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{ "title": [ "Early life (1090–1113).", "Abbot of Clairvaux (1115–28).", "Doctor of the Church (1128–46).", "Schism.", "Contest with Abelard.", "Cistercian Order and heresy.", "Second Crusade (1146–49).", "Final years (1149–53).", "Theology.", "Temptations and intercessions.", "Spirituality.", "Legacy.", "Hymns.", "Works." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Bernard's parents were Tescelin de Fontaine, lord of Fontaine-lès-Dijon, and, both members of the highest nobility of Burgundy. Bernard was the third of seven children, six of whom were sons. At the age of nine, he was sent to a school at Châtillon-sur-Seine run by the secular canons of Saint-Vorles. Bernard had a great taste for literature and devoted himself for some time to poetry. His success in his studies won the admiration of his teachers. He wanted to excel in literature in order to take up the study of the Bible. He had a special devotion to the Virgin Mary, and he later wrote several works about the Queen of Heaven. Bernard expanded upon Anselm of Canterbury's role in transmuting the sacramentally ritual Christianity of the Early Middle Ages into a new, more personally held faith, with the life of Christ as a model and a new emphasis on the Virgin Mary. In opposition to the rational approach to divine understanding that the scholastics adopted, Bernard preached an immediate faith, in which the intercessor was the Virgin Mary. He is often cited for saying that Mary Magdalene was the Apostle to the Apostles. Bernard was only nineteen years of age when his mother died. During his youth, he did not escape trying temptations and around this time he thought of retiring from the world and living a life of solitude and prayer. In 1098 Robert of Molesme had founded Cîteaux Abbey, near Dijon, with the purpose of restoring the Rule of St Benedict in all its rigour. Returning to Molesme, he left the government of the new abbey to Alberic of Cîteaux, who died in the year 1109. After the death of his mother, Bernard sought admission into the Cistercian order. At the age of 22, while Bernard was at prayer in a church, he felt the calling of God to enter the monastery of Cîteaux. In 1113 Stephen Harding had just succeeded Alberic as third Abbot of Cîteaux when Bernard and thirty other young noblemen of Burgundy sought admission into the monastery. Bernard's testimony was so irresistible that 30 of his friends, brothers, and relatives followed him into the monastic life.", "The little community of reformed Benedictines at Cîteaux, which had so profound an influence on Western monasticism, grew rapidly. Three years later, Bernard was sent with a band of twelve monks to found a new house at Vallée d'Absinthe, in the Diocese of Langres. This Bernard named \"Claire Vallée\", or \"Clairvaux\", on 25 June 1115, and the names of Bernard and Clairvaux soon became inseparable. During the absence of the Bishop of Langres, Bernard was blessed as abbot by William of Champeaux, Bishop of Châlons-sur-Marne. From that moment a strong friendship sprang up between the abbot and the bishop, who was professor of theology at Notre Dame of Paris, and the founder of the Abbey of St. Victor, Paris. The beginnings of Clairvaux Abbey were trying and painful. The regimen was so austere that Bernard became ill, and only the influence of his friend William of Champeaux and the authority of the general chapter could make him mitigate the austerities. The monastery, however, made rapid progress. Disciples flocked to it in great numbers and put themselves under the direction of Bernard. The reputation of his holiness soon attracted 130 new monks, including his own father. His father and all his brothers entered Clairvaux to pursue religious life, leaving only Humbeline, his sister, in the secular world. She, with the consent of her husband, soon took the veil in the Benedictine nunnery of Jully-les-Nonnains. Gerard of Clairvaux, Bernard's older brother, became the cellarer of Citeaux. The abbey became too small for its members and it was necessary to send out bands to found new houses. In 1118 Trois-Fontaines Abbey was founded in the diocese of Châlons; in 1119 Fontenay Abbey in the Diocese of Autun; and in 1121 Foigny Abbey near Vervins, in the diocese of Laon. In addition to these victories, Bernard also had his trials. During an absence from Clairvaux, the Grand Prior of the Abbey of Cluny went to Clairvaux and enticed away Bernard's cousin, Robert of Châtillon. This was the occasion of the longest and most emotional of Bernard's letters. In the year 1119, Bernard was present at the first general chapter of the order convoked by Stephen of Cîteaux. Though not yet 30 years old, Bernard was listened to with the greatest attention and respect, especially when he developed his thoughts upon the revival of the primitive spirit of regularity and fervour in all the monastic orders. It was this general chapter that gave definitive form to the constitutions of the order and the regulations of the \"Charter of Charity\", which Pope Callixtus II confirmed on 23 December 1119. In 1120, Bernard wrote his first work, ', and his homilies which he entitled '. The monks of the abbey of Cluny were unhappy to see Cîteaux take the lead role among the religious orders of the Roman Catholic Church. For this reason, the Black Monks attempted to make it appear that the rules of the new order were impracticable. At the solicitation of William of St. Thierry, Bernard defended the order by publishing his \"Apology\" which was divided into two parts. In the first part, he proved himself innocent of the charges of Cluny and in the second he gave his reasons for his counterattacks. He protested his profound esteem for the Benedictines of Cluny whom he declared he loved equally as well as the other religious orders. Peter the Venerable, abbot of Cluny, answered Bernard and assured him of his great admiration and sincere friendship. In the meantime Cluny established a reform, and Abbot Suger, the minister of Louis VI of France, was converted by the \"Apology\" of Bernard. He hastened to terminate his worldly life and restore discipline in his monastery. The zeal of Bernard extended to the bishops, the clergy, and lay people. Bernard's letter to the archbishop of Sens was seen as a real treatise, \"\"De Officiis Episcoporum.\"\" About the same time he wrote his work on \"Grace and Free Will\".", "In the year 1128 AD, Bernard participated in the Council of Troyes, which had been convoked by Pope Honorius II, and was presided over by Cardinal Matthew of Albano. The purpose of this council was to settle certain disputes of the bishops of Paris, and regulate other matters of the Church of France. The bishops made Bernard secretary of the council, and charged him with drawing up the synodal statutes. After the council, the bishop of Verdun was deposed. It was at this council that Bernard traced the outlines of the Rule of the Knights Templar who soon became the ideal of Christian nobility. Around this time, he praised them in his \"Liber ad milites templi de laude novae militiae\". Again reproaches arose against Bernard and he was denounced, even in Rome. He was accused of being a monk who meddled with matters that did not concern him. Cardinal Harmeric, on behalf of the pope, wrote Bernard a sharp letter of remonstrance stating, \"It is not fitting that noisy and troublesome frogs should come out of their marshes to trouble the Holy See and the cardinals.\" Bernard answered the letter by saying that, if he had assisted at the council, it was because he had been dragged to it by force, replying: This letter made a positive impression on Harmeric, and in the Vatican.", "Bernard's influence was soon felt in provincial affairs. He defended the rights of the Church against the encroachments of kings and princes, and recalled to their duty Henri Sanglier, archbishop of Sens and Stephen of Senlis, bishop of Paris. On the death of Honorius II, which occurred on 14 February 1130, a schism broke out in the Church by the election of two popes, Pope Innocent II and Antipope Anacletus II. Innocent II, having been banished from Rome by Anacletus, took refuge in France. Louis VI convened a national council of the French bishops at Étampes, and Bernard, summoned there by consent of the bishops, was chosen to judge between the rival popes. He decided in favour of Innocent II. After the council of Étampes, Bernard spoke with King Henry I of England, also known as Henry Beauclerc, about Henry I's reservations regarding Pope Innocent II. Henry I was sceptical because most of the bishops of England supported Antipope Anacletus II; Bernard persuaded him to support Innocent. This caused the pope to be recognized by all the great powers. He then went with him into Italy and reconciled Pisa with Genoa, and Milan with the pope. The same year Bernard was again at the Council of Reims at the side of Innocent II. He then went to Aquitaine where he succeeded for the time in detaching William X, Duke of Aquitaine, from the cause of Anacletus. Germany had decided to support Innocent through Norbert of Xanten, who was a friend of Bernard's. However, Innocent insisted on Bernard's company when he met with Lothair II, Holy Roman Emperor. Lothair II became Innocent's strongest ally among the nobility. Although the councils of Étampes, Würzburg, Clermont, and Rheims all supported Innocent, large portions of the Christian world still supported Anacletus. In a letter by Bernard to German Emperor Lothair regarding Antipope Anacletus, Bernard wrote, “It is a disgrace for Christ that a Jew sits on the throne of St. Peter’s.” and “Anacletus has not even a good reputation with his friends, while Innocent is illustrious beyond all doubt.” Bernard wrote to Gerard of Angoulême (a letter known as Letter 126), which questioned Gerard's reasons for supporting Anacletus. Bernard later commented that Gerard was his most formidable opponent during the whole schism. After persuading Gerard, Bernard traveled to visit William X, Duke of Aquitaine. He was the hardest for Bernard to convince. He did not pledge allegiance to Innocent until 1135. After that, Bernard spent most of his time in Italy persuading the Italians to pledge allegiance to Innocent. He traveled to Sicily in 1137 to convince the king of Sicily to follow Innocent. The whole conflict ended when Anacletus died on 25 January 1138. In 1132, Bernard accompanied Innocent II into Italy, and at Cluny the pope abolished the dues which Clairvaux used to pay to that abbey. This action gave rise to a quarrel between the White Monks and the Black Monks which lasted 20 years. In May of that year, the pope, supported by the army of Lothair III, entered Rome, but Lothair III, feeling himself too weak to resist the partisans of Anacletus, retired beyond the Alps, and Innocent sought refuge in Pisa in September 1133. Bernard had returned to France in June and was continuing the work of peacemaking which he had commenced in 1130. Towards the end of 1134, he made a second journey into Aquitaine, where William X had relapsed into schism. Bernard invited William to the Mass which he celebrated in the Church of La Couldre. At the Eucharist, he \"admonished the Duke not to despise God as he did His servants\". William yielded and the schism ended. Bernard went again to Italy, where Roger II of Sicily was endeavouring to withdraw the Pisans from their allegiance to Innocent. He recalled the city of Milan to obedience to the pope as they had followed the deposed Anselm V, Archbishop of Milan. For this, he was offered, and he refused, the archbishopric of Milan. He then returned to Clairvaux. Believing himself at last secure in his cloister, Bernard devoted himself with renewed vigour to the composition of the works which won for him the title of \"Doctor of the Church\". He wrote at this time his sermons on the \"Song of Songs\". In 1137, he was again forced to leave his solitude by order of the pope to put an end to the quarrel between Lothair and Roger of Sicily. At the conference held at Palermo, Bernard succeeded in convincing Roger of the rights of Innocent II. He also silenced the final supporters who sustained the schism. Anacletus died of \"grief and disappointment\" in 1138, and with him the schism ended. In 1139, Bernard assisted at the Second Council of the Lateran, in which the surviving adherents of the schism were definitively condemned. About the same time, Bernard was visited at Clairvaux by Malachy, Primate of All Ireland, and a very close friendship formed between them. Malachy wanted to become a Cistercian, but the pope would not give his permission. Malachy died at Clairvaux in 1148.", "Towards the close of the 11th century, a spirit of independence flourished within schools of philosophy and theology. This led for a time to the exaltation of human reason and rationalism. The movement found an ardent and powerful advocate in Peter Abelard. Abelard's treatise on the Trinity had been condemned as heretical in 1121, and he was compelled to throw his own book into the fire. However, Abelard continued to develop his teachings, which were controversial in some quarters. Bernard, informed of this by William of St-Thierry, is said to have held a meeting with Abelard intending to persuade him to amend his writings, during which Abelard repented and promised to do so. But once out of Bernard's presence, he reneged. Bernard then denounced Abelard to the pope and cardinals of the Curia. Abelard sought a debate with Bernard, but Bernard initially declined, saying he did not feel matters of such importance should be settled by logical analyses. Bernard's letters to William of St-Thierry also express his apprehension about confronting the preeminent logician. Abelard continued to press for a public debate, and made his challenge widely known, making it hard for Bernard to decline. In 1141, at the urgings of Abelard, the archbishop of Sens called a council of bishops, where Abelard and Bernard were to put their respective cases so Abelard would have a chance to clear his name. Bernard lobbied the prelates on the evening before the debate, swaying many of them to his view. The next day, after Bernard made his opening statement, Abelard decided to retire without attempting to answer. The council found in favour of Bernard and their judgment was confirmed by the pope. Abelard submitted without resistance, and he retired to Cluny to live under the protection of Peter the Venerable, where he died two years later.", "Bernard had occupied himself in sending bands of monks from his overcrowded monastery into Germany, Sweden, England, Ireland, Portugal, Switzerland, and Italy. Some of these, at the command of Innocent II, took possession of Tre Fontane Abbey, from which Eugene III was chosen in 1145. Pope Innocent II died in the year 1143. His two successors, Pope Celestine II and Pope Lucius II, reigned only a short time, and then Bernard saw one of his disciples, Bernard of Pisa, and known thereafter as Eugene III, raised to the Chair of Saint Peter. Bernard sent him, at the pope's own request, various instructions which comprise the \"Book of Considerations,\" the predominating idea of which is that the reformation of the Church ought to commence with the sanctity of the pope. Temporal matters are merely accessories; the principles according to Bernard's work were that piety and meditation were to precede action. Having previously helped end the schism within the Church, Bernard was now called upon to combat heresy. Henry of Lausanne, a former Cluniac monk, had adopted the teachings of the Petrobrusians, followers of Peter of Bruys and spread them in a modified form after Peter's death. Henry of Lausanne's followers became known as Henricians. In June 1145, at the invitation of Cardinal Alberic of Ostia, Bernard traveled in southern France. His preaching, aided by his ascetic looks and simple attire, helped doom the new sects. Both the Henrician and the Petrobrusian faiths began to die out by the end of that year. Soon afterwards, Henry of Lausanne was arrested, brought before the bishop of Toulouse, and probably imprisoned for life. In a letter to the people of Toulouse, undoubtedly written at the end of 1146, Bernard calls upon them to extirpate the last remnants of the heresy. He also preached against Catharism.", "News came at this time from the Holy Land that alarmed Christendom. Christians had been defeated at the Siege of Edessa and most of the county had fallen into the hands of the Seljuk Turks. The Kingdom of Jerusalem and the other Crusader states were threatened with similar disaster. Deputations of the bishops of Armenia solicited aid from the pope, and the King of France also sent ambassadors. In 1144 Eugene III commissioned Bernard to preach the Second Crusade and granted the same indulgences for it which Pope Urban II had accorded to the First Crusade. There was at first virtually no popular enthusiasm for the crusade as there had been in 1095. Bernard found it expedient to dwell upon taking the cross as a potent means of gaining absolution for sin and attaining grace. On 31 March, with King Louis VII of France present, he preached to an enormous crowd in a field at Vézelay, making \"the speech of his life\". The full text has not survived, but a contemporary account says that \"his voice rang out across the meadow like a celestial organ\" James Meeker Ludlow describes the scene romantically in his book \"The Age of the Crusades\": When Bernard was finished the crowd enlisted en masse; they supposedly ran out of cloth to make crosses. Bernard is said to have flung off his own robe and began tearing it into strips to make more. Others followed his example and he and his helpers were supposedly still producing crosses as night fell. Unlike the First Crusade, the new venture attracted royalty, such as Eleanor of Aquitaine, Queen of France; Thierry of Alsace, Count of Flanders; Henry, the future Count of Champagne; Louis's brother Robert I of Dreux; Alphonse I of Toulouse; William II of Nevers; William de Warenne, 3rd Earl of Surrey; Hugh VII of Lusignan, Yves II, Count of Soissons; and numerous other nobles and bishops. But an even greater show of support came from the common people. Bernard wrote to the pope a few days afterwards, \"Cities and castles are now empty. There is not left one man to seven women, and everywhere there are widows to still-living husbands.\" Bernard then passed into Germany, and the reported miracles which multiplied almost at his every step undoubtedly contributed to the success of his mission. Conrad III of Germany and his nephew Frederick Barbarossa, received the cross from the hand of Bernard. Pope Eugenius came in person to France to encourage the enterprise. As in the First Crusade, the preaching led to attacks on Jews; a fanatical French monk named Radulphe was apparently inspiring massacres of Jews in the Rhineland, Cologne, Mainz, Worms, and Speyer, with Radulphe claiming Jews were not contributing financially to the rescue of the Holy Land. The archbishop of Cologne and the archbishop of Mainz were vehemently opposed to these attacks and asked Bernard to denounce them. This he did, but when the campaign continued, Bernard traveled from Flanders to Germany to deal with the problems in person. He then found Radulphe in Mainz and was able to silence him, returning him to his monastery. The last years of Bernard's life were saddened by the failure of the Second Crusade he had preached, the entire responsibility for which was thrown upon him. Bernard considered it his duty to send an apology to the Pope and it is inserted in the second part of his \"\"Book of Considerations.\"\" There he explains how the sins of the crusaders were the cause of their misfortune and failures. Moved by his burning words, many Christians embarked for the Holy Land, but the crusade ended in miserable failure.", "The death of his contemporaries served as a warning to Bernard of his own approaching end. The first to die was Suger in 1152, of whom Bernard wrote to Eugene III, \"If there is any precious vase adorning the palace of the King of Kings it is the soul of the venerable Suger\". Conrad III and his son Henry died the same year. From the beginning of the year 1153, Bernard felt his death approaching. The passing of Pope Eugenius had struck the fatal blow by taking from him one whom he considered his greatest friend and consoler. Bernard died at age sixty-three on 20 August 1153, after forty years spent in the cloister. He was buried at the Clairvaux Abbey, but after its dissolution in 1792 by the French revolutionary government, his remains were transferred to Troyes Cathedral.", "Bernard was named a Doctor of the Church in 1830. At the 800th anniversary of his death, Pope Pius XII issued an encyclical on Bernard, \"Doctor Mellifluus\", in which he labeled him \"The Last of the Fathers.\" Bernard did not reject human philosophy which is genuine philosophy, which leads to God; he differentiates between different kinds of knowledge, the highest being theological. The central elements of Bernard's Mariology are how he explained the virginity of Mary, \"the \"Star of the Sea\"\", and her role as Mediatrix. The first abbot of Clairvaux developed a rich theology of sacred space and music, writing extensively on both. John Calvin quotes Bernard several times in support of the doctrine of \"Sola Fide\", which Martin Luther described as the article upon which the church stands or falls. Calvin also quotes him in setting forth his doctrine of a forensic alien righteousness, or as it is commonly called imputed righteousness.", "One day, to cool down his lustful temptation, Bernard threw himself into ice-cold water. Another time, while he slept in an inn, a prostitute was introduced naked beside him, and he saved his chastity by running. Many miracles were attributed to his intercession. One time he restored the power of speech to an old man that he might confess his sins before he died. Another time, an immense number of flies, that had infested the Church of Foigny, died instantly after the excommunication he made on them. So great was his reputation that princes and Popes sought his advice, and even the enemies of the Church admired the holiness of his life and the greatness of his writings.", "Bernard was instrumental in re-emphasizing the importance of \"lectio divina\" and contemplation on Scripture within the Cistercian order. Bernard had observed that when \"lectio divina\" was neglected monasticism suffered. Bernard considered \"lectio divina\" and contemplation guided by the Holy Spirit the keys to nourishing Christian spirituality. Bernard \"noted centuries ago: the people who are their own spiritual directors have fools for disciples.\"", "Bernard's theology and Mariology continue to be of major importance, particularly within the Cistercian and Trappist orders. Bernard led to the foundation of 163 monasteries in different parts of Europe. At his death, they numbered 343. His influence led Alexander III to launch reforms that led to the establishment of canon law. He was the first Cistercian monk placed on the calendar of saints and was canonized by Alexander III 18 January 1174. Pope Pius VIII bestowed on him the title \"Doctor of the Church\". He is labeled the \"Mellifluous Doctor\" for his eloquence. Cistercians honour him as the founder of the order because of the widespread activity which he gave to the order. His feast day is 20 August. Bernard's \"Prayer to the Shoulder Wound of Jesus\" is often published in Catholic prayer books. Bernard is Dante Alighieri's last guide, in \"Divine Comedy\", as he travels through the Empyrean. Dante's choice appears to be based on Bernard's contemplative mysticism, his devotion to Mary, and his reputation for eloquence. The Couvent et Basilique Saint-Bernard, a collection of buildings dating from the 12th, 17th and 19th centuries, is dedicated to Bernard and stands in his birthplace of Fontaine-lès-Dijon.", "Bernard of Clairvaux is the attributed author of poems often translated in English hymnals as:", "The modern critical edition is \"\" (1957–1977), edited by Jean Leclercq. Bernard's works include: His sermons are also numerous: Many letters, treatises, and other works, falsely attributed to him survive, and are now referred to as works by pseudo-Bernard. These include:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Pre-Columbian period.", "Spanish period.", "Mexican period.", "American period.", "Modern era.", "Geography.", "City neighborhoods.", "Climate.", "Demographics.", "2010 census.", "Economy.", "Top employers.", "Culture.", "Performing arts.", "Visual arts.", "Museums.", "Music.", "Film.", "Cuisine.", "LGBTQ.", "Old Sacramento.", "Chinatown.", "Sports.", "Parks and recreation.", "Government.", "State and Federal representation.", "Political history.", "Education.", "Higher education.", "Primary and secondary education.", "Media.", "Radio.", "Transportation.", "Roads and highways.", "Rail service.", "Airport.", "Other transportation options.", "International relations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Nisenan (Southern Maidu), Modoc, and Plains Miwok Native Americans had lived in the area for perhaps thousands of years. Unlike the settlers who would eventually make", "In 1808, the Spanish explorer Gabriel Moraga encountered and named the Sacramento Valley and the Sacramento River. A Spanish writer with the Moraga expedition wrote: \"Canopies of oaks and cottonwoods, many festooned with grapevines, overhung both sides of the blue current. Birds chattered in", "John Sutter Sr. first arrived in the area on August 13, 1839, at the divergence of the American and Sacramento Rivers with a Mexican land grant of 50,000 acres. The next year, his party and he established Sutter's Fort, a massive adobe structure with walls 18 feet high and three feet thick. Representing Mexico, Sutter Sr. called his colony New Helvetia, a Swiss-inspired name, and was the political authority and dispenser of", "In 1848, when gold was discovered by James W. Marshall at Sutter's Mill in Coloma (some northeast of the fort), a large number of gold-seekers came to the area, increasing the population. In August 1848, Sutter Sr.'s son, John Sutter Jr., arrived in the area to assist his father in relieving his indebtedness. Now compounding the problem of his father's indebtedness, was the additional strain placed on the Sutters by the ongoing arrival of thousands of new gold miners and prospectors in the area, many quite content to squat on unwatched portions of the vast Sutter lands, or to abscond with various unattended Sutter properties or belongings if they could. In Sutter's case, rather than being a 'boon' for Sutter, his employee's discovery of gold in the area turned", "The city's current charter was adopted by voters in 1920. As a charter city, Sacramento is exempt from many laws and regulations passed by the state legislature. The city has expanded continuously over the years. The 1964 merger of the City of North Sacramento with Sacramento substantially increased its population, and large annexations of the Natomas area eventually led to significant population growth throughout the 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s. Sacramento County (along with a portion of adjacent Placer County) is served by a customer-owned electric utility, the Sacramento Municipal Utility District (SMUD). Sacramento voters approved the creation of SMUD in 1923. In April 1946, after", "According to the United States Census Bureau, the city covers, 97.81% of it land, and 2.19% of it water. Depth to groundwater is typically about. Much of the land to the west of the city (in Yolo County) is permanently reserved for a vast flood control basin (the Yolo Bypass), due to the city's historical vulnerability to floods. As a result, the contiguous urban area sprawls only four miles (6 km) west of downtown (as West Sacramento, California) but northeast and east, into the Sierra Nevada foothills, and to the south into valley farmland. The city is at the confluence of the Sacramento River and the American River, and has a deep-water port connected to the San Francisco Bay by a channel through the Sacramento–San Joaquin River Delta. It is the shipping and rail center for the Sacramento Valley.", "The city groups most of its neighborhoods into four areas: Additional prominent regions and neighborhoods in the city include American River Parkway, Arden-Arcade, Arden Fair, Cal Expo, Capital Avenue, Coffing, College Glen, College Greens, Cordova, Creekside, East Fruitridge, Elder Creek, Elkhorn, Elvas, Erikson Industrial Park, Excelsior Sunrise, Foothill Farms, Franklin, Frates Ranch, Gateway Center, Gateway West, Glenwood Meadows, Hansen", "Sacramento has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen \"Csa\"), characterized by very hot, dry summers and mild to cool winters with occasional rainfall. The wet season is generally October through April, though there may be a day or two of light rainfall in June or September. The normal annual mean temperature is, with the monthly daily average temperature ranging from in December to in July. Summer heat is sometimes moderated by a sea breeze known as the \"delta breeze\" which", "In 2002, the Civil Rights Project at Harvard University conducted for \"Time\" magazine named Sacramento \"America's Most Diverse City\". The U.S. Census Bureau also groups Sacramento with other U.S. cities having a \"high diversity\" rating of the diversity index. Moreover, Sacramento is one of the most well-integrated U.S. cities, having a relatively high level of ethnic and racial heterogeneity within its neighborhoods.", "The 2010 United States Census reported Sacramento had a population of 466,488. The population density was 4,660.0 people per square mile (1,799.2/km). The racial makeup of Sacramento was: Hispanic or Latino of any race were 125,276 persons (26.9%); 22.6% of Sacramento's population is of Mexican heritage, 0.7% Puerto Rican, 0.5% Salvadoran, 0.2% Guatemalan, and 0.2% Nicaraguan. Non-Hispanic Whites were 34.5% of the population in 2010, down from 71.4% in 1970. The Census reported 458,174 people (98.2% of the population) lived in households, 4,268 (0.9%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 4,046 (0.9%) were institutionalized. The recent housing crash has not impacted these numbers. There were 174,624 households, out of which 57,870 (33.1%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 65,556 (37.5%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 27,640 (15.8%) had a female householder with no husband present, 10,534 (6.0%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 13,234 (7.6%)", "The Sacramento metropolitan area is the fifth largest in California after the Los Angeles metropolitan area, the San Francisco Bay Area, the Inland Empire, and the San Diego metropolitan area, and is the 27th largest in the United States. Sutter Health, Blue Diamond Growers, Aerojet Rocketdyne, Teichert, and The McClatchy Company are among the companies based in Sacramento. The Port of Sacramento has been plagued with operating losses in recent years and faces bankruptcy. This severe loss in business is due to the heavy competition from the Port of Stockton, which has a larger facility and a deeper channel. As of 2006, the city of West Sacramento took responsibility for the Port of Sacramento. During the Vietnam War era, the Port of Sacramento was the major terminus in the supply route for all military parts, hardware and other cargo going to Southeast Asia.", "As of 2012, the top", "", "The Sacramento Ballet, Sacramento Philharmonic Orchestra and the Sacramento Opera perform at the Community Center Theater. There are several major theater venues in Sacramento. The Sacramento Convention Center Complex governs both the Community Center Theatre and Memorial Auditorium. The H Street Theatre Complex consists of the Wells Fargo Pavilion, built in 2003 atop the old Music Circus tent foundations, the McClatchy Mainstage and the Pollock Stage, originally built as a television studio and renovated at the same time the Pavilion was built. These smaller venues seat 300 and 90, offering a more intimate presentation than the 2300-seat Pavilion. The newest venue in the city, the Sofia Tsakopoulos Center for the Arts, consists of the 365-seat Sutter Theatre for Children and the Mainstage, seating 250. Professional theatre is represented in Sacramento by a number of companies. Broadway Sacramento and its locally produced Summer stock theatre, Broadway at Music Circus, lures many directors, performers, and artists from New York and Los Angeles to work alongside a large local staff at the Wells Fargo", "The Sacramento Metropolitan Arts Commission is an organization that was established as the Sacramento arts council in 1977 to provide several arts programs for the city. These include Art in Public Places, Arts Education, Grants and Cultural Programs,", "Sacramento has several major museums. The Crocker Art Museum is the oldest public art museum west of the Mississippi River. On July 26, 2007, the museum broke ground for an expansion that more than tripled the museum's floor space. The modern architecture is very different from the museum's original Victorian style building. Construction was completed in 2010. Also of interest is the Governor's Mansion State Historic Park, a large Victorian Mansion which was home to 13 of California's Governors, as well as the official residence for former governor Jerry Brown following renovations in 2015. The Leland Stanford Mansion State Historic Park, which was completely restored in 2006, serves as the State's official address for diplomatic and business receptions. Guided public tours are available. The California Museum for History, Women, and the Arts, home of the California Hall of Fame, is", "Tower Records was started and based in Sacramento until its closing. Rappers C-Bo, Marvaless, Lunasicc, and more recently rappers like Mozzy and Chuuwee are among those native to the area. Classical music is widely available. The Sacramento Philharmonic Orchestra, the Sacramento Baroque Soloists, the Sacramento Choral Society & Orchestra, the Sacramento Youth Symphony, the Sacramento Master Singers, the Sacramento Children's Chorus, and the Camellia Symphony each present a full season of concerts. Each year, the city hosts the Sammies, the Sacramento Music Awards. Sacramento also has a reputation as a center for Dixieland jazz, because of the Sacramento Jazz", "Sacramento is home to the Sacramento French Film Festival, a cultural event held every year in July that features U.S. premieres of French films and classic masterpieces of French cinema and the Sacramento Japanese Film Festival, also held in July. In addition, Sacramento is home to the Trash Film Orgy, a summer film festival celebrating the", "In 2012, Sacramento started the marketing campaign as \"America's Farm-to-Fork Capital\" due to Sacramento's many restaurants that source their food from the numerous surrounding farms. The city has an annual Farm-to-Fork festival that showcases various grocers and growers in the industry. In 2012, The Kitchen was nominated for Outstanding Restaurant by the James Beard Foundation. It continues to excel, earning the AAA's Five Diamond dining award since 2011. Sacramento is home to well-known cookbook authors, Biba Caggiano of Biba's Restaurant and Mai Pham of Lemongrass and Star Ginger. Sacramento is also known for its beverage culture, with keystone events that include Cal Expo's Grape and Gourmet, Sacramento Beer Week, and Sacramento", "Sacramento has one of the highest LGBT populations per capita, ranking seventh among major American cities, and third in California behind San Francisco and slightly behind Oakland, with roughly 10 % of the city's total population identifying themselves as gay, lesbian, transgender, or bisexual. Lavender Heights", "The oldest part of the town besides Sutter's Fort is Old Sacramento, which consists of cobbled streets and many historic buildings, several from the 1850s and 1860s. Buildings have been preserved, restored or reconstructed, and the district is now a substantial tourist attraction, with rides on steam-powered historic trains and horse-drawn carriages. The historic buildings include the Lady Adams Building, built by the passengers and ship's carpenters of the ship \"Lady Adams\". Having survived the Great Conflagration of November 1852, it is the oldest surviving", "The Opium Wars of the 1840s and 1850s, along with the Gold Rush, brought many Chinese to California. Most arrived at San Francisco, which was then the largest city in California and known as \"Dà Bù\" (\"Big Port\", Chinese: 大埠, Jyutping: \"daai fau\"). Some eventually came to Sacramento, then the second-largest city in California and consequently called \"Yee Fow\" (\"Second City\", Chinese: 二埠, Jyutping: \"ji fau\"). Today the city is known as 萨克拉门托 (pinyin: \"Sàkèlāméntuō\") by Mainland Chinese and as 沙加緬度 (pinyin: \"Shājiāmiǎnduó\") by Taiwanese. Sacramento's Chinatown was on \"I\" Street from Second to Sixth Streets. At the time, this area of \"I\" Street was considered a health hazard because, lying within a levee zone, it was lower than other parts", "Sacramento is home to one major league sports team – the Sacramento Kings of the National Basketball Association. The Kings came to Sacramento from Kansas City in 1985. On January 21, 2013, a controlling interest of the Sacramento Kings was sold to hedge fund manager Chris Hansen, who intended to move the franchise to Seattle for the 2013–2014 NBA season and rename the team the Seattle SuperSonics. Sacramento Mayor Kevin Johnson fought the move, forming an ownership group led by Vivek Ranadive to keep the Kings in Sacramento. On May 16, 2013, the NBA Board of Governors voted 22–8 to keep the Kings in Sacramento. Sacramento has two other professional teams. Sacramento Republic FC began play in April 2014 at Hughes Stadium before a sellout crowd of 20,231, setting a USL Pro regular-season single game attendance record. They now play in", "Sacramento boasts an extensive park system consisting of over of parkland and recreation centers. The city features a collection of smaller parks in the Downtown districts, including Crocker Park, Pioneer Landing and Southside Park. Popular parks outside the central core include American River Parkway which spans 23 miles along the American River, and William Land Park. In its 2013 ParkScore ranking, The Trust for Public Land reported Sacramento was tied with San Francisco and Boston for having the 3rd best park system among the 50 most populous U.S. cities. ParkScore ranks city park systems by a formula that analyzes the city's median park size, park acres as percent of city area, the percent of residents within a half-mile of a park, spending of park services per resident, and the number of playgrounds per 10,000 residents. Sacramento is a hotbed for high school rugby. Jesuit High is the recent defending national champion (winning five times in total).", "The Government of Sacramento operates as a charter city (as opposed to a general law city) under the Charter of the City of Sacramento. The elected government is composed of the Sacramento City Council with 8 city council districts and the Mayor of Sacramento, which operate under a mayor-council government In addition, there are numerous departments and appointed officers such as the City Manager, Sacramento Police Department (SPD), the Sacramento Fire Department (SFD), City Clerk, City Attorney, and City Treasurer. As of 2016, the mayor is Darrell Steinberg and the council members are Angelique Ashby, Allen Warren, Jeff Harris, Steve Hansen, Jay Schenirer, Rich Jennings, and Larry Carr. The City of Sacramento is part of Sacramento County, for which the government of Sacramento County is defined and authorized under the California Constitution, California law, and the Charter of the County of Sacramento. As the capital city of California, Sacramento is home to the Government of California, as the seat of the Governor of California, the California Assembly, and one of the three homes of the California Supreme Court, as well as the numerous California state agencies.", "In the California State Senate, Sacramento is the heart of the 6th district, represented by Democrat Richard Pan.", "Sacramento has been carried by the Democrats in each of the", "", "The Sacramento area hosts a wide variety of higher educational opportunities. There are two major public universities, many private institutions, community colleges, vocational schools, and McGeorge School of Law. Sacramento is home to Sacramento State (California State University, Sacramento), founded as Sacramento State College in 1947. In 2004, enrollment was 22,555 undergraduates and 5,417 graduate students in the university's eight colleges. The university's mascot is the hornet, and the school colors are green and gold. The campus is along the American River Parkway a few miles east of downtown. The University of California has a campus, UC Davis, in nearby Davis and has a graduate center in downtown", "The Sacramento Public Library system has 28 branches in the greater area. The Sacramento area is served by various public school districts, including the Sacramento City Unified School District, Natomas Unified School District, San Juan Unified School District, Twin Rivers Unified School District, and Elk Grove Unified School District. As of 2009, the area's schools employed 9,600 elementary school teachers (not including special education teachers), and 7,410 middle school teachers (not including special education or vocational teachers). Almost all areas south of the American River are served by the Sacramento City Unified School District. The only exceptions are the Valley Hi/North Laguna and Florin areas served by the Elk Grove Unified School District. Areas north of the American River are served by the remaining school districts. This area was not originally part of the City of Sacramento and as such is not served by Sacramento City Unified School District. North Sacramento outside of Natomas and Robla (for K-8) is served by the Twin Rivers Unified School", "", "Radio stations", "A 2011 study by Walk Score ranked Sacramento 24th most walkable of fifty largest U.S. cities.", "Sacramento is a control city and the region is served by several highways and freeways. Interstate 80 (I-80) is the major east–west route, connecting Sacramento with San Francisco in the west, and Reno in the east. Business 80 (the Capital City Freeway) splits from I-80 in West Sacramento, runs through Sacramento, and then rejoins its parent in the northwest portion of the city. U.S. Highway 50 also begins its eastern journey in West Sacramento, co-signed with Business 80, but then splits off and heads toward South Lake Tahoe as the El Dorado Freeway. A sign at the eastern terminus of US 50 in Ocean City, Maryland gives the distance to", "Amtrak provides passenger rail service to the city of Sacramento. The Sacramento Valley Rail Station is on the corner of 5th and I streets near the historic Old Town Sacramento and underwent extensive renovations in 2007. The station serves as a Sacramento Regional Transit District Light Rail terminus. Amtrak California operates the Capitol Corridor, a multiple-frequency service providing service from the capital city to its northeastern suburbs and the San Francisco Bay Area. Sacramento is the northern terminus of the Amtrak California \"San Joaquins\" route which provide direct multiple-frequency passenger rail service to California's Central Valley as far as Bakersfield; Thruway Motorcoach connections are available from the trains at Bakersfield to Southern California and Southern Nevada. An additional service under this banner is expected to be routed through Midtown in 2020. Sacramento is", "Sacramento International Airport is a public airport northwest of downtown Sacramento, in Sacramento County, California. It is run by Sacramento County. Southwest Airlines currently accounts for half the airline passengers. Other airlines include Delta, United, Spirit Airlines,", "The city and its suburbs are served by Sacramento Regional Transit District, which ranks as the eleventh busiest in the United States. Sac RT is a bus and light-rail system, with 274 buses and 76 light-rail vehicles providing service for 58,200 daily passengers. The three Light-rail lines (Blue, Gold, & Green) is a system with 54 stations. The Gold Line was extended east as far as the city of Folsom, and more recently the Blue Line was extended south from Meadowview Rd to Cosumnes River College. Sacramento's light rail system goes to the Sacramento Valley Rail Station, Cosumnes River College Station in south Sacramento, and north to Watt/I-80 where I-80 and Business 80 meet. The Light-rail Blue & Gold Lines have 15-minute weekday headways and 30-minute weekday evening and weekend/holiday headways; the Green Line has 30-minute weekday headways and no weekend service. Route 142 is an express bus line to/from downtown", "As of 2015, the City of Sacramento has 13 sister cities. They are:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "The party was formed on 23 February 1999 when Benny Begin, Michael Kleiner and David Re'em broke away from Likud during the fourteenth Knesset. The breakaway was the result of disagreements with Likud leader Benjamin Netanyahu over the Wye River Memorandum and the Hebron Agreement, which had ceded land to the Palestinians. Though not an MK at the time, former Prime Minister and Herut leader Yitzhak Shamir backed the new party. Herut participated in the 1999 elections as part of the National Union, a right-wing alliance of itself, Moledet and Tkuma with Begin at its head. In the simultaneous election for Prime Minister, Begin had originally planned to stand, but dropped out three days before the election to avoid splitting the right-wing vote between himself and Netanyahu (though it didn't help, as Netanyahu lost to Ehud Barak by more than 12%). In the Knesset election, the National Union won only 3% of the vote and four seats. The party's poor performance led to Begin resigning as head of the party and retiring from politics before the Knesset term began, and Herut's one allocated seat was taken by Kleiner. On 1 February 2000, Kleiner pulled out of the National Union, establishing Herut as an independent party in the Knesset. In the 2003 elections the party ran alone. It chose the ballot letters נץ, meaning \"hawk\", and used the slogan \"the 'hawkiest' on the right\". Kleiner led the list, with Baruch Marzel, a former member of the outlawed Kach party taking second place. The party won 36,202 votes, though it was only 1.1% of the total, and not enough to pass the 1.5% electoral threshold. Soon after Marzel left to found his own party, the Jewish National Front. Herut participated in the 2006 elections, again with the letters נץ. This time Kleiner was joined by veteran activists Elie Yossef and Israel Cohen. The main campaign message was \"Compensation for Evacuation of Palestinians.\" Yana Chudriker, an immigrant from the Ukraine and beauty queen of Israel (1993) was assigned number 4 on the party list. The campaign presented Chudriker wearing a burqa as a warning against the demographic threat of Arabs to Israel and the slogan was \"The Demographics Will Poison Us\" (in Hebrew the words \"poison\" (ra'al, רעל) and \"burqa\" (r'ala, רעלה) sound similar). The poster's publication resulted in Attorney General Menachem Mazuz ordering the police to investigate the party for inciting racism. The party's television campaign also drew criticism, and segments were removed by the Central election committee. Committee chairman and Supreme Court Judge Dorit Beinisch asserted that the removed segment from the advertisement clearly made reference to a blatantly racist slogan and retorted that if aired, would most probably hurt the feelings of the Arab population. In the election itself, the party won just 2,387 votes—0.07%, well below the new electoral threshold of 2%. Prior to the 2009 elections, Kleiner and Begin rejoined the Likud slate. Herut did not run in the 2009 elections or subsequently and is considered defunct." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life and career.", "Early life and operatic beginnings.", "Debuts in Europe and America.", "La Scala and Puccini.", "Chicago years.", "World premieres: Turandot and Asteria.", "New Chicago Opera House: first broadcasts.", "1933: Last performances on stage.", "Concerts.", "Death.", "Recordings." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "She was born as Raitza Burchstein, the daughter of Herschel and Frieda Leah Burchstein, in Bialystok in 1893. Her family fled Poland when she was 14 due to the pogroms, emigrating to Italy. There Raitza met Dario Ascarelli, who recognized her talent and potential and sponsored her at the Naples Conservatory (San Pietro a Majella). Her teacher at the conservatory, the contralto Barbara Marchisio (1833–1919), had been one of the most prominent Italian singers of the mid-19th century. Marchisio brought Raisa in 1912 to Cleofonte Campanini, a leading operatic conductor and impresario. After the audition, he engaged the 20-year-old singer for the 1913 Parma Verdi Centenary: \"Oberto, Conte di San Bonafico\" and \"Un ballo in maschera,\" and also signed her for his Philadelphia-Chicago Opera. As she was under 21 years of age, her engagement was confirmed in a handshake.", "Debuts and successes followed rapidly for Raisa. Her North American debut was on 14 November 1913 with Campanini's Chicago-Philadelphia Opera Company in Baltimore as Mimí in \"La Bohème\" with Giovanni Martinelli of the Metropolitan Opera in his first season in North America. (Martinelli was to be her partner in 1937 in her last stage appearance of her career in Halévy's \"La Juive\" in Chicago). Her first role in Philadelphia was Isabella of Aragon in the United States premiere of Alberto Franchetti's \"Cristoforo Colombo\", followed by her Chicago \"Aida\" debut (29 November 1913) at the famous Auditorium Theater. Edward Moore, then critic of the Chicago Tribune, stated that hers was \"a voice the like of whose power had never been heard on that stage.\" She added several roles to her stage repertoire with the Chicago-Philadelphia company: Santuzza in \"Cavalleria Rusticana\" (Dallas), Donna Anna in \"Don Giovanni\" (Philadelphia), and Klytemnestra in Vittorio Gnecchi's \"Cassandra\" (Philadelphia—Western Hemisphere premiere), and Elsa in \"Lohengrin\" in English (Seattle). In the spring of 1914 she went to London where she debuted at Covent Garden in \"Aida\" with Enrico Caruso, participated as Helen of Troy in Arrigo Boito's \"Mefistofele\" with Claudia Muzio, John McCormack and Adamo Didur, and substituted for Claire Dux as the Countess in \"Le nozze di Figaro\". The London company went to Paris and she sang her only Nedda in \"Pagliacci\" and again sang Amelia in Verdi's \"Un ballo in maschera\". In November 1914 publisher Tito Ricordi, who had personally auditioned Raisa in his studio, recommended her to the management of the Modena opera for a long run (Raisa recalled nineteen performances) of Riccardo Zandonai's new opera, \"Francesca da Rimini\", first performed in Turin only a few months earlier. This led to an engagement at the Teatro Costanzi in Rome for more Francesca's, Aida's and two novelties, \"Fedra\", a prize-winning opera premiere by a young Romano Romani (later on Rosa Ponselle's coach and mentor) and \"Abdul\" by Brazilian Alberto Nepomuceno. Legendary Emma Carelli, an esteemed soprano in her own right, now the director of the Rome Opera introduced Raisa to her husband Walter Mocchi, the important impresario who organized the glamorous opera seasons in Buenos Aires. As South America was in the Southern Hemisphere, there was a long-standing tradition of the finest Italian artists boarding ships after the end of the opera season in Italy and performing in the reverse seasons, the autumn and winter months in South America. The annals of operatic performances in South America oftentimes read as the \"greatest\" Italian opera to be seen, the Teatro Colón in Buenos Aires a defining theater. Mocchi took Raisa in May 1915 to South America for a long season, first in Buenos Aires and Rosario in Argentina, Montevideo in Uruguay and São Paulo, Rio de Janeiro and Porte Allegre in Brazil. In addition to her Francesca's and Aida's (again one with Caruso) she added \"L'Africana\" also starring Titta Ruffo and sang the Marschallin in the South American premiere of \"Der Rosenkavalier\" in Italian with Gilda dalla Rizza as Octavian and the then unknown Amelita Galli-Curci as Sophie. All these operas were under the leadership of Gino Marinuzzi, the great Italian conductor and composer who for many years championed Raisa.", "Raisa made her La Scala debut as Francesca upon her return from South America. She performed many Francesca's and Aida's as well as Lida in Verdi's rare early opera \"La battaglia di Legnano\" at the Scala. It was after her Francesca at La Scala that she encountered Giacomo Puccini, who visited her after the performance. He was very taken with her performance and potential, Raisa later told the press, that when she asked him which of his operas he thought best for her to tackle, Puccini said: \"there is no opera I have written to which your voice is not suited; they are all the same for you.\" He told her he wanted her to create his next opera (still a work in progress, \"La rondine\") Whether he was more entranced with her youth and beauty or her vocal powers is unknown, but his plan for this assumption of Magda was advanced enough that in January 1917 she was announced in the world press for the premiere of this light opera in Monte Carlo. Raisa did not go to Monte Carlo as she was in the United States and was fearful of the submarine warfare at that stage of the Great War. At about the same time Puccini first encountered Raisa, Arturo Toscanini heard her and told his friends in the opera world that he considered Raisa a \"female Tamagno,\" more appropriate for the heroic \"Turandot\" she would create nine years later. In 1916 she reprised her Francesca's and Aida's at the Rome Opera and returned to South America for another exhausting season, adding \"Loreley,\" Valentina in \"Gli Ugonotti\" (\"Les Huguenots\") and Alice Ford in Verdi's \"Falstaff\". \"Falstaff\" was to play a large part in her career for it gave her an only chance to play the non-title role in an opera with baritone Giacomo Rimini, at that time her lover and after 1920 her husband. In August 1916 Campanini elaborated to the Chicago Tribune his plans for the upcoming 1916-17 season of the Chicago Opera Association (no longer the Chicago-Philadelphia Opera Company), and clearly building up the return of Raisa to Chicago, quoting Caruso, \"he considers Rosa Raisa the greatest dramatic soprano in the world.\" The only problem with Campanini's prediction was that Amelita Galli-Curci was to take Chicago, and the world by storm and she ultimately became the superstar attraction of the company.", "After her return to Chicago in 1916, Raisa along with Mary Garden, Edith Mason, Claudia Muzio and Amelita Galli-Curci were the lead sopranos around which the repertoire of the company revolved. Essentially Raisa was the company's dramatic soprano, Mary Garden the French-repertory soprano, Galli-Curci the light coloratura, Edith Mason a lyric, and Claudia Muzio a spinto soprano. Of all these, Claudia Muzio was the only one to share some roles with Raisa (Leonora in \"Il trovatore\", Desdemona in \"Otello\", Aida, Santuzza, and \"Tosca\"). Raisa was the company's only Maliella in Wolf-Ferrari's \"I gioielli della Madonna\" (\"Jewels of the Madonna\"), \"Gioconda\", Amelia in \"Un ballo in maschera\" (always billed as \"Masked Ball\" in Chicago), Rachel in \"La Juive\" (always announced as \"The Jewess\" in Chicago), and of course the Mount Olympus in opera for sopranos, \"Norma\" in Bellini's opera. This is significant as Claudia Muzio had performed Norma with some success in Italy and South America, but staked no claim to the role over Raisa in Chicago. Raisa over the next 16 seasons (1916-17 to 1931-32) sang almost five hundred times in Chicago and on its transnational tours. She also sang two long seasons in Mexico (1917 and 1919) returned to South America for three more seasons (1918, 1921, and 1929). She added \"Norma\" to her repertoire in Buenos Aires, singing it 22 times alone in that important city in three seasons. Leonora in \"Il trovatore\", \"Tosca\", Margherita in \"Mefistofele\", and \"Lo Schiavo\" were added to her role list in Latin America. In Chicago she added Maddalena in \"Andrea Chénier\", Zina in de Gounzberg's \"Le Vieil Aigle\", \"Isabeau\" in the North American premiere of Mascagni's opera, Maliella in \"'I gioielli della Madonna\", \"La Gioconda\", Basiliola in Montemezzi's \"La Nave\", Puccini's \"Suor Angelica\", Elisabeth in \"Tannhäuser\", Minnie in \"La Fanciulla del West\", Leonora in \"La forza del destino\", Cio-Cio-San in \"Madama Butterfly\" (at the Ravinia Festival outside Chicago, also Giordano's \"Fedora\" at Ravinia), Toinette in Frank Harling's jazz opera \"A Light From Saint Agnes\", Rosalinde in an English-language \"Die Fledermaus\", and Conchita in Zandonai's opera of the same name.", "Raisa also, of course, famously added to her repertoire the role of Asteria in Boito's posthumous opera, \"Nerone\" (1924), and the title role in \"Turandot\" (1926) at Toscanini's La Scala, both world premieres in the most lavish Scala productions of that storied era. In Raisa's version of the \"Nerone\" rehearsals, Puccini managed to enter into the auditorium at an early rehearsal and Toscanini had a tantrum when he realized Puccini was in the house, as it was his firm policy that no one was to be present at the early rehearsals prior to the final dress rehearsal at which the Milanese opera establishment would be invited, no exceptions, not even for Puccini. It fell to Raisa to escort Puccini to the stage door; it was then that Puccini, who had heard some of the early scenes of the Boito opera which featured some stentorian high notes, told Raisa that he was writing \"Turandot\", \"It is a role I can just see you and hear you\" and he wanted her to create it, telling her that only the final scene still had to be composed. In an interview with the \"Chicago Tribune\" the day after word came that Puccini died in Brussels, Raisa told the newspaper that she had playfully told Puccini that he \"better be sure to put in plenty of high C's.\" On October 7, 1924, less than two months before Puccini died, Angelo Scandiani, administrative director of La Scala, wired Herbert Johnson of the Chicago Opera that Puccini and Toscanini had cast three Chicago Opera artists, Rosa Raisa, Edith Mason, and Giaccomo Rimini, for the lead roles in the upcoming \"Turandot\". At that time it was thought that the premiere would take place in April 1925, but Puccini's death at the end of November 1924 postponed these plans; Franco Alfano was selected to compose the final scene from Puccini's sketches. The premiere was on 25 April 1926 with Raisa as Turandot, Miguel Fleta, the acclaimed Spanish tenor as Calaf, and Maria Zamboni, a Scala lyric soprano, cast as Liu, replacing Edith Mason who was pregnant. It is at this performance that Toscanini stopped the performance at the place Puccini stopped composing, addressing the audience with essentially these words \"here is where the Maestro died.\" John Gutman of the Metropolitan Opera in a 1962 interview with Raisa asked her if the artists knew that Toscanini would make this gesture. Raisa said that there were rumblings backstage that something like this might happen, but the artists were never told this officially; therefore, they were somewhat, but not totally, surprised. There is anecdotal information that Puccini on his deathbed had asked Toscanini to make such a gesture at the premiere, but this is not possible to confirm.", "On 4 November 1929, Raisa was awarded the honor of opening the new Chicago Civic Opera House in a performance of \"Aida\" (broadcast throughout the USA) with a stellar cast personally selected by Civic Opera president Samuel Insull, the Chicago industrialist who later ran foul of the law. Raisa and Rimini invested their considerable earnings in Insull securities (actually a ponzi scheme) and eventually lost their fortune, on paper estimated in the range of a million dollars. Most people in the United States believe that high quality opera broadcasts started with the Metropolitan Opera in 1931. The Chicago Opera was broadcasting nationally since 1927, every week for one hour; Mary Garden, Claudia Muzio, Frida Leider, Raisa, Tito Schipa, Eva Turner, Alexander Kipnis and Vanni-Marcoux are some of the headliners who were heard on the radio across America. It is doubtful that any of these transmissions have been preserved.", "1933 is the last year that Raisa performed a reasonably full schedule. Since January 1931 when she left the stage to prepare for the arrival of her daughter, having had six unsuccessful pregnancies, many things happened: the demise of the Chicago Opera, the world-wide deteriorating economic situation and a general contraction of operatic activity in the United States. But Raisa sang a run of \"Tosca\" in Genoa, created Manuela in Zandonai's one-act opera \"Una Partita\" at La Scala, sang Alice Ford in \"Falstaff\" with Rimini at the first Florence May Festival (Maggio Musicale Fiorentino), \"Tosca\" in the presence of Queen Mary at Covent Garden, recorded four verismo arias for Voce del Padrone in Milan, and sang five performances of \"Gli Ugonotti\" at the Arena in Verona with Giacomo Lauri-Volpi and a stellar cast. She can be seen, but not heard, in an edited version of the Act IV Love Duet with Lauri-Volpi who is thrilling as Raoul.", "Rosa Raisa married the Italian baritone Giacomo Rimini (1888–1952) in 1920; the couple had first met five years earlier and were inseparable lovers. Rimini was descended from Sephardic Jews on his father's side and his mother was Hungarian-Italian. Rimini was raised as a Catholic. Their careers merged and after retirement in 1938 they opened a voice/opera school together in Chicago, first at the historic Congress Hotel, across from the Auditorium Theater, and during World War II they moved to North Michigan Avenue. Their daughter Rosa Giulietta Frieda Rimini was born 7 July 1931. They sang hundreds of concerts together, especially in the United States, many of them sponsored by Jewish groups as Raisa had become a beloved ethnic icon. Her concerts were almost always with Rimini, she singing two-thirds of the concert, he one-third. In their concerts they closed the first half and the end, with duets. The most frequent duets they sang were \"Là ci darem la mano\" from \"Don Giovanni\" where they could be outwardly playful and sexy. The Act IV duet from \"Il Trovatore\" was often given at the end of the printed program. It is fascinating that they often sang after the first half of a concert a duet from Verdi's \"Luisa Miller,\" giving Raisa an opportunity to do some flashy coloratura and ending on a high C. She often closed her recitals with the Yiddish song \"Eili, Eili\". \"Eili Eili\" is a Yiddish song starting with the Hebrew words Eili, Eili, (\"God, why have you forsaken us?\") and ending with the Jewish credo, \"Sh'mah Yisroel\" (\"Hear O Israel, the Lord our God, the Lord is One.\") This song exists in several arrangements. Raisa had the popular music composer Joseph Bonomie arrange the song for her voice. Her 1918 recording is remarkable for it shows the cello-like coloring of the lower voice, the liquid middle register, as well as the ease of her upper. And she sings the song with great feeling, appropriately sobbing on key words. It was reported that she often sang this song with her eyes closed. (It can be heard on Youtube, accessed on May 2, 2015.)", "Raisa suffered from cancer, having undergone a double mastectomy in the 1940s. She died on September 28, 1963, and her granddaughter, Suzanne Homme, told Raisa's biographer Charles Mintzer that her death certificate listed \"bone cancer\" as the immediate cause of death. She was buried in Holy Cross Cemetery in Culver City (Los Angeles), California.", "Raisa's relatively few recordings (from 1917-1933 for four different record companies, Pathe, Vocalion, Brunswick, and Italian HMV) reveal a beautiful timbre and a florid technique rare in singers of her type. Her famous vocal power, almost always mentioned in reviews, can only be detected in a few of the recordings. An anthology of these recordings was issued in 1998 on CD by Marston Records (53001-2). The Marston issue also contains an audio interview with Raisa, while its liner notes feature valuable biographical information about her and an evaluation of her voice. In almost all the reviews of her live performances there is usually amazed reference of her phenomenal vocal power. Only on the electric Italian HMVs can some of that power be detected. Alan Kelly, the HMV expert and historian told Larry Lustig of The Record Collector magazine that the company's logs of that May 1933 recording session had notes: \"bad\" microphone technique and \"blasting.\" She had to be placed in the middle of the orchestra to achieve some reasonable balance. The HMVs do not show Raisa's voice at its freshest, but the voice is still golden and beautiful, with magisterial delivery, and a sense of her unusual power. Lauri-Volpi in his seminal book on singers of his experience and knowledge, \"Voci Parallele\", states that by 1933 Raisa's voice was but an x-ray of how he remembered her earlier in her career." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Related concepts.", "In medicinal chemistry.", "Alkyl cations, anions, and radicals.", "Nomenclature.", "Etymology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Alkylation is an important operation in refineries, for example in the production of high-octane gasoline. Alkylating antineoplastic agents are a class of compounds that are used to treat cancer. In such case, the term alkyl is used loosely. For example, nitrogen mustards are well-known alkylating agents, but they are not simple hydrocarbons. In chemistry, alkyl is a group, a substituent, that is attached to other molecular fragments. For example, alkyl lithium reagents have the empirical formula Li(alkyl), where alkyl = methyl, ethyl, etc. A \"dialkyl\" ether is an ether with two alkyl groups, e.g., diethyl ether (O(CH)). Alkyl also refers to an active ingredient in green algae preventatives used in swimming pools.", "In medicinal chemistry, the incorporation of alkyl chains into some chemical compounds increases their lipophilicity. This strategy has been used to increase the antimicrobial activity of flavanones and chalcones.", "Usually, alkyl groups are attached to other atoms or groups of atoms. Free alkyls occur as neutral compounds, as anions, or as cations. The cations are called carbocations. The anions are called carbanions. The neutral alkyl free radicals have no special name. Such species are usually encountered only as transient intermediates, but some are quite stable and can be \"put into a bottle\". Typically alkyl cations are generated using super acids, alkyl anions are observed in the presence of strong bases, and alkyl radicals are generated by a photochemical reaction. Alkyls are commonly observed in mass spectrometry of organic compounds.", "Alkyls form homologous series. The simplest series have the general formula CH. Alkyls include \"methyl\", (CH·), \"ethyl\" (CH·), \"propyl\" (CH·), \"butyl\" (CH·), \"pentyl\" (CH·), and so on. Alkyl groups that contain one ring have the formula CH, e.g. cyclopropyl and cyclohexyl. The naming convention is taken from IUPAC nomenclature: These names are used to name branched chained structures, for example 3-methylpentane: The structure of 3-methylpentane is viewed as consisting of two parts. First, five atoms comprise the longest straight chain of carbon centers. The parent five-carbon compound is named pentane (highlighted blue). The methyl \"substituent\" or \"group\" is highlighted red. According to the usual rules of nomenclature, alkyl groups are included in the name of the molecule before the root, as in methylpentane. This name is, however, ambiguous, as the methyl branch could be on various carbon atoms. Thus, the name is 3-methylpentane to avoid ambiguity: The 3- is because the methyl is attached to the third of the five carbon atoms. If there is more than one of the same alkyl group attached to a chain, then the prefixes are used on the alkyl groups to indicate multiples (i.e., di, tri, tetra, etc.) This compound is known as 2,3,3-trimethylpentane. Here three identical alkyl groups attached to carbon atoms 2, 3, and 3. These numbers are included in the name to avoid ambiguity on the position of the groups, and \"tri\" indicates that there are three identical methyl groups. If one of the methyl groups attached to the third carbon atom were an ethyl group, then the name would become 3-ethyl-2,3-dimethylpentane. Note that when there are different alkyl groups, they are listed in alphabetical order. In addition, each position on an alkyl chain can be described according to how many other carbon atoms are attached to it. The terms primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary refer to a carbon attached to one, two, three, or four other carbons respectively.", "The first named alkyl radical was ethyl, named so by Liebig in 1833 from the German word \"aether\" (which in turn had been derived from the Greek word \"aither\") (https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ether, i.e., the substance now known as diethyl ether) and the Greek word ύλη (hyle), meaning \"matter\". This was followed by methyl (Dumas and Peligot in 1834, meaning \"spirit of wood\") and amyl (Auguste Cahours in 1840). The word alkyl was introduced by Johannes Wislicenus in or before 1882, based on the German word \"Alkoholradicale\" and then-common suffix -yl." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Production.", "Writing.", "Casting.", "Filming.", "Music.", "Release and reception.", "Contemporary reviews.", "Retrospective reviews." