jeloud, which no longer exists as a kasbah today, was once the governor's residence and stood near Bab Bou Jeloud, south of the Kasbah an-Nouar. It too had its own mosque, known as the Bou Jeloud Mosque. Other kasbahs include the Kasbah Tamdert, built by the Saadis near Bab Ftouh, and the Kasbah Cherarda, built by the Alaouite sultan Moulay al-Rashid just north of Fes Jdid. Kasbah Dar Debibagh is one of the newest kasbahs, built in 1729 during the Alaouite era at 2 km from the city wall in a strategic position. The Saadis also built a number of strong bastions in the late 16th century to assert their control over Fes, including notably the Borj Nord which is among the largest strictly military structures in the city and now refurbished as a military museum. Its sister fort, Borj Sud, is located on the hills to the south of the city.", "Since the inception of the city, tanning industry has been continually operating in the same fashion as it did in the early centuries. Today, the tanning industry in the city is considered one of the main tourist attractions. There are three tanneries in the city, largest among them is Chouara Tannery near the Saffarin Madrasa along the river, built in the 11th century. The tanneries are packed with the round stone wells filled with dye or white liquids for softening the hides. The leather goods produced in the tanneries are exported around the world. The two other major tanneries are the Sidi Moussa Tannery to the west of the Zawiya of Moulay Idris II and the Ain Azliten Tannery in the neighbourhood of the same name on the northern edge of Fes el-Bali.", "Located in the heart of Fes el Bali, the Zawiya of Moulay Idriss II is a \"zawiya\" (a shrine and religious complex; also spelled \"zaouia\"), dedicated to and containing the tomb of Idris II (or Moulay Idris II when including his sharifian title) who is considered the main founder of the city of Fez. Another well-known and important zawiya is the Zawiyia of Sidi Ahmed al-Tijani, which commemorates Sidi Ahmed al-Tijani, the founder of Tijaniyyah \"tariqa\" from the 18th century. A number of zawiyas are scattered elsewhere across the city, many containing the tombs of important Sufi saints or scholars, such as the Zawiya of Sidi Abdelkader al-Fassi, the Zawiya of Sidi Ahmed esh-Shawi, and the Zawiya of Sidi Taoudi Ben Souda. The old city also has several major historic cemeteries which existed outside the main city gates, namely the cemeteries of Bab Ftouh (the most significant), Bab Mahrouk, and Bab Guissa. Some of these cemeteries include marabouts or domed structures containing the tombs of local Muslim saints (often considered Sufis). One of the most important ones is the Marabout of Sidi Harazem in the Bab Ftouh Cemetery. To the north, near the Bab Guissa Cemetery, there are also the Marinid Tombs built during the 14th century as a necropolis for the Marinid sultans, ruined today but still a well-known landmark of the city.", "The Jnane Sbile Garden was created as a royal park and garden in the 19th century by Sultan Moulay Hassan I (ruled 1873-1894) between Fes el-Jdid and Fes el-Bali. Today it is the oldest garden of Fes. Many bourgeois and aristocratic mansions were also accompanied by private gardens, especially in the southwestern part of Fes el-Bali, an area once known as al-'Uyun. Other gardens also exist within the grounds of the historic royal palaces of the city, such as the Agdal and Lalla Mina Gardens in the Dar al-Makhzen or the gardens of the Dar al-Beida (originally attached to Dar Batha).", "The old city of Fez includes more than a hundred \"funduq\"s or \"foundouk\"s (traditional inns, or urban caravanserais). These were commercial structures which provided lodging for merchants and travelers or housed the workshops of artisans. They also frequently served as venues for other commercial activities such as markets and auctions. One of the most famous is the Funduq al-Najjariyyin, which was built in the 18th century by Amin Adiyil to provide accommodation and storage for merchants and which now houses the Nejjarine Museum of Wooden Arts & Crafts. Other major important examples include the Funduq Shamma'in (also spelled \"Foundouk Chemmaïne\") and the Funduq Staouniyyin (or Funduq of the Tetouanis), both dating from the Marinid era or earlier, and the Funduq Sagha which is contemporary with the Funduq al-Najjariyyin.", "Many old private residences have also survived to this day, in various states of conservation. One type of house known, centered around an internal courtyard, is known as a \"riad\". Such private houses include the Dar al-Alami, the Dar Saada (now a restaurant), Dar 'Adiyil, Dar Belghazi, and others. Larger and richer mansions, such as the Dar Mnebhi, Dar Moqri, and Palais Jamaï (Jamai Palace), have also been preserved. Numerous palaces and riads are now utilized as hotels for the tourism industry. The Palais Jamai, for example, was converted into a luxury hotel in the early 20th century. The lavish former mansion of the Glaoui clan, known as the Dar Glaoui, is partly open to visitors but still privately owned. As a former capital, the city contains several palaces as well. Dar Batha is a former palace completed by the Alaouite Sultan Moulay Abdelaziz (ruled 1894-1908) and turned into a museum in 1915 with around 6,000 pieces. A large area of Fes el-Jdid is also taken up by the 80-hectare Royal Palace, or Dar al-Makhzen, whose new ornate gates (built in 1969-71) are renowned but whose grounds are not open to the public as they are still used by the King of Morocco when visiting the city.", "", "The University of Al Quaraouiyine is the oldest continually-operating university in the world. The al-Karaouine mosque was founded by Fatima al-Fihri in 859 with an associated school, or madrasa, which subsequently became one of the leading spiritual and educational centers of the historic Muslim world. It became a state university in 1963, and remains an important institution of learning today. Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah University is a public university that was founded in 1975 and has two primary campuses in the city (Dhar El Mehraz and Sais).", "The city is served by Saïss Airport. It also has an ONCF train station with lines east to Oujda and west to Tangier and Casablanca.", "Fez has two football teams, MAS Fez (Fés Maghrebi) and Wydad de Fès (WAF). They both play in the Botola the highest tier of the Moroccan football system and play their home matches at the 45,000 seat Complexe Sportif de Fès stadium. The MAS Fez basketball team competes in the Nationale 1, Morocco's top basketball division.", "", "Fez is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early years and education.", "Professorship.", "Scientific work.", "Personal life.", "Honours." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Johannes Diderik van der Waals was born on 23 November 1837 in Leiden in the Netherlands. He was the eldest of ten children born to Jacobus van der Waals and Elisabeth van den Berg. His father was a carpenter in Leiden. As was usual for all girls and working-class boys in the 19th century, he did not go to the kind of secondary school that would have given him the right to enter university. Instead he went to a school of “advanced primary education”, which he finished at the age of fifteen. He then became a teacher's apprentice in an elementary school. Between 1856 and 1861 he followed courses and gained the necessary qualifications to become a primary school teacher and head teacher. In 1862, he began to attend lectures in mathematics, physics and astronomy at the University in his city of birth, although he was not qualified to be enrolled as a regular student in part because of his lack of education in classical languages. However, the University of Leiden had a provision that enabled outside students to take up to four courses a year. In 1863 the Dutch government started a new kind of secondary school (HBS, a school aiming at the children of the higher middle classes). Van der Waals—at that time head of an elementary school—wanted to become a HBS teacher in mathematics and physics and spent two years studying in his spare time for the required examinations. In 1865, he was appointed as a physics teacher at the HBS in Deventer and in 1866, he received such a position in The Hague, which was close enough to Leiden to allow van der Waals to resume his courses at the University there. In September 1865, just before moving to Deventer, van der Waals married the eighteen-year-old Anna Magdalena Smit.", "Van der Waals still lacked the knowledge of the classical languages that would have given him the right to enter university as a regular student and to take examinations. However, it so happened that the law regulating the university entrance was changed and dispensation from the study of classical languages could be given by the minister of education. Van der Waals was given this dispensation and passed the qualification exams in physics and mathematics for doctoral studies. At Leiden University, on June 14, 1873, he defended his doctoral thesis \"Over de Continuïteit van den Gas- en Vloeistoftoestand\" (on the continuity of the gaseous and liquid state) under Pieter Rijke. In the thesis, he introduced the concepts of molecular volume and molecular attraction. In September 1877 van der Waals was appointed the first professor of physics at the newly founded Municipal University of Amsterdam. Two of his notable colleagues were the physical chemist Jacobus Henricus van 't Hoff and the biologist Hugo de Vries. Until his retirement at the age of 70 van der Waals remained at the Amsterdam University. He was succeeded by his son Johannes Diderik van der Waals, Jr., who also was a theoretical physicist. In 1910, at the age of 72, van der Waals was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics. He died at the age of 85 on March 8, 1923.", "The main interest of van der Waals was in the field of thermodynamics. He was influenced by Rudolf Clausius' 1857 treatise entitled \"Über die Art der Bewegung, welche wir Wärme nennen\" (\"On the Kind of Motion which we Call Heat\"). Van der Waals was later greatly influenced by the writings of James Clerk Maxwell, Ludwig Boltzmann, and Willard Gibbs. Clausius' work led him to look for an explanation of Thomas Andrews' experiments that had revealed, in 1869, the existence of critical temperatures in fluids. He managed to give a semi-quantitative description of the phenomena of condensation and critical temperatures in his 1873 thesis, entitled \"Over de Continuïteit van den Gas- en Vloeistoftoestand\" (On the continuity of the gas and liquid state). This dissertation represented a hallmark in physics and was immediately recognized as such, e.g. by James Clerk Maxwell who reviewed it in Nature in a laudatory manner. In this thesis he derived the equation of state bearing his name. This work gave a model in which the liquid and the gas phase of a substance merge into each other in a continuous manner. It shows that the two phases are of the same nature. In deriving his equation of state van der Waals assumed not only the existence of molecules (the existence of atoms was disputed at the time), but also that they are of finite size and attract each other. Since he was one of the first to postulate an intermolecular force, however rudimentary, such a force is now sometimes called a van der Waals force. A second major discovery was the 1880 the Law of Corresponding States, which showed that the van der Waals equation of state can be expressed as a simple function of the critical pressure, critical volume, and critical temperature. This general form is applicable to all substances (see van der Waals equation.) The compound-specific constants \"a\" and \"b\" in the original equation are replaced by universal (compound-independent) quantities. It was this law which served as a guide during experiments which ultimately led to the liquefaction of hydrogen by James Dewar in 1898 and of helium by Heike Kamerlingh Onnes in 1908. In 1890, van der Waals published a treatise on the \"Theory of Binary Solutions\" in the Archives Néerlandaises. By relating his equation of state with the Second Law of Thermodynamics, in the form first proposed by Willard Gibbs, he was able to arrive at a graphical representation of his mathematical formulations in the form of a surface which he called Ψ (Psi) surface following Gibbs, who used the Greek letter Ψ for the free energy of a system with different phases in equilibrium. Mention should also be made of van der Waals' theory of capillarity which in its basic form first appeared in 1893. In contrast to the mechanical perspective on the subject provided earlier by Pierre-Simon Laplace, van der Waals took a thermodynamic approach. This was controversial at the time, since the existence of molecules and their permanent, rapid motion were not universally accepted before Jean Baptiste Perrin's experimental verification of Albert Einstein's theoretical explanation of Brownian motion.", "He married Anna Magdalena Smit in 1865, and the couple had three daughters (Anne Madeleine,, Johanna Diderica) and one son, the physicist Jacqueline was a poet of some note. Van der Waals' nephew Peter van der Waals was a cabinet maker and a leading figure in the Sapperton, Gloucestershire school of the Arts and Crafts movement. The wife of Johannes van der Waals died of tuberculosis at 34 years old in 1881. After becoming a widower Van der Waals never remarried and was so shaken by the death of his wife that he did not publish anything for about a decade. He died in Amsterdam on March 8, 1923, one year after his daughter Jacqueline had died.", "Van der Waals received numerous honors and distinctions, besides winning the 1910 Nobel Prize in Physics. He was awarded an honorary doctorate of the University of Cambridge; was made Honorary Member of the Imperial Society of Naturalists of Moscow, the Royal Irish Academy, and the American Philosophical Society; Corresponding Member of the Institut de France and the Royal Academy of Sciences of Berlin; Associate Member of the Royal Academy of Sciences of Belgium; and Foreign Member of the Chemical Society of London, the National Academy of Sciences of the United States, and of the Accademia dei Lincei of Rome. Van der Waals was Member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Sciences since 1875. From 1896 until 1912, he was secretary of this society. He was furthermore elected as Honorary Member of the Netherlands Chemical Society in 1912." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Research.", "Spiritualism.", "Family.", "Death." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Born in Paris on 15 May 1859, Pierre Curie was the son of Eugene Curie (28 August 1827 – 25 February 1910), a doctor of French Huguenot Protestant origin from Alsace, and Sophie-Claire Depouilly Curie (15 January 1832 – 27 September 1897). He was educated by his father and in his early teens showed a strong aptitude for mathematics and geometry. When he was 16, he earned his math degree. By the age of 18, he earned a higher degree, but did not proceed immediately to a doctorate due to lack of money. Instead, he worked as a laboratory instructor. When Pierre Curie was preparing for his bachelor of science degree, he worked in the laboratory of Jean-Gustave Bourbouze in the Faculty of Science. In 1880, Pierre and his older brother Jacques (1856–1941) demonstrated that an electric potential was generated when crystals were compressed, i.e. piezoelectricity. To aid this work they invented the piezoelectric quartz electrometer. The following year they demonstrated the reverse effect: that crystals could be made to deform when subject to an electric field. Almost all digital electronic circuits now rely on this in the form of crystal oscillators. In subsequent work on magnetism Pierre Curie defined the Curie scale. This work also involved delicate equipment - balances, electrometers, etc. Pierre Curie was introduced to Maria Skłodowska by their friend, physicist Józef Wierusz-Kowalski. Curie took her into his laboratory as his student. His admiration for her grew when he realized that she would not inhibit his research. He began to regard Skłodowska as his muse. She refused his initial proposal, but finally agreed to marry him on 26 July 1895. The Curies had a happy, affectionate marriage, and they were known for their devotion to each other.", "Before his famous doctoral studies on magnetism, he designed and perfected an extremely sensitive torsion balance for measuring magnetic coefficients. Variations on this equipment were commonly used by future workers in that area. Pierre Curie studied ferromagnetism, paramagnetism, and diamagnetism for his doctoral thesis, and discovered the effect of temperature on paramagnetism which is now known as Curie's law. The material constant in Curie's law is known as the Curie constant. He also discovered that ferromagnetic substances exhibited a critical temperature transition, above which the substances lost their ferromagnetic behavior. This is now known as the Curie temperature. The Curie temperature is used to study plate tectonics, treat hypothermia, measure caffeine, and to understand extraterrestrial magnetic fields. Pierre Curie formulated what is now known as the \"Curie Dissymmetry Principle\": a physical effect cannot have a dissymmetry absent from its efficient cause. For example, a random mixture of sand in zero gravity has no dissymmetry (it is isotropic). Introduce a gravitational field, and there is a dissymmetry because of the direction of the field. Then the sand grains can'self-sort' with the density increasing with depth. But this new arrangement, with the directional arrangement of sand grains, actually reflects the dissymmetry of the gravitational field that causes the separation. Curie worked with his wife in isolating polonium and radium. They were the first to use the term \"radioactivity\", and were pioneers in its study. Their work, including Marie Curie's celebrated doctoral work, made use of a sensitive piezoelectric electrometer constructed by Pierre and his brother Jacques Curie. Pierre Curie's 1898 publication with his wife Mme. Curie and also with M. G. Bémont for their discovery of radium and polonium was honored by a Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award from the Division of History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society presented to the ESPCI ParisTech (officially the École supérieure de physique et de Chimie industrielles de la Ville de Paris) in 2015. Curie and one of his students, Albert Laborde, made the first discovery of nuclear energy, by identifying the continuous emission of heat from radium particles. Curie also investigated the radiation emissions of radioactive substances, and through the use of magnetic fields was able to show that some of the emissions were positively charged, some were negative and some were neutral. These correspond to alpha, beta and gamma radiation. The curie is a unit of radioactivity (3.7 × 10 decays per second or 37 gigabecquerels) originally named in honor of Curie by the Radiology Congress in 1910, after his death. Subsequently, there has been some controversy over whether the naming was in honor of Pierre, Marie, or both.", "In the late nineteenth century, Pierre Curie was investigating the mysteries of ordinary magnetism when he became aware of the spiritualist experiments of other European scientists, such as Charles Richet and Camille Flammarion. Pierre Curie initially thought the systematic investigation into the paranormal could help with some unanswered questions about magnetism. He wrote to his fiancée Marie: \"I must admit that those spiritual phenomena intensely interest me. I think they are questions that deal with physics.\" Pierre Curie's notebooks from this period show he read many books on spiritualism. He did not attend séances such as those of Eusapia Palladino in Paris in 1905–06 as a mere spectator, and his goal certainly was not to communicate with spirits. He saw the séances as scientific experiments, tried to monitor different parameters, and took detailed notes of every observation. Despite studying spiritualism, Curie was an atheist.", "Pierre and Marie Curie's daughter, Irène, and their son-in-law, Frédéric Joliot-Curie, were also physicists involved in the study of radioactivity, and each received Nobel prizes for their work as well. The Curies' other daughter, Ève, wrote a noted biography of her mother. She was the only member of the Curie family to not become a physicist. Ève married Henry Richardson Labouisse, Jr., who received a Nobel Peace Prize on behalf of Unicef in 1965. Pierre and Marie Curie's granddaughter, Hélène Langevin-Joliot, is a professor of nuclear physics at the University of Paris, and their grandson, Pierre Joliot, who was named after Pierre Curie, is a noted biochemist.", "Pierre Curie died in a street accident in Paris on 19 April 1906. Crossing the busy Rue Dauphine in the rain at the Quai de Conti, he slipped and fell under a heavy horse-drawn cart. He died instantly when one of the wheels ran over his head, fracturing his skull. Statements made by his father and lab assistant imply that Curie's characteristic absent-minded preoccupation with his thoughts contributed to his death. Both the Curies experienced radium burns, both accidentally and voluntarily, and were exposed to extensive doses of radiation while conducting their research. They experienced radiation sickness and Marie Curie died of aplastic anemia in 1934. Even now, all their papers from the 1890s, even her cookbooks, are too dangerous to touch. Their laboratory books are kept in special lead boxes and people who want to see them have to wear protective clothing. Had Pierre Curie not been killed as he was, it is likely that he would have eventually died of the effects of radiation, as did his wife, their daughter Irène, and her husband Frédéric Joliot. In April 1995, Pierre and Marie Curie were moved from their original resting place, a family cemetery, and enshrined in the crypt of the Panthéon in Paris." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Works.", "Honours and awards.", "Artistic recognition." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Appleton was born in Bradford, West Riding of Yorkshire, the son of Peter Appleton, a warehouseman, and Mary Wilcock, and was educated at Hanson Grammar School. In 1911, aged 18, he was awarded a scholarship to attend St John’s College, Cambridge, where he graduated with First Class Honours in Natural Science with Physics in 1913. During the First World War he joined the West Riding Regiment, and later transferred to the Royal Engineers. After returning from active service in the First World War, Appleton became assistant demonstrator in experimental physics at the Cavendish Laboratory in 1920. In 1922 he was initiated into Freemasonry. He was professor of physics at King's College London (1924–36) and professor of natural philosophy at the University of Cambridge (1936–39). From 1939 to 1949 he was secretary of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. Knighted in 1941, he received the 1947 Nobel Prize in Physics for his contributions to the knowledge of the ionosphere, which led to the development of radar. From 1949 until his death in 1965, Appleton was Principal and Vice-Chancellor of the University of Edinburgh. In 1956, the BBC invited him to deliver the annual Reith Lectures. Across a series of six radio broadcasts, titled \"Science and the Nation\", he explored the many facets of scientific activity in Britain at the time. Sir Edward is buried in Edinburgh's Morningside Cemetery with his wife Helen Lennie (d. 1983). The grave lies towards the extreme western side near the new housing to the north-west.", "Appleton had observed that the strength of the radio signal from a transmitter on a frequency such as the medium wave band and over a path of a hundred miles or so was constant during the day but that it varied during the night. This led him to believe that it was possible that two radio signals were being received. One was travelling along the ground, and another was reflected by a layer in the upper atmosphere. The fading or variation in strength of the overall radio signal received resulted from the interference pattern of the two signals. The existence of a reflecting atmospheric layer was not in itself a completely new idea. Balfour Stewart had suggested the idea in the late 19th century to explain rhythmic changes in the earth’s magnetic field. More recently, in 1902, Oliver Heaviside and Arthur E. Kennelly had suggested such a electromagnetic-reflecting stratum, now called the Kennelly-Heaviside layer, may explain the success Marconi had in transmitting his signals across the Atlantic. Calculations had shown that natural bending of the radio waves was not sufficient to stop them from simply “shooting off” into empty space before they reached the receiver. Appleton thought the best place to look for evidence of the ionosphere was in the variations he believed it was causing around sunset in radio signal receptions. It was sensible to suggest these variations were due to the interference of two waves but an extra step to show that the second wave causing the interference (the first being the ground wave) was coming down from the ionosphere. The experiment he designed had two methods to show ionospheric influence and both allowed the height of the lower boundary of reflection (thus the lower boundary of the reflecting layer) to be determined. The first method was called frequency modulation and the second was to calculate the angle of arrival of the reflected signal at the receiving aerial. The frequency modulation method exploits the fact that there is a path difference between the ground wave and the reflected wave, meaning they travel different distances from sender to receiver. Let the distance AC travelled by the ground wave be h and the distance ABC travelled by the reflected wave h’. The path difference is: formula_1 The wavelength of the transmitted signal is λ. The number of wavelengths difference between the paths h and h’ is: formula_2 If N is an integer number, then constructive interference will occur, this means a maximum signal will be achieved at the receiving end. If N is an odd integer number of half wavelengths, then destructive interference will occur and a minimum signal will be received. Let us assume we are receiving a maximum signal for a given wavelength λ. If we start to change λ, this is the process called frequency modulation, N will no longer be a whole number and destructive interference will start to occur, meaning the signal will start to fade. Now we keep changing λ until a maximum signal is once again received. The means that for our new value λ’, our new value N’ is also an integer number. If we have lengthened λ then we know that N’ is one less than N. Thus: formula_3 Rearranging for D gives: formula_4 As we know λ and λ’, we can calculate D. Using the approximation that ABC is an isosceles triangle, we can use our value of D to calculate the height of the reflecting layer. This method is a slightly simplified version of the method used by Appleton and his colleagues to work out a first value for the height of the ionosphere in 1924. In their experiment, they used the BBC broadcasting station in Bournemouth to vary the wavelengths of its emissions after the evening programmes had finished. They installed a receiving station in Oxford to monitor the interference effects. The receiving station had to be in Oxford as there was no suitable emitter at the right distance of about 62 miles (100 km) from Cambridge in those days. This frequency modulation method revealed that the point from which waves were being reflected was approximately 56 miles (90 km). However, it did not establish that the waves were reflected from above, indeed they may have been coming from hills somewhere between Oxford and Bournemouth. The second method, which involved finding the angle of incidence of the reflected waves at the receiver, showed for sure that they were coming from above. Triangulations from this angle gave results for the height of reflection compatible with the frequency modulation method. We will not go into this method in detail because it involves fairly complex calculations using Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory. Far from being conclusive, the success of the Oxford-Bournemouth experiment revealed a vast new field of study to be explored. It showed that there was indeed a reflecting layer high above the earth but it also posed many new questions. What was the constitution of this layer, how did it reflect the waves, was it the same all over the earth, why did its effects change so dramatically between day and night, did it change throughout the year? Appleton would spend the rest of his life answering these questions. He developed a magneto-ionic theory based on the previous work of Lorentz and Maxwell to model the workings of this part of the atmosphere. Using this theory and further experiments, he showed that the so-called Kennelly-Heaviside layer was heavily ionised and thus conducting. This led to the term ionosphere. He showed free electrons to be the ionising agents. He discovered that the layer could be penetrated by waves above a certain frequency and that this critical frequency could be used to calculate the electron density in the layer. However these penetrating waves would also be reflected back, but from a much higher layer. This showed the ionosphere had a much more complex structure than first anticipated. The lower level was labelled E – Layer, reflected longer wavelengths and was found to be at approximately 78 miles (125 km). The high level, which had much higher electron density, was labelled F – Layer and could reflect much shorter wavelengths that penetrated the lower layer. It is situated 186 – 248 miles (300 – 400 km) above the earth’s surface. It is this which is often referred to as the Appleton Layer as is responsible for enabling most long range short wave telecommunication. The magneto-ionic theory also allowed Appleton to explain the origin of the mysterious fadings heard on the radio around sunset. During the day, the light from the sun causes the molecules in the air to become ionised even at fairly low altitudes. At these low altitudes, the density of the air is great and thus the electron density of ionised air is very large. Due to this heavy ionisation, there is strong absorption of electromagnetic waves caused by ‘electron friction’. Thus in transmissions over any distance, there will be no reflections as any waves apart from the one at ground level will be absorbed rather than reflected. However, when the sun sets, the molecules slowly start to recombine with their electrons and the free electron density levels drop. This means absorption rates diminish and waves can be reflected with sufficient strengths to be noticed, leading to the interference phenomena we have mentioned. For these interference patterns to occur though, there must not simply be the presence of a reflected wave but a change in the reflected wave. Otherwise the interference is constant and fadings would not be heard. The received signal would simply be louder or softer than during the day. This suggests the height at which reflection happens must slowly change as the sun sets. Appleton found in fact that it increased as the sun set and then decreased as the sun rose until the reflected wave was too weak to record. This variation is compatible with the theory that ionisation is due to the sun’s influence. At sunset, the intensity of the sun’s radiation will be much less at the surface of the earth than it is high up in the atmosphere. This means ionic recombination will progress slowly from lower altitudes to higher ones and therefore the height at which waves are reflected slowly increases as the sun sets. The basic idea behind Appleton’s work is so simple that it is hard to understand at first how he devoted almost all of his scientific career to its study. However, in the last couple of paragraphs some of the complexities of the subject have been introduced. Like many other fields, it is one that grows in intricacy the more it is studied. By the end of his life, ionospheric observatories had been set up all over the world to provide a global map of the reflecting layers. Links were found to the 11 year sunspot cycle and the Aurora Borealis, the magnetic storms that occur in high latitudes. This became particularly relevant during the Second World War when the storms would lead to radio blackouts. Thanks to Appleton’s research, the periods when these would occur could be predicted and communication could be switched to wavelengths that would be least affected. Radar, another crucial wartime innovation, was one that came about thanks to Appleton’s work. On a very general level, his research consisted in determining the distance of reflecting objects from radio signal transmitters. This is exactly the idea of radar and the flashing dots that appear on the screen (a cathode ray tube) scanned by the circulating ‘searcher’ bar. This system was developed partly by Appleton as a new method, called the pulse method, to make ionospheric measurements. It was later adapted by Robert Watson-Watt to detect aeroplanes. Nowadays, ionospheric data is important when communications with satellites are considered. The correct frequencies for these signals must be selected so that they actually reach the satellites without being reflected or deviated before. In 1974 the Radio and Space Research Station was renamed the Appleton Laboratory in honour of the man who had done so much to establish the UK as a leading force in ionospheric research, and had been involved with the station first as a researcher and then as secretary of its parent body, the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research.", "Appleton was awarded the following: In addition the following are named in his honour:", "Appleton's portrait, by William Hutchison hangs in Old College, University of Edinburgh." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Childhood and youth.", "Education and early career.", "Professor in Amsterdam.", "Later years.", "Awards and honors." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Pieter Zeeman was born in Zonnemaire, a small town on the island of Schouwen-Duiveland, Netherlands, the son of Rev Catharinus Forandinus Zeeman, a minister of the Dutch Reformed Church, and his wife, Willemina Worst. Pieter became interested in physics at an early age. In 1883, the aurora borealis happened to be visible in the Netherlands. Zeeman, then a student at the high school in Zierikzee, made a drawing and description of the phenomenon and submitted it to Nature, where it was published. The editor praised \"\"the careful observations of Professor Zeeman from his observatory in Zonnemaire\"\". After finishing high school in 1883, Zeeman went to Delft for supplementary education in classical languages, then a requirement for admission to University. He stayed at the home of Dr J.W. Lely, co-principal of the gymnasium and brother of Cornelis Lely, who was responsible for the concept and realization of the Zuiderzee Works. While in Delft, he first met Heike Kamerlingh Onnes, who was to become his thesis adviser.", "After Zeeman passed the qualification exams in 1885, he studied physics at the University of Leiden under Kamerlingh Onnes and Hendrik Lorentz. In 1890, even before finishing his thesis, he became Lorentz's assistant. This allowed him to participate in a research programme on the Kerr effect. In 1893 he submitted his doctoral thesis on the Kerr effect, the reflection of polarized light on a magnetized surface. After obtaining his doctorate he went for half a year to Friedrich Kohlrausch's institute in Strasbourg. In 1895, after returning from Strasbourg, Zeeman became Privatdozent in mathematics and physics in Leiden. The same year he married Johanna Elisabeth Lebret (1873–1962); they had three daughters and one son. In 1896, shortly before moving from Leiden to Amsterdam, he measured the splitting of spectral lines by a strong magnetic field, a discovery now known as the Zeeman effect, for which he won the 1902 Nobel Prize in Physics. This research involved an investigation of the effect of magnetic fields on a light source. He discovered that a spectral line is split into several components in the presence of a magnetic field. Lorentz first heard about Zeeman's observations on Saturday 31 October 1896 at the meeting of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in Amsterdam, where these results were communicated by Kamerlingh Onnes. The next Monday, Lorentz called Zeeman into his office and presented him with an explanation of his observations, based on Lorentz's theory of electromagnetic radiation. The importance of Zeeman's discovery soon became apparent. It confirmed Lorentz's prediction about the polarization of light emitted in the presence of a magnetic field. Thanks to Zeeman's work it became clear that the oscillating particles that according to Lorentz were the source of light emission were negatively charged, and were a thousandfold lighter than the hydrogen atom. This conclusion was reached well before Thomson's discovery of the electron. The Zeeman effect thus became an important tool for elucidating the structure of the atom.", "Shortly after his discovery, Zeeman was offered a position as lecturer in Amsterdam, where he started to work in Autumn of 1896. In 1900 this was followed by his promotion to professor of physics at the University of Amsterdam. In 1902, together with his former mentor Lorentz, he received the Nobel Prize for Physics for the discovery of the Zeeman effect. Five years later, in 1908, he succeeded Van der Waals as full professor and Director of the Physics Institute in Amsterdam. In 1918 he published \"Some experiments on gravitation: The ratio of mass to weight for crystals and radioactive substances\" in the \"Proceedings of the Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen,\" experimentally confirming the equivalence principle with regard to gravitational and inertial mass. A new laboratory built in Amsterdam in 1923 was renamed the Zeeman Laboratory in 1940. This new facility allowed Zeeman to pursue refined investigation of the Zeeman effect. For the remainder of his career he remained interested in research in Magneto-Optics. He also investigated the propagation of light in moving media. This subject became the focus of a renewed interest because of special relativity, and enjoyed keen interest from Lorentz and Einstein. Later in his career he became interested in mass spectrometry.", "In 1898 Zeeman was elected to membership of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences in Amsterdam, and he served as its secretary from 1912 to 1920. He won the Henry Draper Medal in 1921, and several other awards and Honorary degrees. Zeeman was elected a Foreign member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1921. He retired as a professor in 1935. Zeeman died on 9 October 1943 in Amsterdam, and was buried in Haarlem.", "Zeeman received the following awards for his contributions. The crater Zeeman on the Moon is named in his honour." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Requirements for modern data centers.", "Meeting standards for data centers.", "Data center transformation.", "Machine room.", "Lights out.", "Data center levels and tiers.", "Telecommunications Industry Association.", "Uptime Institute – Data center tier standards.", "Data center design.", "Design criteria and trade-offs.", "High availability.", "Modularity and flexibility.", "Environmental control.", "Electrical power.", "Low-voltage cable routing.", "Air flow.", "Aisle containment.", "Fire protection.", "Security.", "Energy use.", "Greenhouse gas emissions.", "Energy efficiency and overhead.", "Energy use analysis and projects.", "Power and cooling analysis.", "Energy efficiency analysis.", "Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis.", "Thermal zone mapping.", "Green data centers.", "Energy reuse.", "Dynamic infrastructure.", "Network infrastructure.", "Software/data backup.", "Offsite backup storage.", "Modular data center." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Data centers have their roots in the huge computer rooms of the 1940s, typified by ENIAC, one of the earliest examples of a data center. Early computer systems, complex to operate and maintain, required a special environment in which to operate. Many cables were necessary to connect all the components, and methods to accommodate and organize these were devised such as standard racks to mount equipment, raised floors, and cable trays (installed overhead or under the elevated floor). A single mainframe required a great deal of power and had to be cooled to avoid overheating. Security became important – computers were expensive, and were often used for military purposes. Basic design-guidelines for controlling access to the computer room were therefore devised. During the boom of the microcomputer industry, and especially during the 1980s, users started to deploy computers everywhere, in many cases with little or no care about operating requirements. However, as information technology (IT) operations started to grow in complexity, organizations grew aware of the need to control IT resources. The advent of Unix from the early 1970s led to the subsequent proliferation of freely available Linux-compatible PC operating-systems during the 1990s. These were called \"servers\", as timesharing operating systems such as Unix rely heavily on the client-server model to facilitate sharing unique resources between multiple users. The availability of inexpensive networking equipment, coupled with new standards for the network structured cabling, made it possible to use a hierarchical design that put the servers in a specific room inside the company. The use of the term \"data center\", as applied to specially designed computer rooms, started to gain popular recognition about this time. The boom of data centers came during the dot-com bubble of 1997–2000. Companies needed fast Internet connectivity and non-stop operation to deploy systems and to establish a presence on the Internet. Installing such equipment was not viable for many smaller companies. Many companies started building very large facilities, called Internet data centers (IDCs), which provide enhanced capabilities, such as crossover backup: \"If a Bell Atlantic line is cut, we can transfer them to... to minimize the time of outage.\" The term cloud data centers (CDCs) has been used. Data centers typically cost a lot to build and to maintain. Increasingly, the division of these terms has almost disappeared and they are being integrated into the term \"data center\".", "Modernization and data center transformation enhances performance and energy efficiency. Information security is also a concern, and for this reason, a data center has to offer a secure environment that minimizes the chances of a security breach. A data center must, therefore, keep high standards for assuring the integrity and functionality of its hosted computer environment. Industry research company International Data Corporation (IDC) puts the average age of a data center at nine years old. Gartner, another research company, says data centers older than seven years are obsolete. The growth in data (163 zettabytes by 2025) is one factor driving the need for data centers to modernize. Focus on modernization is not new: concern about obsolete equipment was decried in 2007, and in 2011 Uptime Institute was concerned about the age of the equipment therein. By 2018 concern had shifted once again, this time to the age of the staff: \"data center staff are aging faster than the equipment.\"", "The Telecommunications Industry Association's Telecommunications Infrastructure Standard for Data Centers specifies the minimum requirements for telecommunications infrastructure of data centers and computer rooms including single tenant enterprise data centers and multi-tenant Internet hosting data centers. The topology proposed in this document is intended to be applicable to any size data center. Telcordia GR-3160, \"NEBS Requirements for Telecommunications Data Center Equipment and Spaces\", provides guidelines for data center spaces within telecommunications networks, and environmental requirements for the equipment intended for installation in those spaces. These criteria were developed jointly by Telcordia and industry representatives. They may be applied to data center spaces housing data processing or Information Technology (IT) equipment. The equipment may be used to:", "Data center transformation takes a step-by-step approach through integrated projects carried out over time. This differs from a traditional method of data center upgrades that takes a serial and siloed approach. The typical projects within a data center transformation initiative include standardization/consolidation, virtualization, automation and security.", "The term \"Machine Room\" is at times used to refer to the large room within a Data Center where the actual Central Processing Unit is located; this may be separate from where high-speed printers are located. Air conditioning is most important in the machine room. Aside from air-conditioning, there must be monitoring equipment, one type of which is to detect water prior to flood-level situations. One company, for several decades, has had share-of-mind: Water Alert. The company, as of 2018, has 2 competing manufacturers (Invetex, Hydro-Temp) and 3 competing distributors (Longden, Northeast Flooring, Slayton). A raised floor standards guide named GR-2930 was developed by Telcordia Technologies, a subsidiary of Ericsson. Although the first raised floor computer room was made by IBM in 1956, and they've \"been around since the 1960s,\" it was the 1970s that made it more common for computer centers to thereby allow cool air to circulate more efficiently. The first purpose of the raised floor was to allow access for wiring.", "The \"lights-out\" data center, also known as a darkened or a dark data center, is a data center that, ideally, has all but eliminated the need for direct access by personnel, except under extraordinary circumstances. Because of the lack of need for staff to enter the data center, it can be operated without lighting. All of the devices are accessed and managed by remote systems, with automation programs used to perform unattended operations. In addition to the energy savings, reduction in staffing costs and the ability to locate the site further from population centers, implementing a lights-out data center reduces the threat of malicious attacks upon the infrastructure.", "The two organizations in the United States that publish data center standards are the Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) and the Uptime Institute.", "The Telecommunications Industry Association's TIA-942 standard for data centers, published in 2005 and updated four times since, defined four infrastructure levels.", "Four tiers are defined by the Uptime Institute:", "The field of data center design has been growing for decades in various directions: Local building codes may govern the minimum ceiling heights and other parameters. Some of the considerations in the design of data centers are:", "", "Various metrics exist for measuring the data-availability that results from data-center availability beyond 95% uptime, with the top of the scale counting how many \"nines\" can be placed after \"99%\".", "Modularity and flexibility are key elements in allowing for a data center to grow and change over time. Data center modules are pre-engineered, standardized building blocks that can be easily configured and moved as needed. A modular data center may consist of data center equipment contained within shipping containers or similar portable containers. Components of the data center can be prefabricated and standardized which facilitates moving if needed.", "Temperature and humidity are controlled via:", "Backup power consists of one or more uninterruptible power supplies, battery banks, and/or diesel / gas turbine generators. To prevent single points of failure, all elements of the electrical systems, including backup systems, are typically fully duplicated, and critical servers are connected to both the \"A-side\" and \"B-side\" power feeds. This arrangement is often made to achieve N+1 redundancy in the systems. Static transfer switches are sometimes used to ensure instantaneous switchover from one supply to the other in the event of a power failure.", "Options include:", "Air flow management addresses the need to improve data center computer cooling efficiency by preventing the recirculation of hot air exhausted from IT equipment and reducing bypass airflow. There are several methods of separating hot and cold airstreams, such as hot/cold aisle containment and in-row cooling units.", "Cold aisle containment is done by exposing the rear of equipment racks, while the fronts of the servers are enclosed with doors and covers. Computer cabinets are often organized for containment of hot/cold aisles. Ducting prevents cool and exhaust air from mixing. Rows of cabinets are paired to face each other so that cool air can reach equipment air intakes and warm air can be returned to the chillers without mixing. Alternatively, a range of underfloor panels can create efficient cold air pathways directed to the raised floor vented tiles. Either the cold aisle or the hot aisle can be contained. Another alternative is fitting cabinets with vertical exhaust ducts (chimney) Hot exhaust exits can direct the air into a plenum above a drop ceiling and back to the cooling units or to outside vents. With this configuration, traditional hot/cold aisle configuration is not a requirement.", "Data centers feature fire protection systems, including passive and Active Design elements, as well as implementation of fire prevention programs in operations. Smoke detectors are usually installed to provide early warning of a fire at its incipient stage. Two water-based options are:", "Physical access is usually restricted. Layered security often starts with fencing, bollards and mantraps. Video camera surveillance and permanent security guards are almost always present if the data center is large or contains sensitive information. Fingerprint recognition mantraps is starting to be commonplace. Logging access is required by some data protection regulations; some organizations tightly link this to access control systems. Multiple log entries can occur at the main entrance, entrances to internal rooms, and at equipment cabinets. Access control at cabinets can be integrated with intelligent power distribution units, so that locks are networked through the same appliance.", "Energy use is a central issue for data centers. Power draw ranges from a few kW for a rack of servers in a closet to several tens of MW for large facilities. Some facilities have power densities more than 100 times that of a typical office building. For higher power density facilities, electricity costs are a dominant operating expense and account for over 10% of the total cost of ownership (TCO) of a data center. Power costs for 2012 often exceeded the cost of the original capital investment. Greenpeace estimated worldwide data center power consumption for 2012 as about 382 billion kWh. Global data centers used roughly 416 TWh in 2016, nearly 40% more than the entire United Kingdom; USA DC consumption was 90 billion kWh.", "In 2007 the entire information and communication technologies or ICT sector was estimated to be responsible for roughly 2% of global carbon emissions with data centers accounting for 14% of the ICT footprint. The US EPA estimates that servers and data centers are responsible for up to 1.5% of the total US electricity consumption, or roughly.5% of US GHG emissions, for 2007. Given a business as usual scenario greenhouse gas emissions from data centers is projected to more than double from 2007 levels by 2020. In an 18-month investigation by scholars at Rice University's Baker Institute for Public Policy in Houston and the Institute for Sustainable and Applied Infodynamics in Singapore, data center-related emissions will more than triple by 2020.", "The most commonly used energy efficiency metric of data center energy efficiency is power usage effectiveness (PUE), calculated as the ratio of total power entering the data center divided by the power used by IT equipment. It measures the percentage of power used by overhead (cooling, lighting, etc.). The average USA data center has a PUE of 2.0, meaning two watts of total power (overhead + IT equipment) for every watt delivered to IT equipment. State-of-the-art is estimated to be roughly 1.2. Google publishes quarterly efficiency from data centers in operation. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has an Energy Star rating for standalone or large data centers. To qualify for the ecolabel, a data center must be within the top quartile of energy efficiency of all reported facilities. The Energy Efficiency Improvement Act of 2015 (United States) requires federal facilities — including data centers — to operate more efficiently. California's title 24 (2014) of the California Code of Regulations mandates that every newly constructed data center must have some form of airflow containment in place to optimize energy efficiency. European Union also has a similar initiative: EU Code of Conduct for Data Centres.", "The focus of measuring and analyzing energy use goes beyond what's used by IT equipment; facility support hardware such as chillers and fans also use energy. In 2011 server racks in data centers were designed for more than 25 kW and the typical server was estimated to waste about 30% of the electricity it consumed. The energy demand for information storage systems was also rising. A high availability data center was estimated to have a 1 mega watt (MW) demand and consume $20,000,000 in electricity over its lifetime, with cooling representing 35% to 45% of the data center's total cost of ownership. Calculations showed that in two years the cost of powering and cooling a server could be equal to the cost of purchasing the server hardware. Research in 2018 has shown that substantial amount of energy could still be conserved by optimizing IT refresh rates and increasing server utilization. In 2011 Facebook, Rackspace and others founded the Open Compute Project (OCP) to develop and publish open standards for greener data center computing technologies. As part of the project Facebook published the designs of its server, which it had built for its first dedicated data center in Prineville. Making servers taller left space for more effective heat sinks and enabled the use of fans that moved more air with less energy. By not buying commercial off-the-shelf servers, energy consumption due to unnecessary expansion slots on the motherboard and unneeded components, such as a graphics card, was also saved. In 2016 Google joined the project and published the designs of its 48V DC shallow data center rack. This design had long been part of Google data centers. By eliminating the multiple transformers usually deployed in data centers, Google had achieved a 30% increase in energy efficiency. In 2017 sales for data center hardware built to OCP designs topped $1.2 billion and are expected to reach $6 billion by 2021.", "Power is the largest recurring cost to the user of a data center. Cooling it at or below wastes money and energy. Furthermore, overcooling equipment in environments with a high relative humidity can expose equipment to a high amount of moisture that facilitates the growth of salt deposits on conductive filaments in the circuitry. A power and cooling analysis, also referred to as a thermal assessment, measures the relative temperatures in specific areas as well as the capacity of the cooling systems to handle specific ambient temperatures. A power and cooling analysis can help to identify hot spots, over-cooled areas that can handle greater power use density, the breakpoint of equipment loading, the effectiveness of a raised-floor strategy, and optimal equipment positioning (such as AC units) to balance temperatures across the data center. Power cooling density is a measure of how much square footage the center can cool at maximum capacity. The cooling of data centers is the second largest power consumer after servers. The cooling energy varies from 10% of the total energy consumption in the most efficient data centers and goes up to 45% in standard air-cooled data centers.", "An energy efficiency analysis measures the energy use of data center IT and facilities equipment. A typical energy efficiency analysis measures factors such as a data center's power use effectiveness (PUE) against industry standards, identifies mechanical and electrical sources of inefficiency, and identifies air-management metrics. However, the limitation of most current metrics and approaches is that they do not include IT in the analysis. Case studies have shown that by addressing energy efficiency holistically in a data center, major efficiencies can be achieved that are not possible otherwise.", "This type of analysis uses sophisticated tools and techniques to understand the unique thermal conditions present in each data center—predicting the temperature, airflow, and pressure behavior of a data center to assess performance and energy consumption, using numerical modeling. By predicting the effects of these environmental conditions, CFD analysis in the data center can be used to predict the impact of high-density racks mixed with low-density racks and the onward impact on cooling resources, poor infrastructure management practices and AC failure or AC shutdown for scheduled maintenance.", "Thermal zone mapping uses sensors and computer modeling to create a three-dimensional image of the hot and cool zones in a data center. This information can help to identify optimal positioning of data center equipment. For example, critical servers might be placed in a cool zone that is serviced by redundant AC units.", "Data centers use a lot of power, consumed by two main usages: the power required to run the actual equipment and then the power required to cool the equipment. Power-efficiency reduces the first category. Cooling cost reduction from natural ways includes location decisions: When the focus is not being near good fiber connectivity, power grid connections and people-concentrations to manage the equipment, a data center can be miles away from the users. 'Mass' data centers like Google or Facebook don't need to be near population centers. Arctic locations can use outside air, which provides cooling, are getting more popular. Renewable electricity sources are another plus. Thus countries with favorable conditions, such as: Canada, Finland, Sweden, Norway and Switzerland, are trying to attract cloud computing data centers. Bitcoin mining is increasingly being seen as a potential way to build data centers at the site of renewable energy production. Curtailed and clipped energy can be used to secure transactions on the Bitcoin blockchain providing another revenue stream to renewable energy producers.", "It is very difficult to reuse the heat which comes from air cooled data centers. For this reason, data center infrastructures are more often equipped with heat pumps. An alternative to heat pumps is the adoption of liquid cooling throughout a data center. Different liquid cooling techniques are mixed and matched to allow for a fully liquid cooled infrastructure which captures all heat in water. Different liquid technologies are categorized in 3 main groups, Indirect liquid cooling (water cooled racks), Direct liquid cooling (direct-to-chip cooling) and Total liquid cooling (complete immersion in liquid). This combination of technologies allows the creation of a thermal cascade as part of temperature chaining scenarios to create high temperature water outputs from the data center.", "Dynamic Infrastructure provides the ability to intelligently, automatically and securely move workloads within a data center anytime, anywhere, for migrations, provisioning, to enhance performance, or building co-location facilities. It also facilitates performing routine maintenance on either physical or virtual systems all while minimizing interruption. Side benefits include", "Communications in data centers today are most often based on networks running the IP protocol suite. Data centers contain a set of routers and switches that transport traffic between the servers and to the outside world which are connected according to the data center network architecture. Redundancy of the Internet connection is often provided by using two or more upstream service providers (see Multihoming). Some of the servers at the data center are used for running the basic Internet and intranet services needed by internal users in the organization, e.g., e-mail servers, proxy servers, and DNS servers. Network security elements are also usually deployed: firewalls, VPN gateways, intrusion detection systems, and so on. Also common are monitoring systems for the network and some of the applications. Additional off site monitoring systems are also typical, in case of a failure of communications inside the data center.", "Non-mutually exclusive options for backup are: Onsite is traditional, and one major advantage is immediate availability.", "Data backup techniques include having an encrypted copy of the data offsite. Methods used for transporting data are:", "For quick deployment or disaster recovery, several large hardware vendors have developed mobile/modular solutions that can be installed and made operational in very short time." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early years.", "Career.", "Opposition to Nazism.", "Hidden Nobel prize.", "Post-war.", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Laue was born in Pfaffendorf, now part of Koblenz, Germany, to Julius Laue and Minna Zerrenner. In 1898, after passing his \"Abitur\" in Strassburg, he began his compulsory year of military service, after which in 1899 he started to study mathematics, physics, and chemistry at the University of Strassburg, the University of Göttingen, and the Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich (LMU). At Göttingen, he was greatly influenced by the physicists Woldemar Voigt and Max Abraham and the mathematician David Hilbert. After only one semester at Munich, he went to the Friedrich-Wilhelms-University of Berlin in 1902. There, he studied under Max Planck, who gave birth to the quantum theory revolution on 14 December 1900, when he delivered his famous paper before the Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft. At Berlin, Laue attended lectures by Otto Lummer on heat radiation and interference spectroscopy, the influence of which can be seen in Laue's dissertation on interference phenomena in plane-parallel plates, for which he received his doctorate in 1903. Thereafter, Laue spent 1903 to 1905 at Göttingen. Laue completed his Habilitation in 1906 under Arnold Sommerfeld at LMU.", "In 1906, Laue became a \"Privatdozent\" in Berlin and an assistant to Planck. He also met Albert Einstein for the first time; they became friends and Laue went on to contribute to the acceptance and development of Einstein's theory of relativity. Laue continued as assistant to Planck until 1909. In Berlin, he worked on the application of entropy to radiation fields and on the thermodynamic significance of the coherence of light waves. From 1909 to 1912, Laue was a \"Privatdozent\" at the Institute for Theoretical Physics, under Arnold Sommerfeld, at LMU. During the 1911 Christmas recess and in January 1912, Paul Peter Ewald was finishing the writing of his doctoral thesis under Sommerfeld. It was on a walk through the Englischer Garten in Munich in January, that Ewald told Laue about his thesis topic. The wavelengths of concern to Ewald were in the visible region of the spectrum and hence much larger than the spacing between the resonators in Ewald's crystal model. Laue seemed distracted and wanted to know what would be the effect if much smaller wavelengths were considered. In June, Sommerfeld reported to the Physikalische Gesellschaft of Göttingen on the successful diffraction of X-rays by Laue, Paul Knipping and Walter Friedrich at LMU, for which Laue would be awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics, in 1914. While at Munich, he wrote the first volume of his book on relativity during the period 1910 to 1911. In 1912, Laue was called to the University of Zurich as an extraordinarius professor of physics. In 1913, his father was raised to the ranks of hereditary nobility; Laue then became 'Max von Laue'. In 1914 a new professor extraordinarius chair of theoretical physics had been created at the University of Berlin. Laue was offered the position but turned it down, and it was offered to Max Born. But Born was in the army until WW I ended, and before he had occupied the chair, Laue changed his mind and accepted the position. From 1914 to 1919, Laue was at the University of Frankfurt as ordinarius professor of theoretical physics. From 1916, he was engaged in vacuum tube development, at the University of Würzburg, for use in military telephony and wireless communications. In 1919, Laue was called to the University of Berlin as ordinarius professor of theoretical physics, a position he held until 1943, when he was declared emeritus, with his consent and one year before the mandatory retirement age. At the university in 1919, other notables were Walther Nernst, Fritz Haber, and James Franck. Laue, as one of the organizers of the weekly Berlin Physics Colloquium, typically sat in the front row with Nernst and Einstein, who would come over from the Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut für Physik in Berlin-Dahlem, where he was the director. Among Laue's notable students at the university were Leó Szilárd, Fritz London, Max Kohler, and Erna Weber. In 1921, he published the second volume of his book on relativity. As a consultant to the Physikalisch-Technische Reichsanstalt (PTR), Laue met Walther Meissner who was working there on superconductivity. Meissner had discovered that a weak magnetic field decays rapidly to zero in the interior of a superconductor, which is known as the Meissner effect. Laue showed in 1932 that the threshold of the applied magnetic field which destroys superconductivity varies with the shape of the body. Laue published a total of 12 papers and a book on superconductivity. One of the papers was co-authored with Fritz London and his brother Heinz. Meissner published a biography on Laue in 1960. The Kaiser-Wilhelm Gesellschaft zur Förderung der Wissenschaften (Today: Max-Planck Gesellschaft zur Förderung der Wissenschaften) was founded in 1911. Its purpose was to promote the sciences by founding and maintaining research institutes. One such institute was the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institut für Physik (KWIP) founded in Berlin-Dahlem in 1914, with Einstein as director. Laue was a trustee of the institute from 1917, and in 1922 he was appointed deputy director, whereupon Laue took over the administrative duties from Einstein. Einstein was traveling abroad when Adolf Hitler became Chancellor in January 1933, and Einstein did not return to Germany. Laue then became acting director of the KWIP, a position he held until 1946 or 1948, except for the period 1935 to 1939, when Peter Debye was director. In 1943, to avoid casualties to the personnel, the KWIP moved to Hechingen. It was at Hechingen that Laue wrote his book on the history of physics \"Geschichte der Physik\", which was eventually translated into seven other languages.", "Laue opposed Nazism in general and \"Deutsche Physik\" in particular – the former persecuted the Jews, in general, and the latter, among other things, put down Einstein's theory of relativity as \"Jewish physics\", which Laue saw as ridiculous: \"science has no race or religion\". Laue and his close friend Otto Hahn secretly helped scientific colleagues persecuted by Nazi policies to emigrate from Germany. Laue also openly opposed Nazi policies. An address on 18 September 1933 at the opening of the physics convention in Würzburg, opposition to Johannes Stark, an obituary note on Fritz Haber in 1934, and attendance at a commemoration for Haber are examples which clearly illustrate Laue's courageous, open opposition: The speech and the obituary note earned Laue government reprimands. Furthermore, in response to Laue blocking Stark's regular membership in the Prussian Academy of Sciences, Stark, in December 1933, had Laue sacked from his position as advisor to the PTR, which Laue had held since 1925. Chapters 4 and 5, in Welker's \"Nazi Science: Myth, Truth, and the Atomic Bomb\", present a more detailed account of the struggle by Laue and Planck against the Nazi takeover of the Prussian Academy of Sciences.", "When Nazi Germany invaded Denmark in World War II, the Hungarian chemist George de Hevesy dissolved the Nobel Prize gold medals of Laue and James Franck in aqua regia to prevent the Nazis from discovering them. At the time, it was illegal to take gold out of the country, and if it had been discovered that Laue had done so he could have faced prosecution in Germany. Hevesy placed the resulting solution on a shelf in his laboratory at the Niels Bohr Institute. After the war, he returned to find the solution undisturbed and precipitated the gold out of the acid. The Nobel Society then re-cast the Nobel Prize gold medals, using the original gold.", "On 23 April 1945, French troops entered Hechingen, followed the next day by a contingent of Operation Alsos – an operation to investigate the German nuclear energy effort, seize equipment, and prevent German scientists from being captured by the Soviets. The scientific advisor to the Operation was the Dutch-American physicist Samuel Goudsmit, who, adorned with a steel helmet, appeared at Laue's home. Laue was taken into custody and taken to Huntingdon, England, and interned at Farm Hall with other scientists thought to be involved in nuclear research and development. While incarcerated, Laue was a reminder to the other detainees that one could survive the Nazi reign without having \"compromised\"; this alienated him from others being detained. During his incarceration, Laue wrote a paper on the absorption of X-rays under the interference conditions, and it was later published in \"Acta Crystallographica\". On 2 October 1945, Laue, Otto Hahn, and Werner Heisenberg, were taken to meet with Henry Hallett Dale, president of the Royal Society, and other members of the Society. There, Laue was invited to attend 9 November 1945 Royal Society meeting in memory of the German physicist Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen, who discovered X-rays; permission was, however, not forthcoming from the military authorities detaining von Laue. Laue was returned to Germany early in 1946. He went back to being acting director of the KWIP, which had been moved to Göttingen. It was also in 1946 that the Kaiser-Wilhelm Gesellschaft was renamed the Max-Planck Gesellschaft, and, likewise, the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institut für Physik became the Max-Planck Institut für Physik. Laue also became an adjunct professor at the University of Göttingen. In addition to his administrative and teaching responsibilities, Laue wrote his book on superconductivity, \"Theorie der Supraleitung\", and revised his books on electron diffraction, \"Materiewellen und ihre Interferenzen\", and the first volume of his two-volume book on relativity. In July 1946, Laue went back to England, only four months after having been interned there, to attend an international conference on crystallography. This was a distinct honor, as he was the only German invited to attend. He was extended many courtesies by the British officer who escorted him there and back, and a well-known English crystallographer as his host; Laue was even allowed to wander around London on his own free will. After the war, there was much to be done in re-establishing and organizing German scientific endeavors. Laue participated in some key roles. In 1946, he initiated the founding of the Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft in only the British Occupation Zone, as the Allied Control Council would not initially allow organizations across occupation zone boundaries. During the war, the PTR had been dispersed; von Laue, from 1946 to 1948, worked on its re-unification across three zones and its location at new facilities in Braunschweig. Additionally, it took on a new name as the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt, but administration was not taken over by Germany until after the formation of West Germany on 23 May 1949. Circa 1948, the President of the American Physical Society asked Laue to report on the status of physics in Germany; his report was published in 1949 in the \"American Journal of Physics\". In 1950, Laue participated in the creation of the Verband Deutscher Physikalischer Gesellschaften, formerly affiliated under the Nordwestdeutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft. In April 1951, Laue became director of the Max-Planck Institut für physikalische Chemie und Elektrochemie, a position he held until 1959. In 1953, at the request of Laue, the Institute was renamed the Fritz Haber Institut für physikalische Chemie und Elektrochemie der Max-Planck Gesellschaft.", "It was in 1913 that Laue's father, Julius Laue, a civil servant in the military administration, was raised into the ranks of hereditary nobility. Thus Max Laue became Max von Laue. Laue married Magdalene Degen, while he was a Privatdozent at LMU. They had two children. Among Laue's chief recreational activities were mountaineering, motoring in his automobile, motor-biking, sailing, and skiing. While not a mountain climber, he did enjoy hiking on the Alpine glaciers with his friends. On 8 April 1960, while he was driving to his laboratory, Laue's car was struck in Berlin by a motorcyclist, who had received his license only two days earlier. The motorcyclist was killed and Laue's car was overturned. He died from his injuries sixteen days later on 24 April. Being a profound believer, he had asked that his epitaph should read that he had died trusting firmly in God's mercy." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Career.", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Binnig was born in Frankfurt am Main and played in the ruins of the city during his childhood. His family lived partly in Frankfurt and partly in Offenbach am Main, and he attended school in both cities. At the age of 10, he decided to become a physicist, but he soon wondered whether he had made the right choice. He concentrated more on music, playing in a band. He also started playing the violin at 15 and played in his school orchestra. Binnig studied physics at the J.W. Goethe University in Frankfurt, gaining a bachelor's degree in 1973 and remaining there do a PhD with in Werner Martienssen's group, supervised by Eckhardt Hoenig.", "In 1978, Binnig accepted an offer from IBM to join their Zürich research group, where he worked with Heinrich Rohrer, Christoph Gerber and Edmund Weibel. There they developed the scanning tunneling microscope (STM), an instrument for imaging surfaces at the atomic level. The Nobel committee described the effect that the invention of the STM had on science, saying that \"entirely new fields are opening up for the study of the structure of matter.\" The physical principles on which the STM was based were already known before the IBM team developed the STM, but Binnig and his colleagues were the first to solve the significant experimental challenges involved in putting it into effect. The IBM Zürich team were soon recognized with a number of prizes: the German Physics Prize, the Otto Klung Prize, the Hewlett Packard Prize and the King Faisal Prize. In 1986, Binnig and Rohrer shared half of the Nobel Prize in Physics, the other half of the Prize was awarded to Ernst Ruska. From 1985-1988, he worked in California. He was at IBM in Almaden Valley, and was visiting professor at Stanford University. In 1985, Binnig invented the atomic force microscope (AFM) and Binnig, Christoph Gerber and Calvin Quate went on to develop a working version of this new microscope for insulating surfaces. In 1987 Binnig was appointed IBM Fellow. In the same year, he started the IBM Physics group Munich, working on creativity. and atomic force microscopy. In 1994 Professor Gerd Binnig founded Definiens which turned in the year 2000 into a commercial enterprise. The company developed Cognition Network Technology to analyze images just like the human eye and brain are capable of doing. in 2016, Binnig won the Kavli Prize in Nanoscience. He became a fellow of the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters. The Binnig and Rohrer Nanotechnology Center, an IBM-owned research facility in Rüschlikon, Zürich is named after Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer.", "In 1969, Binnig married Lore Wagler, a psychologist, and they have a daughter born in Switzerland and a son born in California. His hobbies include reading, swimming, and golf." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Post-World War II life and work.", "Personal life.", "Research.", "1949–1950.", "1951–1953: DNA structure.", "Molecular biology.", "Controversy.", "Use of other researchers' data.", "Eugenics.", "Harassment.", "Views on religion.", "Directed panspermia.", "Neuroscience and other interests.", "Awards and honours.", "Francis Crick Medal and Lecture.", "Francis Crick Institute.", "Francis Crick Graduate Lectures." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Crick was the first son of Harry Crick (1887–1948) and Annie Elizabeth Crick (née Wilkins; 1879–1955). He was born on 8 June 1916 and raised in Weston Favell, then a small village near the English town of Northampton, in which Crick's father and uncle ran the family's boot and shoe factory. His grandfather, Walter Drawbridge Crick (1857–1903), an amateur naturalist, wrote a survey of local foraminifera (single-celled protists with shells), corresponded with Charles Darwin, and had two gastropods (snails or slugs) named after him. At an early age, Francis was attracted to science and what he could learn about it from books. As a child, he was taken to church by his parents. But by about age 12, he said he did not want to go any more, as he preferred a scientific search for answers over religious belief. Walter Crick, his uncle, lived in a small house on the south side of Abington Avenue; he had a shed at the bottom of his little garden where he taught Crick to blow glass, do chemical experiments and to make photographic prints. When he was eight or nine he transferred to the most junior form of the Northampton Grammar School, on the Billing Road. This was about from his home so he could walk there and back, by Park Avenue South and Abington Park Crescent, but he more often went by bus or, later, by bicycle. The teacher –", "In 1947, aged 31, Crick began studying biology and became part of an important migration of physical scientists into biology research. This migration was made possible by the newly won influence of physicists such as Sir John Randall, who had helped win the war with inventions such as radar. Crick had to adjust from the \"elegance and deep simplicity\" of physics to the \"elaborate chemical mechanisms that natural selection had evolved over billions of years.\" He described this transition as, \"almost as if one had to be born again.\" According to Crick, the experience of learning physics had taught him something important—hubris—and the conviction that since physics was already a success, great advances should also be possible in other sciences such as biology. Crick felt that this attitude encouraged him to be more daring than typical biologists who tended", "Crick married twice, fathered three children and was the grandfather of six grandchildren; his brother Anthony (born in 1918) predeceased him in 1966. Spouses: Children: Grandchildren Crick died of colon cancer on the morning of 28 July 2004 at the University of California, San Diego (UCSD) Thornton Hospital in La", "Crick was interested in two fundamental unsolved problems of biology: how molecules make the transition from the non-living to the living, and how the brain makes a conscious mind. He realised that his background made him more qualified for research on the first topic and the field of biophysics. It was at this time of Crick's transition from physics to biology that he was influenced by both Linus Pauling and Erwin Schrödinger. It was clear in theory that covalent bonds in biological molecules could provide the structural stability needed to hold genetic information in cells. It only remained as an exercise of experimental biology to discover exactly which molecule was the genetic molecule. In Crick's view, Charles Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection, Gregor Mendel's genetics and knowledge of the molecular basis of genetics, when combined, revealed the secret of life. Crick had the very optimistic view that life would very soon be created in a test tube. However, some people (such as fellow researcher and colleague Esther Lederberg) thought that Crick was unduly optimistic It was clear that some macromolecule such as a protein was likely to be the genetic molecule. However, it was well known that proteins are structural and functional macromolecules, some of which carry out enzymatic reactions of cells. In the 1940s, some evidence had been found pointing to another macromolecule, DNA, the other major component of chromosomes, as a candidate genetic molecule. In the 1944 Avery-MacLeod-McCarty experiment, Oswald Avery and his collaborators showed that a heritable phenotypic difference could be caused in bacteria by providing them with a particular DNA molecule. However, other evidence was interpreted as suggesting that DNA was structurally uninteresting and possibly just a molecular scaffold for the apparently more interesting protein molecules. Crick was in the right place, in the right frame of mind, at the right time (1949), to join Max Perutz's project at the University of Cambridge, and he began to work on the X-ray crystallography of proteins. X-ray crystallography theoretically offered the opportunity to reveal the molecular structure of large molecules like proteins and DNA, but there were serious technical problems then preventing X-ray crystallography from being applicable to such large molecules.", "Crick taught himself the mathematical theory of X-ray crystallography. During the period of Crick's study of X-ray diffraction, researchers in the Cambridge lab were attempting to determine the most stable helical conformation of amino acid chains in proteins (the alpha helix). Linus Pauling was the first to identify the 3.6 amino acids per helix turn ratio", "In 1951 and 1952, together with William Cochran and Vladimir Vand, Crick assisted in the development of a mathematical theory of X-ray diffraction by a helical molecule. This theoretical result matched well with X-ray data for proteins that contain sequences of amino acids in the alpha helix conformation. Helical diffraction theory turned out to also be useful for understanding the structure of DNA. Late in 1951, Crick started working with James Watson at Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge, England. Using \"Photo 51\" (the X-ray diffraction results of Rosalind Franklin and her graduate student Raymond Gosling of King's College London, given to them by Gosling and Franklin's colleague Wilkins), Watson and Crick together developed a model for a helical structure of DNA, which they published in 1953. For this and subsequent work they were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1962 with Wilkins. When Watson came to Cambridge, Crick was a 35-year-old graduate student (due to his work during WWII) and Watson was only 23, but he already had a PhD They shared an interest in the fundamental problem of learning how genetic information might be stored in molecular form. Watson and Crick talked endlessly about DNA and the idea that it might be possible to guess a good molecular model of its structure. A key piece of experimentally-derived information came from X-ray diffraction images that had been obtained by Wilkins, Franklin, and Gosling. In November 1951, Wilkins came to Cambridge and shared his data with Watson and Crick. Alexander Stokes (another expert in helical diffraction theory) and Wilkins (both at King's College) had reached the conclusion that X-ray diffraction data for DNA indicated that the molecule had a helical structure—but Franklin vehemently disputed this conclusion. Stimulated by their discussions with Wilkins and what Watson learned by attending a talk given by Franklin about her work on DNA, Crick and Watson produced and showed off an erroneous first model of DNA. Their hurry to produce a model of DNA structure was driven in part by the knowledge that they were competing against Linus Pauling. Given Pauling's recent success in discovering the Alpha helix, they feared that Pauling might also be the first to determine the structure of DNA. Many have speculated about what might have happened had Pauling been able to travel to Britain as", "In 1954, at the age of 37, Crick completed his PhD thesis: \"\"X-Ray Diffraction: Polypeptides and Proteins\"\" and received his degree. Crick then worked in the laboratory of David Harker at Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute, where he continued to develop his skills in the analysis of X-ray diffraction data for proteins, working primarily on ribonuclease and the mechanisms of protein synthesis. David Harker, the American X-ray crystallographer, was described as \"the John Wayne of crystallography\" by Vittorio Luzzati, a crystallographer at the Centre for Molecular Genetics in Gif-sur-Yvette near Paris, who had worked with Rosalind Franklin. After the discovery of the double helix model of DNA, Crick's interests quickly turned to the biological implications of the structure. In 1953, Watson and Crick published another article in \"Nature\" which stated:", "", "An enduring controversy has been generated by Watson and Crick's use of DNA X-ray diffraction data collected by Franklin and Wilkins. The controversy arose from the fact that some of Franklin's unpublished data were used without her knowledge or consent by Watson and Crick in their construction of the double helix model of DNA. Of the four DNA researchers, only Franklin had a degree in chemistry; Wilkins and Crick had backgrounds in physics, Watson in biology. Prior to publication of the double helix structure, Watson and Crick had little direct interaction with Franklin herself. They were, however, aware of her work, more aware than she herself realised. Watson was present at a lecture, given in November 1951, where Franklin presented the two forms of the molecule, type A and type B, and discussed the position of the phosphate units on the external part of the molecule. She also specified the amount of water to be found in the molecule in accordance with other parts of it, data", "Crick occasionally expressed his views on eugenics, usually in private letters. For example, Crick advocated a form of positive eugenics in which wealthy parents would be encouraged to have more children. He once remarked, \"In the long run, it is unavoidable that society will begin to worry about the character of the next generation... It is", "Biologist Nancy Hopkins says when she was an undergraduate in the 1960s, Crick put his hands on her breasts during a lab", "Crick referred to himself as a humanist, which he defined as the belief \"that human problems can and must be faced in terms of human moral and intellectual resources without invoking supernatural authority.\" He publicly called for humanism to replace religion as a guiding force for humanity, writing: The human dilemma is hardly new. We find ourselves through no wish of our own on this slowly revolving planet in an obscure corner of a vast universe. Our questioning intelligence will not let us live in cow-like content with our lot. We have a deep need to know why we are here. What is the world made of? More important, what are we made of? In the past religion answered these questions, often in considerable detail. Now we know that almost all these answers are highly likely to be nonsense, having sprung from man's ignorance and his enormous capacity for self-deception... The simple fables of the religions of the world have come to seem like tales told to children. Even understood symbolically they are often perverse, if not rather unpleasant... Humanists, then, live in a mysterious, exciting and intellectually expanding world, which, once glimpsed, makes the old worlds of the religions seem fake-cosy and stale... Crick was especially critical of Christianity: I do not respect Christian beliefs. I think they are ridiculous. If we could get rid of them we could more easily get down to the serious problem of trying to find out what the world is all about. Crick once joked, \"Christianity may be OK between consenting adults in private but should not be taught to young children.\" In his book \"Of Molecules and Men\", Crick expressed his views on the relationship between science and religion. After suggesting that it would become possible for a computer to be programmed so as to have a soul, he wondered: at what point during biological evolution did the first organism have a soul? At what moment does a baby get a soul? Crick stated his view that the idea of a non-material soul that could enter a body and then persist after death is just that, an imagined idea. For Crick, the mind is a product of physical brain activity and the brain had evolved by natural means over millions of years. He felt that it was important that evolution by natural selection be taught in schools and that it was regrettable that English schools had compulsory religious instruction. He also considered that a new scientific world view was rapidly being established, and predicted that once the detailed workings of the brain were eventually revealed, erroneous Christian concepts about the nature of humans and the world would no longer be tenable; traditional conceptions of the \"soul\" would be replaced by a new understanding of the physical basis of mind. He was sceptical of organised religion, referring to himself as a sceptic and an agnostic with \"a strong inclination towards atheism\". In 1960, Crick accepted an honorary fellowship at Churchill College, Cambridge, one factor being that the new college did not have a chapel. Some time later a large donation was made to establish a chapel and the College Council decided to accept it. Crick resigned his fellowship in protest. In October 1969 Crick participated in a celebration of the 100th year of the journal \"Nature\" in which he attempted to make some predictions about what the next 30 years would hold for molecular biology. His speculations were later published in \"Nature\". Near the end of the article, Crick briefly mentioned the search for life on other planets, but he held little hope that extraterrestrial life would be found by the year 2000. He also discussed what he described as a possible new direction for research, what he called \"biochemical theology\". Crick wrote \"so many people pray that one finds it hard to believe that they do not get some satisfaction from it\". Crick suggested that it might be possible to find chemical changes in the brain that were molecular correlates of the act of prayer. He speculated that there might be a detectable change in the level of some neurotransmitter or neurohormone when people pray. He might have been imagining substances such as dopamine that are released by the brain under certain conditions and produce rewarding sensations. Crick's suggestion that there might someday be a new science of \"biochemical theology\" seems to have been realised under an alternative name: there is now the new field of neurotheology. Crick's view of the relationship between science and religion continued to play a role in his work as he made the transition from molecular biology research into theoretical neuroscience. Crick asked in 1998 \"and if some of the Bible is manifestly wrong, why should any of the rest of it be accepted automatically?... And what would be more important than to find our true place in the universe by removing one by one these unfortunate vestiges of earlier beliefs?\" In 2003 he was one of 22 Nobel laureates who signed the \"Humanist Manifesto\".", "During the 1960s, Crick became concerned with the origins of the genetic code. In 1966, Crick took the place of Leslie Orgel at a meeting where Orgel was to talk about the origin of life. Crick speculated about possible stages by which an initially simple code with a few amino acid types might have evolved into the more complex code used by existing organisms. At that time, everyone thought of proteins as the only kind of enzymes, and ribozymes had not yet been found. Many molecular biologists were puzzled by the problem of the origin of a protein replicating system that is as complex as that which exists in organisms currently inhabiting Earth. In the early 1970s, Crick", "Crick's period at Cambridge was the pinnacle of his long scientific career, but he left Cambridge in 1977 after 30 years, having been offered (and having refused) the Mastership of Gonville and Caius. James Watson claimed at a Cambridge conference marking the 50th anniversary of the discovery of the structure of DNA in 2003: Now perhaps it's a pretty well kept secret that one of the most uninspiring acts of the University of Cambridge over this past century was to turn down Francis Crick when he applied to be the Professor of Genetics, in 1958. Now there may have been a series of arguments, which led them to reject Francis. It was really saying, don't push us to the frontier. The apparently \"pretty well kept secret\" had already been recorded in Soraya De Chadarevian's \"Designs For Life: Molecular Biology After World War II\", published by Cambridge University Press in 2002. His major contribution to molecular biology in Cambridge is well documented in \"The History of the University of Cambridge: Volume 4 (1870 to 1990)\", which was published by CUP in 1992. According to the University of Cambridge's genetics department official website, the electors of the professorship could not reach consensus, prompting the intervention of then University Vice-Chancellor Lord Adrian. Lord Adrian first offered the professorship to a compromise candidate, Guido Pontecorvo, who refused, and is said to have offered it then to Crick, who also refused. In 1976, Crick took a sabbatical year at the Salk Institute for Biological Studies in La Jolla, California. Crick", "In addition to his third share of the 1962 Nobel prize for Physiology or Medicine, he received many awards and honours, including the Royal and Copley medals of the Royal Society (1972 and 1975), and also the Order of Merit (on 27 November 1991); he refused an offer of a CBE in 1963, but was often referred to in error as 'Sir Francis Crick' and even on occasions as 'Lord Crick.' He was elected an EMBO Member in 1964. The award of Nobel prizes to John Kendrew and Max Perutz, and to Crick, Watson, and Wilkins was satirised in a short sketch in the BBC TV programme \"That Was The Week That Was\" with the Nobel Prizes being referred to as 'The Alfred Nobel Peace Pools.'", "The Francis Crick Medal and Lecture was established in 2003 following an endowment by his former colleague, Sydney Brenner, joint winner of the 2002 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine. The lecture is delivered annually in any field of biological sciences, with", "The Francis Crick Institute is a £660 million biomedical research centre located in north London, United Kingdom. The Francis Crick Institute is a partnership", "The University of Cambridge Graduate School of Biological, Medical and Veterinary" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Predecessors.", "Production OHV engines.", "Replacement by OHC engines.", "Design." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The first internal combustion engines were based on steam engines and therefore used slide valves. This was the case for the first Otto engine, which was first successfully run in 1876. As internal combustion engines began to develop separately to steam engines, poppet valves became increasingly common, with most engines until the 1950s using a side-valve (flathead) design. Beginning with the 1885 Daimler Reitwagen, several cars and motorcycles used inlet valve(s) located in the cylinder head, however these valves were vacuum-actuated (\"atmospheric\") rather than driven by a camshaft as per typical OHV engines. The exhaust valve(s) were driven by a camshaft, but were located in the engine block as per side-valve engines. The 1894 Diesel prototype engine used overhead poppet valves actuated by a camshaft, pushrods and rocker arms, therefore becoming one of the first OHV engines. In 1896, U.S. patent 563,140 was taken out by William F. Davis for an OHV engine with liquid coolant used to cool the cylinder head. but no working model was built.", "In 1898, bicycle manufacturer Walter Lorenzo Marr in the United States built a prototype motorised tricycle powered by a single-cylinder OHV engine. Marr was hired by Buick (then named \"Buick Auto-Vim and Power Company\") from 1899–1902, where the overhead valve engine design was further refined. This engine employed pushrod-actuated rocker arms, which in turn opened valves parallel to the pistons. Marr returned to Buick in 1904 (having built a small quantity of the Marr Auto-Car, with the first known engine to use an overhead camshaft design), the same year that Buick received a patent for an overhead valve engine design. In 1904, the world's first production OHV engine was released in the Buick Model B. The engine was a flat-twin design with two valves per cylinder. The engine was very successful for Buick, with the company selling 750 such cars in 1905. Several other manufacturers began to produce OHV engines, such as the 1906–1912 Wright Brothers \"Vertical 4-Cylinder Engine\". However, side-valve engines remained commonplace until the late 1940s, when they began to be phased out for OHV engines.", "The first overhead camshaft (OHC) engine dates back to 1902, however use of this design was mostly limited to high performance cars for many decades. OHC engines slowly became more common from the 1950s to the 1990s, and by the start of the 21st century, the majority of automotive engines (except for some North American V8 engines) used an OHC design. At the 1994 Indianapolis 500 motor race, Team Penske entered a car powered by the custom built Mercedes-Benz 500I OHV engine. Due to a loophole in the rules, the OHV engine was allowed to use a larger displacement and higher boost pressure, significantly increasing its power output compared to the OHC engines used by other teams. Team Penske qualified in pole position and won the race by a large margin. In the early 21st century, several OHV V8 engines from General Motors and Chrysler used variable displacement to reduce fuel consumption and exhaust emissions. In 2008, the first production OHV engine to use variable valve timing was introduced in the Dodge Viper (fourth generation).", "OHV engines have several advantages compared OHC engines: Compared with OHC engines, OHV engines have the following disadvantages:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Announcement of the Mahdiyya.", "Response of the 'Ulema.", "Advance of the rebellion.", "Khartoum.", "Arrival of Gordon.", "Siege.", "Fall of Khartoum.", "Death and succession.", "Aftermath.", "Political heritage." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Muhammad Ahmad was born on 12 August 1844 at Labab Island, Dongola in northern Sudan to a humble Nubian family of boat-builders who trace their descent from the Islamic prophet Muhammad through the line of his grandson Hassan. When Muhammad Ahmad was still a child, the family moved to the town of Karari, north of Omdurman, where Muhammad Ahmad's father, Abdullah, could find an adequate supply of timber for his successful boat-building business. While his siblings joined his father's trade, Muhammad Ahmad showed a proclivity for religious study. He studied first under Sheikh al-Amin al-Suwaylih in the Gezira region around Khartoum, and subsequently under Sheikh Muhammad al-Dikayr 'Abdallah Khujali near the town of Berber in North Sudan. Determined to live a life of asceticism, mysticism and worship, in 1861 he sought out Sheikh Muhammad Sharif Nur al-Dai'm, the grandson of the founder of the Samaniyya Sufi sect in Sudan. Muhammad Ahmad stayed with Sheikh Muhammad Sharif for seven years, during which time he was recognized for his piety and asceticism. Near the end of this period, he was awarded the title of Sheikh himself, and began to travel around the country on religious missions. He was permitted to give tariqa and Uhūd to new followers. In 1870, his family moved again in search for timber, this time to Aba Island on the White Nile south of Khartoum. On Aba Island, Muhammad Ahmad built a mosque and started to teach the Qur'an. He soon gained a notable reputation among the local population as an excellent speaker and mystic. The broad thrust of his teaching followed that of other reformers, his Islam was one devoted to the words of Muhammad and based on a return to the virtues of strict devotion, prayer, and simplicity as laid down in the Qur'an. In 1872, Muhammad Ahmad invited Sheikh Sharif to move to al-Aradayb, an area on the White Nile neighboring Aba Island. Despite initially amicable relations, in 1878 the two religious leaders had a dispute motivated by Sheikh Sharif's resentment of his former student's growing popularity. As a result, Sheikh Sharif expelled his former student from the Samaniyya order, and despite numerous attempts at reconciliation by Muhammad Ahmad, his mentor refused to make peace. After recognizing that the split with Sheikh Sharif was irreconcilable, Muhammad Ahmad approached another respected leader of the Samaniyya order named Sheikh al-Qurashi wad al-Zayn. Muhammad Ahmad resumed his life of piety and religious devotion at Aba Island. During this period, he also traveled to the province of Kordofan, west of Khartoum, where he visited with the notables of the capital, El-Obeid, who were enmeshed in a power struggle between two rival claimants to the governorship of the province. On 25 July 1878, Sheikh al-Qurashi died and his followers recognized Muhammad Ahmad as their new leader. Around this time, Muhammad Ahmad first met Abdallahi bin Muhammad al-Ta'aishi, who was to become his chief deputy and successor in the years to come.", "On 29 June 1881, Muhammad Ahmad publicly announced his Mahdiyya so as to prepare the way for the second coming of the Prophet Isa (Jesus). In part, his claim was based on his status as a prominent Sufi sheikh with a large following in the Samaniyya order and among the tribes in the area around Aba Island. Yet the idea of the Mahdiyya had been central to the belief of the Samaniyya prior to Muhammad Ahmad's manifestation. The previous Samaniyya leader, Sheikh al-Qurashi Wad al-Zayn, had asserted that the long-awaited-for redeemer would come from the Samaniyya line. According to Sheikh al-Qurashi, the Mahdi would make himself known through a number of signs, some established in the early period of Islam and recorded in the Hadith literature, and others having a more distinctly local origin, such as the prediction that the Mahdi would ride the sheikh's pony and erect a dome over his grave after his death. Drawing from aspects of the Sufi tradition that were intimately familiar to both his followers and his opponents, Muhammad Ahmad claimed that he had been appointed as the Mahdi by a prophetic assembly or hadra (Arabic: Al-Hadra Al-Nabawiyya, الحضرة النبوية). A hadra, in the Sufi tradition, is a gathering of all the prophets from the time of Adam to Muhammad, as well as many Sufi holy men who are believed to have reached the highest level of affinity with the divine during their lifetime. The hadra is chaired by the Prophet Muhammad, known as Sayyid al-Wujud, and at his side are the seven Qutb, the most senior of whom is known as Ghawth az-Zaman. The hadra was also the source of a number of central beliefs about the Mahdi, including that he was created from the sacred light at the centre of the Prophet's heart, and that all living creatures had acknowledged the Mahdi's claim since his birth. Muhammad Ahmad framed the Mahdiyya as a return to the early days of Islam, when the Muslim community, or Ummah, was unified under the guidance of the Prophet Muhammad and his immediate successors. Later, in order to distinguish his followers from adherents of other Sufi sects, he forbade the use of the word darwish (commonly known as \"dervish\" in English) to describe his followers, replacing it with the title Ansar, the term the Prophet Muhammad used for the people of Medina who welcomed him and his followers after their flight from Mecca.", "Despite his popularity among the clerics of the Samaniyya and other sects, and among the tribes of western Sudan, some of the Ulema, or orthodox religious authorities, rejected Muhammad Ahmad's claim to be the Mahdi. Among his most prominent critics were the Sudanese Ulema loyal to the Ottoman Sultan and employed by the Turco-Egyptian government, such as the Mufti Shakir al-Ghazi, who sat on the Council of Appeal in Khartoum, and the Qadi Ahmad al-Azhari in Kordofan. These critics were careful not to deny the concept of the Mahdi as such, but rather to discredit Muhammad Ahmad's claim to it. They pointed out that Muhammad Ahmad's manifestation did not conform to the prophecies laid out in the Hadith literature. In particular, they argued for the political interests of the Turco-Egyptian government and its British rulers, that his manifestation did not conform with the \"time of troubles\" \"when the land is filled with oppression, tryanny, and enmity\".", "Egyptian authorities attempted to arrest him for inciting the Sudanese people to achieve their independence and overthrow their oppressors. A military expedition was sent to reassert the government's authority on Aba Island, but the government's forces were ambushed and nearly annihilated by the Mahdi's followers. The Mahdi and a party of his followers, the \"Ansār\" (helpers, known in the West as \"the Dervishes\"), made a long march to Kurdufan. There he gained a large number of recruits, especially from the Baqqara, and notable leaders such as Sheikh Madibbo ibn Ali of Rizeigat and Abdallahi ibn Muhammad of Ta'aisha tribes. They were also joined by the Hadendoa Beja, who were rallied to the Mahdi by an Ansār captain in east of Sudan in 1883, Osman Digna. The Mahdist revolution was backed by the Northern and western regions of Sudan, and it also found a great support from the Nuer, Shilluk and Anuak tribes from southern Sudan in addition to the tribes of Bahr Alghazal, a thing which affirmed that the Mahdist revolution was a national revolution and not a regional one. In addition to unifying different tribes, the revolution also cut across religious divides, despite its religious origins. The Mahdi was supported by non-Muslims and Muslims alike. This had important implications for the slave trade, because the Mahdi, going against traditional Islamic injunctions, allowed the enslavement of free Muslims who did not support him and forbade the enslavement of the traditionally hunted non-Muslims who did support him. Late in 1883, the Ansār, armed only with spears and swords, overwhelmed a 4,000-man Egyptian force not far from El-Obeid, and seized their rifles and ammunition. The Mahdi followed up this victory by laying siege to El-Obeid and starving it into submission after four months. The town remained the headquarters of the Ansar for much of the decade. The Ansār, now 40,000 strong, then defeated an 8,000-man Egyptian relief force led by British officer William Hicks at Sheikan, in the battle of El Obeid. The defeat of Hicks sealed the fate of Darfur, which until then had been effectively defended by Rudolf Carl von Slatin. Jabal Qadir in the south was also taken. The western half of Sudan was now firmly in Ansārī hands. Their success emboldened the Hadendoa, who under the generalship of Osman Digna wiped out a smaller force of Egyptians under the command of Colonel Valentine Baker near the Red Sea port of Suakin. Major-General Gerald Graham was sent with a force of 4,000 British soldiers and defeated Digna at El Teb on February 29, but were themselves hard-hit two weeks later at Tamai. Graham eventually withdrew his forces.", "After much debate the British decided to abandon the Sudan in December 1883, holding only several northern towns and Red Sea ports, such as Khartoum, Kassala, Sannar, and Sawakin. The evacuation of Egyptian troops and officials and other foreigners from Sudan was assigned to General Gordon, who had been reappointed governor general with orders to return to Khartoum and organize a withdrawal of the Egyptian garrisons there.", "Gordon reached Khartoum in February 1884. At first he was greeted with jubilation as many of the tribes in the immediate area were at odds with the Mahdists. Transportation northward was still open and the telegraph lines intact. However, the uprising of the Beja soon after his arrival changed things considerably, reducing communications to runners. Gordon considered the routes northward to be too dangerous to extricate the garrisons and so pressed for reinforcements to be sent from Cairo to help with the withdrawal. He also suggested that his old enemy Al-Zubayr Rahma Mansur, a fine military commander, be given tacit control of the Sudan in order to provide a counter to the Ansār. London rejected both proposals, and so Gordon prepared for a fight. In March 1884, Gordon tried to stage an offensive to clear the road northward to Egypt but a number of the officers in the Egyptian force went over to the enemy and their forces fled the field after firing a single salvo. This convinced him that he could carry out only defensive operations and he returned to Khartoum to construct defensive works. By April 1884, Gordon had managed to evacuate some 2500 of the foreign population that were able to make the trek northwards. His mobile force under Colonel Stewart then returned to the city after repeated incidents where the 200 or so Egyptian forces under his command would turn and run at the slightest provocation.", "That month the Ansār reached Khartoum and Gordon was completely cut off. Nevertheless, his defensive works, consisting mainly of mines, proved so frightening to the Ansār that they were unable to penetrate into the city. Stewart maintained a number of small skirmishes using gunboats on the Nile once the waters rose, and in August managed to recapture Berber for a short time. However, Stewart was killed soon after in another foray from Berber to Dongola, a fact Gordon only learned about in a letter from the Mahdi himself. Under increasing pressure from the public to support him, the British Government under Prime Minister Gladstone eventually ordered Lord Garnet Joseph Wolseley to relieve Gordon. He was already deployed in Egypt due to the attempted coup there earlier, and was able to form up a large force of infantry, moving forward at an extremely slow rate. Realizing they would take some time to arrive, Gordon pressed for him to send forward a \"flying column\" of camel-borne troops across the Bayyudah Desert from Wadi Halfa under the command of Brigadier-General Sir Herbert Stuart. This force was attacked by the Hadendoa Beja, or \"Fuzzy Wuzzies\", twice, first at the Battle of Abu Klea and two days later nearer Metemma. Twice the British square held and the Mahdists were repelled with heavy losses. At Metemma, north of Khartoum, Wolseley's advance guard met four of Gordon's steamers, sent down to provide speedy transport for the first relieving troops. They gave Wolseley a dispatch from Gordon claiming that the city was about to fall. However, only moments later a runner brought in a message claiming the city could hold out for a year. Deciding to believe the latter, the force stopped while they refit the steamers to hold more troops.", "They finally arrived in Khartoum on 28 January 1885 to find the town had fallen during the Battle of Khartoum two days earlier. When the Nile had receded from flood stage, one of Gordon's pashas (officers), Faraz Pasha, had opened the river gates and let the Ansār in. The garrison was slaughtered, the male population massacred, the women and children enslaved, and Gordon was killed fighting the Mahdi's warriors on the steps of the palace, hacked to pieces and beheaded. When Gordon's head was unwrapped at the Mahdi's feet, he ordered the head transfixed between the branches of a tree \"where all who passed it could look in disdain, children could throw stones at it and the hawks of the desert could sweep and circle above.\" When Wolseley's force arrived, they retreated after attempting to force their way to the center of the town on ships, being met with a hail of fire. The Mahdi Army continued its sweep of victories. Kassala and Sannar fell soon after and by the end of 1885 the Ansār had begun to move into the southern regions of Sudan. In all Sudan, only Suakin, reinforced by Indian troops, and Wadi Halfa on the northern frontier remained in Anglo-Egyptian hands.", "Six months after the capture of Khartoum, Muhammad Ahmad died of typhus. He was buried in Omdurman near the ruins of Khartoum. The Mahdi had planned for this eventuality and chose three deputies to replace him. After the final defeat of the Khalifa by the British under General Kitchener in 1898, Muhammad Ahmad's tomb was destroyed and his bones were thrown into the Nile. General Kitchener was said to have retained his skull. Allegedly the skull was later buried at Wadi Halfa. The tomb was eventually rebuilt.", "", "Muhammed Ahmad's posthumous son, Abd al-Rahman al-Mahdi, whom the British considered important as a popular leader of the Mahdists, became a leader of the neo-Mahdist movement in the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. The Sudanese considered Abd al-Rahman to be the King of Sudan when the country gained independence, but he declined the title for spiritual reasons. 'Abd al-Rahman sponsored the Umma (Nation) political Party in the period before and just after Sudan became independent in 1956. In modern-day Sudan, Muhammad Ahmad is sometimes seen as a precursor of Sudanese nationalism. The Umma party claim to be his political descendants. Their leader Imam Sadiq al-Mahdi, is the great-great-grandson of Muhammad Ahmad, and also the imam of the Ansar, the religious order that pledges allegiance to Muhammad Ahmad. Sadiq al-Mahdi was a democratic leader and Prime Minister of Sudan on two occasions: first briefly in 1966–67, and then between 1986 and 1989." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Career.", "Growth of oceanography.", "Global warming.", "UC San Diego.", "Views on climate change distorted.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Roger Revelle was born in Seattle to William Roger Revelle and Ella Dougan. He grew up in southern California. After graduating from Pomona College in 1929 with early studies in geology, he earned a PhD in oceanography from the University of California, Berkeley in 1936. While at Cal, he studied under George Louderback and was initiated into Theta Tau Professional Engineering Fraternity, which started as a mining engineering fraternity and maintained a strong affinity for geology and geological engineering students. Much of his early work in oceanography took place at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography (SIO) in San Diego. He was also oceanographer for the Navy during WWII. He was director of SIO from 1950 to 1964. He stood against the UC faculty being required to take an anti-communist oath during the Joseph McCarthy period. He served as Science Advisor to Interior Secretary Stewart Udall during the Kennedy Administration in the early 1960s and was President of the American Association for the Advancement of Science (1974).", "Revelle was deeply involved in the growth of oceanography in the United States and internationally after World War II. Working for the Navy in the late 1940s, he helped to determine which projects gained funding. He also promoted the idea that the Navy ought to support \"basic research\" instead of only trying to build new technology. At Scripps he launched several major long-range expeditions in the 1950s, including the MIDPAC, TRANSPAC (with Canada and Japan), EQUAPAC, and NORPAC, each traversing a different part of the Pacific Ocean. He and other scientists at Scripps Institution of Oceanography helped the U.S. government to plan nuclear weapons tests, in the hope that oceanographers might make use of the data. Revelle was one of the committee chairmen in the influential National Academy of Sciences studies of the biological effects of atomic radiation (BEAR), the results of which were published in 1956. In 1952, along with Dr. Seibert Q. Duntley, he successfully moved the MIT Visibility Lab to SIO with financial support of the U.S. Navy. Along with oceanographers at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Revelle planned the American contributions to the oceanographic program of the International Geophysical Year (IGY). He became the first president of the Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research, an international group of scientists devoted to advising on international projects, and was a frequent adviser to the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, created in 1960.", "Revelle was instrumental in creating the International Geophysical Year (IGY) in 1958 and was founding chairman of the first Committee on Climate Change and the Ocean (CCCO) under the Scientific Committee on Ocean Research (SCOR) and the International Oceanic Commission (IOC). During planning for the IGY, under Revelle's directorship, SIO participated in and later became the principal center for the Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Program. In July 1956, Charles David Keeling joined the SIO staff to head the program and began measurements of atmospheric carbon dioxide at the Mauna Loa Observatory on Mauna Loa, Hawaii, and in Antarctica. Hans Suess was recruited by Revelle, and they co-authored a 1957 article using carbon-14 isotope levels to assess the rate at which carbon dioxide added by fossil fuel combustion since the start of the industrial revolution had accumulated in the atmosphere. They concluded that most of it had been absorbed by the Earth's oceans, contrary to the assumption made by early geoscientists (Chamberlin, Arhenius and Callendar) that it would simply accumulate in the upper atmosphere to \"lower the mean level of back radiation in the infrared and thereby increase the average temperature near the Earth's surface\". There had been little sign to date of this greenhouse effect causing the anticipated warming, but the Suess–Revelle article suggested that increasing human gas emissions might change this. They said that \"human beings are now carrying out a large scale geophysical experiment of a kind that could not have happened in the past nor be reproduced in the future\". Revelle told journalists about the issues and testified to Congress that \"The Earth itself is a space ship\", endangered by rising seas and desertification. A November 1957 report in \"The Hammond Times\" described his research as suggesting that \"a large scale global warming, with radical climate changes may result\" – the first use of the term \"global warming\". A biographer of Suess later said that, although other articles in the same journal discussed carbon-dioxide levels, the Suess–Revelle article was \"the only one of the three to stress the growing quantity of contributed by our burning of fossil fuel, and to call attention to the fact that it might cause global warming over time\". Revelle and Suess described the \"buffer factor\", now known as the \"Revelle factor\", which is a resistance to atmospheric carbon dioxide being absorbed by the ocean surface layer posed by bicarbonate chemistry. Essentially, in order to enter the ocean, carbon dioxide gas has to partition into one of the components of carbonic acid: carbonate ion, bicarbonate ion, or protonated carbonic acid, and the product of these many chemical dissociation constants factors into a kind of back-pressure that limits how fast the carbon dioxide can enter the surface ocean. Geology, geochemistry, atmospheric chemistry, ocean chemistry... this amounted to one of the earliest examples of \"integrated assessment\", which 50 years later became an entire branch of global-warming science. At his death, Revelle may well have still been waiting for a signal that would prove global warming as a serious problem correct. In the November 1982 \"Scientific American\" Letters to the Editors, Revelle stated: \"We must conclude that until a warming trend that exceeds the noise level of natural climatic fluctuations becomes clearly evident, there will be considerable uncertainty and a diversity of opinions about the amplitude of the climatic effects of increased atmospheric CO. If the modelers are correct, such a signal should be detectable within the next 10 or 15 years.\"", "During the late 1950s, Revelle fought for the establishment of a University of California campus in San Diego. He had to contend with the UC University Board of Regents, who would have preferred merely to expand the University of California, Los Angeles campus rather than create an entirely new campus in San Diego. He also conflicted with San Diego politicians and businessmen who believed that the campus should be established in San Diego proper, such as near San Diego State University or in Balboa Park. The decision was made in 1959, with the first graduate students enrolled in 1960, and the first undergraduates in 1964. Revelle's struggle to acquire land for the new campus put him in competition with Jonas Salk, and Revelle lost some of what he called the \"best piece of land we had\" on UCSD's eventual Torrey Pines site to the fledgling Salk Institute. In later years Revelle continued to show some animosity toward Salk, once saying: \"He is a folk hero, even though he is... not very bright.\" When at Scripps and while building UCSD, Revelle also had to deal with a La Jolla community that refused to rent or sell property to Jews. In addition to battling the anti-semitic restrictive covenant of La Jolla real estate, Revelle helped found a new housing subdivision for Scripps professors, partially because some of them would not have been allowed to live in La Jolla. Revelle left Scripps in 1963 and founded the (now defunct) Center for Population Studies at Harvard University. In his over ten years there as its Director, he focused upon the application of science and technology to the problem of world hunger. In 1976 he returned to UC San Diego as Professor of Science, Technology and Public Affairs (STPA) in the school's political science department.", "In 1991, Revelle's name appeared as co-author on an article written by physicist S. Fred Singer and electrical engineer Chauncey Starr for the publication \"Cosmos: A Journal of Emerging Issues\", titled \"What to do about greenhouse warming: Look before you leap\", which was published in the summer of 1992. The Cosmos article included the statement that \"Drastic, precipitous—and, especially, unilateral—steps to delay the putative greenhouse impacts can cost jobs and prosperity and increase the human costs of global poverty, without being effective. Stringent economic controls now would be economically devastating particularly for developing countries...\". The article concluded: \"The scientific base for a greenhouse warming is too uncertain to justify drastic action at this time. There is little risk in delaying policy responses.\" These particular statements and the bulk of the article, including the title, had been written and published a year earlier by S. Fred Singer as sole author. Singer's article stated that \"there is every expectation that scientific understanding will be substantially improved within the next decade\" and advocated against \"drastic\" and \"hastily-conceived\" action at the time without further scientific evidence. It does not, however, deny climate change or global warming. Justin Lancaster, Revelle's graduate student and teaching assistant at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography from 1981 until Revelle's death, says that Revelle was \"hoodwinked\" by Singer into adding his name to the article and that Revelle was \"intensely embarrassed that his name was associated\" with it. In 1992, Lancaster charged that Singer's actions were \"unethical\" and specifically designed to undercut then–Senator Al Gore's global warming policy stance; however, to end a lawsuit brought by Singer against Lancaster with support of the Center for Public Interest in Washington, D.C., Lancaster gave Singer a statement of apology, but refused to admit that anything he said was false. In 2006, prompted by Robert Balling and others continuing to state that Revelle actually wrote the article, Lancaster formally withdrew his retraction and reiterated his charges. When Gore was running for the vice-presidential nomination in 1992, \"The New Republic\" picked up on the contrast between the references to Revelle in Gore's book \"Earth in the Balance\" and the views in the \"Cosmos\" article that could now be attributed to Revelle. This was followed up by \"Newsweek\" and elsewhere in the media. Patrick Michaels boasted that the \"Cosmos\" article had been read into the Congressional Record. The issue was even raised by Admiral James Stockdale in the televised vice-presidential debate. Gore's response was to protest that Revelle's views in the article had been taken out of context. Roger's daughter, Carolyn Revelle, wrote: Contrary to George Will's \"Al Gore's Green Guilt\" Roger Revelle—our father and the \"father\" of the greenhouse effect—remained deeply concerned about global warming until his death in July 1991. That same year he wrote: \"The scientific base for a greenhouse warming is too uncertain to justify drastic action at this time.\" Will and other critics of Sen. Al Gore have seized these words to suggest that Revelle, who was also Gore's professor and mentor, renounced his belief in global warming. Nothing could be further from the truth. When Revelle inveighed against \"drastic\" action, he was using that adjective in its literal sense—measures that would cost trillions of dollars. Up until his death, he thought that extreme measures were premature. But he continued to recommend immediate prudent steps to mitigate and delay climatic warming. Some of those steps go well beyond anything Gore or other national politicians have yet to advocate. [...] Revelle proposed a range of approaches to address global warming. Inaction was not one of them. He agreed with the adage \"look before you leap\", but he never said \"sit on your hands\".", "During his last decade at UCSD and SIO, Revelle continued to work and teach. In the early 1980s, he taught undergraduate STPA seminars twice a year, in Energy and Development (mainly on problems in Africa), the Carbon Dioxide Problem (known now as the Global Warming problem), and Marine Policy. In 1986 he won the Balzan Prize for Oceanography/Climatology. A 1990 heart attack forced him to move his course to the Scripps Institution from the Revelle College provost's office, where he continued to teach the Marine Policy program until his death the following year. In 1991, he was awarded the National Medal of Science by President George H. W. Bush (one of about 500 recipients in the 20th century). He remarked to a reporter: \"I got it for being the grandfather of the greenhouse effect.