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Three MI6 agents are killed under mysterious circumstances within 24 hours in the United Nations headquarters in New York City, New Orleans and the Caribbean nation of San Monique, while monitoring the operations of the island's dictator, Dr. Kananga. James Bond, Agent 007, is sent to New York to investigate. Kananga is also in New York, visiting the United Nations. Just after Bond arrives, his driver is shot dead by Whisper, one of Kananga's men, while taking Bond to meet Felix Leiter of the CIA. Bond is nearly killed in the ensuing car crash. A trace on the killer's licence plate eventually leads Bond to Mr. Big, a ruthless gangster who runs a chain of restaurants throughout the United States. It is here that Bond first meets Solitaire, a beautiful tarot reader who has the power of the Obeah and can see both the future and remote events in the present. Mr. Big demands that his henchmen kill Bond, but Bond overpowers them and escapes with the help of CIA agent Strutter. Bond flies to San Monique, where he meets Rosie Carver, a CIA double agent. They meet up with Bond's friend, Quarrel Jr., who takes them by boat near Solitaire's home. Bond suspects Rosie of working for Kananga and she is killed by Kananga to stop her confessing the truth to Bond. Inside Solitaire's house, Bond uses a stacked deck of tarot cards that show only \"The Lovers\" to trick her into thinking that fate is meant for them; Bond then seduces her. Solitaire loses her ability to foretell the future when she loses her virginity to Bond, and she decides to cooperate with Bond, based both upon her attraction to him as well as her having grown tired of being controlled by Kananga. Bond and Solitaire escape by boat and fly to New Orleans. There, Bond is captured by Mr. Big, who removes his prosthetic face and is revealed to be Kananga. He has been producing heroin and is protecting the poppy fields by exploiting the San Monique locals' fear of voodoo priest Baron Samedi, as well as the occult. Through his alter ego Mr. Big, Kananga plans to distribute the heroin free of charge at his restaurants, which will increase the number of addicts. He intends to bankrupt other drug dealers with his giveaway, then charge high prices for his heroin later in order to capitalise on the huge drug dependencies he has cultivated. Angry at her for having sex with Bond and that her ability to read tarot cards is now gone, Kananga turns Solitaire over to Baron Samedi to be sacrificed. Meanwhile, Kananga's henchmen, one-armed Tee Hee and tweed-jacketed Adam, leave Bond to be eaten by crocodilians at a farm in the Deep South backwoods. Bond escapes by running along the animals' backs to safety. After setting a drug laboratory on fire, he steals a speedboat and escapes, pursued by Kananga's men under Adam's order, as well as Sheriff J.W. Pepper and the Louisiana State Police. Most pursuers get wrecked or left behind, and Adam does not survive Bond's strike. Bond travels to San Monique and sets timed explosives throughout the poppy fields. He rescues Solitaire from the voodoo sacrifice and throws Samedi into a coffin of venomous snakes. Bond and Solitaire escape below ground into Kananga's lair. Kananga captures them both and proceeds to lower them into a shark tank. However, Bond escapes and forces Kananga to swallow a compressed-gas pellet used in shark guns, causing his body to inflate and explode. Leiter puts Bond and Solitaire on a train leaving the country. Tee Hee sneaks aboard and attempts to kill Bond, but Bond cuts the wires of his prosthetic arm and throws him out the window. As the film ends, a laughing Samedi is revealed to be perched on the front of the speeding train.", "", "While filming \"Diamonds Are Forever\", \"Live and Let Die\" was chosen as the next Ian Fleming novel to be adapted because screenwriter Tom Mankiewicz thought it would be daring to use black villains, as the Black Panthers and other racial movements were active at this time. Guy Hamilton was again chosen to direct and, since he was a jazz fan, Mankiewicz suggested he film in New Orleans. Hamilton did not want to use Mardi Gras since \"Thunderball\" featured Junkanoo, a similar festivity, so after more discussions with the writer and location scouting with helicopters, he decided to use two well-known features of the city, the jazz funerals and the canals. To develop a better feel of how Voodoo was practised, Saltzman and Broccoli escorted Hamilton, Mankiewicz and production designer Syd Cain to scout New Orleans further and then the islands of the West Indies. Haiti was an important destination of the tour and not only did Fleming connect it with the religion, there were many practitioners available to witness. Despite viewing actual demonstrations, due to political unrest in the country at the time it was decided not to film in Haiti. While searching for locations in Jamaica, the crew discovered a crocodile farm owned by Ross Kananga, after passing a sign warning that \"trespassers will be eaten\". The farm was put into the script and also inspired Mankiewicz to name the film's villain after Kananga. Richard Maibaum later claimed he was asked to write the film, but declined, because he was too busy. He disliked the final film, saying, \"to process drugs in the middle of the jungle is not a Bond caper.\"", "Broccoli and Saltzman tried to convince Sean Connery to return as James Bond, but he declined. At the same time United Artists approached actors Adam West and Burt Reynolds. Reynolds told the studios that Bond should be played by a British actor and turned the offer down. Among the actors to test for the part of Bond were Julian Glover, John Gavin, Jeremy Brett, Simon Oates, John Ronane, and William Gaunt. The main frontrunner for the role was Michael Billington. United Artists was still pushing to cast an American to play Bond, but producer Albert R. Broccoli insisted that the part should be played by a British actor and put forward Roger Moore. After Moore was chosen, Billington remained on the top of the list in the event that Moore declined to come back for the next film. Billington ultimately played a brief role in the pre-credit sequence of \"The Spy Who Loved Me\" (1977). Moore, who had been considered by the producers before both \"Dr. No\" and \"On Her Majesty's Secret Service\", was ultimately cast. He tried not to imitate either Connery's or his own prior performance as Simon Templar in \"The Saint\", and Mankiewicz fitted the screenplay into Moore's persona by giving more comedic scenes and a light-hearted approach to Bond. Mankiewicz had thought of turning Solitaire into a black woman, and Diana Ross was his first choice. Broccoli and Saltzman decided to stick to Fleming's description of a white woman and, after considering Catherine Deneuve, cast Jane Seymour, who was in the TV series \"The Onedin Line\". Yaphet Kotto was cast while doing another movie for United Artists, \"Across 110th Street\". Kotto reported one of the things he liked in the role was Kananga's interest in the occult, \"feeling like he can control past, present and future\". Mankiewicz created Sheriff J.W. Pepper to add comic relief. Portrayed by Clifton James, Pepper appeared again in \"The Man with the Golden Gun\". \"Live and Let Die\" is also the first of two films featuring David Hedison as Felix Leiter, who reprised the role in \"Licence to Kill\". Hedison had said \"I was sure that would be my first and last\", before being cast again. Madeline Smith, who played Miss Caruso, sharing Bond's bed in the film's opening, was recommended for the part by Roger Moore after he had appeared with her on television. Smith said that Moore was extremely polite to work with, but she felt very uncomfortable being clad in only blue bikini panties while Moore's wife was on set overseeing the scene. \"Live and Let Die\" was the only Bond film until \"Casino Royale\" (2006) not to feature \"Q\", played at this stage by Desmond Llewelyn. He was then appearing in the television series \"Follyfoot\", but was written out of three episodes to appear in the film. By then, Saltzman and Broccoli decided not to include the character, feeling that \"too much was being made of the films' gadgets\", and decided to downplay this aspect of the series, much to Llewelyn's annoyance. Lois Maxwell had only been included in \"Diamonds Are Forever\" during filming as a late addition, as she had asked for a pay increase. For \"Live And Let Die\", she returned for the same fee, but due to a technical error, the filming of her scenes in Bond's home at the start of the movie extended to two days, costing the production more than if they'd paid the increase she requested. Roger Moore later wrote that Maxwell celebrated the double-pay-day by purchasing a fur coat.", "Principal photography began in October 1972, in Louisiana. For a while, only the second unit was shooting after Moore was diagnosed with kidney stones. In November production moved to Jamaica, which represented the fictional San Monique. In December, production was divided between interiors in Pinewood Studios and location shooting in Harlem. The producers were reportedly required to pay protection money to a local Harlem gang to ensure the crew's safety. When the money ran out, they were forced to leave. Some exteriors were in fact shot in Manhattan's Upper East Side as a result of the difficulties of using real Harlem locations. Yaphet Kotto later stated \"There were so many problems with that script... I was too afraid of coming off like Mantan Moreland... I had to dig deep in my soul and brain and come up with a level of reality that would offset the sea of stereotype crap that Tom Mankiewicz wrote that had nothing to do with the Black experience or culture.\" Kotto said he did this by drawing \"on a real life situation I was going through and that saved me... but the way Kananga dies was a joke... The entire experience was not as rewarding as I wanted it to be.\" Ross Kananga suggested the stunt of Bond jumping on crocodiles, and was enlisted by the producers to perform it. The scene took five takes to be completed, including one in which the last crocodile snapped at Kananga's heel, tearing his trousers. The production also had trouble with snakes. The script supervisor was so afraid that she refused to be on set with them, an actor fainted while filming a scene where he is killed by a snake, Jane Seymour became terrified as a reptile got closer, and Geoffrey Holder only agreed to fall into the snake-filled casket because Princess Alexandra was visiting the set. The boat chase was filmed in Louisiana around the Irish Bayou area, with some interruption caused by flooding. 26 boats were built by the Glastron boat company for the film. 17 were destroyed during rehearsals. The speedboat jump scene over the bayou, filmed with the assistance of a specially-constructed ramp, unintentionally set a Guinness World Record at the time with cleared. The waves created by the impact caused the following boat to flip over. The chase involving the double-decker bus was filmed with a former London bus adapted by having a top section removed, and then placed back in situ running on ball bearings to allow it to slide off on impact. The stunts involving the bus were performed by Maurice Patchett, a London Transport bus driving instructor.", "John Barry, who had worked on the previous five films and orchestrated the \"James Bond Theme\", was unavailable during production. Broccoli and Saltzman instead asked Paul McCartney to write the theme song. Saltzman, mindful of his decision not to produce \"A Hard Day's Night\" was especially eager to work with McCartney. Since McCartney's salary was high and another composer could not be hired with the remainder of the music budget, George Martin, who had been McCartney's producer while with The Beatles, was chosen to write the score for the film. \"Live and Let Die\", written by McCartney along with his wife Linda and performed by their group Wings, was the first true rock and roll song used to open a Bond film, and became a major success in the United Kingdom (where it reached number nine in the charts) and the US (where it reached number 2, for three weeks). It was nominated for an Academy Award, but lost to \"The Way We Were\". Producers hired B. J. Arnau to record and perform the title song, not realising McCartney intended to perform it. Arnau's version was featured in the film, when the singer performs it in a night club that Bond visits. The Olympia Brass Band has a notable part in \"Live and Let Die\", where they lead a funeral march for a soon-to-be assassination victim. Trumpeter Alvin Alcorn plays the killer. The piece of music the band plays at the beginning of the funeral march is \"Just a Closer Walk with Thee\". After the agent is stabbed, the band starts playing the more lively \"Joe Avery's Piece\", a.k.a. \"New Second Line\".", "The film was released in the United States on 27 June 1973. The world premiere was at Odeon Leicester Square in London on 6 July 1973, with general release in the United Kingdom on the same day. From a budget of around $7 million, ($ million in dollars) the film grossed $161.8 million ($ million in dollars) worldwide. The film holds the record for the most viewed broadcast film on television in the United Kingdom by attracting 23.5 million viewers when premiered on ITV on 20 January 1980.", "Roger Ebert of the \"Chicago Sun-Times\" stated that Moore \"has the superficial attributes for the job: The urbanity, the quizzically raised eyebrow, the calm under fire and in bed\". However, he felt that Moore wasn't satisfactory in living up to the legacy left by Sean Connery in the preceding films. He rated the villains \"a little banal\", adding that the film \"doesn't have a Bond villain worthy of the Goldfingers, Dr. Nos and Oddjobs of the past.\" Richard Schickel, reviewing for \"Time\", described the film as \"the most vulgar addition to a series that has long since outlived its brief historical moment — if not, alas, its profitability.\" He also criticized the action sequences as excessive, but noted that \"aside an allright speedboat spectacular over land and water, the film is both perfunctory and predictable—leaving the mind free to wander into the question of its overall taste. Or lack of it.\" Roger Greenspun of \"The New York Times\" praised Moore as \"a handsome, suave, somewhat phlegmatic James Bond—with a tendency to throw away his throwaway quips as the minor embarrassments that, alas, they usually are.\" He was further critical of Jane Seymour and Yaphet Kotto, the latter of whom he felt \"does not project evil.\" In conclusion, he remarked the film was \"especially well photographed and edited, and it makes clever and extensive use of its good title song, by Paul and Linda McCartney.\" Charles Champlin of the \"Los Angeles Times\" likened Moore as \"a handsome and smoothly likable successor to Sean Connery as James Bond.\" He further noted that the script \"uses only the bare bones of Fleming's story about evil doings which link Harlem with a mysterious Caribbean island. The level of invention is high, but now and again you do sense the strain of always having to try harder because you're No. 1. If one menacing viper is good, three or a coffinful full are not inevitably better. But the action never slumps, and the series never seemed more like a real cartoon.\" \"Variety\" wrote that Moore was \"an okay replacement for Sean Connery. The Tom Mankiewicz script, faced with a real-world crisis in the villain sector, reveals that plot lines have descended further to the level of the old Saturday afternoon serial, and the treatment is more than ever like a cartoon. Unchanged are the always-dubious moral values and the action set pieces. Guy Hamilton's direction is good.\"", "Chris Nashawaty, reviewing for BBC, similarly argues that Dr. Kananga/Mr. Big is the worst villain of the Roger Moore James Bond films. Also from BBC, William Mager praised the use of locations, but said that the plot was \"convoluted\". He stated that \"Connery and Lazenby had an air of concealed thuggishness, clenched fists at the ready, but in Moore's case a sardonic quip and a raised eyebrow are his deadliest weapons\". Danny Peary, in his book \"Guide for the Film Fanatic\", noted that Jane Seymour portrays \"one of the Bond series's most beautiful heroines\", but had little praise for Moore, whom he described as making \"an unimpressive debut as James Bond in Tom Mankiewicz's unimaginative adaptation of Ian Fleming's second novel... The movie stumbles along most of the way. It's hard to remember Moore is playing Bond at times — in fact, if he and Seymour were black, the picture could pass as one of the black exploitation films of the day. There are few interesting action sequences — a motorboat chase is trite enough to begin with, but the filmmakers make it worse by throwing in some stupid Louisiana cops, including pot-bellied Sheriff Pepper.\" Ian Nathan of \"Empire\" wrote \"This is good quality Bond, managing to reinterpret the classic moves — action, deduction, seduction — for a more modern idiom without breaking the mould. On one side we get the use of alligators as stepping stones and the pompous pitbull of rootin' tootin' Sheriff Pepper caught up in the thrilling boat chase. On the other, the genuine aura of threat through weird voodoo henchman Tee Hee and the leaning toward — what's this? — realism in Mr Big's plot to take over the drug trade from the Mafia.\" He concluded that \"Moore had got his feet under the table.\" IGN ranked Solitaire as 10th in a Top 10 Bond Babes list. In November 2006, \"Entertainment Weekly\" listed \"Live and Let Die\" as the third-best Bond film. MSN chose it as the thirteenth best Bond film and IGN listed it as twelfth-best. On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 66% from 47 reviews based on 5.76/10. The website's critical consensus reads: \"While not one of the highest-rated Bond films, \"Live and Let Die\" finds Roger Moore adding his stamp to the series with flashes of style and an improved sense of humor.\" In 2004, the American Film Institute nominated the song \"Live and Let Die\" from the film for AFI's 100 Years...100 Songs." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Childhood and family history.", "Education and moving west.", "Early career and the Civil War.", "Political career in New York.", "Sheriff of Erie County.", "Mayor of Buffalo.", "Governor of New York.", "Election of 1884.", "Nomination for president.", "Campaign against Blaine.", "First presidency (1885–1889).", "Reform.", "Vetoes.", "Silver.", "Tariffs.", "Foreign policy, 1885–1889.", "Military policy, 1885–1889.", "Civil rights and immigration.", "Native American policy.", "Marriage and children.", "Judicial appointments.", "Election of 1888 and return to private life.", "Defeated by Harrison.", "Private citizen for four years.", "Election of 1892.", "Democratic nomination.", "Campaign against Harrison.", "Second presidency (1893–1897).", "Economic panic and the silver issue.", "Tariff reform.", "Voting rights.", "Labor unrest.", "Pullman Strike.", "Foreign policy, 1893–1897.", "Military policy, 1893–1897.", "Cancer.", "Judicial appointments.", "States admitted to the Union.", "1896 election and retirement.", "Honors and memorials.", "Further reading.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Stephen Grover Cleveland was born on March 18, 1837, in Caldwell, New Jersey, to Ann (née Neal) and Richard Falley Cleveland. Cleveland's father was a Congregational and Presbyterian minister who was originally from Connecticut. His mother was from Baltimore and was the daughter of a bookseller. On his father's side, Cleveland was descended from English ancestors, the first of the family having emigrated to Massachusetts from Cleveland, England in 1635. His father's maternal grandfather, Richard Falley Jr., fought at the Battle of Bunker Hill, and was the son of an immigrant from Guernsey. On his mother's side, Cleveland was descended from Anglo-Irish Protestants and German Quakers from Philadelphia. Cleveland was distantly related to General Moses Cleaveland, after whom the city of Cleveland, Ohio, was named. Cleveland, the fifth of nine children,", "Cleveland received his elementary education at the Fayetteville Academy and the Clinton Liberal Academy. After his father died in 1853, he again left school to help support his family. Later that year, Cleveland's brother William was hired as a teacher at the New York Institute for the Blind in New York City, and William obtained a place for Cleveland as an assistant teacher. He returned home to Holland Patent at the end of 1854, where an", "Cleveland worked for the Rogers firm for three years, then left in 1862 to start his own practice. In January 1863, he was appointed assistant district attorney of Erie County. With the American Civil War raging, Congress passed the Conscription Act of 1863, requiring able-bodied men to serve in the army if called upon, or else to hire a substitute. Cleveland chose the latter course, paying $150 () to George Benninsky, a thirty-two-year-old Polish immigrant, to serve in his place. Benninsky survived the", "", "From his earliest involvement in politics, Cleveland aligned with the Democratic Party. He had a decided aversion to Republicans John Fremont and Abraham Lincoln, and the heads of the Rogers law firm were solid Democrats. In 1865, he ran for District Attorney, losing narrowly to his friend and roommate, Lyman K. Bass, the Republican nominee. In 1870, with the help of friend Oscar Folsom, Cleveland secured the Democratic nomination for Sheriff of Erie County, New York. He won the election by a 303-vote margin and took office on January 1, 1871 at age 33. While this new career took him away from the practice of law, it was rewarding in other ways: the fees were said to yield up to $40,000 () over the two-year term. Cleveland's service as sheriff was unremarkable; biographer Rexford Tugwell described the time in office as a waste for Cleveland politically. Cleveland was aware of graft in the sheriff's office during his tenure and chose not to confront it. A notable incident of", "In the 1870s, the municipal government in Buffalo had grown increasingly corrupt, with Democratic and Republican political machines cooperating to share the spoils of political office. In 1881 the Republicans nominated a slate of particularly disreputable machine politicians; the Democrats saw the opportunity to gain the votes of disaffected Republicans by nominating a more honest candidate. The party leaders approached Cleveland, and he agreed to run for Mayor of Buffalo, provided that the rest of the ticket was to his liking. When the more notorious politicians were left off the Democratic ticket, Cleveland accepted the nomination. Cleveland was elected mayor with 15,120 votes, as against 11,528 for Milton C. Beebe, his opponent. He took office January 2, 1882. Cleveland's term as", "New York Democratic party officials began to consider Cleveland a possible nominee for governor. Daniel Manning, a party insider who admired Cleveland's record, was instrumental in his candidacy. With a split in the state Republican party in 1882, the Democratic party was considered to be at an advantage; there were several contenders for that party's nomination. The two leading Democratic candidates were Roswell P. Flower and Henry W. Slocum. Their factions deadlocked, and the convention could not agree on a nominee. Cleveland, in third place on the first ballot, picked up support in subsequent votes and emerged as the compromise choice. The Republican party remained divided against itself, and in the general election Cleveland emerged the victor, with 535,318 votes to Republican nominee Charles J. Folger's 342,464. Cleveland's margin of victory was, at the time, the largest in a contested New York election; the Democrats also picked up seats in both houses of the New York State Legislature. Cleveland brought his opposition to needless spending to the governor's office; he", "", "The Republicans convened in Chicago and nominated former Speaker of the House James G. Blaine of Maine for president on the fourth ballot. Blaine's nomination alienated many Republicans who viewed Blaine as ambitious and immoral. The GOP standard bearer was weakened by alienating the Mugwumps, and the Conkling faction, recently disenfranchised by President Arthur. Democratic party leaders saw the Republicans' choice as an opportunity to win the White House for the first time since 1856 if the right candidate could be found. Among the Democrats, Samuel J. Tilden was the initial front-runner, having been the party's nominee in the contested election of 1876. After Tilden declined a nomination due to his", "Corruption in politics was the central issue in 1884; indeed, Blaine had over the span of his career been involved in several questionable deals. Cleveland's reputation as an opponent of corruption proved the Democrats' strongest asset. William C. Hudson created Cleveland's contextual campaign slogan \"A public office is a public trust.\" Reform-minded Republicans called \"Mugwumps\" denounced Blaine as corrupt and flocked to Cleveland. The Mugwumps, including such men as Carl Schurz and Henry Ward Beecher, were more concerned with morality than with party, and felt Cleveland was a kindred soul who would promote civil service reform and fight for efficiency in government. At the same time the Democrats gained support from the", "", "Soon after taking office, Cleveland was faced with the task of filling all the government jobs for which the president had the power of appointment. These jobs were typically filled under the spoils system, but Cleveland announced that he would not fire any Republican who was doing his job well, and would not appoint anyone solely on the basis of party service. He also used his appointment powers to reduce the number of federal employees, as many departments had become bloated with political time-servers. Later in his term, as his fellow Democrats chafed at being excluded from the spoils, Cleveland began to replace more of the partisan Republican officeholders with Democrats; this was especially the case with policy making positions. While some of his decisions were influenced by party", "Cleveland faced a Republican Senate and often resorted to using his veto powers. He vetoed hundreds of private pension bills for American Civil War veterans, believing that if their pensions requests had already been rejected by the Pension Bureau, Congress should not attempt to override that decision. When Congress, pressured by the", "One of the most volatile issues of the 1880s was whether the currency should be backed by gold and silver, or by gold alone. The issue cut across party lines, with western Republicans and southern Democrats joining together in the call for the free coinage of silver, and both parties' representatives in the northeast holding firm for the gold standard. Because silver was worth less than its legal equivalent in gold, taxpayers paid their government bills in silver, while international creditors demanded payment in gold, resulting in a depletion of", "Another contentious financial issue at the time was the protective tariff. These tariffs had been implemented as a temporary measure during the civil war to protect American industrial interests but remained in place after the war. While it had not been a central point in his campaign, Cleveland's opinion on the tariff was that of most Democrats: that the tariff ought to be reduced. Republicans generally favored a high tariff to protect American industries. American tariffs had been high since the Civil War, and by the 1880s the tariff brought in so much revenue that the government was running a surplus. In 1886, a bill to reduce the tariff was narrowly defeated", "Cleveland was a committed non-interventionist who had campaigned in opposition to expansion and imperialism. He refused to promote the previous administration's Nicaragua canal treaty, and generally was less of an expansionist in foreign relations. Cleveland's Secretary", "Cleveland's military policy emphasized self-defense and modernization. In 1885 Cleveland appointed the Board of Fortifications under Secretary of War William C. Endicott to recommend a new coastal fortification system for the United States. No improvements to US coastal defenses had been made since the late 1870s. The Board's 1886 report recommended a massive $127 million construction program (equivalent to $ billion in ) at 29 harbors and river estuaries, to include new breech-loading rifled guns, mortars, and naval minefields. The Board and the program are usually called the Endicott Board and the Endicott Program. Most of the Board's recommendations were implemented, and by 1910, 27 locations were defended by over 70 forts. Many of the weapons remained in", "Cleveland, like a growing number of Northerners (and nearly all white Southerners) saw Reconstruction as a failed experiment, and was reluctant to use federal power to enforce the 15th Amendment of the U.S. Constitution, which guaranteed voting rights to African Americans. Though Cleveland appointed no black Americans to patronage jobs, he allowed Frederick Douglass to continue in his post as recorder of deeds in Washington, D.C. and appointed another black man (James Campbell Matthews, a former", "Cleveland viewed Native Americans as wards of the state, saying in his first inaugural address that \"[t]his guardianship involves, on our part, efforts for the improvement of their condition and enforcement of their rights.\" He encouraged the idea of cultural assimilation, pushing for the passage of the Dawes Act, which provided for distribution of Indian lands to individual members of tribes, rather than having them continued to be held in trust for the tribes by the federal government. While a conference of Native leaders endorsed the act, in practice the majority of Native Americans disapproved of it.", "Cleveland was age 47 when he entered the White House as a bachelor, and his sister Rose Cleveland joined him, to act as hostess for the first two years of his administration. Unlike the previous bachelor president James Buchanan, Cleveland did not remain a bachelor for long. In 1885 the daughter of Cleveland's friend Oscar Folsom visited him in Washington. Frances Folsom was a student at Wells College. When she returned to school, President Cleveland received her mother's permission to correspond with her, and they were soon engaged to be married. On", "During his first term, Cleveland successfully nominated two justices to the Supreme Court of the United States. The first, Lucius Q. C. Lamar, was a former Mississippi senator who served in Cleveland's Cabinet as Interior Secretary. When William Burnham Woods died, Cleveland nominated Lamar to his seat in late 1887. While Lamar had been well liked as a senator, his service under the Confederacy two decades earlier caused many Republicans to vote against him. Lamar's nomination was confirmed by the narrow margin of 32 to 28. Chief Justice Morrison Waite died a few months later, and Cleveland nominated Melville Fuller to fill his seat on April 30,", "", "The Republicans nominated Benjamin Harrison of Indiana for president and Levi P. Morton of New York for vice president. Cleveland was easily renominated at the Democratic convention in St. Louis. Following Vice President Thomas A. Hendricks death in 1885, the Democrats chose Allen G. Thurman of Ohio to be Cleveland's new running mate. The Republicans gained the upper hand in the campaign, as Cleveland's campaign was poorly managed by Calvin S. Brice and William H. Barnum, whereas Harrison had engaged more aggressive fundraisers and tacticians in Matt Quay and John Wanamaker. The Republicans campaigned heavily on the tariff issue, turning out protectionist voters", "As Frances Cleveland left the White House, she told a staff member, \"Now, Jerry, I want you to take good care of all the furniture and ornaments in the house, for I want to find everything just as it is now, when we come back again.\" When asked when she would return, she responded, \"We are coming back four years from today.\" In the meantime, the Clevelands moved to New York City, where Cleveland took a position with the law firm of Bangs, Stetson, Tracy, and MacVeigh. This affiliation was more of an", "", "Cleveland's enduring reputation as chief executive and his recent pronouncements on the monetary issues made him a leading contender for the Democratic nomination. His leading opponent was David B. Hill, a Senator for New York. Hill united the anti-Cleveland elements of the Democratic party—silverites, protectionists, and Tammany Hall—but was unable to create a coalition large enough to deny", "The Republicans re-nominated President Harrison, making the 1892 election a rematch of the one four years earlier. Unlike the turbulent and controversial elections of 1876, 1884, and 1888, the 1892 election was, according to Cleveland biographer Allan Nevins, \"the cleanest, quietest, and most creditable in the memory of the post-war generation,\" in part because Harrison's wife, Caroline, was dying of tuberculosis. Harrison did not personally campaign at all. Following Caroline Harrison's death on October 25, two weeks before the national election, Cleveland and all of the other candidates stopped campaigning, thus making Election Day a somber and quiet event for the whole country as well as the candidates.", "", "Shortly after Cleveland's second term began, the Panic of 1893 struck the stock market, and he soon faced an acute economic depression. The panic was worsened by the acute shortage of gold that resulted from the increased coinage of silver, and Cleveland called Congress into special session to deal with the problem. The debate over the coinage was as heated as ever, and the effects of the panic had driven more moderates to support repealing the coinage provisions of", "Having succeeded in reversing the Harrison administration's silver policy, Cleveland sought next to reverse the effects of the McKinley Tariff. The Wilson–Gorman Tariff Act was introduced by West Virginian Representative William L. Wilson in December 1893. After lengthy debate, the bill passed the House by a considerable margin. The bill proposed moderate downward revisions in the tariff, especially on raw materials. The shortfall in revenue was to be made up by an income tax of two percent on income above", "In 1892, Cleveland had campaigned against the Lodge Bill, which would have strengthened voting rights protections through the appointing of federal supervisors of congressional elections upon a petition from the citizens of any district. The Enforcement Act of 1871 had provided for a detailed federal overseeing of the electoral", "The Panic of 1893 had damaged labor conditions across the United States, and the victory of anti-silver legislation worsened the mood of western laborers. A group of workingmen led by Jacob S. Coxey began to march east toward Washington, D.C. to protest Cleveland's policies. This group, known as Coxey's Army, agitated in", "The Pullman Strike had a significantly greater impact than Coxey's Army. A strike began against the Pullman Company over low wages and twelve-hour workdays, and sympathy strikes, led by American Railway Union leader Eugene V. Debs, soon followed. By June 1894, 125,000 railroad workers were on strike, paralyzing the nation's commerce. Because the railroads carried the mail, and because several of the affected lines were in federal receivership, Cleveland believed a federal solution was appropriate. Cleveland obtained an injunction in federal court, and when the strikers refused to obey it, he sent federal troops into Chicago and 20 other rail centers. \"If it takes the entire army and navy of the United States to deliver a postcard in Chicago\", he proclaimed, \"that card will be", "When Cleveland took office he faced the question of Hawaiian annexation. In his first term, he had supported free trade with Hawai'i and accepted an amendment that gave the United States a coaling and naval station in Pearl Harbor. In the intervening four years, Honolulu businessmen of European and American ancestry had denounced Queen Liliuokalani as a tyrant who rejected constitutional government. In early 1893 they overthrew her, set up a republican government under Sanford B. Dole, and sought to join the United States. The Harrison administration had quickly agreed with representatives of the new government on a treaty of annexation and submitted it to the Senate for approval. Five days after taking office on March 9, 1893, Cleveland withdrew the treaty from the Senate and sent former Congressman James Henderson Blount to Hawai'i to investigate the conditions there. Cleveland agreed with Blount's report, which found the populace to be opposed to annexation. Liliuokalani initially refused to grant amnesty as a condition of her reinstatement, saying that she would either execute or banish the current government in", "The second Cleveland administration was as committed to military modernization as the first, and ordered the first ships of a navy capable of offensive action. Construction continued on the Endicott program of coastal fortifications begun under Cleveland's first administration. The adoption of the Krag–Jørgensen rifle, the US Army's first bolt-action repeating", "In the midst of the fight for repeal of Free Silver coinage in 1893, Cleveland sought the advice of the White House doctor, Dr. O'Reilly, about soreness on the roof of his mouth and a crater-like edge ulcer with a granulated surface on the left side of Cleveland's hard palate. Clinical samples were sent anonymously to the Army Medical Museum; the diagnosis was an \"epithelioma\", rather than a malignant cancer. Cleveland decided to have surgery secretly, to avoid further panic that might worsen the financial depression. The surgery occurred on July 1, to give Cleveland time to make a full recovery in time for the upcoming Congressional session. Under the guise of a vacation cruise, Cleveland and his surgeon, Dr. Joseph Bryant, left for New York. The surgeons operated aboard the \"Oneida\", a yacht owned by Cleveland's friend E. C. Benedict, as it", "Cleveland's trouble with the Senate hindered the success of his nominations to the Supreme Court in his second term. In 1893, after the death of Samuel Blatchford, Cleveland nominated William B. Hornblower to the Court. Hornblower, the head of a New York City law firm, was thought to be a qualified appointee, but his campaign against a New York machine politician had made Senator David B. Hill his enemy. Further, Cleveland had not consulted the Senators before naming his appointee, leaving many who were already opposed to Cleveland on other grounds even more aggrieved. The", "No new states were admitted to the Union during Cleveland's first term. On February 22, 1889, days before leaving office, the 50th Congress passed the Enabling Act of 1889, authorizing North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, and Washington to form state governments", "Cleveland's agrarian and silverite enemies gained control of the Democratic party in 1896, repudiated his administration and the gold standard, and nominated William Jennings Bryan on a Silver Platform. Cleveland silently supported the Gold Democrats' third-party ticket that promised to defend the gold standard, limit government and oppose high tariffs, but he declined their nomination for a third term. The party won only 100,000 votes in the general election, and William McKinley, the Republican nominee, triumphed easily over Bryan. Agrarians nominated Bryan again in 1900. In 1904 the conservatives, with Cleveland's support, regained control of the Democratic Party and nominated Alton B. Parker. After leaving the White House on March 4, 1897, Cleveland lived in retirement at his estate, Westland Mansion, in Princeton, New Jersey. For a time he was a trustee of Princeton University, and was one of the majority of trustees who preferred", "In his first term in office, Cleveland sought a summer house to escape the heat and smells of Washington, D.C., near enough the capital. He secretly bought a farmhouse, Oak View (or Oak Hill), in a rural upland part of the District of Columbia, in 1886, and remodeled it into a Queen Anne style summer estate. He sold Oak View upon losing his bid for re-election in 1888. Not long thereafter, suburban residential development reached the area, which came to be known as Oak View, and then Cleveland Heights, and eventually Cleveland Park. The Clevelands are depicted in local murals. Grover Cleveland Hall at Buffalo State College in Buffalo, New York is named after Cleveland. Cleveland Hall houses the offices of the college president, vice presidents, and other administrative functions and", "Scholarly studies", "Official Letters and speeches Media coverage Other" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Mount Hiei in folklore.", "Marathon monks.", "Attractions.", "Access." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Mount Hiei has been featured in many folk tales over the ages. Originally it was thought to be the home of gods and demons of Shinto lore, although it is predominantly known for the Buddhist monks that come from the temple of Enryaku-ji.", "John Stevens wrote the book \"The Marathon Monks of Mount Hiei,\" chronicling the practice of walking long distances – up to a day for 100 straight days, in an effort to attain enlightenment. The practice of walking is known as the \"kaihōgyō\". A 2010 US National Public Radio report described the \"sennichi kaihōgyō\" (thousand-day \"kaihōgyō\") as", "Beyond the mountain itself, its forests, and the views it affords – of Kyoto, of Ohara, of lake Biwa and Shiga – the main attraction is the temple complex of Enryaku-ji. The temple complex spreads out over the mountain, but is concentrated in three areas, connected by foot trails. There are also more minor temples and shrines. Unusually, there are also a number of French-themed attractions – the peak itself features the Garden Museum Hiei, which is themed on French impressionism, featuring gardens and French paintings, while there is also a French-themed hotel, \"L'hotel de Hiei\" (The Hiei Hotel). The mountain is busiest during the daytime, but has some visitors in the evenings, for light-up displays and to see the night view of the surrounding towns.", "The mountain is a popular area for hikers and a toll road provides access by automobile to the top of the mountain; there are also buses that connect the mountaintop to town a few times a day. There are also two routes of funiculars: the Eizan Cable from the Kyoto side to the connecting point with an aerial tramway (\"ropeway\") to the top, and the Sakamoto Cable from the Shiga side to the foot of Enryaku-ji. The attractions on the mountain are quite spread out, so there are regular buses during the daytime connecting the attractions. The center for these is the bus center, in front of the entrance to the main temple complex at." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Transverse wave.", "Longitudinal wave.", "Surface waves." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "It is the form of wave in which particles of medium vibrates about their mean position perpendicular to the direction of the motion of the wave. To see an example, move an end of a Slinky (whose other end is fixed) to the left-and-right of the Slinky, as opposed to to-and-fro. Light also has properties of a transverse wave, although it is an electromagnetic wave.", "Longitudinal waves cause the medium to vibrate parallel to the direction of the wave. It consists of multiple compressions and rarefactions. The rarefaction is the farthest distance apart in the longitudinal wave and the compression is the closest distance together. The speed of the longitudinal wave is increased in higher index of refraction, due to the closer proximity of the atoms in the medium that is being compressed. Sound is a longitudinal wave.", "This type of wave travels along the surface or interface between two media. An example of a surface wave would be waves in a pool, or in an ocean, lake, or any other type of water body. There are two types of surface waves, namely Rayleigh waves and Love waves. Rayleigh waves, also known as \"ground roll\", are waves that travel as ripples with motion similar to those of waves on the surface of water. Rayleigh waves are much slower than body waves, at roughly 90% of the velocity of for a typical homogeneous elastic medium. Rayleigh waves have energy losses only in two dimensions and are hence more destructive in earthquakes than conventional bulk waves, such as P-waves and S-waves, which lose energy in all three directions. A Love wave is a surface wave having horizontal waves that are shear or transverse to the direction of propagation. They usually travel slightly faster than Rayleigh waves, at about 90% of the body wave velocity, and have the largest amplitude." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Dominant ninth.", "Dominant minor ninth.", "Minor ninth.", "Major ninth.", "Notable examples.", "6/9 chord.", "Second.", "Added ninth." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "There is a difference between a major ninth chord and a dominant ninth chord. A dominant ninth is the combination of a dominant chord (with a minor seventh) and a major ninth. A major ninth chord (e.g., Cmaj), as an extended chord, adds the major seventh along with the ninth to the major triad. Thus, a Cmaj consists of C E G B and D. When the symbol \"9\" is not preceded by the word \"major\" or \"maj\" (e.g., C), the chord is a dominant ninth. That is, the implied seventh chord is a dominant seventh, i.e. a major triad plus the minor seventh, to which the ninth is added: e.g., a C consists of C, E, G, B and D. C dominant ninth (C) would usually be expected to resolve to an F major chord (the implied key, C being the dominant of F). The ninth is commonly chromatically altered by half-step either up or down to create more tension and dissonance. Fétis tuned the chord 4:5:6:7:9. In the common practice period, \"the root, 3rd, 7th, and 9th are the most common factors present in the V chord,\" with the 5th, \"typically omitted\". The ninth and seventh usually resolve downward to the fifth and third of I. Example of tonic dominant ninth chords include Bobby Gentry's \"Ode to Billie Joe\" and Wild Cherry's \"Play That Funky Music\". James Brown's \"I Got You (I Feel Good)\" features a striking dominant 9th arpeggio played staccato at the end of the opening 12-bar sequence. The opening phrase of Chopin's well-known \"Minute Waltz\" climaxes on a dominant 9th chord: César Franck’s Violin Sonata in A Major opens with a dominant ninth chord (E) in the piano part. When the violin enters in the fifth bar, its melody articulates an arpeggio of this chord. Debussy’s \"Hommage a Rameau\", the second of his first Book of \"Images\" for piano solo climaxes powerfully on a dominant 9th, expressed both as a chord and as a wide-ranging arpeggio: The starting point of Karlheinz Stockhausen’s piece for vocal sextet, \"Stimmung\" (1968) is a chord consisting of the notes B, F, B, D, A and C. According to Cook (1987, p.370), \"Stimmung\" could, in terms of conventional tonal harmony, be viewed as ‘simply a dominant ninth chord that is subject to timbral variation. The notes the performers sing are harmonics 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, and 9 of the implied but absent fundamental—the B flat below the bass clef.’", "<score vorbis='1'> <c' e' g' bes' des\">2 </score> A dominant minor ninth chord consists of a dominant seventh chord and a minor ninth. In C: C E G B D. Fétis tuned the chord 8:10:12:14:17. In notation for jazz and popular music, this chord is often denoted, e.g., C. In Franz Schubert’s Song \"Der Erlkönig\", a terrified child calls out to his father when he sees an apparition of the sinister Elf King. The dissonant voicing of the dominant minor ninth chord used here (C) is particularly effective in heightening the drama and sense of threat. <score vorbis =\"1\"> </score> Writing about this passage, Taruskin (2010, p.149) remarks on the “unprecedented... level of dissonance at the boy’s outcries...The voice has the ninth, pitched above, and the left hand has the seventh, pitched below. The result is a virtual ‘tone cluster’...the harmonic logic of these progressions, within the rules of composition Schubert was taught, can certainly be demonstrated. That logic, however, is not what appeals so strongly to the listener’s imagination; rather it is the calculated impression (or illusion) of wild abandon.”", "<score vorbis='1'> <c' es' g' bes' d\">2 </score> The minor ninth chord consist of a minor seventh chord and a major ninth. The formula is 1, 3, 5, 7, 9. This chord is written as Cm. This chord has a more \"bluesy\" sound and fits very well with the dominant ninth.", "<score vorbis='1'> <c' e' g' b' d\">2 </score>", "The major ninth chord consists of a major seventh chord and a major ninth. The formula is 1, 3, 5, 7, 9. This chord is written as Cmaj9.", "The 6/9 chord is a pentad with a major triad extended by a sixth and ninth above the root, but no seventh, thus: C is C,E,G,A,D. It is not a tense chord requiring resolution, and is considered a substitute for the tonic in jazz. The minor 6/9 chord is a minor triad with an added 6th of the Dorian mode and an added 9th, and is also suitable as a minor tonic in jazz. Heinrich Schenker, though he allowed the substitution of the dominant seventh, leading-tone, and leading tone half-diminished seventh chords, rejected the concept of a ninth chord on the basis that only that on the fifth scale degree (V) was admitted and that inversion was not allowed of the ninth chord.", "In music, the second factor of a chord is the note or pitch two scale degrees above the root or tonal center. When the second is the bass note, or lowest note, of the expressed chord, the chord is in \"third inversion\". However, this is equivalent to a gapped eleventh chord. Conventionally, the second is third in importance to the root, fifth, and third, being an added tone. It is generally not allowed as the bass note since that inversion resembles an eleventh chord on the second rather than an added tone chord on the original note. In jazz chords and jazz theory, the second is required due to its being an added tone. The quality of the second may be determined by the scale, or may be indicated. For example, in both a major and minor scale a diatonic second added to the tonic chord is major (C–D–E–G or C–D–E–G) while one added to the dominant chord is major or minor (G–A–B–D or G–A–B–D), respectively. The second is octave equivalent to the ninth. If one could cut out the note in between the fifth and the ninth and then drop the ninth down an octave to a second, one would have a second chord (C–E–G–BD′ minus B = C–D–E–G). The difference between sus2 and add9 is conventionally the absence or presence, respectively, of the third.", "An added ninth chord is a major triad with an added ninth. Thus, C consists of C, E, G and D. (The D, which might be called an added second, is two fifths up from the root.) Added ninth chords differ from other ninth chords because the seventh is never included." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Concept and creation.", "Design.", "Film portrayals.", "Special and make-up effects.", "Characteristics.", "Appearance.", "Culture and history.", "Language.", "Appearances in media.", "Film anthology.", "\"Predator\".", "\"Predator 2\".", "\"Alien vs. Predator\" (2004).", "\"Aliens vs. Predator: Requiem\" (2007).", "\"Predators\" (2010).", "\"The Predator\" (2018).", "Expanded universe." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The Predator design is credited to special effects artist Stan Winston. While flying to Japan with \"Aliens\" director James Cameron, Winston, who had been hired to design the Predator, was doing concept art on the flight. Cameron saw what he was drawing and said, \"I always wanted to see something with mandibles.\" Winston then included them in his designs. Stan Winston's studio created all of the physical effects for \"Predator\" and \"Predator 2\", creating the body suit for actor Kevin Peter Hall and the mechanical facial effects. The studio was hired after attempts to create a convincing monster (including Jean-Claude Van Damme wearing a much different body suit) had failed. Arnold Schwarzenegger recommended Winston after his experience working on \"The Terminator\". The Predator was originally designed with a long neck, a dog-like head, and a single eye. This design was abandoned when it became apparent that the jungle locations would make shooting the complex design too difficult. Originally, the studio contracted the makeup effects for the alien from Richard Edlund's Boss Film Creature Shop. However, problems filming the alien in Mexico led the makeup effects responsibilities to be given to Stan Winston. According to former Boss Films make-up supervisor Steve Johnson, the makeup failed because of an impractical design by McTiernan that included 12-inch leg extensions that gave the Predator a backward bent satyr-leg. The design did not work in jungle locations. After six weeks of shooting in the jungles of Palenque, Mexico, the production had to shut down so that Winston could make a new Predator. This took eight months and then filming resumed for five weeks, ending in February 1987.", "Jean-Claude Van Damme was originally cast as the Predator; the idea was that the star's abilities in martial arts would make the Predator an agile, ninja-esque hunter. When compared with Schwarzenegger, Carl Weathers, and Jesse Ventura, actors known for their bodybuilding regimens, it became apparent that a more physically imposing man was needed to make the creature appear threatening. Eventually, Van Damme was removed from the film and replaced by actor and mime artist Kevin Peter Hall. Hall, standing at an imposing height of, had just finished work as a sasquatch in \"Harry and the Hendersons\". Hall played the Predator in the first and second movies. Having been trained in the art of mime, he used many tribal dance moves in his performance, such as during the fight between Arnold Schwarzenegger and the Predator at the end of the first movie. In \"Predator 2\", according to a \"making of\" featurette, Danny Glover suggested the Los Angeles Lakers to be the other Predators, because Glover was a big fan. Hall persuaded some of the Lakers to play background Predators, because they couldn't find anyone on short notice. Hall died not long after \"Predator 2\" was released in theaters. In \"Alien vs. Predator\", Welsh actor Ian Whyte, standing at and a fan of the \"Predator\" comics and movies, took over as the man in the Predator suits, such as portraying the \"Celtic\" Predator during its fight with an Alien warrior. Whyte returned to portray the \"Wolf\" Predator in \"\". In \"Predators\", actors Brian Steele and Carey Jones both portrayed a new breed of Predator known as the \"Black Super Predators,\" who have been dropping humans on their planet for many years to play a survival game against them. In a nod to the first film, Derek Mears played the Predator as the creature appeared in the original, dubbed the \"Classic Predator.\" In \"The Predator\", stuntman and parkour athlete Brian A. Prince, standing, portrays the title character, as a \"standard\" Predator that escapes to earth after stealing a weapon called \"Predator Killer\", and that is being hunted down by a far larger genetically enhanced predator. The enhanced Predator is mostly CGI. However, Canadian actor Kyle Strauts and Brian Prince served as stand-in for the character on set.", "The Predator's blood was made from a combination of the liquid from glow sticks mixed with K-Y Jelly. The mixture loses its glow quickly, so new batches had to be quickly made between takes. The technique was used in all five films featuring the Predator. The camouflage effect was designed by R/Greenberg Associates, under the direction of Joel Hynek. The idea for the effect came in a dream one of the Thomas brothers (who wrote the film) had, in which there was a chrome man who was inside a reflective sphere. The man blended in, perfectly camouflaged, reflecting from all directions and only visible when in motion. The effect was created by repeating an image in a pattern of ripples in the shape of the Predator's body. It proved very effective and was a new way of presenting an \"invisible man\". Before there was digital rendering technology, all of the camouflage was done optically using photo-chemical means, so that one would never get the same result twice from combining the same pieces of film. After the original movies, Amalgamated Dynamics took over from Stan Winston Studio in creating the props for the Predators in the \"Alien vs. Predator\" film and a number of effects houses worked on the various other effects.", "As the film series has progressed, the creature's design has been modified in many ways, including differences in skin color and pattern and variations in the design of the masks and armor.", "Predators are physically distinguished from humans by their greater height, arthropod-like mandibles and long, hair-like appendages on their heads that are set into their skulls (popularly perceived as \"dreadlocks\"). Their bodies are resilient to damage, capable of recovering from multiple gunshot wounds and radiation doses that would prove fatal to humans. Their wounds do, however, require medical attention and they incorporate a portable surgical kit in their armor for this purpose. They are also capable of enduring excruciating pain. Predators are much stronger than humans, having been portrayed as being easily capable of outmatching a conditioned adult human male and shattering solid concrete with their bare hands. They are also skilled climbers and will readily move through trees or across rooftops in pursuit of prey. Though capable of surviving exposure in Antarctic temperatures for an extended period of time, it is implied that Predators have a preference for hot equatorial climates. Their blood is luminescent phosphor green in color. Their vision operates mainly in the infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum; they can easily detect heat differentials in their surroundings but are unable to easily distinguish among objects of the same relative temperature. A Predator bio-mask increases its ability to see in a variety of spectra, ranging from the low infrared to the high ultraviolet, and also filters the ambient heat from the area, allowing them to see things with greater clarity and detail. While they are capable of breathing Earth's atmosphere, the creature in \"Predator 2\" is seen using a breathing mask after losing his helmet (although this Predator had just been shot multiple times and may have, therefore, not been operating at his full potential. A second possibility is that it was used to filter out impurities in the air— exhaust and such—which would not be found in more natural environments). Their dietary habits are also mentioned in \"Predator 2\", where it is revealed that the creature regularly visits a slaughterhouse every two days to feed on the stored meat there. Throughout their film appearances, Predators have undergone numerous design variations. In \"Predator 2\", the main Predator was designed to look more urban and hip than its predecessor. Design changes included tribal ornamentation on the forehead, which was made steeper and shallower, brighter skin coloration and a greater number of fangs. This Predator was made less reliant on his plasma caster, and more cunning with the use of nets, spears and bladed weaponry. In \"Alien vs. Predator\", the appearance of the Predators was redesigned to make them seem more heroic. Redesigns included a reduction in head and waist size, broader shoulders, a more muscular physique, piranha-like teeth on the upper jaw, and dryer and less clammy skin to further differentiate them from the Aliens. In \"Aliens vs. Predator: Requiem\", the Predator was returned to the sleeker design concept prior to \"Alien vs. Predator\". For the so-called \"Black Super Predators\" in \"Predators\", the designers used the differences between a cassette tape and an iPod as an analogy in differentiating the new Predators from the classic. The Super Predators were designed as leaner and taller than the \"classic\" Predator design, and they have longer faces, tighter armor, and more swept back dreadlocks.", "Predator culture revolves around the hunting and stalking of dangerous lifeforms. After making a kill, Predators typically skin or decapitate the carcass, converting it into a trophy. If immobilized or at the brink of death, a hunter will activate the mass-explosive self-destruct-mechanism in his wristband, honorably erasing any trace of its presence to its prey. It is often alluded to that the reason Predators hunt is not for sustenance or elimination of threats, but as sportsmanship or rite of passage, as they will normally only attack life forms that have the ability to provide them with a challenge. In \"Predators\", it is revealed that there are at least two different Predator tribes, which are engaged in a long lasting blood feud. The film also introduced a pack of spined, quadrupedal beasts used as flushing dogs by the \"Super Predators,\" Creature designer Greg Nicotero used hyenas as a basis for the creature's physique and the spines were added later by Chris Olivia. Predators made contact with early human civilizations such as the Ancient Egyptians, the Khmer Empire, and Aztecs, as well as a fictitious culture inhabiting what is now Bouvetøya. Upon arriving on Earth, the Predators were worshipped as gods by humans, and they taught many of the civilizations how to build pyramids (an explanation as to why many of these different ancient societies had distinctly similar cultures and architecture), but in return expected sacrifices of humans for use as hosts for huntable Xenomorphs (Aliens) — the ultimate prey for initiates. The Predators returned to Bouvetøya every century to consummate the bargain, until at one point in the ritual, the Xenomorphs spread out of control, resulting in the Predators detonating a bomb that obliterated the entire civilization. Relations between humans and Predators deteriorated from that time on; the Predators then viewed humans as little more than another quarry to hunt. Predators feature prominently in the folklore of certain cultures; some Latin American people refer to the species as \"\"El Diablo que hace trofeos de los hombres\"\" (Spanish for \"The Demon who makes trophies of men\"), and Jamaican superstition identifies Predators as demons from the spirit world. When hunting humans, Predators normally avoid certain individuals such as children and some adults if they are unarmed, though they will spare armed ones if they happen to be pregnant or sickly unless they are attacked by them. A human who has managed to kill a Predator or a Xenomorph in single combat or has fought alongside a Predator is usually spared by the deceased hunter's comrades and given a gift (often a rare or exotic weapon) as a sign of respect. A learner's first successful Alien hunt is completed with the marking of his helmet and forehead with the acidic blood of his kill. The hunter generally operates alone. Even when hunters appear in groups, they rarely perform anything that resembles teamwork. Predators use Aliens as prey, creating artificial gaming reserves by keeping Queens and even Facehuggers in captivity. It is shown in a brief scene in \"Aliens vs. Predator: Requiem\" that Predators have had prior contact with a race of creatures resembling the \"Space Jockey\" in the film \"Alien\". This is confirmed in the film's DVD commentary. Again, in the film \"Predators\", when the group of main protagonists enters the Predators' camp, there is a brief view of an Alien skull on the ground (as well as the lower jaw of an Alien on the helmet of the Berserker Predator).", "The script of the Predators is expressed in the films and other media through written patterns of dashes. These written symbols appear on the creatures' gauntlet displays, their helmets, architecture, and many other surfaces. The most common vocalizations of the Predators consists of a series of clicks, roars, snarls, and growls which consist of recorded vocalizations of animals such as lions, tigers, leopards, jaguars, cougars, black bears, grizzly bears, alligators, camels, and elephants. Predators will mimic human language on occasion, and have been shown to use their helmets to understand and speak human languages. Author Steve Perry designed a constructed language set for the \"Aliens vs. Predator\" novel series.", "", "", "First appearing in the 1987 film \"Predator\", the eponymous character arrives on Earth via starship to \"hunt\" armed and dangerous human quarry. Having landed in a Central American jungle that has had prior visitations, the creature has already killed a squad of U.S. Special Forces soldiers before beginning to hunt an elite paramilitary team sent to rescue what they were told are presidential cabinet ministers kidnapped by guerrilla forces. The Predator dispatches the team members one by one with its array of weaponry until Major Alan \"Dutch\" Schaefer (Arnold Schwarzenegger) is the last one alive. Dutch eventually confronts the creature, covering himself in mud to hide his heat signature from the Predator's thermal imaging, and setting up numerous booby traps. Though he manages to disable the Predator's cloaking ability, the Predator manages to capture him, and then, in a display of honor, discards his mask and electronic weaponry before challenging Dutch to a final duel. Physically outmatched, Dutch eventually gets it into a position allowing him to set off one of his traps, which crushes and mortally wounds the creature. After being asked what he is by Dutch, the Predator simply mimics his question and sets off his self-destruct device before laughing maniacally, though Dutch manages to escape the explosion.", "Set in 1997, ten years after the events of the first film, the 1990 sequel follows a new Predator who sets his sights on Los Angeles during the summer due to the heat and fierce, deadly drug wars between Jamaican and Colombian cartels, as well as the L.A.P.D. attempting to fight both gangs. (Promotional material for the film said that this Predator was younger, and chose a densely populated urban area for a more ambitious hunt.) Eliminating gang members from enforcers to leaders, the Predator also targets the L.A.P.D. officers attempting to investigate his handiwork, specifically Lieutenant Michael Harrigan (Danny Glover) and his three partners (Rubén Blades, María Conchita Alonso and Bill Paxton). Special agent Peter Keyes (Gary Busey), purportedly sent by the DEA to investigate cartels, but actually leading the secretive Outworld Life Forms task force, attempts to capture the Predator alive for government study, but he and most of his OWLF team are outsmarted and slaughtered by their quarry. Towards the end of the movie, the Predator is ultimately confronted by Harrigan in his own ship and killed when Harrigan uses one of his own weapons against him. The Predator's clan-mates de-cloak and carry away the dead Predator's body and give Harrigan a flintlock dating from 1715 as a sign of respect. The film also makes a reference to the \"Alien\" films, as shown in the Predators' trophy room, which has a skull closely resembling that of an Alien.", "In 2004, a buried pyramid on Bouvetøya, an island about one thousand miles north of Antarctica, giving off a \"heat bloom\", attracts a group of explorers led by billionaire and self-taught engineer Charles Bishop Weyland (Lance Henriksen), the original founder and CEO of Weyland Industries. Their investigation unknowingly activates an Alien egg production line as a hibernating Alien Queen is awakened within the pyramid. These events have all been orchestrated by Predators on a Predator mothership arriving in Earth orbit, as the pyramid is an ancient Predator training ground, where three Predators are to now fulfill a rite of passage. Descending down to the planet and entering the structure, they kill all humans in their way with the intention of hunting the newly-formed Aliens, while the explorers in the pyramid are scattered, those who aren't killed by the Predators being captured alive by Aliens and implanted with embryos. Two of the Predators die in the ensuing battle with an Alien. As the Aliens threaten to breed out of control, the remaining Predator allies itself with the lone surviving human, Alexa \"Lex\" Woods (Sanaa Lathan), while in their way out of the pyramid as it is destroyed by the Predator's wrist bomb. On the surface, they find the Alien Queen has survived and escaped, and are forced to battle against her. They defeat the Queen by chaining her to a water tower that is toppled into the ocean, dragging her down into the dark depths of the frozen sea, but not before she fatally wounds the last Predator. The Predator mothership uncloaks and the crew retrieves the fallen Predator. A Predator elder gives Lex a spear as a sign of respect, and then departs. Once in orbit it is revealed that an Alien Chestburster was present within the corpse, thus a Predalien hybrid is born.", "Set immediately after the events of the previous film, the Predalien hybrid aboard the Predator scout ship, having just separated from the mothership shown in the previous film, has grown to full adult size and sets about killing the Predators aboard the ship, causing it to crash in the small town of Gunnison, Colorado. The last surviving Predator activates a distress beacon containing a video recording of the Predalien, which is received by a veteran Predator on the Predator homeworld, who sets off towards Earth to \"clean up\" the infestation. When it arrives, the Predator tracks the Aliens into a section of the sewer below the town. He removes evidence of their presence as he moves along using a corrosive blue liquid and uses a laser net to try to contain the creatures in the sewer, but the Aliens still manage to escape into the town above, and the Predalien finds an opportunity to breed more drones at a hospital. The Predator hunts Aliens all across town, accidentally cutting the power to the town in the process. Over the course of several confrontations with Aliens and subsequently human survivors, the Predator ends up with one working plasma caster that cannot be fired. The Predator fixes this by fashioning it into a plasma pistol before losing it, after which human survivors find and use it to help them escape. The Predator then fights the Predalien singlehandedly, and the two mortally wound one another just as the US air force drops a tactical nuclear bomb on the town, incinerating both combatants along with the Predalien's warriors and hive, as well as the few remaining humans in the town. The salvaged plasma pistol is then taken to a Ms. Yutani of the Yutani Corporation, foreshadowing an advancement in technology leading to the future events of the \"Alien\" films.", "In \"Predators\" (which deliberately distances itself from the prior \"Alien vs. Predator\" films), it is revealed that there are two warring Predator tribes: one group uses quadrupedal hunting beasts and elaborate traps to hunt, and the other hunts traditionally. An international group of soldiers and dangerous criminals from different locations from Earth are dropped onto a forested planet used as a Predator game reserve. After numerous skirmishes resulting in the deaths of two Predators and all but two of the captured humans, the last Predator manages to kill another member of his kind from a rival tribe, but is defeated in combat by the human survivors. The survivors then head off to seek a way back to their home, just in time to witness more people be dropped.", "In June 2014, Fox announced a sequel which in Shane Black will direct and co-write with Fred Dekker, and John Davis will produce. Continuing the existence of two Predator species, the film opens with a'standard' Predator, being pursued through space, coming to Earth. After being forced to land in an escape pod it is captured by a government research division known as 'Operation Stargazer', but soon escapes to find missing parts of its armor that were taken by army sniper Captain Quinn MacKenna, who encountered the Predator when it landed, and was able to mail the items to himself before he was detained by the same government program as part of covering the incident up. When the armor parts are discovered by Quinn's autistic son Rory, Rory is able to figure out how to translate the Predator language, just as MacKenna discovers the Predator has escaped and, finding where the armor pieces are, is now hunting his son. Joining forces with Doctor Casey Bracket- an evolutionary biologist brought in to study the Predator- and a group of soldiers suffering from various PTSD symptoms that he was being escorted with, MacKenna is able to rescue his son, only to discover the first Predator was being pursued when it's pursuer, a larger alien of its own kind, arrives. The subsequent fighting results in the death of the first Predator, most of the Stargazer staff and the other soldiers in MacKenna's makeshift unit, but MacKenna, Rory and Casey are able to kill the giant Predator. The evidence throughout the film indicates that the Predators are adapting themselves with human DNA and intend to take Earth once humanity dies out through climate change, and that the first Predator was a traitor who came to Earth with a cybernetic suit that would allow humanity to more easily stand up to the Predators.", "In the \"Aliens vs. Predator\" novel series (based on the Dark Horse Comics) by David Bischoff, Steve and Stephani Perry, the Predators, known in the series as \"yautja,\" are depicted as living in a matriarchal clan-based society bearing similarities to a pack mentality whose strongest and most skilled of the group lead. The Predators are portrayed as sexually dimorphic mammals. The females are larger and stronger than males, and sport more prominent mammary glands (like human females). Both genders give off a strong musk to signify aggression, and females can also emit it when in estrus. This musk can be detected by other Predators and canids, though it is imperceptible to humans. Predators in the Perry novels are not monogamous, and it is common for veteran warriors to sire hundreds of offspring (known as sucklings) with multiple mates. It is also revealed that their blood has the capacity of partially neutralizing the acidity of Alien blood. Their religion is partially explored in the series, showing that they are polytheistic, and that their equivalent of the Grim Reaper is the so-called \"Black Warrior,\" who is seen as an eternal adversary who eventually wins all battles. Though female Predators are occasionally referred to in Steve and Stephani Perry's novel series, one does not make an appearance until the comic book limited series \"Aliens vs Predator: Deadliest of Species\". The female's design contradicts the descriptions given in the Perry novel series, as it superficially shows little distinction from males. The Darkhorse/TopCow crossover \"MindHunter\", which pits the \"Witchblade\", \"The Darkness\", \"Aliens\", and \"Predator\" franchises against each other, depicts a female Predator in a manner closer to the Perry description. It is very tall, has feminine hips, mammary glands, and a very muscular build, with different armor than the males. In Randy Stradley's miniseries \"Aliens vs. Predator: War\", it is revealed through the narration of the character Machiko Noguchi that Predators were responsible for the spread of Aliens throughout the galaxy, though the Predators deny this, stating that their large interplanetary distribution is due to simultaneous convergent evolution. The comic series \"Predator\" and \"Aliens vs Predator: Three World War\" introduce a clan of Predators referred to as \"Killers,\" who are enemies of mainstream Predators (here called \"Hunters\") because of their tradition of training Aliens as attack animals rather than hunting them, as well as their desire for killing as opposed to honorable hunting. The character Machiko Noguchi notes in issue #1 of \"Three World War\" that \"You have to understand the mindset of the Hunters, and the honor they place on facing a worthy opponent on an equal footing... a kill is the end result, but it's not the point of a hunt... For the 'Killers', that wasn't the case. They were all about the killing.\" They are first seen in the 2009 \"Predator\" series, where a number interfere in an East African civil war, coming into conflict with both humans and their Hunter counterparts. By the time of \"Three World War\" the Killers are assumed to have been wiped out by the Hunters, but some survive and begin attacking human colonies, forcing Noguchi to forge an alliance between humans and the Hunters in order to deal with them. In John Shirley's stand alone novel \"Predator: Forever Midnight\", Predators, now referred to as \"Hish,\" are shown to possess a gland located between their neck and collarbone which secretes powerful hormones into their bloodstream and which drives them to hyper-aggression. When this gland is over-stimulated, it sends the creatures into a frenzied rage, causing them to attempt killing any living thing in sight, including members of their own species. This \"kill rage\" can be contagious and spread from one Predator to another, driving them all to attack each other. The Predators as a species barely survived the wars provoked by their kill glands, and they have learned to control the gland's secretions with artificial hormone regulators. In Ian Edginton and Alex Maleev's graphic novel \"Aliens vs. Predator: Eternal\" and the videogame \"Predator: Concrete Jungle\", Predator flesh and blood, if consumed, is shown to have the capacity of greatly lengthening a human's lifespan. In the first-person shooting video game \"\", Predator appears as a hidden killstreak on the multiplayer map \"Ruins\" from the Devastation map pack. The player can play as Predator for a brief period by completing a Field Order and obtaining a care package. Predator is also a playable guest character via downloadable content in the fighting game \"Mortal Kombat X\", opposite an Alien. In the tactical shooting video game \"Tom Clancy's Ghost Recon Wildlands\", a live event titled \"The Hunt\" was released on December 14, 2017. During this event, players may take part in a bonus campaign mission in the Caimanes district to battle the Predator, with the event lasting until January 2018. In the 2020 videogame, the predator race appears as one of two playable factions in an asymmetric competitive multiplayer game called 'Hunt' mode. The game mode pits a single, player controlled predator against four player controlled, Human spec-ops soldiers called the \"fireteam\" which is designed to resemble the scenario of the first Predator movie. The premise is that the predator player's only goal is to 'hunt' the fireteam from a 3rd person perspective preventing their escape from the game environment before the time limit expires. This is accomplished using an array of predator weapons and abilities taken straight from the film and comic books, While the human fireteam must work together to complete a series of objectives and escape without being slain by the Predator or hostile AI units playing from a generic, first person tactical shooter perspective. When the mission begins, the characters themselves are unaware that a predator is conducting a hunt in the same area as their mission, and sets the narrative for why the two factions come to blows. The game itself is a spiritual successor to the original movies, and tells a narrative through a number of fully voice acted cassette tapes. These fill in the gaps in the timeline and tie certain characters and events from the series together such as \"Dutch\" (Arnold Schwarzenegger, Predator 1987), and Agent Sean Keyes (Jake Busey, The Predator 2018), on-screen and real-life son of Agent Peter Keyes (Gary Busey, Predator 2 1990). These tapes are fully voiced by the original actors. Arnold Schwarzenegger would reprise his role as Dutch in the May 2020 DLC, becoming a playable character and lending both his likeness and voice to the character once more. What the character had been up to between the events of the 1987 \"Val-Verde incident\", and the games current narrative set in 2025 is explained in a free-DLC in the form of in-game tape recordings voiced by Schwarzenegger. In 2025 Dutch is in his late 70's, but his life has been extended unintentionally by administering him with captured predator medical-tech. His strength and physical stature is that of a man of 40 years old. After the events of the original film, Dutch devoted his life to hunting down and killing predators, and now acts in the capacity as a consultant and mercenary in employ of the OWLF. Not only do the voice acted tapes now confirm Major Dutch's full name as \"Major Alan 'Dutch' Schaefer\", but also confirm the full names of his original team including \"Al Dillon\", \"Mac Elliot\", \"Billy Sole\", \"Rick Hawkins\", \"Blaine Cooper\" and \"Jorge 'Poncho' Ramirez\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "History.", "Rivers and lakes.", "Transport.", "Road.", "Rail." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The Altmark is located west of the Elbe river between the cities of Hamburg and Magdeburg, mostly included in the districts of Altmarkkreis Salzwedel and Stendal. In the west, the Drawehn hill range and the Drömling depression separate it from the Lüneburg Heath in Lower Saxony; the Altmark also borders the Wendland region in the north and the Magdeburg Börde in the south. Adjacent east of the Elbe is the historical Prignitz region. The population is small. The cultural landscape within the North European Plain is rural and widely covered with forests and heathlands. The largest towns are Stendal, with a population of 39,000, and Salzwedel (21,500).", "Before the Migration Period of 300 to 700 AD, the Lombards had settled the future Altmark. Subsequently, Old Germanic Saxon tribes lived in the northwest and Polabian Slavs in the eastern territories along the Elbe. After the Saxon Wars, waged by Charlemagne from 772 to 804, the lands became part of the Carolingian Empire. They formed part of the Eastphalian territory of the Duchy of Saxony, which, from 843 onwards, constituted the eastern borderlands of East Francia under Louis the German. The bishops of Verden and of Halberstadt promoted the Christianisation of the Saxon population. In 936 the German king Otto I allotted the territory of the later Altmark to the Saxon Count Gero, in order to subdue the West Slavic Wends settling on the Elbe. Gero thereafter campaigned in the Slavic lands far beyond the river Elbe and thereafter established the Saxon stretching up to the Oder in the east. Upon Gero's death in 965, his was split and the Northern March was granted to Dietrich of Haldensleben, who nevertheless turned out to be an incapable ruler and lost all the territories east of the Elbe in the Slavic Lutici uprising of 983. He retained only his margravial title and the initial land basis of his predecessor Gero's conquests west of the river. For further one-and-a-half centuries, the lands east of the Elbe defied German control, until in 1134 Emperor Lothair of Supplinburg bestowed the Northern March on the Ascanian count Albert the Bear. Albert signed an inheritance contract with the Slavic Hevelli prince Pribislav and in 1150 succeeded him in his eastern territory around the fortress of Brandenburg an der Havel, which became the nucleus of his newly established Margraviate of Brandenburg in 1157. As the Brandenburg margraves expanded their territory during the course of the, the original western territory of the Northern March became known as the Altmark (literally \"Old March\") in contrast to the (Middle March) and (New March) beyond the Oder river; the written record first mentions it in 1304 as. As part of Brandenburg, from 1415 held by the House of Hohenzollern, the Altmark became part of Brandenburg-Prussia and (from 1701) of the Kingdom of Prussia. After Prussia's defeat at the hands of Napoleon in 1806, the terms of the Treaty of Tilsit (1807) assigned the territory of the Altmark to the new Kingdom of Westphalia. Prussia regained the area upon Napoleon's defeat (per Article XXIII of the Final Act of the Congress of Vienna, 1815); however, it was incorporated into the new Prussian Province of Saxony rather than being attached to the Province of Brandenburg. Within Prussian Saxony, the Altmark was subdivided into the districts of Salzwedel, Gardelegen, Osterburg, and Stendal, all administered within the of Magdeburg. After World War II the Altmark, lying to the east of the inner German border, became part of the new state of Saxony-Anhalt in the Soviet occupation zone. The regional administration of East Germany saw it administered within from 1952 to 1990. With German reunification in 1990, the Altmark became part of a reconstituted Saxony-Anhalt.", "The region is drained by the Elbe, joined by the Havel at Havelberg, and its left tributaries of the Milde-Biese-Aland system and the Jeetzel river. The largest natural lake of the Altmark is the Arendsee.", "", "The Altmark is located off the main traffic routes. The Bundesautobahn 14 leads to the Bundesautobahn 2 from Hanover to Berlin, it however ends north of Magdeburg. A continuation through the Altmark towards Schwerin is planned. Beside which the Federal roads B71, B107, B188, B189, B190, B248 run through the region.", "Stendal station is a stop on the Hanover–Berlin high-speed railway. Other lines include:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Prelude.", "Postwar occupation.", "Political repression and economic decline.", "International events.", "Social unrest builds.", "The Revolution.", "First shots.", "Fighting spreads, government falls.", "Interlude.", "New government.", "Soviet perspective.", "Polish response to the Hungarian uprising.", "International reaction.", "Soviet intervention of 4 November.", "Soviet version of the events.", "Aftermath.", "Hungary.", "International.", "Commemoration." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "During World War II, Hungary was a member of the Axis powers, allied with the forces of Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, Romania, and Bulgaria. In 1941, the Hungarian military participated in the occupation of Yugoslavia and the invasion of the Soviet Union. The Red Army was able to force back the Hungarian and other Axis invaders, and by 1944 was advancing towards Hungary. Fearing invasion, the Hungarian government began armistice negotiations with the Allies. These ended when Nazi Germany invaded and occupied the country and set up the pro-Axis Government of National Unity. Both Hungarian and German forces stationed in Hungary were subsequently defeated when the Soviet Union invaded the country in late 1944.", "Toward the end of World War II, the Soviet Army occupied Hungary, with the country coming under the Soviet Union's sphere of influence. Immediately after World War II, Hungary was a multiparty democracy, and elections in 1945 produced a coalition government under Prime Minister Zoltán Tildy. However, the Hungarian Communist Party, a Marxist–Leninist group who shared the Soviet government's ideological beliefs, constantly wrested small concessions in a process named salami tactics, which sliced away the elected government's influence, despite the fact that it had received only 17% of the vote. After the elections of 1945, the portfolio of the Interior Ministry, which oversaw the Hungarian", "Hungary became a socialist state under the authoritarian leadership of Mátyás Rákosi. Under Rákosi's reign, the Security Police (ÁVH) began a series of purges, first within the Communist Party to end opposition to Rákosi's reign. The victims were labeled as \"Titoists\", \"western agents\", or \"Trotskyists\" for as insignificant a crime as spending time in the West to participate in the Spanish Civil War. In total, about half of all the middle and lower level party officials—at least 7,000 people—were purged. From 1950 to 1952, the Security Police forcibly relocated", "On 5 March 1953, Joseph Stalin died, ushering in a period of moderate liberalization, when most European communist parties developed a reform wing. In Hungary, the reformist Imre Nagy replaced Rákosi, \"Stalin's Best Hungarian Disciple\", as Prime Minister. However, Rákosi remained General Secretary of the Party, and was able to undermine most of Nagy's reforms. By April 1955, he had Nagy discredited and removed from office. After Khrushchev's \"secret speech\" of February 1956, which denounced Stalin and his protégés, Rákosi was deposed as General Secretary of the Party and replaced by Ernő Gerő on 18 July 1956. Radio Free Europe (RFE) broadcast the \"secret", "Rákosi's resignation in July 1956 emboldened students, writers, and journalists to be more active and critical in politics. Students and journalists started a series of intellectual forums examining the problems facing Hungary. These forums, called Petőfi circles, became very popular and attracted thousands of participants. On 6 October 1956, László Rajk, who had been executed by the Rákosi government, was reburied in a moving ceremony that strengthened the party opposition. On 13 October 1956, a small group of 12 students from various faculties in Szeged, who met weekly for a game of bridge or other entertainment, decided to snub the official communist student union, the DISZ, by re-establishing the MEFESZ (Union of Hungarian University and Academy Students), a democratic student organization, previously banned under the Rákosi dictatorship. But to make", "", "On the afternoon of 23 October, approximately 20,000 protesters convened next to the statue of József Bem – a national hero of Poland and Hungary. Péter Veres, president of the Writers' Union (hu: \"Írószövetség\"), read a manifesto to the crowd. Its claims were Hungary's independence from all foreign powers; a political system based on democratic socialism (land reform and public ownership in the economy); Hungary joining the United Nations; and all freedom rights for the citizens of Hungary. After reading out the proclamation, the crowd began to chant a censored patriotic poem, the National Song (Hu: \"Nemzeti dal\"), with the refrain: \"This we swear, this we swear, that we will no longer be slaves.\" Someone in the crowd cut out the Communist coat of arms from the Hungarian flag, leaving a distinctive hole in the middle of it, and others quickly followed suit. Afterwards, most of the crowd crossed the River Danube to join demonstrators outside the Parliament Building. By 18:00, the multitude had swollen to more", "During the night of 23 October, Hungarian Working People's Party Secretary Ernő Gerő requested Soviet military intervention \"to suppress a demonstration that was reaching an ever greater and unprecedented scale\". The Soviet leadership had formulated contingency plans for intervention in Hungary several months before. By 02:00 on 24 October, acting in accordance with orders of Georgy Zhukov, the Soviet defence minister, Soviet tanks entered Budapest. By noon, on 24 October, Soviet tanks were stationed outside the Parliament, and Soviet soldiers guarded key bridges and crossroads. Armed revolutionaries quickly set up barricades to defend Budapest, and were reported to have already captured some Soviet tanks by mid-morning. That day, Imre Nagy replaced András Hegedüs as Prime Minister. On the radio, Nagy called for an end to violence and promised to initiate political reforms that had been shelved three years earlier. The population continued to arm itself as sporadic violence erupted.", "Fighting ceased between 28 October and 4 November, as many Hungarians believed that Soviet military units were withdrawing from Hungary. According to post-revolution Communist sources, there were approximately 213 Hungarian Working People's Party members lynched or executed during this period.", "The rapid spread of the uprising in the streets of Budapest and the abrupt fall of the Gerő–Hegedüs government left the new national leadership surprised, and at first disorganised. Nagy, a loyal party reformer described as possessing \"only modest political skills\", initially appealed to the public for calm and a return to the old order. Yet Nagy, the only remaining Hungarian leader with credibility in both the eyes of the public and the Soviets, \"at long last concluded that a", "On 24 October, the Presidium of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (the Politburo) discussed the political upheavals in Poland and Hungary. A hard-line faction led by Molotov was pushing for intervention, but Khrushchev and Marshal Zhukov were initially opposed. A delegation in Budapest reported that the situation was not as dire as had been portrayed. Khrushchev stated that he believed that Party Secretary Ernő Gerő's request for intervention on 23 October indicated that the Hungarian Party still held the confidence of the Hungarian public. In addition, he saw the protests not as an ideological struggle, but as popular discontent over unresolved basic economic and social issues. The concurrent Suez Crisis was another reason to not intervene; as Khrushchev said on 28 October, it would be a mistake to imitate the \"real mess\" of the French and British. After some debate, the Presidium on 30 October decided not to remove the new Hungarian government. Even Marshal Georgy Zhukov said: \"We should withdraw troops from Budapest, and if necessary withdraw from Hungary as", "The events in Hungary met with a very spontaneous reaction in Poland. Hungarian flags were displayed in many Polish towns and villages. After the Soviet invasion, the help given by the ordinary Poles to Hungarians took on a considerable scale. Citizen organizations were established throughout Poland", "Although John Foster Dulles, the United States Secretary of State recommended on 24 October for the United Nations Security Council to convene to discuss the situation in Hungary, little immediate action was taken to introduce a resolution, in part because other world events unfolded the day after the peaceful interlude started, when allied collusion started the Suez Crisis. The problem was not that Suez distracted U.S. attention from Hungary but that it made the condemnation of Soviet actions very difficult. As Vice President Richard Nixon later explained, \"We couldn't on one hand, complain about the Soviets intervening in Hungary and, on the other hand, approve of the British and the French picking that particular time to intervene against [Gamel Abdel] Nasser\". Despite his earlier calls for the \"rollback\" of communism and \"liberation\" of Eastern Europe, John Foster Dulles sent the Soviet leaders a message: \"We do not see these states [Hungary and Poland] as potential military allies.\" The United States response was reliant on the CIA to covertly effect change, with both covert agents and Radio Free Europe. However, their Hungarian operations collapsed rapidly and they could not locate any of the weapon caches hidden across Europe, nor be sure to whom they'd send arms. The agency's main source of information were the newspapers and a State Department employee in Budapest called Geza Katona. By 28 October, on the same night that the new Nagy government came to power, RFE was ramping up its broadcasts—encouraging armed struggle, advising on how to combat tanks and signing off with \"Freedom or Death!\"—on the orders", "On 1 November, Imre Nagy received reports that Soviet forces had entered Hungary from the east and were moving towards Budapest. Nagy sought and received assurances (which proved false) from Soviet ambassador Yuri Andropov that the Soviet Union would not invade. The Cabinet, with János Kádár in agreement, declared Hungary's neutrality, withdrew from the Warsaw Pact, and requested assistance from the diplomatic corps in Budapest and Dag Hammarskjöld, UN Secretary-General, to defend Hungary's neutrality. Ambassador Andropov was asked to inform his government that Hungary would begin negotiations on the removal of Soviet forces immediately. On 3 November, a Hungarian delegation led by the Minister of Defense Pál Maléter was invited to attend negotiations on Soviet withdrawal at the Soviet Military Command at Tököl, near Budapest. At around midnight that evening, General Ivan Serov, Chief of the Soviet Security Police (KGB) ordered the arrest of the Hungarian delegation, and the next day, the Soviet army again attacked Budapest. The second", "Soviet reports of the events surrounding, during, and after the disturbance were remarkably consistent in their accounts, more so after the Second Soviet intervention cemented support for the Soviet position among international Communist Parties. \"Pravda\" published an account 36 hours after the outbreak of violence, which set the tone for all further reports and subsequent Soviet historiography: The first Soviet report came out 24 hours after the first Western report. Nagy's appeal to the United Nations was not reported. After Nagy was arrested outside the Yugoslav embassy, his arrest was not reported. Nor did accounts explain how Nagy went from patriot to traitor. The Soviet press reported calm in Budapest while the Western press reported a revolutionary crisis was", "", "In the immediate aftermath, many thousands of Hungarians were arrested. Eventually, 26,000 of these were brought before the Hungarian courts, 22,000 were sentenced and imprisoned, 13,000 interned, and 229 executed. Approximately 200,000 fled Hungary as refugees. Former Hungarian Foreign Minister Géza Jeszenszky estimated 350 were executed. Sporadic resistance and strikes by workers' councils continued until mid-1957, causing economic disruption. By 1963, most political prisoners from the 1956 Hungarian revolution had been released. With most of Budapest under Soviet control by 8 November, Kádár became Prime Minister of the \"Revolutionary Worker-Peasant Government\" and General Secretary of the Hungarian Communist Party. Few Hungarians rejoined the reorganised Party, its leadership having been purged under the supervision of the Soviet Praesidium, led by Georgy Malenkov and Mikhail Suslov. Although Party membership declined from 800,000 before the uprising to 100,000 by December 1956, Kádár steadily increased his control over Hungary and neutralised dissenters. The new government attempted to enlist support by espousing popular principles of Hungarian self-determination voiced during the uprising, but Soviet troops remained. After 1956 the Soviet Union severely purged the Hungarian Army and reinstituted political indoctrination in the units", "Despite Cold War rhetoric by western countries espousing a roll-back of the domination of Europe by the USSR and Soviet promises of the imminent triumph of socialism, national leaders of this period as well as later historians saw the failure of the uprising in Hungary as evidence that the Cold War in Europe had become a stalemate. The Foreign Minister of West Germany recommended that the people of Eastern Europe be discouraged from \"taking dramatic action which might have disastrous consequences for themselves\". The Secretary-General of NATO called the Hungarian revolt \"the collective suicide of a whole people\". In a newspaper interview in 1957, Khrushchev commented \"support by United States... is rather in the nature of the support that the rope gives to a hanged man\". In January 1957, United Nations Secretary-General Dag Hammarskjöld, acting in response to UN General Assembly resolutions requesting investigation and observation of the events in Soviet-occupied Hungary, established the Special Committee on the Problem of Hungary. The Committee, with representatives from Australia, Ceylon (Sri Lanka), Denmark, Tunisia, and Uruguay, conducted hearings in New York, Geneva, Rome, Vienna, and London. Over five months, 111 refugees were interviewed including ministers, military commanders and other officials of the Nagy government, workers, revolutionary council members, factory managers and technicians, Communists and non-Communists, students, writers, teachers, medical personnel, and Hungarian soldiers. Documents, newspapers, radio transcripts, photos, film footage, and other records from Hungary were also reviewed, as well as written testimony of 200 other Hungarians. The governments of Hungary and Romania refused entry of the UN officials of the Committee, and the government of the Soviet Union did not respond to requests for information. The 268-page Committee Report was presented to the General Assembly in June 1957, documenting the course of the uprising and Soviet intervention and concluding that \"the Kádár government and Soviet occupation were in violation of the human rights of the Hungarian people\". A General Assembly resolution was approved, deploring \"the repression of the Hungarian people and the Soviet occupation\", but no other action was taken. The chairman of the Committee was Alsing Andersen, a Danish politician and leading figure of Denmark's Social Democratic Party who served in the Buhl government in 1942 during the Nazi German occupation of Denmark. He defended collaboration with the occupation forces and denounced the resistance. He was appointed Interior Minister in 1947, but resigned because of scrutiny of his role in 1940 as Defence Minister. He then entered Denmark's UN delegation in 1948. The Committee Report and the motives of its authors were criticised by the delegations to the United Nations from the Soviet Union and Kádár government. The Hungarian representative disagreed with the report's conclusions, accusing it of falsifying the events, and argued that the establishment of the Committee was illegal. The Committee was accused of being hostile to Hungary and its social system. An article in the Soviet journal \"International Affairs\", published by the Foreign Affairs Ministry, carried an article in 1957 in which it denounced the report as a \"collection of", "In December 1991, the preamble of the treaties with the dismembered Soviet Union, under Mikhail Gorbachev, and Russia, represented by Boris Yeltsin, apologised officially for the 1956 Soviet actions in Hungary. This apology was repeated by Yeltsin in 1992 during a speech to the Hungarian parliament. On 13 February 2006, the US State Department commemorated the fiftieth anniversary of the 1956 Hungarian Revolution. U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice commented on the contributions made by 1956 Hungarian refugees to the United States and other host countries, as well as the role of Hungary in providing refuge to East Germans during the 1989 protests against Communist rule. U.S." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Upbringing and influences.", "Teaching career.", "Death.", "Teachings.", "Epistemology.", "Ethics.", "Physics.", "Theology.", "Epicurean paradox.", "Politics.", "Works.", "Legacy.", "Ancient Epicureanism.", "Middle Ages.", "Renaissance.", "Revival.", "Enlightenment and after." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Epicurus was born in the Athenian settlement on the Aegean island of Samos in February 341 BC. His parents, Neocles and Chaerestrate, were both Athenian-born, and his father was an Athenian citizen. Epicurus grew up during the final years of the Greek Classical Period. Plato had died seven years before Epicurus was born and Epicurus was seven years old when Alexander the Great crossed the Hellespont into Persia. As a child, Epicurus would have received a typical ancient Greek education. As", "During Epicurus's lifetime, Platonism was the dominant philosophy in higher education. Epicurus's opposition to Platonism formed a large part of his thought. Over half of the forty Principle Doctrines of Epicureanism are flat contradictions of Platonism. In around 311 BC, Epicurus, when he was around thirty years old, began teaching in Mytilene. Around this time, Zeno of Citium, the founder of Stoicism, arrived in Athens, at the age of about twenty-one, but Zeno did not begin teaching what would become Stoicism for another twenty years. Although later texts, such as the writings of the first-century BC Roman orator Cicero, portray Epicureanism and Stoicism as rivals, this rivalry seems to have only emerged after Epicurus's death. Epicurus's teachings caused strife in Mytilene and he was forced to leave. He then founded a school in Lampsacus before returning to Athens in 306 BC, where he remained until his death. There he founded The Garden (κῆπος), a school named for the garden he owned that served as the school's meeting place, about halfway", "Diogenes Laërtius records that, according to Epicurus's successor Hermarchus, Epicurus died a slow and painful death in 270 BC at the age of seventy-two from a stone blockage of his urinary tract. Despite being in immense pain, Epicurus is said to have remained cheerful and to have continued to teach until the very end. Possible insights into Epicurus's death may be offered by the extremely brief \"Epistle to Idomeneus\", included by Diogenes Laërtius in Book X of his \"Lives and Opinions of Eminent Philosophers\". The authenticity of this letter is uncertain and it may be a later pro-Epicurean forgery intended to paint an admirable portrait", "", "Epicurus and his followers had a well-developed epistemology, which developed as a result of their rivalry with other philosophical schools. Epicurus wrote a treatise entitled, or \"Rule\", in which he explained his methods of investigation and theory of knowledge. This book, however, has not survived, nor does any other text that fully and clearly explains Epicurean epistemology, leaving only mentions of this epistemology by several authors to reconstruct it. Epicurus was an ardent Empiricist; believing that the senses are the only reliable sources of information about the world. He rejected the", "Epicurus was a hedonist, meaning he taught that what is pleasurable is morally good and what is painful is morally evil. He idiosyncratically defined \"pleasure\" as the absence of suffering and taught that all humans should seek to attain the state of \"ataraxia\", meaning \"untroubledness\", a state in which the person is completely free from all pain or suffering. He argued that most of the suffering which human beings experience is caused by the irrational fears of death, divine retribution, and punishment in the afterlife. In his \"Letter to Menoeceus\", Epicurus explains that people seek wealth and power on account of these fears, believing that having more money, prestige, or political clout will save them from death. He, however, maintains that death is the end of existence, that the terrifying stories of punishment in the afterlife are ridiculous superstitions, and that death is therefore nothing to", "Epicurus writes in his \"Letter to Herodotus\" that \"nothing ever arises from the nonexistent\", indicating that all events therefore have causes, regardless of whether those causes are known or unknown. Similarly, he also writes that nothing ever passes away into nothingness, because, \"if an object that passes from our view were completely annihilated, everything in the world would have perished, since that into which things were dissipated would be nonexistent.\" He therefore states: \"The totality of things was always just as it is at present and will always remain the same because there is nothing into which it can change, inasmuch as there is nothing outside the totality", "In his \"Letter to Menoeceus\", a summary of his own moral and theological teachings, the first piece of advice Epicurus himself gives to his student is: \"First, believe that a god is an indestructible and blessed animal, in accordance with the general conception of god commonly held, and do not ascribe to god anything foreign to his indestructibility or repugnant to his blessedness.\" Epicurus maintained that he and his followers knew that the gods exist because \"our knowledge of them is a matter of clear and distinct perception\",", "The Epicurean paradox or riddle of Epicurus or Epicurus' trilemma is a version of the problem of evil. Lactantius attributes this trilemma to Epicurus in \"De Ira Dei\", 13, 20-21: God, he says, either wishes to take away evils, and is unable; or He is able, and is unwilling; or He is neither willing nor able, or He is both willing and able. If He is willing and is unable, He is feeble, which is not in accordance with the character of God; if He is able and unwilling, He is envious, which is equally at variance with God; if He is neither willing nor able, He is both envious and feeble, and therefore not God; if He is both willing and able, which alone is suitable to God, from what source then are evils? Or why does He", "Epicurus promoted an innovative theory of justice as a social contract. Justice, Epicurus said, is an agreement neither to harm nor be harmed, and we need to have such a contract in order to enjoy fully the benefits of living together in a well-ordered society. Laws and punishments are needed to keep misguided fools in line who would otherwise break the contract. But the wise person sees the usefulness of justice, and because of his limited desires, he has no need to engage in", "Epicurus was an extremely prolific writer. According to Diogenes Laërtius, he wrote around 300 treatises on a variety of subjects. More original writings of Epicurus have survived to the present day than of any other Hellenistic Greek philosopher. Nonetheless, the vast majority of everything he wrote has now been lost and most of what is known about Epicurus's teachings come from the writings of his later followers, particularly the Roman poet Lucretius. The only surviving complete works by Epicurus are three relatively lengthy letters, which are quoted in their entirety", "", "Epicureanism was extremely popular from the very beginning. Diogenes Laërtius records that the number of Epicureans throughout the world exceeded the populations of entire cities. Nonetheless, Epicurus was not universally admired and, within his own lifetime, he was vilified as an ignorant buffoon and egoistic sybarite. He remained the most simultaneously admired and despised philosopher in the Mediterranean for the next nearly five centuries. Epicureanism rapidly spread beyond the Greek mainland all across the Mediterranean world. By the first century BC, it had established a strong foothold in Italy. The Roman orator Cicero (106 – 43 BC), who deplored Epicurean ethics, lamented, \"the Epicureans have taken Italy by storm.\" The overwhelming majority of surviving Greek and Roman sources are vehemently negative towards Epicureanism and, according to Pamela Gordon, they routinely depict Epicurus himself as \"monstrous or laughable\". Many Romans in particular took a negative view of Epicureanism, seeing its advocacy of the pursuit of \"voluptas\" (\"pleasure\") as contrary to the Roman ideal of \"virtus\" (\"manly virtue\"). The Romans therefore often stereotyped Epicurus and his followers as weak and effeminate. Prominent critics of his philosophy include prominent authors such as the Roman Stoic Seneca the Younger ( 4 BC – AD 65) and the Greek Middle Platonist Plutarch ( 46 – 120), who both derided it as immoral and disreputable. Gordon characterizes anti-Epicurean rhetoric as so \"heavy-handed\" and misrepresentative of Epicurus's actual teachings that they sometimes come across as \"comical\". In his \"De vita beata\", Seneca states that the \"sect of Epicurus... has a bad reputation\" and compares it to \"a man in a dress: your chastity remains, your", "By the early fifth century AD, Epicureanism was virtually extinct. The Christian Church Father Augustine of Hippo (354–430 AD) declared, \"its ashes are so cold that not a single spark can be struck from them.\" While the ideas of Plato and Aristotle could easily be adapted to suit a Christian worldview, the ideas of Epicurus were not nearly as easily amenable. As such, while Plato and Aristotle enjoyed a privileged place in Christian philosophy throughout the Middle Ages, Epicurus was not held in such esteem. Information about Epicurus's teachings was available, through Lucretius's \"On the Nature", "In 1417, a manuscript-hunter named Poggio Bracciolini discovered a copy of Lucretius's \"On the Nature of Things\" in a monastery near Lake Constance. The discovery of this manuscript was met with immense excitement, because scholars were eager to analyze and study the teachings of classical philosophers and this previously-forgotten text contained the most comprehensive account of Epicurus's teachings known in Latin. The first scholarly dissertation on Epicurus, \"De voluptate\" (\"On Pleasure\") by the Italian Humanist and Catholic priest Lorenzo Valla was published in 1431. Valla made no mention of Lucretius or his poem. Instead, he presented the treatise as a discussion on the nature of the highest good between an Epicurean, a Stoic, and a Christian. Valla's dialogue ultimately rejects Epicureanism, but, by presenting an Epicurean as a member of the dispute, Valla lent Epicureanism credibility as a philosophy that deserved to", "In the seventeenth century, the French Catholic priest and scholar Pierre Gassendi (1592–1655) sought to dislodge Aristotelianism from its position of the highest dogma by presenting Epicureanism as a better and more rational alternative. In 1647, Gassendi published his book \"De vita et moribus Epicuri\" (\"The Life and Morals of Epicurus\"), a passionate defense of Epicureanism. In 1649, he published a commentary on Diogenes Laërtius's \"Life of Epicurus\". He left \"Syntagma philosophicum\" (\"Philosophical Compendium\"), a synthesis of Epicurean doctrines, unfinished at the time of his death in 1655. It was finally published in 1658, after undergoing revision by his editors. Gassendi modified Epicurus's teachings to make them palatable for a Christian audience. For instance, he argued that atoms were not eternal, uncreated, and infinite in number, instead contending that an extremely large but finite number of atoms were created by God at creation. As a result of Gassendi's modifications, his books were never censored by the Catholic Church. They came to exert profound influence on later writings about Epicurus. Gassendi's version of Epicurus's teachings became popular among some members", "The Anglican bishop Joseph Butler's anti-Epicurean polemics in his \"Fifteen Sermons Preached at the Rolls Chapel\" (1726) and \"Analogy of Religion\" (1736) set the tune for what most orthodox Christians believed about Epicureanism for the remainder of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Nonetheless, there are a few indications from this time period of Epicurus's improving reputation. Epicureanism was beginning to lose its associations with indiscriminate and insatiable gluttony, which had been characteristic of its reputation ever since antiquity. Instead, the word \"epicure\" began to refer to a person with extremely refined taste in food. Examples of this usage include \"Epicurean cooks / sharpen with cloyless sauce his appetite\" from William Shakespeare's \"Antony and Cleopatra\" (Act II. scene i; 1607) and \"such an epicure was Potiphar—to please his tooth and pamper his flesh with delicacies\" from William Whately's \"Prototypes\" (1646). Around the same time, the Epicurean injunction to \"live in obscurity\" was beginning to gain popularity as well. In 1685, Sir William Temple (1628–1699) abandoned a promising career as a diplomat and instead retired to his garden, devoting himself to writing essays on Epicurus's moral teachings. That same year, John Dryden translated the celebrated lines from Book II of Lucretius's \"On the Nature of Things\": \"'Tis pleasant, safely to behold from shore / The rowling" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Predial servitude.", "Benefitting enclaves.", "Personal servitude.", "Quebec." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A predial (Brit. \"praedial\") servitude is an incorporeal hereditament burdening a servient estate (\"praedium serviens\") for the benefit of a dominant estate (\"praedium dominans\") to protect the holder in his own rights to the use or enjoyment of property. The two estates must belong to different bare title holders (\"dominus nudea proprietatis\", i.e. fee simple owners). This type of servitude may only burden immovable property (i.e. real property). The right is for the benefit of the dominant estate rather than the person and remains in effect upon its transfer, that is, it runs with the land and extends to any owner, whether the original or successor-in-title. Predial servitudes are limited to: Predial servitudes are generally characterized as: When a servient estate exists but the servient owner cannot be determined, and where the law allows, a dominant owner may be granted a servitude right \"a non domino\", i.e. absent the servient owner. In this event, the dominant owner will generally not be indemnified by the land registry for the statutory prescriptive period.", "Originally, enclave was a term of property law, across much of Europe, particularly seen early in 15th century France derived from earlier ecclesiastical senses, for the situation of a main estate of land or a parcel of land surrounded by land owned by a different owner(s), and that could not be reached for its exploitation in a practical and sufficient manner without crossing the surrounding land. In law, this created a \"servitude\" of passage for the benefit of the owner of the surrounded land.", "A personal servitude is an interest that benefits its holder personally or financially with or without the use or enjoyment of property. In this case, there is no dominant estate, only a personal beneficiary, and therefore the servitude is in principle not assignable or inheritable, unless transferability is part of the original grant or results from economic purposes that the servitude is designed to serve. Instead, the servitude moves with a particular person, not with a specific property, and includes: Napoleonic civil-law countries do not generally recognize personal servitudes. The mixed jurisdictions of Quebec and Louisiana are exceptions due to influence from common law, but under these systems personal servitudes are limited to easements in gross.", "Under Quebec law, a servitude is a real right excluding third parties and which is created \"sui generis\", by agreement (\"ex contractu\"), or by operation of law (\"ex lege\"). Quebec Civil Code, article 1177 provides: Quebec law distinguishes between predial and personal servitudes." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Hitler and the \"Sturmabteilung\" (SA).", "Conflict between the army and the SA.", "Growing pressure against the SA.", "Heydrich and Himmler.", "Purge.", "Aftermath.", "Reaction.", "SA leadership.", "Legacy.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "President Paul von Hindenburg appointed Hitler Chancellor on January 30, 1933. Over the next few months, during the so-called \"Gleichschaltung\", Hitler dispensed with the need for the Reichstag of the Weimar Republic as a legislative body and eliminated all rival political parties in Germany, so that by the middle of 1933 the country had become a one-party state under his direction and control. Hitler did not exercise absolute power, however, despite his swift consolidation of political authority. As chancellor, Hitler did not command the army, which remained under the formal leadership of Hindenburg, a highly respected veteran field marshal. While many officers were impressed by Hitler's promises of an expanded army, a return to conscription, and a more aggressive foreign policy, the army continued to guard its traditions of independence during the early years of the Nazi regime. To a lesser extent, the \"Sturmabteilung\" (SA), a Nazi paramilitary organization, remained somewhat autonomous within the party. The SA evolved out of the remnants of the Freikorps movement of the post-World War I years. The \"Freikorps\" were nationalistic organizations primarily composed of disaffected, disenchanted, and angry German combat veterans founded by the government in January 1919 to deal with the threat of a Communist revolution when it appeared that there was a lack of loyal troops. A very large number of the \"Freikorps\" believed that the November Revolution had betrayed them when Germany was alleged to be on the verge of victory in 1918. Hence, the \"Freikorps\" were in opposition to the new Weimar Republic, which was born as a result of the November Revolution, and whose founders were contemptuously called \"November criminals\". Captain Ernst Röhm of the \"Reichswehr\" served as the liaison with the Bavarian Freikorps. Röhm was given the nickname \"The Machine Gun King of Bavaria\" in the early 1920s,", "No one in the SA spoke more loudly for \"a continuation of the German revolution\" (as one prominent stormtrooper, Edmund Heines, put it) than Röhm himself. Röhm, as one of the earliest members of the Nazi Party, had participated in the Munich Beer Hall Putsch, an attempt by Hitler to seize power by force in 1923. A combat veteran of World War I, Röhm had recently boasted that he would execute 12 men in retaliation for the killing of any stormtrooper. Röhm saw violence as a means to political ends. He took seriously the socialist promise of National Socialism, and demanded that Hitler and the other party leaders initiate wide-ranging socialist reform in Germany. Not content solely with the leadership of the SA, Röhm lobbied Hitler to appoint him Minister of Defence, a position held by the conservative General Werner von Blomberg. Although nicknamed the \"Rubber Lion\" by some of his critics in the army for his devotion to Hitler, Blomberg was not a Nazi, and therefore represented a bridge between the army and the party. Blomberg and many of his fellow officers were recruited from the Prussian nobility, and regarded the SA as a plebeian rabble that threatened the army's traditional high status in German society. If", "Despite his earlier agreement with Hitler, Röhm still clung to his vision of a new German army with the SA at its core. By early 1934, this vision directly conflicted with Hitler's plan to consolidate power and expand the Reichswehr. Because their plans for the army conflicted, Röhm's success could come only at Hitler's expense. Moreover, it was not just the Reichswehr that viewed the SA as a threat. Several of Hitler's lieutenants feared Röhm's growing power and restlessness, as did Hitler. As a result, a political struggle within the party grew, with those closest to Hitler, including Prussian premier Hermann Göring, Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels, \"Reichsführer-SS\" Heinrich Himmler, and Hitler's deputy Rudolf Hess, positioning themselves against Röhm. While all of these men were veterans of the Nazi movement, only Röhm continued to demonstrate his independence from, rather than his loyalty to, Adolf Hitler. Röhm's contempt for the party's bureaucracy angered Hess. SA violence in Prussia gravely concerned Göring, Minister-President of Prussia. Finally in the spring of 1934, the growing rift between Röhm and Hitler over the role of the SA in the Nazi state led the former Chancellor, General Kurt von Schleicher, to start playing politics again. Schleicher criticized the current Hitler cabinet while some of Schleicher's followers such as General Ferdinand von Bredow and Werner von Alvensleben started passing along lists of a new Hitler Cabinet in which Schleicher would become Vice-Chancellor, Röhm Minister of Defence, Heinrich Brüning Foreign Minister and Gregor Strasser Minister of National Economy. The British historian Sir John Wheeler-Bennett, who knew Schleicher and his circle well, wrote that Bredow displayed a \"lack of discretion\" that was \"terrifying\" as he went about showing the list of the proposed cabinet to anyone who was interested. Although Schleicher was in fact unimportant by 1934, increasingly wild rumours that he was scheming with Röhm to reenter the corridors of power helped stoke the sense of crisis. As a means of isolating Röhm, on April 20, 1934, Göring transferred control of the Prussian political police (Gestapo)", "In response to conservative pressure to constrain Röhm, Hitler left for Neudeck to meet with Hindenburg. Blomberg, who had been meeting with the president, uncharacteristically reproached Hitler for not having moved against Röhm earlier. He then told Hitler that Hindenburg was close to declaring martial law and turning the government over to the Reichswehr if Hitler did not take immediate steps against Röhm and his brownshirts. Hitler had hesitated for months in moving against Röhm, in part due to Röhm's visibility as the leader of a national militia with millions of members. However, the threat of a declaration of martial law from Hindenburg, the only person in Germany with the authority to potentially depose the Nazi regime, put Hitler under pressure to act. He left Neudeck with the intention of both destroying Röhm and settling scores with old enemies. Both Himmler and Göring welcomed Hitler's decision, since both had much to gain by Röhm's downfall – the independence", "At about 04:30 on June 30, 1934, Hitler and his entourage flew to Munich. From the airport they drove to the Bavarian Interior Ministry, where they assembled the leaders of an SA rampage that had taken place in city streets the night before. Enraged, Hitler tore the epaulets off the shirt of \"Obergruppenführer\" August Schneidhuber, the chief of the Munich police, for failing to keep order in the city the previous night. Hitler shouted at Schneidhuber and accused him of treachery. Schneidhuber was executed later that day. As the stormtroopers were hustled off to prison, Hitler assembled a large group of SS and regular police, and departed for the Hanselbauer Hotel in Bad Wiessee, where Ernst Röhm and his followers were staying. With Hitler's arrival in Bad Wiessee between 06:00 and 07:00, the SA leadership, still in bed, were taken by surprise. SS men stormed the hotel, and Hitler personally placed Röhm and other high-ranking SA leaders under arrest. The SS found Breslau SA leader Edmund Heines in bed with an unidentified eighteen-year-old male SA senior troop leader. Hitler ordered both Heines and his partner taken outside the hotel and shot. Goebbels emphasised this aspect in subsequent propaganda justifying the purge as a crackdown on moral turpitude. Meanwhile, the SS arrested the other SA leaders as they left their train for the planned meeting with Röhm and Hitler. Although Hitler presented no evidence of a plot by Röhm to overthrow the regime, he nevertheless denounced the leadership of the SA. Arriving back at party headquarters in Munich, Hitler addressed the assembled crowd. Consumed with rage, Hitler denounced \"the worst treachery in world history\". Hitler told the crowd that \"undisciplined and disobedient characters and asocial or diseased elements\" would be annihilated. The crowd, which included party members and many SA members fortunate enough to escape arrest, shouted its approval. Hess, present among the assembled, even volunteered to shoot the \"traitors\". Joseph Goebbels, who had been with Hitler at Bad Wiessee, set the final phase of the plan in motion. Upon returning to Berlin, Goebbels telephoned Göring at 10:00 with the codeword to let loose the execution squads on the rest of their unsuspecting victims. Sepp Dietrich received orders from Hitler for the \"Leibstandarte\" to form an \"execution squad\" and go to Stadelheim prison where certain SA leaders were being held. There in the prison courtyard, the \"Leibstandarte\" firing squad shot five SA generals and an SA colonel. Those not immediately executed were taken back to the \"Leibstandarte\" barracks at Lichterfelde, given one-minute \"trials\", and shot by a firing squad.", "As the purge claimed the lives of so many prominent Germans, it could hardly be kept secret. At first, its architects seemed split on how to handle the event. Göring instructed police stations to burn \"all documents concerning the action of the past two days.\" Meanwhile, Goebbels tried to prevent newspapers from publishing lists of the dead, but at the same time used a July 2 radio address to describe how Hitler had narrowly prevented Röhm and Schleicher from overthrowing the government and throwing the country into turmoil. Then, on July 13, 1934, Hitler justified the purge in a nationally broadcast speech to the Reichstag: Concerned with presenting the massacre as legally sanctioned, Hitler had the cabinet approve a measure on July 3 that declared, \"The measures taken on June 30, July 1 and 2 to suppress treasonous assaults are legal as acts of self-defence by the State.\" Reich Justice Minister Franz Gürtner, a conservative who had been Bavarian Justice Minister in the years of the Weimar Republic, demonstrated his loyalty to the new regime by drafting the statute, which added a legal veneer to the purge. Signed into law by Hitler, Gürtner, and Minister of the Interior Wilhelm Frick, the \"Law Regarding Measures of State Self-Defence\" retroactively legalized the murders committed during the purge. Germany's legal establishment further capitulated to the regime when the country's leading legal scholar, Carl Schmitt, wrote an article defending Hitler's July 13 speech. It was named \"The Führer Upholds the Law.\" A special fund administered by SS General Franz Breithaupt was set up for the relatives of the murdered, from which they were cared for at state cost. The widows of the murdered SA leaders received between 1,000 and 1,600 marks a month, depending on the rank of the murdered person. Kurt von Schleicher's stepdaughter received 250 marks per month up to the age of 21 and the son of General von Bredow received a monthly allowance of 150 marks.", "Almost unanimously, the army applauded the Night of the Long Knives, even though the generals Kurt von Schleicher and Ferdinand von Bredow were among the victims. A telegram allegedly sent by the ailing President Hindenburg, Germany's highly revered military hero, expressed his \"profoundly felt gratitude\", and congratulated Hitler for \"nipping treason in the bud\", although Hermann Göring later admitted during the Nuremberg trials that the telegram was never seen by Hindenburg, and was actually written by the Nazis. General von Reichenau went so far as to publicly give credence to the lie that Schleicher had been plotting to overthrow the government. In his speech to the Reichstag on July 13 justifying his actions, Hitler denounced Schleicher for conspiring with Ernst Röhm to overthrow the government; Hitler alleged both were traitors working in the pay of France. Since Schleicher was a good friend of the French Ambassador André François-Poncet, and because of his reputation for intrigue, the claim that Schleicher was working for France had enough surface plausibility for most Germans to accept it. François-Poncet was not declared \"persona non grata\" as would have been usual if an ambassador were involved in a plot against his host", "Hitler named Viktor Lutze to replace Röhm as head of the SA. Hitler ordered him, as one prominent historian described it, to put an end to \"homosexuality, debauchery, drunkenness, and high living\" in the SA. Hitler expressly told him to stop SA funds from being spent on limousines and banquets, which he considered evidence of SA extravagance. Lutze did little to assert the SA's independence in the coming years, and the SA", "The Night of the Long Knives represented a triumph for Hitler, and a turning point for the German government. It established Hitler as \"the supreme leader of the German people\", as he put it in his July 13 speech to the Reichstag. Hitler formally adopted this title in April 1942, thus placing himself \"de jure\" as well as \"de facto\" above", "Informational notes Citations Bibliography Further reading" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Marriage.", "Wife of the heir to Austrian throne.", "Empress and queen.", "The Sixtus affair.", "End of Empire.", "Exile.", "Hungary and exile in Madeira.", "Death of Charles.", "Widowhood.", "Move to Belgium.", "Flight to North America.", "Post-War.", "Death.", "Cause of beatification.", "Titles, styles, honours and arms.", "Honours.", "Children." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Princess Zita of Bourbon-Parma was born at the Villa Pianore in the Italian Province of Lucca, 9 May 1892. The unusual name \"Zita\" was given to her after a popular Italian Saint who had lived in Tuscany in the 13th century. She was the third daughter and fifth child of the deposed Robert I, Duke of Parma and his second wife Infanta Maria Antonia of Portugal, a daughter of King Miguel of Portugal and his wife Princess Adelaide of Löwenstein-Wertheim-Rosenberg. Zita's father had lost his throne as a result of the movement for Italian unification in 1859 when he was still a child. He fathered twelve children during his first marriage to Princess Maria Pia of the Two Sicilies (six of whom were mentally disabled, and three of whom died young). Duke Robert became a widower in 1882, and two years later he married Infanta Maria Antonia of Portugal, Zita's mother. The second marriage produced a further twelve children. Zita was the 17th child among Duke Robert's 24 children. Robert moved his large family between Villa Pianore (a large property located between Pietrasanta and Viareggio) and his castle in Schwarzau in lower Austria. It was mainly in these two residences that Zita spent her formative years. The family spent most of the year in Austria, moving to Pianore in the winter and returning in the summer. To move between them, they took a special train with sixteen coaches to accommodate the family and their belongings. Zita and her siblings were raised to speak Italian, French, German, Spanish, Portuguese and English. She recalled: At the age of ten, Zita was sent to a boarding school at Zanberg in Upper Bavaria, where there was a strict regime of study and religious instruction. She was summoned home in the autumn of 1907 at the death of her father. Her maternal grandmother sent Zita and her sister Francesca to a convent on the Isle of Wight to complete her education. Brought up as devout Catholics, the Parma children regularly undertook good works for the poor. In Schwarzau the family turned surplus cloth into clothes. Zita and Francesca personally distributed food, clothing, and medicines to the needy in Pianore. Three of Zita's sisters became nuns and, for a time, she considered following the same path. Zita went through a patch of poor health and was sent for the traditional cure at a European spa for two years.", "In the close vicinity of Schwarzau castle was the Villa Wartholz, residence of Archduchess Maria Theresa of Austria, Zita's maternal aunt. She was the stepmother of Archduke Otto, who died in 1906, and the step-grandmother of Archduke Charles of Austria-Este, at that time second-in-line to the Austrian throne. The two daughters of Archduchess Maria Theresa of Austria were Zita's first cousins and Charles' half-aunts. They had met as children but did not see one another for almost ten years, as each pursued their education. In 1909, his Dragoon regiment was stationed at Brandeis an der Elbe (Brandýs on the Elbe), from where he visited his aunt at Franzensbad. It was during one of these visits that Charles and Zita became reacquainted. Charles was under pressure to marry (Franz Ferdinand, his uncle and first-in-line, had married morganatically, and his children were excluded from the throne) and Zita had a suitably royal genealogy. Zita later recalled: Archduke Charles traveled to Villa Pianore and asked for Zita's hand and, on 13 June 1911, their engagement was announced at the Austrian court. Zita in later years recalled that after her engagement she had expressed to Charles her worries about the fate of the Austrian Empire and the challenges of the monarchy. Charles and Zita were married at the Schwarzau castle on 21 October 1911. Charles's great-uncle, the 81-year-old Emperor Franz Joseph, attended the wedding. He was relieved to see an heir make a suitable marriage, and was in good spirits, even leading the toast at the wedding breakfast. Archduchess Zita soon conceived a son, and Otto was born 20 November 1912. Seven more children followed in the next decade.", "At this time, Archduke Charles was in his twenties and did not expect to become emperor for some time, especially while Franz Ferdinand remained in good health. This changed on 28 June 1914 when the heir and his wife Sophie were assassinated in Sarajevo by Bosnian Serb nationalists. Charles and Zita received the news by telegram that day. She said of her husband, \"Though it was a beautiful day, I saw his face go white in the sun.\" In the war that followed, Charles was promoted to General in the Austrian army, taking command of the 20th Corps for an offensive in Tyrol. The war was personally difficult for Zita, as several of her brothers fought on opposing sides in the conflict (Prince Felix and Prince René had joined the Austrian army, while Prince Sixtus and Prince Xavier lived in France before the war and enlisted in the Belgian army.) Also her country of birth, Italy, joined the war against Austria in 1915, and so rumours of the 'Italian' Zita began to be muttered. Even as late as 1917, The German ambassador in Vienna, Count Otto Wedel would write to Berlin saying \"The Empress is descended from an Italian princely house... People do not entirely trust the Italian and her brood of relatives.\" At Franz Joseph's request, Zita and her children left their residence at Hetzendorf and moved into a suite of rooms at Schönbrunn Palace. Here, Zita spent many hours with the old Emperor on both formal and informal occasions, where Franz Joseph confided in her his fears for the future. Emperor Franz Joseph died of bronchitis and pneumonia at the age of 86 on 21 November 1916. \"I remember the dear plump figure of Prince Lobkowitz going up to my husband,\" Zita later recounted, \"and, with tears in his eyes, making the sign of the cross on Charles's forehead. As he did so he said, 'May God bless Your Majesty.' It was the first time we had heard the Imperial title used to us.\"", "Charles and Zita were crowned in Budapest on 30 December 1916. Following the coronation there was a banquet, but after that the festivities ended, as the emperor and empress thought it wrong to have prolonged celebrations during a time of war. At the beginning of the reign, Charles was more often than not away from Vienna, so he had a telephone line installed from Baden (where Charles's military headquarters were located) to the Hofburg. He called Zita several times a day whenever they were separated. Zita had some influence on her husband and would discreetly attend audiences with the Prime Minister or military briefings, and she had a special interest in social policy. However, military matters were the sole domain of Charles. Energetic and strong-willed, Zita accompanied her husband to the provinces and to the front, as well as occupying herself with charitable works and hospital visits to the war-wounded.", "By the spring of 1917, the War was dragging on towards its fourth year, and Zita's brother Sixtus of Bourbon-Parma, a serving officer in the Belgian Army, was a main mover behind a plan for Austria-Hungary to make a separate peace with France. Charles initiated contact with Sixtus through contacts in neutral Switzerland, and Zita wrote a letter inviting him to Vienna. Zita's mother Maria Antonia delivered the letter in person. Sixtus arrived with conditions for talks which had been agreed with the French – the restoration to France of Alsace-Lorraine (annexed by Germany after the Franco-Prussian War in 1870); restoration of the independence of Belgium; independence for the kingdom of Serbia; and the handover of Constantinople to Russia. Charles agreed, in principle, to the first three points and wrote a letter to Sixtus dated 25 March 1917 which sent \"the secret and unofficial message\" to the President of France that \"I will use all means and all my personal influence\". This attempt at dynastic diplomacy eventually foundered. Germany refused to negotiate over Alsace-Lorraine, and, seeing a Russian collapse on the horizon, was loath to give up the war. Sixtus continued his efforts, even meeting Lloyd George in London about Italy's territorial demands on Austria in the Treaty of London of 1915, but the Prime Minister could not persuade his generals that Britain should make peace with Austria. Zita managed a personal achievement during this time by stopping the German plans to send airplanes to bomb the home of the King and Queen of Belgium on their name days. In April 1918, after the German-Russian Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Austrian Foreign Minister Count Ottokar Czernin made a speech attacking incoming French Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau as being the main obstacle to a peace favouring the Central Powers. Clemenceau was incensed and, after seeing the Emperor Charles's letter of 24 March 1917, had it published. For a while, the life of Sixtus appeared to be in danger, and there were even fears that Germany might occupy Austria. Czernin persuaded Charles to send a 'Word of Honour' to Austria's allies saying that Sixtus had not been authorised to show the letter to the French Government, that Belgium had not been mentioned, and that Clemenceau had lied about the mentioning of Alsace. Czernin had actually been in contact with the German Embassy throughout the whole crisis and attempted to persuade the Emperor to step down because of the Affair. After failing to do so, Czernin resigned as Foreign Minister.", "By this time, the war was closing in on the embattled Emperor. A Union of Czech Deputies had already sworn an oath to a new Czechoslovak state independent of the Habsburg Empire on 13 April 1918, the prestige of the German Army had taken a severe blow at the Battle of Amiens, and, on 25 September 1918, her brother in law King Ferdinand I of Bulgaria broke away from his allies in the Central Powers and sued for peace independently. Zita was with Charles when he received the telegram of Bulgaria's collapse. She remembered it \"made it even more urgent to start peace talks with the Western Powers while there was still something to talk about.\" On 16 October, the emperor issued a \"People's Manifesto\" proposing the empire be restructured on federal lines with each nationality gaining its own state. Instead, each nation broke away and the empire effectively dissolved. Leaving behind their children at Gödöllő, Charles and Zita travelled to the Schönbrunn Palace. By this time ministers had been appointed by the new state of \"German-Austria\", and by 11 November, together with the emperor's spokesmen, they prepared a manifesto for Charles to sign. Zita, at first glance, mistook it for an abdication and made her famous statement: Charles gave his permission for the document to be published, and he, his family and the remnants of his Court departed for the Royal shooting lodge at Eckartsau, close to the borders with Hungary and Slovakia. The Republic of German-Austria was proclaimed the next day.", "After a difficult few months at Eckartsau, the Imperial Family received aid from an unexpected source. Prince Sixtus had met King George V and appealed to him to help the Habsburgs. George was reportedly moved by the request, it being only months since his imperial relatives in Russia had been executed by revolutionaries, and promised \"We will immediately do what is necessary.\" Several British Army officers were sent to help Charles, most notably Lieutenant-Colonel Edward Lisle Strutt, who was a grandson of Lord Belper and a former student at the University of Innsbruck. On 19 March 1919, orders were received from the War Office to \"get the Emperor out of Austria without delay\". With some difficulty, Strutt managed to arrange a train to Switzerland, enabling the Emperor to leave the country with dignity without having to abdicate. Charles, Zita, their children and their household left Eckartsau on 24 March escorted by a detachment of British soldiers from the Honourable Artillery Company under the command of Strutt.", "The family's first home in exile was Wartegg Castle in Rorschach, Switzerland, a property owned by the Bourbon-Parmas. However, the Swiss authorities, worried about the implication of the Habsburgs living near the Austrian border, compelled them to move to the western part of the country. The next month, therefore, found them moving to Villa Prangins, near Lake Geneva, where they resumed a quiet family life. This abruptly ended in March 1920 when, after a period of instability in Hungary, Miklós Horthy was elected regent. Charles was still technically King (as Charles IV) but Horthy sent an emissary to Prangins advising him not to go to Hungary until the situation had calmed. After the Trianon Treaty Horthy's ambition soon grew. Charles became concerned and requested the help of Colonel Strutt to get him into Hungary. Charles twice attempted to regain control, once in March 1921 and again in October 1921. Both attempts failed, despite Zita's staunch support (she insisted on travelling with him on the final dramatic train journey to Budapest). Charles and Zita temporarily resided at Castle Tata, the home of Count Esterházy, until a suitable permanent exile could be found. Malta was mooted as a possibility, but was declined by Lord Curzon, and French territory was ruled out given the possibility of Zita's brothers intriguing on Charles's behalf. Eventually, the Portuguese island of Madeira was chosen. On 31 October 1921, the former Imperial couple were taken by rail from Tihany to Baja, where the Royal Navy monitor HMS \"Glowworm\" was waiting. They finally arrived at Funchal on 19 November. Their children were being looked after at Wartegg Castle in Switzerland by Charles's step-grandmother Maria Theresa, although Zita managed to see them in Zurich when her son Robert needed an operation for appendicitis. The children joined their parents in Madeira in February 1922.", "Charles had been in poor health for some time. After going shopping on a chilly day in Funchal to buy toys for Carl Ludwig, he was struck by an attack of bronchitis. This rapidly worsened into pneumonia, not helped by the inadequate medical care available. Several of the children and staff were also ill, and Zita (at the time eight months pregnant) helped nurse them all. Charles weakened and died on 1 April, his last words to his wife being \"I love you so much.\" After his funeral, a witness said of Zita \"This woman really is to be admired. She did not, for one second, lose her composure... she greeted the people on all sides and then spoke to those who had helped out with the funeral. They were all under her charm.