\" Revelle died in San Diego on July 15, 1991 from complications of cardiac arrest. He was survived by his wife, Ellen Clark Revelle (1910–2009), three daughters, and one son, William, as well as numerous grandchildren. In his honor, a new research vessel at the Scripps Institution was named \"R/V Roger Revelle\". Also, the Ocean Studies Board of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine created the Roger Revelle Commemorative Lecture series in memory of Revelle in 1999, featuring distinguished speakers on the themes of ocean science and public policy. Since 1992, the American Geophysical Union has annually awarded a prize in his honor, the Roger Revelle Medal, for outstanding contributions in atmospheric sciences." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Types.", "Non-persistent (reflected).", "Persistent (or stored).", "Server-side versus DOM-based vulnerabilities.", "Self-XSS.", "Mutated XSS (mXSS).", "Exploit examples.", "Non-persistent.", "Persistent attack.", "Preventive measures.", "Contextual output encoding/escaping of string input.", "Safely validating untrusted HTML input.", "Cookie security.", "Disabling scripts.", "Selectively disabling scripts.", "Emerging defensive technologies.", "SameSite cookie parameter.", "Cross-site scripting cheat-sheet.", "Related vulnerabilities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Security on the web depends on a variety of mechanisms, including an underlying concept of trust known as the same-origin policy. This essentially states that if content from one site (such as \"<nowiki>https://mybank.example1.com</nowiki>\") is granted permission to access resources (like cookies etc.) on a web browser, then content from any URL with the same (1) URI scheme, (2) host name, \"and\" (3) port number will share these permissions. Content from URLs where any of these three attributes are different will have to be granted permissions separately. Cross-site scripting attacks use known vulnerabilities in web-based applications, their servers, or the plug-in systems on which they rely. Exploiting one of these, attackers fold malicious content into the content being delivered from the compromised site. When the resulting combined content arrives at the client-side web browser, it has all been delivered from the trusted source, and thus operates under the permissions granted to that system. By finding ways of injecting malicious scripts into web pages, an attacker can gain elevated access-privileges to sensitive page content, to session cookies, and to a variety of other information maintained by the browser on behalf of the user. Cross-site scripting attacks are a case of code injection. Microsoft security-engineers introduced the term \"cross-site scripting\" in January 2000. The expression \"cross-site scripting\" originally referred to the act of loading the attacked, third-party web application from an unrelated attack-site, in a manner that executes a fragment of JavaScript prepared by the attacker in the security context of the targeted domain (taking advantage of a \"reflected\" or \"non-persistent\" XSS vulnerability). The definition gradually expanded to encompass other modes of code injection, including persistent and non-JavaScript vectors (including ActiveX, Java, VBScript, Flash, or even HTML scripts), causing some confusion to newcomers to the field of information security. XSS vulnerabilities have been reported and exploited since the 1990s. Prominent sites affected in the past include the social-networking sites Twitter, Facebook, MySpace, YouTube and Orkut. Cross-site scripting flaws have since surpassed buffer overflows to become the most common publicly reported security vulnerability, with some researchers in 2007 estimating as many as 68% of websites are likely open to XSS attacks.", "There is no single, standardized classification of cross-site scripting flaws, but most experts distinguish between at least two primary flavors of XSS flaws: \"non-persistent\" and \"persistent\". Some sources further divide these two groups into \"traditional\" (caused by server-side code flaws) and \"DOM-based\" (in client-side code).", "The \"non-persistent\" (or \"reflected\") cross-site scripting vulnerability is by far the most basic type of web vulnerability. These holes show up when the data provided by a web client, most commonly in HTTP query parameters (e.g. HTML form submission), is used immediately by server-side scripts to parse and display a page of results for and to that user, without properly sanitizing the content. Because HTML documents have a flat, serial structure that mixes control statements, formatting, and the actual content, any non-validated user-supplied data included in the resulting page without proper HTML encoding, may lead to markup injection. A classic example of a potential vector is a site search engine: if one searches for a string, the search string will typically be redisplayed verbatim on the result page to indicate what was searched for. If this response does not properly escape or reject HTML control characters, a cross-site scripting flaw will ensue. A reflected attack is typically delivered via email or a neutral web site. The bait is an innocent-looking URL, pointing to a trusted site but containing the XSS vector. If the trusted site is vulnerable to the vector, clicking the link can cause the victim's browser to execute the injected script.", "The \"persistent\" (or \"stored\") XSS vulnerability is a more devastating variant of a cross-site scripting flaw: it occurs when the data provided by the attacker is saved by the server, and then permanently displayed on \"normal\" pages returned to other users in the course of regular browsing, without proper HTML escaping. A classic example of this is with online message boards where users are allowed to post HTML formatted messages for other users to read. For example, suppose there is a dating website where members scan the profiles of other members to see if they look interesting. For privacy reasons, this site hides everybody's real name and email. These are kept secret on the server. The only time a member's real name and email are in the browser is when the member is signed in, and they can't see anyone else's. Suppose that Mallory, an attacker, joins the site and wants to figure out the real names of the people she sees on the site. To do so, she writes a script designed to run from other users' browsers when \"they\" visit \"her\" profile. The script then sends a quick message to her own server, which collects this information. To do this, for the question \"Describe your Ideal First Date\", Mallory gives a short answer (to appear normal) but the text at the end of her answer is her script to steal names and emails. If the script is enclosed inside a codice_1 element, it won't be shown on the screen. Then suppose that Bob, a member of the dating site, reaches Mallory's profile, which has her answer to the First Date question. Her script is run automatically by the browser and steals a copy of Bob's real name and email directly from his own machine. Persistent XSS vulnerabilities can be more significant than other types because an attacker's malicious script is rendered automatically, without the need to individually target victims or lure them to a third-party website. Particularly in the case of social networking sites, the code would be further designed to self-propagate across accounts, creating a type of client-side worm. The methods of injection can vary a great deal; in some cases, the attacker may not even need to directly interact with the web functionality itself to exploit such a hole. Any data received by the web application (via email, system logs, IM etc.) that can be controlled by an attacker could become an injection vector.", "Historically XSS vulnerabilities were first found in applications that performed all data processing on the server side. User input (including an XSS vector) would be sent to the server, and then sent back to the user as a web page. The need for an improved user experience resulted in popularity of applications that had a majority of the presentation logic (maybe written in JavaScript) working on the client-side that pulled data, on-demand, from the server using AJAX. As the JavaScript code was also processing user input and rendering it in the web page content, a new sub-class of reflected XSS attacks started to appear that was called \"DOM-based cross-site scripting\". In a DOM-based XSS attack, the malicious data does not touch the web server. Rather, it is being reflected by the JavaScript code, fully on the client side. An example of a DOM-based XSS vulnerability is the bug found in 2011 in a number of jQuery plugins. Prevention strategies for DOM-based XSS attacks include very similar measures to traditional XSS prevention strategies but implemented in JavaScript code and contained in web pages (i.e. input validation and escaping). Some JavaScript frameworks have built-in countermeasures against this and other types of attack — for example Angular.js.", "Self-XSS is a form of XSS vulnerability which relies on Social Engineering in order to trick the victim into executing malicious JavaScript code into their browser. Although it is technically not a true XSS vulnerability due to the fact it relies on socially engineering a user into executing code rather than a flaw in the affected website allowing an attacker to do so, it still poses the same risks as a regular XSS vulnerability if properly executed.", "Mutated XSS happens when the attacker injects something that is seemingly safe, but rewritten and modified by the browser, while parsing the markup. This makes it extremely hard to detect or sanitize within the websites application logic. An example is rebalancing unclosed quotation marks or even adding quotation marks to unquoted parameters on parameters to CSS font-family.", "Attackers intending to exploit cross-site scripting vulnerabilities must approach each class of vulnerability differently. For each class, a specific attack vector is described here. The names below are technical terms, taken from the Alice-and-Bob cast of characters commonly used in computer security. The Browser Exploitation Framework could be used to attack the web site and the user's local environment.", "Several things could have been done to mitigate this attack:", "Bob's website software should have stripped out the script tag or done something to make sure it didn't work, but the security bug is in the fact that he didn't.", "", "Contextual output encoding/escaping could be used as the primary defense mechanism to stop XSS attacks. There are several escaping schemes that can be used depending on where the untrusted string needs to be placed within an HTML document including HTML entity encoding, JavaScript escaping, CSS escaping, and URL (or percent) encoding. Most web applications that do not need to accept rich data can use escaping to largely eliminate the risk of XSS attacks in a fairly straightforward manner. Although widely recommended, performing HTML entity encoding only on the five XML significant characters is not always sufficient to prevent many forms of XSS attacks. As encoding is often difficult, security encoding libraries are usually easier to use. Some web template systems understand the structure of the HTML they produce and automatically pick an appropriate encoder.", "Many operators of particular web applications (e.g. forums and webmail) allow users to utilize a limited subset of HTML markup. When accepting HTML input from users (say, <b>very</b> large), output encoding (such as &lt;b&gt;very&lt;/b&gt; large) will not suffice since the user input needs to be rendered as HTML by the browser (so it shows as \"very large\", instead of \"<b>very</b> large\"). Stopping an XSS attack when accepting HTML input from users is much more complex in this situation. Untrusted HTML input must be run through an HTML sanitization engine to ensure that it does not contain XSS code. Many validations rely on parsing out (blacklisting) specific \"at risk\" HTML tags such as the following <script> <link> <iframe> There are several issues with this approach, for example sometimes seemingly harmless tags can be left out which when utilized correctly can still result in an XSS (see the below example) <img src=\"javascript:alert(1)\"> Another popular method is to strip user input of \" and'however this can also be bypassed as the payload can be concealed with Obfuscation (See this link for an extreme example of this)", "Besides content filtering, other imperfect methods for cross-site scripting mitigation are also commonly used. One example is the use of additional security controls when handling cookie-based user authentication. Many web applications rely on session cookies for authentication between individual HTTP requests, and because client-side scripts generally have access to these cookies, simple XSS exploits can steal these cookies. To mitigate this particular threat (though not the XSS problem in general), many web applications tie session cookies to the IP address of the user who originally logged in, then only permit that IP to use that cookie. This is effective in most situations (if an attacker is only after the cookie), but obviously breaks down in situations where an attacker is behind the same NATed IP address or web proxy as the victim, or the victim is changing his or her mobile IP. Another mitigation present in Internet Explorer (since version 6), Firefox (since version 2.0.0.5), Safari (since version 4), Opera (since version 9.5) and Google Chrome, is an \"HttpOnly\" flag which allows a web server to set a cookie that is unavailable to client-side scripts. While beneficial, the feature can neither fully prevent cookie theft nor prevent attacks within the browser.", "While Web 2.0 and Ajax developers require the use of JavaScript, some web applications are written to allow operation without the need for any client-side scripts. This allows users, if they choose, to disable scripting in their browsers before using the application. In this way, even potentially malicious client-side scripts could be inserted unescaped on a page, and users would not be susceptible to XSS attacks. Some browsers or browser plugins can be configured to disable client-side scripts on a per-domain basis. This approach is of limited value if scripting is allowed by default, since it blocks bad sites only \"after\" the user knows that they are bad, which is too late. Functionality that blocks all scripting and external inclusions by default and then allows the user to enable it on a per-domain basis is more effective. This has been possible for a long time in Internet Explorer (since version 4) by setting up its so called \"Security Zones\", and in Opera (since version 9) using its \"Site Specific Preferences\". A solution for Firefox and other Gecko-based browsers is the open source NoScript add-on which, in addition to the ability to enable scripts on a per-domain basis, provides some XSS protection even when scripts are enabled. The most significant problem with blocking all scripts on all websites by default is substantial reduction in functionality and responsiveness (client-side scripting can be much faster than server-side scripting because it does not need to connect to a remote server and the page or frame does not need to be reloaded). Another problem with script blocking is that many users do not understand it, and do not know how to properly secure their browsers. Yet another drawback is that many sites do not work without client-side scripting, forcing users to disable protection for that site and opening their systems to vulnerabilities. The Firefox NoScript extension enables users to allow scripts selectively from a given page while disallowing others on the same page. For example, scripts from example.com could be allowed, while scripts from advertisingagency.com that are attempting to run on the same page could be disallowed.", "Content-Security-Policy (CSP) allows HTML documents to opt-into disabling some scripts while leaving others enabled. The browser checks each script against a policy before deciding whether to run it. As long as the policy only allows trustworthy scripts and disallows dynamic code loading, the browser will not run programs from untrusted authors regardless of the HTML document's structure. This shifts the security burden to policy authors. Studies have cast doubt on the efficacy of host whitelist based policies.In total, we find that 94.68% of policies that attempt to limit script execution are ineffective, and that 99.34% of hosts with CSP use policies that offer no benefit against XSS.Modern CSP policies allow using nonces to mark scripts in the HTML document as safe to run instead of keeping the policy entirely separate from the page content. As long as trusted nonces only appear on trustworthy scripts, the browser will not run programs from untrusted authors. Some large application providers report having successfully deployed nonce-based policies.", "The popularity of client-side frameworks has changed how attackers craft XSS.Script gadgets are legitimate JavaScript fragments within an application’s legitimate code base... We demonstrate that these gadgets are omnipresent in almost all modern JavaScript frameworks and present an empirical study showing the prevalence of script gadgets in productive code. As a result, we assume most mitigation techniques in web applications written today can be bypassed.Trusted types changes Web APIs to check that values have been trademarked as trusted. As long as programs only trademark trustworthy values, an attacker who controls a JavaScript string value cannot cause XSS. Trusted types are designed to be auditable by blue teams. Another defense approach is to use automated tools that will remove XSS malicious code in web pages, these tools use static analysis and/or pattern matching methods to identify malicious codes potentially and secure them using methods like escaping.", "When a cookie is set with the SameSite=Strict parameter, it is stripped from all cross-origin requests. When set with SameSite=Lax, it is stripped from all non-\"safe\" cross-origin requests (that is, requests other than GET, OPTIONS, and TRACE which have read-only semantics). The feature is implemented in Google Chrome since version 63 and Firefox since version 60.", "This cross-site scripting (XSS) cheat sheet contains many vectors that can help you bypass WAFs and filters. You can select vectors by the event, tag or browser and a proof of concept is included for every vector.", "In a Universal Cross-Site Scripting (UXSS, or Universal XSS) attack, vulnerabilities in the browser itself or in the browser plugins are exploited (rather than vulnerabilities in other websites, as is the case with XSS attacks). Several classes of vulnerabilities or attack techniques are related to XSS: cross-zone scripting exploits \"zone\" concepts in certain browsers and usually executes code with a greater privilege. HTTP header injection can be used to create cross-site scripting conditions due to escaping problems on HTTP protocol level (in addition to enabling attacks such as HTTP response splitting). Cross-site request forgery (CSRF/XSRF) is almost the opposite of XSS, in that rather than exploiting the user's trust in a site, the attacker (and his malicious page) exploits the site's trust in the client software, submitting requests that the site believes represent conscious and intentional actions of authenticated users. XSS vulnerabilities (even in other applications running on the same domain) allow attackers to bypass CSRF prevention efforts. Covert Redirection takes advantage of third-party clients susceptible to XSS or Open Redirect attacks. Normal phishing attempts can be easy to spot, because the malicious page's URL will usually be off by a couple of letters from that of the real site. The difference with Covert Redirection is that an attacker could use the real website instead by corrupting the site with a malicious login pop-up dialogue box. Lastly, SQL injection exploits a vulnerability in the database layer of an application. When user input is incorrectly filtered, any SQL statements can be executed by the application. The specific XSSs that affect a given version of a web browser tend to be unique. Consequently, it is possible to use XSS to fingerprint the browser vendor and version of a user." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background and composition.", "Critical reception.", "Chart performance.", "Music video.", "Live performances.", "Cover versions.", "Legacy.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"I'm a Slave 4 U\" was written and produced by Pharrell Williams and Chad Hugo of The Neptunes, who also collaborated with Spears on \"Boys\" (2002), another track from \"Britney\". Both recordings were originally intended for American singer Janet Jackson's seventh studio album \"All for You\" (2001) - Janet Jackson's recording was an unreleased demo before the track was handed to Spears. \"I'm a Slave 4 U\" was recorded by Andrew Cleman (Master Sound Studios, Virginia Beach, Virginia) and Brian Garten (Right Track Studios, New York City), and was mixed by Serban Ghenea. Audio engineering on the track was done by Ryan Smith and Tim Roberts. After reading the lyrics for the first time, Spears stated it talks \"...about me just wanting to go out and forget who I am and dance and have a good time. That's kinda where I am right now. I love working, but at the same time I love having a good time.\" The urban song is backed with breathy and moaning vocals and scratching. The soundscape of the song has been noted to be similar to Vanity 6's 1982 song \"Nasty Girl.\"", "Ted Kessler from \"NME\" magazine stated that \"...the song is funk the way God intended—hypnotic, insistent, mysterious, suggestive—and if Prince was a nineteen-year-old former Disney Club host and virgin, he'd be proud to create such a record.\" Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic agreed that \"I'm a Slave 4 U\" was a step towards a more mature sound. According to \"Rolling Stone\"s Barry Walters, \"...although they're not the album's most melodious cuts, The Neptunes' 'I'm a Slave 4 U' and 'Boys' could be Britney's most important.\" Bill Lamb from About.com listed the track at number nine on her Top 10 Songs, saying: \"By the time of this single off her third album, it was obvious Britney Spears was becoming an adult. This song is a radical shift from the \"not quite innocent\" 16-year-old schoolgirl of Britney's first album. Slinky and sexy have crept into the Britney Spears style\". \"I'm a Slave 4 U\" received several comparisons to Janet Jackson's songs, with one critic noting, \"Spears’ main musical and visual influence has not been Madonna but Janet Jackson.\" \"But Jackson’s not the only influence to appear on “Slave: ”...The Neptunes’ minimal, electronic production and Spears’ breathy, cooing delivery create a track that smacks of Prince.\" \"Spears, on the other hand, became more and more interesting – and enjoyable – as she continued to explore elements of Janet Jackson and Prince throughout her career.\" Lyndsey Parker of Yahoo! Music wrote, \"'Slave,' written and produced by the Neptunes and originally intended for OG pop bombshell Janet Jackson, evoked the old-school sexcapades of Prince and his protégés Vanity 6—and in many ways, it was a real artistic leap.\"", "\"I'm a Slave 4 U\" peaked at number 27 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 for the issue date of December 1, 2001, becoming Spears' first lead single from an album not to crack the U.S. top ten. The track also became a top 30 hit on the Hot 100 Airplay, but just barely made into the Hot 100 Singles Sales peaking at number 73. The low sales points were mostly due to the song's 12-inch single release instead of a competitive regular CD single. Despite the little sales, \"I'm a Slave 4 U\" became Spears' first dance hit, reaching number four on the Hot Dance Club Play chart. It is also her first and, so far, only song to appear on the Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart, peaking at number 85. In Europe \"I'm a Slave 4 U\" was more successful, becoming a top ten hit in nearly every country that it charted in - in big markets such as Germany and France, it was certified Silver by the Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique for selling over 125,000 copies. The track spent two weeks at number-five on the European Hot 100 Singles chart provided by magazine \"Music and Media\" at the time. \"I'm a Slave 4 U\" peaked at number-four on the official UK Singles Chart and spent a total of 14 weeks within the top 75 and sold over 150,000 copies. In the Pacific, the track was somewhat successful, debuting at number seven on the Australian Singles Chart. Despite spending only eight weeks on the chart, it was certified Gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association for shipments of over 35,000 units. In New Zealand, \"I'm a Slave 4 U\" debuted at number 46 on November 4, 2001, and missed the top ten, peaking at number 13 in its third week. The song spent just six weeks on the chart.", "The accompanying music video for \"I'm a Slave 4 U\" was filmed on a soundstage in Universal City, California, over Labor Day weekend on September 1–2, 2001, under the direction of Francis Lawrence. It made its world premiere on MTV's \"Making the Video\" on September 24 at 5 p.m. EST, the same day the song officially beat the US radio stations. It was choreographed by Wade Robson and Crystal Chewning, though some of the dancing was choreographed by Puerto-Rican dancer and Prince's ex-wife Mayte Garcia, who taught Spears belly-dancing for the video. Spears told MTV that the theme of the song and the video really matched who she was at the time. Director Lawrence wanted the video to move far beyond the \"sleek\" dance clubs of Los Angeles or New York. He wanted it to go global: \"I came up with this concept of having this club be in this abandoned Asian bath house and having it be filled with young world travelers, the kind of people who would go to these far exotic places to go to a place like this\". In the video, Spears and her backup dancers employ the same choreography and sing whilst looking over a balcony at cars down in the distance. Spears is portrayed as a slave to the music, dancing all day until she and the backup dancers are sweaty and near [[dehydration, forcing them to search for water - Spears is then seen standing by a mirror at the sink. Two alternative versions of the video clip can be found on the \"[[Greatest Hits: My Prerogative (DVD)|Greatest Hits: My Prerogative]]\" [[DVD]] released on November 9, 2004. The music video was nominated in three categories at the [[2002 MTV Video Music Awards]] for [[MTV Video Music Award for Best Female Video|Best Female Video]], [[MTV Video Music Award for Best Dance Video|Best Dance Video]], and [[MTV Video Music Award for Best Choreography|Best Choreography]]. The video clip for \"I'm a Slave 4 U\" was noted for its influence from [[Janet Jackson]], with one review saying \"Spears’ main musical and visual influence has not been Madonna but Janet Jackson, particularly in her visual element. The Jackson influence can be seen in the video for 'I'm a Slave 4 U', and it continues through '[[Me Against the Music]],' '[[Boys (Britney Spears song)|Boys]],' and '[[My Prerogative]],' as well as her live performances in general.\"In Canada, The video ranked #1 in the list of the \"50 Sexiest Music Videos of All-Time\" published by music video channel [[MuchMusic]] in 2007. 10 years later, the video would be compared to her \"[[Till The World Ends]]\" music video. Several references from the \"I'm a Slave 4 U\" video were made in the video for \"Till The World Ends\", such as the dancers crowding around her and the sweaty dancers scene.", "[[File:BritneyVma 2001.jpg|thumb|left|200px|Performing \"I'm a Slave 4 U\" at the [[2001 MTV Video Music Awards]] wearing an albino Burmese python on her shoulders]] Spears first performed \"I'm a Slave 4 U\" at the [[2001 MTV Video Music Awards]] at the [[Metropolitan Opera House (Lincoln Center)|Metropolitan Opera House]] in New York City on September 6, 2001. The performance featured a [[white tiger]] (wrangled by [[Bhagavan Antle]]) and a live albino [[Burmese Python]] on her shoulders. The inclusion of the animals in the performance brought a great deal of criticism from [[animal rights]] organization [[People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals]] (PETA). Other performances include several television appearances to promote her third album, \"Britney\". She performed on \"[[The Tonight Show with Jay Leno]]\" on October 11, and a special named \"Total Britney Live\" was aired by MTV on November 3, where Spears performed \"I'm a Slave 4 U\", \"[[Stronger (Britney Spears song)|Stronger]]\", and \"[[I'm Not a Girl, Not Yet a Woman]]\". Two days later, on November 5, Spears performed \"I'm Slave 4 U\" on \"[[The Rosie O'Donnell Show]]\", and on the \"[[Late Show with David Letterman]]\" the day after. A month later, she opened the [[Billboard Music Award|2001 Billboard Music Awards]] in [[Las Vegas Strip|Las Vegas]] on December 4, 2001, with a performance of the track on a stage inside the [[fountain]]s of the [[Bellagio Hotel]]. Spears performed the song on the 2001–02 [[Dream Within a Dream Tour]], in a setting resembling the performance at the MTV Video Music Awards. According to Jim Farber from \"[[Daily News (New York)|New York Daily News]]\", \"But for all the bumping and grinding that went on, parents had no reason to cover their daughters' eyes\". To promote her fourth studio album \"[[In the Zone]]\", she performed the track at the [[National Football League Kickoff game|2003 NFL Kickoff Live]] on September 4, 2003, at the [[National Mall]]. Other songs performed included \"[[Me Against the Music]]\" and \"[[...Baby One More Time (song)|...Baby One More Time]]\". On September 14, Spears played a surprise concert at [[Rain Nightclub]] in the [[Palms Casino Resort]], and performed the aforementioned songs along with a new song titled \"Breathe on Me\". On November 17, a concert special titled \"Britney Spears: In the Zone\" aired on [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]], and included a mash-up of \"I'm a Slave 4 U\" and \"[[Boys (Britney Spears song)|Boys]]\". On [[The Onyx Hotel Tour]] in 2004, the track was included on the setlist and had a \"\"[[The Flintstones|Flintstones]]\"-meets-\"[[Survivor (franchise)|Survivor]]\"\" set. \"I'm a Slave 4 U\" was performed as a shortened version on the 2007 [[The M+M's Tour]]. On [[The Circus Starring Britney Spears]] in 2009, Spears performed the song in a setting \"complete with flames and a fierce dance routine\", which managed to \"rise above all the ephemera\" according to [[MTV News]]' James Montgomery. For the [[Femme Fatale Tour]] in 2011, \"I'm a Slave 4 U\" was performed as [[Sexual fetishism|fetishistic]] shots of naked, bound men were displayed on the backdrops. On her residency concert in Las Vegas, [[Britney: Piece of Me]] (2013–17), Spears initially started the performance sat on a throne surrounded by her female dancers who are playing in a fountain. Later on, the throne was removed in favor of a pole. At the [[2016 Billboard Music Awards]], the song was once again on a stripper pole as part of a greatest hits medley. While promoting her ninth studio album \"[[Glory (Britney Spears album)|Glory]]\" in 2016, Spears performed the song at several music festivals worldwide, including the [[iHeartRadio Music Festival]], [[Apple Music Festival]], [[KIIS-FM Jingle Ball]], and the [[99.7 FM|99.7's Triple Ho Show]]. \"I'm a Slave 4 U\" was performed on the 2017 [[Britney: Live in Concert]] Asian tour, as well as on the [[Britney Spears: Piece of Me Tour]] in 2018, which covered North America and Europe.", "\"I'm a Slave 4 U\" was covered by the musical television show \"[[Glee (TV series)|Glee]]\" in the episode \"[[Britney/Brittany]]\", sung by [[Heather Morris]] in her singing debut. In a dream sequence, Morris' character [[Brittany Pierce]] sings the song, while recreating several iconic looks from Spears' videos: the red catsuit from \"[[Oops!... I Did It Again (song)|Oops!... I Did It Again]],\" the outfit with a snake from Spears' 2001 performance at the VMAs, and the white diamond bodysuit from \"[[Toxic (song)|Toxic]]\". Morris also performed the song during the live 2011 Glee Tour.", "\"I'm a Slave 4 U\" was widely seen as being a departure from Spears' [[girl next door]] image and signature [[bubblegum pop]] sound from her previous two albums \"[[...Baby One More Time (album)|...Baby One More Time ]]\" and \"[[Oops!... I Did It Again (album)|Oops!... I Did It Again]]\" - the sound of the single leans more towards \"[[Urban contemporary|urban pop]]\" and [[Rhythm and blues|R&B]], and the accompanying video and live performances are more overtly sexual. Upon its release, the song and video - as well as Spears' performance at the [[2001 MTV Video Music Awards]] - were heavily criticized for their overt sexual nature as well as for Spears only being 19 years old at the time and a self-proclaimed virgin. Many critics at the time compared the song and its video to that of [[Prince (musician)|Prince]] and [[Janet Jackson]], who was offered the song and turned it down. Some critics also noted similarities in Spears' slight transition from bubblegum pop and more confident overt sexuality to that of [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]] in the early 1990s, during which she was transitioning from her pop sound of the 1980s to a more mature sound and more explicit sexuality on her single and music video for \"[[Justify My Love]]\" and on her \"[[Erotica (Madonna album)|Erotica]]\" album. \"I'm a Slave 4 U\" was seen as so controversial upon its release that Spears received immense backlash from [[People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals|PETA]], The Parents Association of America, as well as several other conservative outlets. After Spears' VMAs performance, PETA urged people to boycott Spears' upcoming album and [[Dream Within a Dream Tour]]. The PAA also urged people to boycott Spears and criticized her for \"being an irresponsible and bad role model to young girls all over the country\", with even the wife of governor [[Bob Ehrlich]] proclaiming at a live press conference, \"If I had a chance, I would shoot Britney Spears.\" In response to the backlash, Spears said in a December 2001 \"[[Rolling Stone]]\" article, \"I don't see the big deal and I don't see the need for an apology. I'm a 19-year-old girl about to be 20, I'm growing up and there's nothing wrong with that. Besides no matter what, I can never win, when I did '...Baby One More Time' they were saying I was too controversial, so you can never win.\" While seen as controversial at the time, over subsequent years since \"I'm a Slave 4 U\" has gone down in pop culture history with \"[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]\" regarding the video and song itself as \"groundbreaking, daring and artistically creative\" in 2013. With the Britney album as a whole and \"I'm a Slave 4 U\" being it's the lead single many music critics have credited them for inspiring other female artists of her own generation and the generation following her. In 2017, writing for \"Rolling Stone\", [[Peter Travers]] noted, \"In the early 2000s there was no one bigger in music than Britney Spears and with her third studio album \"Britney\" and its lead single 'I'm a Slave 4 U', Britney Spears started a new trend. The now cliched trend of a young girl transitioning from the [[Disney Channel]] to a squeaky clean pop image than into overtly sexual '[[femme fatale]]' if you will. From girls of her own era, such as [[Christina Aguilera]] and [[Jessica Simpson]], to girls of the next generation, such as [[Miley Cyrus]] and [[Selena Gomez]], Spears blazed the trail of how to grow and sustain from Disney kid to pop sensation to pop culture powerhouse.\" The music video for \"I'm a Slave 4 U\" has been heavily compared in the media to Aguilera's music video for her coming of age and into womanhood anthem \"[[Dirrty]]\" with many critics labeling the video a copycat. Noting the similarities. [[Stephen Thomas Erlewine]] from [[AllMusic]] called Aguilera's video \"an over the top and blatant rip off of 'Slave'\". [[Jancee Dunn]] called Aguilera's \"Dirrty\" video \"a shameless copycat\", and noted, \"...maybe instead of continuing to follow in Spears' footsteps, Aguilera should focus on showcasing her vocals, considering she lacks the appeal and danceability of Spears.\" In an October 2018 interview with \"[[Cosmopolitan (magazine)|Cosmopolitan]]\", Aguilera referenced the comparison of the videos and constant comparisons to Spears expressing how it affected her self esteem at the time. \"I'm a Slave 4 U\" has also been cited by Miley Cyrus for influencing her song and video \"[[We Can't Stop]]\" likewise Selena Gomez cited \"Slave\" for influencing her 2013 single \"[[Come & Get It (Selena Gomez song)|Come & Get it]]\". In a 2010 interview with \"Vanity Fair\" [[Lindsay Lohan]] said the song and video for \"I'm a Slave 4 U\" were the main influence for her 2004 hit \"[[Rumors (Lindsay Lohan song)|Rumors]]\", with Lohan even using the same director Spears had previously used on her video \"[[My Prerogative#Britney Spears version|My Prerogative]]\". At the [[2014 MTV Video Music Awards]], [[Nicki Minaj]] had planned on paying homage to Spears' 2001 performance for her performance of her song \"[[Anaconda (Nicki Minaj song)|Anaconda]]\" by using several albino snakes, however, MTV banned Minaj's use of live snakes after a backup dancer was bitten. In 2016, Mexican-American singer [[Becky G]] paid homage to Spears' 2001 VMA performance by dancing with a yellow snake at [[Univision]]'s annual awards show \"[[Premios Juventud]]\".", "[[Category:2001 singles]] [[Category:Britney Spears songs]] [[Category:Jive Records singles]] [[Category:Music videos directed by Francis Lawrence]] [[Category:Oricon International Singles Chart number-one singles]] [[Category:UK Independent Singles Chart number-one singles]] [[Category:Song recordings produced by The Neptunes]] [[Category:Songs written by Pharrell Williams]] [[Category:Songs written by Chad Hugo]] [[Category:Songs about sexuality]] [[Category:Songs about dancing]] [[Category:American contemporary R&B songs]]" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Overview.", "Native support under Windows." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Compared with FAT, HPFS provided a number of additional capabilities: HPFS also can keep 64 KiB of metadata (\"extended attributes\") per file. IBM offers two kinds of IFS drivers for this file system: HPFS386's cache is limited by the amount of available memory in OS/2's system memory arena and was implemented in 32-bit assembly language. HPFS386 is a ring 0 driver (allowing direct hardware access and direct interaction with the kernel) with built-in SMB networking properties that are usable by various server daemons, whereas HPFS is a ring 3 driver. Thus, HPFS386 is faster than HPFS and highly optimized for server applications. It is also highly tunable by experienced administrators. Though IBM still had rights to HPFS, its agreement with Microsoft to continue licensing the HPFS386 version is contingent upon the company paying Microsoft a licensing fee for each copy sold. This was a result from the Microsoft and IBM collaboration that both IBM and Microsoft had right to use Windows and OS/2 technology. Microsoft used HPFS in Windows NT. Due to the Microsoft dependence, limited partition size, file size limit of 2 GiB and the long disk-check times after a crash, IBM ported the journaling file system JFS to OS/2 as a substitute. DOS and Linux support HPFS via third-party drivers. Windows NT versions 3.51 (4.0) and earlier had native support for HPFS.", "Windows 95 and its successors Windows 98 and Windows Me can read and write HPFS only when mapped via a network share; they cannot read it from a local disk. They listed the NTFS partitions of networked computers as \"HPFS\", because NTFS and HPFS share the same filesystem identification number in the partition table. Windows NT 3.1 and 3.5 have native read/write support for local disks and can even be installed onto an HPFS partition. Windows NT 3.51 can also read and write from local HPFS formatted drives. Starting with Windows NT 4 the filesystem driver \"PINBALL.SYS\" enabling the read/write access is not shipped anymore. Later Windows versions do not ship with this driver. Note that this driver is limited to 4GB HPFS volumes. Microsoft retained rights to OS/2 technologies, including the HPFS filesystem, after they ceased collaboration with IBM. Since Windows NT 3.1 was designed for more rigorous (enterprise-class) use than previous versions of Windows, it included support for HPFS (and NTFS) giving it a larger storage capacity than the FAT12 and FAT16 filesystems. However, since HPFS lacks a journal, any recovery after an unexpected shutdown or other error state takes progressively longer as the filesystem grows. A utility such as CHKDSK would need to scan each entry in the filesystem to ensure no errors are present, a problem which is vastly reduced on NTFS, which simply replays the journal." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background and history.", "Latin text.", "Translations.", "Hail, Holy Queen enthroned above.", "Musical settings.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Marian antiphons have been sung, since the thirteenth century, at the close of Compline, the last Office of the day. Peter Canisius (d. 1597) noted that one praises God in Mary when one turns to her in song. Liturgically, the Salve Regina is the best known of four prescribed Marian Anthems recited after Compline, and, in some uses, after Lauds or other Hours. Its use after Compline is likely traceable to the monastic practice of intoning it in chapel and chanting it on the way to sleeping quarters. It was set down in its current form at the Abbey of Cluny in the 12th century, where it was used as a processional hymn on Marian feasts. The Cistercians chanted the Salve Regina daily from 1218. It was popular at medieval universities as evening song, and according to Fr. Juniper Carol, it came to be part of the ritual for the blessing of a ship. While the anthem figured largely in liturgical and in general popular Catholic devotion, it was especially dear to sailors. In the 18th century, the Salve Regina served as the outline for the classic Roman Catholic Mariology book \"The Glories of Mary\" by Alphonsus Liguori. In the first part of the book Alphonsus, a Doctor of the Church, discusses the Salve Regina and explains how God gave Mary to mankind as the \"Gate of Heaven\". It was added to the series of prayers said at the end of Low Mass by Pope Leo XIII. The Salve Regina is traditionally sung at the end of a priest's funeral Mass by the decedent's fellow priests in attendance. As a prayer, it is commonly said at the end of the rosary.", "In some cases, the following versicle, response, and collect are added:", "Variations exist among most translations. (in the version used by Catholics in the United Kingdom and in the Anglo-Catholic version, the wording \"mourning and weeping in this vale of tears\" is used in the 6th line)", "German priest Johann Georg Seidenbusch published a hymn entitled \"Gegrüßet seist du, Königin\" in his 1687 devotional book \"Marianischer Schnee-Berg\". This hymn was inspired by the pilgrimage devotions at Aufhausen Priory, and contains various salutations taken predominantly from the \"Salve Regina\". This hymn was soon to be found in various forms in many Catholic devotional books, and a Latin translation, \"\"Salve Regina coelitum\"\", was soon created. The modern melody first appeared in the 1736 hymnal \"Geistliche Spiel- und Weckuhr\", and Melchior Ludwig Herold's 1808 hymnal \"Choralmelodien zum Heiligen Gesänge\" contained the version that is standard today. The English translation \"Hail, Holy Queen enthroned above\" first appeared in \"The Roman Missal\" in 1884. This translation gained worldwide popularity after being featured in the 1992 film \"Sister Act\".", "As an essential component of the Compline service, the hymn has been set to music by various composers, including Victoria, Palestrina, Josquin and Lassus. Charpentier, (5 settings, H 18, H 47, H 23, H 24, H 27), Louis-Nicolas Clérambault (C.114), Alessandro Scarlatti, Vivaldi, Handel, and Liszt composed their own settings in later years. Schubert composed no less than seven versions. Arvo Pärt composed a setting first performed in the Essen Cathedral in 2002. Olivier Latry premiered in 2007 an organ work \"\" which reflects in seven movements the lines of the hymn in Gregorian chant.", "In 1976 the words of the first verse of the Salve Regina were used as a repeating theme in the song \"Oh What a Circus\" in the musical \"Evita\", with music by Andrew Lloyd Webber and lyrics by Tim Rice. Salve Regina University, a U.S. university established by the Sisters of Mercy in 1934, was named in honor of the Salve Regina hymn and motto. The hymn was featured in the award winning 1992 classic film \"Sister Act\" starring Whoopi Goldberg." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Plot." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Kája Saudek met Macourek in 1960, through Olga Schoberová, a young shopgirl in a Prague's ironmongery.<ref name=\"Prokupek148/2\">Prokůpek (2009), p. 148 \"\"Přivedla mě k němu Olga Schoberová, půvabná prodavačka ze železářství u Rotta...\"\"</ref> Their artistic collaboration began in 1966, and was initially focused on film. Saudek created special effects for the film \"Kdo chce zabít Jessii?\" (Who Wants to Kill Jessie?); Macourek was a co-author of the screenplay. Following that, both artists decided to work also in the comics genre. The cycle about the adventures of a beautiful doctor Muriel was intended to have twelve parts; however, only two parts have been created. The cycle was initially inspired by the French comic \"Barbarella\", later adapted to a film by Roger Vadim. The main characters of the French and Czech albums are similar—a winged man and a beautiful young woman. The publishing of the first part of the cycle was announced in 1969 in the magazine \"Mladý svět\", however, the tightened communist censorship following the Prague Spring considered the story potentially dangerous and banned its publishing. \"Muriel and Angels\" was eventually published in 1991, following the fall of the Czechoslovak communist régime. \"Muriel and Angels\" is considered one of Saudek's master works.<ref name=\"Diesing257/1\">Diesing (2009), p. 257 \"\"Saudek sám se předvedl v mistrovské formě, jež snese srovnání se světovou špičkou.\"\"</ref> It was inspired by \"visual psychedelia\" of the hippie culture of the 1960s, but additionally uses some elements of futurism and symbolism. Another characteristic feature of the book is Saudek's processing of the sequences of pictures, similar to film editing.<ref name=\"Diesing257/2\">Diesing (2009), p. 257 \"\"Komiks vyniká takřka dokonale filmovými záběry a střihem...\"\"</ref> The formatting of individual pages is unusual, given the time of the creation of the book. It makes use of bevelled frames, enabling innovative work with the space and perspective.<ref name=\"Diesing257/3\">Diesing (2009), p. 257 \"\"...vynikajícím způsobem se zde pracuje s perspektivou a nezvyklé na svou dobu je různě zkosené formátování panelů...\"\"</ref>", "At the beginning of the story, Muriel saves the life of the angel Ro. Ro enables her to visit the world of distant future, full of young and beautiful winged people, who live in peace and love, without wars and armies. Maniacal general Xeron manages to travel with them, but he doesn't like the optimistic and peaceful vision of future and attempts to prevent it. Muriel and Ro seek to protect a young boy, who is the future inventor of immortality. The boy's name is Mike Richardson." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Historical background.", "Instrumentation.", "Form.", "Description and analysis." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The symphony is clearly indebted to Beethoven's predecessors, particularly his teacher Joseph Haydn as well as Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, but nonetheless has characteristics that mark it uniquely as Beethoven's work, notably the frequent use of \"sforzandi\", as well as sudden shifts in tonal centers that were uncommon for traditional symphonic form (particularly in the 3rd movement), and the prominent, more independent use of wind instruments. Sketches for the finale are found among the exercises Beethoven wrote while studying counterpoint under Johann Georg Albrechtsberger in the spring of 1797. The premiere took place on 2 April 1800 at the K.K. Hoftheater nächst der Burg in Vienna. Most sources agree that the concert program also included Beethoven's Septet as well as a symphony by Mozart, but there is some disagreement as to whether the remainder of the program included excerpts from Haydn's oratorio \"The Creation\" or from \"The Seasons\" and whether Beethoven's own Piano Concerto No. 1 or No. 2 was performed. This concert effectively served to announce Beethoven's talents to Vienna.", "The symphony is scored for the following instrumentation The clarinet parts are commonly played on B clarinet, as C and D clarinets are no longer widely used. However, there is some controversy over whether they should be played on E instruments instead. The E clarinet's timbre is much closer to that of the C and D clarinets than that of the warmer-sounding B clarinet. The second flute is not used in the second movement.", "There are four movements: A typical performance lasts between 22 and 29 minutes.", "The beginning of the twelve-bar \"introduction\" of the first movement is sometimes considered a \"musical joke\". For example, the English musicologist Donald Tovey has called this work \"a comedy of manners\". In fact, Symphony No. 1 can be regarded as a result of Beethoven's bold musical experimentation and advancement which he presents five years after Haydn's last symphony and twelve years after Mozart's final \"Jupiter Symphony\": Unusually, Beethoven's Symphony No. 1 starts with a sequence of repeatedly accentuated dominant–tonic chord sequences, however, in the \"wrong\" key and untouching and leading away from the tonic, so that the listener only gradually realizes the real key (or home key) of the symphony.<score lang=\"lilypond\" vorbis=\"1\" override_midi=\"Beethoven - Symphony No. 1, introduction secondary dominants.mid\"> </score>In correlation to the tradition, however, the first movement is composed exemplarily in sonata form. Here, as a new element, Beethoven uses the more lyrical second subject to display and intertwine the woodwind with the string instruments. The development is elaborate and mainly based on the first subject of the movement and explores a long harmonic progression (starting from A major, reaching B major, passing F major at the end); it also refines the juxtaposition and combination of the orchestral instruments (woodwinds and strings); the recapitulation is almost coherent with the exposition; the coda reminisces the motivic work of the development before it closes the movement with strongly repeated chords played by the whole orchestra. Due to Beethoven's metronome markings and the addition of the indication of \"con moto\" (\"with motion\"), the \"Andante\" (in F major, the subdominant of the symphony's home key) of the second movement is played considerably faster than the general concept of that tempo. In contrast to the tradition, Beethoven uses the entire instrumentation of the orchestra (2nd flute tacet) and, consequently, displays a vast spectrum of sound in this movement which, as well, is composed in sonata form. The third movement is on the one hand remarkable because, although it is indicated as \"Menuetto\", it is marked \"Allegro molto e vivace\" and, consequently, to be played so fast that it is essentially a \"Scherzo\" – a description mostly used after Beethoven's first symphony. Secondly, as an inherent element of the \"scherzo\", it does not customarily display new melodies or motives, but instead uses the musical scales and triads from the first movement as motivic material which render this movement's momentum and wit. One notable element of this movement is the sudden change of tonal center very early in the movement. While many opening themes of symphonic writing of the Classical period typically stayed within diatonic harmony, Beethoven shifts chromatically from C major up to D flat major only about 36 bars into the movement. Given the tempo, a listener would hear that dramatic shift only about 15 seconds into the movement. The finale opens with another introduction consisting only of scale fragments played slowly by the first violins alone (an unusual effect) beginning on G and gradually adding more notes. After finally reaching an F, outlining a dominant seventh chord in C major, the real start of the finale \"Allegro molto e vivace\" begins in C major with a theme similar (both in rhythm and character) to the 4th movement of Haydn's Symphony No. 88 in G major. Composed again in a solid sonata form, Beethoven uses the scale as the prevailing motivic element in this movement which, by character, pays most of all tribute to the customary finale established by Haydn in the preceding decades. The musical form is in accordance with the established composing tradition. Musical content, instrumentation as well as tempi, is unusual, if not revolutionary, in its use for a symphonic work of Beethoven's time. Therefore, Beethoven introduced himself with this work uniquely and boldly as an advancing symphonic composer and stood true to this statement throughout his compositional life." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "Geology.", "History.", "Native Americans.", "European arrival and settlement.", "Spanish explorers.", "American exploration.", "Federal protection: National Monument and Park.", "South Rim buildings.", "Weather.", "Air quality.", "Biology and ecology.", "Plants.", "Animals.", "Life zones and communities.", "Lower Sonoran.", "Upper Sonoran and Transition.", "Canadian and Hudsonian.", "Grand Canyon tourism.", "Activities.", "Viewing the canyon.", "Grand Canyon fatalities.", "Mid-1800s to 2015.", "1956 air disaster.", "\"Over the Edge\".", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The Grand Canyon is a river valley in the Colorado Plateau that exposes uplifted Proterozoic and Paleozoic strata, and is also one of the six distinct physiographic sections of the Colorado Plateau province. Even though It is not the deepest canyon in the world (Kali Gandaki Gorge in Nepal is much deeper), the Grand Canyon is known for its visually overwhelming size and its intricate and colorful landscape. Geologically, it is significant because of the thick sequence of ancient rocks that are well preserved and exposed in the walls of the canyon. These rock layers record much of the early geologic history of the North American continent. Uplift associated with mountain formation later moved these sediments thousands of feet upward and created", "The Grand Canyon is part of the Colorado River basin which has developed over the past 70 million years, in part based on apatite (U-Th)/He thermochronometry showing that Grand Canyon reached a depth near to the modern depth by 20 Ma. A recent study examining caves near Grand Canyon places their origins beginning about 17 million years ago. Previous estimates had placed the age of the canyon at 5–6 million years. The study, which was published in the journal \"Science\" in 2008, used uranium-lead dating to analyze calcite deposits found on the walls of nine caves throughout the canyon. There is a substantial amount of controversy because this research suggests such a substantial departure from prior widely supported scientific consensus. In December 2012, a study published in the journal \"Science\" claimed new tests had suggested the Grand Canyon could be as old as 70 million years. However, this study has been criticized by those who support the \"young canyon\" age of around six million years as \"[an] attempt to push the interpretation of their new data to their limits without consideration of the whole range of other geologic data sets.\" The canyon is the result of erosion which exposes one of the most complete geologic columns on the planet. The major geologic exposures in the Grand Canyon range in age", "", "The Ancestral Puebloans were a Native American culture centered on the present-day Four Corners area of the United States. They were the first people known to live in the Grand Canyon area. The cultural group has often been referred to in archaeology as the Anasazi, although the term is not preferred by the modern Puebloan peoples. The word \"Anasazi\" is Navajo for \"Ancient Ones\" or \"Ancient Enemy\". Archaeologists still debate when this distinct culture emerged. The current consensus, based on terminology defined by the Pecos Classification, suggests their emergence was around 1200 during the Basketmaker II Era. Beginning with the earliest explorations and excavations, researchers have believed that the Ancestral Puebloans are ancestors of the modern Pueblo peoples. In addition to the Ancestral Puebloans, a number of distinct cultures have inhabited the Grand Canyon area. The", "", "In September 1540, under orders from the conquistador Francisco Vázquez de Coronado to search for the fabled Seven Cities of Cibola, Captain García López de Cárdenas, along with Hopi guides and a small group of Spanish soldiers, traveled to the south rim of the Grand Canyon between Desert View and Moran Point. Pablo de Melgrossa, Juan Galeras, and a third soldier descended some one third of the way into the canyon until they were forced to return because of lack of water. In their report, they noted that some of the rocks in the canyon were \"bigger than", "James Ohio Pattie, along with a group of American trappers and mountain men, may have been the next European to reach the canyon, in 1826. Jacob Hamblin, a Mormon missionary, was sent by Brigham Young in the 1850s to locate suitable river crossing sites in the canyon. Building good relations with local Hualapai and white settlers, he found the Crossing of the Fathers, and the locations that would become Lees Ferry in 1858 and Pearce Ferry (later operated by, and named for, Harrison Pearce) – only the latter two sites suitable for ferry operation. He also acted as an advisor to John Wesley Powell, before his second expedition to the Grand Canyon, serving as a diplomat between Powell and the local", "U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt visited the Grand Canyon in 1903. An avid outdoorsman and staunch conservationist, Roosevelt established the Grand Canyon Game Preserve on November 28, 1906. Livestock grazing was reduced, but predators such as mountain lions, eagles, and wolves were eradicated. Roosevelt along with other members of his conservation group, the Boone and Crockett Club helped form the National Parks Association, which in turn lobbied for the Antiquities Act of 1906 which gave Roosevelt the power to create national monuments. Once the act was passed, Roosevelt immediately added adjacent national forest lands and redesignated the preserve a U.S. National Monument on January 11, 1908. Opponents such as land and mining claim holders blocked efforts to reclassify the monument as a U.S. National Park for 11 years. Grand Canyon National Park was finally established as the 17th U.S. National Park by an Act of Congress signed into law by President Woodrow Wilson on February 26, 1919. The federal government administrators", "There are several historic buildings located along the", "Weather in the Grand Canyon varies according to elevation. The forested rims are high enough to receive winter snowfall, but along the Colorado River in the Inner Gorge, temperatures are similar to those found in Tucson and other low elevation desert locations in Arizona. Conditions in the Grand Canyon region are generally dry, but substantial precipitation occurs twice annually, during seasonal pattern shifts in winter (when Pacific storms usually deliver widespread, moderate rain and high-elevation snow to the region from the west) and in late summer (due to the North American Monsoon, which delivers waves of moisture from the southeast, causing dramatic, localized thunderstorms fueled by the heat of the day). Average annual precipitation on the South Rim is less than, with of snow; the higher North Rim usually receives of moisture, with a typical snowfall of ; and Phantom Ranch, far below the canyon's rims along the Colorado River at 2,500 feet (762 m) gets just of rain, and snow is a rarity. Temperatures vary wildly throughout the year, with summer highs within the Inner Gorge commonly exceeding 100 °F (37.8 °C) and winter minimum temperatures sometimes falling below zero degrees Fahrenheit (−17.8 °C) along the canyon's rims. Visitors are often surprised by these potentially extreme conditions, and this, along with the high altitude of the canyon's rims, can lead to unpleasant side effects such as dehydration, sunburn, and hypothermia. Weather conditions can greatly affect hiking and canyon exploration, and visitors should obtain accurate forecasts because of hazards posed by exposure to extreme temperatures, winter storms and late summer monsoons. While the park service posts weather information at gates and visitor centers, this is a rough approximation only, and should not be relied upon for trip planning. For accurate weather in the canyon, hikers should consult the National Weather Service's NOAA weather radio or the official National Weather Service website. The National Weather Service has had a cooperative station on the South Rim since 1903. The record high temperature on the South Rim was 105 °F (41 °C) on June 26, 1974, and the record low temperature was −20 °F (−29 °C) on January 1, 1919, February 1, 1985, and December 23, 1990.", "The Grand Canyon area has some of the cleanest air in the United States. However, at times the air quality can be considerably affected by events such as forest fires and dust storms in the Southwest. What effect there is on air quality and visibility in the canyon has been mainly from sulfates, soils, and organics. The sulfates largely result from urban emissions in southern California, borne on the prevailing westerly winds throughout much of the year, and emissions from Arizona's copper smelter region, borne on southerly or southeasterly winds during the monsoon. Airborne soils originate with windy conditions and road dust. Organic particles result from vehicle emissions, long-range transport from urban areas, and forest fires, as well as from VOCs emitted by vegetation in the surrounding forests. Nitrates, carried in from urban areas, stationary sources, and vehicle emissions; as well as black carbon from forest fires and vehicle emissions, also contribute to a lesser extent. A number of actions have been taken to preserve and further improve air quality and visibility at the canyon. In 1990, amendments to the", "", "There are approximately 1,737 known species of vascular plants, 167 species of fungi, 64 species of moss and 195 species of lichen found in Grand Canyon National Park. This variety is largely due to the elevation change from the Colorado River up to the highest point on the North Rim. Grand Canyon boasts a dozen endemic plants (known only within the Park's boundaries) while only ten percent of the Park's flora is exotic. Sixty-three plants found here have been given special status by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. The Mojave Desert influences the western sections of", "Of the 90 mammal species found along", "The Park contains several major ecosystems. Its great biological diversity can be attributed to the presence of five of the seven life zones and three of the four desert types in North America. The five life zones represented are the Lower Sonoran, Upper Sonoran, Transition, Canadian, and Hudsonian. This is equivalent to traveling from Mexico to Canada. Differences in elevation and the resulting variations in climate are the major factors that form the various life zones and communities in and around the canyon. Grand Canyon National Park contains 129 vegetation communities, and the composition and distribution of plant species is influenced by climate, geomorphology and geology.", "The Lower Sonoran life zone spans from the Colorado River up to. Along the Colorado River and its perennial tributaries, a riparian community exists. Coyote willow, arrowweed, seep-willow, western honey mesquite, catclaw acacia, and exotic tamarisk (saltcedar) are the predominant species. Hanging gardens, seeps and springs often contain rare plants such as the white-flowering western redbud, stream orchid, and \"Flaveria mcdougallii\". Endangered fish in the river include the humpback chub and the razorback sucker. The three most common amphibians in these riparian communities are the canyon tree frog, red-spotted toad, and Woodhouse's Rocky Mountain toad. Leopard frogs are very rare in the Colorado River corridor, they have undergone major declines and have not", "The Upper Sonoran Life Zone includes most of the inner canyon and South Rim at elevations from. This zone is generally dominated by blackbrush, sagebrush, and pinyon-juniper woodlands. Elevations of are in the Mojave Desert Scrub community of the Upper Sonoran. This community is dominated by the four-winged saltbush and creosote bush; other important plants include Utah agave, narrowleaf mesquite, ratany, catclaw acacia, and various cacti species. Approximately 30 bird species breed primarily in the desert uplands and cliffs of the inner canyon. Virtually all bird species present breed in other suitable habitats throughout the Sonoran and Mohave deserts. The abundance of bats, swifts, and riparian birds provides ample food for peregrines, and suitable eyrie sites are plentiful along the steep canyon walls. Also, several critically endangered California condors that were re-introduced to the Colorado Plateau on the Arizona Strip, have made the eastern part of", "Elevations of are in the Canadian Life Zone, which includes the North Rim and the Kaibab Plateau. Spruce-fir forests characterized by Engelmann spruce, blue spruce, Douglas fir, white fir, aspen, and mountain ash, along with several species of perennial grasses, groundsels, yarrow, cinquefoil, lupines, sedges, and asters, grow in this sub-alpine climate. Mountain lions, Kaibab squirrels, and northern goshawks are found here. Montane meadows and subalpine grassland communities of the Hudsonian life zone are rare and located only on the North Rim. Both are typified by many grass species. Some of these grasses include blue and black grama, big galleta, Indian ricegrass and three-awns. The wettest areas support sedges and forbs.", "Grand Canyon National Park is one of the world's premier natural attractions, attracting about five million visitors per year. Overall, 83% were from the United States: California (12%), Arizona (9%), Texas (5%), Florida (3%) and New York (3%) represented the top domestic visitors. Seventeen percent of visitors were from outside the United States; the most prominently represented nations were the United Kingdom (4%), Canada (4%), Japan (2%), Germany (2%) and The Netherlands (1%). The South Rim is open all year round weather permitting. The North Rim is generally open mid-May to mid-October.", "Aside from casual sightseeing from the South Rim (averaging 7,000 feet [2,100 m] above sea level), rafting, hiking, running, and helicopter tours are popular. The Grand Canyon Ultra Marathon is a race over 24 hours. The floor of the valley is accessible by foot, muleback, or by boat or raft from upriver. Hiking down to the river and back up to the rim in one day is discouraged by park officials because of the distance, steep and rocky trails, change in elevation,", "Lipan Point is a promontory located on the South Rim. This point is located to the east of the Grand Canyon Village along the Desert View Drive. There", "", "About 770 deaths have occurred between the mid 1800s and 2015. Of the fatalities that occurred from 1869 to 2001, some were as follows: 53 resulted from falls; 65 were attributable to environmental causes, including heat", "In 1956, the Grand Canyon was the site of the deadliest commercial aviation disaster in history at the time. On the morning of June 30, 1956, a TWA Lockheed Super Constellation and a United Airlines Douglas DC-7 departed Los Angeles International Airport within three minutes of one another on eastbound transcontinental flights. Approximately 90", "In \"Over the Edge: Death in Grand Canyon\", Thomas", "History Travel and sites Multimedia" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Species.", "Anatomy.", "Habitats.", "Fishing." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Most authorities recognize three species within the perch genus:", "The general body type of a perch is somewhat long and rounded. True perch have \"rough\" or ctenoid scales. On the anterior side of the head are the maxilla and lower mandible for the mouth, a pair of nostrils, and two lidless eyes. On the posterior sides are the opercular series, which protect the gills, and the lateral line system, which is sensitive to vibrations in the water. The kidney of the perch runs along the backbone and forms a head, caudal to the gills. Perch have paired pectoral and pelvic fins, and two dorsal fins, the first one spiny and the second soft. These two fins can be separate or joined.", "Perch are carnivorous fish most commonly found in small ponds, lakes, streams, or rivers. These fish feed on smaller fish, shellfish, or insect larvae, but can be caught with nearly any bait. They commonly spawn during the spring, when the females lay strings of eggs in covered areas such as near branches or underwater plants. Perch have a wide distribution throughout the world, and are very plentiful in the Great Lakes, especially Lake Erie.", "Perch are a popular sport fish species. They are known to put up a fight, and to be good for eating. They can be caught with a variety of methods, including float fishing, lure fishing, and legering. Fly fishing for perch using patterns that imitate small fry or invertebrates can be successful. The record weight for this fish in Britain is, the Netherlands, and in America. Perch grow to around and or more, but the most common size caught are around and or less and anything over and is considered a prize catch." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Rules.", "International associations.", "International name." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In 1922 the members of the football club Slavia Prague started playing a game which they called football over the rope, because it was initially played over a horizontally suspended rope, which was later replaced by a net. Usually two or three players on each side could touch the ball three times (not two consecutive touches by the same player) with all parts of the body except for the arms and could let the ball bounce once between the touches, altogether three times before passing it on the other side. In 1940 the first official rules were written. The first futnet cup was played in 1940 and between 1953-1961 first league called Trampská liga was played and it was banterous. In 1961, futnet was recognised as an official sport by Czechoslovak Sports Organisation (ČSTV) and the Prague Futnet Commission was established. In 1971 the \"Český nohejbalový svaz\" (Czech Futnet Association) was founded and in 1974 \"Výbor nohejbalového zväzu SÚV ČSTV\" (Slovak Futnet Association). Official international competitions have been organised for decades. European championships have been held since 1991 and World championships since 1994.", "There are three futnet disciplines: In all the disciplines, a set finishes with 11th point with a two-point difference, maximum score is 15:14. To win a match, the team has to win 2 sets. The height of the net is 1.10 m. The players may not touch the net during the game, otherwise it is a point for the opponent. The futnet ball is similar to a football in size, but is glued, made of 32 panels, of synthetic (natural) leather and when properly inflated, should bounce more than half a meter.", "In 1987, the International Footballtennis Association (IFTA, later renamed to FIFTA, the Federation International de Footballtennis Association) was founded. In 2010, Union Internationale de Futnet (UNIF) was founded by some former FIFTA members, later joined by other nations, to govern, regulate and promote the sport of futnet. In December 2012, UNIF had 17 member countries. In April 2010 European Futnet Association (EFTA) was founded in Marseille, France, to reactivate the sport in Europe where it had been stagnating under FIFTA. Current EFTA members include Switzerland, France, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Romania, Ireland, Basque Country, Denmark, England, Poland, Ukraine and Austria. EFTA is the continental association of UNIF in Europe.", "While footballtennis is still a commonly used, the word futnet is being used more and more as the new international name to reflect the truly independent nature of this sport which has now almost 100 years of history and which has its own rules and regulations, governing structures and regular competitions." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Line-up changes.", "Artwork.", "Personnel." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "This is the first album to feature Matthias Jabs on lead guitar, and by extension, the first record to feature the band's \"classic\" lineup. Jabs replaced Uli Jon Roth who went on to form his own band, Electric Sun. Michael Schenker, younger brother of rhythm guitarist Rudolf, had just split from UFO. He recorded lead guitars on \"Another Piece of Meat\", \"Coast to Coast\", \"Holiday\", \"Loving You Sunday Morning\" and \"Lovedrive\". At the beginning of the Scorpions' German tour in February 1979, it was announced that Michael had rejoined the band and the group reluctantly parted ways with Matthias Jabs. However, in April 1979 while the band was touring in France, Michael quit leading to Jabs' immediate return after intense negotiations.", "The original album cover depicted a well dressed man and woman seated in the back of a car, with the woman's right breast exposed and connected to the man's hand by stretched bubblegum. The back cover featured the same man and woman, but holding a photograph of the band, and with the woman's left breast completely exposed without any gum. It was created by Storm Thorgerson of the design firm Hipgnosis. It caused some controversy in the US upon the album's release, with later pressings of the album bearing a simple design of a blue scorpion on a black background. The original uncensored art was restored for the remaster series. Recalling the cover photo with the woman and the car, Thorgerson remarked: \"Not exactly the most politically correct scene you've ever seen. I thought it was funny, but women read a different inflection into it now.\" In a 2010 interview, singer Klaus Meine commented on the album cover, stating: \"We just did not know it would be a problem in America, it was just sex and rock 'n' roll. It is odd that in America some of these covers were a problem, because in the '80s when we would tour here, we always had boobs flashed to us at the front of the stage. Nowhere else in the world, just here. We just did not think it would be a problem to put out a record like \"Lovedrive\" in America.\"", "Scorpions Production" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Name.", "Native American Milwaukee.", "Milwaukee since European settlement.", "Historic neighborhoods.", "Geography.", "Cityscape.", "Climate.", "Water.", "Demographics.", "2010 Census.", "Ethnic groups.", "Religion.", "Economy.", "Early economy.", "Brewing.", "Milwaukee's economy today.", "Culture.", "Arenas and performing arts.", "Public art and monuments.", "Festivals.", "Cuisine.", "Music.", "Municipal wireless.", "Sports.", "Parks and recreation.", "Parks and nature centers.", "Milwaukee County public markets.", "Government and politics.", "Education.", "Primary and secondary education.", "Higher education.", "Media.", "Infrastructure.", "Health care.", "Transportation.", "Airports.", "Intercity rail and bus.", "Highways.", "Water.", "Bicycle.", "Walkability.", "Modal characteristics.", "City development.", "Sister cities.", "Friendship cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The name \"Milwaukee\" comes from an Algonquian word, meaning \"good\", \"beautiful\" and \"pleasant land\" (compare, )", "Indigenous cultures lived along the waterways for thousands of years. The first recorded inhabitants of the Milwaukee area are the historic Menominee, Fox, Mascouten, Sauk, Potawatomi, and Ojibwe (all Algic/Algonquian peoples); and Ho-Chunk (Winnebago, a Siouan people) Native American tribes. Many of these people had lived around Green Bay before migrating to the Milwaukee area around the time of European contact. In the second half of the 18th century, the Native Americans living near Milwaukee played a role in all the major European wars on the American continent. During the French and Indian War, a group of \"Ojibwas and Pottawattamies from the far [Lake] Michigan\" (i.e., the area from Milwaukee to Green Bay) joined the", "Europeans had arrived in the Milwaukee area prior to the 1833 Treaty of Chicago. French missionaries and traders first passed through the area in the late 17th and 18th centuries. Alexis Laframboise, in 1785, coming from Michilimackinac (now in Michigan) settled a trading post; and is considered the first resident of European descent in the Milwaukee region. Early explorers called the Milwaukee River and surrounding lands various names: Melleorki, Milwacky, Mahn-a-waukie, Milwarck, and Milwaucki, in efforts to transliterate the native terms. For many years, printed records gave the name as \"Milwaukie\". One story on the origin of Milwaukee's name says, The spelling \"Milwaukie\" lives on in Milwaukie, Oregon, named after the Wisconsin city in 1847, before the current spelling was universally accepted. Milwaukee has three \"founding fathers\": Solomon Juneau, Byron Kilbourn, and George H. Walker. Solomon Juneau was the first of the three to come to the area, in 1818. He founded a town called Juneau's Side, or Juneautown, that began attracting more settlers. In competition with Juneau, Byron Kilbourn established Kilbourntown west of the Milwaukee River. He ensured the roads running toward the river did not join with those on the east side. This accounts for the large number of angled bridges that still exist in Milwaukee today. Further, Kilbourn distributed maps of the area which only showed Kilbourntown, implying Juneautown did not exist or the river's east side was uninhabited and thus undesirable. The third prominent developer was George H. Walker. He claimed land to the south of the Milwaukee River, along with Juneautown, where he built a log house in 1834. This area grew and became known as Walker's Point. The first large wave", "In 1892, Whitefish Bay, South Milwaukee, and Wauwatosa were incorporated. They were followed by Cudahy (1895), North Milwaukee (1897) and East Milwaukee, later known as Shorewood, in 1900. In the early 20th century West Allis (1902), and West Milwaukee (1906) were added, which completed the first generation of \"inner-ring\" suburbs. In the 1920s, Chicago gangster activity came north to Milwaukee during the Prohibition era. Al Capone, noted Chicago mobster, owned a home in the Milwaukee suburb Brookfield, where moonshine was made. The house still stands on a street named after Capone. By 1960, Milwaukee had grown to become one of the largest cities in the United States. Its population peaked at 741,324. In 1960, the Census Bureau reported city's population as 91.1% white and 8.4% black.", "Milwaukee lies along the shores and bluffs of Lake Michigan at the confluence of three rivers: the Menomonee, the Kinnickinnic, and the Milwaukee. Smaller rivers, such as the Root River and Lincoln Creek, also flow through the city. Milwaukee's terrain is sculpted by the glacier path and includes steep bluffs along Lake Michigan that begin about a mile (1.6 km) north of downtown. In addition, southwest of Milwaukee is the Kettle Moraine and lake country that provides an industrial landscape combined with inland lakes. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, of which, is land and is water. The city is overwhelmingly (99.89% of its area) in Milwaukee County, but there are two tiny unpopulated parts of it that extend into neighboring counties. The part in Washington County is bordered by the southeast corner of Germantown, while the part in Waukesha County is bordered by the southeast corner of Menomonee Falls, north of the village of Butler. Both were annexations done for industrial concerns, with the Waukesha County portion containing a Cargill plant for Ambrosia Chocolate, and the Washington County portion containing a Waste Management facility.", "North–south streets are numbered, and east–west streets are named. However, north–south streets east of 1st Street are named, like east–west streets. The north–south numbering line is along the Menomonee River (east of Hawley Road) and Fairview Avenue/Golfview Parkway (west of Hawley Road), with the east–west numbering line defined along 1st Street (north of Oklahoma Avenue) and Chase/Howell Avenue (south of Oklahoma Avenue). This numbering system is also used to the north by Mequon in Ozaukee County, and by some Waukesha County communities. Milwaukee is crossed by Interstate 43 and Interstate 94, which come together downtown at the Marquette Interchange. The Interstate", "Milwaukee's location in the Great Lakes Region often has rapidly changing weather, producing a humid continental climate (Köppen \"Dfa\"), with cold, windy, snowy winters, and warm, humid summers. The warmest month of the year is July, when the 24-hour average is, while January is the coldest month, with a 24-hour average of. Because of Milwaukee's proximity to Lake Michigan, a convection current forms around mid-afternoon in light wind, resulting in the so-called \"lake breeze\" – a smaller scale version of the more common sea breeze. The lake breeze is most common between the months of March and July. This onshore flow causes cooler temperatures to move inland usually, with much warmer conditions persisting further inland. Because Milwaukee's official climate site, Milwaukee Mitchell International Airport, is only from the lake, seasonal temperature variations are less extreme than in many other locations of the Milwaukee metropolitan area. As the sun sets, the convection current reverses and an offshore flow ensues causing a land", "In the 1990s and 2000s, Lake Michigan experienced large algae blooms, which can threaten aquatic life. Responding to this problem, in 2009 the city became an \"Innovating City\" in the Global Compact Cities Program. The Milwaukee Water Council was also formed in 2009. Its objectives were to \"better understand the processes", "According to the 2013 U.S. Census Estimate, 599,164 people were living in Milwaukee. As of 2000, 135,133 families resided in 232,188 Milwaukee households. The population density was 2,399.5/km (6,214.3 per square mile). There were 249,225 housing units at an average density of 1,001.7/km (2,594.4 per square mile). Milwaukee is the 31st most populous city in the United States, and anchors the 39th most populous Metropolitan Statistical Area in the United States. Its combined statistical area population makes it the 29th most populous Combined Statistical Area of the United States. In 2012, Milwaukee was listed as a gamma global city by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network.", "About 30.5% of households in 2000 had children under the age of 18 living with them. 32.2% of households were married couples living together, 21.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 41.8% were non-families. 33.5% of all households were single individuals, and 9.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.50 people per household, with the average family size at 3.25 people per family. In 2000, the Census estimated at least 1,408 same-sex households in Milwaukee, or about 0.6% of all households in the city. Gay-friendly communities have developed primarily in Walker's Point, but also in Bay View, Historic Third Ward, Washington Heights,", "According to the 2010 Census, 44.8% of the population was White (37.0% non-Hispanic white), 40.0% was Black or African American, 0.8% American Indian and Alaska Native, 3.5% Asian, 3.4% from two or more races. 17.3% of Milwaukee's population was of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin (they may be of any race) (11.7% Mexican, 4.1% Puerto Rican). According to the 2006–2008 American Community Survey, 38.3% of Milwaukee's residents reported having African American ancestry and 20.8% reported German ancestry. Other significant population groups include Polish (8.8%), Irish (6.5%), Italian (3.6%), English (2.8%), and French (1.7%). According to the 2010 United States Census, the largest Hispanic backgrounds in Milwaukee as of 2010 were: Mexican (69,680), Puerto Rican (24,672), Other Hispanic or Latino (3,808), Central American (1,962), South American (1,299), Cuban (866) and Dominican (720). The Milwaukee metropolitan area was cited as being the most segregated in the U.S. in a \"Jet Magazine\" article in 2002. The", "As of 2010, approximately 51.8% of residents in the Milwaukee area said they regularly attended religious services. 24.6% of the Milwaukee area population identified as Catholic, 10.8% as Lutheran, 1.6% as Methodist, and 0.6% as Jewish. The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Milwaukee and the Episcopal Diocese of Milwaukee are headquartered in Milwaukee. The School Sisters of the Third Order of St Francis have their mother house in Milwaukee, and several other religious orders have a significant presence in the area, including the Jesuits and Franciscans. Milwaukee, where Father Josef Kentenich was exiled for 14 years from 1952 to 1965, is also the center for the Schoenstatt Movement in the United States. St. Joan of Arc Chapel, the oldest church in Milwaukee, is", "", "Milwaukee's founding fathers had a vision for the city: they knew it was perfectly situated as a port city, a center for collecting and distributing produce. Many of the new immigrants who were pouring into the new state of Wisconsin during the middle of the 19th century were wheat farmers. By 1860, Wisconsin was the second ranked wheat-growing state in the country and Milwaukee shipped more wheat than any place in the world. Railroads were needed to transport all this grain from the wheat fields of Wisconsin to Milwaukee's harbor. Improvements in railways at the time made this possible. There was intense competition for markets with Chicago, and to a lesser degree, with Racine and Kenosha. Eventually Chicago won out due to its superior financial and transposition status, as well as being a hub on major railroad lines throughout the United States. Milwaukee did solidify its place as the commercial capital of Wisconsin and an important market in the Midwest. Because of its easy access to Lake Michigan and other waterways, Milwaukee's Menomonee Valley has historically been", "Milwaukee became synonymous with Germans and beer beginning in the 1840s. The Germans had long enjoyed beer and set up breweries when they arrived in Milwaukee. By 1856, there were more than two dozen breweries in Milwaukee, most of them owned and operated by Germans. Besides making beer for the rest of the nation, Milwaukeeans enjoyed consuming the various beers produced in the city's breweries. As early as 1843, pioneer historian James Buck recorded 138 taverns in Milwaukee, an average of one per forty residents. Today, beer halls and taverns are abundant in the city, but only one of the major breweries—Miller—remains in Milwaukee. Milwaukee was once the home to four of the world's largest beer breweries (Schlitz, Blatz, Pabst, and Miller), and was the number one beer producing city in the world for many years. As late as 1981, Milwaukee had the greatest brewing capacity in the world. Despite the decline in its position as the world's leading beer producer after the loss of two of those breweries, Miller Brewing Company remains a key employer by employing over 2,200 of the city's workers. Because of Miller's", "Milwaukee is the home to the international headquarters of six Fortune 500 companies: Johnson Controls, Northwestern Mutual, Manpower, Rockwell Automation, Harley-Davidson and Joy Global. Other companies based in Milwaukee include Briggs & Stratton, Brady Corporation, Baird (investment bank), Alliance Federated Energy, Sensient Technologies, Marshall & Ilsley (acquired by BMO Harris Bank in 2010), Hal Leonard, Direct Supply, Wisconsin Energy, Rite-Hite, the American Society for Quality, A.", "Milwaukee is a popular venue for Lake Michigan sailing, windsurfing, kitesurfing, ethnic dining, and cultural festivals. Often referred to as the City of Festivals, Milwaukee has various cultural events which take place throughout the summer at Henry Maier Festival Park, on the lake. Museums and cultural events, such as Jazz in the Park, occur weekly in downtown parks. A 2011 study by Walk Score ranked Milwaukee 15th most walkable of fifty largest U.S. cities. In 2018, the city was voted \"The Coolest City in the Midwest\" by Vogue.", "Performing arts groups and venues include: In 1984 ComedySportz was founded in Milwaukee by native Dick Chudnow and has", "Milwaukee has some 75 sculptures to honor the many people and topics reflecting the city's history. Among the more prominent monuments are: Additionally, Milwaukee has a burgeoning mural arts scene. Black Cat Alley is a well-known arts destination in a one-block", "The city hosts an annual lakefront music festival called Summerfest. Listed in the \"1999 Guinness Book of World Records\" as the largest music festival in the world, in 2017 Summerfest attracted 831,769. The adjacent city of West Allis has been the site of the Wisconsin State Fair for over a century. Milwaukee hosts a variety of primarily ethnically themed festivals throughout the summer. Held generally", "Milwaukee's ethnic cuisines include German, Italian, Russian, Hmong, French, Serbian, Polish, Thai, Japanese, Chinese, Mexican, Indian, Korean, Vietnamese, Turkish, Middle Eastern and Ethiopian. Famous Chef Julia Child visited Milwaukee and selected Milwaukee native chef Sanford", "Milwaukee has a long history of musical activity. The first organized musical society, called \"Milwaukee Beethoven Society\" formed in 1843, three years before the city was incorporated. The large concentrations of German and other European immigrants contributed to the musical character of the city. Saengerfesten were held regularly. In the early 20th century, guitarist Les Paul and pianist Liberace were some of the area's most famous musicians. Both Paul, born in Waukesha, and Liberace, born in West Allis, launched their careers in Milwaukee music venues. Paramount Records, primarily a jazz and blues record label, was founded in Grafton, a northern suburb of Milwaukee, in the 1920s and 1930s. Hal Leonard Corporation, founded in 1947 is one of the world's largest music print publishers, and is headquartered in Milwaukee. More recently, Milwaukee has a history of rock, hip hop, jazz, soul, blues, punk, ska, industrial music, electronica, world music, and pop music bands. Milwaukee's most famous music venue is Summerfest. Founded in 1968, Summerfest features 700-800 live musical", "Through its Milwaukee Wireless Initiative, the city has contracted with Midwest Fiber Networks to invest US$20 million in setting up a municipal wireless network city-wide. Under the plan, the city will designate numerous government and", "Currently, Milwaukee's sports teams include: The city currently has no NFL or NHL team, two of the Major professional sports leagues in the United States and Canada. For NFL, Milwaukee was supported by the Milwaukee Badgers in the 1920s, but Milwaukee is considered a home market for the Green Bay Packers. The team split its home schedule between Green Bay and Milwaukee from 1933 to 1994, with the majority of the Milwaukee games being played at County Stadium. Former season ticketholders for the", "Milwaukee County is known for its well-developed Parks of Milwaukee park system. The \"Grand Necklace of Parks\", designed by Frederick Law Olmsted, designer of New York's Central Park, includes Lake Park, River Park (now Riverside Park), and West Park (now Washington Park). Milwaukee County Parks offer facilities for sunbathing, picnics, grilling, disc golf, and ice skating. Milwaukee has over 140 parks with over of parks and parkways. In its 2013 ParkScore ranking, The Trust for Public Land, a national land conservation organization, reported Milwaukee had the 19th best park system among the 50 most populous U.S. cities.", "The Monarch Trail, on the Milwaukee County Grounds in Wauwatosa, is a trail that highlights the fall migration of the", "Milwaukee Public Market, in the Third Ward neighborhood, is an indoor market that sells produce, seafood, meats, cheeses, vegetables, candies, and flowers from local businesses. Milwaukee County Farmers Markets, held in season, sell fresh produce, meats, cheeses, jams, jellies, preserves and syrups, and", "Milwaukee has a mayor-council form of government. With the election of Mayor John O. Norquist in 1988, the city adopted a cabinet form of government with the mayor appointing those department heads not otherwise elected or appointed—notably the Fire and Police Chiefs. While this gave the mayor greater control of the day-to-day operations of the city, the Common Council retains almost complete control over the city's finances and the mayor, with the exception of his proposed annual budget, cannot directly introduce legislation. The Common Council consists of 15 members, one from each district in the city. Milwaukee has a history of giving long tenures to its mayors; from Frank Zeidler to current mayor Tom Barrett, the city has had only four mayors in the last 60 years. When 28-year incumbent Henry Maier retired in 1988, he held the record for longest term of service for a city of Milwaukee's size. In addition to the election of a Mayor and Common Council on the city level, Milwaukee residents elect county representatives to the Milwaukee County Board of Supervisors, as well as a Milwaukee County Executive. The current County Executive is Chris Abele. Milwaukee has been a Democratic stronghold for more than a century at the federal level. At the local level, Socialists frequently won the mayorship and (for briefer periods) other city and county offices during much of the first sixty years of the 20th century. The city is split between seven state Senate districts, each of which is composed of three Assembly districts. All but four state legislators representing the city are Democrats; the four Republicans—two in the State Assembly and two in the State Senate—represent outer portions of the city that are part of districts dominated by heavily Republican suburban counties. In 2008, Barack Obama won Milwaukee with 77% of the vote. Tim Carpenter (D), Lena Taylor (D), Robyn Vining (R), LaTonya Johnson (D), Chris Larson (D), Alberta Darling (R), and Mary Lazich (R) represent Milwaukee in the Wisconsin State Senate, and Daniel Riemer (D), JoCasta Zamarripa (D), Marisabel Cabrera (D), David Bowen (D), Jason Fields (D), LeKesiha Meyers (D), Rob Hutton (R), Dale P. Kooyenga (R), Kalan Haywood II (D), David Crowley (D), Evan Goyke (D), Jonathan Brostoff (D), Christine Sinicki (D), Janel Brandtjen (R), and Mike Kuglitsch (R) represent Milwaukee in the Wisconsin State Assembly. Milwaukee makes up the overwhelming majority of Wisconsin's 4th congressional district. The district is heavily Democratic. The Democratic primary for the seat is considered more important than the general election. The district is currently represented by Democrat Gwen Moore. A Republican has not represented a significant portion of Milwaukee in Congress since Charles J. Kersten lost his seat in the 5th district in 1954 to Democrat Henry S. Reuss. The small portions of the city extending into Waukesha and Washington counties are part of the 5th District, represented by Republican Jim Sensenbrenner. A Mexican Consulate is also located in Milwaukee that serves a total of 65 counties in Wisconsin and the Upper Peninsula of Michigan.", "", "Milwaukee Public Schools (MPS) is the largest school district in Wisconsin and thirty third in the nation. As of 2007, it had an enrollment of 89,912 students and as of 2006 employed 11,100 full-time and substitute teachers in 323 schools. Milwaukee Public Schools operate as magnet schools, with individualized specialty areas for interests in academics or the arts. Washington High School, Riverside University High School, Rufus King High School, Ronald Wilson Reagan College", "Milwaukee area", "Milwaukee's daily newspaper is the \"Milwaukee Journal Sentinel\" which was formed when the morning paper the \"Milwaukee Sentinel\" merged with the afternoon paper \"Milwaukee Journal\". The city has two free distribution alternative publications, \"Shepherd Express\" and \"Wisconsin Gazette\". Other local newspapers, city guides and magazines with large distributions include \"M Magazine\", \"Milwaukee Magazine\", \"The Bay View Compass\", \"Riverwest Currents\", \"The Milwaukee Courier\" and \"Milwaukee Community Journal\". OnMilwaukee.com is an online magazine providing news and events. The \"UWM Post\" is the independent, student-run weekly at the University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee. Milwaukee's major network television affiliates are WTMJ 4 (NBC), WITI 6 (Fox), WISN 12 (ABC), WVTV 18 (CW), WVTV-DT2 24 (MyNetworkTV),", "", "Milwaukee's health care industry includes several health systems. The Milwaukee Regional Medical Complex, between 8700 and 9200 West Wisconsin Avenue, is on the Milwaukee County grounds. This area includes the Children's Hospital of Wisconsin, Froedtert Hospital, BloodCenter of Wisconsin, the Ronald McDonald House, Curative Rehabilitation, and the Medical College of Wisconsin. Aurora Health Care includes St. Luke's Medical Center, Aurora Sinai Medical Center, Aurora", "", "Milwaukee has two airports: Milwaukee Mitchell International Airport (KMKE) on the southern edge of the city, which handles the region's commercial traffic, and Lawrence J. Timmerman Airport (KMWC), known locally as Timmerman Field, on the northwest side along Appleton Avenue. Mitchell is served by twelve airlines, which offer roughly 240 daily departures and 245 daily arrivals. Approximately", "Milwaukee's Amtrak station was renovated in 2007 to create Milwaukee Intermodal Station near downtown Milwaukee and the Third Ward to provide Amtrak riders access to Greyhound Lines, Jefferson Lines, 24 hour Megabus service, and other intercity bus operators. Milwaukee is served by Amtrak's \"Hiawatha Service\" passenger train up to seven times daily between Milwaukee Intermodal Station and Chicago Union Station, including a stop at the", "Three of Wisconsin's Interstate highways intersect in Milwaukee. Interstate 94 (I-94) comes north from Chicago to enter Milwaukee and continues west to Madison. The stretch of I-94 from Seven Mile Rd. to the Marquette Interchange in Downtown Milwaukee is known as the North-South Freeway. I-94 from Downtown Milwaukee west to Wisconsin 16 is known as the East-West Freeway. I-43 enters Milwaukee from Beloit in the southwest and continues north along Lake Michigan to Green Bay via Sheboygan and Manitowoc. I-43 southwest of I-41/I-894/US 41/US 45 Hale Interchange is known as the Rock Freeway. I-43 is cosigned with I-894 East and I-41/US 41 South to I-94 is known as the Airport Freeway. At I-94, I-43 follows I-94 to the Marquette Interchange. I-43 continues north known as the North-South Freeway to Wisconsin Highway 57 near Port Washington. Approved in 2015, Interstate 41 follows I-94 north from the", "Milwaukee's main port, Port of Milwaukee, handled 2.4 million metric tons of cargo through its municipal port in 2014. Steel and salt are", "Milwaukee has over of bicycle lanes and trails, most of which run alongside or near its rivers and Lake Michigan. The Oak Leaf Trail, a multi-use recreational trail, provides bicycle trails throughout the city and county. Still pending are the creation of bicycle lanes along major commuting routes, such as the Hoan Bridge connector between downtown and the suburbs to the south. The city has also identified over of streets on which bike lanes will fit. It has created a plan labeling of those as high priority for receiving bike lanes. As part of the city's Bicycle and Pedestrian Task Force's mission to \"make Milwaukee more bicycle and pedestrian friendly\", over 700 bike racks have been installed throughout the city. The Bicycle Federation of Wisconsin holds an annual Bike to Work Week. The event, held in May each year, has frequently featured a commuter race between a car, a bus, and a bike; and", "A 2015 study by Walk Score ranked Milwaukee as the 15th most walkable out of the 50 largest U.S. cities. As a whole, the city has a score of 62 out of 100. However,", "According to the 2016 American Community Survey, 71% of working city of Milwaukee residents commuted by driving alone, 10.4% carpooled, 8.2% used public transportation, and 4.9% walked. About 2% used all other forms of transportation, including taxicab, motorcycle, and bicycle. About 3.4% of working city of Milwaukee residents worked at home. In 2015, 17.9% of city of Milwaukee households were without a car, which increased to 18.7% in 2016. The national average was 8.7 percent in 2016. Milwaukee averaged 1.3 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8 per household.", "On February 10, 2015, a streetcar connecting the Milwaukee Intermodal Station with the city's lower east side was approved by the Common Council, bringing if not to a halt then at least to a pause, decades of sometimes acrimonious debate. On a 9–6 vote, the council approved a measure that established the project's $124 million capital budget, its estimated $3.2 million operating and maintenance budget and its route, which includes a lakefront spur connecting the line to the proposed $122 million, 44-story Couture. Construction on the Milwaukee Streetcar began March", ", Milwaukee has eight sister cities and one friendship city around the world:", "Officials from Milwaukee and Ningbo have signed an agreement" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background and recording.", "Artwork." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The album was recorded in 1983 and 1984 at Dierks Studios in Stommeln, West Germany. Initial sessions took place in Stockholm's Polar Studios in the Summer of 1983 with ex-Rainbow members Jimmy Bain on bass and Bobby Rondinelli on drums, but nothing made it to the final album. \"Love at First Sting\" is notable in that it was one of the first digitally recorded hard rock records ever released. It became the group's most successful album in the US, where it peaked at number 6 on the \"Billboard\" 200 chart in 1984, and went double-platinum by the end of the year, reaching triple-platinum status in 1995. The song \"Rock You Like a Hurricane\" reached number 25 on the \"Billboard\" Hot 100 chart in the same year; \"Still Loving You\" reached number 64 on the same chart, number 14 in Germany, and number 3 in the French and Swiss single charts.", "The original cover art was created by Kochlowski, which is a German graphic design company, and features a photo shot by renowned German photographer Helmut Newton. Despite the record company having shown the original cover art to retailers without any concerns, a complaint by Wal-Mart in the US after the album was released resulted in PolyGram Records issuing a \"clean\" cover for use in several department store chains. The alternative cover was designed to be less controversial by simply showing a photo of the band members, which was the same photo as the one on the inner sleeve." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "Early years.", "Move to the U.S.,1930–1932.", "Rising actor 1933–1936.", "As leading man 1937–1944.", "\"The Lost Weekend\" – 1945.", "1945–1954.", "As director and television work 1955–1985.", "Personal life.", "Death." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Milland was born Alfred Reginald Jones on 3 January 1907 in Neath, the son of Elizabeth Annie (née Truscott) and steel mill superintendent Alfred Jones. Milland was schooled independently before attending the private King's College School in Cardiff. He also worked at his uncle's horse-breeding farm before leaving home at the age of 21. Commenting on his parents' personalities, he wrote in his 1974 autobiography:", "", "Prior to becoming an actor, Milland served in the Household Cavalry. An expert shot, he became a member of his company's rifle team, winning many prestigious competitions, including the Bisley Match in England. While stationed in London, Milland met dancer Margot St. Leger, and through her was introduced to American actress Estelle Brody. Brody queried Milland's commitment to an army career, which led to Milland buying himself out of the forces in 1928 in the hope of becoming an actor. His first appearance on film was as an uncredited extra on the E.A. Dupont film \"Piccadilly\" (1929). After some unproductive extra work, which never reached the screen, he signed with a talent agent named Frank Zeitlin on the recommendation of fellow actor Jack Raine. His prowess as a marksman earned him work as an extra at the British International Pictures studio on Arthur Robison's production of \"The Informer\" (1929), the first screen version of the Liam O'Flaherty novel. While he was working on \"The Informer\", he was asked to test for a production being shot on a neighbouring stage. Milland made a favourable impression with director Castleton Knight, and was hired for his first acting role as Jim Edwards in \"The Flying Scotsman\" (also 1929). In his autobiography, Milland recalls that on this film set, he was suggested to adopt a stage name, and he chose Milland from the \"mill lands\" area of his Welsh home town of Neath. His work on \"The Flying Scotsman\" resulted in him being granted a six-month contract, in which Milland starred in two more Knight-directed films, \"The Lady from the Sea\" and \"The Plaything\" (both 1929). Believing that his acting was poor, and that he had won his film roles through his looks alone, Milland decided to gain some stage work to improve his art. After hearing that club owner Bobby Page was financing a touring company, Milland approached him in hope of work. He was given the role of second lead, in a production of Sam Shipman and Max Marcin's \"The Woman in Room 13\". Despite being released from the play after five weeks, Milland felt that he had gained valuable acting experience.", "In between stage work, Milland was approached by MGM vice-president Robert Rubin, who had seen the film \"The Flying Scotsman\". MGM offered Milland a nine-month contract, based in Hollywood, and he accepted, leaving the United Kingdom in August 1930. MGM started Milland out as a'stock' player, selecting him for small speaking parts in mainstream productions. Milland's first introduction to a Hollywood film resulted in a humiliating scene on the set of \"Son of India\" (1931), when the film's director Jacques Feyder berated Milland's acting in front of the entire crew. Despite this setback, the studio executives talked Milland into staying in Hollywood, and in 1930, he appeared in his first US film \"Passion Flower\". Over the next two years, Milland appeared in minor parts for MGM, as well as a few films lent to Warner Bros., often uncredited. His largest role during this period was as Charles Laughton's nephew in \"Payment Deferred\" (1932). While in this first period working in the United States, Milland met Muriel Frances Weber, whom he always called \"Mal\", a student at the University of Southern California. Within eight months of first meeting, the two were married on 30 September 1932 at the Riverside Mission Inn. The couple had a son, Daniel, and a daughter, Victoria (adopted). Shortly after \"Payment Deferred\", Milland found himself out of work when MGM failed to renew his contract. He spent five months in the US attempting to find further acting work, but after little success, and a strained relationship with his father-in-law, he decided to head back to Britain hoping that two years spent in Hollywood would lead to roles in British films. Milland cashed in his contracted first-class return ticket to Britain and found an alternative cheaper way back home. Muriel remained in the States to finish her studies, and Milland found temporary accommodation in Earl's Court in London.", "Milland found life in Britain difficult with little regular work, though he finally found parts in two British films, \"This is the Life\" and \"Orders is Orders\" (both 1933). Neither was a breakthrough role. Then, in 1933, Roosevelt's reforms to the U.S. banking sector led to a temporary weakness in the dollar, allowing Milland to afford a return to the United States. He returned to California, and found a small flat on Sunset Boulevard, promising Muriel that he would buy a home once he was financially stable. With little prospect of finding acting work, Milland took on menial jobs, including working for a bookie. He decided to find regular employment and through connections made in his time in the UK, he was offered the job of an assistant manager of a Shell gas station on Sunset and Clark. On his return from his successful Shell interview, he passed by the gates of Paramount Pictures, where he was approached by casting director Joe Egli. Paramount was filming the George Raft picture \"Bolero\" (released in February 1934), but an injury to another British actor had left the studio looking for an urgent replacement. Egli offered Milland a two-week contract, at ten times the salary the assistant job would pay. Milland took the acting role. After completing \"Bolero\", Milland was offered a five-week guarantee by Benjamin Glazer to work on an upcoming screwball comedy starring Bing Crosby and Carole Lombard entitled \"We're Not Dressing\" (also 1934). During filming, he appeared in a scene with George Burns and Gracie Allen, which Milland recalls as falling into an \"ad-libbed shambles\", which he felt was better than the original script. The film's director Norman Taurog was so impressed, he rang the chief production executive and suggested that Milland be placed on a long-term contact. After a short meeting, Milland was offered a seven-year deal with Paramount. The contract gave Milland a secure income, and Muriel and he moved into an apartment on Fountain Avenue. During his first contract with Paramount, Milland was used as part of the speaking cast, but never as a top-of-the-bill actor. He was contacted by Joe Pasternak, who was looking for an 'English' actor for the lead in his new picture, \"Three Smart Girls\" (1936). Although Pasternak worked for Universal Studios, Paramount had agreed to lend Milland out for the film. Milland was lent to Universal for \"Next Time We Love\" (also 1936), with James Stewart and Margaret Sullavan. On returning to Paramount after \"Three Smart Girls\" was wrapped, Milland was again cast in bit-part roles. He was then used as a test actor to find a new starlet for \"The Jungle Princess\" (also 1936). When the studio chose Dorothy Lamour for the lead, Milland wrote in his autobiography that Lamour was confused to find that he was not to be her male lead and she requested Milland to be her co-star. Paramount was not keen, but when \"Three Smart Girls\" was released to rave reviews, they gave Milland the role. By the end of 1936, Milland was being considered for leading roles, and Paramount rewrote his contract, resulting in the tripling of his salary. The highly successful \"The Jungle Princess\" launched Lamour's career and was followed by two further films in the same genre, \"Her Jungle Love\" and \"Tropic Holiday\" (both 1938), which also feature Milland.", "After returning from a break in Europe, Milland was cast as Captain Hugh \"Bulldog\" Drummond in \"Bulldog Drummond Escapes\" (1937). This was followed by another lead role in \"The Gilded Lily\", directed by Wesley Ruggles, who had started Milland out in \"Bolero\". A heavy workload followed with Milland completing \"Ebb Tide\" (1937) for Paramount and a couple of loan-outs to Universal and Columbia Pictures. These were followed by \"Hotel Imperial\" (1939) in which Milland suffered a near-fatal accident on the set. One scene called for him to lead a cavalry charge through a small village. An accomplished horseman, Milland insisted upon doing this scene himself. As he was making a scripted jump on the horse, his saddle came loose, sending him flying straight into a pile of broken masonry. Milland awoke in hospital, where he remained for a week with a badly damaged left hand, a three-inch gash to his head, and a concussion. In the same period, Milland appeared as John Geste in \"Beau Geste\" alongside Gary Cooper and Robert Preston and \"Everything Happens at Night\" (both 1939) with Sonja Henie for 20th Century Fox. According to Milland, a second injury to his left hand occurred in 1939. As well as horse-riding, Milland enjoyed piloting aircraft and in his early career would lend out single-seater planes. As a contracted starring actor, Paramount had insisted he give up this hobby. Instead, Milland took up woodworking and outfitted a machine shop at the back of his newly built house. While operating a circular blade, he slipped, catching one of his hands on the saw. The injury resulted in Milland losing a part of his thumb and severely damaging his tendons. Milland believed that the injury left him with only 50% usage of his hand, but within weeks of the incident, he flew to Britain to star in \"French Without Tears\". By the time he returned to America, war was declared in Europe. The year finished with the news that Muriel was pregnant with their son Daniel. Milland appeared in a selection of romantic comedies and dramas alongside some of the leading ladies of the time in films released in 1940, including \"Irene\" opposite Anna Neagle, \"Arise, My Love\" with Claudette Colbert, and \"Untamed\" with Patricia Morison. When the United States entered the Second World War, Milland tried to enlist in the U.S. Army Air Forces, but was rejected because of his impaired left hand. He worked as a civilian flight instructor for the Army, and toured with a United Service Organisation South Pacific troupe in 1944. As the Second World War continued, Milland found himself now appearing in more action-orientated pictures. He starred as a wannabe pilot in \"I Wanted Wings\" (1941) with Brian Donlevy and William Holden. This was followed by Cecil B. DeMille's \"Reap the Wild Wind\" (1942) alongside John Wayne. Milland appeared in the all-star musical \"Star Spangled Rhythm\" (1943), in which he appeared as himself singing \"If Men Played Cards as Women Do\" alongside Fred MacMurray, Franchot Tone, and Lynne Overman. He also made an appearance in the collaborative drama \"Forever and a Day\". He appeared in the supernatural film \"The Uninvited\", and the Fritz Lang film noir production \"Ministry of Fear\" (both 1944).", "The pinnacle of Milland's career and acknowledgment of his serious dramatic abilities came when he starred in \"The Lost Weekend\" (1945). Milland recalled how after returning from an emcee engagement in Peru, he found a book delivered to his home, with a note from Paramount's head of production Buddy DeSylva, which read \"Read it. Study it. You're going to play it.\" Milland found the book unsettling and felt that its subject matter, that of an alcoholic writer, challenging and alien to him. He was also concerned that it would require'serious acting', something that he believed he had not undertaken to that point in his career. The film was to be produced by Charles Brackett and directed by Billy Wilder, the two men also collaborating to write the screenplay. Milland had already worked with both men, having starred in the comedy \"The Major and the Minor\" (1942), and he was excited by their involvement. Milland's first concern with taking on the role of Don Birnam in \"The Lost Weekend\" was that he might overact and look amateurish. After a shambolic attempt to act parts of the script while actually drunk, Milland quickly realized that he needed to understand alcoholism. After the cast and crew had arrived on location in New York, Milland was allowed to spend a night in a psychiatric ward of Bellevue Hospital, where the patients were suffering from alcoholism and delirium tremens. He found the experience extremely disturbing and left at three in the morning. Milland lost eight pounds for the role and spoke with the book's author Charles R. Jackson to gain insight into the illness. After the external shots in New York were complete, in which hidden cameras were used to capture Milland walking the streets, the crew returned to Hollywood. Milland found the set work far more challenging, knowing that the close-ups would give his acting no place to hide. Between the strain of acting and the morbidity of the subject, Milland's home life deteriorated and he left for a period of two weeks. When the shoot was over, Muriel and he left for a vacation in Canada. Returning to filming, Milland was assigned to a historical drama called \"Kitty\". This was followed by a romantic caper \"The Well-Groomed Bride\" opposite Olivia de Havilland. Many of the crew members on \"The Well-Groomed Bride\" had also worked on \"The Lost Weekend\", and Milland recalled an encounter with a sound mixer, who told him he had seen a rough cut of \"Weekend\" and that not only was Milland a sure nomination for an Academy Award, but he thought he would win. Milland had not considered himself worthy of an award, but over the next few months, he thought of little else, and was desperate to be nominated. After the first preview, reaction was mixed, with Brackett stating that they had produced \"something really worthwhile\". Milland found the feedback to his role congratulatory but hushed, leading him to feel the film would bomb as a piece of cinema and would be seen as a social document. When the film was released in New York, the favourable reviews took the studio by surprise. Milland was lauded and he not only won that year's Academy Award for Best Actor, but also the Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Actor, the National Board of Review Award for Best Actor, and the New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor. He was the first Welsh actor to win an Oscar, and when he collected the award from Ingrid Bergman he gave one of the shortest acceptance speeches of any Oscar winner. His performance was so convincing, Milland was beleaguered for years by rumours that he actually was an alcoholic. The actor claimed he was not. Milland's success in \"The Lost Weekend\" resulted in his contract being rewritten, and he became Paramount's highest-salaried actor. When the film was premiered across Europe, Milland was sent to attend each opening. When he appeared in Cardiff, the capital city of Wales, he was given the key to the city.", "Milland continued working as a leading man after his Oscar win, and stayed contracted to Paramount until the early 1950s. In the late 1940s, he appeared opposite Marlene Dietrich in \"Golden Earrings\" and Teresa Wright in \"The Trouble with Women\" (both 1947). During the same period, he starred in four John Farrow pictures, \"California\" (also 1947), \"The Big Clock\" (1948), \"Alias Nick Beal\" (1949), and \"Copper Canyon\". He also worked with George Cukor, who directed him in \"A Life of Her Own\" (1950) alongside Lana Turner. Milland gave a strong performance in \"Close to My Heart\" (1951), in which he and Gene Tierney starred as a couple trying to adopt a child. Around this time he was directed by Jacques Tourneur in \"Circle of Danger\" (also 1951), set in the United Kingdom; it was the only time he filmed in his home country of Wales. For \"The Thief\" (1952) his role was without dialogue, and he was nominated for a Golden Globe. He starred opposite Grace Kelly and Robert Cummings in Alfred Hitchcock's \"Dial M for Murder\" (1954), originally shot in three dimensions. Although never admitted by either, rumours were rife at the time that Kelly and Milland were engaged in an affair, fuelled by notorious gossip columnist Hedda Hopper.", "After leaving Paramount, Milland concentrated on directing. His first, a Western entitled \"A Man Alone\" (1955) centres around the aftermath of a stagecoach robbery. This was followed by \"Lisbon\", a crime drama starring Maureen O'Hara and Claude Rains. Both films were distributed by Republic Pictures. Due to his experience as a film director, he achieved much success directing for television. He also made many television appearances. He starred with Phyllis Avery and Lloyd Corrigan in the CBS sitcom \"Meet Mr. McNutley\" from 1953 to 1955, in the role of a college English and later drama professor at fictitious Lynnhaven College. The sitcom was renamed \"The Ray Milland Show\" in its second season. From 1959 to 1960, Milland starred in the CBS detective series \"Markham\", but the show failed to capture an audience, though it followed the western \"Gunsmoke\". In 1966, Milland took the lead role as Simon Crawford QC in the Broadway play \"Hostile Witness\", directed by Reginald Denham. The play ran from February until July of that year, and in 1968 Milland reprised the role in a film of the same title, which he also directed. Milland made few films in the early 1960s. He appeared in two Roger Corman pictures; the first was \"The Premature Burial\" (1962) – the third of Corman's 'Poe Cycle'. He followed this as Dr. Xavier in \"\" (1963). The third of these was his self-directed, apocalyptic science-fiction drama \"Panic in Year Zero!\". He returned as a film character actor in the late 1960s and the 1970s, in such films as \"Daughter of the Mind\" (1969), in which he was reunited with Gene Tierney, and in the role of Oliver Barrett III in both \"Love Story\" (1970) and its sequel \"Oliver's Story\" (1978). In the late 1960s, Milland hosted rebroadcasts of certain episodes of the syndicated Western anthology series, \"Death Valley Days\" under the title \"Trails West\"; the series' original host had been Ronald Reagan. He also turned in an appearance as a hand surgeon in the \"Night Gallery\" episode \"The Hand of Borgus Weems\". He guest-starred in two episodes of \"Columbo\", as a grieving widower in \"Death Lends a Hand\" (1971) and as the murderer in \"The Greenhouse Jungle\" (1972). He guest-starred as Sire Uri in the pilot episode of the original \"Battlestar Galactica\" television series. Toward the end of his life, Milland appeared twice as Jennifer Hart's father in ABC's \"Hart to Hart\", with Robert Wagner and Stefanie Powers. In 1972, Milland starred in two horror films. One entitled \"Frogs\", co-starring Sam Elliott and Joan Van Ark, in which Milland played a cantankerous wealthy plantation owner who dumps tainted waste materials in a swamp, causing a huge disruption with nature. The second, \"The Thing with Two Heads\", is considered a cult classic. Milland plays a racist brain surgeon with a terminal illness who transplants his head onto a healthy body, an African-American prisoner. In 1975, Milland was the subject of an episode of the British biographical TV series \"This Is Your Life\".", "Milland was married to Muriel Frances Weber from 30 September 1931 until his death on 10 March 1986. They had one biological son and one adopted daughter. Their son, Daniel, appeared in several minor acting roles in the 1960s and died of an apparent suicide in March 1981, at the age of 41. Milland became a naturalized American citizen in the 1940s. He supported the Republican Party and backed Thomas Dewey in the 1944 United States presidential election and Richard Nixon in the 1968 presidential election.", "Milland died of lung cancer at the Torrance Memorial Medical Center in Torrance, California, on 10 March 1986. He was 79 years old. In line with his instructions, no funeral was held. His body was cremated and his ashes were scattered into the Pacific Ocean off the coast of Redondo Beach, California." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Geography.", "World Heritage Site.", "Economy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The town, named after Wadi Zabid, the wadi (or valley) to its south, is one of the oldest towns in Yemen. Abu Musa Ashaari, one of the Prophet Muhammads companions, came originally from Zabid, and had the Great Mosque of the town built in 628 AD, also still during the Prophet's life. According to tradition, this is the 5th mosque built in the history of Islam. Another sahabi; Amru bin Ma'adi Yakrib also hailed from Zabid and was from the House of Zubaid, an Arabian tribe named after this city. Zabid was the capital of Yemen from the 13th to the 15th century and a centre of the Arab and Muslim world due in large part to its famed University of Zabid and being a centre of Islamic education. It was the capital of the Ziyadid dynasty from 819–1018 and the Najahid dynasty from 1022–1158. In 1067, during the pilgrimage to Mecca, the Banu Najah clan under Sa'id Ibn Najah, the prince of Zabid, attacked the travel party of Ali and Asma bint Shihab, killed Ali and took Asma prisoner. She was sequestered in a secret prison in Zabid, and reportedly, the severed head of her spouse was planted on a pole visible from her cell. After a year's imprisonment, she managed to get a message through to her son and daughter-in-law in Sa'na, and her son stormed Zabid and freed her. An Arab named Ali ibn Mahdi al-Himyari, native of the Yemeni Highlands, founded the Mahdid dynasty in Tihama. Ibn Mahdi and his followers burned down several districts north of Zabid. He had sworn to bring the Abyssinians back to slavery and ordered his men to kill everyone including the handicapped. Out of desperation, the people of Zabid sought assistance from the Zaydi imam Ahmed ibn Sulayman against al-Himyari. The Zaydi imam ordered Fatiq III to be executed on account of his alleged homosexuality. Fatiq III was either killed by the Imam, the Mahdids, or his own soldiers. With this event, the slave dynasty came an end and the Mahdids took over Zabid in 1158. The troops of Ayyubid prince Turan Shah quickly overran the bulk of Yemen and took Zabid on 13 May 1174. Hadım Suleiman Pasha extended Ottoman's authority to include Zabid in 1539. Zabid became the administrative headquarters of Yemen Eyalet. Dawoodi Bohra dai Syedna Mohammad Ezzuddin also arrived in Zabeed with the intention of going to Hajj but the Zaidi had poisoned the drinking water in the ship and it had affected Syedna Ezzuddin. On knowing this he returned to Zabid immediately and died after few days. His mausoleum is also located in Zabid. Today, however, Zabid is at the intellectual and economic margins of modern Yemen.", "Zabid has an urban population of around 52,590 persons on Yemen's western coastal plain. Art Photos Photos of Zabid", "Zabid has been declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO since 1993. Zabid's Great Mosque occupies a prominent place in the town. The vestiges of its university can also be visited. In 2000, Zabid was listed on the List of World Heritage in Danger; the listing was made on the behest of the Yemeni government due to a state of poor upkeep and conservation. According to a UNESCO report, roughly \"40% of the city's houses have been replaced by concrete buildings, and other houses and the ancient souk are in a deteriorating state. If the city has not begun preservation of its cultural heritage within two years of its inscription as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, it faces possible loss of this vaunted status.", "As of 1920, Zabid was one of two places in Arabia growing indigo. Zabid also grows and produces cotton. The British cite tribal disputes as dampening the economy in Zabid during the early 20th century." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Legends.", "Ninth Labor of Heracles.", "Adventure of Theseus.", "Shakespeare character." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "In the myth of Heracles, Hippolyta's girdle (ζωστὴρ Ἱππολύτης) was the object of his ninth labour. He was sent to retrieve it for Admete, the daughter of King Eurystheus. Most versions of the myth indicate that Hippolyta was so impressed with Heracles that she gave him the girdle without argument, perhaps while visiting him on his ship. Then, according to Pseudo-Apollodorus, the goddess Hera, making herself appear as one of the Amazons, spread a rumour among them that Heracles and his crew were abducting their queen, so the Amazons attacked the ship. In the fray that followed, Heracles slew Hippolyta, stripped her of the belt, fought off the attackers, and sailed away.", "In the myth of Theseus, the hero joined Heracles in his expedition, or went on a separate expedition later, and was actually the one who had the encounter with Hippolyta. Some versions say he abducted her, some that Heracles did the abducting but gave her to Theseus as spoils, and others say that she fell in love with Theseus and betrayed the Amazons by willingly leaving with him. In any case, she was taken to Athens where she was wed to Theseus, being the only Amazon to ever marry. In some renditions the other Amazons became enraged at the marriage and attacked Athens. This was the Attic War, in which they were defeated by Athenian forces under Theseus or Heracles. In other renditions Theseus later put Hippolyta aside to marry Phaedra. So Hippolyta rallied her Amazons to attack the wedding ceremony. When the defenders closed the doors on the attackers, either Hippolyta was killed, Theseus directly killed her in the fight, she was accidentally killed by another Amazon, Molpadia, while fighting by Theseus' side, or was accidentally killed by her sister Penthesilea during this battle or in a separate incident. This killer was in turn slain by Theseus or Achilles. Some stories paint Theseus in a more favorable light, saying that Hippolyta was dead before he and Phaedra were wed, and this battle did not occur. Further complicating the narratives, a number of ancient writers say the Amazon in question was not Hippolyta at all, but her sister Antiope, Melanippe, or Glauce. Moreover, there are combined versions of the tale in which Heracles abducts and kills Hippolyta while Theseus, assisted by Sthenelus and Telamon, abducts and marries Antiope. There are also stories that Hippolyta or Antiope later bore Theseus a son, Hippolytus.", "In William Shakespeare's \"A Midsummer Night's Dream\", Hippolyta is engaged to Theseus, the duke of Athens. In Act I, Scene 1 she and he discuss their fast-approaching wedding, which will take place under the new moon in four days (I.i.2). Theseus declares to Hippolyta that, although he \"wooed her with his sword,\" he will wed her \"with pomp, with triumph, and with revelling\" and promises to begin a celebration that will continue until the wedding (I.i.19). The characterization of Hippolyta in A Midsummer Night's Dream (as well as that of Theseus), like many other mytho-historical characters found in Shakespeare's plays, is based on ancient biographical accounts found in Plutarch's work \"Parallel Lives\". In \"The Life of Theseus\", according to Plutarch, it was Hippolyta who concluded a four month long war between Athens and the Amazons with a peace treaty, resulting in the marriage between Theseus and Hippolyta. The dramatic representation of Hippolyta and Theseus in \"A Midsummer Night's Dream\", however, is entirely a product of the playwright's imagination. The character of Hippolyta also appears in \"The Two Noble Kinsmen\", a play co-written by Shakespeare and John Fletcher." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background and writing.", "Composition.", "Legacy.", "Track listings.", "CD maxi.", "7\" single." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The lyrics celebrate \"glasnost\" in the Soviet Union, the end of the Cold War, and speaks of hope at a time when tense conditions had arisen due to the fall of Communist-run governments among Eastern Bloc nations beginning in 1989. The Scorpions were inspired to write the song after performing at the Moscow Music Peace Festival in August 1989, and the opening lines refer to the city's landmarks: <poem>I follow the Moskva Down to Gorky Park Listening to the wind of change</poem> The Moskva is the name of the river that runs through Moscow (both the city and the river are named identically in Russian), and Gorky Park is an urban park in Moscow named after the writer Maxim Gorky. The song also contains a reference to the balalaika, which is a Russian stringed instrument somewhat like a guitar. The balalaika is mentioned in the following lines: <poem> Let your balalaika sing What my guitar wants to say</poem>", "\"Wind of Change\" opens with a clean guitar intro played by Matthias Jabs, which is played alongside Klaus Meine's flat whistle. The song's guitar solo is played by Rudolf Schenker.", "The song became associated with the Revolutions of 1989 and the Fall of the Berlin Wall also in 1989 and was performed by the Scorpions at the Brandenburg Gate on 9 November 1999, during the 10th anniversary of the Fall of the Berlin Wall. In 2005, viewers of the German television network ZDF chose this song as the song of the century. \"Wind of Change\" is featured in the films \"In Search of a Midnight Kiss\" (2007), \"Gentlemen Broncos\" (2009), \"The Interview\" (2014), and \"Love Island\" (2014), and the video game \"SingStar Rocks!\" (2006). Most recently the song can be heard in the opening scene of the action comedy film \"The Spy Who Dumped Me\" (2018) starring Mila Kunis, Kate McKinnon and Justin Theroux. The song is also featured in television shows \"Melrose Place\", \"Chuck\", and \"Car Share\". The song is the subject of the podcast \"Wind of Change\", released May 11, 2020, raising questions regarding the song's origin. In the podcast it is suggested that the song was written by or in some other way connected to the CIA, citing a rumor originating from inside the agency. In a SiriusXM interview with Eddie Trunk on May 13, 2020, Meine stated \"It’s a podcast, and there will be a lot of people who will get into this. It’s a fascinating idea, and it’s an entertaining idea, but it’s not true at all.”", "", "Europe US", "US and Canada 7\" single" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Hydrography.", "Tributaries.", "Flora and fauna.", "History.", "Commercial use.", "Ecology.", "Tourism." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The basin of the Chusovaya River has an area of and an average elevation of. The river is (777 kilometres according to other sources) and has an average height gradient of 0.4 m/km. It has two sources: Poludennaya Chusovaya and Western (Zapadanaya) Chusovaya. The former originates in a swampy area in the north of Chelyabinsk Oblast and flows to the north. After, it merges with the Western Chusovaya, which starts at the Ufaley ridge. Then the river flows for about on the eastern slope of the Ural Mountains; here its width is. In the upper stream Chusovaya takes many tributaries and shows on its shores outcrops of crystalline shale, which were formed through the interaction of magmatic and sedimentary rocks. In the middle reaches, the river slopes have canyon-like character. Here the river cuts through several low mountain ranges, which tower above the riverbed as cliffs called boitsy. There are about 200 of them in the middle reaches and about 50 are protected by the state as natural monuments. Boitsy are of sedimentary origin and are made from limestone and rarely dolomite, anhydrite and shale; they rise above the water and extend for. Limestone is prone to weathering which often creates peculiar shapes. Karst processes created numerous caves and grottoes in this area. The river here has a mountainous character with about 70 rapids, and its elevation here decreases by over a length of. Large boulders sometimes protrude above the water surface. Here the river is wide and is rather winding, skirting mountain ranges and making numerous loops. One loop near Utkinskoy settlement is in diameter and is almost a closed loop. In the lower reaches, after exiting from the Ural Mountains, the river has a plain character. Here it flows through meadows, marshes, deciduous and mixed forests; it slows down and widens in some places up to, making occasional broad bends. The river discharges into the Chusovskoy Cove of Kama Reservoir, which is associated with the Kama hydroelectric power station located from the mouth of the Kama River. Construction of the dam resulted in flooding of the lower reaches of the Chusovaya up to from the mouth. The bottom of the river throughout its length is mainly covered in pebbles. The water discharge varies between with the average of. The flow is relatively strong – about 10 times that of such rivers as Volga and Kama; it is about on average and may reach in some places. Chusovaya usually freezes in late October through early December and thaws in April. Ice jams are common for the lower reaches with the increase in the water level of up to. The river is fed by snow (55%). precipitation (29%) and underground waters (18%). The floods typically occur between mid-April and mid-June. During the early summer, there are 6–7 rain floods with water levels rising up to. In July through August, the river depth decreases to in some places.", "Chusovaya takes more than 150 tributaries with the largest being the river Sylva. The Kumysh tributary dives underground for about 6 km; the place where it disappears is called нырок in Russian (\"dive\" in English) by the local people, and the place where it resurfaces is named вынырок (\"coming to the surface\"). Such behavior is unusual but not unique to Kumysh and is observed for about 15 other rivers of the Urals. The main tributaries of the Chusovaya are from source to mouth:", "The upper reaches of the Chusovaya have abundant marshes and meadows. Forests are rare and are mostly pine forests. The middle reaches are covered by boreal coniferous forests, which are dominated by pine, Siberian Pine, larch and fir. Forests are scarce also in the lower reaches and mostly contain aspen, birch, mountain ash and willow. Fishes include minnow, bass, ruff, roach, pike, ide (\"Leuciscus idus\"), chub (\"Squalius cephalus\") and bream. There are colonies of crayfish. The tributaries show traces of beavers and the main river hosts muskrats. In the autumn, the river is visited by ducks, geese and other waterfowl. The surrounding forests are inhabited by usual taiga animals such as moose, brown bear, wolf, lynx, fox, hare, squirrel, hazel grouse and black grouse.", "The river had long been inhabited by people, as evident from numerous Neolithic and Bronze Age settlements found on the river banks. The 15th Century chronicler Giacomo Filippo Foresti (a.k.a. Jacobus Philippus Foresti da Bergamo) mentioned a river in the area named the \"Thisageta\", and the 19th Century archaeologist Sir Ellis Minns proposed that the Chusovaya may originally have been named after the Thyssagetae, a little-known steppe tribe who apparently lived in the area. In the Middle Ages, the river basin was mostly populated by Bashkirs, Mansi and Komi-Permyaks. It is assumed that the Battle of Chulmandore, in which Komi-Permyaks defeated Mongols, occurred near the river mouth. The Chusovaya River was first mentioned in 1396 in the Novgorod chronicles. Russians started active explorations of the Urals in the early 16th century, and the first Russian settlement Nizhnechusovskie Gorodki appeared on Chusovaya in 1568. From 1579, the garrison of this settlement was headed by the Russian explorer Ermak. The entire river basin was then owned by merchants Stroganov. Stroganovs in particular supplied the expedition of Ermak in the autumn of 1581 up the Chusovaya and beyond the Urals. Subsequently, the vast lands beyond the Urals, including the upper Chusovaya, were given to Demidov, and the border between the possessions of Stroganov and Demidov was at the river Mezhevaya Utka. Demidov was actively exploring the rich local deposits in his lands and built several iron works, including Polevskoy (1722), Vasilyevo-Shaitansky (1732), Sredneuralskiy (1734) and Seversky (1735). Before construction of the railway across the Urals, the river served as an important route for transporting metals and fur from the Urals to the western Russia. The first port for this purpose was built in the mouth of the Utka tributary in 1703 by the orders of Peter the Great. Every spring, with the start of the flood, heavily loaded barges were sent from the wharf in the upper Chusovaya to Perm. It was rather difficult to navigate heavy wooden ships through the fast and winding river and many were crashing to the coastal cliffs. About 50 barges had major accidents between 1857 and 1861 on the Chusovaya. In the spring of 1877 alone, 47 barges sank drowning more than 100 men, 23 of those barges crashed at one and the same cliff Brigand (). Massive efforts were spent from the 17th through 19th centuries to improve the navigation conditions on Chusovaya. The most dangerous shore cliffs were blown up with dynamite, including the Brigand (this was one of the world's first controlled underwater explosions.) Smaller boulders protruding at the river center were removed, and hundreds mooring poles had been installed. Logs were set up in the places where the currents tended to wash up boats on the rocks in order to soften the impact. These measures drastically reduced the number of accidents (from 10% to 4% of the total number of shipments in 1890) and the traffic on the river grew from 49,500 tonnes in 1862 to 128,800 tonnes in 1873. It then dropped to 107,200 tonnes and remained at this level through the 1890s. The barges used on Chusovaya were sturdy wooden boats long and wide that could carry up to 200 tonnes. Some barges were reinforced inside with metal stripes and could sustain up to 10 navigation seasons. Barges were equipped with roped weights, which were thrown overboard to increase the drag thereby reducing the barge speed when needed. The first steamship appeared on Chusovaya in 1841, it was a metal vessel named \"Nikita Demidov\". For the first three years, the ship was bringing barges loaded with the production of the Staroutkinsky plant between Suksun and Levshino. In 1844, there was an attempt to run the ship in the middle reaches. After a 24-day trip, she managed to pass only and then crashed, once again illustrating the difficulty of navigating the river. River shipping declined after 1878 with the opening of the Gornozavodskaya railway. Since the early 20th century, shipment of metals was nearly halted and the barges were only occasionally transporting grain and supplies. The last barge trip occurred in 1920. As a result, many settlements along the river bank have been abandoned. However, the ironworks remained and provided the Soviet Army with metal during World War II.", "The Chusovaya is extensively used for water supply. In particular, water from Volchihinskoe reservoir is supplied to the Upper Iset Pond to serve the needs of Yekaterinburg and its suburbs. In order to improve the water supply, Nyazepetrovsk cascade was built in the mid 1970s. With this hydraulic system, Western Chusovaya was supplied with water from the Nyazepetrovsk reservoir on the Ufa. There are 15 small reservoirs at the plants on the tributaries of Chusovaya. The river basin contains numerous deposits of iron, chromium, platinum, gold, diamond and coal. They were developed since the 17th century, some have been depleted and some are still being mined. Major settlements on the river (from source to the mouth) are Revda, Pervouralsk, Bilimbai, Staroutkinsk, Kyn, Ust-Koiva, Chusovoy and Verhnechusovskie Gorodki. River is navigable from the city of Chusovoy, but the navigation sees very little commercial use nowadays. The railway bridge at the river mouth limits the height of passing ships to. Besides, between the 1930s and early 1980s, the river basin was intensively used for logging; logs were rafted loose, i.e. neither guided nor bundled, that cluttered the river. The last such rafting was carried out on Chusovaya in 1973, and since 1990 it is legally prohibited in Russia.", "According to the Office for Environmental Protection of Perm Oblast, the water of the river near the town of Chusovoy is contaminated and does not meet the standards for the drinking and sanitary water. In 2006, the content of copper exceeded the maximum permissible concentration (MPC) twice, manganese 8 times, iron 5 times, petroleum 2 times (it was 21 times MPC in 2003) and hexavalent chromium 1.5 times (mostly due to the plant \"Chrompic\" in Pervouralsk). The biggest polluters of the river are Chusovskoy Steel Works and Chusovskoy Gorvodocanal.", "Chusovaya has long been known for its rock formations, many of which have poetic names. They pose no dangers to light vessels and attract tourism. A tourist route was formed here in the 1960s and was visited by about 3,000 people per year. In one summer season of the 1980s, several tens of thousands tourists drafted along the river. The major objects of attraction are the river banks, boitsy rocks and their caves and grottoes. Many of these rocks are under state protection as natural monuments. About 200,000 people annually visit the Kungur Cave near Chusovoy. This labyrinth of karst caves was formed as a result of dissolution of gypsum and anhydrites by water at a depth of and is explored only up to about." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Calydonian Boar Hunt.", "Footrace.", "The \"Argo\".", "Wrestling." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "When Artemis was forgotten at a sacrifice by King Oineus, she was angered and sent the Calydonian Boar, a wild boar that ravaged the land, men, and cattle and prevented crops from being sown. Atalanta joined Meleager and many other famous heroes on a hunt for the boar. Many of the men were angry that a woman was joining them, but Meleager, though married, lusted for Atalanta, and so he persuaded them to include her. Several of the men were killed before Atalanta became the first to hit the boar and draw blood. After Meleager finally killed the boar with his spear, he awarded the hide to Atalanta. This act of Meleager’s generosity caused a set of events that led to his death. Meleager's uncles, Plexippus and Toxeus, were angry and tried to take the skin from her. In revenge, Meleager killed his uncles. Wild with grief, Meleager's mother Althaea threw a charmed log on the fire, which consumed Meleager's life as it burned.", "After the Calydonian boar hunt, Atalanta was rediscovered by her father. He wanted her to be married, but Atalanta, uninterested in marriage, agreed to marry only if her suitors could outrun her in a footrace. Those who lost would be killed. King Oeneus agreed, and many young men died in the attempt until Hippomenes, a grandson of Poseidon, came along. Hippomenes asked the goddess Aphrodite for help, and she gave him three golden apples in order to slow Atalanta down. The apples were irresistible, so every time Atalanta got ahead of Hippomenes, he rolled an apple ahead of her, and she would run after it. In this way, Hippomenes won the footrace and came to marry Atalanta. In some versions, Atalanta loved Hippomenes and hoped he would win. Eventually they had a son Parthenopaios, who was one of the Seven against Thebes. Zeus – or his mother, Rhea – turned Atalanta and Hippomenes into lions after they had sex together in one of his temples. Other accounts say that Aphrodite changed them into lions because they did not give her proper honor. The belief at the time was that lions could not mate with their own species, only with leopards; thus Atalanta and Hippomenes would never be able to remain with one another.", "In many versions of the quest for the Golden Fleece, such as that published by Robert Graves in 1944, Atalanta sailed with the Argonauts as the only woman among them. She jumped aboard the ship soon after the expedition set out, invoking the protection of Artemis, to whom she was a virgin priestess. She was following Meleager, who had put away his young wife for Atalanta's sake. Atalanta returned his love but was prevented by an oracle from consummating their union, being warned that losing her virginity would prove disastrous for her. A disappointed Meleager joined the \"Argo\", but Atalanta would not let him out of her sight. She plays a major part in various adventures of Jason's crew, suffered injury in a battle at Colchis, and was healed by Medea. Apollonius of Rhodes, on the other hand, claims Jason would not allow a woman on the ship because she would cause strife on the otherwise all-male expedition (Argonautica 1.769–73).", "The \"Bibliotheca\" also says she wrestled and defeated Peleus at the funeral games for Pelias. The subject is popular in ancient Greek vase painting." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "The Bicêtre and Salpêtrière.", "Publications.", "Clinical approach.", "Psychological understanding.", "Treatments.", "Management.", "Moral judgments.", "Influence." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Pinel was born in Jonquières, the South of France, in the modern department of Tarn. He was the son and nephew of physicians. After receiving a degree from the faculty of medicine in Toulouse, he studied an additional four years at the Faculty of Medicine of Montpellier. He arrived in Paris in 1778. He spent fifteen years earning his living as a writer, translator, and editor because the restrictive regulations of the old regime prevented him from practicing medicine in Paris. The faculty did not recognize a degree from a provincial university like Toulouse. He failed twice in a competition which would have awarded him funds to continue his studies. In the second competition, the jury stressed his ‘painful’ mediocrity in all areas of medical knowledge, an assessment seemingly so grossly incompatible with his later intellectual accomplishments that political motives have been suggested. Discouraged, Pinel considered emigrating to America. In 1784 he became editor of the medical journal the \"Gazette de santé\", a four-page weekly. He was also known among natural scientists as a regular contributor to the \"Journal de physique\". He studied mathematics, translated medical works into French, and undertook botanical expeditions. At about this time he began to develop an intense interest in the study of mental illness. The incentive was a personal one. A friend had developed a ‘nervous melancholy’ that had ‘degenerated into mania’ and resulted in suicide. What Pinel regarded as an unnecessary tragedy due to gross mismanagement seems to have haunted him. It led him to seek employment at one of the best-known private sanatoria for the treatment of insanity in Paris. He remained there for five years prior to the Revolution, gathering observations on insanity and beginning to formulate his views on its nature and treatment. Pinel was an Ideologue, a disciple of the abbé de Condillac. He was also a clinician who believed that medical truth was derived from clinical experience. Hippocrates was his model. During the 1780s, Pinel was invited to join the salon of Madame Helvétius. He was in sympathy with the French Revolution. After the revolution, friends he had met at Madame Helvétius’ salon came to power. In August 1793 Pinel was appointed \"physician of the infirmeries\" at Bicêtre Hospital. At the time it housed about four thousand imprisoned men—criminals, petty offenders, syphilitics, pensioners and about two hundred mental patients. Pinel’s patrons hoped that his appointment would lead to therapeutic initiatives. His experience at the private sanatoria made him a good candidate for the job.", "Soon after his appointment to Bicêtre Hospital, Pinel became interested in the seventh ward where 200 mentally ill men were housed. He asked for a report on these inmates. A few days later, he received a table with comments from the \"governor\" Jean-Baptiste Pussin. In the 1770s Pussin had been successfully treated for scrofula at Bicêtre; and, following a familiar pattern, he was eventually recruited, along with his wife, Marguerite Jubline, on to the staff of the hospice. Appreciating Pussin's outstanding talent, Pinel virtually apprenticed himself to that unschooled but experienced custodian of the insane. His purpose in doing this was to \"enrich the medical theory of mental illness with all the insights that the empirical approach affords\". What he observed was a strict nonviolent, nonmedical management of mental patients that came to be called moral treatment or moral management, though psychological might be a more accurate term. Although Pinel always gave Pussin the credit he deserved, a legend grew up about Pinel single-handedly liberating the insane from their chains at Bicetre. This legend has been commemorated in paintings and prints, and has lived on for 200 years and is repeated in textbooks. In fact, it was Pussin who removed the iron shackles (but sometimes using straitjackets) at Bicêtre in 1797, after Pinel had left for the Salpêtrière. Pinel did remove the chains from patients at the Salpêtrière three years later, after Pussin joined him there. There is some suggestion that the Bicetre myth was actually deliberately fabricated by Pinel's son, Dr Scipion Pinel, along with Pinel's foremost pupil, Dr Esquirol. The argument is that they were'solidists', which meant then something akin to biological psychiatry with a focus on brain disease, and were embarrassed by Pinel's focus on psychological processes. In addition, unlike Philippe, they were both royalists. While at Bicêtre, Pinel did away with bleeding, purging, and blistering in favor of a therapy that involved close contact with and careful observation of patients. Pinel visited each patient, often several times a day, and took careful notes over two years. He engaged them in lengthy conversations. His objective was to assemble a detailed case history and a natural history of the patient's illness. In 1795, Pinel became chief physician of the Hospice de la Salpêtrière, a post that he retained for the rest of his life. The Salpêtrière was, at the time, like a large village, with seven thousand elderly indigent and ailing women, an entrenched bureaucracy, a teeming market and huge infirmaries. Pinel missed Pussin and in 1802 secured his transfer to the Salpêtrière. It has also been noted that a Catholic nursing order actually undertook most of the day to day care and understanding of the patients at Salpêtrière, and there were sometimes power struggles between Pinel and the nurses. Pinel created an inoculation clinic in his service at the Salpêtrière in 1799, and the first vaccination in Paris was given there in April 1800. In 1795 Pinel had also been appointed as a professor of medical pathology, a chair that he held for twenty years. He was briefly dismissed from this position in 1822, with ten other professors, suspected of political liberalism, but reinstated as an honorary professor shortly thereafter. A statue in honour of Pinel now stands outside the Salpêtrière.", "In 1794 Pinel made public his essay 'Memoir on Madness', recently called a fundamental text of modern psychiatry. In it Pinel makes the case for the careful psychological study of individuals over time, points out that insanity isn't always continuous, and calls for more humanitarian asylum practices. In 1798 Pinel published an authoritative classification of diseases in his \"Nosographie philosophique ou méthode de l'analyse appliquée à la médecine\". Although he is properly considered one of the founders of psychiatry, this book also establishes him as the last great nosologist of the eighteenth century. While the \"Nosographie\" appears completely dated today, it was so popular in its time that it went through six editions between its initial publication and 1818. Pinel based his nosology on ideas of William Cullen, employing the same biologically-inspired terminology of 'genera' and'species' of disorder. Pinel's classification of mental disorder simplified Cullen's 'neuroses' down to four basic types of mental disorder: melancholia, mania (insanity), dementia, and idiotism. Later editions added forms of 'partial insanity' where only that of feelings which seem to be affected rather than reasoning ability. The first mental derangement is called melancholia. The symptoms are described as “taciturnity, a thoughtful pensive air, gloomy suspicions, and a love of solitude.” Overall individuals with melancholia generally do not display acts of violence, though they may find it wildly fanciful. Depression and anxiety occurs habitually as well as frequent moroseness of character. Pinel remarks that melancholia can be explained by drunkenness, abnormalities in the structure of the skull, trauma in the skull, conditions of the skin, various psychological causes such as household disasters and religious extremism, and in women, menstruation and menopause. The second mental derangement is called mania without delirium. It is described as madness independent of a disorder that impairs the intellectual faculties. The symptoms are described as perverse and disobedient. An instance where this type of species of mental derangement occurs where a mechanic, who was confined at the Asylum de Bicetre, experienced violent outbursts of maniacal fury. The paroxysms consisted of a burning sensation located in the abdominal area that was accompanied by constipation and thirst. The symptom spread to the chest, neck, and face area. When it reached the temples, the pulsation of the arteries increased in those areas. The brain was affected to some length but nonetheless, the patient was able to reason and cohere to his ideas. One time the mechanic experienced furious paroxysm at his own house where he warned his wife to flee to avoid death. He also experienced the same periodical fury at the asylum where he plotted against the governor. The specific character of mania without delirium is that it can either be perpetual or sporadic. However, there was no reasonable change in the cognitive functions of the brain; only perversive thoughts of fury and a blind tendency to acts of violence. The third mental derangement is called mania with delirium. It is mainly characterized by indulgence and fury, and affects cognitive functions. Sometimes it may be distinguished by a carefree, gay humor that can venture off path in incoherent and absurd suggestions. Other times it can be distinguished by prideful and imaginary claims to grandeur. Prisoners of this species are highly delusional. For example, they would proclaim having fought an important battle, or witness the prophet Mohammad conjuring wrath in the name of the Almighty. Some declaim ceaselessly with no evidence of things seen or heard while others saw illusions of objects in various forms and colors. Delirium sometimes persists with some degree of frenzied uproar for a period of years, but it can also be constant and the paroxysm of fury repeat at different intervals. The specific character of mania with delirium is the same as mania without delirium in the sense that it can either be continued or cyclical with regular or irregular paroxysms. It is marked by strong nervous excitement, accompanied by a deficit of one or more of the functions of the cognitive abilities with feelings of liveliness, depression or fury. The fourth mental derangement is called dementia, or otherwise known as the abolition of thinking. The characteristics include thoughtlessness, extreme incorrectness, and wild abnormalities. For instance, a man who had been educated on the ancient nobility was marching on about the beginning of the revolution. He moved restlessly about the house, talking endlessly and shouting passionately on insignificant reasons. Dementia is usually accompanied by raging and rebellious movement, by a quick succession of ideas formed in the mind, and by passionate feelings that are felt and forgotten without attributing it to objects. Those who are in captive of dementia have lost their memory, even those attributed to their loved ones. Their only memory consists of those in the past. They forget instantaneously things in the present – seen heard or done. Many are irrational because the ideas do not flow coherently. The characteristic properties of dementia are that there is no judgment value and the ideas are spontaneous with no connection. The specific character of dementia contains a rapid progression or continual succession of isolated ideas, forgetfulness of previous condition, repetitive acts of exaggeration, decreased responsiveness to external influence, and complete lack of judgment. The fifth and last mental derangement is called idiotism, or otherwise known as “obliteration of the intellectual faculties and affections.” This disorder is derived from a variety of causes, such as extravagant and debilitating delight, alcohol abuse, deep sorrow, diligent study, aggressive blows to the head, tumors in the brain, and loss of consciousness due to blockage in vein or artery. Idiotism embodies a variety of forms. One such form is called Cretinism, which is a kind of idiotism that is relative to personal abnormalities. It is well known in the Valais and in parts of Switzerland. In his book \"Traité médico-philosophique sur l'aliénation mentale; ou la manie\", published in 1801, Pinel discusses his psychologically oriented approach. This book was translated into English by D. D. Davis as a \"Treatise on Insanity\" in 1806, although Davis substituted Pinel's introduction for his own, leaving out among other things Pinel's strong praise for Alexander Crichton. Pinel's book had an enormous influence on both French and Anglo-American psychiatrists during the nineteenth century. He meant by alienation that the patient feels like a stranger (alienus) to the world of the'sane'. A sympathetic therapist living in that world might be able to journey into the patient's experience, understand the 'alienated', their language, and possibly lead them back into society. In 1802 Pinel published \"La Médecine Clinique\" which was based on his experiences at the Salpêtrière and in which he extended his previous book on classification and disease. Pinel was elected to the Académie des Sciences in 1804 and was a member of the Académie de Médecine from its founding in 1820. He died in Paris in 1826.", "", "The central and ubiquitous theme of Pinel's approach to etiology (causation) and treatment was \"moral,\" meaning the emotional or the psychological not ethical. He observed and documented the subtleties and nuances of human experience and behavior, conceiving of people as social animals with imagination. Pinel noted, for example, that: \"being held in esteem, having honor, dignity, wealth, fame, which though they may be factitious, always distressing and rarely fully satisfied, often give way to the overturning of reason\". He spoke of avarice, pride, friendship, bigotry, the desire for reputation, for conquest, and vanity. He noted that a state of love could turn to fury and desperation, and that sudden severe reversals in life, such as \"from the pleasure of success to an overwhelming idea of failure, from a dignified state—or the belief that one occupies one—to a state of disgrace and being forgotten\" can cause mania or'mental alienation'. He identified other predisposing psychosocial factors such as an unhappy love affair, domestic grief, devotion to a cause carried to the point of fanaticism, religious fear, the events of the revolution, violent and unhappy passions, exalted ambitions of glory, financial reverses, religious ecstasy, and outbursts of patriotic fervor.", "Pinel developed specific practical techniques, rather than general concepts and assumptions. He engaged in therapeutic conversations to dissuade patients from delusions. He offered benevolent support and encouragement, although patients who persistently resisted or caused trouble might be threatened with incarceration or punishment if they were not able to control themselves. Pinel argued that psychological intervention must be tailored to each individual rather than be based solely on the diagnostic category, and that it must be grounded in an understanding of the person's own perspective and history. He noted that \"the treatment of insanity (l’aliénation mentale) without considering the differentiating characteristics of the patients [la distinction des espèces] has been at times superfluous, rarely useful, and often harmful\", describing the partial or complete failures of some psychological approaches, as well as the harm that the usual cruel and harsh treatments caused to patients before they came to his hospital. He saw improvement as often resulting from natural forces within the patient, an improvement that treatment could at best facilitate and at worst interfere with. Pinel’s approach to medical treatments has been described as ambiguous, complex, and ambivalent. He insisted that psychological techniques should always be tried first, for example \"even where a violent and destructive maniac could be calmed by a single dose of an antispasmodic [he referred to opium], observation teaches that in a great number of cases, one can obtain a sure and permanent cure by the sole method of expectation, leaving the insane man to his tumultuous excitement......and [furthermore] seeing, again and again, the unexpected resources of nature left to itself or wisely guided, has rendered me more and more cautious with regard to the use of medications, which I no longer employ—except when the insufficiencies of psychological means have been proven.\" For those cases regarded as psychologically incurable, Pinel would employ baths, showers, opium, camphor and other antispasmodics, as well as vesicants, cauterization, and bloodletting in certain limited cases only. He also recommended the use of laxatives for the prevention of nervous excitement and relapse. Pinel often traced mental states to physiological states of the body, and in fact could be said to have practiced psychosomatic medicine. In general, Pinel traced organic causes to the gastrointestinal system and peripheral nervous system more often than to brain dysfunction. This was consistent with his rarely finding gross brain pathology in his post-mortem examinations of psychiatric patients, and his view that such findings that were reported could be correlational rather than causative.", "Pinel was concerned with a balance between control by authority and individual liberty. He believed in \"the art of subjugating and taming the insane\" and the effectiveness of \"a type of apparatus of fear, of firm and consistent opposition to their dominating and stubbornly held ideas\", but that it must be proportional and motivated only by a desire to keep order and to bring people back to themselves. The straitjacket and a period of seclusion were the only sanctioned punishments. Based on his observations, he believed that those who were considered most dangerous and carried away by their ideas had often been made so by the blows and bad treatment they had received, and that it could be ameliorated by providing space, kindness, consolation, hope, and humor. Because of the dangers and frustrations that attendants experienced in their work, Pinel put great emphasis on the selection and supervision of attendants in order to establish a custodial setting dedicated to norms of constraint and liberty that would facilitate psychological work. He recommended that recovered patients be employed, arguing that \"They are the ones who are most likely to refrain from all inhumane treatment, who will not strike even in retaliation, who can stand up to pleading, menaces, repetitive complaining, etc. and retain their inflexible firmness.\" Pinel also emphasized the necessity for leadership that was \"thoughtful, philanthropic, courageous, physically imposing, and inventive in the development of maneuvers or tactics to distract, mollify, and impress\" and \"devoted to the concept of order without violence\", so that patients are \"led most often with kindness, but always with an inflexible firmness.\" He noted that his ex-patient and superintendent Pussin had showed him the way in this regard, and had also often been better placed to work with patients and develop techniques due to his greater experience and detailed knowledge of the patients as individuals.", "Pinel generally expressed warm feelings and respect for his patients, as exemplified by: \"I cannot but give enthusiastic witness to their moral qualities. Never, except in romances, have I seen spouses more worthy to be cherished, more tender fathers, passionate lovers, purer or more magnanimous patriots, than I have seen in hospitals for the insane, in their intervals of reasonableness and calm; a man of sensibility may go there any day and take pleasure in scenes of compassion and tenderness\". He argued that otherwise positive character traits could cause a person to be vulnerable to the distressing vicissitudes of life, for example \"those persons endowed with a warmth of imagination and a depth of sensitivity, who are capable of experiencing powerful and intense emotions, [since it is they] who are most predisposed to mania\". Pinel distanced himself from religious views, and in fact considered that excessive religiosity could be harmful. However, he sometimes took a moral stance himself as to what he considered to be mentally healthy and socially appropriate. Moreover, he sometimes showed a condemnatory tone toward what he considered personal failings or vice, for example noting in 1809: \"On one side one sees families which thrive over a course of many years, in the bosom of order and concord, on the other one sees many others, especially in the lower social classes, who offend the eye with the repulsive picture of debauchery, arguments, and shameful distress!\". He goes on to describe this as the most prolific source of alienation needing treatment, adding that while some such examples were a credit to the human race many others are \"a disgrace to humanity!\"", "Pinel is generally seen as the physician who more than any other transformed the concept of 'the mad' into that of patients needing care and understanding, establishing a field that would eventually be called psychiatry. His legacy included improvement of asylum conditions; broadly psychosocial (incl. milieu) therapeutic approaches; history-taking; nosography (the science of the description of syndromes); broadly-numerical assessments of courses of illness and treatment responses; and a record of clinical teaching. Pinel's actions took place in the context of the Enlightenment, and a number of others were also reforming asylums along humanitarian lines. For example, Vincenzo Chiarugi, in the 1780s in Italy, removed metal chains from patients but did not enjoy the same renown bestowed on the more explicitly humanitarian Pinel who was so visible from late 18th century revolutionary France. In France, Joseph D'Aquin in Chambéry permitted patients to move about freely and published a book in 1791 urging humanitarian reforms, dedicating the second edition in 1804 to Pinel. The movement as a whole become known as moral treatment or moral management, and influenced asylum development and psychological approaches throughout the Western world. Pinel's most important contribution may have been the observation and conviction that there could be sanity and rationality even in cases that seemed on the surface impossible to understand, and that this could appear for periods in response to surrounding events (and not just because of such things as the phase of the moon, a still common assumption and the origin of the term lunatic). The influential philosopher Hegel praised Pinel for this approach. Pinel also started a trend for diagnosing forms of insanity that seemed to occur 'without delerium' (confusion, delusions or hallucinations). Pinel called this Manie sans délire, folie raisonnante or folie lucide raisonnante. He described cases who seemed to be overwhelmed by instinctive furious passions but still seemed sane. This was influential in leading to the concept of moral insanity, which became an accepted diagnosis through the second half of the 19th century. Pinel's main psychiatric heir, Esquirol, built on Pinel's work and popularised various concepts of monomania. However, Pinel was also criticised and rejected in some quarters. A new generation favoured pathological anatomy, seeking to locate mental disorders in brain lesions. Pinel undertook comparisons of skull sizes, and considered possible physiological substrates, but he was criticized for his emphasis on psychology and the social environment. Opponents were bolstered by the discovery of tertiary syphilis as the cause of some mental disorder. Pinel's humanitarian achievements were emphasized and mythologised instead. With increasing industrialization, asylums generally became overcrowded, misused, isolated and run-down. The moral treatment principles were often neglected along with the patients. There was recurrent debate over the use of psychological-social oppression even if some physical forces were removed. By the mid-19th century in England, the Alleged Lunatics' Friend Society was proclaiming the moral treatment approach was achieved \"by mildness and coaxing, and by solitary confinement\", treating people like children without rights to make their own decisions. Similarly in the mid-20th century, Foucault's influential book, \"Madness and Civilization: A History of Insanity in the Age of Reason\", also known as History of Madness, focused on Pinel, along with Tuke, as the driving force behind a shift from physical to mental oppression. Foucault argued that the approach simply meant that patients were ignored and verbally isolated, and were worse off than before. They were made to see madness in others and then in themselves until they felt guilt and remorse. The doctor, despite his lack of medical knowledge about the underlying processes, had all powers of authority, and defined insanity. Foucault also suggested that a focus on the rights of patients at Bicetre was partly due to revolutionary concerns that it housed and chained victims of arbitrary or political power, or alternatively that it might be enabling refuge for anti-revolutionary suspects, as well as just 'the mad'. Scull argues that the \"...manipulations and ambiguous 'kindness' of Tuke and Pinel...\" may nevertheless have been preferable to the harsh coercion and physical \"treatments\" of previous generations, though he does recognise its \"...less benevolent aspects and its latent potential... for deterioration into a repressive form...\" Some have criticised the process of deinstitutionalization that took place in the 20th century and called for a return to Pinel's approach, so as not to underestimate the needs that mentally ill people might have for protection and care." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Distinctive features.", "Double criminality.", "Surrender of nationals.", "Grounds for refusal to execute warrant.", "Mandatory grounds under the Framework Decision.", "Optional grounds under the Framework Decision.", "Trials \"in absentia\".", "Human rights.", "Conditional surrender.", "Procedure.", "Issuing judicial authority.", "Transmission.", "Minimum threshold.", "Arrest.", "Time limits.", "Specialty.", "Controversy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Measures which sought to harmonise extradition rules across EU member states date from the mid-1990s when the EU instituted two treaties under the Maastricht Treaty which sought to streamline existing extradition procedures under the European Convention on Extradition. In 1999 the European Council further proposed to abolish formal extradition procedures for sentenced persons. However it was not until the immediate aftermath of the September 11 attacks in the United States that much more far-reaching proposals were mooted. While originally proposed as an anti-terrorist measure the European Arrest Warrant soon became applicable to a wide range of ordinary crimes. The political decision to adopt the EAW legislation was made at the Laeken European Council in December 2001, the text being finally agreed in June of the following year. The European Arrest Warrant was established by an EU framework decision in 2002. Framework decisions were legal instruments of the third pillar of the European Community akin to directives and only take effect when implemented by EU member states by transposing them into their domestic law. The European Arrest Warrant replaced the 1957 European Convention on Extradition (ECE) which had previously governed extraditions between most member states, and various legal instruments which had been adopted to streamline the process of extradition under the ECE such as the 1989 agreement on the simplification of the transmission requests for extradition, the 1995 Convention on simplified extradition procedure, the 1996 Convention on extradition between Member States, and the provisions of the Schengen Agreement regarding extradition. The EAW Framework Decision came into force on 1 January 2004 in eight member states, namely Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Ireland, Portugal, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom. By 1 November 2004 all member states had implemented the legislation except Italy, which did so on 22 April 2005. Bulgaria and Romania implemented the Decision on their accession in 2007. When the UK exercised its opt-out from the area of freedom, security and justice in 2014, its request to continue participating in the EAW was approved.", "There are several features of the European Arrest Warrant which distinguish it from the treaties and arrangements which previously governed extradition between EU member states. EAWs are not issued through diplomatic channels, they can be executed for a wide variety of offences without any requirement that the offence to which the warrant relates corresponds to an offence under the law of the state asked to execute the warrant, there is no exception for political, military or revenue offences, and there is no exception clause allowing a state to refuse to surrender its own nationals.", "Double criminality is a feature of international extradition law by which states may refuse to extradite fugitives if the conduct which is alleged to have constituted a criminal offence in the state requesting extradition would not have resulted in the commission of a criminal offence in the state being asked to effect the extradition. Under the EAW Framework Decision, the requirement for double criminality is removed for a wide range of categories of crimes, and made a discretionary rather than a compulsory ground for a refusal to extradite for offences not falling within those categories. The categories within which are as follows: The Framework Decision is silent as to whether secondary participation in, or an attempt to commit, an offence of the kind listed here itself excluded from the requirement for correspondence. Another issue which has arisen is the accuracy of a description of an offence as being in a category exempt from the requirement for correspondence, and whether the executing judicial authority is required to accept the issuing judicial authority's classification as definitive.", "Prior to the adoption of the EAW Framework Decision in 2002, 11 of the then 15 member states — namely Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Luxembourg, Portugal, and Sweden — had domestic rules which prevented the extradition of their nationals. Although the Nordic EU members – Denmark, Finland, and Sweden – did allow the extradition of their nationals to each other and to other Nordic countries, they refused the extradition of both their nationals and the nationals of other Nordic countries elsewhere. In addition seven of the 12 member states which joined between 2004 and 2007 – namely Bulgaria, Cyprus, the Czech Republic, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, and Slovenia – employed a similar prohibition prior to their accession. Under the Framework Decision, member states are precluded from refusing the surrender of their own nationals wanted for the purposes of prosecution, but they may condition the surrender of a requested person on his or her being returned to the issuing state to serve any sentence ultimately imposed. The Netherlands which requires issuing states to return both Dutch nationals and permanent residents, also requires issuing states to agree that any sentences imposed will be converted into those applicable under Dutch law using the 1995 Convention on the Transfer of Sentenced Persons. This has the effect of re-introducing the double-criminality requirement for Dutch nationals and permanent residents, as the conversion of a sentence imposed in an issuing state could not be converted into a comparable sentence by a Dutch court if the conduct constituting the criminal offence in the issuing state does not constitute a criminal offence in the Netherlands.", "The EAW Framework Decision sets out the reasons by which the executing judicial authority must or may refuse to surrender a person subject to an arrest warrant. Many member states have enacted other reasons by which surrender may be refused which are not referred to in the Framework Decision.", "Under the Framework Decision the executing judicial authority must refuse to surrender the requested person if:", "Under the Framework Decision the executing judicial authority may refuse to surrender the requested person if:", "In 2009 the Council of Ministers amended the EAW framework decision with the express intention of \"enhancing the procedural rights of persons and fostering the application of the principle of mutual recognition to decisions rendered in the absence of the person concerned at the trial\". Under the 2009 framework decision an executing judicial authority may refuse to execute a European Arrest Warrant unless the requested person:", "Article 3 of the Framework Decision which lists grounds upon which executing states must refuse to surrender a requested person does not expressly include any ground for refusing the surrender of a requested person if that surrender would infringe a person's human rights. However recitals (12) and (13) of the preamble and Article 1(3) do refer to human rights: In 2006, 20 of the then 25 member states included text which was based on at least one of these provisions or which explicitly referred to the European Convention on Human Rights, in their domestic implementing legislation. The others took the view that the rights exist independently from the Framework Decision. Fair Trials International (FTI), the London-based human rights non-governmental organisation, claims to have highlighted a number of cases which demonstrate that the European Arrest Warrant system is causing serious injustice and jeopardising the right to a fair trial. In particular, FTI allege that:", "The Framework Decision also establishes the possibility for executing member states to request certain guarantees from issuing states prior to ordering the surrender of a requested person. Whether and how member states require such guarantees depends on the law of the member state in question.", "", "A European Arrest Warrant may only be issued by the competent judicial authority in an EU member state or a state with a special agreement with the EU. The issuing judicial authority must complete a form stating identity and nationality of the person sought, the nature and legal classification of the offence, the circumstances surrounding the alleged committal of the offence including when and where it was committed and the degree of participation of the person sought, and scale of penalties for the offence. Many member states have designated public prosecutors as their judicial authorities for the purposes of the framework decision. Such designations have been questioned before the British and Irish courts on the basis that in order for an authority to be judicial it should be a court or judge. In both countries, the designated issuing authority is a judge. However the courts of each have rejected these arguments. In \"Assange v Swedish Prosecution Authority\" the High Court of England and Wales found that: On appeal, the UK's Supreme Court affirmed the decision of the High Court and found that, when comparing different language versions, the framework decision demonstrated an intention to regard public prosecutors as judicial authorities and that the conduct of the member states since its enactment confirmed this interpretation.", "Unlike traditional extradition arrangements, EAWs need not be transmitted to any particular state. The intent of the Framework Decision is that EAWs be immediately recognised by all member states once issued. When a person the subject of an EAW is found within the jurisdiction of a member state and arrested, that member state is required by the Framework Decision to execute the warrant. If the whereabouts of the person sought are known, the EAW may be transmitted directly to the designated central authority of that member state. Otherwise the issuing judicial authority may seek the assistance of the European Judicial Network in circulating the warrant, may seek to issue an alert under the Schengen Information System, or may seek the services of Interpol.", "The EAW Framework Decision requires that a warrant can only be issued when an offence is punishable by imprisonment or a detention order for a maximum period of at least one year, or in conviction cases, where the remaining term of imprisonment is four months or more. This can nonetheless include a wide variety of trivial offences. In 2007, a report commissioned by the Presidency of the Council of Ministers noted that EAWs had been issued for such offences as possession of 0.45 grams of cannabis, possession of 3 ecstasy tablets, theft of two car tyres, driving under the influence of alcohol where the limit was not significantly exceeded, and theft of a piglet. The report concluded that it would be appropriate to have a discussion at EU level on the proportionate issuance of European Arrest Warrants.", "While the manner in which the arrest of a person the subject of an EAW is not specified in the Framework Decision, once arrested, he or she has the right to be informed of the warrant, its contents, and the person's right to consent to his or her surrender to the member state that issued the warrant. The Framework Decision also provides that the requested person have the right to the assistance of legal counsel and to an interpreter \"in accordance with the national law of the executing Member State\".", "The Framework Decision prescribes time limits for the making of a final decision to a surrender request. Where a requested person consents to his or her surrender, the executing judicial authority should make a final decision within ten days of such a consent. Where a requested person refuses to consent to his or her surrender, the executing judicial authority should make a final decision within 60 days of the arrest. In 2011 the European Commission reported that the average time for the surrender of persons who consented was 16 days while the average time for those who did not consent was 48.6 days.", "A state wishing to prosecute a surrendered person for offences committed before his or her surrender, or extradite a surrendered person to a third state, must, subject to certain exception, obtain the permission of the executing judicial authority. Such a request is made in the same form as a European Arrest Warrant, and granted or refused using the same rules which determine whether surrender would be granted or refused. This requirement is referred to as the principle of'specialty' and is intended to ensure that a state cannot seek the surrender of a person for an extraditable offence whilst intending to prosecute that person for a non-extraditable offence once surrendered, or extradite the surrendered person to a third state for an offence which would not have been extraditable offence from the original executing state. By default the principle of'specialty' applies to all persons surrendered pursuant to a European Arrest Warrant unless the executing judicial authority indicates otherwise. However this position may be reversed where both the issuing and the executing states have made declarations to that effect. The permission of the executing state is not required:", "Since its implementation in 2004, the EAW system has been occasionally criticised for inappropriate or disproportionate use. Following a report by an internal working party, the Presidency of the Council of the European Union suggested in 2007 that it would be appropriate to have a discussion at EU level on the principle of proportionality which is outset in article 5 of the Treaty establishing the European Community and how to take this principle into consideration by judicial authorities when issuing a European arrest warrant. EAWs have been issued for minor offences such as possession of 0.45 grams of cannabis; theft of two car tires; driving a car under the influence of alcohol, where the limit was not significantly exceeded (0.81 mg/l) and the theft of a piglet. In the UK, persons arrested under an EAW have been extradited for minor offences such as the stealing of ten chickens (Romania), unintentionally receiving a stolen mobile phone (Poland), and theft of £20 worth of petrol (Czech Republic). At the other extreme, the EAW has failed in some cases. The Irish Supreme Court refused to extradite an Irish citizen to Hungary who was alleged to have killed two children through negligent driving. While the Irish Court never questioned the facts of the case or the fairness or outcome of the Hungarian trial, it decided that the person did not technically \"flee\" from Hungary, only \"failed to return\", having left the country with the consent of the Hungarian authorities; therefore, the legal requirements for extradition under an EAW had not been established. However, the requirement that the person have \"fled\" the requesting jurisdiction has since been removed from Irish law, and a new warrant has been issued by the Hungarian authorities. In the case of Carles Puigdemont (wanted for sedition in connection with the 2017 Catalan independence referendum), some MEPs and legal commentators criticised the Spanish Government for appearing to have opportunistically issued and withdrawn his European Arrest Warrant based on the likelihood of its success in different EU member states Puigdemont was travelling through." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Hildebrand is an Intentionalist on the origins of the Holocaust question, arguing that the personality and role of Adolf Hitler was a crucial driving force behind the Final Solution. Writing in 1979, Hildebrand stated: Fundamental to National Socialist genocide was Hitler's race dogma...Hitler's programmatic ideas about the destruction of the Jews and racial domination have still to be rated as primary and causative, as motive and aim, as intention and goal of the \"Jewish policy\" of the Third Reich. Working closely with Andreas Hillgruber, Hildebrand took the view that such events as the \"Shoah\" and Operation Barbarossa were all the unfolding of Hitler's master plan. Along similar lines, in a 1976 article, Hildebrand commented on left-wing historians of the Nazi Germany that in his view they were: theoretically fixed, are vainly concerned with functional explanations of the autonomous force in history and as a result frequently contribute towards its trivialization. Hildebrand has argued that the distinction drawn by the functionalists between the \"Einsatzgruppen\" massacres of Jews in the German-occupied parts of the Soviet Union in 1941-42 and between the rest of the \"Shoah\" is largely meaningless. Hildebrand wrote that: In qualitative terms, the executions by shooting were no different from the technically more efficient accomplishment of the 'physical final solution' by gassing, of which they were a prelude. In 1981, the British Marxist historian Timothy Mason in his essay 'Intention and explanation: A current controversy about the interpretation of National Socialism' from the book \"The \"Fuehrer State\" : Myth and reality\" coined the term \"Intentionist\" as part of an attack against Hildebrand and Karl Dietrich Bracher, both of whom Mason accused of focusing too much on Hitler as an explanation for the Holocaust. Though Hildebrand is a leading advocate of the totalitarianism school and rejects any notion of generic fascism as intellectually inadequate, he does believe that the Third Reich was characterized by what he deems \"authoritarian anarchy\". However, Hildebrand believes in contrast to the work of Martin Broszat and Hans Mommsen that the \"authoritarian anarchy\" caused by numerous competing bureaucracies strengthened, not weakened Hitler's power. In Hildebrand's opinion, the \"Hitler factor\" was indeed the central causal agent of the Third Reich. Hildebrand has argued against the \"Sonderweg\" view of German history championed by the Mommsen brothers. In the 1970s Hildebrand was deeply involved in a rancorous debate with Hans-Ulrich Wehler over the merits of traditional diplomatic history versus social history as way of explaining foreign policy. Together with Andreas Hillgruber, Hildebrand argued for the traditional \"Primat der Aussenpolitik\" (Primacy of Foreign Policy) approach with the focus on empirically examining the foreign policy making elite. Wehler by contrast argued for the \"Primat der Innenpolitik\" (Primacy of Domestic Politics) approach which called for seeing foreign policy largely as a reflection of domestic politics and employing theoretically-based research into social history to examine domestic politics. Another area of difference between Hildebrand and his left-wing critics in the role of geography in German history. Hildebrand has argued that Germany's position as the \"country in the middle\" bordered by Russia and France has often limited the options of the German government in the 19th-20th centuries. In regards to the Globalist-Continentalist debate between those argue that the Hitler's foreign policy at world conquest against those who argue that Nazi foreign policy aim only at the conquest of Europe, Hildebrand has consistently taken a Globalist position, arguing that the foreign policy of the Third Reich did indeed have world domination as its goal, with Hitler following a \"Stufenplan\" (stage-by-stage plan) to reach that goal. In Hildebrand's opinion, Hitler's foreign policy aimed at nothing less than world conquest in his own lifetime, and those who argue otherwise are seriously misunderstanding the full scope of Hitler's ambitions. Hildebrand sees Hitler's \"Programme\" for world domination as comprising in an equal measure crafty power politics and fanatical racism. Together with Andreas Hillgruber and Gerhard Weinberg, Hildebrand is considered to be one of the leading Globalist scholars. Through Hildebrand does not maintain that Hitler was a free agent in foreign policy, and accepts that there were structural limitations upon Hitler's room to manoeuvre, he contends that these limitations only had the effect of pushing Hitler into the direction that he always wanted to go. However, Hildebrand does not favor an exclusively Hitlerist interpretation of German foreign policy in the era of the Third Reich. In Hildebrand's view, there were three other fractions within the NSDAP who advocated foreign policy programmes different from Hitler's. One fraction, whom Hildebrand dubs the \"revolutionary socialists\", supported an anti-Western policy with support for independence movements within the British Empire and an alignment with the Soviet Union. Most closely associated the Strasser brothers, Gregor and Otto the \"revolutionary socialist\" fraction played no important role in the foreign policy of the Third Reich. A rival fraction whom Hildebrand calls the \"agrarians\" centered around the agrarian leader Richard Walther Darré, the Party \"race theorist\" Alfred Rosenberg and the \"Reichsfũhrer\"-SS Heinrich Himmler, favored an anti-industrial and anti-urban \"blood and soil\" ideology, expansion at the expense of the Soviet Union in order to acquire \"Lebensraum\", alliance with Britain and opposition to the restoration of overseas colonies as threatening German racial purity. Another fraction, who Hildebrand refers to as the Wilhelmine Imperialists and whose leading personality was Hermann Göring, advocated at minimum the restoration of the borders of 1914 and the overseas empire, a zone of influence for Germany in Eastern Europe, and greater emphasis on traditional \"Machtpolitik\" as opposed to Hitler's racist vision of an endless and merciless Social Darwinist struggle between different \"races\" for \"lebensraum\". The emphasis on the restoration of German colonies implied an anti-British policy but, in general, the Wilhelmine Imperialists were cautious about the prospect of war with Britain, and preferred to restore the pre-1914 German colonial empire through diplomacy rather than war. Of the three fractions, it was the \"agrarians\" whose views were the closest to Hitler's programme, but Hildebrand argues that there was an important difference in that the \"agrarians\" saw an alliance with Britain as being the natural alignment of two \"Aryan\" powers, whereas for Hitler the proposed British alliance was more a matter of power politics. Since 1982, Hildebrand has worked at the University of Bonn as a professor in medieval and modern history, with a special interest in the 19th and 20th centuries. Hildebrand's major work has been in diplomatic history and the development of the nation-state. He served as editor of the series concerning the publication of the documents of German foreign policy. In the mid-1980s, Hildebrand sat on a committee together with Thomas Nipperdey and Michael Stürmer in charge of vetting the publications issued by the Research Office of the West German Ministry of Defence. The committee attracted some controversy when it refused to publish a hostile biography of Gustav Noske. In a 1983 speech, Hildebrand denied there had been a \"Sonderweg\", and claimed that the \"Sonderweg\" only applied to the \"special case\" of the Nazi dictatorship In a 1984 essay, Hildebrand went further and wrote: It remains to be seen, whether future scholarship will initiate a process of historicization of the Hitler period, for example by comparing it with Stalinist Russia and with examples such as the Stone Age Communism of Cambodia. This would doubtless be accompanied by terrifying scholarly insights and painful human experiences. Both phenomena could, \"horribile dictu\", even relativize the concept of the German \"Sonderweg\" between 1933 and 1945 In response, Heinrich August Winkler argued that there was a \"Sonderweg\" before 1933, and that Germany as a country deeply influenced by the Enlightenment meant there was no point of comparison between Hitler on one hand, and Pol Pot and Stalin on the other In Germany, Hildebrand is well known for his disputes with the Mommsen brothers, Hans and Wolfgang over how best to understand Nazi Germany, especially evident at a conference held at the German Historical Institute in London in 1979 which resulted in numerous hostile exchanges. In the \"Historikerstreit\" (historians' dispute) of the 1980s, Hildebrand sided with those who contended that the Holocaust, while a major tragedy of the 20th century was not a uniquely evil event, but just one out of many genocides of the 20th century. In a 1987 article, Hildebrand argued that both Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union were totalitarian, expansionary states that were destined to come into conflict with each other. Hildebrand argued that in response to concentrations of the Red Army near in the border in the spring of 1941, Hitler engaged in a \"flucht nach vorn\" (\"flight forward\"-i.e. responding to a danger by charging on rather than retreating). Hildebrand concluded that: Independently, the National Socialist program of conquest met the equally far-reaching war-aims program which Stalin had drawn up in 1940 at the latest.. Hildebrand's critics such as the British historian Richard J. Evans accused Hildebrand of seeking to obscure German responsibility for the attack on the Soviet Union, and of not being well informed on Soviet foreign policy. Some champions of the \"preventive war\" theory were critical of Hildebrand for using the term \"Überfall\" (fell upon) to describe Operation Barbarossa because it implied Hitler still had some freedom of choice in 1941. In a 1995 introduction to an essay about German-American relations by Detlef Junker, Hildebrand asserted that first Britain and then the United States in the 19th-20th centuries had a tendency to be highly ignorant of Central European affairs, and likewise had a propensity for engaging in \"black legend\" type of propaganda against Germany." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Not for profit organisation.", "LINX in the twenty-first century.", "Technology.", "Public affairs.", "Local exchanges.", "LINX Manchester.", "LINX Scotland.", "LINX Cardiff.", "LINX NoVA.", "Other activities.", "See also." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Back in November 1994, using a donated piece of equipment no bigger than a video recorder and without any written contracts, five UK-based Internet service providers (ISPs) linked their networks to exchange data and avoid paying high transatlantic bandwidth costs. LINX effectively began when two ISPs (PIPEX and UKnet) linked their networks via a 64-kilobit serial link to save the cost and time delay involved in routing data across the Atlantic to US Internet exchanges. When Demon Internet, UKERNA – the UK academic network – and other ISPs showed interest in establishing similar serial links, Keith Mitchell, then chief technical officer of PIPEX, initiated a meeting with BT to discuss the creation of a London-based Internet exchange. PIPEX provided the LINX founders with a Cisco Catalyst 1200 switch with eight 10-megabit ports. Rack space was leased at a then virtually empty data centre operated by Telehouse International Corporation of Europe Ltd at Coriander Avenue in London's Docklands. Switching the first data through the Telehouse hub was a momentous event that was accomplished by primarily technical specialists who were unconcerned about the formalities of legal contracts. However, while PIPEX continued to provide administrative and technical oversight, the need for a formal constitution was eventually recognised. The solution was to form a company limited by guarantee. Lawyers produced a draft memorandum and constitution which was extensively modified by members. The company was formed in 1995 and a board of five non-executive directors was elected, with Keith Mitchell as the initial chairman.", "From the beginning, it was agreed that LINX would be a non-profit organisation run for the benefit of members and governed collectively through regular member meetings, a practice which continues to this day. While PIPEX continued to provide administrative oversight – charged at cost to LINX – member meetings were held every two months (now every three months) to decide strategic direction. Eventually, it was accepted that the purely co-operative system of operation at LINX was becoming overly demanding and in late 1996 Keith Mitchell accepted the role of full-time chairman, working with a personal assistant from offices in Peterborough. In the summer of 1996 LINX became the first Internet exchange in the world to deploy a 100-megabit switch – a Cisco Catalyst 5000. In January 1999 it pioneered the implementation of a Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) running over gigabit Ethernet connections. As the Internet grew in popularity, legislators and law enforcement agencies inevitably decided it must be regulated. LINX increasingly found itself taking on non-core activities, such as providing expert advice on behalf of its members (and, therefore, the whole industry) to a wide range of official agencies. In 1999 LINX appointed its first full-time regulation officer in Roland Perry to advise organisations such as the Home Office Internet Task Force, the National Hi-Tech Crime Unit, the Department of Trade and Industry and relevant departments of the EU Commission. In 2003 Roland was succeeded by Malcolm Hutty when Roland left to form his own advisory group. LINX also actively and financially supports the Internet Watch Foundation which, since 1996, has worked to eradicate child abuse images from the UK Internet. Initial funding from LINX was instrumental in enabling the IWF to launch and the decision to create the IWF and define its charter was taken at a LINX member meeting in Heathrow.", "2000 – a training manager was appointed to introduce an accredited training programme for Internet engineers and technicians. 2001 – LINX amended its corporate structure to make the post of chairman non-executive and appointed its first chief executive officer, John Souter, previously UK managing director of German-owned Varetis Communications. 2002 – LINX was the first exchange to introduce 10G Ethernet operation, using equipment from Foundry Networks – in fact, the second of their worldwide customers to deploy their technology. 2003 – This year saw the launch of the 'LINX from Anywhere' service, a facility that permits smaller ISPs to piggyback on the networks of existing members to obtain a secure, virtual presence on the LINX exchange without incurring the manpower and rackspace costs of having their own installation in London. 2004 – LINX considerably expanded its footprint, with four new points of presence (PoPs) – all in the Docklands area of London. 2005 – LINX members vote to make public affairs one of the company's \"core functions\", placing it on an equal footing with peering and interconnection. 2006 – LINX membership reached 200. 2008 – LINX expanded again opening three new PoPs, this time adding considerably to the geographical diversity by doing so in the City of London, North Acton and Slough. It also heralded new relationships with data centre operators, with the addition of Interxion and Equinix (to the pre-existing ones of Telehouse and Telecity). 2011 – The LINX primary LAN was redesigned to a VPLS-based infrastructure with a new vendor, Juniper Networks. 2012 – The ConneXions reseller programme launched. Also this year LINX became the first Internet exchange in the world to install a Juniper PTX5000 in a live network and the exchange opened its first site outside London in Manchester (IXManchester). 2013 – In the Autumn two further local exchanges were launched. IXScotland in Edinburgh and LINX NoVA in North Virginia, USA, the exchange's first sites outside England. 2014 – In the Autumn a local exchange was launched, IXCardiff in Wales. 2017 – Following the passage of the Investigatory Powers Act, a new constitution was proposed which would ban directors from reporting the installation of surveillance equipment to members. This caused dissension among members, many of which are non-UK based ISPs operating from countries where mass surveillance is not legal. This interpretation of the constitutional change was disputed on the official LINX website. Voting on the constitutional revision took place during a hastily called Extraordinary General Meeting (EGM) on 21 February; although a majority supported the change the number attending was too small for the motion to be carried.", "In London LINX operates two physically separate networks or switching platforms on different architectures using equipment from different manufacturers (Extreme Networks and Juniper Networks). These networks are deployed over ten locations, each connected by multiple 100 Gigabit Ethernet or 10 Gigabit Ethernet connections over fibre networks. 2018 sees the deployment of a world first, disaggregated approach to network architecture, as the LINX Engineering team restructure the secondary LAN in London, LON2, using software and hardware from two different suppliers. 16 London locations within the data centre facilities listed: Connecting is also possible from remote locations via the 'LINX from Anywhere' scheme via a range of layer 2 service/MPLS carriers. Redundancy of the network is managed using rapid-failover protection mechanisms such a VPLS service over an MPLS core (MPLS/VPLS) from Juniper and Extreme's Ethernet Automatic Protection System (EAPS). These restore connectivity within tenths of a second in the event of the loss of a network segment. In addition to the main peering infrastructure, LINX provides managed private interconnections (via Single Mode Fibre) between LINX members, and works with a number of fibre carriers to provide rapid connection between LINX members for private circuits. These PI circuits may be used for any purpose but are mainly intended for Private Peering arrangements between members. Private Peering is sometimes more appropriate for managing large flows of traffic between ISPs and/or Content Providers. Telehouse hosts the vast majority of internet peering traffic from LINX.", "One of LINX's core functions is to represent its members in matters of public policy. LINX's Public Affairs department works to obtain advance warning of public policy developments that could affect LINX members, to inform members about important policy developments at a time when it is still possible to influence them, and to educate, inform and influence regulators and legislators. At the UK level, LINX liaises directly with policymakers on matters such as content regulation, telecoms regulation, privacy and data protection, e-mail spam, online fraud/phishing, law enforcement, counter-terrorism, and any other topics that affect LINX members. At the European level, LINX is an active member of EuroISPA and works with EuroISPA's other national associations to influence European policy. LINX also works actively with partner organisations such as the Internet Watch Foundation (IWF) and the Internet Society (ISOC). LINX was instrumental in the creation of the Internet Watch Foundation, the UK hotline for reporting and removing child sexual abuse material from the Internet, and continues to advise the IWF as a member of its Funding Council. As a mutual, membership-based organisation, all of LINX's public affairs activity is informed and guided by extensive and ongoing consultation with LINX members.", "", "Launched in April 2012 IXManchester, now known as LINX Manchester was initially a single-site platform based on a stand-alone Brocade BigIron RX-16 switch, repurposed from the primary LAN in London. A new design extends the network to two new sites – M247's IceColo & Joule House and brings in completely new hardware from Extreme Networks. The new network will be configured as an EAPS protected ring, topology currently used for the secondary LINX LAN in London. All sites will use a Summit X670v switch, capable of connecting 48x10 Gb member ports. Telecity Williams will also have a smaller Summit X460 switch for terminating slower ports. The links between sites will be provisioned on a dark fibre provided by NTL and lit by LINX with the use of SFP+ DWDM transceivers and passive DWDM MUX units. Initial ISL capacity will be configured at 20 Gbit/s but easily upgradeable to 80 Gbit/s if required.", "Located in Pulsant's South Gyle data centre in Edinburgh (formerly Scolocate), IXScotland, now known as LINX Scotland, was officially launched in November 2013. The site will use the latest hardware from Extreme Networks enabling all the advanced features expected from a modern exchange.", "Located in BT's Stadium House data centre in Cardiff. IXCardiff, now known as LINX Cardiff was officially launched on 15 October 2014 in an effort to decentralise UK internet traffic. As of July 2018, LINX Cardiff has a typical peak of 0.9976 Gbit/s of network traffic with a maximum peak of 1.03 Gbit/s as of 1 December 2017.", "Following discussions with the US network community, and its own members, LINX decided to launch an open peering exchange in North America in late 2013. Formally to be known as LINX NoVA, the exchange will be closely aligned with, and endorsed by, the newly formed Open-IX, using systems and processes that have proved successful in Europe and the wider world for nearly 20 years. Based in the North Virginia/Washington DC area LINX NoVA initially spanned three data centres – EvoSwitch in Manassas, Digital Realty in Ashburn and Coresite in Reston – and will be connected using dark fibre lit by LINX. An agreement for a fourth colo site, also in Ashburn, is expected shortly. The LINX NoVA exchange will use cutting-edge MX960 router equipment from Juniper Networks capable of delivering 100G member ports from launch with the three PoPs all connected by diverse dark fibre lit by LINX. LINX NoVA will be developed in the same way as the LINX primary LAN in London (VPLS, separated core and edge, etc.) but as a stand-alone site not requiring a connection to the LANs operated in the London, UK.", "LINX also carries on a number of non-core activities (NCAPs) from time to time, for example the LINX Accredited Internet Technician (LAIT) training programme. Other services provided include a time service using atomic clocks, as well as hosting for other \"Good of the Internet\" services including various Internet statistics projects, numerous secondary name servers for various ccTLD domains, and instances of the F, K and I root nameservers. Latest news for 2018/19 sees LINX launch an IXP partner relationship with Japan IX allowing customers to connect to LINX in London and also LINX and Saudi Telecom Company (STC), on December 7, 2018 marked the start of JED-IX driven by LINX, an Internet exchange in Jeddah (JED-IX), Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA).", "Some other Internet exchange points in London: LINX hosts a number of meetings where network operators can exchange information: see Internet network operators' group for a list of other organisations holding similar meetings." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Applications.", "Sunglasses.", "Supramolecular chemistry.", "Data storage.", "Novelty items.", "Solar energy storage.", "History.", "Overview.", "Photochromic complexes.", "Classes of photochromic materials.", "Spiropyrans and spirooxazines.", "Diarylethenes.", "Azobenzenes.", "Photochromic quinones.", "Inorganic photochromics.", "Photochromic coordination compounds." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "One of the most famous reversible photochromic applications is color changing lenses for sunglasses, as found in eyeglasses. The largest limitation in using photochromic technology is that the materials cannot be made stable enough to withstand thousands of hours of outdoor exposure so long-term outdoor applications are not appropriate at this time. The switching speed of photochromic dyes is highly sensitive to the rigidity of the environment around the dye. As a result, they switch most rapidly in solution and slowest in the rigid environment like a polymer lens. In 2005 it was reported that attaching flexible polymers with low glass transition temperature (for example siloxanes or poly(butyl acrylate)) to the dyes allows them to switch much more rapidly in a rigid lens. Some spirooxazines with siloxane polymers attached switch at near solution-like speeds even though they are in a rigid lens matrix.", "Photochromic units have been employed extensively in supramolecular chemistry. Their ability to give a light-controlled reversible shape change means that they can be used to make or break molecular recognition motifs, or to cause a consequent shape change in their surroundings. Thus, photochromic units have been demonstrated as components of molecular switches. The coupling of photochromic units to enzymes or enzyme cofactors even provides the ability to reversibly turn enzymes \"on\" and \"off\", by altering their shape or orientation in such a way that their functions are either \"working\" or \"broken\".", "The possibility of using photochromic compounds for data storage was first suggested in 1956 by Yehuda Hirshberg. Since that time, there have been many investigations by various academic and commercial groups, particularly in the area of 3D optical data storage which promises discs that can hold a terabyte of data. Initially, issues with thermal back-reactions and destructive reading dogged these studies, but more recently more-stable systems have been developed.", "Reversible photochromics are also found in applications such as toys, cosmetics, clothing and industrial applications. If necessary, they can be made to change between desired colors by combination with a permanent pigment.", "Researchers at the Center for Exploitation of Solar Energy at the University of Copenhagen Department of Chemistry are studying, the Photochromic Dihydroazulene–Vinylheptafulvene System, for possible application to harvest solar energy and store it for significant amounts of time. Although storage lifetimes are attractive, for a real device it must of course be possible to trigger the back-reaction, which calls for further iterations in the future.", "Photochromism was discovered in the late 1880s, including work by Markwald, who studied the reversible change of color of 2,3,4,4-tetrachloronaphthalen-1(4H)-one in the solid state. He labeled this phenomenon \"phototropy\", and this name was used until the 1950s when Yehuda Hirshberg, of the Weizmann Institute of Science in Israel proposed the term \"photochromism\". Photochromism can take place in both organic and inorganic compounds, and also has its place in biological systems (for example retinal in the vision process).", "Photochromism does not have a rigorous definition, but is usually used to describe compounds that undergo a reversible photochemical reaction where an absorption band in the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum changes dramatically in strength or wavelength. In many cases, an absorbance band is present in only one form. The degree of change required for a photochemical reaction to be dubbed \"photochromic\" is that which appears dramatic by eye, but in essence there is no dividing line between photochromic reactions and other photochemistry. Therefore, while the trans-cis isomerization of azobenzene is considered a photochromic reaction, the analogous reaction of stilbene is not. Since photochromism is just a special case of a photochemical reaction, almost any photochemical reaction type may be used to produce photochromism with appropriate molecular design. Some of the most common processes involved in photochromism are pericyclic reactions, cis-trans isomerizations, intramolecular hydrogen transfer, intramolecular group transfers, dissociation processes and electron transfers (oxidation-reduction). Another requirement of photochromism is two states of the molecule should be thermally stable under ambient conditions for a reasonable time. All the same, nitrospiropyran (which back-isomerizes in the dark over ~10 minutes at room temperature) is considered photochromic. All photochromic molecules back-isomerize to their more stable form at some rate, and this back-isomerization is accelerated by heating. There is therefore a close relationship between photochromic and thermochromic compounds. The timescale of thermal back-isomerization is important for applications, and may be molecularly engineered. Photochromic compounds considered to be \"thermally stable\" include some diarylethenes, which do not back isomerize even after heating at 80 C for 3 months. Since photochromic chromophores are dyes, and operate according to well-known reactions, their molecular engineering to fine-tune their properties can be achieved relatively easily using known design models, quantum mechanics calculations, and experimentation. In particular, the tuning of absorbance bands to particular parts of the spectrum and the engineering of thermal stability have received much attention. Sometimes, and particularly in the dye industry, the term \"irreversible photochromic\" is used to describe materials that undergo a permanent color change upon exposure to ultraviolet or visible light radiation. Because by definition photochromics are reversible, there is technically no such thing as an \"irreversible photochromic\"—this is loose usage, and these compounds are better referred to as \"photochangable\" or \"photoreactive\" dyes. Apart from the qualities already mentioned, several other properties of photochromics are important for their use. These include quantum yield, fatigue resistance, photostationary state, and polarity and solubility. The quantum yield of the photochemical reaction determines the efficiency of the photochromic change with respect to the amount of light absorbed. The quantum yield of isomerization can be strongly dependent on conditions. In photochromic materials, fatigue refers to the loss of reversibility by processes such as photodegradation, photobleaching, photooxidation, and other side reactions. All photochromics suffer fatigue to some extent, and its rate is strongly dependent on the activating light and the conditions of the sample. Photochromic materials have two states, and their interconversion can be controlled using different wavelengths of light. Excitation with any given wavelength of light will result in a mixture of the two states at a particular ratio, called the photostationary state. In a perfect system, there would exist wavelengths that can be used to provide 1:0 and 0:1 ratios of the isomers, but in real systems this is not possible, since the active absorbance bands always overlap to some extent. In order to incorporate photochromics in working systems, they suffer the same issues as other dyes. They are often charged in one or more state, leading to very high polarity and possible large changes in polarity. They also often contain large conjugated systems that limit their solubility.", "A \"photochromic complex\" is a kind of chemical compound that has photoresponsive parts on its ligand. These complexes have a specific structure: photoswitchable organic compounds are attached to metal complexes. For the photocontrollable parts, thermally and photochemically stable chromophores (azobenzene, diarylethene, spiropyran, etc.) are usually used. And for the metal complexes, a wide variety of compounds that have various functions (redox response, luminescence, magnetism, etc.) are applied. The photochromic parts and metal parts are so close that they can affect each other's molecular orbitals. The physical properties of these compounds shown by parts of them (i.e., chromophores or metals) thus can be controlled by switching their other sites by external stimuli. For example, photoisomerization behaviors of some complexes can be switched by oxidation and reduction of their metal parts. Some other compounds can be changed in their luminescence behavior, magnetic interaction of metal sites, or stability of metal-to-ligand coordination by photoisomerization of their photochromic parts.", "Photochromic molecules can belong to various classes: triarylmethanes, stilbenes, azastilbenes, nitrones, fulgides, spiropyrans, naphthopyrans, spiro-oxazines, quinones and others.", "One of the oldest, and perhaps the most studied, families of photochromes are the spiropyrans. Very closely related to these are the spirooxazines. For example, the spiro form of an oxazine is a colorless leuco dye; the conjugated system of the oxazine and another aromatic part of the molecule is separated by a sp3-hybridized \"spiro\" carbon. After irradiation with UV light, the bond between the spiro-carbon and the oxazine breaks, the ring opens, the spiro carbon achieves sp2 hybridization and becomes planar, the aromatic group rotates, aligns its π-orbitals with the rest of the molecule, and a conjugated system forms with ability to absorb photons of visible light, and therefore appear colorful. When the UV source is removed, the molecules gradually relax to their ground state, the carbon-oxygen bond reforms, the spiro-carbon becomes sp3 hybridized again, and the molecule returns to its colorless state. This class of photochromes in particular are thermodynamically unstable in one form and revert to the stable form in the dark unless cooled to low temperatures. Their lifetime can also be affected by exposure to UV light. Like most organic dyes they are susceptible to degradation by oxygen and free radicals. Incorporation of the dyes into a polymer matrix, adding a stabilizer, or providing a barrier to oxygen and chemicals by other means prolongs their lifetime.", "The \"diarylethenes\" were first introduced by Irie and have since gained widespread interest, largely on account of their high thermodynamic stability. They operate by means of a 6-pi electrocyclic reaction, the thermal analog of which is impossible due to steric hindrance. Pure photochromic dyes usually have the appearance of a crystalline powder, and in order to achieve the color change, they usually have to be dissolved in a solvent or dispersed in a suitable matrix. However, some diarylethenes have so little shape change upon isomerization that they can be converted while remaining in crystalline form.", "The photochromic trans-cis isomerization of azobenzenes has been used extensively in molecular switches, often taking advantage of its shape change upon isomerization to produce a supramolecular result. In particular, azobenzenes incorporated into crown ethers give switchable receptors and azobenzenes in monolayers can provide light-controlled changes in surface properties.", "Some quinones, and phenoxynaphthacene quinone in particular, have photochromicity resulting from the ability of the phenyl group to migrate from one oxygen atom to another. Quinones with good thermal stability have been prepared, and they also have the additional feature of redox activity, leading to the construction of many-state molecular switches that operate by a mixture of photonic and electronic stimuli.", "Many inorganic substances also exhibit photochromic properties, often with much better resistance to fatigue than organic photochromics. In particular, silver chloride is extensively used in the manufacture of photochromic lenses. Other silver and zinc halides are also photochromic. Yttrium oxyhydride is another inorganic material with photochromic properties.", "Photochromic coordination complexes are relatively rare in comparison to the organic compounds listed above. There are two major classes of photochromic coordination compounds. Those based on sodium nitroprusside and the ruthenium sulfoxide compounds. The ruthenium sulfoxide complexes were created and developed by Rack and coworkers. The mode of action is an excited state isomerization of a sulfoxide ligand on a ruthenium polypyridine fragment from S to O or O to S. The difference in bonding from between Ru and S or O leads to the dramatic color change and change in Ru(III/II) reduction potential. The ground state is always S-bonded and the metastable state is always O-bonded.Typically, absorption maxima changes of nearly 100 nm are observed. The metastable states (O-bonded isomers) of this class often revert thermally to their respective ground states (S-bonded isomers), although a number of examples exhibit two-color reversible photochromism. Ultrafast spectroscopy of these compounds has revealed exceptionally fast isomerization lifetimes ranging from 1.5 nanoseconds to 48 picoseconds." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Composition.", "Remixes.", "Critical reception.", "Chart performance.", "Music videos.", "Original version.", "The Darkchild Remix.", "Live performances and usage in media.", "Credits and personnel." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "During the Oops!... I Did It Again Tour (2000), Spears revealed she felt inspired by hip hop artists such as Jay-Z and The Neptunes and wanted to create a record with a funkier sound. In February 2001, Spears signed a $7–8 million promotional deal with Pepsi, and released another book co-written with her mother, entitled \"A Mother's Gift\". On the same month, Spears started to record material for her third studio album, with \"Overprotected\" being recorded at Maratone Studios in Stockholm, Sweden. Additional recording was done in April 2001 at Maratone in Sweden, in which the song's vocals were completed. Background vocals were provided by Spears and Bosslady, with the track being mixed by Martin and Rami at Maratone Studios. Her third studio album, \"Britney\", was released in November 2001. In an interview with the \"Daily Record\", Spears concluded she can relate to \"Overprotected\" \"on a personal basis, because I feel kind of overprotected. When I want to go out, everything has to be organized in advance. I think that other kids of my age can relate to it to a certain extent.\"", "\"Oveprotected\" is a dance-pop song that lasts for three minutes and 18 seconds. David Browne of \"Entertainment Weekly\" noticed Europop influences on the song, while other critics compared it to previous songs released by Spears. According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Universal Music Publishing Group, \"Overprotected\" is composed in the key of C minor and is set in time signature of common time, with a moderate tempo of 96 beats per minute. Spears vocal range spans from A to C. Lyrically, the track is about a girl who is tired of being manipulated by people around her and doesn't need to be told what to do, which is perceived in lines such as \"You're gonna have to see through my perspective/ I need to make mistakes just to learn who I am/ And I don't want to be so damn protected\". Dana Alice Heller, author of \"Makeover television: realities remodelled\" (2007), said that, with \"Overprotected\", \"Spears addresses the problem of being a teen star whose personal and professional are handled by others.\" She also compared \"Overprotected\" with the singer's first reality show, \"\" (2005), saying that \"Britney frames her makeover as a move toward to independence, a rebellion against overly controlling parents and their stand-ins.\"", "The song's main release in North America was a reworked R&B remix by Rodney 'Darkchild' Jerkins. Jerkins said that the label \"needed a remix that's crazy\" and that the remix has \"an old-school-type rhythm, which I think is kinda cool because it's an element [that Spears] never had, but I still gave it her edge. I was up all night rocking that joint. [It has the] same lyrics, I just reproduced the track.\" \"The Darkchild Remix\" was originally scheduled for release to radio stations in the United States in mid-March 2002; this date was pushed back and the song was released on April 1, 2002. The remix was heavily played in dance clubs, and Jerkins said he wasn't surprised with the popularity of it, stating \"[Britney] reinvented herself. Everybody thought she was gonna come back with another 'Oops!... I Did It Again', but she went left and came with the 'I'm a Slave 4 U' joint, which is basically a club banger. You gotta big up people who reinvent themselves. I always said she was gonna be one of the people that's gonna be around for a minute, because I see that in her.\" Finnish musician and record producer Jaakko Salovaara also created two remixes for the track, titled \"JS16 Dub\" and \"JS16 Remix\". The latter was included on the promotional soundtrack of Spears' debut movie, \"Crossroads\" (2002).", "Upon release, the track received generally positive reviews from music critics. Jocelyn Vena of MTV said that \"with songs like \"Overprotected\" and \"Let Me Be,\" Spears seemed to be letting out her adolescent angst,\" while Kyle Anderson of MTV Newsroom said, \"the real first blush with emancipation from [the singer] teen pop past came with ['Overprotected']\". While reviewing Spears' third studio album \"Britney\" (2001), Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic said the track, along with \"I'm Not a Girl, Not Yet a Woman\" and \"What It's Like to Be Me\", \"are pivotal moments on Britney Spears' third album, the record where she strives to deepen her persona (not the same thing as her character, of course), making it more adult while still recognizably Britney\". Christopher Rosa, from \"Glamour\", deemed it Spears' eight best song, and said that \"feeling overly controlled or scrutinized is a consistent theme in Spears's discography, but this motif started with Overprotected\", calling the song \"introspection with a killer hook. Critic Robert Christgau also considered \"Overprotected\" and \"Cinderella\" as the highlights of \"Britney\", while saying, \"hardly the first not-terribly-bright teenager to approach self-knowledge via the words of others\". Nikki Tranker of PopMatters said the song \"is an absolute belter reminiscent of Britney’s previous big-bang singles, 'Oops! I Did It Again' and 'You Drive Me Crazy' [\"sic\"]\", while commenting that Spears \"sings about ridding herself of the girlie chains around her, gripes about her need for space in the whirlwind that is her life, and lets us know she don’t need nobody telling her what to do\". The staff from \"Entertainment Weekly\" placed it at number 24 on their ranking of Spears's songs and said that \"there’s an eerie amount of foreshadowing for what was to come in her personal life. And Max Martin shows once again he had an unassailable gift for crafting that decade’s most indelible hooks\". In 2003, the song received a Grammy nomination for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance. Digital Spy's Alim Kheraj hailed it \"an anthem that deals with the complexities of growing up and being held back by other people's perceptions [...] full of distinctive chord progressions and more hooks than it seems possible to include in one song\".", "\"Overprotected\" attained commercial success in Europe. In France, it peaked at number 15, and was later certified Silver by the Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique (SNEP), for selling over 125,000 units of the single. In Sweden, the song reached number two, and was later certified Gold by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI), for selling over 15,000 units. \"Overprotected\" reached number one in Mexico and was the best-selling single of 2002 in that country, also reached the top five in Italy, Romania, and United Kingdom, while reaching the top ten in Belgium (Flanders), Finland, Ireland, and Norway. In the United States, on the week of May 4, 2002, \"The Darkchild Remix\" peaked at number 86 on \"Billboard\" Hot 100, where it stayed on the chart for five weeks. It also entered on the Pop Songs chart, where it peaked at number 37 on the week of May 25, 2002, before dropping the chart in the following chart issue. In Canada, the song peaked at number 22 on the Canadian Hot 100.", "", "The music video for \"Overprotected\" was directed by Billie Woodruff and produced under Geneva Films, while choreographed by Brian Friedman. In an interview with \"Harper's Bazaar\" in 2011, Spears recalled the music video, saying, \"I just think it says a lot. It was directed so well, it was really colorful and the dancing was amazing\". It begins with Spears driving away from the paparazzi, with a part of the instrumental version of the song \"Bombastic Love\", featured on the album \"Britney\", playing. She makes her way into an alleyway and decides to enter an abandoned factory, hoping her pursuers will be thrown off course. When she enters the building she begins to dance her way around the warehouse. Britney's dancers, having spotted her walking into the factory, follow her inside. They find Britney dancing around and joke about it, before heading into a heavy dance routine. Towards the end of the video, segments of Spears in a room with walls covered in pictures and articles about herself are also shown. These walls move in and out before the video ends, signifying that she is \"overprotected\". At the end of the video, Britney walks to a wall, and exits the building. The music video was the number one video of MTV’s Mexico in the final countdown of 2002 “Los 100 más pedidos”", "The music video for \"The Darkchild Remix\" was directed by Chris Applebaum and filmed in the first weekend of March 2002 in Los Angeles, California. It was produced under A Band Apart Productions, while the choreography for this version was also created by Brian Friedman. The full shooting took 23 hours, and Applebaum was said to be impressed with Spears' \"stamina and patience through the marathon shoot, which wrapped 5 a.m.\" According to Joe D'Angelo of MTV News, \"the clip furthers her 'I'm Not a Girl, Not Yet a Woman' crusade to shirk her adolescent image, as she and five friends outsmart her bodyguard with the old 'you're wanted elsewhere' trick and sneak out of a hotel and into an underground dance club.\" It was released on March 26, 2002. Spears directly referenced Janet Jackson's \"Son of a Gun (I Betcha Think This Song Is About You)\" in the scenes on the elevator and when her and her dancers walk down the hotel lobby. Both videos also use the same hotel setting, filmed at Los Angeles' Millennium Biltmore Hotel. The video opens with Spears and her friends in a hotel room, where a tabloid reporter on television criticizes her for the sexy, revealing outfits she is often seen wearing publicly. Spears and her friends express their disagreement with the report. Spears, determined to be self-sufficient and unaffected by media comments, then makes a phone call to her bodyguard, and using a cloth to disguise the sound of her voice, coaxes him to leave the area so that her group may sneak out of the hotel and enjoy the day. They run into an elevator and fool around briefly with the security cameras before going up to the main lobby. A strut down the lobby of the hotel and a short dance sequence follows. As they leave the hotel, they follow towards the dance club. However, before they arrive, they are caught in an alley by several paparazzi, and start to perform a dance routine in the middle of the rain. As they make their entrance, they are dripping wet, an image which makes for more sensationalist fodder for the tabloid reporter.", "\"Overprotected\" was performed for the first time on 2001's Dream Within a Dream Tour. During the performance, Spears was dancing to the song surrounded by laser lights. The video backdrop showed images of a bald Spears, with her hair growing as the song went along. However, the backdrop was later removed for unknown reasons. After the announcement of the 2002 extension of the tour, some changes were made to the setlist, replacing the original mix of the song by \"The Darkchild Remix\". The remix was later performed on The Onyx Hotel Tour (2004), during the opening act, right after the performance of \"Toxic\" (2003). Spears' debut film, \"Crossroads\" (2002), features a performance of the song during the credits. \"Overprotected\" was used in Japanese commercials for \"\". Japanese magazine \"Famitsu\" also released 5 promotional prize \"Otogi X Britney\" DVDs containing two Britney Spears music videos, a demo of \"Otogi\", the Japanese commercials, and audio tracks.", "Credits for \"Overprotected\" are adapted from \"Britney\" liner notes. Technical Personnel" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History and nomenclature.", "Rules.", "Starting layouts.", "Six players.", "Four players.", "Three players.", "Two players.", "Strategy.", "Fast-paced or Super Chinese Checkers.", "Capture.", "Diamond game.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Despite its name, the game is not a variation of checkers, nor did it originate in China or any part of Asia (whereas the game 象棋 \"xiangqi\", or \"Chinese chess\", is from China). The game was invented in Germany in 1892 under the name \"Stern-Halma\" as a variation of the older American game Halma. The \"Stern\" (German for \"star\") refers to the board's star shape (in contrast to the square board used in Halma). The name \"Chinese Checkers\" originated in the United States as a marketing scheme by Bill and Jack Pressman in 1928. The Pressman company's game was originally called \"Hop Ching Checkers\". The game was introduced to Chinese-speaking regions mostly by the Japanese. In Japan, the game is known as \"Diamond Game\" (ダイヤモンドゲーム).", "The aim is to race all one's pieces into the star corner on the opposite side of the board before the opponents do the same. The destination corner is called \"home\". Each player has 10 pieces, except in games between two players when 15 pieces are used. (On bigger star boards, 15 or 21 pieces are used.) In \"hop across\", the most popular variation, each player starts with their colored pieces on one of the six points or corners of the star and attempts to race them all home into the opposite corner. Players take turns moving a single piece, either by moving one step in any direction to an adjacent empty space, or by jumping in one or any number of available consecutive hops over other single pieces. A player may not combine hopping with a single-step move – a move consists of one or the other. There is no capturing in Sternhalma, so pieces that are hopped over remain active and in play. Turns proceed clockwise around the board. In the diagram, Green might move the topmost piece one space diagonally forward as shown. A \"hop\" consists of jumping over a single adjacent piece, either one's own or an opponent's, to the empty space directly beyond it in the same line of direction. Red might advance the indicated piece by a chain of three hops in a single move. It is not mandatory to make the most number of hops possible. (In some instances a player may choose to stop the jumping sequence part way in order to impede the opponent's progress, or to align pieces for planned future moves.)", "", "Can be played \"all versus all\", or three teams of two. When playing teams, teammates usually sit at opposite corners of the star, with each team member controlling their own colored set of pieces. The first team to advance both sets to their home destination corners is the winner. The remaining players usually continue play to determine second- and third-place finishers, etc.", "The four-player game is the same as the game for six players, except that two opposite corners will be unused.", "In a three-player game, all players control either one or two sets of pieces each. If one set is used, pieces race across the board into empty, opposite corners. If two sets are used, each player controls two differently colored sets of pieces at opposite corners of the star.", "In a two-player game, each player plays one, two, or three sets of pieces. If one set is played, the pieces usually go into the opponent's starting corner, and the number of pieces per side is increased to 15 (instead of the usual 10). If two sets are played, the pieces can either go into the opponent's starting corners, or one of the players' two sets can go into an opposite empty corner. If three sets are played, the pieces usually go into the opponent's starting corners.", "A basic strategy is to create or find the longest hopping path that leads closest to home, or immediately into it. (Multiple-jump moves are obviously faster to advance pieces than step-by-step moves.) Since either player can make use of any hopping 'ladder' or 'chain' created, a more advanced strategy involves hindering an opposing player in addition to helping oneself make jumps across the board. Of equal importance are the players' strategies for emptying and filling their starting and home corners. Games between top players are rarely decided by more than a couple of moves. Differing numbers of players result in different starting layouts, in turn imposing different best-game strategies. For example, if a player's home destination corner starts empty (i.e. is not an opponent's starting corner), the player can freely build a 'ladder' or 'bridge' with their pieces between the two opposite ends. But if a player's opponent occupies the home corner, the player may need to wait for opponent pieces to clear before filling the home vacancies. Variants", "While the standard rules allow hopping over only a single adjacent occupied position at a time (as in checkers), this version of the game allows pieces to catapult over multiple adjacent occupied positions in a line when hopping. In the \"fast-paced\" or \"Super Chinese Checkers\" variant popular in France, a piece may hop over a \"non-adjacent\" piece. A hop consists of jumping over a distant piece (friendly or enemy) to a symmetrical position on the opposite side, in the same line of direction. (For example, if there are two empty positions between the jumping piece and the piece being jumped, the jumping piece lands leaving exactly two empty positions immediately beyond the jumped piece.) As in the standard rules, a jumping move may consist of any number of a chain of hops. (When making a chain of hops, a piece is usually allowed to enter an empty corner, as long as it hops out again before the move is completed.) Jumping over two or more pieces in a hop is not allowed. Therefore, in this variant even more than in the standard version, it is sometimes strategically important to keep one's pieces bunched in order to prevent a long opposing hop. An alternative variant allows hops over \"any\" symmetrical arrangement, including pairs of pieces, pieces separated by empty positions, and so on.", "In the \"capture\" variant, all sixty game pieces start out in the hexagonal field in the center of the gameboard. The center position is left unoccupied, so pieces form a symmetric hexagonal pattern. Color is irrelevant in this variant, so players take turns hopping any game piece over any other eligible game piece(s) on the board. The hopped-over pieces are captured (retired from the game, as in English draughts) and collected in the capturing player's bin. Only jumping moves are allowed; the game ends when no further jumps are possible. The player with the most captured pieces is the winner. The board is tightly packed at the start of the game; as more pieces are captured, the board frees up, often allowing multiple captures to take place in a single move. Two or more players can compete in this variant, but if there are more than six players, not everyone will get a fair turn. This variant resembles the game Leap Frog. The main difference being that in Leap Frog the board is a square board.", "Diamond game is a variant of Sternhalma played in South Korea and Japan. It uses the same jump rule as in Sternhalma. The aim of the game is to enter all one's pieces into the star corner on the opposite side of the board, before opponents do the same. Each player has ten or fifteen pieces. Ten-piece diamond uses a smaller gameboard than Sternhalma, with 73 spaces. Fifteen-piece diamond uses the same board as in Sternhalma, with 121 spaces. To play diamond each player selects one color and places their 10 or 15 pieces on a triangle. Two or three players can compete.", "Bibliography" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Background.", "Efficiency.", "Emitters.", "Filters.", "Converters.", "Geometry.", "Black body radiation.", "Active components and materials selection.", "Emitters.", "Polycrystalline silicon carbide.", "Tungsten.", "Rare-earth oxides.", "Photonic crystals.", "Photovoltaic cells.", "Silicon.", "Germanium.", "Gallium antimonide.", "Indium gallium arsenide antimonide.", "Indium gallium arsenide.", "Indium phosphide arsenide antimonide.", "Lead Tin Selenide/Lead Strontium Selenide Quantum Wells.", "Applications.", "Man-portable power.", "Spacecraft.", "Commercial applications.", "Off-grid generators.", "Recreational vehicles." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3" ], "content": [ "Henry Kolm had constructed an elementary TPV system at MIT in 1956. However, Pierre Aigrain is widely cited as the inventor based on the content of lectures he gave at MIT between 1960–1961 which, unlike Kolm's system, led to research and development.", "Thermophotovoltaics (TPVs) are a class of power generating system that convert thermal energy into electrical energy. They consist of, at a minimum, an emitter and a photovoltaic power converter. Most TPV systems include additional components such as concentrators, filters and reflectors. The basic principle is similar to that of traditional photovoltaics (PV) where a p-n junction is used to absorb optical energy, generate and separate electron/hole pairs, and in doing so convert that energy into electricity. The difference is that the optical energy is not directly generated by the Sun, but instead by a material at high temperature (termed the emitter), that causes it to emit light. In this way thermal energy is converted to electrical energy. The emitter can be heated by sunlight or other techniques. In this sense, TPVs provide a great deal of versatility in potential fuels. In the case of solar TPVs, large concentrators are needed to provide reasonable temperatures for efficient operation. Improvements can take advantage of filters or selective emitters to create emissions in a wavelength range that is optimized for a specific photovoltaic (PV) converter. In this way TPVs can overcome a fundamental challenge for traditional PVs, making efficient use of the entire solar spectrum. For black body emitters, photons with energy less than the bandgap of the converter cannot be absorbed and are either reflected and lost or pass through the cell. Photons with energy above the bandgap can be absorbed, but the excess energy, formula_1, is again lost, generating undesirable heating in the cell. In the case of TPVs, similar issues can exist, but the use of either selective emitters (emissivity over a specific wavelength range), or optical filters that only pass a narrow range of wavelengths and reflect all others, can be used to generate emission spectra that can be optimally converted by the PV device. To maximize efficiency, all photons should be converted. A process often termed photon recycling can be used to approach this. Reflectors are placed behind the converter and anywhere else in the system that photons might not be efficiently directed to the collector. These photons are directed back to the concentrator where they can be converted, or back to the emitter, where they can be reabsorbed to generate heat and additional photons. An optimal TPV system would use photon recycling and selective emission to convert all photons into electricity.", "The upper limit for efficiency in TPVs (and all systems that convert heat energy to work) is the Carnot efficiency, that of an ideal heat engine. This efficiency is given by: where T is the temperature of the PV converter. For the best reasonable values in a practical system, T~300K and T~1800, giving a maximum efficiency of ~83%. This limit sets the upper limit for the system efficiency. At 83% efficiency, all heat energy is converted to radiation by the emitter which is then converted by the PV into electrical energy without losses, such as thermalization or Joule heating. Maximum efficiency presumes no entropy change, which is only possible if the emitter and cell are at the same temperature. More accurate models are quite complicated.", "Deviations from perfect absorption and perfect black body behavior lead to light losses. For selective emitters, any light emitted at wavelengths not matched to the bandgap energy of the photovoltaic may not be efficiently converted (for reasons discussed above) and leads to reduced efficiency. In particular, emissions associated with phonon resonances are difficult to avoid for wavelengths in the deep infrared, which cannot be practically converted. Ideal emitters produce no infrared.", "For black body emitters or imperfect selective emitters, filters reflect non-ideal wavelengths back to the emitter. These filters are imperfect. Any light that is absorbed or scattered and not redirected to the emitter or the converter is lost, generally as heat. Conversely, practical filters often reflect a small percentage of light in desired wavelength ranges. Both are inefficiencies.", "Even for systems where only light of optimal wavelengths is passed to the converter, inefficiencies associated with non-radiative recombination and ohmic losses exist. Since these losses can depend on the light intensity incident on the cell, real systems must consider the intensity produced by a given set of conditions (emitter material, filter, operating temperature).", "In an ideal system, the emitter would be surrounded by converters so no light is lost. However, realistically, geometries must accommodate the input energy (fuel injection or input light) used to heat the emitter. Additionally, costs prohibit the placement of converters everywhere. When the emitter reemits light, anything that does not travel to the converters is lost. Mirrors can be used to redirect some of this light back to the emitter; however, the mirrors may have their own losses.", "For black body emitters where photon recirculation is achieved via filters, Planck's law states that a black body emits light with a spectrum given by: formula_3 where I' is the flux of light of a specific wavelength, λ, given in units of 1/m/s. h is Planck's constant, k is Boltzmann's constant, c is the speed of light, and T is the emitter temperature. Thus, the light flux with wavelengths in a specific range can be found by integrating over the range. The peak wavelength is determined by the temperature, T based on Wien's displacement law: where b is Wien's displacement constant. For most materials, the maximum temperature an emitter can stably operate at is about 1800 °C. This corresponds to an intensity that peaks at λ~1600 nm or an energy of ~0.75 eV. For more reasonable operating temperatures of 1200 °C, this drops to ~0.5 eV. These energies dictate the range of bandgaps that are needed for practical TPV converters (though the peak spectral power is slightly higher). Traditional PV materials such as Si (1.1 eV) and GaAs (1.4 eV) are substantially less practical for TPV systems, as the intensity of the black body spectrum is extremely low at these energies for emitters at realistic temperatures.", "", "Efficiency, temperature resistance and cost are the three major factors for choosing a TPV radiator. Efficiency is determined by energy absorbed relative to total incoming radiation. High temperature operation is a crucial factor because efficiency increases with operating temperature. As emitter temperature increases, black body radiation shifts to shorter wavelengths, allowing for more efficient absorption by photovoltaic cells. Cost is another major commercialization issue.", "Polycrystalline silicon carbide (SiC) is the most commonly used emitter for burner TPVs. SiC is thermally stable to ~1700 °C. However, SiC radiates much of its energy in the long wavelength regime, far lower in energy than even the narrowest bandgap photovoltaic. This radiation is not converted into electrical energy. However, non-absorbing selective filters in front of the PV, or mirrors deposited on the back side of the PV can be used to reflect the long wavelengths back to the emitter, thereby recycling the unconverted energy. In addition, polycrystalline SiC is cheap to manufacture.", "Refractory metals can be used as selective emitters for burner TPVs. Tungsten is the most common choice. It has higher emissivity in the visible and near-IR range of 0.45 to 0.47 and a low emissivity of 0.1 to 0.2 in the IR region. The emitter is usually in the shape of a cylinder with a sealed bottom, which can be considered a cavity. The emitter is attached to the back of a thermal absorber such as SiC and maintains the same temperature. Emission occurs in the visible and near IR range, which can be readily converted by the PV to electrical energy.", "Rare-earth oxides such as ytterbium oxide (YbO) and erbium oxide (ErO) are the most commonly used selective emitters for TPVs. These oxides emit a narrow band of wavelengths in the near-infrared region, allowing the tailoring of the emission spectra to better fit the absorbance characteristics of a particular PV cell. The peak of the emission spectrum occurs at 1.29 eV for YbO and 0.827 eV for ErO. As a result, YbO can be used a selective emitter for Si PV cells and ErO, for GaSb or InGaAs. However, the slight mismatch between the emission peaks and band gap of the absorber results in a significant loss of efficiency. Selective emission only becomes significant at 1100 °C and increases with temperature, per Planck's Law. At operating temperatures below 1700 °C, selective emission of rare-earth oxides is fairly low, resulting in a further decrease in efficiency. Currently, 13% efficiency has been achieved with YbO and silicon PV cells. In general selective emitters have had limited success. More often filters are used with black body emitters to pass wavelengths matched to the bandgap of the PV and reflect mismatched wavelengths back to the emitter.", "Photonic crystals are a class of periodic materials that allow the precise control of electromagnetic wave properties. These materials give rise to the photonic bandgap (PBG). In the spectral range of the PBG, electromagnetic waves cannot propagate. The engineering of these materials allows some ability to tailor their emission and absorption properties, allowing for more effective design of selective emitters. Selective emitters with peaks at higher energy than the black body peak (for practical TPV temperatures) allow for wider bandgap converters. These converters are traditionally cheaper to manufacture and less temperature sensitive. Researchers at Sandia Labs demonstrated a high-efficiency (34% of light emitted from PBG selective emitter can be converted to electricity) TPV emitter using tungsten photonic crystals. However, manufacturing of these devices is difficult and not commercially feasible.", "", "Early work in TPVs focused on the use of Si PVs. Silicon's commercial availability, extremely low cost, scalability and ease of manufacture makes this material an appealing candidate. However, the relatively wide bandgap of Si (1.1eV) is not ideal for use with a black body emitter at lower operating temperatures. Calculations using Planck's law, which describes the black body spectrum as a function of temperature, indicates that Si PVs would only be feasible at temperatures much higher than 2000 K. No emitter has been demonstrated that can operate at these temperatures. These engineering difficulties led to the pursuit of lower-bandgap semiconductor PVs. Using selective radiators with Si PVs is still a possibility. Selective radiators would eliminate high and low energy photons, reducing heat generated. Ideally, selective radiators would emit no radiation beyond the band edge of the PV converter, increasing conversion efficiency significantly. No efficient TPVs have been realized using Si PVs.", "Early investigations into low bandgap semiconductors focused on germanium (Ge). Ge has a bandgap of 0.66 eV, allowing for conversion of a much higher fraction of incoming radiation. However, poor performance was observed due the extremely high effective electron mass of Ge. Compared to III-V semiconductors, Ge's high electron effective mass leads to a high density of states in the conduction band and therefore a high intrinsic carrier concentration. As a result, Ge diodes have fast decaying \"dark\" current and therefore, a low open-circuit voltage. In addition, surface passivation of germanium has proven extremely difficult.", "The gallium antimonide (GaSb) PV cell, invented in 1989, is the basis of most PV cells in modern TPV systems. GaSb is a III-V semiconductor with the zinc blende crystal structure. The GaSb cell is a key development owing to its narrow bandgap of 0.72 eV. This allows GaSb to respond to light at longer wavelengths than silicon solar cell, enabling higher power densities in conjunction with manmade emission sources. A solar cell with 35% efficiency was demonstrated using a bilayer PV with GaAs and GaSb, setting the solar cell efficiency record. Manufacturing a GaSb PV cell is quite simple. Czochralski Te-doped n-type GaSb wafers are commercially available. Vapor-based Zn diffusion is carried out at elevated temperatures ~450 °C to allow for p-type doping. Front and back electrical contacts are patterned using traditional photolithography techniques and an anti-reflective coating is deposited. Current efficiencies are estimated at ~20% using a 1000 °C black body spectrum. The radiative limit for efficiency of the GaSb cell in this setup is 52%, so vast improvements can still be made.", "Indium gallium arsenide antimonide (InGaAsSb) is a compound III-V semiconductor. (InGaAsSb) The addition of GaAs allows for a narrower bandgap (0.5 to 0.6 eV), and therefore better absorption of long wavelengths. Specifically, the bandgap was engineered to 0.55 eV. With this bandgap, the compound achieved a photon-weighted internal quantum efficiency of 79% with a fill factor of 65% for a black body at 1100 °C. This was for a device grown on a GaSb substrate by organometallic vapour phase epitaxy (OMVPE). Devices have been grown by molecular beam epitaxy (MBE) and liquid phase epitaxy (LPE). The internal quantum efficiencies (IQE) of these devices are approaching 90%, while devices grown by the other two techniques exceed 95%. The largest problem with InGaAsSb cells is phase separation. Compositional inconsistencies throughout the device degrade its performance. When phase separation can be avoided, the IQE and fill factor of InGaAsSb approach theoretical limits in wavelength ranges near the bandgap energy. However, the V/E ratio is far from the ideal. Current methods to manufacture InGaAsSb PVs are expensive and not commercially viable.", "Indium gallium arsenide (InGaAs) is a compound III-V semiconductor. It can be applied in two ways for use in TPVs. When lattice-matched to an InP substrate, InGaAs has a bandgap of 0.74 eV, no better than GaSb. Devices of this configuration have been produced with a fill factor of 69% and an efficiency of 15%. However, to absorb higher wavelength photons, the bandgap may be engineered by changing the ratio of In to Ga. The range of bandgaps for this system is from about 0.4 to 1.4 eV. However, these different structures cause strain with the InP substrate. This can be controlled with graded layers of InGaAs with different compositions. This was done to develop of device with a quantum efficiency of 68% and a fill factor of 68%, grown by MBE. This device had a bandgap of 0.55 eV, achieved in the compound InGaAs. n has the advantage of being a well-developed material. InGaAs can be made to lattice match perfectly with Ge resulting in low defect densities. Ge as a substrate is a significant advantage over more expensive or harder-to-produce substrates.", "The InPAsSb quaternary alloy has been grown by both OMVPE and LPE. When lattice-matched to InAs, it has a bandgap in the range 0.3–0.55 eV. The benefits of a TPV system with such a low band gap have not been studied in depth. Therefore, cells incorporating InPAsSb have not been optimized and do not yet have competitive performance. The longest spectral response from an InPAsSb cell studied was 4.3 μm with a maximum response at 3 μm. While this is a promising material, it has yet to be developed. For this and other low-bandgap materials, high IQE for long wavelengths is hard to achieve due to an increase in Auger recombination.", "PbSnSe/PbSrSe quantum well materials, which can be grown by MBE on silicon substrates, have been proposed for low cost TPV device fabrication. These IV-VI semiconductor materials can have bandgaps between 0.3 and 0.6 eV. Their symmetric band structure and lack of valence band degeneracy result in low Auger recombination rates, typically more than an order of magnitude smaller than those of comparable bandgap III-V semiconductor materials.", "TPVs promise efficient and economically viable power systems for both military and commercial applications. Compared to traditional nonrenewable energy sources, burner TPVs have little NO emissions and are virtually silent. Solar TPVs are a source of emission-free renewable energy. TPVs can be more efficient than PV systems owing to recycling of unabsorbed photons. However, TPVs are more complex and losses at each energy conversion step can lower efficiency. Further developments must be made to the absorber/emitter and PV cell. When TPVs are used with a burner source, they provide on-demand energy. As a result, energy storage is not needed. In addition, owing to the PV's proximity to the radiative source, TPVs can generate current densities 300 times that of conventional PVs.", "Battlefield dynamics require portable power. Conventional diesel generators are too heavy for use in the field. Scalability allows TPVs to be smaller and lighter than conventional generators. Also, TPVs have few emissions and are silent. Multifuel operation is another potential benefit. Early investigations into TPVs in the 1970s failed due to PV limitations. However, with the realization of the GaSb photocell, a renewed effort in the 1990s improved results. In early 2001, JX Crystals delivered a TPV based battery charger to the Army that produced an output of 230 W with propane. This prototype utilized an SiC emitter operating at 1250 °C and GaSb photocells and was approximately 0.5 m tall. The power source had an efficiency of 2.5%, calculated by the ratio of the power generated to the thermal energy of the fuel burned. This is too low for practical battlefield use. To increase efficiency, narrow-band emitters must be realized and the temperature of the burner must be raised. Further thermal management steps, such as water cooling or coolant boiling, must be implemented. Although many successful proof-of-concept prototypes were demonstrated, no portable TPV power sources have reached troop testing or battlefield implementation.", "For space travel power generation systems must provide consistent and reliable power without large amounts of fuel. As a result, solar and radioisotope fuels (extremely high power density and long lifetime) are ideal sources of energy. TPVs have been proposed for each. In the case of solar energy, orbital spacecraft may be better locations for the large and potentially cumbersome concentrators required for practical TPVs. However, because of weight considerations and inefficiencies associated with the somewhat more complicated design of TPVs, conventional PVs will almost surely be more effective for these applications. Probably more interesting is the prospect of using TPVs for conversion of radioisotope energy. The output of isotopes is thermal energy. In the past thermoelectricity (direct thermal to electrical conversion with no moving parts) has been used because of TPV efficiency is less than the ~10% of thermoelectric converters. Stirling engines have also been considered, but face reliability concerns, which are unacceptable for space missions, despite improved conversion efficiencies (>20%). However, with the recent advances in small-bandgap PVs, TPVs are becoming more promising candidates. A TPV radioisotope converter with 20% efficiency was demonstrated that uses a tungsten emitter heated to 1350 K, with tandem filters and a 0.6 eV bandgap InGaAs PV converter (cooled to room temperature). About 30% of the lost energy was due to the optical cavity and filters. The remainder was due to the efficiency of the PV converter. Low-temperature operation of the converter is critical to the efficiency of TPV. Heating PV converters increases their dark current, thereby reducing efficiency. The converter is heated by the radiation from the emitter. In terrestrial systems it is reasonable to dissipate this heat without using additional energy with a heat sink. However, space is an isolated system, where heat sinks are impractical. Therefore, it is critical to develop innovative solutions to efficiently remove that heat, or optimized TPV cells that can operate efficiently with higher temperature converters. Both represent substantial challenges. Despite this, TPVs offer substantial promise for use in future space applications.", "", "Many homes are located in remote regions not connected to the power grid. Where available, power line extensions can be impractical. TPVs can provide a continuous supply of power in off-grid homes. Traditional PVs on the other hand, would not provide sufficient power during the winter months and nighttime, while TPVs can utilize alternative fuels to augment solar-only production. The greatest advantage for TPV generators is cogeneration of heat and power. In cold climates, it can function as both a heater or stove and a power generator. JX Crystals developed a prototype TPV heating stove and generator. It burns natural gas and uses a SiC source emitter operating at 1250 °C and GaSb photocell to output 25,000 BTU/hr simultaneously generating 100 W. However, costs must be significantly reduced to render it commercially viable. When a furnace is used as a heater and a generator, it is called combined heat and power (CHP). Many TPV CHP scenarios have been theorized, but a generator using boiling coolant was found most cost efficient. The proposed CHP would utilize a SiC IR emitter operating at 1425 °C and GaSb photocells cooled by boiling coolant. The TPV CHP would output 85,000 BTU/hr and generate 1.5 kW. The estimated efficiency would be 12.3% and the investment would be 0.08 €/kWh provided that the lifetime of the CHP furnace is 20 years. The estimated cost of other non-TPV CHPs are 0.12 €/kWh for gas engine CHP and 0.16 €/kWh for fuel cell CHP. This proposed furnace has not been commercialized because the market was not thought to be large enough.", "TPVs have been proposed for use in recreational vehicles. With the advent of hybrid and other electrically powered vehicles, power generators with electrical outputs have become more interesting. In particular the versatility of TPVs for fuel choice and the ability to use multiple fuel sources makes them interesting as a wider variety of fuels are being with better sustainability are emerging. The silent operation of TPVs allow the generation of electricity when and where the use of noisy conventional generators is not allowed (i.e. during \"quiet hours\" in national park campgrounds), and do not disturb others. However, the emitter temperatures required for practical efficiencies make TPVs on this scale unlikely." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Brief history.", "Advantages and operating principles.", "Comparisons to demand response.", "Ripple control.", "Frequency-based decentralized demand control.", "Examples of schemes.", "Florida.", "Australia and New Zealand.", "Czech Republic.", "France.", "United Kingdom." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Modern utility load management began about 1938, using ripple control. By 1948 ripple control was a practical system in wide use. The Czechs first used ripple control in the 1950's. Early transmitters were low power, compared to modern systems, only 50 kilovolt-amps. They were rotating generators that fed a 1050Hz signal into transformers attached to power distribution networks. Early receivers were electromechanical relays. Later, in the 1970s, transmitters with high-power semiconductors were used. These are more reliable because they have no moving parts. Modern Czech systems send a digital \"telegram.\" Each telegram takes about thirty seconds to send. It has pulses about one second long. There are several formats, used in different districts. In 1972, Theodore George “Ted” Paraskevakos, while working for Boeing in Huntsville, Alabama, developed a sensor monitoring system which used digital transmission for security, fire, and medical alarm systems as well as meter-reading capabilities for all utilities. This technology was a spin-off of his patented automatic telephone line identification system, now known as caller ID. In, 1974, Paraskevakos was awarded a U.S. patent for this technology. At the request of the Alabama Power Company, Paraskevakos developed a load-management system along with automatic meter-reading technology. In doing so, he utilized the ability of the system to monitor the speed of the watt power meter disc and, consequently, power consumption. This information, along with the time of day, gave the power company the ability to instruct individual meters to manage water heater and air conditioning consumption in order to prevent peaks in usage during the high consumption portions of the day. For this approach, Paraskevakos was awarded multiple patents.", "Since electrical energy is a form of energy that cannot be effectively stored in bulk, it must be generated, distributed, and consumed immediately. When the load on a system approaches the maximum generating capacity, network operators must either find additional supplies of energy or find ways to curtail the load, hence load management. If they are unsuccessful, the system will become unstable and blackouts can occur. Long-term load management planning may begin by building sophisticated models to describe the physical properties of the distribution network (i.e. topology, capacity, and other characteristics of the lines), as well as the load behavior. The analysis may include scenarios that account for weather forecasts, the predicted impact of proposed load-shed commands, estimated time-to-repair for off-line equipment, and other factors. The utilization of load management can help a power plant achieve a higher capacity factor, a measure of average capacity utilization. Capacity factor is a measure of the output of a power plant compared to the maximum output it could produce. Capacity factor is often defined as \"the ratio of average load to capacity\" or \"the ratio of average load to peak load in a period of time\". A higher load factor is advantageous because a power plant may be less efficient at low load factors, a high load factor means fixed costs are spread over more kWh of output (resulting in a lower price per unit of electricity), and a higher load factor means greater total output. If the power load factor is affected by non-availability of fuel, maintenance shut-down, unplanned breakdown, or reduced demand (as consumption pattern fluctuate throughout the day), the generation has to be adjusted, since grid energy storage is often prohibitively expensive. Smaller utilities that buy power instead of generating their own find that they can also benefit by installing a load control system. The penalties they must pay to the energy provider for peak usage can be significantly reduced. Many report that a load control system can pay for itself in a single season.", "When the decision is made to curtail load, it is done so on the basis of system \"reliability\". The utility in a sense \"owns the switch\" and sheds loads only when the stability or reliability of the electrical distribution system is threatened. The utility (being in the business of generating, transporting, and delivering electricity) will not disrupt their business process without due cause. Load management, when done properly, is non-invasive, and imposes no hardship on the consumer. The load should be shifted to off peak hours. Demand response places the \"on-off switch\" in the hands of the consumer using devices such as a smart grid controlled load control switch. While many residential consumers pay a flat rate for electricity year-round, the utility's costs actually vary constantly, depending on demand, the distribution network, and composition of the company's electricity generation portfolio. In a free market, the wholesale price of energy varies widely throughout the day. Demand response programs such as those enabled by smart grids attempt to incentivize the consumer to limit usage based upon \"cost\" concerns. As costs rise during the day (as the system reaches peak capacity and more expensive peaking power plants are used), a free market economy should allow the price to rise. A corresponding drop in demand for the commodity should meet a fall in price. While this works for predictable shortages, many crises develop within seconds due to unforeseen equipment failures. They must be resolved in the same time-frame in order to avoid a power blackout. Many utilities who are interested in demand response have also expressed an interest in load control capability so that they might be able to operate the \"on-off switch\" before price updates could be published to the consumers. The application of load control technology continues to grow today with the sale of both radio frequency and powerline communication based systems. Certain types of smart meter systems can also serve as load control systems. Charge control systems can prevent the recharging of electric vehicles during peak hours. Vehicle-to-grid systems can return electricity from an electric vehicle's batteries to the utility, or they can throttle the recharging of the vehicle batteries to a slower rate.", "Ripple control is a common form of load control, and is used in many countries around the world, including the United States, Australia, Czech Republic, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Germany, the Netherlands, and South Africa. Ripple control involves superimposing a higher-frequency signal (usually between 100 and 1600 Hz) onto the standard 50–60 Hz of the main power signal. When receiver devices attached to non-essential residential or industrial loads receive this signal, they shut down the load until the signal is disabled or another frequency signal is received. Early implementations of ripple control occurred during World War II in various parts of the world using a system that communicates over the electrical distribution system. Early systems used rotating generators attached to distribution networks through transformers. Ripple control systems are generally paired with a two- (or more) tiered pricing system, whereby electricity is more expensive during peak times (evenings) and cheaper during low-usage times (early morning). Affected residential devices will vary by region, but may include residential electric hot-water heaters, air conditioners, pool pumps, or crop-irrigation pumps. In a distribution network outfitted with load control, these devices are outfitted with communicating controllers that can run a program that limits the duty cycle of the equipment under control. Consumers are usually rewarded for participating in the load control program by paying a reduced rate for energy. Proper load management by the utility allows them to practice load shedding to avoid rolling blackouts and reduce costs. Ripple control can be unpopular because sometimes devices can fail to receive the signal to turn on comfort equipment, e.g. hot water heaters or baseboard electrical heaters. Modern electronic receivers are more reliable than old electromechanical systems. Also, some modern systems repeat the telegrams to turn on comfort devices. Also, by popular demand, many ripple control receivers have a switch to force comfort devices on. Modern ripple controls send a digital telegram, from 30 to 180 seconds long. Originally these were received by electromechanical relays. Now they are often received by microprocessors. Many systems repeat telegrams to assure that comfort devices (e.g. water heaters) are turned on. Since the broadcast frequencies are in the range of human hearing, they often vibrate wires, filament light-bulbs or transformers in an audible way. The telegrams follow different standards in different areas. For example, in the Czech Republic, different districts use \"ZPA II 32S\", \"ZPA II 64S\" and Versacom. ZPA II 32S sends a 2.33 second on, a 2.99 second off, then 32 one-second pulses (either on or off), with an \"off time\" between each pulse of one second. ZPA II 64S has a much shorter off time, permitting 64 pulses to be sent, or skipped. Nearby regions use different frequencies or telegrams, to assure that telegrams operate only in the desired region. The transformers that attach local grids to interties intentionally do not have the equipment (bridging capacitors) to pass ripple control signals into long-distance power lines. Each data pulse of a telegram could double the number of commands, so that 32 pulses permit 2^32 distinct commands. However, in practice, particular pulses are linked to particular types of device or service. Some telegrams have unusual purposes. For example most ripple control systems have a telegram to set clocks in attached devices, e.g. to midnight. Zellweger off-peak is one common brand of ripple control systems.", "Greater loads physically slow the rotors of a grid's synchronized generators. This causes AC mains to have a slightly reduced frequency when a grid is heavily loaded. The reduced frequency is immediately sensible across the entire grid. Inexpensive local electronics can easily and precisely measure mains frequencies and turn off sheddable loads. In some cases, this feature is nearly free, e.g. if the controlling equipment (such as an electric power meter, or the thermostat in an air-conditioning system) already has a microcontroller. Most electronic electric power meters internally measure frequency, and require only demand control relays to turn off equipment. In other equipment, often the only needed extra equipment is a resistor divider to sense the mains cycle and a schmitt trigger (a small integrated circuit) so the microcontrollers' digital input can sense a reliable fast digital edge. A schmitt trigger is already standard equipment on many microcontrollers. The main advantage over ripple control is greater customer convenience: Unreceived ripple control telegrams can cause a water heater to remain off, causing a cold shower. Or, they can cause an airconditioner to remain off, resulting in a sweltering home. In contrast, as the grid recovers, its frequency naturally rises to normal, so frequency-controlled load control automatically enables water heaters, air-conditioners and other comfort equipment. The cost of equipment can be less, and there are no concerns about overlapping or unreached ripple control regions, mis-received codes, transmitter power, etc. The main disadvantage compared to ripple control is a less fine-grained control. For example, a grid authority has only a limited ability to select which loads are shed. In controlled war-time economies, this can be a substantial disadvantage. The system was invented in PNNL in the early 21st century, and has been shown to stabilize grids.", "In many countries, including United States, United Kingdom and France, the power grids routinely use privately held, emergency diesel generators in load management schemes", "The largest residential load control system in the world is found in Florida and is managed by Florida Power and Light. It utilizes 800,000 load control transponders (LCTs) and controls 1,000 MW of electrical power (2,000 MW in an emergency). FPL has been able to avoid the construction of numerous new power plants due to their load management programs.", "Since the 1950s, Australia and New Zealand have had a system of load management based on ripple control, allowing the electricity supply for domestic and commercial water storage heaters to be switched off and on, as well as allowing remote control of nightstore heaters and street lights. Ripple injection equipment located within each local distribution network signals to ripple control receivers at the customer's premises. Control may either done manually by the local distribution network company in response to local outages or requests to reduce demand from the transmission system operator (i.e. Transpower), or automatically when injection equipment detects mains frequency falling below 49.2 Hz. Ripple control receivers are assigned to one of several ripple channels to allow the network company to only turn off supply on part of the network, and to allow staged restoration of supply to reduce the impact of a surge in demand when power is restored to water heaters after a period of time off. Depending on the area, the consumer may have two electricity meters, one for normal supply (\"Anytime\") and one for the load-managed supply (\"Controlled\"), with Controlled supply billed at a lower rate per kilowatt-hour than Anytime supply. For those with load-managed supply but only a single meter, electricity is billed at the \"Composite\" rate, priced between Anytime and Controlled.", "The Czechs have operated ripple control systems since the 1950s.", "France has an EJP tariff, which allows it to disconnect certain loads and to encourage consumers to disconnect certain loads. This tariff is no longer available for new clients (as of July 2009). The \"Tempo\" tariff also includes different types of days with different prices, but has been discontinued for new clients as well (as of July 2009). Reduced prices during nighttime are available for customers for a higher monthly fee.", "Rltec in the UK in 2009 reported that domestic refrigerators are being sold fitted with their dynamic load response systems. In 2011 it was announced that the Sainsbury supermarket chain will use dynamic demand technology on their heating and ventilation equipment. In the UK, night storage heaters are often used with a time-switched off-peak supply option - Economy 7 or Economy 10. There is also a programme that allows industrial loads to be disconnected using circuit breakers triggered automatically by frequency sensitive relays fitted on site. This operates in conjunction with Standing Reserve, a programme using diesel generators. These can also be remotely switched using BBC Radio 4 Longwave Radio teleswitch. SP transmission deployed Dynamic Load Management scheme in Dumfries and Galloway area using real time monitoring of embedded generation and disconnecting them, should an overload being detected on transmission Network." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Co-locations.", "Network." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In February 1994, a layer 2 shared infrastructure, used between academic institutes, was connected with CERN to exchange traffic. Other Internet service providers were allowed to connect and the name AMS-IX was first used. In 1997, the AMS-IX Association was founded by twenty of the connected Internet service providers and carriers. In 2002, the Neutral Internet Exchange was founded as an alternative or backup for the Amsterdam Internet Exchange. , AMS-IX connected 396 members on 684 ports. The all-time peak of incoming traffic was 1.513 Tbit/s and of outgoing traffic 1.512 Tbit/s compared to 0.833 Tbit/s average incoming and outgoing, in January 2012. In November 2016, AMS-IX broke through the 5 Tbit/s ceiling. The total amount of data transferred by month was (Avg. incoming and outgoing) 75,940 TB in November 2008. By April 2009, it had grown to 124,550 TB, 64% more traffic in a 5-month period. These traffic speeds make the Amsterdam Internet Exchange the second largest Internet exchange in the world, when measured by number of connected members and by Internet traffic, placing it second to the Deutscher Commercial Internet Exchange (traffic). In September 2013, the board voted to create a legal framework to facilitate an expansion into the United States. An AMS-IX press release said that: SURFnet, a member of the exchange, had expressed its objection to the proposal, citing the possibility that such interception would be demanded.", "AMS-IX members are able to connect at 12 locations, all located within the greater Amsterdam area: Third-party network transport links also offer access to AMS-IX peering VLAN via \"Reseller Program\". Under the program, reseller could arrange one physical connection toward AMS-IX platform (now solely a 10G connection, but in prospect of going to 100G), and multiplexes \"virtual-link\" of other parties that connect to AMS-IX peering VLAN.", "The AMS-IX platform is continually evolving due to its rapid growth in traffic and number of connected member ports. Up until end of 2009, it is using a redundant hub-spoke architecture using a core switch and multiple edge switches. This double-star topology brings the advantage of being able to perform maintenance on the network without any impact on customer traffic, and to anticipate on fiber and equipment problems by (automatically) switching to the backup topology as soon as a failure in one of the active components occurs. The active switching topology star is determined by means of the VSRP protocol. This topology is AMS-IX version 3. However, since 2009; AMS-IX platform has migrated from a pure Layer2 network to a VPLS/MPLS network (using Brocade hardware) in order to cope with future growth (this is AMS-IX version 4). AMS-IX members connect to the platform with 1, 10, 100 Gbit/s Ethernet connections, or using multiple gigabit or 10 gigabit aggregated ports, utilizing the 802.3ad standard. Gigabit Ethernet and lower speed ports are directly connected to Brocade - Foundry Networks BigIron 15000 or RX-8 network switches. 10 gigabit member ports are connected to Glimmerglass Systems photonic switches which maintain an optical connection to the stub switch on the currently active side of the network, following the VSRP protocol. For each 10-gigabit port there is an active and a backup stub switch, for which BigIron RX-8, RX-16 or NetIron MLX-16 switches are used. The core consists of two Brocade NetIron MLX-32 switches, to which all edge switches are connected using 10 gigabit aggregated connections and WDM technology. With the new VPLS/MPLS setup; the BigIron RX and legacy BigIron 15000 are no longer in-use. AMS-IX has migrated all the hardware to the MPLS-capable MLX platform. Stub switch is either MLX-8, MLX-16 or MLX-32. Since May 2011, AMS-IX engineers have started testing 100GE along with LimeLight Network." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Composition and recording.", "Release and promotion." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "After the success of the cross-over album \"Moment of Glory\" recorded with Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra and of the unplugged album \"Acoustica\", Scorpions reunited in studio with long-time producer Dieter Dierks to record two songs for the compilation album \"\". The songs \"Bad for Good\" and \"Cause I Love You\" came from the band's archives and this was the first time Scorpions collaborated with Dierks in 14 years.", "Scorpions started actively to work on a new album while touring in 2002. Drummer James Kottak said: \"We would sit in the back of the tour bus late night, playing each other songs each of us had written, writing, listening to new stuff on the radio, and brainstorming what each one of us thought which direction should the new CD take\". The band had the back lounge of a tour bus converted into a studio to write, rehearse and record the demos of the new songs. Guitarist Matthias Jabs said in that period that the new material would be classic rock. He explained: \"We are classic rock, and most radio stations don't play that. But a lot of things are changing, so you never know.\" After finishing the North American tour with Whitesnake in late March 2003, band members gathered at Scorpio Sound Studio to record the first batch of demos. They demoed a total of 16 songs and none of them made the album. A second demo session started in June 2003 and during that session the band demoed songs that Klaus Meine, Rudolf Schenker, Jabs and Kottak had written individually. In the late July and early August, Scorpions embarked on a three-week tour where Kottak spent most of his time writing, demoing, and playing guitar. He explained: \"On some songs I only play for Matthias, some only for Rudolf, and the sensitive ones I play for Klaus\". On 1 September 2003, the band went back again to Scorpio Sound Studio for a two-week demo session and they recorded other 20 songs. Kottak said about the songs: \"We now felt we have the meat of the record...8 to 10 \"good ones\"\". Once demos sessions concluded, Scorpions sent their demos to producers they wished to work with. At the top of their list were: Bob Rock, Rick Parashar, Max Martin, Dieter Dierks and Erwin Musper. Rock was on vacation and resting after the two-year production of Metallica's album \"St. Anger\"; Dierks was scrapped after a financial disagreement between him and members of Scorpions. They finally chose to work with Musper and booked the studio for 15 October 2003. However, they were not ready for recording because they did not have a bass player, and none of the auditioned bass player had had access to the demos recorded by the band. Since there were no bass player during the demo sessions, all bass lines had been laid down by Jabs. Kottak invited Jeff Pilson and Jimmy Bain for the recording sessions, but scheduling clashes prevented their attending. Five days later the band entered the Peppermint Park Studio in Hannover, Germany, and after four to five days of setting up the equipment, they started the recording process, still without a bass player. Schenker's assistant recommended Polish bass player Paweł Mąciwoda. He learned the bass parts from the demos and was in the studio on the first day of recording. After three days, he had recorded a total of 11 songs. After those recording sessions were finished, band members did another recording session with Barry Sparks on bass, recording 5 songs. Despite a total of 16 recorded songs, the band still felt they were missing some songs to complete the album. At the very end of the recording sessions, Shenker came up with the song \"If You Could See Inside My Eyes\" (which became \"Through My Eyes\" on the album), Meine presented \"Maybe I, Maybe You\", Kottak \"Can You Feel It\" and Jabs \"This Time\". After those 4 songs were recorded, finally the band had a foundation of 12 songs to make an album. Apart from those 12 songs, the album has one bonus song titled \"Remember the Good Times\", taken from one of the demo sessions. Later on, the band made a proper studio recorded version of the song, but eventually chose to use the demo version on the album and named it \"Retro Garage Mix\". Meine explained: \"It sounds more rough and we like the feel of it. And it has this retro feel also in the lyric\". In a period of two years, Meine, Schenker, Jabs and Kottak wrote over 150 songs for the album and band recorded 21 of them during a period of three months and three days. The album was mixed by Erwin Musper at Wisseloord Studios in the Netherlands; the mixing process was completed on 4 February 2004. Four songs from the \"Unbreakable\" sessions were recorded for the album \"Sting in the Tail\" of 2010. Those songs are \"Slave Me\", \"No Limit\", \"Turn You On\" (which during the \"Unbreakable sessions\" had a different title) and \"The Best Is Yet to Come\", which was written at the very end of the \"Unbreakable\" sessions when band had no time to record it. Later, the band wanted to put it on the album \"\" (2007), but it did not fit the album style, so band finally recorded it for \"Sting in the Tail\".", "In April 2004, Russian Scorpions Fan Site Scorpions.ru released two-minute audio samples of all of the songs from the album. The album was released in North America on 22 June 2004. In late June 2004 Scorpions official website released samples of the two bonus tracks that appear on the Japanese edition of Unbreakable; those songs are: \"Dreamer\" and \"Too Far\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Reception.", "Track listing.", "CD.", "Personnel." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Acoustica was recorded during three concerts held in February 2001 at the Convento do Beato in Lisbon, Portugal. It was a most unusual set for the band, as Klaus Meine comments on the DVD. The group was supported by female backing vocalists, a percussionist, an extra guitarist, and Christian Kolonovits on keyboards. Kolonovits also collaborated on rearranging the songs for the acoustic set. He had previously worked with the band as a conductor and arranger on the \"Moment of Glory\" album. Scorpions performed four new songs: \"Life Is Too Short\", \"Back to You\", \"I Wanted to Cry\" and \"When Love Kills Love\", the last of which was released as a single. All the new songs were featured on the VHS, while \"Back to You\" and five others were omitted from the CD. \"Acoustica\" also contains cover versions of songs such as The Cars' \"Drive\", Kansas' \"Dust in the Wind\", and the Queen hit \"Love of My Life\". In 2003, an official 'Platinum Edition' was released by Warner Music Thailand, which coupled the original CD with a VCD. The VCD features behind-the-scenes and rehearsal footage as well as a band interview, conducted in English by a Thai television crew.", "The album attained gold status in Brazil, and the DVD attained platinum status. In Portugal the album went straight to No.1, selling 50,000 copies.", "", "All tracks were written by Rudolf Schenker and Klaus Meine, except where noted.", "Scorpions Additional musicians" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Course.", "Nature and conservation.", "Transport.", "Cultural references." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Tay drains much of the lower region of the Highlands. It originates on the slopes of Ben Lui (\"Beinn Laoigh\"), only around from the west coast town of Oban, in Argyll and Bute. In 2011, the Tay Western Catchments Partnership determined as its source (as based on its'most dominant and longest' tributary) a small lochan on Allt Coire Laoigh south of the summit. The river has a variety of names in its upper catchment: for the first few miles it is known as the River Connonish; then the River Fillan; the name then changes to the River Dochart until it flows into Loch Tay at Killin. The River Tay emerges from Loch Tay at Kenmore, and flows from there to Perth which, in historical times, was its lowest bridging point. Below Perth the river becomes tidal and enters the Firth of Tay. The largest city on the river, Dundee, lies on the north bank of the Firth. On reaching the North Sea, the River Tay has flowed from west to east across central Scotland. The Tay is unusual amongst Scottish rivers in having several major tributaries, notably the Earn, the Isla, the River Tummel, the Almond and the Lyon. A flow of was recorded on 17 January 1993, when the river rose above its usual level at Perth, and caused extensive flooding in the city. Were it not for the hydro-electric schemes upstream which impounded runoff, the peak would have been considerably higher. The highest flood recorded at Perth occurred in 1814, when the river rose above its usual level, partly caused by a blockage of ice under Smeaton's Bridge. Other severe flood events occurred in 1210 and 1648 when bridges over the Tay at Perth were destroyed. During the winters of 2009–10 and 2010–11, the Tay froze over as far as the Tay Road Bridge, and ice floes remained for weeks despite a thaw. Several places along the Tay take their names from it, or are believed to have done so:", "The river is of high biodiversity value and is both a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI) and a Special Area of Conservation. The SAC designation notes the river's importance for salmon (\"Salmo salar\"), otters (\"Lutra lutra\"), brook lampreys (\"Lampetra planeri\"), river lampreys (\"Lampetra fluviatilis\"), and sea lampreys (\"Petromyzon marinus\"). The Tay also maintains flagship population of Freshwater pearl mussel (\"Margaritifera margaritifera\"). Freshwater pearl mussels are one of Scotland's most endangered species and the River Tay hosts two-thirds of the world's remaining stock. The Tay is internationally renowned for its salmon fishing and is one of the best salmon rivers in the United Kingdom, and western Europe, attracting anglers from all over the world. The lowest ten miles of the Tay, including prestigious beats like Taymount or Islamouth, provides most of the cream of the Tay. The largest rod caught salmon in Britain, caught on the Tay by Miss Georgina Ballantine in 1922, weighing, retains the British record. The river system has salmon fisheries on many of its tributaries including the Earn, Isla, Ericht, Tummel, Garry, Dochart, Lyon and Eden. Dwindling catches include a 50% reduction in 2009 so the Tay District Salmon Fisheries Board ordered a catch-and-release policy for females all season, and for males until May, beginning in the January 2010 fishing season. Research by the North Atlantic Salmon Conservation Organisation has shown that the number of salmon dying at sea has doubled or trebled over the past 20 years, possibly due to overfishing in the oceans where salmon spend two years before returning to freshwater to spawn. The widespread collapse in Atlantic salmon stocks suggests that this is not solely a local problem in the River Tay. A section of the Tay surrounding the town of Dunkeld is designated as a national scenic area (NSA), one of 40 such areas in Scotland, which are defined so as to identify areas of exceptional scenery and to ensure its protection by restricting certain forms of development. The River Tay (Dunkeld) NSA covers 5,708 ha. The first sustained and significant population Eurasian beaver (\"Castor fiber\") living wild in Scotland in over 400 years became established on the river Tay catchment in Scotland as early as 2001, and has spread widely in the catchment, numbering from 20 to 100 individuals in 2011. These beavers were likely to be either escapees from any of several nearby sites with captive beavers, or were illegally released, and were originally targeted for removal by Scottish Natural Heritage in late 2010. Proponents of the beavers argued that no reason exists to believe that they are of \"wrong\" genetic stock. In early December 2010, the first of the wild Tayside beavers was trapped by Scottish Natural Heritage on the River Ericht in Blairgowrie, Perthshire and was held in captivity in Edinburgh Zoo, dying within a few months. In March 2012 the Scottish Government reversed the decision to remove beavers from the Tay, pending the outcome of studies into the suitability of re-introduction. As part of the study into re-introduction, a trial release project was undertaken in Knapdale, Argyll, alongside which the population of beavers along the Tay was monitored and assessed. Following the conclusion of the trial re-introduction, the Scottish Government announced in November 2016 that beavers could remain permanently, and would be given protected status as a native species within Scotland. Beavers will be allowed to extend their range naturally. To aid this process and improve the health and resilience of the population a further 28 beavers will be released in Knapdale between 2017 and 2020, however there are no plans at present to release further beavers into the Tay.", "In the 19th century the Tay Rail Bridge was built across the firth at Dundee as part of the East Coast Main Line, which linked Aberdeen in the north with Edinburgh and London to the south. The bridge, designed by Sir Thomas Bouch, officially opened in May 1878. On 28 December 1879 the bridge collapsed as a train passed over. The entire train fell into the firth, with the loss of 75 passengers and train crew. The event was commemorated in a poem, The Tay Bridge Disaster (1880), written by William McGonagall, a notoriously unskilled Scottish poet. The critical response to his article was enhanced as he had previously written two poems celebrating the strength and certain immortality of the Tay Bridge. A second much more well received poem was published in the same year by the German writer Theodor Fontane. A. J. Cronin's first novel, \"Hatter's Castle\" (1931), includes a scene involving the Tay Bridge Disaster, and the 1942 filmed version of the book recreates the bridge's catastrophic collapse. The rail bridge was rebuilt, with the replacement bridge opening on 11 June 1887. A passenger and vehicle ferry service operated across the River Tay between Craig Pier, Dundee and Newport-on-Tay in Fife. In Dundee, the ferries were known as \"the Fifies\". The service was discontinued on the opening of the Tay Road Bridge on 18 August 1966. The last vessels to operate the service were PS \"B. L. Nairn\" and two more modern ferries equipped with Voith Schneider Propellers, MVs \"Abercraig\" and \"Scotscraig\".", "The Tay is mentioned in William McGonagall's poems \"The Tay Bridge Disaster\" and \"Railway Bridge of the Silvery Tay\" and the German poet Theodor Fontane has mentioned the Tay in his poem \"\"Die Brück' am Tay\". Both poems deal with the Tay bridge disaster of 1879, seeing the bridge's construction as a case of human hubris and expressing an uneasiness towards the fast technological development of mankind. It is mentioned in the Steeleye Span song \"The Royal Forester\". Symphonic power metal band Gloryhammer mentioned the'mighty river Tay' in their 2019 song \"The Land of Unicorns\". Many Rolls-Royce civil aero-engines are named after British rivers, one of which is the Rolls-Royce Tay." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Terminology.", "Function.", "Types.", "Transferability.", "Operational function.", "Documents That May Be Requested For Presentation.", "Risk Exposure.", "Pricing.", "Legal principles.", "Legal basis.", "National laws.", "Germany.", "Switzerland.", "United States.", "Use in fraud." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The letter of credit has been used in Europe since ancient times. Letters of credit were traditionally governed by internationally recognized rules and procedures rather than by national law. The International Chamber of Commerce oversaw the preparation of the first Uniform Customs and Practice for Documentary Credits (UCP) in 1933, creating a voluntary framework for commercial banks to apply to transactions worldwide. In the late 19th century and early 20th century, travelers commonly carried a circular letter of credit issued by a relationship bank, which allowed the beneficiary to withdraw cash from other banks along their journey. This type of letter of credit was eventually replaced by traveler's checks, credit cards and automated teller machines. Although letters of credit first existed only as paper documents, they were regularly issued by telegraph in the late 19th century, and by telex in the latter half of the 20th century. Beginning in 1973 with the creation of SWIFT, banks began to migrate to electronic data interchange as a means of controlling costs, and in 1983 the UCP was amended to allow \"teletransmission\" of letters of credit. By the 21st century, the vast majority of LCs were issued in electronic form and entirely \"paperless\" LCs were becoming more common.", "UCP 600 (2007 Revision) regulates common market practice within the letter of credit market. It defines a number of terms related to letters of credit which categorise the various factors within any given transaction. These are crucial to understanding the role financial institutions play within. These include:", "A letter of credit is an important payment method in international trade. It is particularly useful where the buyer and seller may not know each other personally and are separated by distance, differing laws in each country, and different trading customs. It is a primary method in international trade to mitigate the risk a seller of goods takes when providing those goods to a buyer. It does this by ensuring that the seller is paid for presenting the documents which are specified in the contract for sale between the buyer and the seller. That is to say, a letter of credit is a payment method used to discharge the legal obligations for payment from the buyer to the seller, by having a bank pay the seller directly. Thus, the seller relies on the credit risk of the bank, rather than the buyer, to receive payment. As will be seen, and is observed in Image 2, the bank will pay the seller the value of the goods when the seller provides negotiable instruments, documents which themselves represent the goods. Upon presentation of the documents, the goods will traditionally be in the control of the issuing bank, which provides them security against the risk that the buyer (who had instructed the bank to pay the seller) will repay the bank for making such a payment. In the event that the buyer is unable to make payment on the purchase, the seller may make a demand for payment on the bank. The bank will examine the beneficiary's demand and if it complies with the terms of the letter of credit, will honor the demand. Most letters of credit are governed by rules promulgated by the International Chamber of Commerce known as Uniform Customs and Practice for Documentary Credits. The current version, UCP 600, became effective July 1, 2007. Banks will typically require collateral from the purchaser for issuing a letter of credit and will charge a fee which is often a percentage of the amount covered by the letter of credit.", "Several categories of LC's exist which seek to operate in different markets and solve different issues. An example of these include: Additionally, a letter of credit may also have specific terms relating to the payment conditions which relate to the underlying reference documents. Some of these include", "The exporter has the right to make the credit available to one or more subsequent beneficiaries. Credits are made transferable when the original beneficiary is a \"middleman\", who does not supply the documents himself, but procures either goods or documents from other suppliers and arranges them to be sent to the issuing bank. A letter of credit can be transferred to the second beneficiary at the request of the first beneficiary only if it expressly states that the letter of credit is \"transferable\". A bank is not obligated to transfer a credit. It can further be transferred to more than one alternate beneficiary as long as it allows partial shipments. The terms and conditions of the original credit must be replicated exactly in the transferred credit. However, to keep the workability of the transferable letter of credit, some figures can be reduced or curtailed, including: The first beneficiary may demand from the transferring bank to substitute for the applicant. However, if a document other than the invoice must be issued in a way to show the applicant's name, in such a case that requirement must indicate that in the transferred credit it will be free. Transferred credit cannot be transferred again to a third beneficiary at the request of the second beneficiary. In some cases, the middleman does not want the buyer and supplier to know each other. The middleman is entitled to substitute his own invoice for the supplier's and acquire the difference as profit.", "Typically, after a sales contract has been negotiated, and the buyer and seller have agreed that a letter of credit will be used as the method of payment, the Applicant will contact a bank to ask for a letter of credit to be issued. Once the issuing bank has assessed the buyer's credit risk – i.e. that the Applicant will be able to pay for the goods – it will issue the letter of credit, meaning that it will provide a promise to pay the seller upon presentation of certain documents. Once the Beneficiary (the seller) receives the letter of credit, it will check the terms to ensure that it matches with the contract and will either arrange for shipment of the goods or ask for an amendment to the letter of credit so that it meets with the terms of the contract. The letter of credit is limited in terms of time, the validity of credit, the last date of shipment, and in terms of how much late after shipment the documents may be presented to the Nominated Bank. Once the goods have been shipped, the Beneficiary will present the requested documents to the Nominated Bank. This bank will check the documents, and if they comply with the terms of the Letter of Credit, the issuing Bank is bound to honor the terms of the letter of credit by paying the Beneficiary. If the documents do not comply with the terms of the letter of credit they are considered Discrepant. At this point, the Nominated Bank will inform the Beneficiary of the discrepancy and offer a number of options depending on the circumstances after consent of applicant. However, such a discrepancy must be more than trivial. Refusal cannot depend on anything other than reasonable examination of the documents themselves. The bank then must rely on the fact that there was, in fact, a material mistake. A fact that if true would entitle the buyer to reject the items. A wrong date such as an early delivery date was held by English courts to not be a material mistakes. If the discrepancies are minor, it may be possible to present corrected documents to the bank to make the presentation compliant. Failure of the bank to pay is grounds for a chose in action. Documents presented after the time limits mentioned in the credit, however, are considered discrepant. If the corrected documents cannot be supplied in time, the documents may be forwarded directly to the issuing bank \"in trust\"; effectively in the hope that the Applicant will accept the documents. Documents forwarded in trust remove the payment security of a letter of credit so this route must only be used as a last resort. Some banks will offer to \"Telex for Approval\" or similar. This is where the Nominated Bank holds the documents, but sends a message to the Issuing Bank asking if discrepancies are acceptable. This is more secure than sending documents in trust.", "To receive payment, an exporter or shipper must present the documents required by the LC. Typically the letter of credit will request an original bill of lading as the use of a title document such as this is critical to the functioning of the Letter of Credit. However, the list and form of documents is open to negotiation and might contain requirements to present documents issued by a neutral third-party evidencing the quality of the goods shipped, or their place of origin or place. Typical types of documents in such contracts might include: The range of documents that may be requested by the applicant is vast, and varies considerably by country and commodity. Several methods of verifying the documents exist, each provides different variations of risk to the fact that the documents are legitimate. A Documentary Credit provides security for both buyer and seller. Outlined in the \"UCP 600\", the bank will give an undertaking (or promise), on behalf of buyer (who is often the applicant) to pay the beneficiary the value of the goods shipped if acceptable documents are submitted and if the stipulated terms and conditions are strictly complied with. The buyer can be confident that the goods he is expecting only will be received since it will be evidenced in the form of certain documents, meeting the specified terms and conditions. The supplier finds his confidence in the fact that if such stipulations are met, he will receive payment from the issuing bank, who is independent of the parties to the contract. In some cases, a letter of credit will require the documents to be collected. Subject to ICC's URC 525, sight and usance, for delivery of shipping documents against payment or acceptances of draft, where shipment happens first, then the title documents are sent to the buyer's bank by seller's bank, for delivering documents against collection of payment/acceptance. Other forms of effected payment is the direct payment where the supplier ships the goods and waits for the buyer to remit the bill, on open account terms.", "Letters of Credit are often used in international transactions to ensure that payment will be received where the buyer and seller may not know each other and are operating in different countries. In this case, the seller is exposed to a number of risks such as credit risk, and legal risk caused by the distance, differing laws and difficulty in knowing each party personally. Some of the other risks inherent in international trade include: The payment will be obtained for nonexistent or worthless merchandise against presentation by the beneficiary of forged or falsified documents. There is the possibility that performance of a documentary credit may be disturbed by legal action relating directly to the parties and their rights and obligations under the documentary credit or performance may be prevented by government action outside the control of the parties. Alternatively, performance of a contract – including an obligation under a documentary credit relationship – could also be prevented by external factors such as natural disasters or armed conflicts. These risks, however, are often seen as secondary to the risk of non-payment. Several risks could relate to the parties of the applicant themselves. These may include situations where there is a non-delivery of Goods, Short shipment, the goods are of inferior quality, are damaged, or are late. The applicant is also exposed to the failure of the bank to make payment. The issuing bank is also exposed to risks which he may seek to mitigate through various techniques. He will be exposed to the insolvency risk of the applicant, that is, the risk the applicant runs insolvent before he is able to repay the letter of credit. Secondly, the bank will be exposed to a risk of fraud by the seller, who may provide incorrect or falsified documents to receive payment. If the bank ought to have known that the documents were a fraud, then the bank will be exposed to a fraud. The beneficiary will be exposed to the risk of its own failure to comply with credit conditions or failure of, or delays in payment from, the issuing bank. These risks are considered remote. Crucially, the beneficiary is not exposed to the risks of set-off by the applicant where the goods are damaged or are of inferior quality. While he may be sued by the applicant at a later point, the issuing bank cannot reduce the payment owed to correspond with the damage occurred. This is crucial in mitigating the risk to insolvency. Crucial to a letter of credit is the beneficiary's (the seller) attempt to isolate itself from the credit risk of the buyer. That is to say, it is concerned primarily with the ability of the buyer to pay for the goods.", "Issuance charges, covering negotiation, reimbursements and other charges are paid by the applicant or as per the terms and conditions of the LC. If the LC does not specify charges, they are paid by the Applicant. Charge-related terms are indicated in field 71B.", "The fundamental principle of all letters of credit is that letters of credit deal with documents and not with goods. The payment obligation is independent from the underlying contract of sale or any other contract in the transaction. The bank’s obligation is defined by the terms of the LC alone, and the contract of sale is not considered. So, for example, where party 'A' enters into an agreement to purchase goods from party 'B', Party 'A' will engage with their bank to create a letter of credit. If said bank is provided certain documents, by 'B', then he is obliged to pay, regardless of whether the contract between 'A' and 'B' is subject to set-off, or contractual issues. The specified documents are often bills of lading or other 'documentary intangibles' which 'A' and 'B' have previously specified in their original contract. The actions available to the buyer arising out of the sale contract do not concern the bank and in no way affect its liability. Article 4(a) of the UCP600 states this principle clearly. This is confirmed within the market-practice documents stated by Article 5 of UCP600. As is a core tenet of Financial law, market practice comprises a substantial portion of how parties behave. Accordingly, if the documents tendered by the beneficiary or their agent are in order, then, in general, the bank is obliged to pay without further qualifications. As a result, it is the issuing bank who bears the risk that is linked with non-payment of the buyer. This is advantageous because the issuing bank often has a personal banking relationship with the buyer. The whole commercial purpose for which the system of confirmed irrevocable documentary credits has been developed in international trade is to give to the seller an assured right to be paid before he parts with control of the goods under sale. It further does not permit of any dispute with the buyer as to the performance of the contract of sale being used as a ground for non-payment or reduction or deferment of payment. The only exception to this may be fraud. For example, a dishonest seller may present documents which comply with the letter of credit and receive payment, only for it to be later discovered that the documents are fraudulent and the goods are not in accordance with the contract. This would place the risk on the buyer, but it also means that the issuing bank must be stringent in assessing whether the presenting documents are legitimate. Similar to other Financial law instruments, a Letter of Credit utilises several legal concepts to achieve the economic effect of shifting the legal exposure from the seller to the buyer. The policies behind adopting this principle of abstraction are purely commercial. Whilst the bank is under an obligation to identify that the correct documents exist, they are not expected to examine whether the documents themselves are valid. That is to say, the bank is not responsible for investigating the underlying facts of each transaction, whether the goods are of the sufficient – and specified – quality or quantity. Because the transaction operates on a negotiable instrument, it is the document itself which holds the value - not the goods to which the reference. This means that the bank need only be concerned with whether the document fulfils the requirements stipulated in the letter of credit. Documents required under the LC, could in certain circumstances, be different from those required under the sale transaction. This would place banks in a dilemma in deciding which terms to follow if required to look behind the credit agreement. Since the basic function of the credit is to provide a seller with the certainty of payment for documentary duties, it would seem necessary that banks should honor their obligation in spite of any buyer allegations of misfeasance. If this were not the case, financial institutions would be much less inclined to issue documentary credits because of the risk, inconvenience, and expense involved in determining the underlying goods. Financial institutions do not act as'middlemen' but rather, as paying agents on behalf of the buyer. Courts have emphasized that buyers always have a remedy for an action upon the contract of sale and that it would be a calamity for the business world if a bank had to investigate every breach of contract. With the UCP 600 rules the ICC sought to make the rules more flexible, suggesting that data in a document \"need not be identical to, but must not conflict with data in that document, any other stipulated document, or the credit\", as a way to account for any minor documentary errors. If this were not the case, the bank would be entitled to withhold payment even if the deviation is purely technical or even typographical. However, in practice, many banks still hold to the principle of strict compliance, since it offers concrete guarantees to all parties. The general legal maxim \"de minimis non curat lex\" (literally \"The law does not concern itself with trifles\") has no place in the field. However, whilst the details of the letter of credit can be understood with some flexibility the banks must adhere to the “principle of strict compliance” when determining whether the documents presented are those specified in the letter of credit. This is done to make the banks' duty of effecting payment against documents easy, efficient and quick.", "Legal writers have failed to satisfactorily reconcile the bank’s obligation to pay on behalf of the applicant with any contractually-founded, academic analysis. That is to say, they have not examined legal effect of the banks obligation through a conclusive theoretical lens. This has produced several conflicting theories as to the contractual effect of a letter of credit. Some theorists suggest that the obligation to pay arises through the implied promise, assignment, novation, reliance, agency, estoppel and even trust and the guarantees. Although documentary credits are enforceable once communicated to the beneficiary, it is difficult to show any consideration given by the beneficiary to the banker prior to the tender of documents. In such transactions the undertaking by the beneficiary to deliver the goods to the applicant is not sufficient consideration for the bank’s promise because the contract of sale is made before the issuance of the credit, thus consideration in these circumstances is past. However, the performance of an existing duty under a contract may be a valid consideration for a new promise made by the bank, provided that there is some practical benefit to the bank A promise to perform owed to a third party may also constitute a valid consideration. It might also be feasible to typify letters of credit as a collateral contract for a third-party beneficiary, because three different entities participate in the transaction: the seller, the buyer, and the banker. Jean Domat suggests that because letters of credit are prompted by the buyer’s necessity, the cause of a LC is to release the buyer of his obligation to pay directly to the seller. Therefore, a LC theoretically fits as a collateral contract accepted by conduct or in other words, an implied-in-fact contract where the buyer participates as the third party beneficiary with the bank acting as the stipulator and the seller as the promisor. The term \"beneficiary\" is not used properly in the scheme of an LC because a beneficiary (also, in trust law, \"cestui que use\") in the broadest sense is a natural person or other legal entity who receives money or other benefits from a benefactor. Note that under the scheme of letters of credit, banks are neither benefactors of sellers nor benefactors of buyers and the seller receives no money in gratuity mode. Thus is possible that a “letter of credit” was one of those contracts that needed to be masked to disguise the “consideration or privity requirement”. As a result, this kind of arrangement would make letter of credit to be enforceable under the action assumpsit because of its promissory connotation. A few countries have created statutes in relation to letters of credit. For example, most jurisdictions in the United States (U.S.) have adopted Article 5 of the Uniform Commercial Code (UCC). These statutes are designed to work with the rules of market practice including UCP and ISP98. These rules of practice are incorporated into the transaction by agreement of the parties. The latest version of the UCP is the UCP600 effective July 1, 2007. Since the UCP are not laws, parties have to include them into their arrangements as normal contractual provisions. However, they still form a substantial part of market practice and underpin Financial law crucially.", "", "\"Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch\", the German civil code, does not directly address letters of credit. German case law indicates that the relationship between the issuing bank and customer is a contract for execution of a transaction, while the relationship between the issuing bank and the beneficiary is a promise of a debt.", "The Swiss Civil Code of 1911 did not directly address letters of credit, which were still rare in the country at the time. Courts eventually dealt with the device by treating it as a hybrid of a mandate (\"Auftrag\") and authorization-to-pay contract (\"Anweisung\").", "Letters of credit came into general domestic use in the United States during World War I, although they had been used in American foreign trade for some time prior. The state of New York has historically had the most substantial and consistent body of case law in the United States with regard to letters of credit, due to the prominence of New York banks in international trade. The New York Bankers Commercial Credit Conference of 1920 provided the first set of voluntary L/C regulations for major banks in the United States, but these banks transitioned to the international UCP standard by 1938. Article 5 of the Uniform Commercial Code, drafted in 1952, provided a basis for codifying many UCP principles into state law and created one of the only extensive specific legal regulations of letters of credit worldwide, although the UCC rules do not cover all aspects of letters of credit. New York effectively subjugated the UCC rules to the existing UCP rules, and as a result the UCP rules continued to govern letters of credit under New York law. Article 5 was revised in 1995 to reflect the latest international practices as codified in the UCP.", "Letters of credit are sometimes used to defraud banks through presentment of false documentation indicating that goods were shipped when they actually were not. Letters of credit are also sometimes used as part of fraudulent investment schemes. In the international banking system, a Letter of Undertaking (LOU) is a provisional bank guarantee, under which a bank allows its customer to raise money from another bank's foreign branch in the form of a short term credit. The LOU serves the purpose of a bank guarantee. However, to be able to raise the LOU, the customer is supposed to pay margin money to the bank issuing the LOU and accordingly, he is granted a credit limit. In 2018, PNB suffered from such a breach of documentation protocols." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Song.", "Legacy.", "Live." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Guns N' Roses' lead guitarist, Slash, states that the song was written in the back of a rental van as they were on their way back from playing a gig in San Francisco with the band Rock N Riders. He says that the band was in the back of the van, drinking and playing acoustic guitars, when he came up with the intro. Duff McKagan and Izzy Stradlin started playing along. Slash started humming a melody when Axl Rose sang, \"Take me down to the Paradise City.\" Slash chimed in with \"Where the grass is green and the girls are pretty.\" Rose sang the first line again, where Slash shouted out \"Where the girls are fat and they've got big titties.\" Rose finished with \"Take... me... home!\" Slash preferred his second line but the rest of the band felt differently. He was outvoted and they used the first line. The band then expanded upon the rest of the lyrics in rounds. Finally, Slash wrapped up by coming up with the heavy riff that drives the song. During a 1988 interview, Rose told \"Hit Parader\" magazine that \"the verses are more about being in the jungle; the chorus is like being back in the Midwest or somewhere.\" This song was often used as the band's show-closing song during the Appetite for Destruction Tour, Use Your Illusion Tour and Chinese Democracy Tour. Slash has stated that \"Paradise City\" is his favorite Guns N' Roses song. In the last two minutes of the song, it changes to double-time and the chorus is repeated several times while Slash plays a guitar solo in the background. Guitarist Andy McCoy has said that the song is copied from several riffs written by his band, Hanoi Rocks. He has said that the chorus is just a slower version of the riff in \"Lost in the City\". Axl Rose has often cited Hanoi Rocks as Guns N' Roses' biggest influence. Hanoi Rocks' original rhythm guitarist Nasty Suicide can also be seen in the music video for \"Paradise City.\" The style of the main riff of \"Paradise City\" (involving an ascending chromatic riff) has also been used by many former Guns N' Roses members in new projects. This can be seen in Izzy Stradlin's \"Bomb\" and Velvet Revolver's \"Do It for the Kids\". According to Tracii Guns of L.A. Guns and former member of Guns N' Roses, the riff was influenced by the Black Sabbath song \"Zero the Hero\" from the \"Born Again\" album.", "The song ranked number 21 on VH1's \"40 Greatest Metal Songs of All Time\". It ranked number 459 on \"Rolling Stone\"'s 2010 list of \"The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time.\" Some publications have denoted the song as one of the band's worst songs, such as \"Ultimate Classic Rock\" and \"Spin\". The latter designating it as the most overrated in their catalogue, writing \"'Paradise City' runs out of ideas halfway through its triumphant first refrain and yet still lasts for six more minutes\"", "During live Guns N' Roses shows, \"Paradise City\" is usually performed last, as an encore. This has been a tradition since at least 1988, up to their latest tour. They also performed the song live at the Freddie Mercury tribute concert in 1992 (this time it was the first song of their short set)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name and significance.", "Divisions.", "Upper Mississippi.", "Middle Mississippi.", "Lower Mississippi.", "Watershed.", "Outflow.", "Course changes.", "Prehistoric courses.", "Historic course changes.", "New Madrid Seismic Zone.", "Length.", "Depth.", "Cultural geography.", "State boundaries.", "Communities along the river.", "Bridge crossings.", "Navigation and flood control.", "19th century.", "20th century.", "21st century.", "History.", "Native Americans.", "European exploration.", "Colonization.", "Steamboat era.", "Civil War.", "20th and 21st centuries.", "Future.", "Recreation.", "Ecology.", "Fish.", "Other fauna.", "Introduced species." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The word Mississippi itself comes from, the French rendering of the Anishinaabe (Ojibwe or Algonquin) name for the river, (Great River). In the 18th century, the river was the primary western boundary of the young United States, and since the country's expansion westward, the Mississippi River has been widely considered a convenient if approximate dividing line between the Eastern, Southern, and", "The Mississippi River can be divided into three sections: the Upper Mississippi, the river from its headwaters to the confluence with the Missouri River; the Middle Mississippi, which is downriver from the Missouri to the Ohio River; and the Lower Mississippi, which flows from the Ohio to the Gulf of Mexico.", "The Upper Mississippi runs from its headwaters to its confluence with the Missouri River at St. Louis, Missouri. It is divided into two sections: The source of the Upper Mississippi branch is traditionally accepted as Lake Itasca, above sea level in Itasca State Park in Clearwater County, Minnesota. The name \"Itasca\" was chosen to designate the \"true head\" of the Mississippi River as a combination of the last four letters of the Latin word for truth () and the first two letters of the Latin word for head (). However, the lake is in turn fed by a number of smaller streams. From its origin at Lake Itasca to St. Louis, Missouri, the waterway's flow is moderated by", "The Mississippi River is known as the Middle Mississippi from the Upper Mississippi River's confluence with the Missouri River at St. Louis, Missouri, for to its confluence with the Ohio River at Cairo, Illinois. The Middle Mississippi is", "The Mississippi River is called the Lower Mississippi River from its confluence with the Ohio River to its mouth at the Gulf of Mexico, a distance of about. At the confluence of the Ohio and the Middle Mississippi, the long-term mean discharge of the Ohio at Cairo, Illinois is, while the long-term mean discharge of the Mississippi at Thebes, Illinois (just upriver from Cairo) is. Thus, by volume, the main branch of the Mississippi River system at Cairo can be considered to be the Ohio River (and the Allegheny River further upstream), rather than the Middle Mississippi. In addition to the Ohio River, the", "The Mississippi River has the world's fourth-largest drainage basin (\"watershed\" or \"catchment\"). The basin covers more than, including all or parts of 32 U.S. states and two Canadian provinces. The drainage basin empties into the Gulf of Mexico, part of the Atlantic Ocean. The total catchment of the Mississippi River covers nearly 40% of the landmass of the continental United States. The highest point within the watershed is also the highest point of the Rocky Mountains, Mount Elbert at. In the United States, the Mississippi", "The Mississippi River discharges at an annual average rate of between. Although it is the fifth-largest river in the world by volume, this flow is a small fraction of the output of the Amazon, which moves nearly during wet seasons. On average, the Mississippi has only 8% the flow of the Amazon River. Fresh river water flowing from the Mississippi into the Gulf of Mexico does not mix into the salt water immediately. The images from NASA's MODIS (to the right) show a large plume of fresh water, which appears as a dark ribbon against the lighter-blue surrounding waters. These images demonstrate", "Over geologic time, the Mississippi River has experienced numerous large and small changes to its main course, as well as additions, deletions, and other changes among its numerous tributaries, and the lower Mississippi River has used different pathways as its main channel to the Gulf of Mexico across the delta region. Through a natural process known as avulsion or delta switching, the lower Mississippi River has shifted its final course to the mouth of the Gulf of Mexico every thousand years or so. This occurs because the deposits of silt and sediment begin to clog its channel, raising the river's level and causing it to eventually find a steeper, more direct route to the Gulf of Mexico. The abandoned distributaries diminish in volume and form what are known as bayous. This process has, over the past 5,000 years, caused the coastline of south Louisiana to advance toward the Gulf from. The currently active delta lobe is called the Birdfoot Delta, after its shape, or the Balize Delta, after La Balize, Louisiana, the first French settlement at the mouth of the Mississippi.", "The current form of the Mississippi River basin was largely shaped by the Laurentide Ice Sheet of the most recent Ice Age. The southernmost extent of this enormous glaciation extended well into the present-day United States and Mississippi basin. When the ice sheet began to recede, hundreds of feet of rich sediment were deposited, creating the flat and fertile landscape of the Mississippi Valley. During the melt, giant glacial rivers found drainage paths into the Mississippi watershed, creating such features as the Minnesota River, James River,", "In March 1876, the Mississippi suddenly changed course near the settlement of Reverie, Tennessee, leaving a small part of Tipton County, Tennessee, attached to Arkansas and separated from the rest of Tennessee by the new river channel. Since this event was an avulsion, rather than the effect of incremental erosion and deposition, the state line still follows the old channel. The town of Kaskaskia, Illinois once stood on a peninsula at the confluence of", "The New Madrid Seismic Zone, along the Mississippi River near New Madrid, Missouri, between Memphis and St. Louis, is related to an aulacogen (failed rift) that formed at the same time as the Gulf of Mexico. This area", "When measured from its traditional source at Lake Itasca, the Mississippi has a length of. When measured from its longest stream source (most distant source from the sea), Brower's Spring in Montana, the source of", "At its source at Lake Itasca, the Mississippi River is about deep. The average depth of the Mississippi River between Saint Paul and Saint Louis is between deep, the deepest part being Lake Pepin,", "", "The Mississippi River runs through or along 10 states, from Minnesota to Louisiana, and is used to define portions of these states borders, with Wisconsin, Illinois, Kentucky, Tennessee, and Mississippi along the east side of the river, and Iowa, Missouri, and Arkansas along its west side. Substantial parts of both Minnesota and Louisiana are on either side of the river, although the Mississippi defines part of the boundary of each", "Many of the communities along the Mississippi River are listed below; most have either", "The road crossing highest on the Upper Mississippi is a simple steel culvert, through which the river (locally named \"Nicolet Creek\") flows north from Lake Nicolet under \"Wilderness Road\" to the West Arm of Lake Itasca, within Itasca State Park. The earliest bridge across the Mississippi River was built in 1855. It spanned the river in Minneapolis where the current Hennepin Avenue Bridge is located. No highway or railroad tunnels cross under the Mississippi River. The first railroad bridge", "A clear channel is needed for the barges and other vessels that make the main stem Mississippi one of the great commercial waterways of the world. The task of maintaining a navigation channel is the responsibility of the United States Army Corps of Engineers, which was established in 1802. Earlier projects began as early as 1829 to remove snags, close off secondary channels and excavate rocks and sandbars. Steamboats entered trade in the 1820s, so the period 1830–1850 became the golden age of steamboats. As there were few roads or rails in the lands of the Louisiana Purchase, river traffic was an ideal solution. Cotton, timber and food came down the river, as did Appalachian coal. The port of New Orleans boomed as it was the trans-shipment point to deep sea ocean vessels. As a result, the image of the twin stacked, wedding cake Mississippi steamer entered into American mythology. Steamers worked the entire route from the trickles of Montana, to the Ohio River; down the Missouri and Tennessee, to the main channel of the Mississippi. Only with the arrival of the railroads in the 1880s did steamboat traffic diminish. Steamboats remained a feature until the 1920s. Most have been superseded by pusher tugs. A few survive as icons—the Delta Queen and the River Queen for instance. A series of 29 locks and dams on the upper Mississippi, most of which were built in the 1930s, is designed primarily to maintain a channel for commercial barge traffic. The lakes formed are also used for recreational boating and fishing. The dams make the river deeper and wider but do not stop it. No flood control is intended. During periods of high flow, the gates, some of which are submersible, are completely opened and the dams simply cease to function. Below St. Louis, the Mississippi is relatively free-flowing, although it is constrained by numerous levees and directed by numerous wing dams. On the lower Mississippi, from Baton Rouge to the mouth of the Mississippi, the navigation depth is, allowing container ships and cruise ships to dock at the Port of New Orleans and bulk cargo ships shorter than air draft that fit under the Huey P. Long Bridge to traverse the Mississippi to Baton Rouge. There is a feasibility study to dredge this portion of the river to to allow New Panamax ship depths.", "In 1829, there were surveys of the two major obstacles on the upper Mississippi, the Des Moines Rapids and the Rock Island Rapids, where the river was shallow and the riverbed was rock. The Des Moines Rapids were about long and just above the mouth of the Des Moines River at Keokuk, Iowa. The Rock Island Rapids were between Rock Island and Moline, Illinois. Both rapids were considered virtually impassable. In 1848, the Illinois and Michigan Canal was built to connect the Mississippi River to Lake Michigan via the Illinois River near Peru, Illinois. The canal allowed shipping between these important waterways. In 1900, the canal was replaced by the Chicago Sanitary and Ship Canal. The second canal, in addition to shipping, also allowed Chicago to address specific health issues (typhoid fever, cholera and other waterborne diseases)", "In 1907, Congress authorized a channel project on the Mississippi River, which was not complete when it was abandoned in the late 1920s in favor of the channel project. In 1913, construction was complete on Lock and Dam No. 19 at Keokuk, Iowa, the first dam below St. Anthony Falls. Built by a private power company (Union Electric Company of St. Louis) to generate electricity (originally for streetcars in St. Louis), the Keokuk dam was one of the largest hydro-electric plants", "The Corps now actively creates and maintains spillways and floodways to divert periodic water surges into backwater channels and lakes, as well as route part of the Mississippi's flow into the Atchafalaya Basin and from there to the Gulf of Mexico, bypassing Baton Rouge and New Orleans. The main structures are the Birds Point-New Madrid Floodway in Missouri; the Old", "Approximately 50,000 years ago, the Central United States was covered by an inland sea, which was drained by the Mississippi and its tributaries into the Gulf of Mexico—creating large floodplains and extending the continent further to the south in the process. The soil in areas such as Louisiana was thereafter found to be very rich.", "The area of the Mississippi River basin was first settled by hunting and gathering Native American peoples and is considered one of the few independent centers of plant domestication in human history. Evidence of early cultivation of sunflower, a goosefoot, a marsh elder and an indigenous squash dates to the 4th millennium BC. The lifestyle gradually became more settled after around 1000 BC during what is now called the Woodland period, with increasing evidence of shelter construction, pottery, weaving and other practices. A network of trade routes referred to as the Hopewell interaction sphere was active along the waterways between about 200 and 500 AD, spreading common cultural practices over the entire area between the Gulf of Mexico and the Great Lakes. A period of more isolated communities followed, and agriculture introduced from Mesoamerica based on the Three Sisters (maize, beans and squash) gradually came to dominate. After around 800 AD there arose an advanced agricultural society today referred to as the Mississippian culture, with evidence of highly stratified complex chiefdoms and large population centers. The most prominent of these, now called Cahokia, was occupied between", "On May 8, 1541, Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto became the first recorded European to reach the Mississippi River, which he called \"Río del Espíritu Santo\" (\"River of the Holy Spirit\"), in the area of what is now Mississippi. In Spanish, the river is called \"Río Mississippi\". French explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette began exploring the Mississippi in the 17th century. Marquette traveled with a Sioux Indian who named it \"Ne Tongo\" (\"Big river\" in Sioux language) in 1673. Marquette proposed calling it the \"River of the Immaculate Conception\". When Louis Jolliet explored the Mississippi Valley in the 17th century, natives guided him to a quicker way to return to French Canada via the Illinois River. When he", "Following Britain's victory in the Seven Years War the Mississippi became the border between the British and Spanish Empires. The Treaty of Paris (1763) gave Great Britain rights to all land east of the Mississippi and Spain rights to land west of the Mississippi. Spain also ceded Florida to Britain to regain Cuba, which the British occupied during the war. Britain then divided the territory into East and West Florida. Article 8 of the Treaty of Paris (1783) states, \"The navigation of the river Mississippi, from its source to the ocean, shall forever remain free and open to the subjects of Great Britain and the citizens of the United States\". With this treaty, which ended the American Revolutionary War, Britain also ceded West Florida back to Spain to regain the Bahamas, which Spain had occupied during the war. Initial disputes around the ensuing claims of the U.S. and Spain were resolved when Spain was pressured into signing Pinckney's Treaty in 1795. However, in 1800, under duress from Napoleon of France, Spain ceded an undefined portion of West Florida to France in the secret Treaty of San Ildefonso. The United States then secured effective control of", "Mark Twain's book, \"Life on the Mississippi\", covered the steamboat commerce which took place from 1830 to 1870 on the river before more modern ships replaced the steamer. The book was published first in serial form in \"Harper's Weekly\" in seven parts in 1875. The full version, including a passage from the then unfinished \"Adventures of Huckleberry Finn\" and works from other authors, was published by James R. Osgood & Company in 1885. The first steamboat to travel the full length of the Lower Mississippi from the Ohio River to New Orleans was the \"New Orleans\" in December 1811. Its maiden voyage occurred during the series of New Madrid earthquakes in 1811–12. The Upper Mississippi", "Control of the river was a strategic objective of both sides in the American Civil War. In 1862 Union forces coming down the river successfully cleared Confederate defenses at Island Number 10 and Memphis, Tennessee, while Naval forces coming upriver from the Gulf of", "The \"Big Freeze\" of 1918–19 blocked river traffic north of Memphis, Tennessee, preventing transportation of coal from southern Illinois. This resulted in widespread shortages, high prices, and rationing of coal in January and February. In the spring of 1927, the river broke out of its banks in 145 places, during the Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 and inundated to a depth of up to. In 1962 and 1963, industrial accidents spilled of soybean oil into the Mississippi and Minnesota rivers. The oil covered the Mississippi River from St. Paul to Lake Pepin, creating an ecological disaster and a demand to control water pollution. On October 20, 1976, the automobile ferry, \"MV George Prince\", was struck by a ship traveling upstream as the ferry attempted to cross from Destrehan, Louisiana, to Luling, Louisiana. Seventy-eight passengers and crew died; only eighteen survived the accident. In 1988, the", "Geologists believe that the lower Mississippi could take a new course to the Gulf. Either of two new routes—through the Atchafalaya Basin or through Lake Pontchartrain—might become the Mississippi's main channel if flood-control structures are overtopped or heavily damaged during a severe flood. Failure of the Old River Control Structure, the Morganza Spillway, or nearby levees would likely re-route the main channel of the Mississippi through Louisiana's Atchafalaya Basin and down the Atchafalaya River to reach the Gulf of Mexico south of Morgan City in southern Louisiana. This route provides a more direct path to the Gulf of Mexico than the", "The sport of water skiing was invented on the river in a wide region between Minnesota and Wisconsin known as Lake Pepin. Ralph Samuelson of Lake City, Minnesota, created and refined his skiing technique in late June and early July 1922. He later performed the first", "The Mississippi basin is home to a highly diverse aquatic fauna and has been called the \"mother fauna\" of North American fresh water.", "About 375 fish species are known from the Mississippi basin, far exceeding other North Hemisphere river basin exclusively within temperate/subtropical regions, except the Yangtze. Within the Mississippi basin, streams that have their source in the Appalachian and Ozark highlands contain especially many species. Among the fish species in", "In addition to fish, several species of turtles (such as snapping, musk, mud, map, cooter, painted and softshell turtles),", "Numerous introduced species are found in the Mississippi and some of these are invasive. Among the introductions are fish such as Asian carp, including the silver carp that have become infamous for outcompeting native" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early career.", "Carmen.", "Jethro Tull.", "Personal life.", "Equipment." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The first band John Glascock played with was The Juniors (1962–1964). He then played with The Gods (early 1965 – June 1967, September 1967 – February 1969), where, together with future Uriah Heep members Ken Hensley and Lee Kerslake, he recorded the album \"Genesis\". After briefly playing with Head Machine (1970), he joined Toe Fat (June 1969 – December 1970), again with Hensley and Kerslake. With Chicken Shack (January 1971 – March 1972) Glascock recorded only the album \"Imagination Lady\". His brother Brian Glascock also played drums in Toe Fat.", "In 1973 he joined Carmen. With them, John Glascock played bass guitar, sang backup vocals, occasionally played synthesizers, and even sang lead vocals on a few songs. These songs include \"The City\", \"Dancing On a Cold Wind\" (sharing lead vocals with David Allen), and \"The Horseman\" (sharing vocal duties with all of Carmen), all from the album \"Dancing on a Cold Wind\" (1974). He also sang on the track \"High Time\" from the album \"The Gypsies\" (1975). Glascock's basslines in Carmen were often technical and unusual. They were key to Carmen's unique sound. Unlike his work in Jethro Tull, Glascock utilized effects in his sound while with Carmen, like a fuzz pedal in the song \"Viva Mi Sevilla\". Glascock had only one writing credit on the first album recorded by Carmen, \"Fandangos in Space\" (1973), the short track \"Retirando\". He shared this writing credit with the rest of the band. His writing expanded greatly by the time of the second album, \"Dancing on a Cold Wind\" (1974). On this album he had a writing credit for three songs, \"Viva Mi Sevilla\" (which he shares with the rest of the band), \"Purple Flowers\" (which he shares with Roberto Amaral), and \"Remembrances\" (which he shares with the rest of the band). His writing had reached a climax by the time of Carmen's third and final album, \"The Gypsies\" (1975). On this album he wrote \"High Time\" by himself, and sang lead vocals on it. He and the rest of the band also share a writing credit on the instrumental track \"Margarita\".", "Glascock then joined Jethro Tull in 1976, after having met Ian Anderson when Carmen opened several dates for Jethro Tull on their \"War Child\" tour. Martin Barre said in the \"Classic Artists Series\" documentary, that Glascock's love for the band was unique: being a fan of Jethro Tull and playing in the band. He played on the Jethro Tull albums \"\" (1976), \"Songs from the Wood\" (1977), \"Heavy Horses\" (1978), \"Bursting Out\" (1978), and on three tracks on \"Stormwatch\" (1979). In Jethro Tull he received no writing credits but sang backing vocals, and became the first harmony vocalist Jethro Tull had. Glascock replaced the longtime friend of Ian Anderson, Jeffrey Hammond. He also played electric guitar on-stage when Anderson's arrangement required it, as for instance in performances of \"Skating Away (On the Thin Ice of the New Day)\" from the \"Bursting Out\" live album, when the rest of the band was playing xylophone, glockenspiel and percussion. Glascock's health problems became apparent when he was unable to complete the U.S. leg of the \"Heavy Horses\" tour, missing a transatlantic simulcast from Madison Square Garden. He played his last concert on 1 May 1979, in San Antonio, Texas, three years to the day of his first concert with Jethro Tull. Despite the diagnosis of heart valve damage caused by an infection, he continued his previous lifestyle, which involved heavy drinking, marijuana usage, and wild parties. His health continued to deteriorate. Ian Anderson gave him several warnings before finally laying him off with pay during the production of \"Stormwatch\" (1979), completing most of the bass guitar parts himself. During the subsequent promotional tour with replacement bass player Dave Pegg, Anderson learned of Glascock's death and had to break the news to the rest of the band. Glascock's close friend, drummer Barriemore Barlow, was devastated and left the band at the end of the tour. The resulting dislocation, Ian Anderson's own artistic vision, and a decision from the label, prompted a complete overhaul of the lineup, leaving only Anderson and Martin Barre as full members, though Glascock's touring replacement on bass (Dave Pegg) was retained for the band's follow-up album in 1980 and would remain with the group till 1995.", "John Glascock had a relationship with bandmate Angela Allen while in Carmen and sometime after. Glascock was well liked by his Jethro Tull bandmates, and had a particularly close relationship with Barriemore Barlow. Barlow paid for Glascock's funeral, as Glascock died with almost no money. Both he and Barlow had made what Barlow considered a \"terrible contract\" with Ian Anderson – this was one of the reasons for Barlow's eventual departure.", "During Carmen there are photographs and video of John Glascock with a Rickenbacker 4001 as well as a Gibson EB3. He also used distortion and wah pedals on the Dancing on a Cold Wind album. In Jethro Tull, John Glascock generally used Fender Precision basses and Music Man StingRay basses. When he needed to use an acoustic bass, he would use a Yamaha Acoustic. For amplification, he used Martin bass bins, Crown amps, Martin pre-amps, and Acoustic pre-amps." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early years.", "Career.", "X-rays and the Bragg equation.", "Work on sound ranging.", "University of Manchester (1919–1937).", "National Physical Laboratory (1937–1938).", "University of Cambridge (1938–1954).", "The Royal Institution (1954–1971).", "Personal life.", "Honours and awards." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Bragg was born in Adelaide, South Australia to Sir William Henry Bragg (1862–1942), Elder Professor of Mathematics and Physics at the University of Adelaide, and Gwendoline (1869–1929), daughter of Sir Charles Todd, government astronomer of South Australia. He showed an early interest in science and mathematics. Shortly after starting school he fell from his tricycle and broke his arm. His father, who had read about Röntgen's experiments in Europe and was performing his own experiments, used the newly discovered X-rays and his experimental equipment to examine the broken arm. This is the first recorded surgical use of X-rays in Australia. In 1900, Bragg was a student at Queen's School, North Adelaide, followed by five years at St Peter's College, Adelaide. He went to the University of Adelaide at the age of 16 to study mathematics, chemistry and physics, graduating in 1908. In the same year his father accepted the Cavendish chair of physics at the University of Leeds, and brought the family to England. Bragg entered Trinity College, Cambridge in the autumn of 1909 and received a major scholarship in mathematics, despite taking the exam while in bed with pneumonia. After initially excelling in mathematics, he transferred to the physics course in the later years of his studies, and graduated with first class honours in 1911. In 1914 Bragg was elected to a Fellowship at Trinity College – a Fellowship at a Cambridge college involves the submission and defence of a thesis. Among Bragg's other interests was shell collecting; his personal collection amounted to specimens from some 500 species; all personally collected from South Australia. He discovered a new species of cuttlefish – \"Sepia braggi\", named for him by Joseph Verco.", "", "The composition of X-rays was unknown, his father argued that X-rays are streams of particles, others argued that they are waves. Max von Laue directed an X-ray beam at a crystal in front of a photographic plate; alongside of the spot where the beam struck there were additional spots from deflected rays – hence X-rays are waves. In 1912, as a first-year research student at Cambridge, W. L. Bragg, while strolling by the river, had the insight that crystals made from parallel sheets of atoms would not diffract X-ray beams that struck their surface at most angles because X-rays deflected by collisions with atoms would be out of phase, cancelling one another out. However, when the X-ray beam stuck at an angle at which the distances it passed between atomic sheets in the crystal equalled the X-ray's wavelength then those deflected would be in phase and produce a spot on a nearby film. From this insight he wrote the simple Bragg equation that relates the wavelength of the X-ray and the distance between atomic sheets in a simple crystal to the angles at which an impinging X-ray beam would be reflected. His father built an apparatus in which a crystal could be rotated to precise angles while measuring the energy of reflections. This enabled father and son to measure the distances between the atomic sheets in a number of simple crystals. They calculated the spacing of the atoms from the weight of the crystal and the Avogadro constant, which enabled them to measure the wavelengths of the X-rays produced by different metallic targets in the X-ray tubes. W. H. Bragg reported their results at meetings and in a paper, giving credit to \"his son\" (unnamed) for the equation, but not as a co-author, which gave his son \"some heartaches\",.", "Bragg was commissioned early in World War I in the Royal Horse Artillery as a second lieutenant of the Leicestershire battery. In 1915 he was seconded to the Royal Engineers to develop a method to localise enemy artillery from the boom of their firing. On 2 September 1915 his brother was killed during the Gallipoli Campaign. Shortly afterwards, he and his father were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics. He was 25 years old and remains the youngest science laureate. The problem with sound ranging was that the heavy guns boomed at too low a frequency to be detected by a microphone. After months of frustrating failure he and his group devised a hot wire air wave detector that solved the problem. In this work he was aided by Charles Galton Darwin, William Sansome Tucker, Harold Roper Robinson and Henry Harold Hemming. British sound ranging was very effective; there was a unit in every British Army and their system was adopted by the Americans when they entered the war. For his work during the war he was awarded the Military Cross and appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire. He was also Mentioned in Despatches on 16 June 1916, 4 January 1917 and 7 July 1919. Hot wire sound ranging was used in World War II during which he served as a civilian adviser. Between the wars, from 1919 to 1937, he worked at the Victoria University of Manchester as Langworthy Professor of Physics. He became the director of the National Physical Laboratory in Teddington in 1937. After World War II, Bragg returned to Cambridge, splitting the Cavendish Laboratory into research groups. He believed that \"the ideal research unit is one of six to twelve scientists and a few assistants\".", "When demobilised he returned to crystallography at Cambridge. They had agreed that father would study organic crystals, son would investigate inorganic compounds. In 1919 when Ernest Rutherford, a long-time family friend, moved to Cambridge, Lawrence Bragg replaced him as Langworthy Professor of Physics at the Victoria University of Manchester. He recruited an excellent faculty, including former sound rangers, but he believed that his knowledge of physics was weak and he had no classroom experience. The students, many veterans, were critical and rowdy. He was deeply shaken but with family support he pulled himself together and prevailed. He and R. W. James measured the absolute energy of reflected X-rays, which validated a formula derived by C. G. Darwin before the war. Now they could determine the number of electrons in the reflecting targets, and they were able to decipher the structures of more complicated crystals like silicates. It was still difficult: requiring repeated guessing and retrying. In the late 1920s they eased the analysis by using Fourier transforms on the data. In 1930 he became deeply disturbed while weighing a job offer from Imperial College, London. His family rallied around and he recovered his balance while they spent 1931 in Munich, where he did research.", "He became director of the National Physical Laboratory in Teddington in 1937, bringing some co-workers along. However, administration and committees took much of his time away from the workbench.", "Rutherford died and the search committee named Lawrence Bragg as next in the line of the Cavendish Professors who direct the Cavendish Laboratory. The Laboratory had an eminent history in atomic physics and some members were wary of a crystallographer, which Bragg surmounted by even-handed administration. He worked on improving the interpretation of diffraction patterns. In the small crystallography group was a refugee research student without a mentor: Max Perutz. He showed Bragg X-ray diffraction data from haemoglobin, which suggested that the structure of giant biological molecules might be deciphered. Bragg appointed Perutz as his research assistant and within a few months obtained additional support with a grant from the Rockefeller Foundation. The work was suspended during the Second World War when Perutz was interned as an enemy alien and then worked in military research. During the war the Cavendish offered a shortened graduate course which emphasised the electronics needed for radar. Bragg worked on the structure of metals and consulted on sonar and sound ranging, they still used the Tucker microphone. He became Sir Lawrence in 1941. His father died in 1942, during which Bragg served for six months as Scientific Liaison Officer to Canada. He organised periodic conferences on X-ray analysis, which was widely used in military research. After the war he led in the formation of the International Union of Crystallography and was elected its first president. He reorganised the Cavendish into units to reflect his conviction that \"the ideal research unit is one of six to twelve scientists and a few assistants, helped by one or more first-class instrument mechanics and a workshop in which the general run of apparatus can be constructed.\" Senior members of staff now had offices, telephones and secretarial support. The scope of the department was enlarged with a new unit on radio astronomy. His own work focused on the structure of metals, using both X-rays and the electron microscope. In 1947 he persuaded the Medical Research Council (MRC) to support what he described as the \"gallant attempt\" to determine protein structure as the Laboratory of Molecular Biology, initially consisting of Perutz, John Kendrew and two assistants. Bragg worked with them, by 1960 they had resolved the structure of myoglobin to the atomic level. After this he was less involved; their analysis of haemoglobin was easier after they incorporated two mercury atoms as markers in each molecule. The first monumental triumph of the MRC was decoding the structure of DNA by James Watson and Francis Crick. Bragg announced the discovery at a Solvay conference on proteins in Belgium on 8 April 1953, it went unreported by the press. He then gave a talk at Guy's Hospital Medical School in London on Thursday 14 May 1953, which resulted in an article by Ritchie Calder in the \"News Chronicle\" of London on Friday 15 May 1953, entitled \"Why You Are You. Nearer Secret of Life\". Bragg nominated Crick, Watson and Maurice Wilkins for the 1962 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine; Wilkins' share recognised the contribution of X-ray crystallographers at King's College London. Among them was Rosalind Franklin, whose \"photograph 51\" showed that DNA was a double helix, not the triple helix that Linus Pauling had proposed. Franklin died before the prize (which only goes to living people) was awarded.", "In 1953 the Braggs moved into the elegant flat for the Resident Professor in the Royal Institution in London, the position his father had occupied when he died. In 1934 and 1961 Lawrence had delivered the Royal Institution Christmas Lecture and since 1938 he had been Professor of Natural Philosophy in the Institution, delivering an annual lecture. His father's successors had weakened the Institution, so Bragg had to rebuild it. He bolstered finances by enlisting corporate sponsors, the traditional Friday Evening Discourses were followed by a dinner party for the speaker and carefully selected possible patrons, more than 120 of them each year. \"Two of these Discourses in 1965 gave him particular pleasure. On 7 May, Lady Bragg, who had been a member of the Royal Commission on Marriage and Divorce (1951–55) and was Chairman of the National Marriage Guidance Council, lectured on 'Changing patterns in marriage and divorce'; and on 15 November, Bragg listened with evident pride to the Discourse on 'Oscillations and noise in jet engines' given by his engineer-son Stephen, who was then Chief Scientist at Rolls Royce Ltd and later became Vice-Chancellor of Brunel University.\" He also introduced a programme of highly regarded Schools' Lectures, enlivened by the elaborate demonstrations that were a hallmark of the Institution. He gave three of these lectures on \"electricity\". He continued research in the Institution by recruiting a small group to work the Davy-Faraday Laboratory in the basement and in the adjoining house, supported by grants he obtained. A visitor to the laboratory succeeded in inserting heavy metals into the enzyme lysozyme; the structure of its crystal was solved in 1965 at the Royal Institution by D. C. Phillips and his coworkers, with the computations on the 9,040 reflections performed on the digital computer at the University of London, which greatly facilitated the work. Two of the illustrations of the positioning of amino acids in the chain were drawn by Bragg. Unlike myoglobin, in which nearly 80 per cent of the amino-acid residues are in the alpha-helix conformation, in lysozyme the alpha-helix content is only about 40 per cent of the amino-acid residues found in four main stretches. Other stretches are of the 3 helix, a conformation that they had proposed earlier. In this conformation, every third peptide is hydrogen-bonded back to the first peptide, thus forming a ring containing ten atoms. They had the complete structure of an enzyme in time for Bragg's 75th birthday. He became Professor Emeritus in 1966. X-ray analysis of protein structure flourished in subsequent years, determining the structures of scores of proteins in laboratories around the world. Twenty eight Nobel Prizes have been awarded for work using X-ray analysis. The disadvantage of the method is that it must be done on crystals, which precludes seeing changes in shape when enzymes bind substrates and the like. This problem was solved by the development of another line Bragg had initiated, using modified electron microscopes to image single frozen molecules: cryo-electron microscopy. In his long association with the Royal Institution he was:", "In 1921 he married Alice Hopkinson (1899–1989), a cousin of a friend who had been killed in the war. They had four children, the engineer Stephen Lawrence (1923–2014), David William (1926–2005), Margaret Alice, born 1931, (who married the diplomat Mark Heath) and Patience Mary, born 1935. Alice was on the staff at Withington Girls' School until Bragg was appointed director of the National Physical Laboratory in 1937. She was active in a number of public bodies and served as Mayor of Cambridge from 1945-46. Bragg's hobbies included drawing – family letters were illustrated with lively sketches – painting, literature and a lifelong interest in gardening. When he moved to London, he missed having a garden and so worked as a part-time gardener, unrecognised by his employer, until a guest at the house expressed surprise at seeing him there. He died at a hospital near his home at Waldringfield, Ipswich, Suffolk. He was buried in Trinity College, Cambridge; his son David is buried in the Parish of the Ascension Burial Ground in Cambridge, where Bragg's friend, who had he survived would have been his brother-in-law, Rudolph Cecil Hopkinson is also buried. In August 2013, Bragg's relative, the broadcaster Melvyn Bragg, presented a BBC Radio 4 programme (\"Bragg on the Braggs\") on the 1915 Nobel Prize in Physics winners.", "Bragg was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1921 – \"a qualification that makes other ones irrelevant\". He was knighted by King George VI in the 1941 New Year Honours, and received both the Copley Medal and the Royal Medal of the Royal Society. Although Graeme Hunter, in his book on Bragg \"Light is a Messenger\", argued that he was more a crystallographer than a physicist, Bragg's lifelong activity showed otherwise—he was more of a physicist than anything else. Thus, from 1939 to 1943, he served as President of the Institute of Physics, London. In the 1967 New Year Honours he was appointed Companion of Honour by Queen Elizabeth II. Since 1967 the Institute of Physics has awarded the Lawrence Bragg Medal and Prize. Additionally since 1992, the Australian Institute of Physics has awarded the Bragg Gold Medal for Excellence in Physics to commemorate Lawrence Bragg (in front on the medal) and his father, William Bragg, for the best PhD thesis by a student at an Australian university." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "Biography.", "Birth and youth in Bohemia: 1739–1760/61.", "First period in Vienna: 1760/61–1769.", "Journey to Italy: 1769–1771.", "Vienna and Varaždin: 1771–1780.", "Return to Vienna and final years: 1780–1813.", "Personal Life.", "Pedagogy.", "Romantic Isolation.", "Style." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Wanhal and at least one of his publishers used the spelling Waṅhal, the dot being an archaic form of the modern háček. Other attested variants include Wanhall, Vanhal and Van Hall. The modern Czech form Jan Křtitel Vaňhal was introduced in the 20th century.", "", "Wanhal was born in Nechanice, Bohemia, into serfdom in a Czech peasant family. He received his first musical training from his family and local musicians, excelling at the violin and organ from an early age. From these humble beginnings he was able to earn a living as a village organist and choirmaster. He was also taught German from an early age, as this was required for someone wishing to make a career in music within the Habsburg empire.", "By the age of 21 Wanhal must have been well under way to become a skilled performer and composer, as his patron, the Countess Schaffgotsch, took him to Vienna as part of her personal train in 1760. There he quickly established himself as a teacher of singing, violin and piano to the high nobility, and he was invited to conduct his symphonies for illustrious patrons such as the Erdődy families and Baron Isaac von Riesch of Dresden. During the years 1762–63, he is supposed to have been the student of Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf, even though they were born the same year. Baron Riesch sponsored a trip to Italy in 1769, so that Wanhal could learn the Italian style of composition, which was very much in fashion. To return the favour, Wanhal was supposed to become Riesch's Kapellmeister.", "The details of Wanhal's journey to Italy are scant, but it is known that he met his fellow Bohemians Gluck and Florian Gassmann in Venice and Rome respectively. The Italian journeys present the only knowledge we have of Wanhal writing operas: He is supposed either to have written operas over the Metastasian operas Il Trionfo di Clelia and Demofonte, either by himself, or as a cooperation with Gassmann, where Wanhal supplied some or all of the arias; these works have been lost. In additions to his documented travels in northern and central Italy, Wanhal was supposed to travel to Naples – arguably the most important centre of music in Italy at the time – but never seems to have gotten there.", "After his journey to Italy, Wanhal returned to Vienna rather than to go to Riesch in Dresden. Claims have been made that Wanhal became heavily depressed or even insane, but these claims are likely to have been overstated. During this period he is supposed to have acted occasionally as a de facto Kapellmeister for Count Erdődy in Varaždin, although the small number of compositions by him remaining there suggests that this was not the full-time role that would have been expected if he had worked with Riesch; Vanhal might have preferred such employment with the Count precisely because of its part-time nature. There is no evidence of visits after 1779.", "Around 1780, Wanhal stopped writing symphonies and string quartets, focusing instead on music for piano and small-scale chamber ensembles, masses and other church music. The former, written for a growing middle class, supplied him with the means to live a modest, economically independent life; for the last 30 years of his life he did not work under any patron, probably being the first Viennese composer to do so. During these years, more than 270 of his works were published by Viennese printers. In the 1780s he was still an active participant in Viennese musical life. In 1782 he met Mozart, who admired Wanhal's Symphonies. He enjoyed playing music with Mozart and some of his friends who were composers, as testified in Michael Kelly's account of the string quartet Wanhal played in together with Haydn, Mozart and Dittersdorf in 1784. After 1787 or so, however, he seems to have ceased performing in public, but he nevertheless was economically secure, living in good quarters near St. Stephen's Cathedral. He died in 1813, an elderly composer whose music was still recognized by the Viennese public.", "", "He learned to play the Organ from his teacher Anton Erban, who was one of his most prized mentors. He spent the first two decades of his life training to play both string and wind instruments, and to sing as well.", "Johann Baptist Wanhal died having never having married and never had any children. His life was rather long and lacked stress.", "Wanhal had to be a prolific writer to meet the demands made upon him, and attributed to him are 100 quartets, at least 73 symphonies, 95 sacred works, and a large number of instrumental and vocal works. The symphonies, in particular, have been committed increasingly often to compact disc in recent times, and the best of them are comparable with many of Haydn's. Many of Wanhal's symphonies are in minor keys and are considered highly influential to the \"Sturm und Drang\" movement of his time. \"[Wanhal] makes use of repeated semiquavers, pounding quavers in the bass line, wide skips in the themes, sudden pauses (fermatas), silences, exaggerated dynamic marks... and all these features... appear in Mozart's first large-scale \"Sturm und Drang\" symphony, no. 25 in g minor (K. 183) of 1773.\" This kind of style also appears in Joseph Haydn's Symphony No. 83 in g minor, The Hen (1785), and Muzio Clementi's Sonata in g minor, Op.34, No.2 (circa 1795). Around 1780 Wanhal seems to have stopped writing large-scale instrumental music, and rather contented himself with writing piano music for the growing middle class, and church music. In the former category his programmatic pieces, often related to recent events such as \"the Battle of Würzburg\", \"the Battle of Abukir\", and \"the Return of Francis II in 1809\". Judging from the number of extant manuscripts available, these works must have been highly popular. Wanhal was also the most prolific writer of Masses and other Catholic church music of his generation in Vienna. Despite this, it appears that he was never in the employ of any religious institution. This means that his late Masses are both testaments to a genuine personal faith, and evidence of how lucrative his focus on incidental piano music must have been. Robert O. Gjerdingen sees a change in Wanhal's style as he redirected his attention towards the middle class, his music becoming didactic in the sense that it employed musical figures in a clear and self-referential manner, rather than the seamless continuity from figure to figure that had characterized his earlier pieces. In this, Gjerdingen sees Wanhal as prefiguring Beethoven. Such was his success that within a few years of his symphonies being written, they were being performed around the world, and as far distant as the United States. In later life, however, he rarely moved from Vienna, where he was also an active teacher." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Geography.", "Cities.", "Towns and villages.", "Economy.", "Demographics.", "Culture.", "Sports.", "Pronunciation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Ibaraki Prefecture was previously known as Hitachi Province. In 1871, the name of the province became Ibaraki.", "Ibaraki Prefecture is the northeastern part of the Kantō region, stretching between Tochigi Prefecture and the Pacific Ocean and bounded on the north and south by Fukushima Prefecture and Chiba Prefecture. It also has a border on the southwest with Saitama Prefecture. The northernmost part of the prefecture is mountainous, but most of the prefecture is a flat plain with many lakes. , 15% of the total land area of the prefecture was designated as Natural Parks, namely Suigo-Tsukuba Quasi-National Park and nine Prefectural Natural Parks.", "Thirty-two (32) cities are located in Ibaraki Prefecture:", "These are the towns and villages in each district:", "Ibaraki's industries include energy production, particularly nuclear energy, as well as chemical and precision machining industries. Hitachi is a world wide company as well as a city name where the company was founded. Ibaraki is an agricultural prefecture, producing food crops that are used throughout the country. As of March 2011, the prefecture produced 25% of Japan's bell peppers and Chinese cabbage.", "Ibaraki's population is decreasing more rapidly than any other prefecture.", "Ibaraki is known for nattō, or fermented soybeans, in Mito, watermelons in Kyōwa (recently merged into Chikusei), and chestnuts in the Nishiibaraki region. Ibaraki is famous for the martial art of Aikido founded by Ueshiba Morihei, also known as Osensei. Ueshiba spent the latter part of his life in the town of Iwama, now part of Kasama, and the Aiki Shrine and dojo he created still remain. There are castle ruins in many cities, including Mito, Kasama, and Yūki. Kasama is famous for Shinto, art culture and pottery. The capital Mito is home to Kairakuen, one of Japan's three most celebrated gardens, and famous for its over 3,000 Japanese plum trees of over 100 varieties.", "The sports teams listed below are based in Ibaraki.", "The prefecture is often alternatively pronounced \"Ibara\"gi\" by those who speak the regional dialect known as Ibaraki-ben. However, the standard pronunciation is \"Ibara\"ki\". According to the author of \"Not Ibara\"gi\", Ibara\"ki\", this is most likely due to a mishearing of the softening of the \"k\" sound in Ibaraki dialect." ] }