\" Zita wore mourning black in Charles's memory throughout sixty-seven years of widowhood.", "After Charles's death, the former Austrian imperial family were soon to move again. Alfonso XIII of Spain had approached the British Foreign Office via his ambassador in London, and they agreed to allow Zita and her seven (soon to be eight) children to relocate to Spain. Alfonso duly sent the warship \"Infanta Isabel\" to Funchal and this took them to Cadiz. They were then escorted to the Pardo Palace in Madrid, where shortly after her arrival Zita gave birth to Archduchess Elisabeth. Alfonso XIII offered his exiled Habsburg relatives the use of Palacio Uribarren at Lekeitio in the Bay of Biscay. This appealed to Zita, who did not want to be a heavy burden to the state that harboured her. For the next six years Zita settled in Lekeitio, where she got on with the job of raising and educating her children. They lived with straitened finances, mainly living on income from private property in Austria, income from a vineyard in Johannisberg in the Rhine Valley, and voluntary collections. Other members of the exiled Habsburg dynasty, however, claimed much of this money, and there were regular petitions for help from former Imperial officials.", "By 1929, several of the children were approaching the age to attend university and the family sought to move to the Belgian village of Steenokkerzeel near Brussels, where they were closer to several members of their family. Zita continued her political lobbying on behalf of the Habsburg family, even sounding out links with Mussolini's Italy. There was even a possibility of a Habsburg restoration under the Austrian Chancellors Engelbert Dollfuss and Kurt Schuschnigg, with Crown Prince Otto visiting Austria numerous times. These overtures were abruptly ended by the annexation of Austria by Nazi Germany in 1938. As exiles, the Habsburg family took the lead in resisting the Nazis in Austria, but this foundered because of opposition between monarchists and socialists.", "With the Nazi invasion of Belgium on 10 May 1940, Zita and her family became war refugees. They narrowly missed being killed by a direct hit on the castle by German bombers and fled to Prince Xavier's castle at Bostz in France. The Habsburgs then fled to the Spanish border, reaching it on 18 May. They moved on to Portugal where the U.S. Government granted the family exit visas on 9 July. After a perilous journey they arrived in New York City on 27 July, having family in Long Island and Newark, New Jersey.; at one point, Zita and several of her children lived, as long-term house-guests, in Tuxedo Park, New York. The Austrian imperial refugees eventually settled in Quebec, which had the advantage of being French-speaking (the younger children were not yet fluent in English). As they were cut off from all European funds, finances were more stretched than ever. At one stage, Zita was reduced to making salad and spinach dishes from dandelion leaves. However, all her sons were active in the war effort. Otto promoted the dynasty's role in a post-war Europe and met regularly with Franklin Roosevelt; Robert was the Habsburg representative in London; Carl Ludwig and Felix joined the United States Army, serving with several American-raised relatives of the Mauerer line; Rudolf smuggled himself into Austria in the final days of the war to help organise the resistance. In 1945 Empress Zita celebrated her birthday on the first day of peace, 9 May. She was to spend the next two years touring the United States and Canada to raise funds for war-ravaged Austria and Hungary.", "After a period of rest and recovery, Zita found herself regularly going back to Europe for the weddings of her children. She decided to move back to the continent full-time, in 1952, to Luxembourg, in order to look after her aging mother. Maria Antonia died at the age of 96 in 1959. The bishop of Chur proposed to Zita that she move into a residence that he administered (formerly a castle of the Counts de Salis) at Zizers, Graubünden in Switzerland. As the castle had enough space for visits from her large family and a nearby chapel (a necessity for the devoutly Catholic Zita), she accepted with ease. Zita occupied herself in her final years with her family. Although the restrictions on the Habsburgs entering Austria had been lifted, this only applied to those born after 10 April 1919. This meant Zita could not attend the funeral of her daughter Adelheid in 1972, which was painful for her. She also involved herself in the efforts to have her deceased husband, the \"Peace Emperor\" canonised. In 1982, the restrictions were eased, and she returned to Austria after having been absent for six decades. Over the next few years, the Empress made several visits to her former Austrian homeland, even appearing on Austrian television. In a series of interviews with the Viennese tabloid newspaper \"Kronen Zeitung\", Zita expressed her belief that the deaths of Crown Prince Rudolf of Austria and his mistress Baroness Mary Vetsera, at Mayerling, in 1889, were not a double suicide, but rather murder by French or Austrian agents.", "After a memorable 90th birthday, at which she was surrounded by her now vast family, Zita's habitually robust health began to fail. She developed inoperable cataracts in both eyes. Her last big family gathering took place at Zizers, in 1987, when her children and grandchildren joined in celebrating Empress Zita's 95th birthday. While visiting her daughter, in summer 1988, she developed pneumonia and spent most of the autumn and winter bedridden. Finally, she called Otto, in early March 1989, and told him she was dying. He and the rest of the family travelled to her bedside and took turns keeping her company until she died in the early hours of 14 March 1989. She was 96 years old, and was the last surviving child of Robert, Duke of Parma from both his marriages. Her funeral was held in Vienna on 1 April. The government allowed it to take place on Austrian soil providing that the cost was borne by the Habsburgs themselves. Zita's body was carried to the Imperial Crypt under Capuchin Church in the same funeral coach she had walked behind during the funeral of Emperor Franz Joseph in 1916. It was attended by over 200 members of the Habsburg and Bourbon-Parma families, and the service had 6,000 attendees including leading politicians, state officials and international representatives, including a representative of Pope John Paul II. Following an ancient custom, the Empress had asked that her heart, which was placed in an urn, stay behind at Muri Abbey, in Switzerland, where the Emperor's heart had rested for decades. In doing so, Zita assured herself that, in death, she and her husband would remain by each other's side. When the procession of mourners arrived at the gates of the Imperial Crypt, the herald who knocked on the door during this traditional \"admission ceremony\" introduced her as \"Zita, Her Majesty the Empress and Queen\".", "On 10 December 2009, Mgr Yves Le Saux, Bishop of Le Mans, France, opened the diocesan process for the beatification of Zita. Zita was in the habit of spending several months each year in the diocese of Le Mans at St. Cecilia's Abbey, Solesmes, where three of her sisters were nuns. The actor is the French Association pour la Béatification de l'Impératrice Zita. The postulator for the cause is Father Alexander Leonhardt. Vice postulator for Hungary is Catholic theologian Norbert Nagy. The judge of the tribunal is Father Bruno Bonnet. The promoter of justice is the Father François Scrive. With the opening of her cause, the late Empress has been accorded the title Servant of God.", "", "Asteroid 689 Zita is named in her honour.", "Charles and Zita had eight children and thirty three grandchildren:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "History.", "1219 origin legend.", "Middle Ages.", "Modern period.", "Variants.", "Maritime flag and corresponding Kingdom flag.", "Other flags in the Kingdom of Denmark." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "In 1748, a regulation defined the correct lengths of the two last fields in the flag as. In May 1893 a new regulation to all chiefs of police, stated that the police should not intervene, if the two last fields in the flag were longer than as long as these did not exceed, and provided that this was the only rule violated. This regulation is still in effect today and thus the legal proportions of the National flag is today 3:1:3 in width and anywhere between 3:1:4.5 and 3:1:5.25 in length. No official definition of \"Dannebrog rød\" exists. The private company \"Dansk Standard\", regulation number 359 (2005), defines the red colour of the flag as Pantone 186c.", "", "A tradition recorded in the 16th century traces the origin of the flag to the campaigns of Valdemar II of Denmark (r. 1202–1241). The oldest of them is in Christiern Pedersen's \"\"Danske Krønike\"\", which is a sequel to Saxo's Gesta Danorum, written 1520–23. Here, the flag falls from the sky during a Russian campaign of Valdemar's. Pedersen also states that the very same flag was taken into exile by Eric of Pomerania in 1440. The second source is the writing of the Franciscan friar Petrus Olai (Peder Olsen) of Roskilde (died c. 1570). This record describes a battle in 1208 near Fellin during the Estonia campaign of King Valdemar II. The Danes were all but defeated when a lamb-skin banner depicting a white cross fell from the sky and miraculously led to a Danish victory. In a third account, also by Petrus Olai, in \"Danmarks Tolv Herligheder\" (\"Twelve Splendours of Denmark\"), in splendour number nine, the same story is re-told almost verbatim, with a paragraph inserted correcting the year to 1219. Now, the flag is falling from the sky in the Battle of Lindanise, also known as the Battle of Valdemar (Danish: \"Volmerslaget\"), near Lindanise (Tallinn) in Estonia, of 15 June 1219. It is this third account that has been the most influential, and some historians have treated it as the primary account taken from a (lost) source dating to the first half of the 15th century. In Olai's account, the battle was going badly, and defeat seemed imminent. However the Danish Bishop Anders Sunesen on top of a hill overlooking the battle prayed to God with his arms raised, which meant that the Danes moved closer to victory the more he prayed. When he raised his arms the Danes surged forward and when his arms grew tired and he let them fall, the Estonians turned the Danes back. Attendants rushed forward to raise his arms once again and the Danes surged forward again. At a second he was so tired in his arms that he dropped them and the Danes then lost the advantage and were moving closer to defeat. He needed two soldiers to keep his hands up and when the Danes were about to lose, 'Dannebrog' miraculously fell from the sky and the King took it, showed it to the troops and their hearts were filled with courage and the Danes won the battle. The possible historical nucleus behind this origin legend was extensively discussed by Danish historians in the 19th to 20th centuries. Jørgensen (1875) argues that Bishop Theoderich was the original instigator of the 1218 inquiry from Bishop Albert of Buxhoeveden to King Valdemar II which led to the Danish participation in the Baltic crusades. Jørgensen speculates that Bishop Theoderich might have carried the Knight Hospitaller's banner in the 1219 battle and that \"the enemy thought this was the King's symbol and mistakenly stormed Bishop Theoderich tent. He claims that the origin of the legend of the falling flag comes from this confusion in the battle.\" The Danish church-historian L. P. Fabricius (1934) ascribes the origin to the 1208 Battle of Fellin, not the Battle of Lindanise in 1219, based on the earliest source available about the story. Fabricius speculated that it might have been Archbishop Andreas Sunesøn's personal ecclesiastical banner or perhaps even the flag of Archbishop Absalon, under whose initiative and supervision several smaller crusades had already been conducted in Estonia. The banner would then already be known in Estonia. Fabricius repeats Jørgensen's idea about the flag being planted in front of Bishop Theodorik's tent, which the enemy mistakenly attacks believing it to be the tent of the King. A different theory is briefly discussed by Fabricius and elaborated more by Helge Bruhn (1949). Bruhn interprets the story in the context of the widespread tradition of the miraculous appearance of crosses in the sky in Christian legend, specifically comparing such an event attributed to a battle of 10 September 1217 near Alcazar, where it is said that a golden cross on white appeared in the sky, to bring victory to the Christians. In Swedish national historiography of the 18th century, there is a tale paralleling the Danish legend, in which a golden cross appears in the blue sky during a Swedish battle in Finland in 1157.", "The white-on-red cross emblem originates in the age of the Crusades. In the 12th century, it was also used as war flag by the Holy Roman Empire. In the \"Gelre Armorial\", dated 1340–1370, such a banner is shown alongside the coat of arms of the king of Denmark. This is the earliest known undisputed colour rendering of the Dannebrog. At about the same time, Valdemar IV of Denmark displays a cross in his coat of arms on his \"Danælog\" seal (\"Rettertingsseglet\", dated 1356). The image from the Armorial Gelre is nearly identical to an image found in a 15th-century coats of arms book now located in the National Archives of Sweden (\"Riksarkivet\"). The seal of Eric of Pomerania (1398) as king of the Kalmar union displays the arms of Denmark chief dexter, three lions. In this version, the lions are holding a Dannebrog banner. The reason why the kings of Denmark in the 14th century begin displaying the cross banner in their coats of arms is unknown. Caspar Paludan-Müller (1873) suggested that it may reflect a banner sent by the pope to the Danish king in support of the Baltic countries. Adolf Ditlev Jørgensen (1875) identifies the banner as that of the Knights Hospitaller, which order had a presence in Denmark from the later 12th century. Several coins, seals and images exist, both foreign and domestic, from the 13th to 15th centuries and even earlier, showing heraldic designs similar to Dannebrog, alongside the royal coat of arms (three blue lions on a golden shield.) There is a record suggesting that the Danish army had a \"chief banner\" (\"hoffuitbanner\") in the early 16th century. Such a banner is mentioned in 1570 by Niels Hemmingsøn in the context of a 1520 battle between Danes and Swedes near Uppsala as nearly captured by the Swedes but saved by the heroic actions of the banner-carrier Mogens Gyldenstierne and Peder Skram. The legend attributing the miraculous origin of the flag to the campaigns of Valdemar II of Denmark (r. 1202–1241) were recorded by Christiern Pedersen and Petrus Olai in the 1520s. Hans Svaning's \"History of King Hans\" from 1558–1559 and Johan Rantzau's \"History about the Last Dithmarschen War\", from 1569, record the further fate of the Danish \"hoffuitbanner\": According to this tradition, the original flag from the Battle of Lindanise was used in the small campaign of 1500 when King Hans tried to conquer Dithmarschen (in western Holstein in north Germany). The flag was lost in a devastating defeat at the Battle of Hemmingstedt on 17 February 1500. In 1559, King Frederik II recaptured it during his own Dithmarschen campaign. In 1576, the son of \"Johan Rantzau\", Henrik Rantzau, also writes about the war and the fate of the flag, noting that the flag was in a poor condition when returned. Herecords that the flag after its return to Denmark was placed in the cathedral in Slesvig. Slesvig historian Ulrik Petersen (1656–1735) confirms the presence of such a banner in the cathedral in the early 17th century, and records that it had crumbled away by about 1660. Contemporary records describing the battle of Hemmingstedt make no reference to the loss of the original Dannebrog, although the capitulation state that all Danish banners lost in 1500 were to be returned. In a letter dated 22 February 1500 to Oluf Stigsøn, King John describes the battle, but does not mention the loss of an important flag. In fact, the entire letter gives the impression that the lost battle was of limited importance. In 1598, Neocorus wrote that the banner captured in 1500 was brought to the church in Wöhrden and hung there for the next 59 years, until it was returned to the Danes as part of the peace settlement in 1559.", "Used as maritime flag since the 16th century, the Dannebrog was introduced as regimental flag in the Danish army in 1785, and for the militia (landeværn) in 1801. From 1842, it was used as the flag of the entire army. In parallel to the development of Romantic nationalism in other European countries, the military flag increasingly came to be seen as representing the nation itself during the first half of the 19th century. Poems of this period invoking the \"Dannebrog\" were written by B.S. Ingemann, N.F.S. Grundtvig, Oehlenschläger, Chr. Winther and H.C. Andersen. By the 1830s, the military flag had become so popular as unofficial national flag, and its use by private citizens was outlawed in a circular enacted on 7 January 1834. In the national enthusiasm sparked by the First Schleswig War during 1848–1850, the flag was still very widely displayed, and the prohibition of private use was again repealed in a regulation of 7 July 1854, for the first time allowing Danish citizens to display the Dannebrog (but not the swallow-tailed \"Splitflag\" variant). Special permission to use the \"Splitflag\" was given to individual institutions and private companies, especially after 1870. On 10 April 1915, the hoisting of any \"other\" flag on Danish soil was prohibited. In 1886, the war ministry introduced a regulation indicating that the flag should be flown from military buildings on thirteen specified days, including royal birthdays, the date of the signing of the Constitution of 5 June 1849 and on days of remembrance for military battles. In 1913, the naval ministry issued its own list of flag days. From 1939 until 2012, the yearbook \"Hvem-Hvad-Hvor\" included a list of flag days. As of 2019 flag days can be viewed at the \"Ministry of Justice (Justitsministeriet)\" as well as \"The Denmark Society (Danmarks-Samfundet)\".", "", "The size and shape of the civil ensign (\"\"Koffardiflaget\"\") for merchant ships is given in the regulation of 11 June 1748, which says: \"A red flag with a white cross with no split end. The white cross must be of the flag's height. The two first fields must be square in form and the two outer fields must be lengths of those\". The proportions are thus: 3:1:3 vertically and 3:1:4.5 horizontally. This definition are the absolute proportions for the Danish national flag to this day, for both the civil version of the flag (\"\"Stutflaget\"\"), as well as the merchant flag (\"\"Handelsflaget\"\"). The civil flag and the merchant flag are identical in colour and design. A regulation passed in 1758 required Danish ships sailing in the Mediterranean to carry the royal cypher in the center of the flag in order to distinguish them from Maltese ships, due to the similarity of the flag of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta. According to the regulation of 11 June 1748 the colour was simply red, which is common known today as \"Dannebrog rød\" (\"\"Dannebrog red\"\"). The only available red fabric dye in 1748 was made of madder root, which can be processed to produce a brilliant red dye (used historically for British soldiers' jackets). A regulation of 4 May 1927 once again states that Danish merchant ships have to fly flags according to the regulation of 1748. The first regulation regarding the \"Splitflag\" dates from 27 March 1630, in which King Christian IV orders that Norwegian \"Defensionskibe\" (armed merchants ships) may only use the \"Splitflag\" if they are in Danish war service. In 1685 an order, distributed to a number of cities in Slesvig, states that all ships must carry the Danish flag, and in 1690 all merchant ships are forbidden to use the \"Splitflag\", with the exception of ships sailing in the East Indies, West Indies and along the coast of Africa. In 1741 it is confirmed that the regulation of 1690 is still very much in effect; that merchant ships may not use the \"Splitflag\". At the same time the Danish East India Company is allowed to fly the \"Splitflag\" when past the equator. Some confusion must have existed regarding the \"Splitflag\". In 1696 the Admiralty presented the King with a proposal for a standard regulating both size and shape of the \"Splitflag\". In the same year a royal resolution defines the proportions of the \"Splitflag\", which in this resolution is called \"Kongeflaget\" (the King's flag), as follows: \"The cross must be of the flags height. The two first fields must be square in form with the sides three times the cross width. The two outer fields are rectangular and the length of the square fields. The tails are the length of the flag\". These numbers are the basic for the \"Splitflag\", or \"Orlogsflag\", today, though the numbers have been slightly altered. The term \"Orlogsflag\" dates from 1806 and denotes use in the Danish Navy. From about 1750 to the early 19th century, a number of ships and companies which the government has interests in, received approval to use the \"Splitflag\". In the royal resolution of 25 October 1939 for the Danish Navy, it is stated that the \"Orlogsflag\" is a \"Splitflag\" with a deep red (\"\"dybrød\"\") or madder red (\"\"kraprød\"\") colour. Like the National flag, no nuance is given, but in modern days this is given as 195U. Furthermore, the size and shape is corrected in this resolution to be: \"The cross must be of the flag's height. The two first fields must be square in form with the height of of the flag's height. The two outer fields are rectangular and the length of the square fields. The tails are the length of the rectangular fields\". Thus, if compared to the standard of 1696, both the rectangular fields and the tails have decreased in size. The \"Splitflag\" and \"Orlogsflag\" have similar shapes but different sizes and shades of red. Legally, they are two different flags. The \"Splitflag\" is a Danish flag ending in a swallow-tail, it is \"Dannebrog red\", and is used on land. The \"Orlogsflag\" is an elongated \"Splitflag\" with a deeper red colour and is only used on sea. The \"Orlogsflag\" with no markings, may only be used by the Royal Danish Navy. There are though a few exceptions to this. A few institutions have been allowed to fly the clean \"Orlogsflag\". The same flag with markings has been approved for a few dozen companies and institutions over the years. Furthermore, the \"Orlogsflag\" is only described as such if it has no additional markings. Any swallow-tail flag, no matter the color, is called a \"Splitflag\" provided it bears additional markings. The current version of the royal standard was introduced on 16 November 1972 when the Queen adopted a new version of her personal coat of arms. The royal standard is the flag of Denmark with a swallow-tail and charged with the monarch's coat of arms set in a white square. The centre square is 32 parts in a flag with the ratio 56:107.", "Greenland and the Faroe Islands are additional autonomous territories within the Kingdom of Denmark. They have their own official flags. Some areas in Denmark have unofficial flags, listed below. The regional flags of Bornholm and Ærø are known to be in active use. The flags of Vendsyssel (Vendelbrog) and the Jutlandic flag (\"Den jyske fane\") are obscure. None of these flags have legal recognition in Denmark, and are officially considered to be \"fantasy flags\". Denmark reserves official recognition to official flags and regional flags (\"områdeflag\") from other jurisdictions." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Mazdakism.", "Origins.", "Theological tenets.", "Ethical and social principles.", "Followers.", "Opposition to and purge of Mazdak's adherents.", "Jewish tradition.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Mazdak was the chief representative of a religious and philosophical teaching called Mazdakism, which he viewed as a reformed and purified version of Zoroastrianism, although his teaching has been argued to display influences from Manichaeism as well. Zoroastrianism was the dominant religion of Sassanid Persia, and Mazdak himself was a mobad or Zoroastrian priest, but most of the clergy regarded his teaching as heresy. Information about it is scarce and details are sketchy, but some further details may be inferred from the later doctrine of the Khurramites, which has been seen as a continuation of Mazdakism.", "Some sources claim that the original founders of this sect lived earlier than Mazdak. These were another mobad, Zaradust-e Khuragen (distinct from the founder of Zoroastrianism, Zoroaster, Middle Persian \"Zardusht\") and/or a Zoroastrian philosopher known as Mazdak the Elder, who taught a combination of altruism and hedonism: \"he directed his followers to enjoy the pleasures of life and satisfy their appetite in the highest degree with regard to eating and drinking in the spirit of equality, to aim at good deeds; to abstain from shedding blood and inflicting harm on others; and to practise hospitality without reservation\". This doctrine was further developed by the much better-known Mazdak the Younger, son of Bāmdād. At later stages the conservative Zoroastrian opposition accused Mazdak's followers of heresy and with abhorrent practices such as the sharing of women, for which scholars have found no evidence. Mazdak's followers are considered to be the first real socialists in human history by their emphasis on community property and community work with benefits accruing to all.", "Like both Zoroastrianism (at least as practised at the time) and Manichaeism, Mazdakism had a dualistic cosmology and worldview. This doctrine taught that there were two original principles of the universe: Light, the good one; and Darkness, the evil one. These two had been mixed by a cosmic accident, tainting everything except God. Light is characterized by knowledge and feeling, and acts by design and free will, whereas Darkness is ignorant and blind, and acts at random. Mankind's role in this life was, through good conduct, to release the parts of himself that belonged to Light. But where Manichaeism saw the mixture of good and bad as a cosmic tragedy, Mazdak viewed this in a more neutral, even optimistic way. In addition, Mazdakism is reported, in one late work, to have distinguished three elements (Fire, Water, Earth), and four Powers (Discernment, Understanding, Preservation and Joy), corresponding to the four chief officials of the Sassanid state – the Chief Mobad (\"Mobadan Mobad\"), the Chief Herbad, the Commander of the Army and the Entertainment Master), seven Viziers and twelve Spiritual Forces. When the Four, the Seven and the Twelve were united in a human being, he was no longer subject to religious duties. In addition, God was believed to rule the world through letters, which held the key to the Great Secret that should be learned. This description suggests that Mazdakism was, in many ways, a typical Gnostic sect.", "Two distinguishing factors of Mazdak's teaching were the reduction of the importance of religious formalities—the true religious person being the one who understood and related correctly to the principles of the universe—and a criticism of the strong position of mainstream clergy, who, he believed, had oppressed the Persian population and caused much poverty. Mazdak emphasised good conduct, which involved a moral and ascetic life, no killing and vegetarianism (considering meat to contain substances derived solely from Darkness), being kind and friendly and living in peace with other people. In many ways Mazdak's teaching can be understood as a call for social revolution, and has been referred to as early \"communism\". He and his followers were also advocates of free love. According to Mazdak, God had originally placed the means of subsistence on earth so that people should divide them among themselves equally, but the strong had coerced the weak, seeking domination and causing the contemporary inequality. This in turn empowered the \"Five Demons\" that turned men from Righteousness—these were Envy, Wrath, Vengeance, Need and Greed. To prevail over these evils, justice had to be restored and everybody should share excess possessions with his fellow men. Mazdak allegedly planned to achieve this by making all wealth common or by re-distributing the excess, although it is unclear how he intended to organize that in terms of regulations and to what extent his position has been caricatured by hostile sources. The hostile sources mostly dwell on the alleged \"sharing\" of women, the resulting sexual promiscuity and the confusion of the line of descent. Since the latter is a standard accusation against heretical sects, its veracity has been doubted by researchers; it is likely that Mazdak took measures against the widespread polygamy of the rich and lack of wives for the poor.", "Mazdak's teaching acquired many followers, to the point when even King Kavadh I, ruling from 488 until 531, converted to Mazdakism. He also reportedly sponsored its adoption by the Arab vassal kingdom of al-Hirah, entailing the deposing of the previous king al-Mundhir by the Kindite chief al-Harith. With the King's backing Mazdak could embark on a program of social reform, which involved pacifism, anti-clericalism and aid programs for helping the poor. Mazdak had government warehouses opened to help the poor. He also had all the Zoroastrian fire temples closed except the three major ones.", "Fear among the nobility and Zoroastrian clergy grew so strong that King Kavadh was overthrown in 496, but he managed to regain the throne three years later with the help of the Hephthalite Empire. Scared by the resistance among the powerful, he chose to distance himself from Mazdak. He allowed Anushiravan to launch a campaign against the Mazdakites in 524 or 528, culminating in a massacre of most of the adherents – including Mazdak himself – and restoring orthodox Zoroastrianism as the state religion. Various fictionalized accounts specify the manner of execution: for example, the \"Shahnameh\" states that 3,000 Mazdakites were buried alive with the feet upwards in order to present the spectacle of a \"human garden\", whereas Mazdak himself was hanged upside down and shot with countless arrows; other stories specify other torturous methods of execution. Anushiravan then proceeded to implement his own far-reaching social and administrative reforms. The Mazdakite ruler of al-Hirah was also overthrown and the previous king restored to power.", "A Jewish tradition relates a slightly different story. The Exilarch of Babylon, Mar-Zutra II, rallied the Jewish community and their allies, who defeated Mazdak and established an independent Jewish kingdom in Mahoza that lasted for seven years (495–502).", "A few Mazdakites survived and settled in remote areas. Small pockets of Mazdakite societies are said to have survived for centuries after the Muslim conquest of Persia. Their doctrines probably mixed with radical currents of Shia Islam, influencing them and giving rise to later powerful revolutionary-religious movements in the region. The cult of al-Muqanna‘, who claimed to be the incarnation of God and had followers among the Mubaiyyidah sect of Zoroastrianism and even some Turks, upheld the laws and institutes of Mazdak. In the 9th century, the Khurramites, an egalitarian religious sect possibly originating from Mazdakism, led a revolt under the leadership of Babak Khorramdin against the Abbasid Caliphate and successfully defended large territories against the Caliphate's forces for some twenty years. The Batiniyya, Qarmatians and other later revolutionary currents of Islam may also be connected to Mazdakism and were often equated with it by contemporary authors. Turkish scholar Abdülbâkî Gölpınarlı sees even the Qizilbash of the 16th century – a radical Shi'i movement in Persia which helped the Safaviyya establish Twelver Islam as the dominant religion of Iran – as \"spiritual descendants of the Khurramites\" and, hence, of the Mazdakites. \"Mazdakist\" eventually seems to have become a standard derogative label attached by pre-modern Persian and Arabic authors to any radical egalitarian movement in subsequent Iranian history. While medieval Muslim historiography primarily focused on the \"socialist\" aspects of Mazdak, Zoroastrian tradition, on the other hand, remembers Mazdak above all as a dangerous heretic and enemy of the true faith (\"Zand-i Wahman yasn\" 2:1). The author of the \"Dabestan-e Mazaheb\", writing as late as the 17th century, claims to have met individual adherents of Mazdakism who practised their religion secretly among the Muslims and preserved the \"Desnad\", a book in Middle Persian containing the teachings of Mazdak. Philosopher and poet Muhammad Iqbal, who inspired the Pakistan Movement in British India, termed Karl Marx as the modern reincarnation of Mazdakite thought. In the poem Ibless ki Majlis-e-Shura, he drew similarities between Marxism and Mazadak thought of redistribution of excess, reduction of the importance of religious formality, emancipation of love and social revolution. Iqbal describes Karl Marx as reincarnation of the soul of Mazdak. These views penned in 1936, when Russian Revolution was still fledgling, remained skeptical if Mazdakite logic of Marxism was the solution of problems of the poor and the downtrodden. Iqbal devotes a chapter on Mazdak in his PHD thesis with Munich University on The Development of Metaphysics in Persia" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origins.", "Norse mythology.", "Judas theory.", "Events related to unlucky 13.", "Effect on US Shuttle program mission naming.", "Lucky 13." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "According to folklore historian Donald Dossey, the unlucky nature of the number \"13\" originated with a Norse myth about 12 gods having a dinner party in Valhalla. The trickster god Loki, who was not invited, arrived as the 13th guest, and arranged for Höðr to shoot Balder with a mistletoe-tipped arrow. Dossey: \"Balder died, and the whole Earth got dark. The whole Earth mourned. It was a bad, unlucky day.\" This major event in Norse mythology caused the number 13 to be considered unlucky.", "From the 1890s, a number of English language sources relate the \"unlucky\" thirteen to an idea that at the Last Supper, Judas, the disciple who betrayed Jesus, was the 13th to sit at the table. The Bible says nothing about the order in which the Apostles sat, but there were thirteen people at the table.", "", "STS-41-G was the name of the thirteenth Space Shuttle flight. However, originally STS-41-C was the mission originally numbered STS-13 STS-41-C was the eleventh orbital flight of the space shuttle program. The numbering system of the Space Shuttle was changed to a new one after STS-9. The new naming scheme started with STS-41B, the previous mission was STS-9, and the thirteenth mission (what would have been STS-13) would be STS-41C. The new scheme had first number stand for the U.S. fiscal year, the next number was a launch site (1 or 2), and the next was the number of the mission numbered with a letter for that period. In the case of the actual 13th flight, the crew was apparently not superstitious and made a humorous mission patch that had a black cat on it. Also, that mission re-entered and landed on Friday the 13th which one crew described as being \"pretty cool\". Because of the way the designations and launch manifest work, the mission numbered STS-13 might not have actually been the 13th to launch as was common throughout the shuttle program; indeed it turned out to be the eleventh. One of the reasons for this was when a launch had to be scrubbed, which delayed its mission. NASA said in a 2016 news article it was due to a much higher frequency of planned launches (pre-Challenger disaster). As it was, the Shuttle program did have a disaster on its \"one-hundred\" and thirteenth mission going by date of launch, which was STS-107. The actual mission STS-113 was successful, and had actually launched earlier due to the nature of the launch manifest.", "In some regions, 13 is or has been considered a lucky number. For example, prior to the First World War, 13 was considered to be a lucky number in France, even being featured on postcards and charms. In more modern times, 13 is lucky in Italy except in some contexts, such as sitting at the dinner table. In Cantonese-speaking areas, including Hong Kong and Macau, the number 13 is considered lucky because it sounds similar to the Cantonese words meaning \"sure to live\" (as opposed to the unlucky number 14 which in Cantonese sounds like the words meaning \"sure to die\"). Colgate University was started by 13 men with $13 and 13 prayers, so 13 is considered a lucky number. Friday the 13th is the luckiest day at Colgate. A number of sportspeople are known for wearing the number 13 jersey and performing successfully. On November 23, 2003, the Miami Dolphins retired the number 13 for Dan Marino, who played for the Dolphins from 1983-1999. In 1966, the Portugal national football team achieved their best-ever result at the World Cup final tournaments by finishing third, thanks to a Mozambican-born striker, Eusebio, who has scored nine goals at World Cup — four of them in a 5-3 quarterfinal win over North Korea — and won the Golden Boot award as the tournament's top scorer while wearing the number 13. In the 1954 and 1974 World Cup finals, Germany's Max Morlock and Gerd Müller, respectively, played and scored in the final, wearing the number 13. More recent footballers playing successfully despite wearing #13, include Michael Ballack, Alessandro Nesta, Rafinha, Thomas Müller, Tua Tagovailoa and others. Among other sportspeople who have chosen 13 as squad number, are the Venezuelans Dave Concepción, Omar Vizquel, Oswaldo Guillén and Pastor Maldonado." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early life.", "Student years.", "Early academic career.", "Rise to prominence.", "Mature critical work.", "Death.", "Writings and ideas.", "Early thought.", "Semiotics and myth.", "Structuralism and its limits.", "Transition.", "Textuality and \"S/Z\".", "Neutral and novelistic writing.", "Photography and Henriette Barthes.", "Posthumous publications.", "Influence.", "Key terms.", "Readerly text.", "Writerly text.", "The \"Author\" and the \"scriptor\".", "Criticism.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Roland Barthes was born on 12 November in the town of Cherbourg in Normandy. His father, naval officer Louis Barthes, was killed in a battle during World War I in the North Sea before Barthes's first birthday. His mother, Henriette Barthes, and his aunt and grandmother raised him in the village of Urt and the city of Bayonne. When Barthes was eleven, his family moved to Paris, though his attachment to his provincial roots would remain strong throughout his life.", "Barthes showed great promise as a student and spent the period from 1935 to 1939 at the Sorbonne, where he earned a \"licence\" in classical literature. He was plagued by ill health throughout this period, suffering from tuberculosis, which often had to be treated in the isolation of sanatoria. His repeated physical breakdowns disrupted his academic career, affecting his studies and his ability to take qualifying examinations. They also exempted him from military service during World War II. His life from 1939 to 1948 was largely spent obtaining a \"licence\" in grammar and philology, publishing his first papers, taking part in a medical study, and continuing to struggle with his health. He received a \"diplôme d'études supérieures\" (roughly equivalent to an MA by thesis) from the University of Paris in 1941 for his work in Greek tragedy.", "In 1948, he returned to purely academic work, gaining numerous short-term positions at institutes in France, Romania, and Egypt. During this time, he contributed to the leftist Parisian paper \"Combat\", out of which grew his first full-length work, \"Writing Degree Zero\" (1953). In 1952, Barthes settled at the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, where he studied lexicology and sociology. During his seven-year period there, he began to write a popular series of bi-monthly essays for the magazine \"Les Lettres Nouvelles\", in which he dismantled myths of popular culture (gathered in the \"Mythologies\" collection that was published in 1957). Consisting of fifty-four short essays, mostly written between 1954–1956, \"Mythologies\" were acute reflections of French popular culture ranging from an analysis on soap detergents to a dissection of popular wrestling. Knowing little English, Barthes taught at Middlebury College in 1957 and befriended the future English translator of much of his work, Richard Howard, that summer in New York City.", "Barthes spent the early 1960s exploring the fields of semiology and structuralism, chairing various faculty positions around France, and continuing to produce more full-length studies. Many of his works challenged traditional academic views of literary criticism and of renowned figures of literature. His unorthodox thinking led to a conflict with a well-known Sorbonne professor of literature, Raymond Picard, who attacked the French New Criticism (a label that he inaccurately applied to Barthes) for its obscurity and lack of respect towards France's literary roots. Barthes's rebuttal in \"Criticism and Truth\" (1966) accused the old, bourgeois criticism of a lack of concern with the finer points of language and of selective ignorance towards challenging theories, such as Marxism. By the late 1960s, Barthes had established a reputation for himself. He traveled to the US and Japan, delivering a presentation at Johns Hopkins University. During this time, he wrote his best-known work, the 1967 essay \"The Death of the Author,\" which, in light of the growing influence of Jacques Derrida's deconstruction, would prove to be a transitional piece in its investigation of the logical ends of structuralist thought.", "Barthes continued to contribute with Philippe Sollers to the avant-garde literary magazine \"Tel Quel\", which was developing similar kinds of theoretical inquiry to that pursued in Barthes's writings. In 1970, Barthes produced what many consider to be his most prodigious work, the dense, critical reading of Balzac's \"Sarrasine\" entitled \"S/Z\". Throughout the 1970s, Barthes continued to develop his literary criticism; he developed new ideals of textuality and novelistic neutrality. In 1971, he served as visiting professor at the University of Geneva. In those same years he became primarily associated with the École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales (EHESS). In 1975 he wrote an autobiography titled \"Roland Barthes\" and in 1977 he was elected to the chair of Sémiologie Littéraire at the Collège de France. In the same year, his mother, Henriette Barthes, to whom he had been devoted, died, aged 85. They had lived together for 60 years. The loss of the woman who had raised and cared for him was a serious blow to Barthes. His last major work, \"Camera Lucida\", is partly an essay about the nature of photography and partly a meditation on photographs of his mother. The book contains many reproductions of photographs, though none of them are of Henriette.", "On 25 February 1980, Roland Barthes was knocked down by a laundry van while walking home through the streets of Paris. One month later, on March 26, he died from the chest injuries he sustained in that collision.", "", "Barthes's earliest ideas reacted to the trend of existentialist philosophy that was prominent in France during the 1940s, specifically to the figurehead of existentialism, Jean-Paul Sartre. Sartre's \"What Is Literature?\" (1947) expresses a disenchantment both with established forms of writing and more experimental, avant-garde forms, which he feels alienate readers. Barthes’s response was to try to discover that which may be considered unique and original in writing. In \"Writing Degree Zero\" (1953), Barthes argues that conventions inform both language and style, rendering neither purely creative. Instead, form, or what Barthes calls \"writing\" (the specific way an individual chooses to manipulate conventions of style for a desired effect), is the unique and creative act. However, a writer's form is vulnerable to becoming a convention once it has been made available to the public. This means that creativity is an ongoing process of continual change and reaction. In \"Michelet\", a critical analysis of the French historian Jules Michelet, Barthes developed these notions, applying them to a broader range of fields. He argued that Michelet's views of history and society are obviously flawed. In studying his writings, he continued, one should not seek to learn from Michelet's claims; rather, one should maintain a critical distance and learn from his errors, since understanding how and why his thinking is flawed will show more about his period of history than his own observations. Similarly, Barthes felt that avant-garde writing should be praised for its maintenance of just such a distance between its audience and itself. In presenting an obvious artificiality rather than making claims to great subjective truths, Barthes argued, avant-garde writers ensure that their audiences maintain an objective perspective. In this sense, Barthes believed that art should be critical and should interrogate the world, rather than seek to explain it, as Michelet had done.", "Barthes's many monthly contributions, collected in his \"Mythologies\" (1957), frequently interrogated specific cultural materials in order to expose how bourgeois society asserted its values through them. For example, the portrayal of wine in French society as a robust and healthy habit is a bourgeois ideal that is contradicted by certain realities (i.e., that wine can be unhealthy and inebriating). He found semiotics, the study of signs, useful in these interrogations. Barthes explained that these bourgeois cultural myths were \"second-order signs,\" or \"connotations.\" A picture of a full, dark bottle is a signifier that relates to a specific signified: a fermented, alcoholic beverage. However, the bourgeoisie relate it to a new signified: the idea of healthy, robust, relaxing experience. Motivations for such manipulations vary, from a desire to sell products to a simple desire to maintain the status quo. These insights brought Barthes in line with similar Marxist theory. Barthes used the term \"myth\" while analyzing the popular, consumer culture of post-war France in order to reveal that \"objects were organized into meaningful relationships via narratives that expressed collective cultural values.\" In \"The Fashion System\" Barthes showed how this adulteration of signs could easily be translated into words. In this work he explained how in the fashion world any word could be loaded with idealistic bourgeois emphasis. Thus, if popular fashion says that a ‘blouse’ is ideal for a certain situation or ensemble, this idea is immediately naturalized and accepted as truth, even though the actual sign could just as easily be interchangeable with ‘skirt’, ‘vest’ or any number of combinations. In the end Barthes's \"Mythologies\" became absorbed into bourgeois culture, as he found many third parties asking him to comment on a certain cultural phenomenon, being interested in his control over his readership. This turn of events caused him to question the overall utility of demystifying culture for the masses, thinking it might be a fruitless attempt, and drove him deeper in his search for individualistic meaning in art.", "As Barthes's work with structuralism began to flourish around the time of his debates with Picard, his investigation of structure focused on revealing the importance of language in writing, which he felt was overlooked by old criticism. Barthes's \"Introduction to the Structural Analysis of Narrative\" is concerned with examining the correspondence between the structure of a sentence and that of a larger narrative, thus allowing narrative to be viewed along linguistic lines. Barthes split this work into three hierarchical levels: ‘functions’, ‘actions’ and ‘narrative’. ‘Functions’ are the elementary pieces of a work, such as a single descriptive word that can be used to identify a character. That character would be an ‘action’, and consequently one of the elements that make up the narrative. Barthes was able to use these distinctions to evaluate how certain key ‘functions’ work in forming characters. For example, key words like ‘dark’, ‘mysterious’ and ‘odd’, when integrated together, formulate a specific kind of character or ‘action’. By breaking down the work into such fundamental distinctions Barthes was able to judge the degree of realism given functions have in forming their actions and consequently with what authenticity a narrative can be said to reflect on reality. Thus, his structuralist theorizing became another exercise in his ongoing attempts to dissect and expose the misleading mechanisms of bourgeois culture. While Barthes found structuralism to be a useful tool and believed that discourse of literature could be formalized, he did not believe it could become a strict scientific endeavour. In the late 1960s, radical movements were taking place in literary criticism. The post-structuralist movement and the deconstructionism of Jacques Derrida were testing the bounds of the structuralist theory that Barthes's work exemplified. Derrida identified the flaw of structuralism as its reliance on a transcendental signifier; a symbol of constant, universal meaning would be essential as an orienting point in such a closed off system. This is to say that without some regular standard of measurement, a system of criticism that references nothing outside of the actual work itself could never prove useful. But since there are no symbols of constant and universal significance, the entire premise of structuralism as a means of evaluating writing (or anything) is hollow.", "Such thought led Barthes to consider the limitations not just of signs and symbols, but also of Western culture's dependency on beliefs of constancy and ultimate standards. He travelled to Japan in 1966 where he wrote \"Empire of Signs\" (published in 1970), a meditation on Japanese culture's contentment in the absence of a search for a transcendental signifier. He notes that in Japan there is no emphasis on a great focus point by which to judge all other standards, describing the centre of Tokyo, the Emperor's Palace, as not a great overbearing entity, but a silent and nondescript presence, avoided and unconsidered. As such, Barthes reflects on the ability of signs in Japan to exist for their own merit, retaining only the significance naturally imbued by their signifiers. Such a society contrasts greatly to the one he dissected in \"Mythologies\", which was revealed to be always asserting a greater, more complex significance on top of the natural one. In the wake of this trip Barthes wrote what is largely considered to be his best-known work, the essay \"The Death of the Author\" (1968). Barthes saw the notion of the author, or authorial authority, in the criticism of literary text as the forced projection of an ultimate meaning of the text. By imagining an ultimate intended meaning of a piece of literature one could infer an ultimate explanation for it. But Barthes points out that the great proliferation of meaning in language and the unknowable state of the author's mind makes any such ultimate realization impossible. As such, the whole notion of the ‘knowable text’ acts as little more than another delusion of Western bourgeois culture. Indeed, the idea of giving a book or poem an ultimate end coincides with the notion of making it consumable, something that can be used up and replaced in a capitalist market. \"The Death of the Author\" is considered to be a post-structuralist work, since it moves past the conventions of trying to quantify literature, but others see it as more of a transitional phase for Barthes in his continuing effort to find significance in culture outside of the bourgeois norms. Indeed, the notion of the author being irrelevant was already a factor of structuralist thinking.", "Since Barthes contends that there can be no originating anchor of meaning in the possible intentions of the author, he considers what other sources of meaning or significance can be found in literature. He concludes that since meaning can't come from the author, it must be actively created by the reader through a process of textual analysis. In his \"S/Z\" (1970), Barthes applies this notion in an analysis of \"Sarrasine\", a Balzac novella. The end result was a reading that established five major codes for determining various kinds of significance, with numerous lexias throughout the text – a \"lexia\" here being defined as a unit of the text chosen arbitrarily (to remain methodologically unbiased as possible) for further analysis. The codes led him to define the story as having a capacity for plurality of meaning, limited by its dependence upon strictly sequential elements (such as a definite timeline that has to be followed by the reader and thus restricts their freedom of analysis). From this project Barthes concludes that an ideal text is one that is reversible, or open to the greatest variety of independent interpretations and not restrictive in meaning. A text can be reversible by avoiding the restrictive devices that \"Sarrasine\" suffered from such as strict timelines and exact definitions of events. He describes this as the difference between the writerly text, in which the reader is active in a creative process, and a readerly text in which they are restricted to just reading. The project helped Barthes identify what it was he sought in literature: an openness for interpretation.", "In the late 1970s, Barthes was increasingly concerned with the conflict of two types of language: that of popular culture, which he saw as limiting and pigeonholing in its titles and descriptions, and neutral, which he saw as open and noncommittal. He called these two conflicting modes the Doxa and the Para-doxa. While Barthes had sympathized with Marxist thought in the past (or at least parallel criticisms), he felt that, despite its anti-ideological stance, Marxist theory was just as guilty of using violent language with assertive meanings, as was bourgeois literature. In this way they were both Doxa and both culturally assimilating. As a reaction to this, he wrote \"The Pleasure of the Text\" (1975), a study that focused on a subject matter he felt was equally outside the realm of both conservative society and militant leftist thinking: hedonism. By writing about a subject that was rejected by both social extremes of thought, Barthes felt he could avoid the dangers of the limiting language of the Doxa. The theory he developed out of this focus claimed that, while reading for pleasure is a kind of social act, through which the reader exposes him/herself to the ideas of the writer, the final cathartic climax of this pleasurable reading, which he termed the bliss in reading or jouissance, is a point in which one becomes lost within the text. This loss of self within the text or immersion in the text, signifies a final impact of reading that is experienced outside the social realm and free from the influence of culturally associative language and is thus neutral with regard to social progress. Despite this newest theory of reading, Barthes remained concerned with the difficulty of achieving truly neutral writing, which required an avoidance of any labels that might carry an implied meaning or identity towards a given object. Even carefully crafted neutral writing could be taken in an assertive context through the incidental use of a word with a loaded social context. Barthes felt his past works, like \"Mythologies\", had suffered from this. He became interested in finding the best method for creating neutral writing, and he decided to try to create a novelistic form of rhetoric that would not seek to impose its meaning on the reader. One product of this endeavor was \"\" in 1977, in which he presents the fictionalized reflections of a lover seeking to identify and be identified by an anonymous amorous other. The unrequited lover's search for signs by which to show and receive love makes evident illusory myths involved in such a pursuit. The lover's attempts to assert himself into a false, ideal reality is involved in a delusion that exposes the contradictory logic inherent in such a search. Yet at the same time the novelistic character is a sympathetic one, and is thus open not just to criticism but also understanding from the reader. The end result is one that challenges the reader's views of social constructs of love, without trying to assert any definitive theory of meaning.", "Throughout his career, Barthes had an interest in photography and its potential to communicate actual events. Many of his monthly myth articles in the 50s had attempted to show how a photographic image could represent implied meanings and thus be used by bourgeois culture to infer 'naturalistic truths'. But he still considered the photograph to have a unique potential for presenting a completely real representation of the world. When his mother, Henriette Barthes, died in 1977 he began writing \"Camera Lucida\" as an attempt to explain the unique significance a picture of her as a child carried for him. Reflecting on the relationship between the obvious symbolic meaning of a photograph (which he called the studium) and that which is purely personal and dependent on the individual, that which ‘pierces the viewer’ (which he called the punctum), Barthes was troubled by the fact that such distinctions collapse when personal significance is communicated to others and can have its symbolic logic rationalized. Barthes found the solution to this fine line of personal meaning in the form of his mother's picture. Barthes explained that a picture creates a falseness in the illusion of ‘what is’, where ‘what was’ would be a more accurate description. As had been made physical through Henriette Barthes's death, her childhood photograph is evidence of ‘what has ceased to be’. Instead of making reality solid, it reminds us of the world's ever changing nature. Because of this there is something uniquely personal contained in the photograph of Barthes's mother that cannot be removed from his subjective state: the recurrent feeling of loss experienced whenever he looks at it. As one of his final works before his death, \"Camera Lucida\" was both an ongoing reflection on the complicated relations between subjectivity, meaning and cultural society as well as a touching dedication to his mother and description of the depth of his grief.", "A posthumous collection of essays was published in 1987 by François Wahl, \"Incidents\". It contains fragments from his journals: his \"Soirées de Paris\" (a 1979 extract from his erotic diary of life in Paris); an earlier diary he kept which explicitly detailed his paying for sex with men and boys in Morocco; and \"Light of the Sud Ouest\" (his childhood memories of rural French life). In November 2007, Yale University Press published a new translation into English (by Richard Howard) of Barthes's little known work \"What is Sport\". This work bears a considerable resemblance to \"Mythologies\" and was originally commissioned by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation as the text for a documentary film directed by Hubert Aquin. In February 2009, Éditions du Seuil published \"Journal de deuil\" (Journal of Mourning), based on Barthes's files written from 26 November 1977 (the day following his mother's death) up to 15 September 1979, intimate notes on his terrible loss: He grieved his mother's death for the rest of his life: \"Do not say mourning. It's too psychoanalytic. I'm not in mourning. I'm suffering.\" and \"In the corner of my room where she had been bedridden, where she had died and where I now sleep, in the wall where her headboard had stood against I hanged an icon—not out of faith. And I always put some flowers on a table. I do not wish to travel anymore so that I may stay here and prevent the flowers from withering away.\" In 2012 the book \"Travels in China\" was published. It consists of his notes from a three-week trip to China he undertook with a group from the literary journal Tel Quel in 1974. The experience left him somewhat disappointed, as he found China \"not at all exotic, not at all disorienting\".", "Roland Barthes's incisive criticism contributed to the development of theoretical schools such as structuralism, semiotics, and post-structuralism. While his influence is mainly found in these theoretical fields with which his work brought him into contact, it is also felt in every field concerned with the representation of information and models of communication, including computers, photography, music, and literature. One consequence of Barthes's breadth of focus is that his legacy includes no following of thinkers dedicated to modeling themselves after him. The fact that Barthes’s work was ever adapting and refuting notions of stability and constancy means there is no canon of thought within his theory to model one's thoughts upon, and thus no \"Barthesism\".", "\"Readerly\" and \"writerly\" are terms Barthes employs both to delineate one type of literature from another and to implicitly interrogate ways of reading, like positive or negative habits the modern reader brings into one's experience with the text itself. These terms are most explicitly fleshed out in \"S/Z\", while the essay \"From Work to Text\", from \"Image—Music—Text\" (1977), provides an analogous parallel look at the active–passive and postmodern–modern ways of interacting with a text.", "A text that makes no requirement of the reader to \"write\" or \"produce\" their own meanings. The reader may passively locate \"ready-made\" meaning. Barthes writes that these sorts of texts are \"controlled by the principle of non-contradiction\" (156), that is, they do not disturb the \"common sense,\" or \"Doxa,\" of the surrounding culture. The \"readerly texts,\" moreover, \"are products [that] make up the enormous mass of our literature\" (5). Within this category, there is a spectrum of \"replete literature,\" which comprises \"any classic (readerly) texts\" that work \"like a cupboard where meanings are shelved, stacked, [and] safeguarded\" (200).<ref name=\"S/Z\">Barthes, Roland. S/Z: An Essay. Trans. Richard Miller. New York: Hill and Wang, 1974.</ref>", "A text that aspires to the proper goal of literature and criticism: \"... to make the reader no longer a consumer but a producer of the text\" (4). Writerly texts and ways of reading constitute, in short, an active rather than passive way of interacting with a culture and its texts. A culture and its texts, Barthes writes, should never be accepted in their given forms and traditions. As opposed to the \"readerly texts\" as \"product,\" the \"writerly text is ourselves writing, before the infinite play of the world is traversed, intersected, stopped, plasticized by some singular system (Ideology, Genus, Criticism) which reduces the plurality of entrances, the opening of networks, the infinity of languages\" (5). Thus reading becomes for Barthes \"not a parasitical act, the reactive complement of a writing\", but rather a \"form of work\" (10).", "\"Author\" and \"scriptor\" are terms Barthes uses to describe different ways of thinking about the creators of texts. \"The author\" is our traditional concept of the lone genius creating a work of literature or other piece of writing by the powers of his/her original imagination. For Barthes, such a figure is no longer viable. The insights offered by an array of modern thought, including the insights of Surrealism, have rendered the term obsolete. In place of the author, the modern world presents us with a figure Barthes calls the \"scriptor,\" whose only power is to combine pre-existing texts in new ways. Barthes believes that all writing draws on previous texts, norms, and conventions, and that these are the things to which we must turn to understand a text. As a way of asserting the relative unimportance of the writer's biography compared to these textual and generic conventions, Barthes says that the scriptor has no past, but is born with the text. He also argues that, in the absence of the idea of an \"author-God\" to control the meaning of a work, interpretive horizons are opened up considerably for the active reader. As Barthes puts it, \"the death of the author is the birth of the reader.\"", "In 1964, Barthes wrote \"The Last Happy Writer\" (\"\"Le dernier des écrivains heureux\"\" in \"Essais critiques\"), the title of which refers to Voltaire. In the essay he commented on the problems of the modern thinker after discovering the relativism in thought and philosophy, discrediting previous philosophers who avoided this difficulty. Disagreeing roundly with Barthes's description of Voltaire, Daniel Gordon, the translator and editor of \"Candide\" (The Bedford Series in History and Culture), wrote that \"never has one brilliant writer so thoroughly misunderstood another.\" The sinologist Simon Leys, in a review of Barthes's diary of a trip to China during the Cultural Revolution, disparages Barthes for his seeming indifference to the situation of the Chinese people, and says that Barthes \"has contrived—amazingly—to bestow an entirely new dignity upon the age-old activity, so long unjustly disparaged, of saying nothing at great length.\"", "Barthes's \"\" was the inspiration for the name of 1980s new wave duo The Lover Speaks. Jeffrey Eugenides' \"The Marriage Plot\" draws out excerpts from Barthes's \"A Lover's Discourse: Fragments\" as a way to depict the unique intricacies of love that one of the main characters, Madeleine Hanna, experiences throughout the novel. In the film \"Birdman\" (2014) by Alejandro González Iñárritu, a journalist quotes to the protagonist Riggan Thompson an extract from \"Mythologies\": \"The cultural work done in the past by gods and epic sagas is now done by laundry-detergent commercials and comic-strip characters\". In the film \"The Truth About Cats & Dogs\" (1996) by Michael Lehmann, Brian is reading an extract from \"Camera Lucida\" over the phone to a woman whom he thinks to be beautiful but who is her more intellectual and less physically desirable friend. In the film \"Elegy\", based on Philip Roth's novel \"The Dying Animal\", the character of Consuela (played by Penélope Cruz) is first depicted in the film carrying a copy of Barthes's \"The Pleasure of the Text\" on the campus of the university where she is a student. Laurent Binet's novel \"The 7th Function of Language\" is based on the premise that Barthes was not merely accidentally hit by a van but that he was instead murdered, as part of a conspiracy to acquire a document known as the \"Seventh Function of Language\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Work.", "Important concepts in Genette's narratology.", "Order.", "Frequency.", "Duration.", "Voice.", "Mode." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Genette was born in Paris, where he studied at the Lycée Lakanal and the École Normale Supérieure, University of Paris. After leaving the French Communist Party, Genette was a member of Socialisme ou Barbarie during 1957–8. He received his professorship in French literature at the Sorbonne in 1967. In 1970 with Hélène Cixous and Tzvetan Todorov he founded the journal \"Poétique\" and he edited a series of the same name for Éditions du Seuil. Among other positions, Genette was research director at the École des hautes études en sciences sociales and a visiting professor at Yale University.", "Genette is largely responsible for the reintroduction of a rhetorical vocabulary into literary criticism, for example such terms as trope and metonymy. Additionally his work on narrative, best known in English through the selection \"\", has been of importance. His major work is the multi-part \"Figures\" series, of which \"Narrative Discourse\" is a section. His trilogy on textual transcendence, which has also been quite influential, is composed of \"Introduction à l'architexte\" (1979), \"\" (1982), and \"Paratexts. Thresholds of Interpretation\" (1997). His international influence is not as great as that of some others identified with structuralism, such as Roland Barthes and Claude Lévi-Strauss; his work is more often included in selections or discussed in secondary works than studied in its own right. Terms and techniques originating in his vocabulary and systems have, however, become widespread, such as the term paratext for prefaces, introductions, illustrations or other material accompanying the text, or hypotext for the sources of the text.", "This outline of Genette's narratology is derived from \"Narrative Discourse: An Essay in Method\". This book forms part of his multi-volume work \"Figures I-III\". The examples used in it are mainly drawn from Proust's epic \"In Search of Lost Time\". One criticism which had been used against previous forms of narratology was that they could deal only with simple stories, such as Vladimir Propp's work in \"Morphology of the Folk Tale\". If narratology could cope with Proust, this could no longer be said. Below are the five main concepts used by Genette in \"Narrative Discourse: An Essay in Method\". They are primarily used to look at the syntax of narratives, rather than to perform an interpretation of them.", "Say a story is narrated as follows: the clues of a murder are discovered by a detective (event A); the circumstances of the murder are finally revealed (event B); and lastly the murderer is caught (event C). Add corresponding numbers to the lettered events that represent their order chronologically: 1, 2, and 3. If these events were described chronologically, they would run B1, A2, C3. Arranged in the text, however, they run A2 (discovery), B1 (flashback), C3 (resolution). This accounts for the 'obvious' effects the reader will recognise, such as flashback. It also deals with the structure of narratives on a more systematic basis, accounting for flash-forward, simultaneity, as well as possible, if rarely used, effects. These disarrangements on the level of order are termed 'anachrony'.", "The separation between an event and its narration allows several possibilities.", "The separation between an event and its narration means that there is discourse time and narrative time. These are the two main elements of duration.", "Voice is concerned with who narrates, and from where. This can be split four ways.", "Genette said narrative mode is dependent on the 'distance' and 'perspective' of the narrator, and like music, narrative mode has predominant patterns. It is related to voice. Distance of the narrator changes with narrated speech, transposed speech and reported speech. Perspective of the narrator is called focalization. Narratives can be non-focalized, internally focalized or externally focalized." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Gameplay.", "Plot.", "Development.", "Release.", "Reception.", "Sales.", "Critical reviews.", "Remake." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Icewind Dale\"s gameplay operates on a similar basis to that of \"Baldur's Gate\", in that it incorporates a modified version of the \"Advanced Dungeons & Dragons\" 2nd edition ruleset, with the rules' intricacies automatically computed; the game keeps track of statistics and controls dice rolling. It uses a similar user interface though with cosmetic changes, and focuses mainly on combat, often against large groups of enemies, with dialogue driving the main story. The player is able to order a character(s) to engage in movement, dialogue, combat, or other actions such as pickpocketing within each game location. Combat has a real-time as opposed to a turn-based system, though with the option of pausing at any time so the player can give the party orders which are carried out when the game is resumed. Along with the same inventory system and paper-doll mechanics, the game's story is divided into chapters, with a journal system archiving quests and notable entries on specific story-related information from non-player characters. Players begin the game by creating an adventuring party of up to six characters, either by creating new characters or importing those from a previous game. Each new character created requires the player to provide them with their name, gender, race, class, and alignment, and then determine their ability scores and weapon proficiencies. The class of a character affects what alignments are available to them, what weapons and combat styles they can use, and how proficient they can be in them. Characters designated as thieves require the player to allocate points to the various thieving skills, and spellcasters need a few 1st level spells selected for their spellbook and then one memorised for use at the start of the game. Once a party is created, characters earn experience points in the game through completing quests and defeating enemies, and level up upon earning enough. Leveling up will automatically increase a character's hit points, grants spellcasters access to more spell slots including higher levels of magic, sometimes allows additional weapon proficiencies, and allows thieves to improve their thieving abilities.", "In the town of Easthaven, a party of adventurers are met in the tavern by the town's leader, Hrothgar (voiced by Jim Cummings), who invites them to join him on an expedition to investigate the town of Kuldahar, after reports of strange happenings there. On the road to Kuldahar, the expedition is ambushed by frost giants, who cause an avalanche that blocks the path back to Easthaven. With only the adventurers surviving, they continue to Kuldahar and meet with Arundel (Jim Cummings), the village's archdruid, who explains that a mysterious evil force has been kidnapping villagers, causing abnormal weather patterns, provoking monsters, and reducing the magical warmth provided by the giant tree that towers over the village. Asking for their help to discover the source of the evil, the adventurers begin by searching the Vale of Shadows, an area containing Kuldahar's crypts, due to rumours of undead creature sightings. They encounter a cursed barbarian spirit named Kresselack (Tony Jay) who tells them that the threat lies elsewhere. Reporting this back to the druid, Arundel instructs the group to retrieve an ancient scrying item called the Heartstone Gem, so that he may discover the source of the evil more quickly. After finding the gem was stolen from its original resting place within a temple, the party travel to the caverns of Dragon's Eye, finding a number of the missing villagers being held there by lizard men. They eventually find the gem being used by a powerful Marilith named Yxunomei (Tara Strong). After killing Yxunomei and retrieving the gem, the party return to find Kuldahar under attack by Orogs, and Arundel mortally wounded by a shapeshifter disguised as the archdruid, who taunts them before vanishing. The true Arundel advises the party to take the Heartstone to Larrel (Michael Bell) at the fortress of the Severed Hand, the only one capable of using it now, before dying from his wounds. Arriving at the fortress, the party discover that Larrel is insane, and complete a task to help him regain his sanity. Using the gem, Larrel discovers the source of the evil to reside in the former dwarven city of Dorn's Deep. Fighting their way through the city, the group eventually come across the source of the evil – a priest named Brother Poquelin (John Kassir). Poquelin reveals himself to be a demon who was exiled from his home realm by his superiors, and that both he and Yxunomei maintained a vendetta against each other that was getting out of control. Predicting she would follow him to the material plane, the demon sought a base of operation in the region to form a military force that could crush her. While doing so, he stumbled upon the ancient artifact Crenshinibon, which he claims had been \"calling\" to him. Poquelin immediately used its power to help him amass an army to conquer the lands of Icewind Dale, until Yxunomei's activities around Kuldahar led to the formation of Hrothgar's expedition. Seeking to stop it, the demon had his frost giant minions crush the expedition, but did not count on the adventurers' survival being a problem until they recovered the Heartstone Gem, forcing him to eliminate Arundel. Despite the party having found someone else to use it, Poquelin had managed to build up his forces, which he soon sent to Easthaven. After a brief battle with Poquelin, the party finds itself transported back to Easthaven, which is now in ruins. After freeing the surviving villagers, the local cleric of Tempus, Everard, informs the party that Poquelin is going after Jerrod's Stone, a mystical object housed under the town's temple, which acts as a seal on a portal to the Nine Hells of Baator. Originally opened during a major historic battle between the combined might of the barbarian tribes and an army of a powerful mage, it was sealed shut by the sacrifice of the shaman Jerrod who led the barbarians in the conflict. Gaining entry into the demon's crystal tower that enveloped the temple, the group discover that Poquelin's true intention was to reopen the portal contained within the Stone, allowing him to conquer the North with an army of demons at his command. Although he successfully achieves this, Everard, having shunned the tale of Jerrod's sacrifice until finally understanding what he did, throws himself into the portal and seals it off at the cost of his life. The party then fights Poquelin in his true form as the devil Belhifet, and manage to defeat him, banishing him to the Nine Hells and escaping the tower as it collapses. In time, Easthaven eventually recovers, and the town is reconstructed. In a twist ending, it is revealed that the game's narrator (David Ogden Stiers), was really Belhifet, who spent a mandatory century of imprisonment at the hands of the adventurers that is now close to end, and that he will soon walk the Prime Material once more to seek his revenge. (see \"\")", "\"Icewind Dale\" is based on the BioWare Infinity Engine, featuring pre-rendered backgrounds and sprite-based characters displayed with an isometric camera perspective. This engine was used to power Black Isle Studios' previous games \"\", \"Baldur's Gate\", and others.", "\"Icewind Dale\" was released on June 29, 2000 for Windows by Interplay Entertainment, and on March 26, 2002 for Mac OS and OS X by MacPlay. An expansion, \"\", was released in 2001. The game and its expansion were re-released in two budget packages in 2002, entitled \"Icewind Dale: The Collection\" and \"Icewind Dale: Complete\". They were re-released again in 2002 alongside \"Baldur's Gate\" and \"Planescape: Torment\" in \"Black Isle Compilation\". A collector's edition called \"Icewind Dale: The Ultimate Collection\", which included the sequel \"Icewind Dale II\" and its expansion, was released in 2003. All four games were released again in \"Black Isle Compilation – Part Two\" in 2004, in \"Ultimate Dungeons & Dragons\" in 2006, and in Atari's \"Rollenspiele: Deluxe Edition\" in 2007. \"Icewind Dale\" was again re-released on October 6, 2010, complete with expansion packs on GOG.com.", "", "In the United States, \"Icewind Dale\" debuted at #4 on PC Data's weekly computer game sales rankings for June 25–July 1, 2000, following the title's release on the 30th. Domestic sales for the period totaled 39,285 copies, which drew revenues of $1.71 million. Mark Asher of CNET Gamecenter called this performance a \"mild surprise\" and noted that the game was \"doing well\". It was the country's 16th-best-selling computer title for the month of June. After retaining position 4 in its second week, it dropped to sixth place in its third week. James Fudge of \"Computer Games Magazine\" wrote that \"Icewind Dale\" was among the titles that \"dominated the retail charts in the U.S. for the month of July.\" The game remained in PC Data's weekly top 10 until the week ending August 5. Later that month, Interplay's Brian Fargo noted that \"Icewind Dale\" was \"selling beyond our forecasts and in number one position[s] in certain European territories\". It was the United States' sixth-highest computer game seller of July and 16th-highest of August, moving 21,923 units and earning $1.05 million during the latter month alone. According to Chart-Track, \"Icewind Dale\" was the United Kingdom's best-selling computer game for its debut week, breaking \"Diablo II\"s three-week streak in the region. It dropped to third place the following week, before falling to seventh. Discussing \"Icewind Dale\"s chart performance, a writer for \"PC Zone\" mentioned being \"a little surprised at seeing \"Diablo II\" capitulate so easily, especially to \"Icewind Dale\", despite the success of \"Baldur's Gate\".\" \"Icewind Dale\" was the United Kingdom's third-best-selling computer title in August, placing above \"Diablo II\" for the month. According to \"PC Gamer US\", it also achieved \"high sales\" in Germany, where it debuted in 17th place on the computer game sales charts in July. After peaking at #5 the following month, it claimed places 16 and 29 in September and October before exiting Germany's top 30. By early 2001, \"Icewind Dale\" had sold more than 350,000 units worldwide, including 45,000 units in Germany. Sales rose above 400,000 units by April. In the United States alone, it sold 145,564 copies and earned $6.8 million by the end of 2000, according to PC Data. Its lifetime sales there climbed to 270,000 copies ($9.5 million) by 2006; as of that year, the \"Icewind Dale\" franchise together had sold 580,000 units in the region. In August 2006, \"Edge\" ranked the original \"Icewind Dale\" as the United States' 74th-best-selling computer game, and best-selling \"Icewind Dale\" title, released since January 2000.", "\"Icewind Dale\" was well received by critics, scoring 86% from GameRankings and 87/100 from Metacritic. \"GameSpot\" Greg Kasavin gave the game 8.6/10, opining it is \"well suited for fans of Black Isle Studios' previous games, fans of classic hack-and-slash AD&D computer games, and anyone looking for an action-packed role-playing game with a lot of depth.\" \"IGN\" scored it 8.8/10 and GameZone gave it 9.5/10. According to GameSpy's Allen Rausch, \"\"Icewind Dale\" was a fun dungeon romp that can hold its head up high, even if it can't match its big brothers.\" The game's music score by Jeremy Soule received widespread critical acclaim. Chris Chan of the \"New Strait Times\" said the game was one of the best he ever played, and went on to positively compare it with \"Diablo II\". The strongest criticism was that the gameplay was too uniform and was mostly combat-focused, with little interaction or investigation. Bob Low of the \"Daily Record\" noted technical issues such as poor pathfinding and occasional crashes. \"PC Zone\" criticized its similarities to previous Infinity Engine games. \"IGN\" ranked \"Icewind Dale\" No. 6 on their list of \"The Top 11 Dungeons & Dragons Games of All Time\" in 2014. Ian Williams of \"Paste\" rated the game #3 on his list of \"The 10 Greatest Dungeons and Dragons Videogames\" in 2015. \"Computer Gaming World\", GameSpot, \"The Electric Playground\" and CNET Gamecenter nominated \"Icewind Dale\" as the top computer role-playing game of 2000, but it lost all four awards to \"\". The former publication's editors wrote that \"Icewind Dale\" \"hearkened back to the old days\" and was \"dangerously close to being the most purely fun RPG that we've played in a long time.\" Kevin Rice reviewed the PC version of the game for \"Next Generation\", rating it four stars out of five, and stated that \"A huge, engrossing game with the most action in the \"Forgotten Realms\" series, \"Icewind Dale\" earns its place on the hard drive of any self-respecting RPG fan.\"", "A remake of \"Icewind Dale\" was developed by Beamdog's Overhaul Games and published by Atari for Windows, OS X, Linux, Android, and iOS in 2014." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Expressive Potential.", "Chord symbols and terminology.", "Function.", "Most common functions.", "Other functions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "One of the most striking and best known examples of a half-diminished seventh can be found in the chord that follows the fanfare at the start of the Wedding March from Mendelssohn’s incidental music to \"A Midsummer Night’s Dream\". An instance of the dramatic power latent in the chord can be found in the “shriek of despair” that launches the “torrent of fury” that is Chopin’s Scherzo No. 1: Wagner frequently used the chord for dramatic and expressive effect. (The chord that opens \"Tristan und Isolde\" is the best known and most-discussed example.) However, in his final opera \"Parsifal\", the composer used the half-diminished seventh to colour a leitmotif that conveys how its hero develops as the story progresses. In the first Act, the music portrays Parsifal as vigorous, youthful and naïve. His leitmotif consists almost entirely of diatonic chords:“As the hero grows in wisdom, so his music develops.” When Parsifal re-appears in the final act, set many years later, half-diminished chords permeate the leitmotif. The chromatic harmony here conveys “a deeply sad and resigned impression”", "Half-diminished seventh chords are often symbolized as a circle with a diagonal line through it, as in C or simply C. It also can be represented as m, −, m etc. The terms and symbols for this chord break expectations that derive from the usual system of chord nomenclature. Normally a symbol like \"Bdim\" indicates a diminished triad and \"B\" indicates a major triad plus a minor seventh. Thus, one would expect the term \"Bdim\" to indicate a diminished triad plus a minor seventh. Instead, it means a diminished triad plus a diminished seventh. To make this distinction clear, the term \"half-diminished\" and the symbol (ø) were invented. Since the term dim (as in Bdim) meant something else, the accurate but unwieldy term \"minor seventh flat five\" (as in B) came to be used. Jazz musicians typically consider the half-diminished chord (more commonly known as the minor seventh flat five chord- m7b5- amongst jazz musicians) as built from one of three scales: the seventh mode (the Locrian mode) of the major scale, the sixth mode of the melodic minor scale (the latter scale is nearly identical to the Locrian mode, except that it has a 9 rather than a 9, giving it a somewhat more consonant quality): or the \"half-whole\" diminished scale. See chord-scale system. The \"Tristan chord\" is sometimes described as a half-diminished seventh chord; however, the term \"Tristan chord\" is typically reserved for a very specific harmonic function, especially determined by the chord voicing and sometimes even the way the chord is spelled.", "", "The half-diminished seventh chord has three functions in contemporary harmony: predominant (also called \"subdominant\"), diminished, and dominant function. The vast majority of its occurrences are on the II chord in the minor mode, where it takes a predominant function, leading naturally to the dominant V chord. Not including the root motion, there is only a one-note difference between a half-diminished seventh chord and a V chord with a flat ninth. Since it is built on the diatonic II chord of the minor scale, most of the time the II-V pattern resolves to a minor tonic (such as in the progression D – G – Cm), but there are also instances where there is a major tonic resolution. For example, over the first three bars of the Ciaccona movement of J.S. Bach's Violin Partita No. 2 in D minor, the tonic in the first measure progresses to the ii chord (in third inversion) for the first beat of the second measure, then to the dominant (a V in second inversion), and then back to the tonic in the third measure. Diminished chord function is rarer but still exists. Half-diminished chords can function in the same way as fully diminished chords, such as in the chord progression CM – Cdim – Dm, or Em – Edim – Dm, where the diminished chord serves as a chromatic passing chord preceding a chord with a diatonic root. A typical example of this is when IV progresses to IVm, such as in the Cole Porter song \"Night and Day\", where there is the progression F – Fm – Em – Edim – Dm – G – CM. If analyzed in its predominant function, it wouldn't sufficiently explain how it functions preceding the Fm chord. In dominant function, the VII half diminished chord, like its fully diminished counterpart, can take the place of the dominant V chord at a point of cadential motion. This chord, sometimes called a \"leading-tone diminished seventh chord\", is represented by the Roman numeral notation vii, the root of which is the leading-tone to the tonic.. In the key of C, this is chord is B, as shown below. </score> This generally occurs in a major key, since the flattening of the sixth degree in the natural minor scale renders a dominant diminished seventh chord \"fully\" diminished if played within the scale. Indeed, the VII half diminished chord in a major key is identical to a dominant ninth chord (a dominant seventh with a major ninth) with its root omitted. The dominant function of the half-diminished seventh chord may also occur in a secondary dominant context, i.e., as part of a progression where the chord performs the dominant function with respect to the overall key's dominant chord. In this scenario, the half-diminished seventh chord is built on the tritone of the overall key and is equivalent to a secondary dominant seventh chord with added ninth and omitted root. If written with respect to the overall key, this chord is styled \"iv,\" but in terms of its function in the progression, the styling \"vii/V\" is more descriptive.", "A variant of the supertonic seventh chord (ii) is the supertonic half-diminished seventh with the raised supertonic (ii), which is enharmonically equivalence to the lowered third (in C: D = E). The sharpened subdominant diminished triad with minor seventh chord is represented with the Roman numeral notation iv; the root of this chord is the raised subdominant (sharpened fourth). That root also serves as the leading tone to the dominant when used in the vii/V function described above; such a function is the diminished, secondary-dominant equivalent of a backdoor progression. For example, in the key of C major, the chord playing this role is F. The half-diminished seventh chord may also be enharmonically interpreted as an augmented sixth chord. The minor seventh interval (between root and seventh degree, i.e.: { C B } in { C E G B } ) is enharmonically equivalent to an augmented sixth { C E G A }. Transposing this gives { A C D F }, a virtual minor version of the French augmented sixth chord. Like the typical augmented sixth chord, this enharmonic interpretation gives on a resolution irregular for the half-diminished seventh but regular for the augmented sixth chord, where the two voices at the enharmonic major second converge to unison or diverge to octave." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Analysis.", "Function.", "Most common functions.", "Other functions.", "Expressive potential.", "Symmetry." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Music theorists have struggled over the centuries to explain the meaning and function of diminished seventh chords. Currently, two approaches are generally used. The less complex method treats the leading tone as the root of the chord and the other chord members as the third, fifth, and seventh of the chord, the same way other seventh chords are analyzed. The other method is to analyze the chord as an \"incomplete dominant ninth\", that is a ninth chord with its root on the dominant, whose root is missing or implied. A vii chord in the minor key (for example, in C minor, B–D–F–A) occurs naturally in the harmonic minor scale and is equivalent to the dominant 79 chord (G–B–D–F–A) without its root. \\override Score.TimeSignature \\relative c\" { </score> This was already proposed by Arnold Schoenberg, and Walter Piston championed this analysis. Jazz guitarist Sal Salvador, and other jazz theorists, also advocated this view, rewriting chord charts to reflect this and supplying the \"missing\" root as part of their bass lines. The dominant ninth theory was questioned by Heinrich Schenker. He explained that although there is a kinship between all univalent chords rising out of the fifth degree, the dominant ninth chord is not a real chord formation. Jean-Philippe Rameau explained the diminished seventh chord as a dominant seventh chord whose supposed fundamental bass is borrowed from the sixth degree in minor, raised a semitone producing a stack of minor thirds. Thus, in C, the dominant seventh is G (G–B–D–F) and the sixth degree borrowed from the minor scale produces A–B–D–F. \\override Score.TimeSignature \\relative c\" { </score> In his \"Treatise on Harmony\", he observed that three minor thirds and an augmented second make up a chord where the augmented second is such that \"the ear is not offended\" by it. He may have been talking of the augmented second in quarter-comma meantone, a tuning he favored, which is close to the just septimal minor third of 7:6.", "", "The most common form of the diminished seventh chord is that rooted on the leading tone – for example, in the key of C, the chord (B–D–F–A) – so its other constituents are the,, and (flat submediant) scale degrees. These notes occur naturally in the harmonic minor scale. But this chord also appears in major keys, especially after the time of J.S. Bach, where it is borrowed from the parallel minor. Diminished seventh chords may also be rooted on other scale degrees, either as secondary function chords temporarily borrowed from other keys, or as appoggiatura chords: a chord rooted on the raised second scale degree (D–F–A–C in the key of C) acts as an appoggiatura to the tonic (C major) chord, and one rooted on the raised sixth scale degree (A–C–E–G in C major) acts as an appoggiatura to the dominant (G major) chord. Because these chords have no leading tone in relation to the chords to which they resolve, they cannot properly have dominant function. They are therefore referred to commonly as \"non-dominant diminished seventh chords\" or \"common tone diminished seventh chords\" (see below). The diminished seventh chord normally possesses a dominant function, and this is most straightforwardly shown when the root of a dominant seventh chord is omitted. The remaining third, fifth and seventh of that chord form a diminished triad (whose new root is the third of the former chord), to which a diminished seventh can be added. Thus, in C (major or minor), a dominant seventh chord consisting of G–B–D–F can be replaced by a diminished seventh chord B–D–F–A. \\override Score.TimeSignature \\relative c\" { </score> In jazz harmony, a combination of the original chord with its substitute (with G in the bass and A simultaneously in an upper voice) yields the seven flat-9 chord, which intensifies the dominant function of either a diminished seventh or dominant seventh chord. Other transformations of this kind facilitate a variety of substitutions and modulations: any of the four notes in a diminished seventh chord are \"raised\" by a semitone, that raised note is then the flat-seventh of a half-diminished seventh chord. Similarly, if any of the four notes in the diminished seventh chord are \"lowered\" by a semitone, that lowered note is then the root of a dominant seventh chord. In jazz, the diminished seventh chord is often based on the scale degree (the flat mediant) and acts as a passing chord between the mediant triad (or first-inversion tonic triad) and the supertonic triad: in C major, this would be the chord progression E minor – E diminished – D minor. The chord, \"plays no role in... jazz.\" The passing chord is used widely in Brazilian music such as choro, samba and bossa nova.", "Another common use of the chord is as a \"sharpened subdominant with diminished seventh\" chord. This is represented by the Roman notation iv, but in classical music is more correctly represented as vii/V, being a very common way for a composer to approach the dominant of any key. In the key of C, this is Fdim. It is also a common chord in jazz and ragtime music. A common traditional jazz or Dixieland progression is IV–iv–V (in C major: F–F–G). Another common usage of iv is often found in Gospel music and jazz progressions such as in the song \"I Got Rhythm\": One variant of the supertonic seventh chord is the \"supertonic diminished seventh\" with the raised supertonic, which is enharmonically equivalence to the lowered third through (in C: D = E). It may be used as a dominant substitute. A diminished seventh chord may function as a \"common-tone diminished seventh chord\". In this role, a diminished seventh chord resolves to a major or dominant seventh chord whose root is one of the notes of the diminished seventh chord (common tone), the most common being the raised supertonic seventh, which resolves to the tonic in major keys (–I, shown below) and the raised submediant, which resolves to dominant triad or seventh in major keys (–V, shown right), with the altered tones resolving upward by half step in both cases. \\override Score.TimeSignature \\time 4/4 \\relative c' { </score> The ct chord, whose function, \"is simply one of embellishment,\" most often spelled when embellishing I or when embellishing V, is distinguished from the vii/V chord by common tone chords resolving to I or I while vii/V resolves to V or I. They may be confused, due to enharmonic equivalency, but resolution is a better indicator of function than spelling. In C: The diminished chord may also resolve through lowering two of the chord tones producing a supertonic seventh chord (ii) that may lead to a conventional cadence: \\override Score.TimeSignature \\time 4/4 \\key d \\major \\relative c\" { </score>", "During the Baroque era (1600–1750), European composers became aware of the expressive potential of the diminished seventh chord. In operas and other dramatic works, the chord was frequently used to heighten the sense of passion, anger, danger or mystery. One famous example can be found in J.S. Bach’s \"St. Matthew Passion\" (1737), in which he sets verses from the Gospel of Matthew, Chapter 27, verses 20–21: \"But the chief priests and elders persuaded the multitude that they should ask Barabbas, and destroy Jesus. The governor [Pilate] answered and said unto them, ‘Whether of the twain will ye that I release unto you?’ They said, ‘Barabbas.’\" Bach sets the text so that the angry multitude’s harsh reply on the word ‘Barabbas’ is a diminished seventh chord (Listen): </score> After Bach, diminished sevenths were to feature regularly in music to evoke the uncanny or sense of impending danger. A powerful diminished seventh chord heralds the resurrection of the murdered Commendatore in the final scene of Mozart's \"Don Giovanni\" (1787). The dead man’s statue comes to life and takes the Don down to Hell in one of the most chilling episodes in the entire operatic repertoire (Listen): </score> In the early years of the 19th century, composers used the diminished seventh with increasing frequency. In \"Die Stadt\", one of his darkest and most melancholy songs from \"Schwanengesang\" (1828), Franz Schubert conjures \"the pianistic elaboration of a diminished seventh over an octave tremolo\" to convey the sinister rippling of the oars as the protagonist is rowed across a lake towards the town where his lost beloved once lived. According to Edward T. Cone, \"This famous arpeggiation seems to arise from nowhere to create an atmospheric prelude... and it dies away to nothing in a postlude.\" The song ends on the diminished seventh chord; there is no resolution, \"the dissonance is terminal\": </score> The operas of Carl Maria von Weber, particularly \"Der Freischutz\" and \"Euryanthe\", featured many passages using this chord. The Wolf’s Glen scene in \"Der Freischutz\" (1821) is an example. According to his early biographer, Alexander Wheelock Thayer, Ludwig van Beethoven spoke disparagingly of the ‘accumulation of diminished seventh chords’ in \"Euryanthe\" (1823). Beethoven was himself rather fond of the chord and was well aware of its dramatic potential. Perhaps the clearest instance of the diminished seventh’s power to evoke mystery and terror can be found in the passage linking the two final movements of Beethoven’s \"Appassionata\" Sonata, Op. 57 (1806). The placid conclusion of the andante movement is interrupted first by a slowly rolled diminished seventh arpeggio played \"pianissimo\", followed by the same chord played an octave above in a sharp, stabbing \"fortissimo\". </score> By the end of the 19th century, composers had used the diminished seventh so much that it became a cliché of musical expression and consequently lost much its power to shock and thrill. By the turn of the 20th century, many musicians were getting weary of it. In his \"Harmonielehre\" (1911),\"\" Arnold Schoenberg wrote:", "Because a diminished seventh chord is composed of three stacked minor thirds, it is symmetrical and its four inversions are composed of the same pitch classes. Understanding what inversion a given diminished seventh chord is written in (and thus finding its root) depends on its enharmonic spelling. For example, Gdim (G–B–D–F) is enharmonically equivalent to three other inverted diminished chords with roots on the other three pitches in the chord: Nineteenth-century composers in particular often make use of this enharmonic to use these chords for modulations. Percy Goetschius calls it the \"enharmonic chord.\" As a result of the symmetry of the chord, if you ignore enharmonic spelling, there are only three distinct diminished seventh chords, the other nine being enharmonically equivalent to those three. Using Piston's incomplete-ninth analysis discussed above, a single diminished seventh chord, without enharmonic change, is capable of the following analyses: V, V/ii, V/III (in minor), V/iii (in major), V/iv, V/V, V/VI (in minor), V/vi (in major), V/VII (in minor). Since the chord may be enharmonically written in four different ways without changing the sound, we may multiply the above by four, making a total of forty-eight possible interpretations. More conservatively, each assumed root may be used as a dominant, tonic, or supertonic, giving twelve possibilities. The octatonic scale (or diminished scale), a symmetric scale, may be conceived of as two interlocking diminished seventh chords, which may be rearranged into the alpha chord." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Lyrics.", "History.", "Original version.", "World War II.", "Popular song." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Although those are the official lyrics, a lot of verses are repeated in order to follow the rhythmic composition. To sing it properly, one must follow the text like this:", "", "The following is the oldest known version of the anthem, known as: \"Oh, Bright Dawn of Heroism, oh!\" (\"\"Oj, Junaštva Svjetla Zoro, oj!\"\"). It was played in public for the first time in 1863 in the national theater in Belgrade. It was a component song of the \"Battle of Grahovo or blood feud in Montenegro\" (Бој на Грахову или крвна освета у Црној Гори) heroic play in three parts. The play and the Montenegrin folk song was also played/sung in the National Theater again in 1870 and 1876. Its first record in Montenegro itself dates to 1887, when it was included into the regular school program of Montenegrin national songs for pupils in the 3rd grade. It was reconfirmed in the teacher's plan for Montenegrin schools of 1888, which speculates that it must have been an established folk song for decades by then.", "Sekule Drljević, party strongman of a minor political party which was active in the Yugoslavian Kingdom in Montenegro known as the Montenegrin Federalist Party, rewrote the text and published it in 1937 in the book of Savić Marković \"Štedimlija\" (a Croatian writer of Montenegrin origin) known as \"Crvena Hrvatska\" (\"Red Croatia\"), which confounded the thesis not of a Serb ethnic origin of the Montenegrins, which was the dominant one back then, but rather from the Croats. Its name was \"Eternal Ours...\" (\"Vječna naša\"). When Nikola Hercigonja wrote \"Oh, Bright Dawn of May\" shortly after World War II ended after 1945, he erroneously concluded that Drljević was the original wholesale author of this song, which led to its decline in popularity as a Montenegrin folk song for decades.", "The song survived until today under various names as a popular Montenegrin folk song under the name \"Oh, Bright Dawn of May\" (\"Oj svijetla majska zoro\"). This version of the song has been one of the several versions proposed in 1993 during the first discussion on the official state anthem, however, on which there was no consensus because of the disputed melodic value." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Style.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The basic steps allow for a variety of interpretations, some of which might appear quite violent. Pogo dancers have their choice of: Occasionally, dancers collide, but this is not necessarily part of pogo dancing. An uninformed bystander might get the impression that the dancers are attacking one another. People sometimes get injured when pogoing, but, more often than not, pogoers who fall to the ground are helped up instead of getting trampled. There is a general understanding that the pogoing is fun, not a fight. As the more aggressive hardcore punk emerged in the early 1980s, dancing became more violent and evolved into both moshing and slam dancing, in which dancers run and jump around, deliberately shove and slam into each other.", "In \"The Filth and the Fury\", Sex Pistols bassist Sid Vicious claimed that he invented the pogo sometime around 1976 at punk shows in the early days of London's punk scene. Vicious supposedly invented the dance as a way of mocking people who came to see Sex Pistols' performances, but who were not part of the punk movement. Whether Vicious actually invented the dance or not, the pogo quickly became closely associated with punk rock. Shane MacGowan, himself an early follower of the punk scene, also attributes pogo dancing to Vicious, claiming that a leather poncho he wore to gigs prevented him from any form of dancing other than jumping up and down. In her autobiography, \"Clothes, Clothes, Clothes. Music, Music, Music. Boys, Boys, Boys.\", Viv Albertine of The Slits claims that the Pogo was inspired by the way Sid jumped up and down while playing saxophone. However, in the documentary \"Syd Barrett: Under Review\" (minutes 6:13 to 6:20) there is film footage from Director Peter Whitehead's \"Tonight Let's All Make Love In London\" of the then called \"The Pink Floyd\" performing at the legendary UFO Club in Tottenham Court Road in 1966 in which a gentleman directly in front of the stage is clearly \"pogoing.\" It may not have been referred to as pogoing, but as far back as 1966 people were doing it. Therefore, even though Sid Vicious had claimed to have invented the dance, he was incorrect." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Veneration and Canonization." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "He was born in Cieszyn into the noble Grodski family, and received his education in the Jesuit college of Vienna. In 1603 he entered the Jesuit novitiate of Brno. After making his first religious profession in 1605, he went on to the Jesuit College in Kłodzko (1606–1607). To be able to teach in high schools, he spent a year in the seminary in České Budějovice. In 1608, he returned to Kłodzko to complete his education in music. He graduated from philosophy and theology in the Clementinum of Prague and in 1614 was ordained a priest. From 1616, he was entrusted with the management of a hostel in Prague for poor students. After the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), he was sent to Kassa, Kingdom of Hungary (today: \"Košice, Slovakia\") with Hungarian István Pongrácz, a colleague from the Jesuit seminary. When the army of the Prince of Transylvania, George Rákóczi, took Kassa, Melchior stayed at the castle, together with István Pongrácz and canon Marko Krizin. On 7 September 1619, the Transylvanian army stormed the castle and arrested the priests. They gave them a death sentence on charges of treason; accusing them of inviting the Polish army into Kassa. They were tortured and then beheaded that day. The execution of the priests, known for their gentleness and courtesy, shocked the local population, Catholics and Protestants alike. The bodies of the martyrs were recovered, after negotiations with Gabriel Bethlen, and were buried in the vicinity of Kassa. In 1636, they were moved to Nagyszombat (today: \"Trnava, Slovakia\").", "The cause of beatification of the Kassa (Košice) martyrs was opened in 1628 and they were finally beatified on 15 January 1905 by Pope Pius X. They were canonized on 2 July 1995, in Košice itself by Pope John Paul II. Their feast day is on 7 September." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Early years, \"Valley of the Damned\" and \"Sonic Firestorm\" (1999–2004).", "\"Inhuman Rampage\" and \"Ultra Beatdown\" (2005–2009).", "Departure of Theart and \"Twilight Dementia\" (2010–2011).", "\"The Power Within\" and \"Maximum Overload\" (2012–2015).", "\"Reaching into Infinity\" (2016–2017).", "Lineup changes and \"Extreme Power Metal\" (2018–present).", "Musical style.", "Band members." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "DragonForce were founded in 1999 by guitarists Herman Li and Sam Totman, under the name of DragonHeart. Totman and Li had both experienced being in a band previously, with both having come from the New Zealand heavy metal band Demoniac. The two later found vocalist ZP Theart through an advertisement, and soon acquired former Demoniac drummer Matej Setinc, bassist Steve Scott and keyboardist Steve Williams. Setinc left the band in December 1999 to continue his studies in Slovenia, so the band hired Peter Hunt to record the drums for their demo album before finding Didier Almouzni. The band also parted ways with Scott, who left to join Shadowkeep, in 2000. Williams took a small break then later rejoined the band as they recorded their first demo with Clive Nolan as a session member on the keyboards later that year, but left once again in December 2000, days ahead of the band's tour with Halford and Stratovarius to promote the demo, and formed his own band, Power Quest. Bassist Diccon Harper joined the band in November that year, with keyboardist Vadim Pruzhanov joining in February 2001 to complete the line-up for recording their debut studio album. Although it was an independent release, their demo was enough to make them one of the most popular independent power metal bands in the UK at the time. Their song \"Valley of the Damned\" was released as their debut single shortly after they changed their name permanently to DragonForce in 2002 (after finding out another power metal band already had the name DragonHeart). A promotional video featuring live footage from their tour around Europe was released along with the song. The song was also a huge success on MP3.com where it charted at No. 1 for 2 weeks as the most downloaded song. In 2002, the band signed to Noise Records and began recording their debut album, \"Valley of the Damned\". Harper performed the bass tracks for the album, but left the band in 2002 because of a tendon problem that required surgery. The title track, re-released in promotion of the album, is one of the best-known DragonForce songs to date and is a staple of their live performances to this day. The band's tour for \"Valley of the Damned\" lasted until 2004, with the tour ending in Tokyo, Japan. DragonForce's second studio album, \"Sonic Firestorm\", proved to be even more successful than their previous album, with the help of the album's lead single, \"Fury of the Storm\". \"Sonic Firestorm\" was the first DragonForce album to feature new bassist Adrian Lambert and drummer Dave Mackintosh. When Mackintosh entered the band in 2004, they began referring to their style of music as \"extreme power metal\" due to his fast blast beats and double bass rhythms. The tour was longer than the band's previous tour for \"Valley of the Damned\", and featured many more headlining shows. The band toured with many well-known metal bands such as W.A.S.P. and Iron Maiden. On the album, they also added a video commentary focusing on the making of \"Sonic Firestorm\".", "The band went mainstream with their third album, \"Inhuman Rampage\", which was released on 9 January 2006 after signing with Roadrunner Records. The first song on the album, \"Through the Fire and Flames\", is perhaps their most famous song to date, and is featured on the video games \"\", \"\" and \"Brütal Legend\", and as downloadable content for the \"Rock Band\" franchise. Former Demoniac frontman Lindsay Dawson appeared as a backing vocalist for the album. In November 2005, prior to the release of the album, Lambert left the band to raise his newborn son, and the band enlisted Frédéric Leclercq for the remaining of the \"Sonic Firestorm\" Tour. Leclercq later became an official member of the band in January 2006 following the release of \"Inhuman Rampage\", and was also featured in the band's music video for their second single from the album, \"Operation Ground and Pound\". The \"Through the Fire and Flames\" single later reached gold status in USA and Canada. DragonForce toured with Disturbed and Slipknot during the inaugural Mayhem Festival in 2008; the band then returned in autumn with the release of their fourth studio album, \"Ultra Beatdown\". The album's lead single, \"Heroes of Our Time\", was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance on 3 December 2008, eventually losing out to Metallica with their song \"My Apocalypse\". A short version of \"Heroes Of Our Time\" is also featured in the video game \"Skate 2\", and the full version in \"NHL 10\". On 22 January 2009, the music video for their song \"The Last Journey Home\" was released to the Xbox Live Community a week before it was released online. The band carried out the \"Ultra Beatdown\" world tour in Europe, North America and South America. They were supposed to play in South America in May but the tour was postponed due to the swine flu outbreak. They performed at the Two Days a Week Festival in Wiesen, Austria on 4 September, before performing in the United States and Canada from 15 September to 11 October, with special guests Sonata Arctica and Taking Dawn. The next leg of the tour was in Germany, from 16–30 October, followed by a single live performance in Luxembourg on 31 October. They then travelled to South America to perform in Curitiba, Porto Alegre, São Paulo, Mexico City, Santiago, Buenos Aires and Bogotá from 6–14 November. The final part of the tour was carried out entirely in the UK from 19 November to 12 December.", "Li stated in late 2009 that DragonForce would stop touring in December and spend Christmas at home, before beginning to write and record their next studio album in January. On 22 February 2010, the band re-released their first two albums, \"Valley of the Damned\" and \"Sonic Firestorm\". \"Valley of the Damned\" included newly remixed and remastered tracks while both albums included bonus tracks, updated packaging and DVDs featuring live footage, commentary and more. Both albums were also released in a box set which featured a T-shirt, a card of guitar picks, and an inflatable guitar. On 8 March 2010, it was announced via the band's record label at the time, Roadrunner, that Theart had parted ways with DragonForce due to \"insurmountable differences of musical opinion\", and that the band would be seeking a new frontman. The next day, the band released a press statement confirming the news and containing a link to request an audition. The band released their first live album, \"Twilight Dementia\", on 13 September 2010, in Europe and 14 September 2010, in US and Canada. The album art, title, and release date were revealed on the band's official website on 22 June 2010. The performances were recorded on the final leg of the \"Ultra Beatdown\" world tour. Regarding the album, Li stated: The band then began working on their new studio album in early 2010, recording in various studios in California, London and the South of France. The band later confirmed that they would be the opening act for Iron Maiden in two UK shows in August 2011, with the first at Odyssey Arena in Belfast on 3 August and the second at The O Arena in London on 5 August. On 2 March 2011, DragonForce announced their new vocalist, Marc Hudson. Hudson had previous experience performing in a band, but was not a professional musician before joining DragonForce. His first show with DragonForce was the band's opening for Iron Maiden in August 2011, where they debuted a new song titled \"Cry Thunder\".", "DragonForce released their fifth studio album, \"The Power Within\", on 15 April 2012. Mediæval Bæbes and Pythia vocalist Emily Ovenden contributed backing vocals on the album. During their North American tour, the band performed a new song titled \"Fallen World\", along with \"Cry Thunder\". Starting from late September 2012, the band embarked on a UK and Ireland tour, and were supported by The Defiled, Cavorts and Alestorm. DragonForce also played at Soundwave Festival in Australia in February 2013. On 12 April 2013, the band announced that writing for a follow-up to \"The Power Within\" had been completed, and on 19 May 2013, DragonForce entered Fascination Street Studios in Sweden with Jens Bogren as the producer of the band's sixth album, \"Maximum Overload\". On 31 March 2014, it was revealed that Trivium vocalist/guitarist Matt Heafy would appear as a backing vocalist for the album, and that Ovenden would return after providing backing vocals for \"The Power Within\". On 3 June 2014, DragonForce announced that they had parted ways with Mackintosh and had enlisted former Braindamage and Kill Ritual drummer Gee Anzalone. \"Maximum Overload\" was released in the UK on 18 August, in North America on 19 August and in Australia on 22 August, and a special edition which included five bonus songs was released in Japan on 19 August (the same date as the normal edition's release in North America) and in Australia on 22 August, at the same time as the release of the normal edition. To promote the album, the band embarked on their second world tour, beginning in Edinburgh on 17 September and ending in Brussels, Belgium on 1 February 2015. On 12 February, DragonForce announced that they would release their first live DVD, a recording of their performance at Loud Park Festival 2014 titled \"In the Line of Fire... Larger than Live\". The band performed at Download Festival in June 2015, with a surprise guest appearance by Babymetal during the set., DragonForce would then act as Babymetal's backing band at the 2015 Metal Hammer Golden Gods (Li and Totman had previously collaborated on the track \"Road of Resistance\" for Babymetal).", "In April 2016, the band released the compilation \"\", featuring a double CD of the band's greatest hits, with a DVD that contained the videos released by the band. The band also embarked on the \"Killer Elite World Tour\" to support the release. On July 2016 DragonForce issued a statement on the health status of Marc Hudson revealing he had been signed off by doctors and was unable to perform at the Metal Days Festival in Slovenia and the Benatska! Festival in the Czech Republic and replaced by Per Fredrik Åsly for the two shows. This was then further followed up by former Power Quest vocalist Alessio Garavello filling in for the Leyendas del Rock Festival concert in Spain, and the More//Than concert in Slovakia. DragonForce concluded their \"Killer Elite World Tour\" at a free show in Uncasville, Connecticut on 11 September. On 11 November, DragonForce was confirmed for the 2017 edition of Pulp Summer Slam in the Philippines. During an interview with \"Alto Music\" at the NAMM 2017 Winter Show, Li revealed that the band were putting the \"finishing touches\" on their upcoming seventh album. In February 2017, the band revealed pieces of the album cover on their Instagram account, and the album title was revealed to be \"Reaching into Infinity\". On 9 February, the band released details of the new album on their official website, including the release date, format and a release party show date. Leclercq also gave insight into the recording process of the album. \"We were flying out, playing a festival, then back into the studio, then back out again,\" said Leclercq, who handled majority of songwriting on the album. \"It was very intense and very tiring... [I] lost my temper a few times – I think we all did at some point, because we wanted to deliver nothing but the best. I think we have proven that playing fast was something we were good at, so this time I wanted to bring even more diversity into our music. It’s great to challenge ourselves instead of staying in a comfort zone\". \"Reaching into Infinity\" was released on 19 May 2017. A music video for \"Ashes of the Dawn\" was released on 15 May 2017. Keyboardist Vadim Pruzhanov was not featured in the clip, nor in any of the shows happening by the time of the album's recording. In a video published in his official YouTube channel, he explained he wanted to have more time for his daughter and that due to contractual limitations, he had to choose between performing in all or none of the shows. He chose the second option and was absent from the album's promotional tour as well. Power Quest supported DragonForce as special guests on the UK leg for the Reaching Into Infinity World Tour while supporting their own new album, \"Sixth Dimension\". On 13 July, the band announced that Swedish act Twilight Force would support the band during the European leg of the \"Reaching Into Infinity World Tour\" A music video for \"Midnight Madness\" was released on 21 September 2017, which documented the making of that song at Fascination Street Studios. On 15 October, they were announced to appear as a headlining band at Vagos Open Air in 2018, however on 20 January 2018, they issued a statement saying that they will not be attending due to \"circumstances beyond their control\". On 20 December, the band were announced to appear at Skogsröjet Festival in Rejmyre, Sweden in August 2018.", "In January 2018, the band were announced to appear at Area 53 Festival in Leoben, Austria in July, and at Download Festival's main stage for the first time since 2009 in June. In April 2018, the band announced a remastered version of \"The Power Within\" called \"Re-Powered Within\". Li stated: \"I love how \"Re-Powered Within\" has turned out. We remixed and remastered the original music with a more modern production, in the vein of our last two releases. The result is a clearer, more powerful sound. The fans will get to hear the music in better detail, bringing out parts they couldn't hear so well before, and injecting new excitement into the songs we love even more now.\" \"Re-Powered Within\" was released on 4 May 2018. In October, DragonForce announced that they had entered the studio with Damien Rainaud, who had previously mixed and mastered for the band, to work on their eighth studio album, and that the band would be joining Megadeth on their MEGACruise in October 2019. On 10 June 2019, after more than two years of not being involved with DragonForce, Pruzhanov posted on his Facebook page stating that he had officially left the band in May 2018. In July 2019, the band's eighth studio album, \"Extreme Power Metal\", was announced and given a release date of 27 September 2019, and a music video for \"Highway to Oblivion\" was released. Epica keyboardist Coen Janssen recorded keyboards for the new album. In August 2019, Frédéric Leclercq announced that he would be leaving the band to pursue other projects; the band later confirmed Leclercq's departure, and that YouTube personality and musician Steve Terreberry would fill in on bass for the band's US tour dates. Terreberry eventually pulled out of the tour due to his anxiety, and he released a video on his YouTube channel explaining his decision. Once Human bassist Damien Rainaud, who also produced \"Extreme Power Metal\", took over bass duties as a result. In January 2020, Alicia Vigil took over as the band's new touring bassist, beginning with their European tour. On March 2, 2020, Gee Anzalone was hospitalised with myocarditis and was forced to skip DragonForce's United States tour, with Aquiles Priester replacing him for the tour until it was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In April, Li said that the band had decided to use the lockdown time to write new music for \"a new album which isn't going to be out for ages\", while also saying that they were considering recruiting Vigil as their next permanent bassist.", "Much of DragonForce's idiosyncratic style comes from the high-speed dual guitar sounds of Herman Li and Sam Totman. By playing at a high tempo within the upper registers of their instruments, their sound becomes similar to the \"bleepy\" arpeggios and quick pitch-bends normally associated with chiptunes, usually heard in the third generation of video game music. The band often pays homage to this influence in their music videos. Although the band has frequently referred to their style as power metal, Li commented on descriptions of the band's style in an interview with \"Guitar World\": Nintendo metal', 'extreme power metal', 'Bon Jovi on speed', 'Journey meets Slayer',... people are always coming up with weird labels for us.\" The band has sometimes been labeled as a speed metal band.", "Current members Touring members Former members" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "History.", "First and Second castles.", "Third castle.", "Today.", "Architecture.", "Military architecture.", "Palatial buildings.", "Interiors." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Hohenzollern Castle is a hilltop castle located on the Berg Hohenzollern, an isolated promontory of the Swabian Jura (NHN) above sea level, above and to the south of Hechingen, Germany approximately south of Stuttgart, capital of Baden-Württemberg. This mountain lends its name to the local geographic region, \"der Zollernalbkreis\", and is known among locals as \"Zollerberg\" (Zoller Mountain), or simply \"Zoller\".", "", "Only written records exist of the original castle built in the High Middle Ages, built by the Counts of Zollern. Although the House of Hohenzollern itself finds its first mention in 1061, the castle is first mentioned as \"Castro Zolre\" in 1267, without any mention of the castle beyond its name, though contemporary sources praised it as the \"crown of all castles in Swabia.\" In 1423 the castle was totally destroyed after a year-long siege by the Swabian League of Cities. Construction on a second, stronger castle began in 1454. It was captured by Württemberger troops in 1634 midway in the Thirty Years' War (1618–1648), then fell under Habsburg control for about a century. During the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748) it was occupied in the winter of 1744/45 by French soldiers. Returned to Habsburg control after the war, it was rarely occupied and began to fall to ruin after the last Austrian owner left the castle in 1798. By the beginning of the 19th century only the Chapel of St. Michael remained usable.", "The current castle was built by Hohenzollern scion Crown-Prince Frederick William IV of Prussia. Traveling through southern Germany en route to Italy in 1819 he wished to learn about his family's roots, so climbed to the top of Mount Hohenzollern. He would write in 1844 as King: He engaged Friedrich August Stüler, who had been appointed Architect of the King for the rebuilding of Stolzenfels Castle in 1842 while still a student and heir of Karl Friedrich Schinkel, to design a new castle. Stüler began work on an ornate design influenced by English Gothic Revival architecture and the Châteaux of the Loire Valley in 1846. The impressive entryway is the work of the Engineer-Officer Moritz Karl Ernst von Prittwitz, considered the leading fortifications engineer in Prussia. The sculptures around and inside the castle are the work of Gustav Willgohs. Like Neuschwanstein Castle in Bavaria, Hohenzollern Castle is a monument to German Romanticism which incorporated an idealized vision of a medieval knight's castle. Lacking some of the fantastic elements and excesses of Neuschwanstein, the castle's construction served to enhance the reputation of the Prussian Royal Family. Construction began in 1850, and was funded entirely by the Brandenburg-Prussian and the Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen lines of the Hohenzollern family. Construction was completed on 3 October 1867, under Frederick William IV's brother King William I. After the castle was rebuilt, it was not regularly occupied, but rather used primarily as a showpiece. None of the Hohenzollern Kaisers of the German Empire lived there; only the last Prussian Crown Prince William stayed for several months following his flight from Potsdam ahead of Soviet army forces during the closing months of World War II. He and his wife Crown Princess Cecilie are buried there, as the family's estates in Brandenburg had been occupied by the Soviet Union at the time of their deaths. Starting in 1952, Prince Louis Ferdinand of Prussia began adding valuable artwork and Prussian memorabilia from the collections of the Hohenzollern family and the former Hohenzollern Museum in Schloss Monbijou. Two of the major pieces are the Crown of Wilhelm II and a uniform that belonged to King Frederick the Great. From 1952 until 1991 the caskets of Frederick Wilhelm I and his son Frederick the Great were in the chapel, but were moved back to Potsdam following German reunification in 1991. The castle was damaged in an earthquake on 3 September 1978, and was under repair until the mid-1990s.", "With over 350,000 visitors per year Hohenzollern castle is one of the most visited castles in Germany. The castle is privately owned by the House of Hohenzollern, with two-thirds belonging to the Brandenburg-Prussian branch, and the balance to the Swabian branch. Since 1952, the Princess Kira of Prussia Foundation has used the castle for an annual summer camp for children. Whenever Prince George and his family are staying at the castle, the Prussian flag flies over the castle. In 2015, parts of the 2016 thriller-horror film \"A Cure for Wellness\" were filmed at the castle, closing it from 13–24 July 2015. Hohenzollern Castle as well as Peckforton Castle in England were also used in the filming of the 2017 TV adaption of \"The Worst Witch\".", "Hohenzollern Castle, covering almost all of Mount Hohenzollern's summit, is a structure composed of four primary parts: military architecture, the palatial buildings, chapels, and the gardens.", "The Eagle Gate () and its attached drawbridge form the entrance to the castle. The castle's winding \"zwinger\" turns four times and terminates in the bastions. From here, the palatial buildings can be accessed through the square upper gate and so are the rest of the bastions.", "The palace itself, sitting upon the outline of the second castle, is an open-air museum arranged in a u-shape that ends with Protestant and Catholic chapels. Sitting on top of the old casemates are the three story Gothic Revival buildings of Friedrich August Stüler's design, decorated with towers and pinnacles. The four towers of the palace are aligned to the bastions, with the Emperor's Tower to the Fuchsloch bastion, Bishop's Tower to the Spitz bastion, Markgraf Tower to the Scharfeck bastion, and Michael's Tower to the garden bastion. Attached to the main residential building, the Count's Hall, is the final tower, the Watch Tower (), which functions both as a staircase to the library and as the flag pole whenever the Hohenzollern family is residing in the castle.", "A perron leads up to the ancestry hall, where one enters the Count's Hall (), which covers the entirety of the southern wing. The rib vaulting of the Count's Hall, adorned with grisailles by Stüler depicting the history of the House of Hohenzollern and pointed-arch windows, is supported by eight free standing red marble columns. Below the Count's Hall is the old castle kitchen, today a treasure chamber. Next to the Count's Hall is the Emperor's Tower and the Bishop's Niche, following the library decorated with murals of the Hohenzollern history by Wilhelm Peters. The Margrave's Tower contains the King's parlor, also referred to as the Margrave's room, contrary to Stüler's terminology." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Goldbach number.", "Origins.", "Verified results.", "Heuristic justification.", "Rigorous results.", "Related problems.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A Goldbach number is a positive even integer that can be expressed as the sum of two odd primes. Since 4 is the only even number greater than 2 that requires the even prime 2 in order to be written as the sum of two primes, another form of the statement of Goldbach's conjecture is that all even integers greater than 4 are Goldbach numbers. The expression of a given even number as a sum of two primes is called a Goldbach partition of that number. The following are examples of Goldbach partitions for some even numbers: The number of ways in which 2\"n\" can be written as the sum of two primes (for \"n\" starting at 1) is:", "On 7 June 1742, the German mathematician Christian Goldbach wrote a letter to Leonhard Euler (letter XLIII), in which he proposed the following conjecture: He then proposed a second conjecture in the margin of his letter: He considered 1 to be a prime number, a convention subsequently abandoned. The two conjectures are now known to be equivalent, but this did not seem to be an issue at the time. A modern version of Goldbach's marginal conjecture is: Euler replied in a letter dated 30 June 1742 and reminded Goldbach of an earlier conversation they had (), in which Goldbach remarked his original (and not marginal) conjecture followed from the following statement which is, thus, also a conjecture of Goldbach. In the letter dated 30 June 1742, Euler stated: Goldbach's third version (equivalent to the two other versions) is the form in which the conjecture is usually expressed today. It is also known as the \"strong\", \"even\", or \"binary\" Goldbach conjecture, to distinguish it from a weaker conjecture, known today variously as the Goldbach's weak conjecture, the \"odd\" Goldbach conjecture, or the \"ternary\" Goldbach conjecture. This weak conjecture asserts that \"all odd numbers greater than 7 are the sum of three odd primes\" and appears to have been proved in 2013. The weak conjecture is a corollary of the strong conjecture: if is a sum of two primes, then is a sum of three primes. The converse implication and the strong Goldbach conjecture remain unproven.", "For small values of \"n\", the strong Goldbach conjecture (and hence the weak Goldbach conjecture) can be verified directly. For instance, Nils Pipping in 1938 laboriously verified the conjecture up to \"n\" ≤ 10. With the advent of computers, many more values of \"n\" have been checked; T. Oliveira e Silva ran a distributed computer search that has verified the conjecture for \"n\" ≤ 4 × 10 (and double-checked up to 4 × 10) as of 2013. One record from this search is that is the smallest number that has no Goldbach partition with a prime below 9781.", "Statistical considerations that focus on the probabilistic distribution of prime numbers present informal evidence in favour of the conjecture (in both the weak and strong forms) for sufficiently large integers: the greater the integer, the more ways there are available for that number to be represented as the sum of two or three other numbers, and the more \"likely\" it becomes that at least one of these representations consists entirely of primes. A very crude version of the heuristic probabilistic argument (for the strong form of the Goldbach conjecture) is as follows. The prime number theorem asserts that an integer \"m\" selected at random has roughly a formula_1 chance of being prime. Thus if \"n\" is a large even integer and \"m\" is a number between 3 and \"n\"/2, then one might expect the probability of \"m\" and \"n\" − \"m\" simultaneously being prime to be formula_2. If one pursues this heuristic, one might expect the total number of ways to write a large even integer \"n\" as the sum of two odd primes to be roughly Since this quantity goes to infinity as \"n\" increases, we expect that every large even integer has not just one representation as the sum of two primes, but in fact has very many such representations. This heuristic argument is actually somewhat inaccurate, because it assumes that the events of \"m\" and \"n\" − \"m\" being prime are statistically independent of each other. For instance, if \"m\" is odd, then \"n\" − \"m\" is also odd, and if \"m\" is even, then \"n\" − \"m\" is even, a non-trivial relation because, besides the number 2, only odd numbers can be prime. Similarly, if \"n\" is divisible by 3, and \"m\" was already a prime distinct from 3, then \"n\" − \"m\" would also be coprime to 3 and thus be slightly more likely to be prime than a general number. Pursuing this type of analysis more carefully, Hardy and Littlewood in 1923 conjectured (as part of their famous \"Hardy–Littlewood prime tuple conjecture\") that for any fixed \"c\" ≥ 2, the number of representations of a large integer \"n\" as the sum of \"c\" primes formula_4 with formula_5 should be asymptotically equal to where the product is over all primes \"p\", and formula_7 is the number of solutions to the equation formula_8 in modular arithmetic, subject to the constraints formula_9. This formula has been rigorously proven to be asymptotically valid for \"c\" ≥ 3 from the work of Vinogradov, but is still only a conjecture when formula_10. In the latter case, the above formula simplifies to 0 when \"n\" is odd, and to when \"n\" is even, where formula_12 is Hardy–Littlewood's twin prime constant This is sometimes known as the \"extended Goldbach conjecture\". The strong Goldbach conjecture is in fact very similar to the twin prime conjecture, and the two conjectures are believed to be of roughly comparable difficulty. The Goldbach partition functions shown here can be displayed as histograms, which informatively illustrate the above equations. See Goldbach's comet.", "The strong Goldbach conjecture is much more difficult than the weak Goldbach conjecture. Using Vinogradov's method, Chudakov, Van der Corput, and Estermann showed that almost all even numbers can be written as the sum of two primes (in the sense that the fraction of even numbers which can be so written tends towards 1). In 1930, Lev Schnirelmann proved that any natural number greater than 1 can be written as the sum of not more than prime numbers, where is an effectively computable constant, see Schnirelmann density. Schnirelmann's constant is the lowest number with this property. Schnirelmann himself obtained <. This result was subsequently enhanced by many authors, such as Olivier Ramaré, who in 1995 showed that every even number is in fact the sum of at most 6 primes. The best known result currently stems from the proof of the weak Goldbach conjecture by Harald Helfgott, which directly implies that every even number is the sum of at most 4 primes. In 1924 Hardy and Littlewood showed under the assumption of the generalized Riemann hypothesis that the amount of even numbers up to violating the Goldbach conjecture is much less than formula_14 for small. Chen Jingrun showed in 1973 using the methods of sieve theory that every sufficiently large even number can be written as the sum of either two primes, or a prime and a semiprime (the product of two primes). See Chen's theorem for further information. In 1975, Hugh Montgomery and Robert Charles Vaughan showed that \"most\" even numbers are expressible as the sum of two primes. More precisely, they showed that there exist positive constants and such that for all sufficiently large numbers, every even number less than is the sum of two primes, with at most formula_15 exceptions. In particular, the set of even integers that are not the sum of two primes has density zero. In 1951, Linnik proved the existence of a constant such that every sufficiently large even number is the sum of two primes and at most powers of 2. Roger Heath-Brown and Jan-Christoph Schlage-Puchta in 2002 found that works. As with many famous conjectures in mathematics, there are a number of purported proofs of the Goldbach conjecture, none of which are accepted by the mathematical community.", "Although Goldbach's conjecture implies that every positive integer greater than one can be written as a sum of at most three primes, it is not always possible to find such a sum using a greedy algorithm that uses the largest possible prime at each step. The Pillai sequence tracks the numbers requiring the largest number of primes in their greedy representations. One can consider similar problems in which primes are replaced by other particular sets of numbers, such as the squares.", "\"Goldbach's Conjecture\" () is the title of the biography of Chinese mathematician and number theorist Chen Jingrun, written by Xu Chi. The conjecture is a central point in the plot of the 1992 novel \"Uncle Petros and Goldbach's Conjecture\" by Greek author Apostolos Doxiadis, in the short story Sixty Million Trillion Combinations by Isaac Asimov and also in the 2008 mystery novel \"No One You Know\" by Michelle Richmond. Goldbach's conjecture is part of the plot of the Spanish film \"Fermat's Room\" (\"La habitación de Fermat\") (2007)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name and scope.", "Layout and rendering.", "Notable engines." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A browser engine is not a stand-alone computer program but a critical piece of a larger program, such as a web browser, from which the term is derived. (The word \"engine\" is an analogy to the engine of a car.) Besides \"browser engine\", two other terms are in common use regarding related concepts: \"layout engine\" and \"rendering engine\". In theory, layout and rendering (or \"painting\") could be handled by separate engines. In practice, however, they are tightly coupled and rarely considered separately. In addition to layout and rendering, a browser engine enforces the security policy between documents, handles navigation through hyperlinks and data submitted through forms, and implements the Document Object Model (DOM) data structure exposed to page scripts. Executing JavaScript (JS) code is a separate matter, however, as every major web browser uses a dedicated engine for this. The JS language was originally created for use in browsers, but it is now used elsewhere too, so the implementation of JS engines is decoupled from browser engines. In a web browser, the two engines work in concert via the shared DOM data structure. Browser engines are used in other types of programs besides web browsers. Email clients need them to display HTML email. The Electron framework, which is powered by the two engines of the Google Chrome browser, has been used to create many applications.", "The layout of a web page is typically specified by Cascading Style Sheets (CSS). Each style sheet is a series of rules which the browser engine interprets. For example, some rules specify typography details, such as font, color, and text size. The engine combines all relevant CSS rules to calculate precise graphical coordinates for the visual representation it will paint on the screen. Some engines may begin rendering before all of a page's resources are downloaded. This can result in visual changes as more data is received, such as images being gradually filled in or a flash of unstyled content.", "Because the Web platform is a set of open standards, there are multiple browser engine implementations. Gecko is Mozilla's browser engine, used in its Firefox web browser, the Thunderbird email client, and the SeaMonkey internet suite. Goanna is a fork of Gecko used in the Pale Moon browser. Apple created the WebKit engine for its Safari browser by forking the KHTML engine of the KDE project. Google originally used WebKit for its Chrome browser but eventually forked it to create the Blink engine. All Chromium-based browsers use Blink, as do applications built with CEF, Electron, or any other framework that embeds Chromium. Although Apple permits third-party browsers as alternatives to Safari on iOS devices, all browsers distributed through its App Store must use WebKit as their engine. For example, Opera Mini for iOS uses WebKit, whereas all other Opera variants use Blink. (Opera formerly used its own proprietary Presto engine.) Microsoft maintains its own proprietary EdgeHTML engine, which is the successor of its Trident engine. However, EdgeHTML is now only used for Universal Windows Platform apps, as the Edge browser has been remade with the Blink engine." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early history.", "Provincial church organisation.", "Catholic Church.", "In general.", "Provincial boundary lines.", "Eastern Orthodox Church.", "Protestantism.", "Anglican Communion.", "Evangelical State Church in Prussia.", "Religious institutes." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "Ecclesiastical provinces first corresponded to the civil provinces of the Roman Empire. From the second half of the 2nd century, the bishops of these provinces were accustomed to assemble on important occasions for common counsel in synods. From the end of that century the summons to attend these increasingly important synods was usually issued by the bishop of the capital or metropolis of the province, who also presided over the assembly, especially in the East. Important communications were also forwarded to the bishop of the provincial capital to be brought to the notice of the other bishops. Thus in the East during the 3rd century the bishop of the provincial metropolis came gradually to occupy a certain superior position, and received the name of metropolitan. At the First Council of Nicaea (325) this position of the metropolitan was taken for granted, and was made the basis for conceding to him definite rights over the other bishops and dioceses of the state province. In Eastern canon law since the 4th century (cf. also the Synod of Antioch of 341, can. ix), it was a principle that every civil province was likewise a church province under the supreme direction of the metropolitan, i.e. of the bishop of the provincial capital. This division into ecclesiastical provinces did not develop so early in the Western Empire. In North Africa the first metropolitan appears during the 4th century, the Bishop of Carthage being recognized as primate of the dioceses of Northern Africa; metropolitans of the separate provinces gradually appear, although the boundaries of these provinces did not coincide with the divisions of the empire. A similar development was witnessed in Spain, Gaul, and Italy. The migration of the nations, however, prevented an equally stable formation of ecclesiastical provinces in the Christian West as in the East. It was only after the 5th century that such gradually developed, mostly in accordance with the ancient divisions of the Roman Empire. In Italy alone, on account of the central ecclesiastical position of Rome, this development was slower. However, at the end of antiquity the existence of church provinces as the basis of ecclesiastical administration was fairly universal in the West. In the Carolingian period they were reorganized, and have retained their place ever since.", "", "", "In the Catholic Church, a province consists of a metropolitan archdiocese and one or more suffragan dioceses headed by diocesan bishops. The archbishop of the metropolitan see is the metropolitan of the province. The delimitation of church provinces in the Latin Church is reserved to the Holy See. However, there have always been dioceses which are exempt from the authority of a metropolitan archdiocese, and are directly subject to the Holy See, such as the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Strasbourg. There are also some archdioceses that are not metropolitan sees, such as the Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem, which is similarly exempt, and some that are suffragan to another archdiocese; their archbishops do not receive the pallium. The authority of a Latin Church metropolitan over the other sees within his province is now very limited. During a vacancy in a suffragan diocese, the metropolitan names a temporary diocesan administrator if the College of Consultors of the diocese fails to elect one within the prescribed period. A metropolitan generally presides at the installation and consecration of new bishops in the province, and the tribunal of the metropolitan see generally serves as the first court of appeal regarding canonical matters of provincial diocesan tribunals. The metropolitan's insignia is the pallium. The article in the \"Catholic Encyclopedia\" of 1911 on \"metropolitan\" shows that the metropolitan then had scarcely any power more than now. In the Eastern Catholic Churches, the patriarchal or major archiepiscopal Churches may also be divided into ecclesial provinces, each headed by a metropolitan. The Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church has several, two of them in the United States and Canada. Some other Eastern Catholic Churches of a lower category and generally less populous, are known as metropolitanates. They are headed by a single metropolitan, the hierarch of a fixed episcopal see, As head of an autonomous Church, his name is mentioned in the liturgy of that Church immediately after that of the Pope and, in suffragan eparchies, ahead of that of the local hierarch.", "The borders of provinces have often been inspired, or even determined, by historical or present political borders; the same is often true of diocesan borders within a province. The following are some examples:", "Historical development of ecclesiastical provinces in the Eastern Orthodox Church was influenced by strong tendencies of internal administrative centralization. Since the First Ecumenical Council (325), the Archbishop of Alexandria was given supreme jurisdiction over all provinces of Egypt. Similar authority was also granted to Archbishop of Antioch regarding jurisdiction over provinces of Orient. Since the Fourth Ecumenical Council (451), Patriarch of Constantinople was given the right to consecrate metropolitan bishops in all regions that were placed under his supreme jurisdiction. In time, previous administrative autonomy of original ecclesiastical provinces was gradually and systematically reduced in favor of patriarchal centralization. Ancient practice of annual councils of provincial bishops, headed by their local metropolitans, was also abandoned in favor of centralized councils, headed by patriarchs and attended by metropolitan bishops. The creation of new autonomous and autocephalous jurisdictions was also marked by tendencies of internal centralization. The newly created Archbishopric of Ohrid (1018) was structured as a single ecclesiastical province, headed by an archbishop who had jurisdiction over all of his suffragan bishops. In 1219, autocephalous Serbian Orthodox Church was also organized as one ecclesiastical province, headed by archbishop with direct jurisdiction over all Serbian bishops. By the end of Middle Ages, each autocephalous and autonomous church in Eastern Orthodoxy was functioning as a single, internally integrated ecclesiastical province, headed by local patriarch or archbishop. Only in modern times, some Eastern Orthodox Churches have revived the ancient practice by creating internal ecclesiastical provinces on the middle (regional) level of church administration. In the Romanian Orthodox Church there are six regional metropolitanates, headed by local metropolitans who preside over regional synods of local bishops, and have special duties and privileges. For example, the Metropolitan of Oltenia has regional jurisdiction over four local dioceses. On the other hand, a majority of Eastern Orthodox Churches remain and function as highly centralized church bodies, each of them functioning as a single ecclesiastical province.", "", "Member churches of the Anglican Communion are often referred to as provinces. Some provinces are coterminous with the boundaries of political states, some include multiple nations while others include only parts of a nation. Some, such as the Church of the Province of West Africa, have the word \"province\" in their names. These member churches are known as \"provinces of the Anglican Communion,\" and are headed by a primate, who is usually also styled archbishop, but may have an alternative title such as primus (for example, the Primus of the Scottish Episcopal Church), presiding bishop, or moderator. The word is also used to refer to a grouping of dioceses within a member church, commonly known as a metropolitical province, metropolitan province, or internal province. The Church of England is divided into two such provinces: Canterbury and York. The Anglican Church of Australia has five provinces: New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Victoria and Western Australia, and an extraprovincial diocese. The Anglican Church of Canada has four: British Columbia and Yukon, Canada, Ontario, and Rupert's Land. The Church of Ireland has two: Armagh and Dublin. The Episcopal Church in the United States of America (ECUSA) numbers, rather than names, its nine provinces. In all cases apart from ECUSA each metropolitan or internal province is headed by a metropolitan bishop with the title archbishop.", "The \"Evangelical State Church in Prussia\", formed in 1821 (renamed: \"Evangelical State Church in Prussia's older Provinces\" in 1875, Evangelical Church of the old-Prussian Union in 1922), had ecclesiastical provinces (Kirchenprovinzen) as administrative subsections mostly following the boundaries of those political Provinces of Prussia which formed part of the state before 1866, with some border changes after 1920 following WWI territorial cessions.", "The term \"province\", or occasionally religious province, also refers to a geographical and administrative subdivision in a number of orders and congregations. This is true of most, though not all, religious communities founded after the year AD 1000, as well as the Augustinians, who date from earlier. A province of a religious institute is typically headed by a provincial superior. The title differs by each institute's tradition (provincial minister for Franciscans; provincial prior for Dominicans; provincial for the Augustinians, simply \"provincial\" or \"provincial father\" for the Jesuits and many others, for instance). The borders of a religious institute's provinces are determined independently of any diocesan structure, and so the borders often differ from the'secular', or diocesan, ecclesiastical provinces. The orders' provinces are usually far larger than a diocese, a secular province, or even a country, though sometimes they are smaller in an institute's heartland. Most monastic orders are not organized by provinces. In general, they organise their administration through autonomous houses, in some cases grouped in larger families. For example, each Benedictine abbey is an independent foundation, but will often choose to group themselves into congregations based on historical connections." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "During Emperor Ruizong's first reign.", "During Wu Zetian's reign.", "In fiction." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Di Renjie was born in Yangqu County, Bing Province in 630, during the reign of Emperor Taizong. His family, from Taiyuan, was one that had produced many officials. His grandfather Di Xiaoxu (狄孝緒) served as \"Shangshu Zuo Cheng\" (尚書左丞), a secretary general of the executive bureau of government (尚書省, \"Shangshu Sheng\"), and his father Di Zhixun (狄知遜) served as the prefect of Kui Prefecture (夔州, modern eastern Chongqing). Di Renjie was known for being studious in his youth, and after passing the imperial examination served as a secretary at the prefectural government of Bian Prefecture (汴州, roughly modern Kaifeng, Henan). While serving there, he was falsely accused of improprieties by colleagues, and when the minister of public works, Yan Liben, was touring the Henan Circuit (河南道, the region immediately south of the Yellow River), which Bian Prefecture belonged to, he was asked to judge the case. After seeing Di, he was impressed by him, and commented, \"Confucius had said, 'You can tell a man's kindness by his failure.' You are a pearl from the coast and a lost treasure of the southeast.\" He recommended Di to become a bailiff for the commandant at Bing Prefecture (并州, roughly modern Taiyuan, Shanxi). While at Bing Prefecture, he was said to be caring of others. On one occasion, his colleague Zheng Chongzhi (鄭崇質) was ordered to go on an official trip to a place far away. Di, noting that Zheng's mother was old and ill, went to the secretary general Lin Renji (藺仁基) and offered to go in Zheng's stead. It was said that Lin was so touched by the concern that Di showed Zheng as a colleague that he relayed the episode to the military advisor to the prefect, Li Xiaolian (李孝廉), with whom Lin had a running dispute, and offered peaceful relations to Li. By 676, during the reign of Emperor Taizong's son Emperor Gaozong, Di was serving as the secretary general at the supreme court (大理丞), and it was said that he was an efficient and fair judge, judging some 17,000 cases within a year without anyone complaining about the results. In 676, there was an event in which the general Quan Shancai (權善才) and the military officer Fan Huaiyi (范懷義) accidentally cut cypresses on Emperor Taizong's tomb—an offense punishable by removal from office, but Emperor Gaozong ordered that the two be executed. Di pointed out that, by law, the two should not be executed. This initially offended Emperor Gaozong, who ordered Di to leave his presence. Di continued to object, and eventually, Emperor Gaozong relented and exiled them. Several days later, he appointed Di to the imperial censorate. Around 679, the minister of agriculture Wei Hongji (韋弘機) built three magnificent palaces around the eastern capital Luoyang—Suyu Palace (宿羽宮), Gaoshan Palace (高山宮), and Shangyang Palace (上陽宮). Di submitted an accusation against Wei, arguing that he was leading Emperor Gaozong into being wasteful, and Wei was removed from his office. Meanwhile, around the same time, the official Wang Benli was said to be favored by Emperor Gaozong and, on account of that favor, was committing many illegal deeds and intimidating other officials. Di accused Wang of crimes; initially, Emperor Gaozong was set to pardon him. At Di's insistence—pointing out that the empire did not lack people with Wang's talent—Emperor Gaozong relented and allowed Wang to be punished.", "As of 686, during the reign of Emperor Gaozong's son Emperor Ruizong, Di Renjie was serving as the prefect of Ning Prefecture (寧州, roughly modern Qingyang, Gansu). At that time, the censor Guo Han (郭翰) was commissioned to tour the prefectures in the area, and wherever he went, he found faults with the prefects and corrected them, but when he arrived at Ning Prefecture, it was said that the people had no complaints about Di and praised him greatly. Guo recommended Di to Emperor Ruizong's mother and regent Empress Dowager Wu (later known as Wu Zetian), and Di was recalled to Luoyang to serve as deputy minister of public works (冬官侍郎, \"Dongguan Shilang\"). In 688, Di was touring the Jiangnan Circuit (江南道, the region south of the Yangtze River). He believed that the region had too many temples dedicated to unusual deities, and at his request, some 1,700 temples were destroyed; only four kinds of temples were allowed to remain—those dedicated to Yu the Great, Wu Taibo (吳太伯, the legendary founder of the Spring and Autumn period kingdom Wu), Wu Jizha (吳季札, a well-regarded Wu prince and son of King Shoumeng of Wu), and Wu Zixu. Later in 688, in the aftermath of a failed rebellion by Emperor Gaozong's brother Li Zhen the Prince of Yue, then the prefect of Yu Prefecture (豫州, roughly modern Zhumadian, Henan), against Empress Dowager Wu, she made Di, who was at that time \"Wenchang Zuo Cheng\" (文昌左丞), a secretary general at the executive bureau (which by that point had been renamed \"Wenchang Tai\" (文昌臺)), the prefect of Yu Prefecture to succeed Li Zhen. At that time, some 600 to 700 households were accused of being complicit in Li Zhen's rebellion and were forced to serve as servants. At Di's request, they were relieved from those obligations, but were exiled to Feng Prefecture (豐州, roughly modern Bayan Nur, Inner Mongolia). Meanwhile, the general that Empress Dowager Wu sent to suppress Li Zhen's rebellion, the chancellor Zhang Guangfu, was still in Yu Prefecture, and his officers and soldiers were demanding all kinds of supplies from the Yu prefectural government, requests that Di mostly turned down. This led to an argument with Zhang, and Zhang accused him of showing contempt; in turn, Di angrily stated that Zhang was killing alleged coconspirators of Li Zhen excessively and that if he had the authority to do so, he would have beheaded Zhang even if it meant his own death. Zhang was greatly offended and, upon return to Luoyang, accused Di of contempt, and Empress Dowager Wu demoted Di to be the prefect of Fu Prefecture (復州, in modern Hanzhong, Shaanxi). (This was considered a demotion as, while Di remained a prefect, Fu Prefecture was smaller and less important than Yu Prefecture.)", "In 690, Empress Dowager Wu took the throne from Emperor Ruizong, establishing the Zhou Dynasty as its \"emperor\" and interrupting the Tang Dynasty. As of 691, Di was serving as the military advisor to the prefect of the capital prefecture Luo Prefecture (洛州, i.e., Luoyang), when Wu Zetian promoted him to be the deputy minister of finance (地官侍郎, \"Diguan Shilang\") and gave him the designation \"Tong Fengge Luantai Pingzhangshi\" (同鳳閣鸞臺平章事), making him a 'de facto chancellor. She commented to him, \"You did a good job in Ru'nan [(汝南, i.e., Yu Prefecture)]. Do you want to know who spoke against you?\" (Presumably, she was referring to Zhang Guangfu who, ironically, was executed by her in 689 on accusation that he had considered rebelling against her.) Di responded: Wu Zetian was impressed by the response and praised him. Later that year, when the imperial university's student Wang Xunzhi (王循之) submitted a petition to Wu Zetian asking her to permit him to go on vacation, she was poised to issue an edict to approve of the request, when Di opposed the edict—not on the merits, but on the basis that university students' vacations were such minor events that she should not bother herself with them, but rather should order that such petitions be directed to the university secretaries. She agreed. In 692, Wu Zetian's secret police official Lai Junchen falsely accused Di, along with other chancellors Ren Zhigu, and Pei Xingben, along with other officials Cui Xuanli (崔宣禮), Lu Xian (盧獻), Wei Yuanzhong, and Li Sizhen (李嗣真), of treason. Lai tried to induce them to confess by citing an imperial edict that stated that those who confessed would be spared their lives, and Di confessed and was not tortured—but when Lai's subordinate Wang Deshou (王德壽) tried to induce him to implicate another chancellor, Yang Zhirou, refused. Di then wrote a petition on his blanket and hid it inside cotton clothes, and then had his family members take the clothes home to be changed into summer clothes. Wu Zetian thereafter became suspicious and inquired with Lai, who responded by forging, in the names of Di and the other officials, submissions thanking Wu Zetian for preparing to execute them. However, the young son of another chancellor who had been executed, Le Sihui, who was seized to be a servant at the ministry of agriculture, made a petition to Wu Zetian and told her that Lai was so skillful at manufacturing charges that even the most honest and faithful individuals would be forced into confessions by Lai. Wu Zetian thereafter summoned the seven accused officials and personally interrogated them, and after they disavowed the forged confessions, released but exiled them—in Di's case, to be the magistrate of Pengze County (彭澤, in modern Jiujiang, Jiangxi). In 696, during the middle of an attack by the Khitan khan Sun Wanrong against Zhou prefectures north of the Yellow River, Wu Zetian promoted Di to be the prefect of Wei Prefecture (魏州, roughly modern Handan, Hebei). It was said that Di's predecessor Dugu Sizhuang (獨孤思莊), in fear of a Khitan attack, had ordered the people of the prefecture to all move within the prefectural capital's walls, drawing much fear and resentment from the people. When Di arrived, he, judging the Khitan forces to be still far away, ordered that the people be allowed to return to their homes and farms, gaining much gratitude from the people. After Sun's forces collapsed in 697 after a surprise attack by the Eastern Tujue khan Ashina Mochuo against his home base, Wu Zetian had Di, the chancellor Lou Shide, and Wu Yizong (武懿宗) the Prince of Henan (a grandson of her uncle Wu Shiyi (武士逸)) to tour the region north of the Yellow River to try to pacify the people. Later in 697, Di was serving as the commandant at You Prefecture (幽州, roughly modern Beijing), when, at Lou's recommendation, Wu Zetian recalled him to Luoyang to serve as \"Luantai Shilang\" (鸞臺侍郎), the deputy head of the examination bureau of government (鸞臺, \"Luantai\"), and again gave him the chancellor designation of \"Tong Fengge Luantai Pingzhangshi\". He submitted a petition advocating that descendants of Western Tujue and Goguryeo rulers be found and be given their ancient lands, to help defend against Eastern Tujue and Tufan attacks—a petition that was not accepted but was said to be well regarded by other officials. At that time, Wu Zetian's son Li Dan (the former Emperor Ruizong) was crown prince, but Wu Zetian's nephews Wu Chengsi the Prince of Wei and Wu Sansi the Prince of Liang both had designs on the position, and repeatedly had their associates reason with Wu Zetian that there had never been an emperor who made someone of a different family name his heir. Di, on the other hand, repeatedly argued to her that it is more proper for her to make her son her heir, and that Li Dan's brother Li Zhe the Prince of Luling, himself a former emperor that Wu Zetian removed in 684, be recalled to the capital, a suggestion echoed by fellow chancellors Wang Fangqing and Wang Jishan, and Wu Zetian began to agree. On one occasion, Wu Zetian asked him, \"Last night I dreamed of a large parrot that had two broken wings. What do you think it means?\" Di responded: It was said that thereafter, Wu Zetian stopped considering Wu Chengsi or Wu Sansi as heir. Meanwhile, another close advisor of Wu Zetian's, Ji Xu, also persuaded Wu Zetian's lovers Zhang Yizhi and Zhang Changzong the merits of the proposal—pointing out that as things stood, after Wu Zetian's death, they would be hated and would suffer terrible fates. Wu Zetian finally agreed, and in spring 698 recalled Li Zhe to the capital. Li Dan subsequently offered to yield the crown prince position to Li Zhe, and Wu Zetian agreed and created Li Zhe crown prince, changing his name to Li Xian and then Wu Xian. She soon made Di \"Nayan\" (納言), the head of the examination bureau and a post considered one for a chancellor. Also in 698, Ashina Mochuo turned against Zhou and attacked Zhou's northern prefectures. Wu Zetian made Li Xian the nominal commanding general of the army against Eastern Tujue, but made Di the deputy commanding general and actually in charge of the army. Before Di's army could arrive, however, Ashina Mochuo completed his pillaging of the northern prefectures and withdrew; Di's army never engaged him. Wu Zetian subsequently commissioned Di to tour the prefectures to pacify the people, and he was said to have done so well, helping refugees to return to their home, transporting food supplies to places needing them, repairing the roads, and helping the poor. Fearful that other officials would trouble the people with demands for luxury items, he made a good example of eating unrefined foods and prohibiting harassment of the citizens. Meanwhile, though, he was said to have looked down on Lou, not realizing that Lou had been the one that had recommended that he be made chancellor, until Wu Zetian revealed to him that fact, causing him to be embarrassed. In 700, Wu Zetian made Di \"Neishi\" (內史), the head of the legislative bureau (鳳閣, \"Fengge\") and a post also considered one for a chancellor. By this point, she was said to have respected him so greatly that she often just referred to him as \"Guolao\" (國老, \"the State Elder\") without referring to him by name. It was said that, on account of his old age, he often offered to retire, and she repeatedly declined. Further, she stopped him from kneeling and bowing to her, stating, \"When I see you kneeling, I feel the pain.\" She also ordered that he not be required to rotate with other chancellors for night duty, warning the other chancellors not to bother Di unless there was something important. Di died in fall 700, and it was said that she wept bitterly, stating, \"The Southern Palace [(i.e., the imperial administration)] is now empty.\" Prior to his death, Di had recommended many capable officials, including Zhang Jianzhi, Yao Yuanchong, Huan Yanfan, and Jing Hui. As these officials were later instrumental in overthrowing Wu Zetian in 705 and returning Li Xian to the throne (as Emperor Zhongzong), Di was often credited as having restored Tang by proxy. Di Renjie's tomb is located at the east end of the White Horse Temple in Luoyang, near the Qiyun Pagoda, on the tombstone engraved the inscription \"The tomb of Lord Di Renjie, famous chancellor of the Great Tang dynasty\".", "Di Renjie appears as the main character in a number of \"gong'an\" crime novels and films. The first of these stories, \"Di Gong An\" or \"Dee Goong An\", (Chinese: 狄公案) is an 18th-century Chinese detective novel written by the pseudonymous author 不题撰人, loosely based on Di Renjie. Robert van Gulik translated the novel in the 1940s as \"Celebrated Cases of Judge Dee\". He later wrote a series of detective novels featuring Judge Dee as the main protagonist. These in turn were the basis of a 1969 TV series in the UK starring Michael Goodliffe. Khigh Dhiegh appeared as the Judge Dee version of the character in the 1974 ABC TV movie \"Judge Dee and the Monastery Murders\", based on Robert Van Gulik's novel \"The Haunted Monastery\". It was directed by Jeremy Paul Kagan and the teleplay was written by Nicholas Meyer. Frédéric Lenormand published 19 new novels using Judge Dee as detective from 2004 to present (éditions Fayard, Paris). In 2004, CCTV-8 aired a television series based on detective stories related to Di Renjie, under the title \"Amazing Detective Di Renjie\" (神探狄仁杰), starring Liang Guanhua as the titular protagonist. It was followed by three sequels: \"Amazing Detective Di Renjie 2\" (2006), \"Amazing Detective Di Renjie 3\" (2008), and \"Mad Detective Di Renjie\" (2010). Some characters in the television series are fictionalised versions of historical figures, including Wu Zetian and Di Renjie himself. The plot of each season is further divided into two or three parts, each covering one case. The story usually follows a pattern of a seemingly small case gradually leading to Di Renjie uncovering a sinister plot that threatens the Chinese empire. Kent Cheng portrayed Di Renjie in the 2009 Hong Kong television series \"The Greatness of a Hero\" produced by TVB. Andy Lau played Di Renjie in the 2010 film \"Detective Dee and the Mystery of the Phantom Flame\" directed by Tsui Hark. Bosco Wong portrayed a young Di Renjie in the 2014 Chinese television series \"Young Sherlock\". Mark Chao portrayed Di Renjie in the 2013 Hong Kong movie \"\" and its sequel \"\" (2018) both also directed by Tsui Hark. The two films are set as a prequel to the events in the Mystery of the Phantom Flame. In 2012, Bigben Interactive released a video game based on Di Renjie named Judge Dee: The City God Case. Initially released on PC, the casual hidden-object game later made it on to other platforms including Android and iOS. Nupixo Games released a new point-and-click adventure game featuring an original story which involves Empress Wu Zetian. Titled Detective Di: The Silk Rose Murders, it released in May 2019 for PC/Mac." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Cyprus.", "The Nobel Prize.", "Later life.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Seferis was born in Vourla near Smyrna in Asia Minor, Ottoman Empire (now İzmir, Turkey). His father, Stelios Seferiadis, was a lawyer, and later a professor at the University of Athens, as well as a poet and translator in his own right. He was also a staunch Venizelist and a supporter of the demotic Greek language over the formal, official language (katharevousa). Both of these attitudes influenced his son. In 1914 the family moved to Athens, where Seferis completed his secondary school education. He continued his studies in Paris from 1918 to 1925, studying law at the Sorbonne. While he was there, in September 1922, Smyrna/Izmir was taken by the Turkish Army after a two-year Greek military campaign on Anatolian soil. Many Greeks, including Seferis' family, fled from Asia Minor. Seferis would not visit Smyrna again until 1950; the sense of being an exile from his childhood home would inform much of Seferis' poetry, showing itself particularly in his interest in the story of Odysseus. Seferis was also greatly influenced by Kavafis, T. S. Eliot and Ezra Pound. He returned to Athens in 1925 and was admitted to the Royal Greek Ministry of Foreign Affairs in the following year. This was the beginning of a long and successful diplomatic career, during which he held posts in England (1931–1934) and Albania (1936–1938). He married Maria Zannou ('Maro') on April 10, 1941 on the eve of the German invasion of Greece. During the Second World War, Seferis accompanied the Free Greek Government in exile to Crete, Egypt, South Africa, and Italy, and returned to liberated Athens in 1944. He continued to serve in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and held diplomatic posts in Ankara, Turkey (1948–1950) and London (1951–1953). He was appointed minister to Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and Iraq (1953–1956), and was Royal Greek Ambassador to the United Kingdom from 1957 to 1961, the last post before his retirement in Athens. Seferis received many honours and prizes, among them honorary doctoral degrees from the universities of Cambridge (1960), Oxford (1964), Thessaloniki (1964), and Princeton (1965). In 1936, Seferis published a translation of T. S. Eliot's \"The Waste Land\".", "Seferis first visited Cyprus in November 1953. He immediately fell in love with the island, partly because of its resemblance, in its landscape, the mixture of populations, and in its traditions, to his childhood summer home in Skala (Urla). His book of poems \"Imerologio Katastromatos III\" was inspired by the island, and mostly written there–bringing to an end a period of six or seven years in which Seferis had not produced any poetry. Its original title \"Cyprus, where it was ordained for me...\" (a quotation from Euripides’ \"Helen\" in which Teucer states that Apollo has decreed that Cyprus shall be his home) made clear the optimistic sense of homecoming Seferis felt on discovering the island. Seferis changed the title in the 1959 edition of his poems. Politically, Cyprus was entangled in the dispute between the UK, Greece and Turkey over its international status. Over the next few years, Seferis made use of his position in the diplomatic service to strive towards a resolution of the Cyprus dispute, investing a great deal of personal effort and emotion. This was one of the few areas in his life in which he allowed the personal and the political to mix. Seferis described his political principles as \"liberal and democratic [or republican].\"", "In 1963, Seferis was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature \"for his eminent lyrical writing, inspired by a deep feeling for the Hellenic world of culture.\" Seferis was the first Greek to receive the prize (followed later by Odysseas Elytis, who became a Nobel laureate in 1979). But in his acceptance speech, Seferis chose rather to emphasise his own humanist philosophy, concluding: \"When on his way to Thebes Oedipus encountered the Sphinx, his answer to its riddle was: 'Man'. That simple word destroyed the monster. We have many monsters to destroy. Let us think of the answer of Oedipus.\" While Seferis has sometimes been considered a nationalist poet, his 'Hellenism' had more to do with his identifying a unifying strand of humanism in the continuity of Greek culture and literature. The other five finalists for the prize that year were W. H. Auden, Pablo Neruda (1971 winner), Samuel Beckett (1969 winner), Mishima Yukio and Aksel Sandemose.", "In 1967 the repressive nationalist, right-wing Regime of the Colonels took power in Greece after a coup d'état. After two years marked by widespread censorship, political detentions and torture, Seferis took a stand against the regime. On March 28, 1969, he made a statement on the BBC World Service, with copies simultaneously distributed to every newspaper in Athens. In authoritative and absolute terms, he stated \"This anomaly must end\". Seferis did not live to see the end of the junta in 1974 as a direct result of Turkey’s invasion of Cyprus, which had itself been prompted by the junta’s attempt to overthrow Cyprus' President, Archbishop Makarios. He died in Athens, on September 20, 1971. The cause of death was reported to be pneumonia, aggravated by a stroke he had suffered after undergoing surgery for a bleeding ulcer about two months earlier. At his funeral, huge crowds followed his coffin through the streets of Athens, singing Mikis Theodorakis’ setting of Seferis’ poem 'Denial' (then banned); he had become a popular hero for his resistance to the regime. He is buried at First Cemetery of Athens.", "His house at Pangrati district of central Athens, just next to the Panathinaiko Stadium of Athens, still stands today at Agras Street. There are commemorative blue plaques on two of his London homes – 51 Upper Brook Street, and at 7 Sloane Avenue. In 1999, there was a dispute over the naming of a street in İzmir \"Yorgos Seferis Sokagi\" due to continuing ill-feeling over the Greco-Turkish War in the early 1920s. In 2004, the band Sigmatropic released \"16 Haiku & Other Stories,\" an album dedicated to and lyrically derived from Seferis' work. Vocalists included recording artists Laetitia Sadier, Alejandro Escovedo, Cat Power, and Robert Wyatt. Seferis' famous stanza from \"Mythistorema\" was featured in the Opening Ceremony of the 2004 Athens Olympic Games: \"I woke with this marble head in my hands;\"<br> \"It exhausts my elbows and I don't know where to put it down.\"<br> \"It was falling into the dream as I was coming out of the dream.\"<br> \"So our life became one and it will be very difficult for it to separate again.\" Stephen King quotes several of Seferis's poems in epigraphs to his 1975 novel \"Salem's Lot\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life and work." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Johannes Sambucus was born in 1531 in Trnava, Nagyszombat, then in Hungary, now Trnava in the Slovak Republic. In Vienna in 1542 he graduated, and went on to study philology, ancient languages, law, history, and philosophy in Leipzig, Wittenberg, Ingolstadt, Strasbourg, and Paris where he obtained a master's degree in philosophy in 1551. From 1558 to 1564 he traveled to Venice, Padua, Genoa, Naples, Milan, Ghent, and Antwerp. At the University of Padua, he turned to the study of medicine, becoming the Medical Licentiate in 1555. In 1560 he returned to Vienna, settling down as a physician and leading exponent of scientific and cultural knowledge. 1564 saw the first edition of his \"Emblemata\"; within a short time followed by five more. These works won him international renown as a master of this form of literature. He was the first Hungarian writer whose works were translated into French. 1581 saw the publication of the first edition of Sambucus' Corpus Iuris Hungarici. The principles contained therein, based on legal strictures of antiquity, contributed to the foundations of the modern day Hungarian legal system. Sambucus was appointed the court physician of Emperor Maximilian II, as well as the Imperial Council and Hofhistoriograf. From this he obtained a considerable fortune, with which he amassed the largest private library in the world. The library contained numerous previously unknown ancient and contemporary Greek and Latin manuscripts, for instance: Janus Pannonius and Antonio BONFINI, whose texts he partially edited or through his influence supplied patronage to. He also published several maps and geographical descriptions, e.g. \"Hungaria\", \"Transilvaniae Descriptio\" and \"Illirium\", and sometimes wrote Latin poems. Along with his library, he had a large coin and art collection. Sambucus influenced numerous personalities of the humanistic spirit of his time, many by letter correspondence. He died on June 13, 1584 in Vienna. A plaque commemorates his life at his residence, Singer street in the 1st, House No. 3. Sambucus' collection of books, maps, coins, and art formed the basis for the manuscript collection of the Austrian National Library." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Types.", "Artist grade.", "Student and scholastic grade.", "Watercolor pencils.", "Pastel pencils.", "Techniques." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The use of wax-based media in crayons can be traced back to the Greek Golden Age, and was later documented by Roman scholar, Pliny the Elder. Wax-based materials have appealed to artists for centuries due to their resistance to decay, the vividness and brilliance of their colors, and their unique rendering qualities. Although colored pencils had been used for “checking and marking” for decades prior, it was not until the early 20th century that artist-quality colored pencils were produced. Manufacturers that began producing artist-grade colored pencils included Faber-Castell in 1908 (the Polychromos range was initially 60 colors) and Caran d’Ache in 1924, followed by Berol Prismacolor in 1938. Other notable manufacturers include Bruynzeel-Sakura, Cretacolor, Derwent, Koh-i-Noor Hardtmuth, Mitsubishi (uni-ball), Schwan-Stabilo, and Staedtler.", "Several types of colored pencils are manufactured for both artistic and practical uses.", "Artist-grade pencils are filled with higher concentrations of high-quality pigments than student-grade colored pencils. Their lightfastness – resistance to UV rays in sunlight – is also measured and documented. Core durability, break and water resistance, and brand popularity are also notable features of artist-grade colored pencils. Artist-grade pencils have the largest color ranges; 72 color sets are very common and there are several brands of 120 colors or more. They are also typically available as individual pencils.", "Many of the same companies that produce artist-grade colored pencils also offer student-grade materials and scholastic-level colored pencils. Lightfastness rating is usually not included in student- and scholastic-grade colored pencils. Core composition and pigment-binder ratio vary among artist- and student-grade colored pencils even when the same company produces them. As they are intended for different users, student- and scholastic-grade colored pencils lack the high quality pigments and lightfastness standards that hold artist-grade products true to their name. Also their color range is smaller, often limited to 24 or 36 colors. Using lower grade colored pencils does have its advantages, however. Some companies offer erasable colored pencils for beginning artists to experiment with. Also, due to their significantly lower prices, student-grade colored pencils are ideal for elementary and middle school students. Colored pencil manufactures tailor their products — and prices — to different age and skill groups.", "Watercolor pencils, otherwise known as water-soluble pencils, are a versatile art medium. The pencils can be used dry—like normal colored pencils—or they can be applied wet to get the desired watercolor effect. In wet application, the artist first lays down the dry pigment and then follows up with a damp paintbrush to intensify and spread the colors. This technique can also be used to blend colors together, and many artists will apply both techniques in one art piece. Artist-grade watercolor pencils typically come in 60 or 72 colors but can go up all the way up to 120 colors.", "Pastel pencils are similar to hard pastels. Pastel pencils can be used on their own or in combination with other mediums. They can be used dry, wet or blended together. Many artists use them for preliminary sketches, given that graphite pencils aren't compatible with pastels. They can also be sharpened to a fine point to add details on pastel drawings.", "Colored pencils can be used in combination with several other drawing mediums. When used by themselves, there are two main rendering techniques colored pencil artists use." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origin and history.", "Various recipes.", "Modern usage." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Sailors require significant quantities of fresh water on extended voyages. Since desalinating sea water was not practical, fresh water was taken aboard in casks, but quickly developed algae and became slimy. Stagnant water was sweetened with beer or wine to make it palatable, which involved more casks and was subject to spoilage. As longer voyages became more common, the task of storage became increasingly difficult and the sailors' substantial daily ration of water plus beer or wine began to add up. Following England's conquest of Jamaica in 1655, a half-pint (2 gills, or 284 mL) of rum gradually replaced beer and brandy as the drink of choice. Given to the sailor straight, this caused additional problems, as some sailors saved the rum rations for several days to drink all at once. Due to the subsequent illness and disciplinary problems, the rum was mixed with water. This both diluted its effects and accelerated its spoilage, preventing hoarding of the allowance. Vernon's 1740 order that the daily rum issue of a half pint of rum be mixed with one quart of water and issued in two servings, before noon and after the end of the working day, became part of the official regulations of the Royal Navy in 1756 and lasted for more than two centuries. This gives a water-to-rum ratio of 4:1. Some writers have claimed that Vernon also added citrus juice to prevent spoilage and that it was found to prevent scurvy. This is not the case and is based on a misreading of Vernon's order in which, having instructed his captains to dilute the sailors's daily allowance of rum with water, he says that those members of the crew \"which... are good husbandmen may from the saving of their salt provisions and bread, purchase sugar and limes to make it more palatable to them.\" In other words, there was no official addition of lime juice or other substance at this time – any addition was the result of a voluntary choice, made by and paid for by the men themselves, and done solely if they wanted to improve the taste. It seems unlikely that many men would have spent their meager pay in this manner. Likewise, it had nothing to do with combating scurvy, which was a disease of long ocean voyages – not of squadrons operating among islands where there was an abundance of fruits and fresh foodstuffs – and was seen by the medical establishment (incorrectly) as the consequence of poor digestion and internal putrefaction. Standard medical remedies focussed on \"gingering up\" the system by imbibing a variety of (ineffective) fizzy or fermenting drinks. Until an official daily issue of lemon juice was introduced into the Royal Navy in 1795, scurvy continued to be a debilitating disease which destroyed men and disabled ships and whole fleets. Seamen and surgeons knew from practical experience that citrus juice cured scurvy, but were unaware of the reason, because vitamin C was only discovered in 1912. In 1795, in defiance of medical opinion, the Admiralty introduced lemon juice and sugar as a regular part of the naval diet. When a few years later Spain allied itself with France and lemons became unobtainable, West Indian limes were substituted. It was from this time that British obtained the nickname \"limeys\". The name \"grog\" probably came from the nickname of Admiral Vernon, who was known as \"Old Grog\" because he wore a grogram cloak. The term was in use by 1749, when Vernon was still alive. A biographer of Daniel Defoe has suggested that the derivation from \"Old Grog\" is wrong because Defoe used the term in 1718, but this is based on an erroneous citation of Defoe's work, which actually used the word \"ginger\". The practice of serving grog twice a day carried over into the Continental Navy and the U. S. Navy. Robert Smith, then Secretary of the Navy, experimented with substituting native rye whiskey for the imported rum concoction. Finding the American sailors preferred it, he made the change permanent. It is said his sailors followed the practice of their British antecedents and took to calling it \"Bob Smith\" instead of grog. Until the grog ration was discontinued in 1970, Royal Navy rum was 95.5 proof, or 54.6% alcohol by volume; the usual ration was an eighth of a pint, diluted 2:1 with water (3:1 until World War II). Extra rum rations were provided for special celebrations, like Trafalgar Day, and sailors might share their ration with the cook or with a messmate celebrating a birthday. Until the early 20th century, \"six water grog\" (rum diluted with water at a 6:1 ratio) was sometimes issued as a punishment to sailors found guilty of drunkenness or neglect. Over time the distribution of the rum ration acquired a fixed form. At 11AM, the boatswain's mate piped \"Up spirits\", the signal for the petty officer of the day to climb to the quarterdeck and collect the keys to the spirit room from an officer, the ship's cooper, and a detachment of Royal Marines. In procession, they unlocked the door of the spirit room, and witnessed the pumping into a keg of one-eighth pint of rum for every rating and petty officer on the ship aged 20 or more and not under punishment. Two marines lifted the keg to the deck, standing guard while a file of cooks from the petty officers' messes held out their jugs. The sergeant of marines poured the ration under direction of the chief steward, who announced the number of drinking men present in each petty officer's mess. The rest of the rum was mixed in a tub with two parts water, becoming the grog provided to the ratings. At noon, the boatswain's mate piped \"Muster for Rum\", and the cooks from each mess presented with tin buckets. The sergeant of marines ladled out the authorised number of tots (half-pints) supervised by the petty officer of the day. The few tots of grog remaining in the tub (\"plushers\"), if any, were poured into the drains (scuppers), visibly running into the sea. The petty officers were served first, and entitled to take their rum undiluted. The ratings often drank their grog in one long gulp when they finished their work around noon. Unlike their Navy counterparts, American merchant seamen were not encouraged to partake of grog. In his 1848 testimony before a parliamentary committee, Robert Minturn of Grinnell, Minturn & Co \"stated that teetotalism not only was encouraged by American ship-owners, but actually earned a bonus from underwriters, who offered a return of ten percent of the insurance premium upon voyages performed without the consumption of spirits... The sailors were allowed plenty of hot coffee, night or day, in heavy weather, but grog was unknown on board American merchant ships.\" Although the American Navy ended the rum ration on 1 September 1862, the ration continued in the Royal Navy. The temperance movements of the late 19th century began to change the attitude toward drink and the days of grog slowly came to an end. In 1850 the size of the tot was halved to a quarter of a pint () per day. The issue of grog to officers ended in 1881, and to warrant officers in 1918. On 28 January 1970, the \"Great Rum Debate\" took place in the House of Commons, and on 31 July 1970, later called \"Black Tot Day\", the practice finally ended, although all ratings received an allowance of an extra can of beer each day as compensation. In the early stages of British settlement in Australia, the word \"grog\" entered common usage, to describe diluted, adulterated, and sub-standard rum, obtainable from sly-grog shops. In the early decades of the Australian colonies such beverages were often the only alcohol available to the working class. Eventually in Australia, and New Zealand, the word grog came to be used as a slang collective term for alcohol, such as going to the \"grog shop\" to buy grog. Honoring the 18th century British Army regimental mess and grog's historical significance in the military, the United States Navy, U.S. Marine Corps, U.S. Air Force, and U.S. Army carry on a tradition at its formal dining in ceremonies whereby those in attendance who are observed to violate formal etiquette are \"punished\" by being sent to \"the grog\" and publicly drink from it in front of the attendees. The grog usually consists of various alcoholic beverages mixed together, unappealing to the taste, and contained in a toilet bowl. A non-alcoholic variety of the grog is also typically available for those in attendance who do not consume alcohol, and can contain anything from hot sauce to mayonnaise intended to make it unappealing as well. Similar practice continued in the Royal Navy until \"Black Tot Day\", on 31 July 1970, when concerns over crew members operating machinery under the influence led to the rum ration being abolished.", "While many claim to make a traditional navy grog recipe, there are several accepted forms. The Royal Navy's grog recipe includes lemon juice, water, rum, and cinnamon. A commonly found recipe in the Caribbean includes water, light rum, grapefruit juice, orange juice, pineapple juice, cinnamon, and honey.", "Modern versions of the drink are often made with hot or boiling water, and sometimes include lemon juice, lime juice, cinnamon, or sugar to add flavor. Additionally in the United States, apple cider is sometimes substituted for water. Rum with water, sugar, and nutmeg was known as bumbo and was more popular with pirates and merchantmen. By contrast, in Australia and New Zealand, the word has come to mean any alcoholic drink. In Sweden and some subcultures within the English-speaking world, \"grog\" is a common description of drinks not made to a recipe, but by mixing various kinds of alcoholic and soft drinks, fruit juice or similar ingredients. In Sweden the mixture is usually between 3:1 and 1:1 of soft drink and spirit (in the US this would be a highball with no defined proportions). The difference between Swedish grog and long drinks, mixed drinks or punches is the number of ingredients. The number of ingredients in drinks may vary, but grog typically has just one kind of liquor (most commonly rum, vodka or brännvin, whisky, cognac or eau de vie) and one kind of a non-alcoholic beverage. \"Grosshandlargrogg\" ('wholesaler grog') refers to a mix of eau de vie and Sockerdricka. In other parts of Europe, notably, \"grog\" is used for a hot drink, usually made of black tea, lemon juice, honey and a splash of rum. It is a popular winter drink, said to be a remedy for the common cold in Belgium and France or for the flu in the Netherlands. In Cape Verde, Grogue is a distilled spirit made of sugarcane, similar to rum. In Fiji, the term \"grog\" refers to a drink made by pounding sun-dried kava root into a fine powder and mixing it with cold water. Traditionally, grog is drunk from the shorn half-shell of a coconut, called a \"bilo\". Grog has also been used as a metaphoric term for a person's vices, as in the old Irish song \"All For Me Grog\". The beverage has also lent its name to the word \"groggy\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Childhood and early career.", "Career.", "Legacy.", "Controversies.", "Death." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Camilo José Cela was born in the rural parish of Iria Flavia, in Padrón, Province of A Coruña, Spain, on 11 May 1916. He was the oldest child of nine. His father, Camilo Crisanto Cela y Fernández, was Galician. His mother, Camila Emanuela Trulock y Bertorini, while also Galician, was of English and Italian ancestry. The family was upper-middle-class and Cela described his childhood as being \"so happy it was hard to grow up.\" He lived with his family in Vigo from 1921 to 1925, when they moved to Madrid. There, Cela studied at a Piarist school. In 1931 he was diagnosed with tuberculosis and admitted to the sanatorium of Guadarrama, where he took advantage of his free time to work on his novel, \"Pabellón de reposo\". While recovering from the illness he began intensively reading works by José Ortega y Gasset and Antonio de Solís y Ribadeneyra. The Spanish Civil War broke out in 1936 when Cela was 20 years old and just recovering from his illness. His political leanings were conservative and he escaped to the rebel zone. He enlisted himself as a soldier but was wounded and hospitalized in Logroño.", "The civil war ended in 1939 and Cela demonstrated his indecisiveness towards his university studies and ended up working in a bureau of textile industries. It was here where he began to write what would become his first novel, (\"The Family of Pascual Duarte\"), which was finally published when he was 26, in 1942. Pascual Duarte has trouble finding validity in conventional morality and commits a number of crimes, including murders, for which he feels nothing. In this sense he is similar to Meursault in Albert Camus's novel \"The Stranger\". This novel is also of particular importance as it played a large part in shaping the direction of the post-World War II Spanish novel. Cela became a censor in Francoist Spain in 1943. Perhaps ironically, his best known work was produced during a period where his own writing came under scrutiny from his fellow censors, including (\"The Hive\") which was published in Buenos Aires in 1951, having been banned in Spain. The novel features more than 300 characters and a style showing the influence of both Spanish realism (best exemplified by Miguel de Cervantes and Benito Pérez Galdós) and contemporary English and French-language authors, such as Joyce, Dos Passos, and Sartre. Cela's signature style—a sarcastic, often grotesque, form of realism—is epitomized in. From the late 1960s, with the publication of, Cela's work became increasingly experimental. In 1988, for example, he wrote (\"Christ versus Arizona\"), which tells the story of the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral in a single sentence that is more than a hundred pages long.", "On 26 May 1957 Cela was appointed a member of the Royal Spanish Academy and given Seat Q. He was appointed Royal Senator in the Constituent Cortes, where he exerted some influence in the wording of the Spanish Constitution of 1978. In 1987, he was awarded the Prince of Asturias Award for Literature. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1989 \"\"for a rich and intensive prose, which with restrained compassion forms a challenging vision of man's vulnerability\"\". In 1994, he was awarded the Premio Planeta, although some question the objectivity of the awards, and winners on occasion have refused to accept it. Two years later, in recognition of his contributions to literature, Cela was ennobled on 17 May 1996 by King Juan Carlos I, who gave Cela the hereditary title of Marquess of Iria Flavia in the nobility of Spain. On his death the title passed to his son Camilo José Cela Conde.", "\"The Hive\" was first published in Argentina, as Franco's Spanish State banned it because of the perceived immorality of its content referencing erotic themes. This meant that his name could no longer appear in the printed media. Nevertheless, Cela remained loyal to Francoist Spain, even working as an informer for the Spanish secret police by reporting on the activities of dissident groups and betraying fellow intellectuals. In his later years he became known for his scandalous outbursts; in an interview with Mercedes Milá for Spanish state television he boasted of his ability to absorb litres of water via his anus while offering to demonstrate. He had already scandalized Spanish society with his (Secret Dictionary, 1969–1971), a dictionary of slang and taboo words. He described the Spanish Cervantes Prize for lifetime achievement as a writer as being \"covered with shit\". In 1995 he was offered the prize, which he accepted. In 1998, he expressed discomfort towards the presence of homosexual groups at the commemoration of Federico García Lorca's centenary, stating that, \"For me, I would prefer a more straightforward and less anecdotal commemoration without the support of gay groups. I have nothing against gays, I just do not take it up the ass\".", "Cela died from heart disease on 17 January 2002 at the Hospital Centro in Madrid, aged 85. He was buried in his hometown at the parish cemetery of \"Santa María de Adina\". His will was contested because he favoured his widow and second younger wife, Marina Castaño, over his son Camilo José Cela Conde from a previous marriage with Rosario Conde." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "World War II." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Maria Antonina was born in Witkowice near Ostrava where her parents arrived in 1879 from Węgierska Górka in the Austrian Partition in search of sustenance; her father worked at a foundry. In 1885 the family returned to her mother's hometown in Węgierska Górka close to Żywiec, and settled in Bielsko nearby. In 1901 Maria Antonina entered the Congregation of School Sisters of Notre Dame, a worldwide Roman Catholic order devoted to providing primary, secondary, and post-secondary education. She passed her maturation exams in 1906, and became a professed sister. Ten years before the rebirth of sovereign Poland Kratochwil was sent to Karviná near Cieszyn to teach at a Polish elementary school, twice: between 1906–09, and 1910–17. Already in independent Poland she settled in Lwów in the Kresy region where she taught until 1925. She served as director of Catholic boarding school there in 1925–32; relocated to the town of Tłumacz to train other sisters as teachers, and returned to Lwów, where she was appointed director of a school for candidates in 1931–39.", "Following the Soviet invasion of Poland at the beginning of World War II, the NKVD authorities closed down the Polish schools in Lwów and dismissed the sisters. Maria Antonina relocated with her nuns to Mikuliczyn in December 1939 (or February 1940). The Soviets raided the convent in Mikuliczyn, nationalized it, and expelled the nuns; they were prohibited from wearing their religious habits ever again. Lwów was taken over by the Germans in June 1941 at the onset of Operation Barbarossa. A year later, Sister Kratochwil was arrested by the Gestapo on 9 July 1942, along with six other nuns, and thrown into prison in Stanisławów (present-day Ivano-Frankivsk, western Ukraine), a provincial capital with a large Polish Jewish population entrapped in the Stanisławów Ghetto. The nuns were kept in a cell with dozens of other women. Sister Kratochwil intervened against the brutal treatment of Jewish female prisoners by the Gestapo office run by the notorious Holocaust perpetrator \"SS\"-\"Hauptsturmführer\" Hans Krueger. As punishment for her audacity, Kratochwil was subjected to a torturous beating. Returned to the cell all bloodied, she could no longer lie on her back. The six sisters were released at the end of September 1942, after weeks of interrogations. Maria Antonina died from her injuries on 2 October 1942 in a hospital, five days after her release from prison. She was buried in (the no-longer existing) Sapieżyński Cemetery in Stanisławów. Sister Kratochwil was declared patron of \"Shalom\" at the 3rd \"International Shalom\" meeting held in El Salvador in August 2000. A short book was published about her life in 2001." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Writer.", "Marriage and children.", "\"Kristin Lavransdatter\".", "Catholicism.", "Later life.", "Exile.", "Return to Norway and death." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Sigrid Undset was born on 20 May 1882 in the small town of Kalundborg, Denmark, at the childhood home of her mother, Charlotte Undset (1855–1939, née Anna Maria Charlotte Gyth). Undset was the eldest of three daughters. She and her family moved to Norway when she was two. She grew up in the Norwegian capital, Oslo (or Kristiania, as it was known until 1925). When she was only 11 years old, her father, the Norwegian archaeologist Ingvald Martin Undset (1853–1893), died at the age of 40 after a long illness. The family's economic situation meant that Undset had to give up hope of a university education and after a one-year secretarial course she obtained work at the age of 16 as a secretary with an engineering company in Kristiania, a post she was to hold for 10 years. She joined the Norwegian Authors' Union in 1907 and from 1933 through 1935 headed its Literary Council, eventually serving as the union's chairman from 1936 until 1940.", "While employed at office work, Undset wrote and studied. She was 16 years old when she made her first attempt at writing a novel set in the Nordic Middle Ages. The manuscript, a historical novel set in medieval Denmark, was ready by the time she was 22. It was turned down by the publishing house. Nonetheless, two years later, she completed another manuscript, much less voluminous than the first at only 80 pages. She had put aside the Middle Ages and had instead produced a realistic description of a woman with a middle-class background in contemporary Kristiania. This book was also refused by the publishers at first but it was subsequently accepted. The title was \"Fru Marta Oulie\", and the opening sentence (the words of the book's main character) scandalised readers: \"I have been unfaithful to my husband\". Thus, at the age of 25, Undset made her literary debut with a short realistic novel on adultery, set against a contemporary background. It created a stir, and she found herself ranked as a promising young author in Norway. During the years up to 1919, Undset published a number of novels set in contemporary Kristiania. Her contemporary novels of the period 1907–1918 are about the city and its inhabitants. They are stories of working people, of trivial family destinies, of the relationship between parents and children. Her main subjects are women and their love. Or, as she herself put it—in her typically curt and ironic manner—\"the immoral kind\" (of love). This realistic period culminated in the novels \"Jenny\" (1911) and \"Vaaren\" (Spring) (1914). The first is about a woman painter who, as a result of romantic crises, believes that she is wasting her life, and, in the end, commits suicide. The other tells of a woman who succeeds in saving both herself and her love from a serious matrimonial crisis, finally creating a secure family. These books placed Undset apart from the incipient women's emancipation movement in Europe. Undset's books sold well from the start, and, after the publication of her third book, she left her office job and prepared to live on her income as a writer. Having been granted a writer's scholarship, she set out on a lengthy journey in Europe. After short stops in Denmark and Germany, she continued to Italy, arriving in Rome in December 1909, where she remained for nine months. Undset's parents had had a close relationship with Rome, and, during her stay there, she followed in their footsteps. The encounter with Southern Europe meant a great deal to her; she made friends within the circle of Scandinavian artists and writers in Rome.", "In Rome, Undset met Anders Castus Svarstad, a Norwegian painter, whom she married almost three years later. She was 30; Svarstad was nine years older, married, and had a wife and three children in Norway. It was nearly three years before Svarstad got his divorce from his first wife. Undset and Svarstad were married in 1912 and went to stay in London for six months. From London, they returned to Rome, where their first child was born in January 1913. A boy, he was named after his father. In the years up to 1919, she had another child, and the household also took in Svarstad's three children from his first marriage. These were difficult years: her second child, a girl, was mentally handicapped, as was one of Svarstad's sons by his first wife. She continued writing, finishing her last realistic novels and collections of short stories. She also entered the public debate on topical themes: women's emancipation and other ethical and moral issues. She had considerable polemical gifts, and was critical of emancipation as it was developing, and of the moral and ethical decline she felt was threatening in the wake of the First World War. In 1919, she moved to Lillehammer, a small town in the Gudbrand Valley in southeast Norway, taking her two children with her. She was then expecting her third child. The intention was that she should take a rest at Lillehammer and move back to Kristiania as soon as Svarstad had their new house in order. However, the marriage broke down and a divorce followed. In August 1919, she gave birth to her third child, at Lillehammer. She decided to make Lillehammer her home, and within two years, Bjerkebæk, a large house of traditional Norwegian timber architecture, was completed, along with a large fenced garden with views of the town and the villages around. Here she was able to retreat and concentrate on her writing.", "After the birth of her third child, and with a secure roof over her head, Undset started a major project: \"Kristin Lavransdatter\". She was at home in the subject matter, having written a short novel at an earlier stage about a period in Norwegian history closer to the Pre-Christian era. She had also published a Norwegian retelling of the Arthurian legends. She had studied Old Norse manuscripts and Medieval chronicles and visited and examined Medieval churches and monasteries, both at home and abroad. She was now an authority on the period she was portraying and a very different person from the 22-year-old who had written her first novel about the Middle Ages. It was only after the end of her marriage that Undset grew mature enough to write her masterpiece. In the years between 1920 and 1927, she first published the three-volume \"Kristin\", and then the 4-volume \"Olav\" (Audunssøn), swiftly translated into English as \"The Master of Hestviken\". Simultaneously with this creative process, she was engaged in trying to find meaning in her own life, finding the answer in God. Undset experimented with modernist tropes such as stream of consciousness in her novel, although the original English translation by Charles Archer excised many of these passages. In 1997, the first volume of Tiina Nunnally's new translation of the work won the PEN/Faulkner Award for Fiction in the category of translation. The names of each volume were translated by Archer as \"The Bridal Wreath\", \"The Mistress of Husaby\", and \"The Cross\", and by Nunnally as \"The Wreath\", \"The Wife\", and \"The Cross\".", "Both Undset's parents were atheists and, although, in accord with the norm of the day, she and her two younger sisters were baptised and with their mother regularly attended the local Lutheran church, the milieu in which they were raised was a thoroughly secular one. Undset spent much of her life as an agnostic, but marriage and the outbreak of the First World War were to change her attitudes. During those difficult years she experienced a crisis of faith, almost imperceptible at first, then increasingly strong. The crisis led her from clear agnostic skepticism, by way of painful uneasiness about the ethical decline of the age, towards Christianity. In all her writing, one senses an observant eye for the mystery of life and for that which cannot be explained by reason or the human intellect. At the back of her sober, almost brutal realism, there is always an inkling of something unanswerable. At any rate, this crisis radically changed her views and ideology. Whereas she had once believed that man created God, she eventually came to believe that God created man. However, she did not turn to the established Lutheran Church of Norway, where she had been nominally reared. She was received into the Catholic Church in November 1924, after thorough instruction from the Catholic priest in her local parish. She was 42 years old. She subsequently became a lay Dominican. It is noteworthy that \"The Master of Hestviken\", written immediately after Undset's conversion, takes place in a historical period when Norway was Catholic, that it has very religious themes of the main character's relations with God and his deep feeling of sin, and that the Medieval Catholic Church is presented in a favorable light, with virtually all clergy and monks in the series being positive characters. In Norway, Undset's conversion to Catholicism was not only considered sensational; it was scandalous. It was also noted abroad, where her name was becoming known through the international success of \"Kristin Lavransdatter\". At the time, there were very few practicing Catholics in Norway, which was an almost exclusively Lutheran country. Anti-Catholicism was widespread not only among the Lutheran clergy, but through large sections of the population. Likewise, there was just as much anti-Catholic scorn among the Norwegian intelligentsia, many of whom were adherents of socialism and communism The attacks against her faith and character were quite vicious at times, with the result that Undset's literary gifts were aroused in response. For many years, she participated in the public debate, going out of her way to defend the Catholic Church. In response, she was swiftly dubbed \"The Mistress of Bjerkebæk\" and \"The Catholic Lady\".", "At the end of this creative eruption, Undset entered calmer waters. After 1929, she completed a series of novels set in contemporary Oslo, with a strong Catholic element. She selected her themes from the small Catholic community in Norway. But here also, the main theme is love. She also published a number of weighty historical works which put the history of Norway into a sober perspective. In addition, she translated several Icelandic sagas into Modern Norwegian and published a number of literary essays, mainly on English literature, of which a long essay on the Brontë sisters, and one on D. H. Lawrence, are especially worth mentioning. In 1934, she published \"Eleven Years Old\", an autobiographical work. With a minimum of camouflage, it tells the story of her own childhood in Kristiania, of her home, rich in intellectual values and love, and of her sick father. At the end of the 1930s, she commenced work on a new historical novel set in 18th century Scandinavia. Only the first volume, \"Madame Dorthea\", was published, in 1939. The Second World War broke out that same year and proceeded to break her, both as a writer and as a woman. She never completed her new novel. When Joseph Stalin's invasion of Finland touched off the Winter War, Undset supported the Finnish war effort by donating her Nobel Prize on 25 January 1940.", "When Germany invaded Norway in April 1940, Undset was forced to flee. She had strongly criticised Hitler since the early 1930s, and, from an early date, her books were banned in Nazi Germany. She had no wish to become a target of the Gestapo and fled to neutral Sweden. Her eldest son, Second Lieutenant Anders Svarstad of the Norwegian Army, was killed in action at the age of 27, on 27 April 1940, in an engagement with German troops at Segalstad Bridge in Gausdal. Undset's sick daughter had died shortly before the outbreak of the war. Bjerkebæk was requisitioned by the Wehrmacht, and used as officers' quarters throughout the Occupation of Norway. In 1940, Undset and her younger son left neutral Sweden for the United States. There, she untiringly pleaded her occupied country's cause and that of Europe's Jews in writings, speeches and interviews. She lived in Brooklyn Heights, New York. She was active in St. Ansgar's Scandinavian Catholic League and wrote several articles for its bulletin. She also traveled to Florida, where she became close friends with novelist Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings. Following the German execution of the Danish Lutheran pastor Kaj Munk on 4 January 1944, the Danish resistance newspaper \"De frie Danske\" printed condemning articles from influential Scandinavians, including Undset.", "Undset returned to Norway after the liberation in 1945. She lived another four years but never published another word. Undset died at 67 in Lillehammer, Norway, where she had lived from 1919 through 1940. She was buried in the village of Mesnali, 15 kilometers east of Lillehammer, where also her daughter and the son who died in battle are remembered. The grave is recognizable by three black crosses." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Bajram Curri was born in 1862 or 1866 in Rahovec. Most of the sources place year of birth as 1862, while more recent sources based on his recently discovered passport state 1866. His family originated in Krasniqi (present Tropojë), then region of Gjakova, Kosovo. At his birth, the Curri family was led to the Ottoman prison in Krushë e Madhe, Rahovec; his father Shaqir Aga had led a rebellion in Krasniq against the Ottomans due to heavy taxes and military recruitment, and had been interned by them. Shaqir Aga Curri was a trusted man of Abdullah Pasha Dreni of Gjakova, and apparently had become instrumental in tax-collection procedures and punishing expeditions of Pasha Dreni in the area. He aided Pasha Dreni during the Attack against Mehmed Ali Pasha, and was killed in the skirmish by the forces of the League of Prizren.", "Whilst the present-day regions of Albania and Serbia were under Ottoman control, Curri represented the interests of the Albanians. Between 1885-1886, he got into a feud with Riza Bey Gjakova that lasted for a decade and was only ended through an envoy sent by the sultan who conferred upon each man a military command and rank with Curri becoming a captain of the gendarmerie in Pristina. To govern, Sultan Abdulhamid II used patronage networks by awarding privileges and government positions to co opt local leaders such as Curri into the Ottoman system. In 1893 he participated in a revolt in Kosovo led by Haxhi Zeka, which was quickly suppressed by the Ottoman army. During 1899 he became a founding member of Zeka's League of Peja. In 1906 he became one of the founders of the Gjakovë branch of the Secret Committee for the Liberation of Albania (Bashkimi Society) and an influential member. Like some educated Albanians with nationalist sentiments of the time, Curri supported the unity of Albanians from different religions under the banner of Skanderbeg and was in favour of government reforms that benefited Albanians. During the Young Turk Revolution, Galib Bey managed to get Albanian leaders Curri, Nexhip Draga and Ferhat Draga to attend a meeting at Firzovik (modern Ferizaj) and use their influence to sway the crowd through fears of \"foreign intervention\" to support constitutional restoration. During the Ottoman countercoup of 1909, among the 15,000 volunteers assisting the larger Ottoman army Curri along with Çerçiz Topulli mobilized 8,000 Albanians that put down the revolt in Istanbul. The repressive activities and broken promises of the Young Turks, however, led Curri to resume militant activities against the Ottoman authorities. In 1912, due to the deteriorating situation between Albanians and Ottoman authorities, Curri alongside other Albanian leaders were present at a meeting in Junik on 20 May where a besa (pledge) was given to wage war on the Young Turk government. He had an active role in the Albanian Revolt of 1912, fighting alongside Hasan Prishtina, Isa Boletini, Themistokli Gërmenji and others against the Turks. On August 18, the moderate faction led by Prishtina managed to convince Curri, and other leaders Idriz Seferi, Riza Bey Gjakova and Isa Boletini of the conservative group to accept the agreement with the Ottomans for Albanian sociopolitical and cultural rights. He successfully fought in 1912 against the Young Turks. During the 1912 uprising, while waiting for an Ottoman response to the demands of the rebels, Curri and other leaders of the rebellion ordered their forces to advance toward Üsküb (modern Skopje) which was captured during August 12-15. During World War I, he organized a guerrilla unit as part of the Kachak movement through the Committee for the National Defence of Kosovo which he was a member. On 20 October 1914, 1,000 Albanians, led by Bajram Curri, Isa Boletini, Bulgarian \"komitadjis\" and Austro-Hungarian officers, attacked a Montenegrin base near Gjakova, and took two hill artillery pieces with them. The Montenegrin army then surrounded and defeated them, and pushed them into Albanian territory. In 1915 he became a founding member of the Committee for the National Defence of Kosovo. This organization later established relations with the Comintern (which gave support for the self-determination of nations), with Curri later saying in December 1921 to the Soviet minister in Vienna that, \"The Albanian people await impatiently the determination of their frontiers not on the basis of brutal and bloody historical considerations, but rather on the basis of the situation which actually exists today. With the firm conviction that Soviet Russia will be able in the near future to determine the boundaries of Europe, especially in the Balkans, in a just manner, I pray that the great Soviet government will grant our just requests at that time.\" Following the Congress of Lushnja in 1920 he became a minister without portfolio in the Albanian cabinet. In Albania's politics he identified himself with the left-wing forces of Fan Noli against Ahmet Zogu. In December 1921 he became Minister of War in the unstable government of Hasan Prishtina, replacing Zogu. Within days, however, Zogu assembled his fellow Mati tribesmen and overthrew the government, forcing Prishtina, Curri and others to flee northwards. In March 1922 Curri and Prishtina began a revolt against Zogu which failed to succeed. The revolt was crushed, 8 March 1922, by the captain Prenk Pervizi, owing to the efforts of the British ambassador to Albania, Harry Eyres, who convinced one of the rebel commanders to surrender. Two years later, having stayed in the meantime in the mountains in order to evade Zogist forces, he issued the call to arms which began the Bourgeois-Democratic Revolution of June 1924 against Zogu. Following the defeat of the revolution Curri continued his opposition to Zogu. On March 29, 1925 he was surrounded by Zogist troops while hiding in a cave near Dragobia. He was killed by his own friends so their lives could be spared by the zogist troops. Years later in honour of Bajram Curri the town of Kolgecaj was renamed after him in 1952." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early life.", "Boshin War and Meiji Restoration.", "As a Meiji politician.", "Death." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Enomoto was born as a member of a samurai family in the direct service of the Tokugawa clan in the Shitaya district of Edo (modern Taitō, Tokyo). Enomoto started learning Dutch in the 1850s, and after Japan's forced \"opening\" by Commodore Matthew Perry in 1854, he studied at the Tokugawa shogunate's Naval Training Center in Nagasaki and at the Tsukiji Warship Training Center in Edo. At the age of 26, Enomoto was sent to the Netherlands to study western techniques in naval warfare and to procure western technologies. He stayed in Europe from 1862 to 1867, and became fluent in both the Dutch and English languages. Enomoto returned to Japan on board the, a steam warship purchased from the Netherlands by the Shogunal government. During his stay in Europe, Enomoto had realized that the telegraph would be an important means of communication in the future, and started planning a system to connect Edo and Yokohama. Upon his return, Enomoto was promoted to, the second highest rank in the Tokugawa Navy, at the age of 31. He also received the court title of.", "During the Meiji Restoration, after the surrender of Edo in 1868 during the Boshin War to forces loyal to the Satchō Alliance, Enomoto refused to deliver up his warships, and escaped to Hakodate in Hokkaido with the remainder of the Tokugawa Navy and a handful of French military advisers and their leader Jules Brunet. His fleet of eight steam warships was the strongest in Japan at the time. Enomoto hoped to create an independent country under the rule of the Tokugawa family in Hokkaidō, but the Meiji government refused to accept partition of Japan. On 27 January 1869, the Tokugawa loyalists declared the foundation of the Republic of Ezo and elected Enomoto as president. The Meiji government forces invaded Hokkaidō and defeated Enomoto's forces in the Naval Battle of Hakodate. On 27 June 1869, the Republic of Ezo collapsed, and Hokkaidō came under the rule of the central government headed by the Meiji Emperor.", "After his surrender, Enomoto was arrested, accused of high treason and imprisoned. However, the leaders of the new Meiji government (largely at the insistence of Kuroda Kiyotaka) pardoned Enomoto in 1872, realizing that his various talents and accumulated knowledge could be of use. Enomoto became one of the few former Tokugawa loyalists who made the transition to the new ruling elite, as politics at the time was dominated by men from Chōshū and Satsuma, who had a strong bias against outsiders in general, and former Tokugawa retainers in particular. However, Enomoto was an exception, and rose quickly within the new ruling clique, to a higher status than any other member of the former Tokugawa government. In 1874, Enomoto was given the rank of vice-admiral in the fledgling Imperial Japanese Navy. The following year, he was sent to Russia as a special envoy to negotiate the Treaty of St. Petersburg. The successful conclusion of the treaty was very well received in Japan and further raised Enomoto's prestige within the ruling circles, and the fact that Enomoto had been chosen for such an important mission was seen as evidence of reconciliation between former foes in the government. In 1880, Enomoto became. In 1885, his diplomatic skills were again called upon to assist Itō Hirobumi in concluding the Convention of Tientsin with Qing China. Afterwards, Enomoto held a series of high posts in the Japanese government. He was Japan's first Minister of Communications (1885–1888) after the introduction of the cabinet system in 1885. He was also Minister of Agriculture and Commerce from 1894 to 1897, Minister of Education from 1889 to 1890 and Foreign Minister from 1891 to 1892. In 1887, Enomoto was ennobled to the rank of viscount under the \"kazoku\" peerage system, and was selected as a member of the Privy Council. Enomoto was especially active in promoting Japanese emigration through settler colonies in the Pacific Ocean and South and Central America. In 1891, he established—against the will of the cabinet of Matsukata Masayoshi—a \"section for emigration\" in the Foreign Ministry, with the task of encouraging emigration and finding new potential territories for Japanese settlement overseas. Two years later, after leaving the government, Enomoto also helped to establish a private organization, the \"Colonial Association\", to promote external trade and emigration.", "Enomoto died in 1908 at the age of 72. His grave is at the temple of Kisshō-ji, Bunkyō-ku, Tokyo ()." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Career.", "Family life.", "Illness and death.", "Legacy.", "Museums and collections.", "Work.", "One-act plays." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "O'Neill was born in a hotel, the Barrett House, at Broadway and 43rd Street, on what was then Longacre Square (now Times Square). A commemorative plaque was first dedicated there in 1957. The site is now occupied by 1500 Broadway, which houses offices, shops and the ABC Studios. He was the son of Irish immigrant actor James O'Neill and Mary Ellen Quinlan, who was also of Irish descent. His father suffered from alcoholism; his mother from an addiction to morphine, prescribed to relieve the pains of the difficult birth of her third son, Eugene. Because his father was often on tour with a theatrical company, accompanied by Eugene's mother, in 1895 O'Neill was sent to St. Aloysius Academy for Boys, a Catholic boarding school in the Riverdale section of the Bronx. In 1900, he became a day student at the De La Salle Institute on 59th Street in (Manhattan). The O'Neill family reunited for summers at the Monte Cristo Cottage in New London, Connecticut. He also briefly attended Betts Academy in Stamford. He attended Princeton University for one year. Accounts vary as to why he left. He may have been dropped for attending too few classes, been suspended for \"conduct code violations,\" or \"for breaking a window\", or according to a more concrete but possibly apocryphal account, because he threw \"a beer bottle into the window of Professor Woodrow Wilson\", the future president of the United States. O'Neill spent several years at sea, during which he suffered from depression and alcoholism. Despite this, he had a deep love for the sea and it became a prominent theme in many of his plays, several of which are set on board ships like those on which he worked. O'Neill joined the Marine Transport Workers Union of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW), which was fighting for improved living conditions for the working class using quick 'on the job' direct action. O'Neill's parents and elder brother Jamie (who drank himself to death at the age of 45) died within three years of one another, not long after he had begun to make his mark in the theater.", "After his experience in 1912–13 at a sanatorium where he was recovering from tuberculosis, he decided to devote himself full-time to writing plays (the events immediately prior to going to the sanatorium are dramatized in his masterpiece, \"Long Day's Journey into Night\"). O'Neill had previously been employed by the \"New London Telegraph\", writing poetry as well as reporting. In the fall of 1914, he entered Harvard University to attend a course in dramatic technique given by Professor George Baker. He left after one year. During the 1910s O'Neill was a regular on the Greenwich Village literary scene, where he also befriended many radicals, most notably Communist Labor Party of America founder John Reed. O'Neill also had a brief romantic relationship with Reed's wife, writer Louise Bryant. O'Neill was portrayed by Jack Nicholson in the 1981 film \"Reds\", about the life of John Reed; Louise Bryant was portrayed by Diane Keaton. His involvement with the Provincetown Players began in mid-1916. Terry Carlin reported that O'Neill arrived for the summer in Provincetown with \"a trunk full of plays.\", but this was an exaggeration. Susan Glaspell describes a reading of \"Bound East for Cardiff\" that took place in the living room of Glaspell and her husband George Cram Cook's home on Commercial Street, adjacent to the wharf (pictured) that was used by the Players for their theater: \"So Gene took \"Bound East for Cardiff\" out of his trunk, and Freddie Burt read it to us, Gene staying out in the dining-room while reading went on. He was not left alone in the dining-room when the reading had finished.\" The Provincetown Players performed many of O'Neill's early works in their theaters both in Provincetown and on MacDougal Street in Greenwich Village. Some of these early plays, such as \"The Emperor Jones\", began downtown and then moved to Broadway. In an early one-act play, \"The Web\". written in 1913, O'Neill first explored the darker themes that he later thrived on. Here he focused on the brothel world and the lives of prostitutes, which also play a role in some fourteen of his later plays. In particular, he memorably included the birth of an infant into the world of prostitution. At the time, such themes constituted a huge innovation, as these sides of life had never before been presented with such success. O'Neill's first published play, \"Beyond the Horizon\", opened on Broadway in 1920 to great acclaim, and was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Drama. His first major hit was \"The Emperor Jones\", which ran on Broadway in 1920 and obliquely commented on the U.S. occupation of Haiti that was a topic of debate in that year's presidential election. His best-known plays include \"Anna Christie\" (Pulitzer Prize 1922), \"Desire Under the Elms\" (1924), \"Strange Interlude\" (Pulitzer Prize 1928), \"Mourning Becomes Electra\" (1931), and his only well-known comedy, \"Ah, Wilderness!\", a wistful re-imagining of his youth as he wished it had been. In 1936 he received the Nobel Prize for Literature after he had been nominated that year by Henrik Schück, member of the Swedish Academy. After a ten-year pause, O'Neill's now-renowned play \"The Iceman Cometh\" was produced in 1946. The following year's \"A Moon for the Misbegotten\" failed, and it was decades before coming to be considered as among his best works. He was also part of the modern movement to partially revive the classical heroic mask from ancient Greek theatre and Japanese Noh theatre in some of his plays, such as \"The Great God Brown\" and \"Lazarus Laughed.\"", "O'Neill was married to Kathleen Jenkins from October 2, 1909 to 1912, during which time they had one son, Eugene O'Neill, Jr. (1910–1950). In 1917, O'Neill met Agnes Boulton, a successful writer of commercial fiction, and they married on April 12, 1918. They lived in a home owned by her parents in Point Pleasant, New Jersey, after their marriage. The years of their marriage—during which the couple lived in Connecticut and Bermuda and had two children, Shane and Oona—are described vividly in her 1958 memoir \"Part of a Long Story\". They divorced in 1929, after O'Neill abandoned Boulton and the children for the actress Carlotta Monterey (born San Francisco, California, December 28, 1888; died Westwood, New Jersey, November 18, 1970). O'Neill and Carlotta married less than a month after he officially divorced his previous wife. In 1929, O'Neill and Monterey moved to the Loire Valley in central France, where they lived in the Château du Plessis in Saint-Antoine-du-Rocher, Indre-et-Loire. During the early 1930s they returned to the United States and lived in Sea Island, Georgia, at a house called \"Casa Genotta\". He moved to Danville, California in 1937 and lived there until 1944. His house there, \"Tao House\", is today the Eugene O'Neill National Historic Site. In their first years together, Monterey organized O'Neill's life, enabling him to devote himself to writing. She later became addicted to potassium bromide, and the marriage deteriorated, resulting in a number of separations, although they never divorced. In 1943, O'Neill disowned his daughter Oona for marrying the English actor, director, and producer Charlie Chaplin when she was 18 and Chaplin was 54. He never saw Oona again. He also had distant relationships with his sons. Eugene O'Neill Jr., a Yale classicist, suffered from alcoholism and committed suicide in 1950 at the age of 40. Shane O'Neill became a heroin addict and moved into the family home in Bermuda, \"Spithead,\" with his new wife, where he supported himself by selling off the furnishings. He was disowned by his father before also committing suicide (by jumping out of a window) a number of years later. Oona ultimately inherited Spithead and the connected estate (subsequently known as the Chaplin Estate). In 1950 O'Neill joined The Lambs, the famed theater club.", "After suffering from multiple health problems (including depression and alcoholism) over many years, O'Neill ultimately faced a severe Parkinsons-like tremor in his hands which made it impossible for him to write during the last 10 years of his life; he had tried using dictation but found himself unable to compose in that way. While at Tao House, O'Neill had intended to write a cycle of 11 plays chronicling an American family since the 1800s. Only two of these, \"A Touch of the Poet\" and \"More Stately Mansions\", were ever completed. As his health worsened, O'Neill lost inspiration for the project and wrote three largely autobiographical plays, \"The Iceman Cometh\", \"Long Day's Journey into Night\", and \"A Moon for the Misbegotten\". He managed to complete \"Moon for the Misbegotten\" in 1943, just before leaving Tao House and losing his ability to write. Drafts of many other uncompleted plays were destroyed by Carlotta at Eugene's request. O'Neill died in Room 401 of the Sheraton Hotel (now Boston University's Kilachand Hall) on Bay State Road in Boston, on November 27, 1953, at the age of 65. As he was dying, he whispered his last words: \"I knew it. I knew it. Born in a hotel room and died in a hotel room.\" Dr. Harry Kozol, the prosecution's lead expert in the Patty Hearst trial, treated O'Neill during these last years of illness. He also was present for O'Neill's death and announced the fact to the public. O'Neill is interred in the Forest Hills Cemetery in Boston's Jamaica Plain neighborhood. In 1956 Carlotta arranged for his autobiographical play \"Long Day's Journey into Night\" to be published, although his written instructions had stipulated that it not be made public until 25 years after his death. It was produced on stage to tremendous critical acclaim and won the Pulitzer Prize in 1957. This last play is widely considered to be his finest. Other posthumously-published works include \"A Touch of the Poet\" (1958) and \"More Stately Mansions\" (1967). In 1967, the United States Postal Service honored O'Neill with a Prominent Americans series (1965–1978) $1 postage stamp.", "In Warren Beatty's 1981 film \"Reds\", O'Neill is portrayed by Jack Nicholson, who was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance. George C. White founded the Eugene O'Neill Theatre Center in Waterford, Connecticut in 1964. Eugene O'Neill is a member of the American Theater Hall of Fame. O'Neill is referenced by Upton Sinclair in \"The Cup of Fury\" (1956), by J.K. Simmons' character in \"Whiplash\" (2014), and by Tony Stark in \"\" (2015), specifically \"Long Day's Journey into Night\".", "O'Neill's home in New London, Monte Cristo Cottage, was made a National Historic Landmark in 1971. His home in Danville, California, near San Francisco, was preserved as the Eugene O'Neill National Historic Site in 1976. Connecticut College maintains the Louis Sheaffer Collection, consisting of material collected by the O'Neill biographer. The principal collection of O'Neill papers is at Yale University. The Eugene O'Neill Theater Center in Waterford, Connecticut fosters the development of new plays under his name. There is also a theatre in New York City named after him located at 230 West 49th Street in midtown-Manhattan. The Eugene O'Neill Theatre has housed musicals and plays such as \"Yentl\", \"Annie\", \"Grease\", \"M. Butterfly\", \"Spring Awakening\", and \"The Book of Mormon\".", "", "The Glencairn Plays, all of which feature characters on the fictional ship \"Glencairn\"—filmed together as \"The Long Voyage Home\": Other one-act plays include:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Aging demographics.", "Gender differences with age.", "Geographic distribution of older adults in the United States.", "Biogerontology.", "Stochastic theories.", "Wear and tear theory.", "Accumulation.", "Free radical theory.", "DNA damage theory.", "Cross-linking theory.", "Genetic.", "General imbalance.", "Immunological theory.", "Social gerontology.", "Social theories of aging.", "Activity theory.", "Disengagement theory.", "Continuity theory.", "Age stratification theory.", "Life course theory.", "Cumulative advantage/disadvantage theory.", "Environmental gerontology.", "Jurisprudential gerontology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "In the medieval Islamic world, several physicians wrote on issues related to Gerontology. Avicenna's \"The Canon of Medicine\" (1025) offered instruction for the care of the aged, including diet and remedies for problems including constipation. Arabic physician Ibn Al-Jazzar Al-Qayrawani (Algizar, c. 898–980) wrote on the aches and conditions of the elderly (Ammar 1998, p. 4). His scholarly work covers sleep disorders, forgetfulness, how to strengthen memory, and causes of mortality Ishaq ibn Hunayn (died 910) also wrote works on the treatments for forgetfulness (U.S. National Library of Medicine, 1994). While the number of aged humans, and the life expectancy, tended to increase in every century since the 14th, society tended to consider caring for an elderly relative as a family issue. It was not until the coming of the Industrial Revolution that ideas shifted in favor of a societal care-system. Some early pioneers, such as Michel Eugène Chevreul, who himself lived to be 102, believed that aging itself should be a science to be studied. Élie Metchnikoff coined the term \"gerontology\" in 1903. Modern pioneers like James Birren began organizing gerontology as its own field in the 1940s, later being involved in starting a US government agency on aging – the National Institute on Aging – programs in gerontology at the University of Southern California and University of California, Los Angeles, and as past president of the Gerontological Society of America (founded in 1945). With the population of people over 60 years old expected to be some 22% of the world's population by 2050, assessment and treatment methods for age-related disease burden – the term \"geroscience\" emerged in the early 21st century.", "The world is forecast to undergo rapid population aging in the next several decades. In 1900, there were 3.1 million people aged 65 years and older living in the United States. However, this population continued to grow throughout the 20th century and reached 31.2, 35, and 40.3 million people in 1990, 2000, and 2010, respectively. Notably, in the United States and across the world, the \"baby boomer\" generation began to turn 65 in 2011. Recently, the population aged 65 years and older has grown at a faster rate than the total population in the United States. The total population increased by 9.7%, from 281.4 million to 308.7 million, between 2000 and 2010. However, the population aged 65 years and older increased by 15.1% during the same period. It has been estimated that 25% of the population in the United States and Canada will be aged 65 years and older by 2025. Moreover, by 2050, it is predicted that, for the first time in United States history, the number of individuals aged 60 years and older will be greater than the number of children aged 0 to 14 years. Those aged 85 years and older (oldest-old) are projected to increase from 5.3 million to 21 million by 2050. Adults aged 85–89 years constituted the greatest segment of the oldest-old in 1990, 2000, and 2010. However, the largest percentage point increase among the oldest-old occurred in the 90- to 94-year-old age group, which increased from 25.0% in 1990 to 26.4% in 2010. With the rapid growth of the aging population, social work education and training specialized in older adults and practitioners interested in working with older adults are increasingly in demand.", "There has been a considerable disparity between the number of men and women in the older population in the United States. In both 2000 and 2010, women outnumbered men in the older population at every single year of age (e.g., 65 to 100 years and over). The sex ratio, which is a measure used to indicate the balance of males to females in a population, is calculated by taking the number of males divided by the number of females, and multiplying by 100. Therefore, the sex ratio is the number of males per 100 females. In 2010, there were 90.5 males per 100 females in the 65-year-old population. However, this represented an increase from 1990 when there were 82.7 males per 100 females, and from 2000 when the sex ratio was 88.1. Although the gender gap between men and women has narrowed, women continue to have a greater life expectancy and lower mortality rates at older ages relative to men. For example, the Census 2010 reported that there were approximately twice as many women as men living in the United States at 89 years of age (361,309 versus 176,689, respectively).", "The number and percentage of older adults living in the United States vary across the four different regions (Northeast, Midwest, West, and South) defined by the United States census. In 2010, the South contained the greatest number of people aged 65 years and older and 85 years and older. However, proportionately, the Northeast contains the largest percentage of adults aged 65 years and older (14.1%), followed by the Midwest (13.5%), the South (13.0%), and the West (11.9%). Relative to the Census 2000, all geographic regions demonstrated positive growth in the population of adults aged 65 years and older and 85 years and older. The most rapid growth in the population of adults aged 65 years and older was evident in the West (23.5%), which showed an increase from 6.9 million in 2000 to 8.5 million in 2010. Likewise, in the population aged 85 years and older, the West (42.8%) also showed the fastest growth and increased from 806,000 in 2000 to 1.2 million in 2010. It is worth highlighting that Rhode Island was the only state that experienced a reduction in the number of people aged 65 years and older, and declined from 152,402 in 2000 to 151,881 in 2010. Conversely, all states exhibited an increase in the population of adults aged 85 years and older from 2000 to 2010.", "Biogerontology is the sub-field of gerontology concerned with the biological aging process, its evolutionary origins, and potential means to intervene in the process. It involves interdisciplinary research on biological aging's causes, effects, and mechanisms. Conservative biogerontologists such as Leonard Hayflick have predicted that the human life expectancy will peak at about 92 years old, while others such as James Vaupel have predicted that, in industrialized countries, life expectancies will reach 100 for children born after the year 2000. Some surveyed biogerontologists have predicted life expectancies of two or more centuries, with Aubrey de Grey offering the \"tentative timeframe\" that with adequate funding of research to develop interventions in aging such as Strategies for Engineered Negligible Senescence, \"we have a 50/50 chance of developing technology within about 25 to 30 years from now that will, under reasonable assumptions about the rate of subsequent improvements in that technology, allow us to stop people from dying of aging at any age\", leading to life expectancies of 1,000 years. Biomedical gerontology, also known as experimental gerontology and life extension, is a sub-discipline of biogerontology that endeavors to slow, prevent, and even reverse aging in both humans and animals. Most \"life extensionists\" believe the human life span can be increased within the next century, if not sooner. Biogerontologists vary in the degree to which they focus on the study of the aging process as a means of mitigating the diseases of aging or extending lifespan, although most agree that extension of lifespan will necessarily flow from reductions in age-related disease and frailty, although some argue that maximum life span cannot be altered or that it is undesirable to try. Geroscience is a recently formulated interdisciplinary field that embraces biomedical gerontology as the center of preventing diseases of aging through science. In contrast with biogerontology, which aims to prevent age-related disease by intervening in aging processes, geriatrics is a field of medicine that studies the treatment of existing disease in aging people. There are numerous theories of aging, and no one theory has been accepted. There is a wide spectrum of the types of theories for the causes of aging with programmed theories on one extreme and error theories on the other. Regardless of the theory, a commonality is that as humans age, functions of the body decline.", "Stochastic theories of aging are theories suggesting that aging is caused by small changes in the body over time and the body's failure to restore the system and mend the damages to the body. The cells and tissues are eventually injured due to the damage gathered over time. This causes the diminishes in an organ's function related to age. The notion of accumulated damage was first introduced by Weisman as the \"wear and tear\" theory.", "Wear and tear theories of aging suggest that as an individual ages, body parts such as cells and organs wear out from continued use. Wearing of the body can be attributable to internal or external causes that eventually lead to an accumulation of insults which surpasses the capacity for repair. Due to these internal and external insults, cells lose their ability to regenerate, which ultimately leads to mechanical and chemical exhaustion. Some insults include chemicals in the air, food, or smoke. Other insults may be things such as viruses, trauma, free radicals, cross-linking, and high body temperature.", "Accumulation theories of aging suggest that aging is bodily decline that results from an accumulation of elements, whether introduced to the body from the environment or resulting from cell metabolism. An example of an accumulation theory is the Free Radical Theory of Aging.", "Free radicals are reactive molecules produced by cellular and environmental processes, and can damage the elements of the cell such as the cell membrane and DNA and cause irreversible damage. The free-radical theory of aging proposes that this damage cumulatively degrades the biological function of cells and impacts the process of aging. The idea that free radicals are toxic agents was first proposed by Rebeca Gerschman and colleagues in 1945, but came to prominence in 1956, when Denham Harman proposed the free-radical theory of aging and even demonstrated that free radical reactions contribute to the degradation of biological systems. Oxidative damage of many types accumulate with age, such as oxidative stress that oxygen-free radicals, because the free radical theory of aging argues that aging results from the damage generated by reactive oxygen species (ROS). ROS are small, highly reactive, oxygen-containing molecules that can damage a complex of cellular components such as fat, proteins, or from DNA; they are naturally generated in small amounts during the body's metabolic reactions. These conditions become more common as humans grow older and include diseases related to aging, such as dementia, cancer and heart disease.", "DNA damage has been one of the many causes in diseases related to aging. The stability of the genome is defined by the cells machinery of repair, damage tolerance, and checkpoint pathways that counteracts DNA damage. One hypothesis proposed by Gioacchino Failla in 1958 is that damage accumulation to the DNA causes aging. The hypothesis was developed soon by physicist Leó Szilárd. This theory has changed over the years as new research has discovered new types of DNA damage and mutations, and several theories of aging argue that DNA damage with or without mutations causes aging.", "The cross-linking theory proposes that advanced glycation end-products (stable bonds formed by the binding of glucose to proteins) and other aberrant cross-links accumulating in aging tissues is the cause of aging. The crosslinking of proteins disables their biological functions. The hardening of the connective tissue, kidney diseases, and enlargement of the heart are connected to the cross-linking of proteins. Crosslinking of DNA can induce replication errors, and this leads to deformed cells and increases the risk of cancer.", "Genetic theories of aging propose that aging is programmed within each individual's genes. According to this theory, genes dictate cellular longevity. Programmed cell death, or apoptosis, is determined by a \"biological clock\" via genetic information in the nucleus of the cell. Genes responsible for apoptosis provide an explanation for cell death, but are less applicable to death of an entire organism. An increase in cellular apoptosis may correlate to aging, but is not a 'cause of death'. Environmental factors and genetic mutations can influence gene expression and accelerate aging. More recently epigenetics have been explored as a contributing factor. The epigenetic clock, which objectively measures the biological age of cells and tissues, may become useful for testing different biological aging theories.", "General imbalance theories of aging suggest that body systems, such as the endocrine, nervous, and immune systems, gradually decline and ultimately fail to function. The rate of failure varies system by system.", "The immunological theory of aging suggests that the immune system weakens as an organism ages. This makes the organism unable to fight infections and less able to destroy old and neoplastic cells. This leads to aging and will eventually lead to death. This theory of aging was developed by Ray Walford, an American gerontologist. According to Walford, incorrect immunological procedures are the cause of the process of aging.", "Social gerontology is a multi-disciplinary sub-field that specializes in studying or working with older adults. Social gerontologists may have degrees or training in social work, nursing, psychology, sociology, demography, public health, or other social science disciplines. Social gerontologists are responsible for educating, researching, and advancing the broader causes of older people. Because issues of life span and life extension need numbers to quantify them, there is an overlap with demography. Those who study the demography of the human life span differ from those who study the social demographics of aging.", "Several theories of aging are developed to observe the aging process of older adults in society as well as how these processes are interpreted by men and women as they age.", "Activity theory was developed and elaborated by Cavan, Havighurst, and Albrecht. According to this theory, older adults' self-concept depends on social interactions. In order for older adults to maintain morale in old age, substitutions must be made for lost roles. Examples of lost roles include retirement from a job or loss of a spouse. Activity is preferable to inactivity because it facilitates well-being on multiple levels. Because of improved general health and prosperity in the older population, remaining active is more feasible now than when this theory was first proposed by Havighurst nearly six decades ago. The activity theory is applicable for a stable, post-industrial society, which offers its older members many opportunities for meaningful participation.Weakness: Some aging persons cannot maintain a middle-aged lifestyle, due to functional limitations, lack of income, or lack of a desire to do so. Many older adults lack the resources to maintain active roles in society. On the flip side, some elders may insist on continuing activities in late life that pose a danger to themselves and others, such as driving at night with low visual acuity or doing maintenance work to the house while climbing with severely arthritic knees. In doing so, they are denying their limitations and engaging in unsafe behaviors.", "Disengagement theory was developed by Cumming and Henry. According to this theory, older adults and society engage in a mutual separation from each other. An example of mutual separation is retirement from the workforce. A key assumption of this theory is that older adults lose \"ego-energy\" and become increasingly self-absorbed. Additionally, disengagement leads to higher morale maintenance than if older adults try to maintain social involvement. This theory is heavily criticized for having an escape clause - namely, that older adults who remain engaged in society are unsuccessful adjusters to old age. Gradual withdrawal from society and relationships preserves social equilibrium and promotes self-reflection for elders who are freed from societal roles. It furnishes an orderly means for the transfer of knowledge, capital, and power from the older generation to the young. It makes it possible for society to continue functioning after valuable older members die.", "Continuity theory is an elusive concept. On one hand, to exhibit continuity can mean to remain the same, to be uniform, homogeneous, unchanging, even humdrum. This static view of continuity is not very applicable to human aging. On the other hand, a dynamic view of continuity starts with the idea of a basic structure which persists over time, but it allows for a variety of changes to occur within the context provided by the basic structure. The basic structure is coherent: It has an orderly or logical relation of parts that is recognizably unique and that allows us to differentiate that structure from others. With the introduction of the concept of time, ideas such as direction, sequence, character development, and story line enter into the concept of continuity as it is applied to the evolution of a human being. In this theory, a dynamic concept of continuity is developed and applied to the issue of adaptation to normal aging. A central premise of continuity theory is that, in making adaptive choices, middle-aged and older adults attempt to preserve and maintain existing internal and external structures and that they prefer to accomplish this objective by using continuity (i.e., applying familiar strategies in familiar arenas of life). In middle and later life, adults are drawn by the weight of past experience to use continuity as a primary adaptive strategy for dealing with changes associated with normal aging. To the extent that change builds upon, and has links to, the person's past, change is a part of continuity. As a result of both their own perceptions and pressures from the social environment, individuals who are adapting to normal aging are both predisposed and motivated toward inner psychological continuity as well as outward continuity of social behavior and circumstances. Continuity theory views both internal and external continuity as robust adaptive strategies that are supported by both individual preference and social sanctions. Continuity theory consists of general adaptive principles that people who are normally aging could be expected to follow, explanations of how these principles work, and a specification of general areas of life in which these principles could be expected to apply. Accordingly, continuity theory has enormous potential as a general theory of adaptation to individual aging.", "According to this theory, older adults born during different time periods form cohorts that define \"age strata\". There are two differences among strata: chronological age and historical experience. This theory makes two arguments. 1. Age is a mechanism for regulating behavior and as a result determines access to positions of power. 2. Birth cohorts play an influential role in the process of social change.", "According to this theory, which stems from the life course perspective (Bengston and Allen, 1993), aging occurs from birth to death. Aging involves social, psychological, and biological processes. Additionally, aging experiences are shaped by cohort and period effects. Also reflecting the life course focus, consider the implications for how societies might function when age-based norms vanish—a consequence of the deinstitutionalization of the life course— and suggest that these implications pose new challenges for theorizing aging and the life course in postindustrial societies. Dramatic reductions in mortality, morbidity, and fertility over the past several decades have so shaken up the organization of the life course and the nature of educational, work, family, and leisure experiences that it is now possible for individuals to become old in new ways. The configurations and content of other life stages are being altered as well, especially for women. In consequence, theories of age and aging will need to be reconceptualized.", "According to this theory, which was developed beginning in the 1960s by Derek Price and Robert Merton and elaborated on by several researchers such as Dale Dannefer, inequalities have a tendency to become more pronounced throughout the aging process. A paradigm of this theory can be expressed in the adage \"the rich get richer and the poor get poorer\". Advantages and disadvantages in early life stages have a profound effect throughout the life span. However, advantages and disadvantages in middle adulthood have a direct influence on economic and health status in later life.", "Environmental gerontology is a specialization within gerontology that seeks an understanding and interventions to optimize the relationship between aging persons and their physical and social environments. The field emerged in the 1930s during the first studies on behavioral and social gerontology. In the 1970s and 1980s, research confirmed the importance of the physical and social environment in understanding the aging population and improved the quality of life in old age. Studies of environmental gerontology indicate that older people prefer to age in their immediate environment, whereas spatial experience and place attachment are important for understanding the process. Some research indicates that the physical-social environment is related to the longevity and quality of life of the elderly. Precisely, the natural environment (such as natural therapeutic landscapes, therapeutic garden) contributes to active and healthy aging in the place.", "Jurisprudential gerontology (sometimes referred to as \"geriatric jurisprudence\") is a specialization within gerontology that looks into the ways laws and legal structures interact with the aging experience. The field started from legal scholars in the field of elder law, which found that looking into legal issues of older persons without a broader inter-disciplinary perspective does not provide the ideal legal outcome. Using theories such as therapeutic jurisprudence, jurisprudential scholars critically examined existing legal institutions (e.g. adult guardianship, end of life care, or nursing homes regulations) and showed how law should look more closely to the social and psychological aspects of its real-life operation. Other streams within jurisprudential gerontology also encouraged physicians and lawyers to try to improve their cooperation and better understand how laws and regulatory institutions affect health and well being of older persons." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "\"Book of Optics\".", "Theory of optics.", "Scientific method.", "Alhazen's problem.", "Other contributions.", "Other works on physics.", "Optical treatises.", "Celestial physics.", "Mechanics.", "Astronomical works.", "\"On the Configuration of the World\".", "\"Doubts Concerning Ptolemy\".", "\"Model of the Motions of Each of the Seven Planets\".", "Other astronomical works.", "Mathematical works.", "Geometry.", "Number theory.", "Calculus.", "Other works.", "\"Influence of Melodies on the Souls of Animals\".", "Engineering.", "Philosophy.", "Theology.", "Legacy.", "Commemorations.", "List of works." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) was born c. 965 to an Arab family in Basra, Iraq, which was at the time part of the Buyid emirate. He held a position with the title \"vizier\" in his native Basra, and made a name for himself for his knowledge of applied mathematics. As he claimed to be able to regulate the flooding of the Nile, he was invited to by Fatimid Caliph al-Hakim in order to realise a hydraulic project at Aswan. However, Ibn al-Haytham was forced to concede the impracticability of his project. Upon his return to Cairo, he was given an", "Alhazen's most famous work is his seven-volume treatise on optics \"Kitab al-Manazir\" (\"Book of Optics\"), written from 1011 to 1021. \"Optics\" was translated into Latin by an unknown scholar at the end of the 12th century or the beginning of the 13th century. It was printed by Friedrich Risner in 1572, with the title \"Opticae thesaurus: Alhazeni Arabis libri septem, nuncprimum editi; Eiusdem liber De Crepusculis et nubium ascensionibus\" (English: Treasury of Optics: seven books by the Arab Alhazen, first edition; by the same, on twilight and the height of clouds). Risner is also the author of the name variant \"Alhazen\"; before Risner he was known in the west as Alhacen. This work enjoyed a great reputation during the Middle Ages. Works by Alhazen on geometric subjects were discovered in the Bibliothèque nationale in Paris in 1834 by E. A. Sedillot. In all, A. Mark Smith has accounted for 18 full or near-complete manuscripts, and five fragments, which are preserved in 14 locations, including one in the Bodleian Library at Oxford, and one in the library of Bruges.", "Two major theories on vision prevailed in classical antiquity. The first theory, the emission theory, was supported by such thinkers as Euclid and Ptolemy, who believed that sight worked by the eye emitting rays of light. The second theory, the intromission theory supported by Aristotle and his followers, had physical forms entering the eye from an object. Previous Islamic writers (such as al-Kindi) had argued essentially on Euclidean, Galenist, or Aristotelian lines. The strongest influence on the \"Book of Optics\" was from Ptolemy's \"Optics\", while the description of the anatomy and physiology of the eye was based on Galen's account. Alhazen's achievement was to come up with a theory that successfully combined parts of the mathematical ray arguments of Euclid, the medical tradition of Galen, and the intromission theories of Aristotle. Alhazen's intromission theory followed al-Kindi (and broke with Aristotle) in asserting that \"from each point of every colored body, illuminated by any light, issue light and color along every straight line that can be drawn from that point\". This however left him with the problem of explaining how a coherent image was formed from many independent sources", "An aspect associated with Alhazen's optical research is related to systemic and methodological reliance on experimentation (\"i'tibar\")(Arabic: إعتبار) and controlled testing in his scientific inquiries. Moreover, his experimental directives rested on combining classical physics (\"ilm tabi'i\") with mathematics (\"ta'alim\"; geometry in particular). This mathematical-physical approach to experimental science supported most of his propositions in \"Kitab al-Manazir\" (\"The Optics\"; \"De aspectibus\" or \"Perspectivae\") and grounded his theories of vision, light and colour, as well as his research in catoptrics and dioptrics (the study of the reflection and refraction of light, respectively). According to Matthias Schramm, Alhazen \"was the first to make a systematic", "His work on catoptrics in Book V of the Book of Optics contains a discussion of what is now known as Alhazen's problem, first formulated by Ptolemy in 150 AD. It comprises drawing lines from two points in the plane of a circle meeting at a point on the circumference and making equal angles with the normal at that point. This is equivalent to finding the point on the edge of a circular billiard table at which a player must aim a cue ball at a given point to make it bounce off the table edge and hit another ball at a second given point. Thus, its main application in optics is to solve the problem, \"Given a light source and a spherical mirror, find the point on the mirror where the light will be reflected to the eye of an observer.\" This leads to an", "The Kitab al-Manazir (Book of Optics) describes several experimental observations that Alhazen made and how he used his results to explain certain optical phenomena using mechanical analogies. He conducted experiments with projectiles and concluded that only the impact of perpendicular projectiles on surfaces was forceful enough to make them penetrate, whereas surfaces tended to deflect oblique projectile strikes. For example, to explain refraction from a rare to a dense medium, he used the mechanical analogy of an iron ball thrown at a", "", "Besides the \"Book of Optics\", Alhazen wrote several other treatises on the same subject, including his \"Risala fi l-Daw\"' (\"Treatise on Light\"). He", "Alhazen discussed the physics of the celestial region in his \"Epitome of Astronomy\", arguing that Ptolemaic models must be understood in terms of physical objects rather than abstract hypotheses—in other words that it should be possible to create physical models where (for example) none of the celestial bodies would collide with each", "In his work, Alhazen discussed theories on the motion of a body. In his \"Treatise on Place\", Alhazen disagreed with Aristotle's", "", "In his \"On the Configuration of the World\" Alhazen presented a detailed description of the physical structure of the earth: The book is a", "In his \"Al-Shukūk ‛alā Batlamyūs\", variously translated as \"Doubts Concerning Ptolemy\" or \"Aporias against Ptolemy\", published at some time between 1025 and 1028, Alhazen criticized Ptolemy's \"Almagest\", \"Planetary Hypotheses\", and \"Optics\", pointing out various contradictions he found in these works, particularly in astronomy. Ptolemy's \"Almagest\" concerned mathematical theories regarding the motion of the planets, whereas the \"Hypotheses\" concerned what Ptolemy thought was the actual configuration of the planets. Ptolemy himself acknowledged that his theories and configurations did not always agree with each other, arguing that this was not a problem provided it did not result in noticeable error, but Alhazen was particularly", "Alhazen's \"The Model of the Motions of Each of the Seven Planets\" was written 1038. Only one damaged manuscript has been found, with only the introduction and the first section, on the theory of planetary motion, surviving. (There was also a second section on astronomical calculation, and a third section, on astronomical instruments.) Following on from his \"Doubts", "Alhazen wrote a total of twenty-five astronomical works, some concerning technical issues such as \"Exact Determination of the Meridian\", a second group concerning accurate astronomical observation, a third group concerning various astronomical problems and", "In mathematics, Alhazen built on the mathematical works of Euclid and Thabit ibn Qurra and worked on \"the beginnings of the link between algebra and geometry\". He developed a formula for summing the first 100 natural numbers, using a geometric proof to prove the formula.", "Alhazen explored what is now known as the Euclidean parallel postulate, the fifth postulate in Euclid's \"Elements\", using a proof by contradiction, and in effect introducing the concept of motion into geometry. He formulated the Lambert quadrilateral, which Boris Abramovich Rozenfeld names the \"Ibn al-Haytham–Lambert quadrilateral\". In", "Alhazen's contributions to number theory include his work on perfect numbers. In his \"Analysis and Synthesis\", he may have been the first to state that every even perfect number is of the form 2(2 − 1) where 2 − 1 is prime, but he was", "Alhazen discovered the sum formula for the fourth power, using a method that could be generally used to determine the", "", "Alhazen also wrote a \"Treatise on the Influence of Melodies on the Souls of Animals\", although no copies have", "In engineering, one account of his career as a civil engineer has him summoned to Egypt by the Fatimid Caliph, Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, to regulate the flooding of the Nile River. He carried out a detailed", "In his \"Treatise on Place\", Alhazen disagreed with Aristotle's view that nature abhors a void, and he used geometry in an attempt to demonstrate that place (\"al-makan\") is the imagined three-dimensional void between the inner surfaces of a containing body. Abd-el-latif, a supporter of Aristotle's philosophical view of place, later criticized the", "Alhazen was a Muslim; it is not certain to which school of Islam he belonged. As a Sunni, he may have been either a follower of the Ash'ari school, or a follower of the Mu'tazili school. Sabra (1978) even suggested he might have been an adherent of Shia Islam. Alhazen wrote a work", "Alhazen made significant contributions to optics, number theory, geometry, astronomy and natural philosophy. Alhazen's work on optics is credited with contributing a new emphasis on experiment. His main work, \"Kitab al-Manazir\" (\"Book of Optics\"), was known in the Muslim world mainly, but not exclusively, through the thirteenth-century commentary by Kamāl al-Dīn al-Fārisī, the \"Tanqīḥ \"al-Manāẓir\" li-dhawī l-abṣār wa l-baṣā'ir\". In al-Andalus, it was used by the eleventh-century prince of the Banu Hud dynasty of Zaragossa and author of an important mathematical text, al-Mu'taman ibn Hūd. A Latin translation of the \"Kitab al-Manazir\" was made probably in the late twelfth or early thirteenth century. This translation was read by and greatly influenced a number of scholars in Christian Europe including: Roger Bacon, Robert Grosseteste, Witelo, Giambattista della Porta, Leonardo Da Vinci, Galileo Galilei, Christiaan Huygens, René Descartes, and Johannes Kepler. His research in catoptrics (the study of", "In 2014, the \"Hiding in the Light\" episode of \"\", presented by Neil deGrasse Tyson, focused on the accomplishments of Ibn al-Haytham. He was voiced by Alfred Molina in the episode. Over forty years previously, Jacob Bronowski presented Alhazen's work in a similar television documentary (and the corresponding book), \"The Ascent of Man\". In episode 5 (\"The Music of the Spheres\"), Bronowski remarked that in his view, Alhazen was \"the one really original scientific mind that Arab culture produced\", whose theory of optics was not improved on till the time of Newton and Leibniz. H. J. J. Winter, a British historian of science, summing up the importance of Ibn al-Haytham in the history", "According to medieval biographers, Alhazen wrote more than 200 works on a wide range of subjects, of which at least 96 of his scientific works are known. Most of his works are now lost, but more than 50 of them have survived to some extent. Nearly half of his surviving works are on mathematics, 23 of them are on astronomy, and 14 of them are on optics, with a few on other subjects. Not all his surviving works have yet been studied, but some of the ones that have are given below." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Scope.", "Differences between adult and geriatric medicine.", "Increased complexity.", "Geriatric giants.", "Practical concerns.", "Subspecialties and related services.", "History.", "Geriatrician training.", "United States of America.", "United Kingdom.", "Canada.", "India.", "Minimum geriatric competencies.", "Research.", "Hospital Elder Life Program.", "Pharmacology.", "Ethical and medico-legal issues." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Geriatrics differs from standard adult medicine because it focuses on the unique needs of the elderly person. The aged body is different physiologically from the younger adult body, and during old age, the decline of various organ systems becomes manifest. Previous health issues and lifestyle choices produce a different constellation of diseases and symptoms in different people. The appearance of symptoms depends on the remaining healthy reserves in the organs. Smokers, for example, consume their respiratory system reserve early and rapidly. Geriatricians distinguish between diseases and the effects of normal aging. For example, renal impairment may be a part of aging, but kidney failure and urinary incontinence are not. Geriatricians aim to treat diseases that are present and achieve healthy aging. Geriatricians focus on achieving the patient's highest priorities in the context of multiple chronic conditions, and on preserving function.", "The decline in physiological reserve in organs makes the elderly develop some kinds of diseases and have more complications from mild problems (such as dehydration from a mild gastroenteritis). Multiple problems may compound: A mild fever in elderly persons may cause confusion, which may lead to a fall and to a fracture of the neck of the femur (\"broken hip\"). Elderly people require specific attention to medications. Elderly people particularly are subjected to polypharmacy (taking multiple medications). Some elderly people have multiple medical disorders; some have self-prescribed many herbal medications and over-the-counter drugs. This polypharmacy may increase the risk of drug interactions or adverse drug reactions. In one study, it was found that prescription and nonprescription medications were commonly used together among older adults, with nearly 1 in 25 individuals potentially at risk for a major drug-drug interaction. Drugs metabolites are excreted mostly by the kidneys or the liver, which may be impaired in the elderly, necessitating medication adjustment. The presentation of disease in elderly persons may be vague and non-specific, or it may include delirium or falls. (Pneumonia, for example, may present with low-grade fever and confusion, rather than the high fever and cough seen in younger people.) Some elderly people may find it hard to describe their symptoms in words, especially if the disease is causing confusion, or if they have cognitive impairment. Delirium in the elderly may be caused by a minor problem such as constipation or by something as serious and life-threatening as a heart attack. Many of these problems are treatable, if the root cause can be discovered.", "The so-called geriatric giants are the major categories of impairment that appear in elderly people, especially as they begin to fail. These include immobility, instability, incontinence and impaired intellect/memory. Sarcopenia, the decline in muscle mass with age, is a significant contributor to fall risk, instability, immobility and disability in the geriatric population. Impaired vision and hearing loss are common chronic problems among older people. Hearing problems can lead to social isolation, depression, and dependence as the person can no longer talk to other people, receive information over the telephone, or engage in simple transactions, such as talking to a person at a bank or store. Vision problems lead to falls from tripping over unseen objects, medicine being taken incorrectly because the written instructions could not be read, and finances being mismanaged.", "Functional abilities, independence and quality of life issues are of great concern to geriatricians and their patients. Elderly people generally want to live independently as long as possible, which requires them to be able to engage in self-care and other activities of daily living. A geriatrician may be able to provide information about elder care options, and refers people to home care services, skilled nursing facilities, assisted living facilities, and hospice as appropriate. Frail elderly people may choose to decline some kinds of medical care, because the risk-benefit ratio is different. For example, frail elderly women routinely stop screening mammograms, because breast cancer is typically a slowly growing disease that would cause them no pain, impairment, or loss of life before they would die of other causes. Frail people are also at significant risk of post-surgical complications and the need for extended care, and an accurate prediction—based on validated measures, rather than how old the patient's face looks—can help older patients make fully informed choices about their options. Assessment of older patients before elective surgeries can accurately predict the patients' recovery trajectories. One frailty scale uses five items: unintentional weight loss, muscle weakness, exhaustion, low physical activity, and slowed walking speed. A healthy person scores 0; a very frail person scores 5. Compared to non-frail elderly people, people with intermediate frailty scores (2 or 3) are twice as likely to have post-surgical complications, spend 50% more time in the hospital, and are three times as likely to be discharged to a skilled nursing facility instead of to their own homes. Frail elderly patients (score of 4 or 5) who were living at home before the surgery have even worse outcomes, with the risk of being discharged to a nursing home rising to twenty times the rate for non-frail elderly people.", "Some diseases commonly seen in elderly are rare in adults, e.g., dementia, delirium, falls. As societies aged, many specialized geriatric- and geriatrics-related services emerged including:", "One of the eight branches of the traditional Indian system of medicine, Ayurveda, is \"jara\" or \"rasayana\", similar to geriatrics. Charaka described the fatigue and physical exhaustion caused by premature aging as the result of a poor diet. The \"Charaka Samhita\" recommends that elderly patients avoid excessive physical or mental strain and consume a light but nutritious diet. A number of physicians in the Byzantine Empire studied geriatrics, with doctors like Aëtius of Amida evidently specializing in the field. Alexander of Tralles viewed the process of aging as a natural and inevitable form of marasmus, caused by the loss of moisture in body tissue. The works of Aëtius describe the mental and physical symptoms of aging. Theophilus Protospatharius and Joannes Actuarius also discussed the topic in their medical works. Byzantine physicians typically drew on the works of Oribasius and recommended that elderly patients consume a diet rich in foods that provide \"heat and moisture\". They also recommended frequent bathing, massaging, rest, and low-intensity exercise regimens. In \"The Canon of Medicine\", written by Avicenna in 1025, the author was concerned with how \"old folk need plenty of sleep\" and how their bodies should be anointed with oil, and recommended exercises such as walking or horse-riding. Thesis III of the \"Canon\" discussed the diet suitable for old people, and dedicated several sections to elderly patients who become constipated. The Arab physician Algizar (circa 898–980) wrote a book on the medicine and health of the elderly. He also wrote a book on sleep disorders and another one on forgetfulness and how to strengthen memory, and a treatise on causes of mortality. Another Arab physician in the 9th century, Ishaq ibn Hunayn (died 910), the son of Nestorian Christian scholar Hunayn Ibn Ishaq, wrote a \"Treatise on Drugs for Forgetfulness\". George Day published the \"Diseases of Advanced Life\" in 1849, one of the first publications on the subject of geriatric medicine. The first modern geriatric hospital was founded in Belgrade, Serbia, in 1881 by doctor Laza Lazarević. The term \"geriatrics\" was proposed in 1909 by Dr. Ignatz Leo Nascher, former Chief of Clinic in the Mount Sinai Hospital Outpatient Department (New York City) and a \"father\" of geriatrics in the United States. Modern geriatrics in the United Kingdom began with the \"mother\" of geriatrics, Dr. Marjorie Warren. Warren emphasized that rehabilitation was essential to the care of older people. Using her experiences as a physician in a London Workhouse infirmary, she believed that merely keeping older people fed until they died was not enough; they needed diagnosis, treatment, care, and support. She found that patients, some of whom had previously been bedridden, were able to gain some degree of independence with the correct assessment and treatment. The practice of geriatrics in the UK is also one with a rich multi-disciplinary history. It values all the professions, not just medicine, for their contributions in optimizing the well-being and independence of older people. Another innovator of British geriatrics is Bernard Isaacs, who described the \"giants\" of geriatrics mentioned above: immobility and instability, incontinence, and impaired intellect. Isaacs asserted that, if examined closely enough, all common problems with older people relate to one or more of these giants. The care of older people in the UK has been advanced by the implementation of the National Service Frameworks for Older People, which outlines key areas for attention.", "", "In the United States, geriatricians are primary-care physicians (D.O. or M.D.) who are board-certified in either family medicine or internal medicine and who have also acquired the additional training necessary to obtain the Certificate of Added Qualifications (CAQ) in geriatric medicine. Geriatricians have developed an expanded expertise in the aging process, the impact of aging on illness patterns, drug therapy in seniors, health maintenance, and rehabilitation. They serve in a variety of roles including hospital care, long-term care, home care, and terminal care. They are frequently involved in ethics consultations to represent the unique health and diseases patterns seen in seniors. The model of care practiced by geriatricians is heavily focused on working closely with other disciplines such as nurses, pharmacists, therapists, and social workers.", "In the United Kingdom, most geriatricians are hospital physicians, whereas others focus on community geriatrics in particular. Although originally a distinct clinical specialty, it has been integrated as a specialization of general medicine since the late 1970s. Most geriatricians are, therefore, accredited for both. Unlike in the United States, geriatric medicine is a major specialty in the United Kingdom and are the single most numerous internal medicine specialists.", "In Canada, there are two pathways that can be followed in order to work as a physician in a geriatric setting. Many universities across Canada also offer gerontology training programs for the general public, such that nurses and other health care professionals can pursue further education in the discipline in order to better understand the process of aging and their role in the presence of older patients and residents.", "In India, Geriatrics is a relatively new speciality offering. A three-year post graduate residency (M.D) training can be joined for after completing the 5.5 year undergraduate training of MBBS (Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery). Unfortunately, only four major institutes provide M.D in Geriatric Medicine and subsequent training. Training in some institutes are exclusive in the Department of Geriatric medicine, with rotations in Internal medicine, medical subspecialties etc. but in certain institutions, are limited to 2-year training in Internal medicine and subspecialities followed by one year of exclusive training in Geriatric Medicine.", "In July 2007, the Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC) and the John A. Hartford Foundation hosted a National Consensus Conference on Competencies in Geriatric Education where a consensus was reached on minimum competencies (learning outcomes) that graduating medical students needed to assure competent care by new interns to older patients. Twenty-six (26) Minimum Geriatric Competencies in eight content domains were endorsed by the American Geriatrics Society (AGS), the American Medical Association (AMA), and the Association of Directors of Geriatric Academic Programs (ADGAP). The domains are: cognitive and behavioral disorders; medication management; self-care capacity; falls, balance, gait disorders; atypical presentation of disease; palliative care; hospital care for elders, and health care planning and promotion. Each content domain specifies three or more observable, measurable competencies.", "", "A prominent clinical challenge in geriatric medicine is the treatment and prevention of delirium. This is a condition in which hospitalized elderly patients become confused and disoriented when confronted with the uncertainty and confusion of a hospital stay. The health of the patient will decline as a result of delirium and can increase the length of hospitalization and lead to other health complications. The treatment of delirium involves keeping the patient mentally stimulated and oriented to reality, as well as providing specialized care in order to ensure that her/his needs are being met. The Hospital Elder Life Program (HELP) is an model of hospital care developed at the Yale University School of Medicine. It is designed to prevent delirium and functional decline among elderly individuals in the hospital inpatient setting. HELP uses a core team of interdisciplinary staff and targeted intervention protocols to improve patients' outcomes and to provide cost-effective care. Unique to the program is the use of specially trained volunteers who carry out the majority of the non-clinical interventions. In up to 40% of the cases, incident delirium can be prevented. To that end, HELP promotes interventions designed to maintain cognitive and physical functioning of older adults throughout the hospitalization, maximize patients' independence at discharge, assist with the transition from hospital to home and prevent unplanned hospital readmissions. Customized interventions include daily visitors; therapeutic activities to provide mental stimulation; daily exercise and walking assistance; sleep enhancement; nutritional support and hearing and vision protocols. HELP has been replicated in over 63 hospitals across the world. Although the majority of the sites are based in the United States located in 25 different states, there is a growing international presence. International sites include: Australia, Canada, the Netherlands, Taiwan and the United Kingdom.", "Pharmacological constitution and regimen for older people is an important topic, one that is related to changing and differing physiology and psychology. Changes in physiology with aging may alter the absorption, the effectiveness and the side effect profile of many drugs. These changes may occur in oral protective reflexes (dryness of the mouth caused by diminished salivary glands), in the gastrointestinal system (such as with delayed emptying of solids and liquids possibly restricting speed of absorption), and in the distribution of drugs with changes in body fat and muscle and drug elimination. Psychological considerations include the fact that elderly persons (in particular, those experiencing substantial memory loss or other types of cognitive impairment) are unlikely to be able to adequately monitor and adhere to their own scheduled pharmacological administration. One study (Hutchinson et al., 2006) found that 25% of participants studied admitted to skipping doses or cutting them in half. Self-reported noncompliance with adherence to a medication schedule was reported by a striking one-third of the participants. Further development of methods that might possibly help monitor and regulate dosage administration and scheduling is an area that deserves attention. Another important area is the potential for improper administration and use of potentially inappropriate medications, and the possibility of errors that could result in dangerous drug interactions. Polypharmacy is often a predictive factor (Cannon et al., 2006). Research done on home/community health care found that \"nearly 1 of 3 medical regimens contain a potential medication error\" (Choi et al., 2006).", "Elderly persons sometimes cannot make decisions for themselves. They may have previously prepared a power of attorney and advance directives to provide guidance if they are unable to understand what is happening to them, whether this is due to long-term dementia or to a short-term, correctable problem, such as delirium from a fever. Geriatricians must respect the patients' privacy while seeing that they receive appropriate and necessary services. More than most specialties, they must consider whether the patient has the legal responsibility and competence to understand the facts and make decisions. They must support informed consent and resist the temptation to manipulate the patient by withholding information, such as the dismal prognosis for a condition or the likelihood of recovering from surgery at home. Elder abuse is the physical, financial, emotional, sexual, or other type of abuse of an older dependent. Adequate training, services, and support can reduce the likelihood of elder abuse, and proper attention can often identify it. For elderly people who are unable to care for themselves, geriatricians may recommend legal guardianship or conservatorship to care for the person or the estate. Elder abuse occurs increasingly when caregivers of elderly relatives suffer from mental illness. These instances of abuse can be prevented by engaging these individuals with mental illness in mental health treatment. Additionally, interventions aimed at decreasing elder reliance on relatives may help decrease conflict and abuse. Family education and support programs conducted by mental health professionals may also be beneficial for elderly patients to learn how to set limits with relatives with psychiatric disorders without causing conflict that leads to abuse." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life and work.", "Babylonian sources.", "Geometry, trigonometry, and other mathematical techniques.", "Lunar and solar theory.", "Motion of the Moon.", "Orbit of the Moon.", "Apparent motion of the Sun.", "Orbit of the Sun.", "Distance, parallax, size of the Moon and the Sun.", "Eclipses.", "Astronomical instruments and astrometry.", "Star catalog.", "Precession of the equinoxes (146–127 ).", "Geography.", "Legacy.", "Monument.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Hipparchus was born in Nicaea (Greek \"Νίκαια\"), in the ancient district of Bithynia (modern-day Iznik in province Bursa), in what today is the country Turkey. The exact dates of his life are not known, but Ptolemy attributes astronomical observations to him in the period from 147–127, and some of these are stated as made in Rhodes; earlier observations since 162 might also have been made by him. His birth date ( ) was calculated by Delambre based on clues in his work. Hipparchus must have lived some time after 127 because he analyzed and published his observations from that year. Hipparchus obtained information from Alexandria as well as Babylon, but it is not known when or if he visited these places. He is believed to have died on the island of Rhodes, where he seems to have spent most of his later life. It is not known what Hipparchus's economic means were nor how he supported his scientific activities. His appearance is likewise unknown: there are no contemporary portraits. In the 2nd and 3rd centuries coins were made in his honour in Bithynia that bear his name and show him with a globe; this supports the tradition that he was born there. Relatively little of Hipparchus's direct work survives into modern times. Although he wrote at least fourteen books, only his commentary on the popular astronomical poem by Aratus was preserved by later copyists. Most of what is known about Hipparchus comes from Strabo's \"Geography\" and Pliny's \"Natural History\" in the 1st century; Ptolemy's 2nd-century \"Almagest\"; and additional references to him in the 4th century by Pappus and Theon of Alexandria in their commentaries on the \"Almagest\". Hipparchus was amongst the first to calculate a heliocentric system, but he abandoned his work because the calculations showed the orbits were not perfectly circular as believed to be mandatory by the science of the time. Although a contemporary of Hipparchus', Seleucus of Seleucia, remained a proponent of the heliocentric model, Hipparchus' rejection of heliocentrism, supported by ideas from Aristotle, remained dominant for nearly 2000 years until Copernican heliocentrism turned the tide of the debate. Hipparchus's only preserved work is \"Τῶν Ἀράτου καὶ Εὐδόξου φαινομένων ἐξήγησις\" (\"Commentary on the Phaenomena of Eudoxus and Aratus\"). This is a highly critical commentary in the form of two books on a popular poem by Aratus based on the work by Eudoxus. Hipparchus also made a list of his major works, which apparently mentioned about fourteen books, but which is only known from references by later authors. His famous star catalog was incorporated into the one by Ptolemy, and may be almost perfectly reconstructed by subtraction of two and two-thirds degrees from the longitudes of Ptolemy's stars. The first trigonometric table was apparently compiled by Hipparchus, who is consequently now known as \"the father of trigonometry\".", "Earlier Greek astronomers and mathematicians were influenced by Babylonian astronomy to some extent, for instance the period relations of the Metonic cycle and Saros cycle may have come from Babylonian sources (see \"Babylonian astronomical diaries\"). Hipparchus seems to have been the first to exploit Babylonian astronomical knowledge and techniques systematically. Except for Timocharis and Aristillus, he was the first Greek known to divide the circle in 360 degrees of 60 arc minutes (Eratosthenes before him used a simpler sexagesimal system dividing a circle into 60 parts); he also adopted the Babylonian astronomical \"cubit\" unit (Akkadian \"ammatu\", Greek πῆχυς \"pēchys\") which was equivalent to 2° or 2.5° ('large cubit'). Hipparchus probably compiled a list of Babylonian astronomical observations; G. J. Toomer, a historian of astronomy, has suggested that Ptolemy's knowledge of eclipse records and other Babylonian observations in the \"Almagest\" came from a list made by Hipparchus. Hipparchus's use of Babylonian sources has always been known in a general way, because of Ptolemy's statements. However, Franz Xaver Kugler demonstrated that the synodic and anomalistic periods that Ptolemy attributes to Hipparchus had already been used in Babylonian ephemerides, specifically the collection of texts nowadays called \"System B\"", "Hipparchus was recognized as the first mathematician known to have possessed a trigonometric table, which he needed when computing the eccentricity of the orbits of the Moon and Sun. He tabulated values for the chord function, which for a central angle in a circle gives the length of the straight line segment between the points where the angle intersects the circle. He computed this for a circle with a circumference of 21,600 units and a radius (rounded) of 3438 units; this circle has a unit length of 1 arc minute along its perimeter. He tabulated the chords for angles with increments of 7.5°. In modern terms, the chord subtended by a central angle in a circle of given radius equals the radius times twice the sine of half of the angle, i.e.: The now lost work in which Hipparchus is said to have developed his chord table, is called \"Tōn en kuklōi eutheiōn\" (\"Of Lines Inside a Circle\") in Theon of Alexandria's 4th-century commentary on section I.10 of the \"Almagest\". Some claim the table of Hipparchus may have survived in astronomical treatises in India, like the \"Surya Siddhanta\". Trigonometry was a significant innovation, because it allowed Greek astronomers to solve any triangle, and made it possible to make quantitative astronomical models and predictions using their preferred geometric techniques. Hipparchus must have used a better approximation for π than the one from Archimedes of between (3.14085) and (3.14286). Perhaps he had the one later used by Ptolemy: 3;8,30 (sexagesimal)(3.1417) (\"Almagest\" VI.7), but it is not known whether he computed an improved value himself. Some scholars do not believe Āryabhaṭa's sine table has anything to do with Hipparchus's chord table. Others do not agree that Hipparchus even constructed a chord table. Bo C.", "", "Hipparchus also studied the motion of the Moon and confirmed the accurate values for two periods of its motion that Chaldean astronomers are widely presumed to have possessed before him, whatever their ultimate origin. The traditional value (from Babylonian System B) for the mean synodic month is 29 days; 31,50,8,20 (sexagesimal) = 29.5305941... days. Expressed as 29 days + 12 hours + hours this value has been used later in the Hebrew calendar. The Chaldeans also knew that 251 synodic months ≈ 269 anomalistic months. Hipparchus used the multiple of this period by a factor of 17, because that interval is also an eclipse period, and is also close to an integer number of years (4267 moons : 4573 anomalistic periods : 4630.53 nodal periods : 4611.98 lunar orbits : 344.996 years : 344.982 solar orbits : 126,007.003 days : 126,351.985 rotations). What was so exceptional and useful about the cycle was that all 345-year-interval eclipse pairs occur", "It had been known for a long time that the motion of the Moon is not uniform: its speed varies. This is called its \"anomaly\", and it repeats with its own period; the anomalistic month. The Chaldeans took account of this arithmetically, and used a table giving the daily motion of the Moon according to the date within a long period. The Greeks however preferred to think in geometrical models of the sky. Apollonius of Perga had at the end of the 3rd century proposed two models for lunar and planetary motion: Hipparchus devised a geometrical method to find the parameters from three positions of the Moon, at particular phases of its anomaly. In fact, he did this separately for the eccentric and the epicycle model. Ptolemy describes the details in the \"Almagest\" IV.11. Hipparchus used", "Before Hipparchus, Meton, Euctemon, and their pupils at Athens had made a solstice observation (i.e., timed the moment of the summer solstice) on 27 June 432 (proleptic Julian calendar). Aristarchus of Samos is said to have done so in 280, and Hipparchus also had an observation by Archimedes. As shown in a 1991 paper, in 158 BC Hipparchus computed a very erroneous summer solstice from Callippus's calendar. He observed the summer solstice in 146 and 135 both accurate to a few hours, but observations of the moment of equinox were simpler, and he made twenty during his lifetime. Ptolemy gives an extensive discussion of Hipparchus's work on the length of the year in the \"Almagest\" III.1, and quotes many observations that Hipparchus made or used, spanning 162–128. Analysis of Hipparchus's seventeen equinox observations made at Rhodes shows that the mean error in declination is positive seven arc minutes, nearly agreeing with the sum of refraction by air and Swerdlow's parallax. The random noise is two", "Before Hipparchus, astronomers knew that the lengths of the seasons are not equal. Hipparchus made observations of equinox and solstice, and according to Ptolemy (\"Almagest\" III.4) determined that spring (from spring equinox to summer solstice) lasted 941⁄2 days, and summer (from summer solstice to autumn equinox) days. This is inconsistent with a premise of the Sun moving around the Earth in a circle at uniform speed. Hipparchus's solution was to place the Earth not at the center of the Sun's motion, but at some distance from the center. This model described the apparent motion of the Sun fairly well. It is known today that the planets, including the Earth, move", "Hipparchus also undertook to find the distances and sizes of the Sun and the Moon. He published his results in a work of two books called \"Perí megethōn kaí apostēmátōn\" (\"On Sizes and Distances\") by Pappus in his commentary on the \"Almagest\" V.11; Theon of Smyrna (2nd century) mentions the work with the addition \"of the Sun and Moon\". Hipparchus measured the apparent diameters of the Sun and Moon with his \"diopter\". Like others before and after him, he found that the Moon's size varies as it moves on its (eccentric) orbit, but he found no perceptible variation in the apparent diameter of the Sun. He found that at the \"mean\" distance of the Moon, the Sun and Moon had the same apparent diameter; at that distance, the Moon's diameter fits 650 times into the circle, i.e., the mean apparent diameters are = 0°33′14′′. Like others before and after him, he also noticed that the Moon has a noticeable parallax, i.e., that it appears displaced from its calculated position (compared to the Sun or", "Pliny (\"Naturalis Historia\" II.X) tells us that Hipparchus demonstrated that lunar eclipses can occur five months apart, and solar eclipses seven months (instead of the usual six months); and the Sun can be hidden twice in thirty days, but as seen by different nations. Ptolemy discussed this a century later at length in \"Almagest\" VI.6. The geometry, and the limits of the positions of Sun and Moon when a solar or lunar eclipse is possible, are explained in \"Almagest\" VI.5. Hipparchus apparently made similar calculations. The result that two solar eclipses can occur one month apart is important, because this can not be based on observations: one is visible on the northern and the other on the southern hemisphere – as Pliny indicates – and the latter was inaccessible to the Greek. Prediction of a solar eclipse, i.e., exactly when and where it will be visible, requires a solid lunar theory and proper treatment of the lunar parallax. Hipparchus must have", "Hipparchus and his predecessors used various instruments for astronomical calculations and observations, such as the gnomon, the astrolabe, and the armillary sphere. Hipparchus is credited with the invention or improvement of several astronomical instruments, which were used for a long time for naked-eye observations. According to Synesius of Ptolemais (4th century) he made the first \"astrolabion\": this may have been an armillary sphere (which Ptolemy however says he constructed, in \"Almagest\" V.1); or the predecessor of the planar instrument called astrolabe (also mentioned by Theon of Alexandria). With an astrolabe Hipparchus was the first to be able to measure the geographical latitude and time by observing fixed stars. Previously this was done at daytime by measuring the shadow cast by a gnomon, by recording the length of the longest day of the year or with the portable instrument known as a \"scaphe\". Ptolemy mentions (\"Almagest\" V.14) that he used a similar instrument as Hipparchus, called \"dioptra\", to measure the apparent diameter of the Sun and Moon. Pappus of Alexandria described it (in his commentary on the \"Almagest\" of that chapter), as did Proclus (\"Hypotyposis\" IV). It was a 4-foot rod with a scale, a sighting hole at one end, and a wedge that", "Late in his career (possibly about 135 ) Hipparchus compiled his star catalog, the original of which does not survive. He also constructed a celestial globe depicting the constellations, based on his observations. His interest in the fixed stars may have been inspired by the observation of a supernova (according to Pliny), or by his discovery of precession, according to Ptolemy, who says that Hipparchus could not reconcile his data with earlier observations made by Timocharis and Aristillus. For more information see Discovery of precession. In Raphael's painting \"The School of Athens\", Hipparchus is depicted holding his celestial globe, as the representative figure for astronomy. Previously, Eudoxus of Cnidus in the 4th century had described the stars and constellations in two books called \"Phaenomena\" and \"Entropon\". Aratus wrote a poem called \"Phaenomena\" or \"Arateia\" based on Eudoxus's work. Hipparchus wrote a commentary on the \"Arateia\" – his only preserved work – which contains many stellar positions and times for rising, culmination, and setting of the constellations, and these are likely to have been based on his own measurements. Hipparchus made his measurements with an armillary sphere, and obtained the positions of at least 850 stars. It is disputed which coordinate system(s) he used. Ptolemy's catalog in the \"Almagest\", which is derived from Hipparchus's catalog, is given in ecliptic coordinates. However Delambre in his \"Histoire de l'Astronomie Ancienne\" (1817) concluded that Hipparchus knew and used the equatorial coordinate system, a conclusion challenged by Otto Neugebauer in his \"A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy\" (1975). Hipparchus seems to have used a mix of ecliptic coordinates and equatorial coordinates: in his commentary on Eudoxos he provides stars' polar distance (equivalent to the declination in the equatorial system), right ascension (equatorial), longitude (ecliptical), polar longitude (hybrid), but not celestial latitude. As with most of his work, Hipparchus's star catalog was adopted and perhaps expanded by Ptolemy. Delambre, in 1817, cast doubt on Ptolemy's work. It was disputed whether the star catalog in the \"Almagest\" is due to Hipparchus, but 1976–2002 statistical and spatial analyses (by R. R. Newton, Dennis Rawlins, Gerd Grasshoff, Keith Pickering and Dennis Duke) have shown conclusively that the \"Almagest\" star catalog is almost entirely Hipparchan. Ptolemy has even (since Brahe, 1598) been accused by astronomers of fraud for stating (\"Syntaxis\", book 7, chapter 4) that he observed all 1025 stars: for almost every star he used Hipparchus's data and precessed it to his own epoch centuries later by adding 2°40' to the longitude, using an erroneously small precession constant of 1° per century. In any case the work started by Hipparchus has had a lasting heritage, and was much later updated by Al Sufi (964) and Copernicus (1543). Ulugh Beg reobserved all the Hipparchus stars he could see from Samarkand in 1437 to about the same accuracy as Hipparchus's. The catalog was superseded only in the late 16th century by Brahe and Wilhelm IV of Kassel via superior ruled instruments and spherical trigonometry, which improved accuracy by an order of magnitude even before the invention of the telescope. Hipparchus is considered the greatest observational astronomer from classical antiquity until Brahe.", "Hipparchus is generally recognized as discoverer of the precession of the equinoxes in 127. His two books on precession, \"On the Displacement of the Solsticial and Equinoctial Points\" and \"On the Length of the Year\", are both mentioned in the \"Almagest\" of Claudius Ptolemy. According to Ptolemy, Hipparchus measured the longitude of Spica and Regulus and other bright stars.", "Hipparchus's treatise \"Against the Geography of Eratosthenes\" in three books is not preserved. Most of our knowledge of it comes from Strabo, according to whom Hipparchus thoroughly and often unfairly criticized Eratosthenes, mainly for internal contradictions and inaccuracy in determining positions of geographical localities. Hipparchus insists that a geographic map must be based only on astronomical measurements of latitudes and longitudes and triangulation for finding unknown distances. In geographic theory and methods Hipparchus introduced three main innovations. He was the first to use the grade grid, to determine geographic latitude from star observations, and not only from the Sun's altitude, a method known long before him, and to suggest that geographic longitude could be determined by means of simultaneous observations of lunar", "He is depicted opposite Ptolemy in Raphael's painting The School of Athens, although this figure is popularly believed to be Strabo or Zoroaster. The rather cumbersome formal name for the ESA's Hipparcos Space Astrometry Mission", "The Astronomer's Monument at the Griffith Observatory in Los Angeles, California, United States features", "General Precession Celestial bodies Star catalog" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Distribution.", "Habitat and ecology.", "Zope software." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Ballerus ballerus\" is one of the more streamlined breams, with a more laterally compressed body, especially towards the tail and an upturned mouth. The eye is small It has small scales and the lateral line consists of 67-75 scales. It is a pale silvery colour with either pale yellowish or colourless fins. They are normally 25–35 cm in length but occasionally can be up to 40 cm. The maximum published weight is 940g, although the largest rod caught fish, caught in Slovakia, weighed 2.2 kg and measured 53 cm in length. The males develop nuptial tubercules above the anal fin during the Spring spawning season.", "\"Bellerus ballerus\" is found in the large lowland rivers draining to Baltic Sea, although it is not found in northern Sweden and Finland north of 62°N, the Weser and Elbe draining into the North Sea, the Black Sea, the Don draining into the Sea of Azov and the Volga and Ural which drain into the Caspian Sea, although it is rare in the Ural River. Its range spans from the Netherlands in the west to Russia and Georgia in the east.", "\"Ballerus ballerus\" is occurs in large lowland rivers and eutrophic lakes where it feeds on plankton which it catches close to the surface. It spawns in Spring, once the ice has thawed, in shallow reedy bays onto the vegetation and the young fish stay in these areas although the adults move into open water to feed. Spawning has been recorded on gravel in areas of moderate current. This species lives for over 10 years and it breeds for the first time at 3–4 years when they have attained a standard length of 150mm. Spawining is initiated when the water temperature reaches 10 °C and usually lasts for only 1–2 weeks. The females spawn once a year while the males often defend spawning territories along the shoreline. It is known in some areas to migrate long distances to find suitable areas to spawn in. In some regions it will venture into the fresher parts of seas to find food.", "The Python-based application server Zope is not named after this species, it is an acronym for \"Z Object Published Environment\" but Zope3 was renamed \"Bluebream\", an alternative vernacular name for \"Ballerus ballerus\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Skaldic poetry.", "Forms.", "Kennings.", "Skaldic poems.", "Notable skalds." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The word \"skald\" is perhaps ultimately related to (). Old High German has, and. The Old High German variant stem etymologically identical to the \"skald-\" stem () means \"to scold, blame, accuse, insult\". The person doing the insulting is a or. The West Germanic counterpart of the skald is the. Like the, which is related to Modern English \"scoff\", the name \"skald\" is continued in English \"scold\", reflecting the central position of mocking taunts in Germanic poetry.", "Skaldic poetry can be traced to the earlier-9th century with Bragi Boddason and his \"Ragnarsdrápa\", considered among the oldest surviving Norse poems. Brage is the earliest skald whose verse has survived. However, many skalds came after him, like Egill Skallagrímsson and Torbjørn Hornklove (\"Þorbjörn Hornklofi\"), who gained much fame in the 10th century for the poems composed for the kings they served of their own exploits. At the time, the Icelanders and Nordic people were still pagan, and their work reflected that by many references to gods like Thor and Odin and to seers and runes. The poetry from then also can be noted for its portrayal of a \"heroic age\" for the Vikings and \"praise poetry, designed to commemorate kings and other prominent people, often in the form of quite long poems.\" As time went on, skalds became the main source of Icelandic and Norse history and culture, as it was the skalds who learned and shared the largely oral history. That led to a shift in the role of the skald, allowing them to gain more prominent positions. Every king and chieftain needed a skald to record their feats and ensure their legacy lived on, as well as becoming the main historians of their society. The written artefacts of that time come from skalds, as they were the first from the time and place to record on paper. Some skalds became clerical workers, recording laws and happenings of the government, some even being elected to the Thing and Althing, while others worked with churches to record the lives and miracles of Saints, along with passing on the ideals of Christianity. The last point is very important, as skalds were the main agents of culture when they began glorifying and passing on Christianity over the old pagan beliefs, the Viking culture shifted towards Christianity, as well. As time passed, the skald profession was threatened with extinction until Snorri Sturluson compiled the \"Prose Edda\", as a manual to preserve an appreciative understanding of their art. Snorri, born in Iceland during the 12th century, played a very important part in the history of Skaldic poetry. In addition to being a great poet, he was leader of the Althing for part of his life, leading the government of Iceland. His Prose Edda preserved and passed on the traditions and methods of the Skalds, adding a much needed stimulus to the profession, and providing much of the information now known about skalds and how they worked. For example, the Prose Edda broke down and explained kennings used in skaldic poetry, allowing many of them to be understood today. Beyond writing the Prose Edda, Snorri wrote other important works, from retelling old Norse legends to tales of the exploits of kings, which gave him much fame and made his reputation live on beyond his death.", "Eddic verse was usually simple, in terms of content, style and metre, dealing largely with mythological or heroic content. Skaldic verse, conversely, was complex, and usually composed as a tribute or homage to a particular \"jarl\" or king. There is debate over the performance of skaldic poetry, but there is a general scholarly consensus that it was spoken rather than sung. Unlike many other literary forms of the time, much skaldic poetry is attributable to an author (called a skald), and those attributions may be relied on with a reasonable degree of confidence. Many skalds were men of influence and power and so were biographically noted. The metre is ornate, usually \"dróttkvætt\" or a variation thereof. The syntax is complex, with sentences commonly interwoven, with kennings and \"heiti\" being used frequently and gratuitously. Skaldic poetry was written in variants and dialects of Old Norse. Technically, the verse was usually a form of alliterative verse and almost always used the \"dróttkvætt\" stanza (also known as the \"Court\" or \"Lordly Metre\"). Dróttkvætt is effectively an eight-line form, and each pair of lines is an original single long line which is conventionally written as two lines.", "These are forms of skaldic poetry: Skalds also composed insult (\"níðvísur\") and very occasionally, erotic verse (\"mansöngr\").", "The verses of the skalds contain a great profusion of \"kennings\", the fixed metaphors found in most Northern European poetry of the time. Kennings are devices ready to supply a standard image to form an alliterating half-line to fit the requirements of \"dróttkvætt\", but the substantially greater technical demands of skaldic verse required the devices to be multiplied and compounded to meet its demands for skill and wordplay. The images can therefore become somewhat hermetic, at least to those who fail to grasp the allusions that are at the root of many of them.", "Most skaldic poetry are poems composed to individual kings by their court poets. They typically have historical content, relating battles and other deeds from the king's career. A few surviving skaldic poems have mythological content. To that could be added two poems relating the death of a king and his reception in Valhalla. Some other were composed as circumstance pieces, such as those by Egill Skallagrímsson", "More than 300 skalds are known from the period between 800 and 1200 AD. Many are listed in the \"Skáldatal\", not all of whom are known from extant material. Notable names include:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early history (1889–1969).", "Origins (1889–1929).", "Expansion and diversification (1929–1968).", "History in electronics (1969–present).", "Electronic toys and early video games (1969–1978).", "Arcade games, Nintendo Entertainment System, and Game Boy (1979–1989).", "Fourth and fifth generation consoles (1990–1998).", "GameCube and portable innovations (1999–2005).", "Wii, Nintendo 3DS, and Wii U (2006–2015).", "Mobile platforms, Nintendo Switch, and other products (2015–present).", "Products.", "Video game consoles.", "Video games.", "Marketing.", "Trademark.", "Logos.", "Company structure.", "Internal divisions.", "Entertainment Planning & Development (EPD).", "Platform Technology Development (PTD).", "Business Development (NBD).", "Subsidiaries.", "Additional distributors.", "Bergsala.", "Tencent.", "Tor Gaming.", "International divisions.", "Nintendo Co., Ltd..", "Nintendo of America.", "Nintendo of Europe.", "Nintendo Australia.", "iQue.", "Nintendo of Korea.", "Policy.", "Content guidelines.", "License guidelines.", "Intellectual property protection.", "Seal of Quality.", "NTSC regions.", "PAL regions.", "Charitable projects.", "Environmental record." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Nintendo was founded as Nintendo Koppai on September 23, 1889 by craftsman Fusajiro Yamauchi in Kyoto, Japan, to produce and distribute \"hanafuda\" ('flower cards'). The word \"Nintendo\" can be translated as 'leave luck to heaven,' or alternatively as 'the temple of free hanafuda.' Yamauchi manufactured these playing cards using white mulberry bark, which he himself painted by hand. He was able to market them despite the fact that gambling had been prohibited by Japanese authorities since 1633, because the cards incorporated illustrations rather than numbers. With the increase in popularity of the cards, Yamauchi hired assistants to mass-produce in order to satisfy demand. Despite a favorable start, however, the slow and expensive manufacturing process and high product price led the company to financial difficulties. Adding to the issue was the limited niche market to which the company belonged, as well as the long durability of the cards,", "In 1933, Sekiryo Kaneda established the company as a general partnership titled Yamauchi Nintendo & Co. Ltd., investing in the construction of a new corporate headquarters located next to the original building, near the Toba-kaidō train station. Because Sekiryo's marriage to Yamauchi's daughter produced no male heirs, he planned to adopt his son-in-law Shikanojo Inaba, an artist in the company's employ and the father of his grandson Hiroshi, born in 1927. However, Inaba abandoned his family and the company, so Hiroshi was made Sekiryo's eventual successor. World", "", "Yamauchi's experience with the previous initiatives led him to increase Nintendo's investment in a research and development department directed by Hiroshi Imanishi, an employee with a long history in other areas of the company. In 1969, Gunpei Yokoi joined the department and was responsible for coordinating various projects. Yokoi's experience in manufacturing electronic devices led Yamauchi to put him in charge of the company's games department, and his products would be mass-produced. During this period, Nintendo built a new production", "Two key events in Nintendo's history occurred in 1979: its American subsidiary was opened in New York City, and a new department focused on arcade game development was created. In 1980, the first handheld video game system, the Game & Watch, was created by Yokoi from the technology used in portable calculators. It became one of Nintendo's most successful products, with over 43.4 million units sold worldwide during its production period, and for which 59 games were made in total. Nintendo's success in arcade games grew in 1981 with the release of \"Donkey Kong\", which was developed by Miyamoto and one of the first video games that allowed the player character to jump. The character, Jumpman, would later become Mario and Nintendo's official mascot. Mario was named after Mario Segale, the landlord of Nintendo's offices", "The late 1980s marked the slip of Nintendo's dominance in the video game market with the appearance of NEC's PC Engine and Sega's Mega Drive, game systems designed with a 16-bit architecture that allowed for improved graphics and audio compared to the NES. In response to the competition, Uemura designed the Super Famicom, which launched in 1990. The first batch of 300,000 consoles sold out in a matter of hours. The following year, as with the NES, Nintendo distributed a modified version of the Super Famicom to the United States market, titled the Super Nintendo Entertainment System (SNES). Launch games for the Super Famicom and SNES include \"Super Mario World\", \"F-Zero\", \"Pilotwings\", \"SimCity\", and \"Gradius III\". By mid-1992, over", "In May 1999, with the advent of the PlayStation 2, Nintendo entered an agreement with IBM and Panasonic to develop the 128-bit Gekko processor and the DVD drive to be used in Nintendo's next home console. Meanwhile, a series of administrative changes occurred in 2000, when Nintendo's corporate offices were moved to the Minami-ku neighborhood in Kyoto, and Nintendo Benelux was established to manage the Dutch and Belgian territories. The year 2001 marked the introduction of two new Nintendo consoles: the Game", "Nintendo's next home console was conceived in 2001, although the designing commenced in 2003, taking inspiration from the Nintendo DS. The Wii was released in November 2006, with a total of 33 launch titles. With the Wii, Nintendo sought to reach a broader demographic than its seventh generation competitors, with the intention of also encompassing the \"non-consumer\" sector. To this end, Nintendo invested in a $200 million advertising campaign. The Wii's innovations include the Wii Remote controller, equipped with an accelerometer system and infrared sensors that allow it to detect its position in a three-dimensional environment", "The financial losses caused by the Wii U, along with Sony's intention to release its video games to other platforms such as smart TVs, motivated Nintendo to rethink its strategy concerning the production and distribution of its properties. In 2015, Nintendo formalized agreements with DeNA and Universal Parks & Resorts to extend its presence to smart devices and amusement parks respectively. In March 2016, Nintendo's first mobile app for the iOS and Android systems, \"Miitomo\", was released. Since then, Nintendo has produced other similar apps, such as \"Super Mario Run\", \"Fire Emblem Heroes\", \"\", \"Mario Kart Tour\" and \"Pokémon Go\", the last being developed by Niantic and having generated $115 million in revenue for Nintendo. The theme park area Super Nintendo World is set to open at Universal Studios Japan in 2020. In March 2016, the loyalty program My Nintendo replaced Club Nintendo. The NES Classic Edition was released in November 2016. The console is a redesigned version of the NES that includes support for the HDMI interface and Wiimote compatibility. Its successor, the Super NES Classic Edition, was", "Nintendo's central focus is the research, development, production and distribution of entertainment products, primarily video game software and hardware and card games, and its main markets are Japan, America and Europe, although more than 70% of its total sales come from the latter two territories.", "Since the launch of the Color TV-Game in 1977, Nintendo has produced and distributed various video game consoles, including home, handheld, dedicated and hybrid consoles. Each", "The first video games produced by Nintendo were arcade titles, with \"EVR Race\" (1975) being the company's first electromechanical title, and \"Donkey Kong\" (1981) being the first platform game in history.", "Nintendo of America has engaged in several high-profile marketing campaigns to define and position its brand. One of its earliest and most enduring slogans was \"Now you're playing with power!,\" used first to promote its Nintendo Entertainment System. It modified the slogan to include \"SUPER power\" for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System, and \"PORTABLE power\" for the Game Boy. Its 1994 \"Play It Loud!\" campaign played upon teenage rebellion and fostered an edgy reputation. During the Nintendo 64 era, the slogan was \"Get N or get out.\" During the GameCube era, the \"Who Are You?\" suggested a link between the games and the players' identities. The company promoted its Nintendo DS handheld with the tagline \"Touching is Good.\" For the Wii, they used the \"Wii would like to play\" slogan to promote the console with the people who tried the games including \"Super Mario Galaxy\" and \"Super Paper Mario\". The Nintendo 3DS used the slogan \"Take a look inside.\" The Wii U used the slogan \"How U will play next.\" The Nintendo Switch uses the slogan \"Switch and Play\" in North America, and \"Play anywhere, anytime, with anyone\" in Europe.", "During the peak of Nintendo's success in the video game industry in the 1990s, their name was ubiquitously used to", "Used since the 1960s, Nintendo's most recognizable logo is the racetrack shape, especially the red-colored wordmark typically (though not always) displayed on a white background, primarily used in the Western markets from 1985 to 2006. In Japan, a monochromatic version that lacks a colored background is on Nintendo's own Famicom, Super Famicom,", "", "Nintendo's internal research and development operations are divided into three main divisions:", "The Nintendo Entertainment Planning & Development division is the primary software development division at Nintendo, formed as a merger between their former", "The Nintendo Platform Technology Development division is a combination of Nintendo's former Integrated Research & Development (or IRD) and System Development", "The Nintendo Business Development division was formed following Nintendo's foray into software development for smart devices such as mobile phones and tablets. They are responsible for refining Nintendo's business model for the dedicated video game system business, and for furthering Nintendo's venture into development for smart devices.", "Although most of the research and development is being done in Japan, there are some R&D facilities in the United States, Europe and China that are focused on developing software and hardware technologies used in Nintendo products. Although they all are subsidiaries of Nintendo (and therefore first-party), they are often referred to as external resources when being involved in joint development processes with Nintendo's internal developers by the Japanese personal involved. This can be seen in the \"Iwata asks...\" interview series. Nintendo Software Technology (NST) and Nintendo Technology Development (NTD) are located in Redmond, Washington, United States, while Nintendo European", "", "Bergsala, a third-party company based in Sweden, exclusively handles Nintendo operations in the Scandinavian region. Bergsala's relationship with Nintendo was established in 1981 when the company", "Nintendo has partnered with Tencent to release Nintendo products in China, following the lifting of the", "In January 2019, it was reported by ynet and IGN Israel that negotiations about official distribution of Nintendo products in the country were ongoing. After two months, IGN Israel announced that Tor Gaming Ltd., a company that established in earlier 2019, gained a distribution agreement with Nintendo of Europe, handling official retailing beginning at the start of March, followed by opening an official online store the next month. In June 2019, Tor Gaming launched an official Nintendo Store at Dizengoff Center in Tel Aviv, making it the second official Nintendo Store worldwide, 13 years after NYC.", "", "Headquartered in Kyoto, Japan since the beginning, Nintendo Co., Ltd. oversees the organization's global operations and manages Japanese operations specifically. The company's two major subsidiaries, Nintendo of America and Nintendo", "Nintendo founded its North American subsidiary in 1980 as Nintendo of America (NoA). Hiroshi Yamauchi appointed his son-in-law Minoru Arakawa as president, who in turn hired his own wife and Yamauchi's daughter Yoko Yamauchi as the first employee. The Arakawa family moved from Vancouver to select an office in Manhattan, New York, due to its central status in American commerce. Both from extremely affluent families, their goals were set more by achievement than moneyand all their seed capital and products would now also be automatically inherited from Nintendo in Japan, and their inaugural target is the existing $8 billion-per-year coin-op arcade video game market and largest entertainment industry in the US, which already outclassed movies and television combined. During the couple's arcade research excursions, NoA hired gamer youths to work in the filthy, hot, ratty warehouse in New Jersey for the receiving and service of game hardware from Japan. In", "Nintendo's European subsidiary was established in June 1990, based in Großostheim, Germany. The company handles operations across Europe excluding Scandinavia, as well as South Africa. Nintendo of Europe's United Kingdom branch (Nintendo UK) handles operations in that country and in Ireland from its headquarters in Windsor,", "Nintendo's Australian subsidiary is based in Melbourne, Victoria. It handles the publishing, distribution, sales, and marketing of Nintendo products in Australia, New Zealand, and Oceania (Cook Islands, Fiji,", "Originally a Chinese joint venture between its founder, Wei Yen, and Nintendo, manufactures and distributes official Nintendo consoles and games for the mainland Chinese market, under the iQue brand.", "Nintendo's South Korean subsidiary was established on 7 July 2006, and is based in Seoul. In March 2016, the subsidiary was heavily downsized due to a corporate", "", "For many years, Nintendo had a policy of strict content guidelines for video games published on its consoles. Although Nintendo allowed graphic violence in its video games released in Japan, nudity and sexuality were strictly prohibited. Former Nintendo president Hiroshi Yamauchi believed that if the company allowed the licensing of pornographic games, the company's image would be forever tarnished. Nintendo of America went further in that games released for Nintendo consoles could not feature nudity, sexuality, profanity (including racism, sexism or slurs), blood, graphic or domestic violence, drugs, political messages or religious symbols (with the exception of widely unpracticed religions, such as the Greek Pantheon). The Japanese parent company was concerned that it may be viewed as a \"Japanese Invasion\" by forcing Japanese community standards on North American and European children. Past the strict guidelines, some exceptions have occurred: \"Bionic Commando\" (though swastikas were eliminated in the US version), \"Smash TV\" and \"\" contain human violence, the latter also containing implied sexuality and tobacco use; \"River City Ransom\" and \"\" contain nudity, and the latter also contains religious images, as do \"\" and \"\". A known side effect of this policy is the Genesis version of \"Mortal Kombat\" having more than double the unit sales of the Super NES version, mainly because Nintendo had forced publisher Acclaim to recolor the red blood to look like white sweat and replace some of the more gory graphics in its release of the", "Nintendo of America also had guidelines before 1993 that had to be followed by its licensees to make games for the Nintendo Entertainment System, in addition to the above content guidelines. Guidelines were enforced through the 10NES lockout chip. The last rule was circumvented in a number of ways; for example, Konami, wanting to produce more games for Nintendo's consoles, formed Ultra Games and later Palcom to produce more games as a technically", "Nintendo has generally been proactive to assure its intellectual property in both hardware and software is protected. With the NES system, Nintendo employed a lock-out system that only allowed authorizes game cartridges they manufactured to be playable on the system. Nintendo has used emulation by itself or licensed from third parties to provide means to re-release games from their older platforms on newer systems, with Virtual Console, which re-released classic games as downloadable titles, the NES and SNES library for Nintendo Switch Online subscribers, and with dedicated consoles like the NES Mini and SNES Mini. However, Nintendo has taken a hard stance against unlicensed emulation of its video games and consoles, stating that it is the single largest threat to the intellectual property rights of video game developers. Further, Nintendo has taken action against fan-made games which have used significant facets of their IP, issuing cease & desist letters to these projects or Digital Millennium Copyright Act-related complaints to services that host these projects. In recent years, Nintendo has taken legal action against sites that knowingly distribute ROM images of their games. On 19 July 2018, Nintendo sued Jacob Mathias, the owner of ROM image distribution websites LoveROMs and LoveRetro, for \"brazen and mass-scale infringement of Nintendo's intellectual property rights.\" Nintendo settled with Mathias in November 2018 for more than along with relinquishing all ROM images in their ownership. While Nintendo is likely to have agreed to a smaller fine in private, the large amount was seen as a deterrent to prevent similar", "The gold sunburst seal was first used by Nintendo of America, and later Nintendo of Europe. It is displayed on any game, system, or accessory licensed for use on one of its video game consoles, denoting the game has been properly approved by Nintendo. The seal is also displayed on any Nintendo-licensed merchandise, such as trading cards, game guides, or apparel, albeit with the words \"Official Nintendo Licensed Product.\" In 2008, game designer Sid Meier cited the Seal of Quality as one of the three most important innovations in video game history, as it helped set a standard for game quality that protected consumers from shovelware.", "In NTSC regions, this seal is an elliptical starburst named the \"Official Nintendo Seal\". Originally, for NTSC countries, the seal was a large, black and gold circular starburst. The seal read as follows: \"This seal is your assurance that NINTENDO", "In PAL regions, the seal is a circular starburst named the \"Original Nintendo Seal of Quality.\" Text near the seal in the Australian Wii manual states:", "In 1992, Nintendo teamed with the Starlight Children's Foundation to build Starlight Fun Center mobile entertainment units and install them in hospitals. 1,000 Starlight", "Nintendo has consistently been ranked last in Greenpeace's \"Guide to Greener Electronics\" due to Nintendo's failure to publish information. Similarly, they are ranked last in the Enough Project's \"Conflict Minerals Company Rankings\" due to Nintendo's refusal" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design and construction.", "Armament.", "Operational history.", "1915–1926: Battlecruiser.", "1926–1933: Reconstruction into battleship.", "1933–1941: Fast battleship.", "1941–1942: Early war service.", "1943: Movement between bases.", "1944: Final combat actions.", "1945: Loss." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "\"Haruna\" was the fourth and last of the Imperial Japanese Navy's \"Kongō\"-class battlecruisers, a line of capital ships designed by the British naval engineer George Thurston. The class was ordered in 1910 in the Japanese Emergency Naval Expansion Bill after the commissioning of in 1908. The four battlecruisers of the \"Kongo\"-class were designed to match the naval capabilities of the other major powers at the time; they have been called the battlecruiser versions of the British (formerly Turkish) battleship. Their heavy armament and armor protection (which contributed 23.3 percent of their displacement) were greatly superior to those of any other Japanese capital ship afloat at the time. The keel of \"Haruna\" was laid down at Kobe by Kawasaki on 16 March 1912, with most of the parts used in her construction manufactured in Japan. Due to a shortage of available slipways, \"Haruna\" and her sister ship were the first two capital ships of the Imperial Japanese Navy to be built in private shipyards. Launched on 14 December 1913, \"Haruna\"s fitting-out began in early 1914. She was completed on 19 April 1915.", "\"Haruna\"s main battery consisted of eight heavy-caliber main guns in four twin turrets (two forward, two aft). The turrets were noted by the U.S. Office of Naval Intelligence to be \"similar to the British 15-inch turrets\", with improvements made in flash-tightness. Each of her main guns could fire high-explosive or armor-piercing shells a maximum of at a firing rate of two shells per minute.<ref name=\"14/45\"></ref> In keeping with the Japanese doctrine of deploying more powerful vessels before their opponents, \"Haruna\" and her sister ships were the first vessels in the world equipped with guns. The main guns carried ammunition for 90 salvoes, and had an approximate barrel life of 250 to 280 rounds. In 1941, separate dyes (used to distinguish between shells fired from multiple ships) were introduced for the armor-piercing shells of the four \"Kongo\"-class battleships, with \"Haruna\"s armor-piercing shells using black dye. Her secondary battery was originally sixteen 50-caliber medium guns in single casemates (all located amidships), eight guns and eight submerged torpedo tubes. The six-inch guns could fire five to six rounds per minute, with a barrel life of 500 rounds. The 6\"/50 caliber gun was capable of firing both anti-aircraft and anti-ship shells, though the positioning of the guns on \"Haruna\" made antiaircraft firing impractical. During her second reconstruction, the older 3-inch guns were removed and replaced with eight dual-purpose guns. These 5\"/40 caliber guns could fire between 8 and 14 rounds per minute, with a barrel life of 800 to 1,500 rounds. The 5\"/40 had the widest variety of shot types of \"Haruna\"s guns, being designed to fire antiaircraft, antiship, and illumination shells. She was also armed with a large number of antiaircraft machine guns. In 1943, her secondary armament was reconfigured to eight guns, twelve guns, and finally by the end of 1944 one hundred and eight Type 96 antiaircraft autocannon in 30 triples and 18 single mounts.", "", "On 19 April 1915, \"Haruna\" was formally commissioned at Kobe. On 13 December 1915, after eight months of trials, she was assigned to the Third Battleship Division of the Second Fleet. On 9 April 1916, she departed Sasebo Naval Base for operations in the East China Sea, returning to Japan 10 days later. On 1 December 1916, Captain Saburo Hyakutake assumed command of \"Haruna\" until 15 September 1917, when Captain Naomi Taniguchi replaced him. On 1 December 1917, she was placed in reserve, as hostilities in the Pacific theatre of World War I concluded. On 12 September 1920, \"Haruna\" was involved in gunnery drills off Hokkaidō when a breech explosion destroyed the starboard gun of the No. 1 turret, killing seven men and badly damaging the armored roof of the turret. A later investigation by the Imperial Japanese Navy concluded that a faulty fuse ignited the gunpowder bags in the breech, detonating the shell while still in the barrel. The turret was repaired at Yokosuka Naval Arsenal, where the elevation of her 14-inch guns was also increased by seven degrees. Three months later, she was once again placed in reserve. With the conclusion of World War I and the signing of the Washington Naval Treaty, the size of the Imperial Japanese Navy was significantly lessened, with a ratio of 5:5:3 required between the capital ships of the United Kingdom, the United States, and Japan. The treaty also banned Japan from building any new capital ships until 1931, with no capital ship permitted to exceed. Provided that new additions did not exceed, existing capital ships were allowed to be upgraded with improved anti-torpedo bulges and deck armor. By the time the Washington Treaty had been fully implemented in Japan, only three classes of World War I-era capital ships remained active: the s, the \"Kongō\"-class battlecruisers, and one of the s ().", "Unable to construct new capital ships until 1931, Japan resorted to upgrading battleships and battlecruisers. In July 1926, \"Haruna\" became the first of Japan's vessels to undergo extensive modernization and modification, in drydock at Yokosuka Naval Arsenal. Over the next two years, her horizontal armor near her ammunition magazines was strengthened, and the machinery spaces within the hull were increased. Anti-torpedo bulges were added along the waterline, as permitted by the Washington Treaty. She was refitted to accommodate three Type 90 Model 0 floatplanes. To increase her speed and power capacities, all 36 Yarrow boilers were removed and replaced with 16 newer boilers, and Brown-Curtis direct-drive turbines were installed. \"Haruna\"s forward funnel was removed, and her second funnel was enlarged and lengthened. The modifications to her hull increased her armor weight from 6,502 to 10,313 long tons, directly violating the terms of the Washington Treaty. In July 1928, \"Haruna\"—now capable of speeds of —was reclassified as a battleship. Following new sea trials, \"Haruna\" was assigned on 10 December 1928 to the Fourth Battleship Division of the Second Fleet as the Emperor's special ship. For the next 12 months, she operated between Sasebo, Port Arthur, and the East China Sea. On 1 February 1929, Prince Takamatsu, the younger brother of Emperor Hirohito, was assigned to the crew. On 20 November 1929, she was reassigned to the First Battleship Division. She was placed in reserve on 1 December 1930. On 22 April 1930, Japan signed the London Naval Treaty, placing further restrictions on her maritime forces. In addition to the scrapping of several older battleships, Japan would not be permitted to construct new capital ships until 1937. After minor fitting-out work, her reconstruction begun in 1926 was declared complete on 1 October 1931. On 8 November 1931, she served as the Emperor's ship during his official visit to Kumamoto prefecture. In September 1931, Japan invaded Manchuria. On 25 February 1933, based on the report by the Lytton Commission, the League of Nations agreed that Japan's invasion had violated Chinese sovereignty. Refusing to accept the organization's judgment, Japan withdrew from the League of Nations the same day. Immediately following, Japan also withdrew from the Washington and London Naval Treaties, thus removing all restrictions on the number and size of her capital ships. \"Haruna\" was reactivated and assigned to the First Battleship Division on 20 May 1933.", "On 1 August 1933, \"Haruna\" was drydocked at Kure Naval Arsenal in preparation for upgrades that would enable her to escort Japan's growing fleet of aircraft carriers. Her stern was lengthened by, and her bridge was completely reconstructed according to Japan's pagoda mast style of forward superstructure. Her 16 older boilers were removed and replaced with 11 oil-fired Kampon Boilers and newer geared turbines. Catapults and rails were added to support three Nakajima E8N or Kawanishi E7K reconnaissance and spotter floatplanes. \"Haruna\"s armor was also extensively upgraded. Her main belt was strengthened to a uniform thickness of 8 inches (up from varying thicknesses of 6 to 8 inches), while diagonal bulkheads of depths ranging from now reinforced the main armored belt. The turret armor was strengthened to, while were added to portions of the deck armor. Her ammunition magazine protection was also strengthened to. The reconstruction was finished on 30 September 1934. Capable of more than despite the significant increase in hull displacement, \"Haruna\" was now reclassified as a fast battleship. On 28 October 1935, Captain Jisaburō Ozawa assumed command of \"Haruna\". On 1 June 1936, she was assigned to the Third Battleship Division of the First Fleet. Throughout 1937, \"Haruna\" conducted extensive gunnery drills and patrols off the coast of China, primarily in the vicinity of Tsingtao. On 7 July 1937, Japan officially declared war on China, thus beginning the Sino-Japanese War. One month later, \"Haruna\" transported Japanese Army forces to mainland China in preparation for campaigns into Chinese Nationalist territory. On 1 December 1937, she was again placed in reserve. On 2 April 1940, she was transferred from Sasebo to Taiwan. She was redesignated as a \"special service ship\" on 15 November 1940, and five months later was attached to the Third Battleship Division of the First Fleet, based in Hashirajima.", "\"Haruna\" and \"Kongō\" departed the Hashirajima fleet anchorage on 29 November 1941, to participate in the opening stage of the Pacific War as part of the Southern (Malay) Force's Main Body, under the overall command of Vice-Admiral Nobutake Kondō. On 4 December 1941, the Main Body arrived off the coast of Southern Siam and Northern Malaya, in preparation for the invasion of Siam and the Malayan Peninsula four days later. When Britain's \"Force Z\" – consisting of the battleship and the battlecruiser – was quickly defeated by Japan's land-based and carrier aircraft, \"Haruna\"s battlegroup withdrew from Malayan waters. The battlegroup subsequently sortied from Indochina for three days in mid-December to protect a reinforcement convoy traveling to Malaya and again on 18 December to cover the Army's landing at Lingayen Gulf in the Philippines. The Main Body departed Cam Ranh Bay in French Indochina on 23 December bound for Taiwan, arriving two days later. On 13 December 1941, an erroneous report was published in the U.S. media that an American B-17 heavy bomber had bombed and mortally damaged \"Haruna\" during battle off Lingayen Gulf off the Philippines. No Japanese battleships were present, and \"Haruna\" was away in the Gulf of Siam at the time. On 18 January 1942, Kondō's Main Force arrived in Palau alongside two fast carriers, with the intention of covering Japan's invasion of Borneo and the Dutch East Indies. \"Haruna\",, and the fleet carriers and operated to the east of Mindanao until 18 February 1942, when the Main Body departed Palau in preparation for \"Operation J\", Japan's invasion of the Dutch East Indies. On 25 February, the Third Battleship Division provided cover for air attacks on Java. \"Haruna\" bombarded Christmas Island on 7 March 1942, then returned to Staring-baai for 15 days of maintenance and rest. In April 1942, \"Haruna\" joined five fleet carriers in attacks on Colombo in Ceylon. Following the destruction of on 5 April 1942, \"Haruna\" was sent southwest to locate the remainder of the British Eastern Fleet, under the command of Admiral James Somerville. On 9 April, one of her floatplanes spotted the carrier south of Trincomalee; Japanese airstrikes sank the carrier the same day. Having crippled the offensive capability of Britain's Eastern Fleet, the Third Battleship Division returned to Japan on 23 April. \"Haruna\" was drydocked throughout May 1942 for general repairs and refits. On 29 May 1942, \"Haruna\" joined her sister ship as part of Vice-Admiral Chūichi Nagumo's carrier strike force during the Battle of Midway. On 4 June, she was attacked in multiple airstrikes by American torpedo bombers, but she took no hits and succeeded in shooting down five American aircraft. On 5 June, she took on survivors from the four destroyed Japanese aircraft carriers before returning to Japan. She remained in Japan until September 1942, undergoing minor refits in August of that year. On 6 September, \"Haruna\" transferred to Truk Lagoon alongside the rest of the Third Battleship Division, and on 10 September the ship sortied as part of Admiral Kondō's Second Fleet into the Solomon Islands. On 20 September, the fleet was ordered to return to Truk. In the aftermath of the Battle of Cape Esperance, the Japanese Army opted to reinforce their positions on Guadalcanal. To protect their transport convoy from enemy air attack, Admiral Yamamoto sent \"Haruna\" and \"Kongō\", escorted by one light cruiser and nine destroyers, to bombard Henderson Field. Because of their high speed, the two battleships could bombard the field and withdraw before being subjected to air attack from aircraft carriers. On the night of 13–14 October, the two battleships shelled Henderson Field from a distance of, firing 973 14-inch shells. In the most successful Japanese battleship action of the war, the bombardment heavily damaged both runways, destroyed almost all available aviation fuel, incapacitated 48 of the airfield's 90 aircraft, and killed 41 men. The Japanese troop convoy reached the island the next day. During the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands on 26 October 1942, \"Haruna\" was attacked by a PBY Catalina flying boat but received no damage. In mid-November, the battleship and other warships provided distant cover for the ultimately unsuccessful efforts to bombard Henderson Field again and land reinforcements on Guadalcanal. On 15 November 1942, following the Japanese defeat and loss of and during the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal, the Third Battleship Division returned to Truk, where it remained for the rest of 1942.", "\"Haruna\" engaged no enemy targets during 1943. In late January 1943, she participated in \"Operation Ke\", as part of a diversionary force and distant cover supporting Japanese destroyers that were evacuating personnel from Guadalcanal. During 15–20 February 1943, the Third Battleship Division transferred from Truk to Kure Naval Base. From 23 February to 31 March 1943, \"Haruna\" was drydocked in Kure Naval Arsenal for upgrades, receiving additional Type 96 antiaircraft guns and armor. On 17 May 1943, in response to the American invasion of Attu Island, \"Haruna\" sortied alongside, the Third Battleship Division, two fleet carriers, two cruisers and nine destroyers. Three days later, the submarine discovered the task group, but was unable to attack. On 22 May 1943, the task force arrived in Yokosuka, where it was joined by an additional three fleet carriers and two light cruisers; the force was disbanded when Attu fell before the necessary preparations were finished. Throughout June 1943, \"Haruna\" was refitted at Yokosuka. On 18 September 1943, \"Haruna\" left Truk as part of a counterattack force in response to American raids on the Brown Islands in Micronesia, but no contact was made and the ship returned to the base. On 17 October 1943, \"Haruna\" again left Truk as part of an even larger force—five battleships, three fleet carriers, eight heavy cruisers, three light cruisers and numerous destroyers—in response to American raids on Wake Island. When no contact was made the force returned to Truk on 26 October 1943. On 16 December 1943, she arrived at Sasebo for refits and inland-sea training.", "On 25 January 1944, Captain Kazu Shigenaga assumed command of \"Haruna\" while the ship was stationed at Kure. The Third Battleship Division departed Kure on 8 March 1944. Arriving at Lingga on 14 March 1944, the division remained for training until 11 May 1944. On 11 May 1944, \"Haruna\" and Admiral Ozawa's Mobile Fleet departed Lingga for Tawi-Tawi, where they were joined by Vice-Admiral Takeo Kurita's \"Force C\". On 13 June, Ozawa's Mobile Fleet departed Tawitawi for the Mariana Islands. During the Battle of the Philippine Sea, \"Haruna\" escorted Japanese fast carriers, and was hit by two armor-piercing bombs on 20 June 1944 from U.S. carrier aircraft. On 24 June, she was drydocked in Kure for repairs and refitting. In August 1944 she transferred to Lingga. In October 1944, \"Haruna\" departed Lingga in preparation for \"Operation Sho-1\", Japan's counterattack during the Battle of Leyte Gulf, the largest naval engagement in history. On 24 October, \"Haruna\" was lightly damaged by fragments from near misses by American carrier aircraft in the Battle of the Sibuyan Sea. On 25 October, during the Battle off Samar, \"Haruna\"—as part of Admiral Kurita's Centre Force—engaged escort carriers and destroyers of the U.S. 7th Fleet's \"Taffy 3\". Her shells straddled (but did not hit) two American escort carriers, before she dodged torpedoes launched by American destroyers. After a fierce defensive action by the American ships, Admiral Kurita elected to withdraw, ending the battle. Following the Japanese Navy's defeat at Leyte Gulf, \"Haruna\" returned to Brunei and Lingga for repairs. On 22 November 1944, she ran aground on a coral reef near Lingga, suffering serious damage to her watertight compartments and forcing her to return to Sasebo, where the hull was patched and repaired. On 2 December 1944, while returning to Japan from Southeast Asia as part of a task group, she evaded torpedoes fired by an American submarine. On 9 December, three more American submarines intercepted the task group;,, and damaged the carrier and multiple destroyers with torpedoes. Unharmed, \"Haruna\" arrived at Sasebo the following day. At the end of 1944, she transferred to Kure for full repairs and upgrading, having survived a year in which four other Japanese battleships had been lost.", "On 1 January 1945, \"Haruna\" was removed from the deactivated Third Battleship Division and transferred to the First Battleship Division of the Second Fleet. On 10 February, \"Haruna\" was assigned to the Kure Naval District. On 19 March 1945, American carrier aircraft attacked the remainder of the Japanese Navy at Kure. The base was defended by veteran Japanese fighter instructors flying Kawanishi N1K-J \"Shiden\" or \"George\" fighters, led by the man who planned the attack on Pearl Harbor, Minoru Genda. These fighter planes were superior in some respects to America's main fighter, the F6F Hellcat. They surprised the attackers, destroyed several American aircraft, and defended the base from the brunt of the attack. \"Haruna\" sustained light damage from a single bomb on the starboard side, and remained at Kure. On 24 July 1945, the U.S. Navy's Task Force 38 began a series of aerial attacks on Kure Naval Base to destroy the last remnants of Japan's navy. The same day, the battleship was sunk, and \"Haruna\" was hit by a single bomb which caused light damage. Four days later, she sustained eight bomb hits from Task Force 38's aircraft and sank at her moorings at 16:15. In two days of attacks, 65 officers and men of \"Haruna\" were killed. Her remnants were raised from the sea floor in 1946 and broken up over the course of two months." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Personal life.", "Etymology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Cambyses was an early member of the Achaemenid dynasty. He was apparently a great-grandson of its founder Achaemenes, grandson of Teispes and son of Cyrus I. His paternal uncle was Ariaramnes and his first cousin was Arsames.", "According to Herodotus, Cambyses was \"a man of good family and quiet habits\". He reigned under the overlordship of Astyages, King of Media. He was reportedly married to Princess Mandane of Media, a daughter to Astyages and Princess Aryenis of Lydia. His wife was reportedly a granddaughter to both Cyaxares of Media and Alyattes of Lydia. The result of their marriage was the birth of his successor Cyrus the Great. According to Nicolas of Damascus his original name was Atradates, and he was wounded and later died in the Battle of the Persian Border which he, with his son, fought against Astyages. It occurred in about 551 BC, and he is reported to have received an honorable burial. Also according to Herodotus, Astyages chose Cambyses as a son-in-law because he considered him to pose no threat to the Median throne, having dreamt his daughter would give birth to one who would rule Asia. This was not quite the case with Cyrus the Great who would go on to depose his grandfather, and to begin the Persian Empire.", "Though numerous scholars link Cambyses to the Sanskrit tribal name Kamboja there are also few scholars who suggest the Elamite origin of the name. Jean Przyluski had sought to find an Austric (Kol or Munda) affinity for Kamboja. Friedrich von Spiegel, Sten Konow, Ernst Herzfeld, James Hope Moulton, Wojciech Skalmowski and some other scholars think that Cambyses (Kambujiya) is adjectival form of the Sanskrit tribal name \"Kamboja\". Spiegel also regards Kamboja/Kambujiya (Cambyses) and Kuru/Kyros (Cyrus) as the names of two pre-historic/legendary heroes of the Indo-Iranians (i.e. \"prior to their split into Indo-Aryans and Iranians\") which were later revived naturally in the royal family of the Achaemenes and further opines that the myths about Cyrus were largely due to the confusion between the historical and the legendary heroes of the prehistoric period James Hope Moulton regards Spiegel's suggestions as the best of other etymological explanations of these two names. As against this, Arnold J. Toynbee discusses the issue of two Persian names Kambujiya (Cambyses) as well as Kurush (Cyrus) at length and regards them both as derived from the two Eurasian nomads, the Kambojas and the Kurus mentioned in the Sanskrit texts and who, according to him, had entered India and Iran in the Volkerwanderung of 8th and 7th century BC. Toynbee concludes that the conquest of the world by elder branch of the House of Achaemenes had been achieved by the valor of the Kuru and Kamboja Nomad reinforcements, hence as a commemoration, the elder branch of the House had named all their great princes from Cyrus I onwards, alternately, as Cyrus (Kurosh/Kuru) and Cambyses (Kambujiya/Kamboja)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Development.", "Launch.", "Market success.", "Functionality.", "Software library.", "Regional variants.", "Hardware.", "Hardware problems.", "Copy protection.", "Controller.", "Peripherals.", "Models.", "PS One.", "PlayStation Classic.", "Critical reception.", "Legacy.", "CD format.", "Successor." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The inception of what became the released PlayStation dates back to 1986 with a joint venture between Nintendo and Sony. Nintendo had already produced floppy disk technology to complement cartridges, in the form of the Family Computer Disk System, and wanted to continue this complementary storage strategy for the Super Famicom. Nintendo approached Sony to develop a CD-ROM add-on, tentatively titled the \"Play Station\" or \"SNES-CD\". A contract was signed, and work began. Nintendo's choice of someone they had worked with before, Ken Kutaragi, who was later called \"The Father of the PlayStation\", was the individual who had sold Nintendo on using the Sony SPC-700 processor for use as the eight-channel ADPCM sound set in the Super Famicom/SNES console through an impressive demonstration of the processor's capabilities. Kutaragi was nearly fired by Sony because he was originally working with Nintendo on the side without Sony's knowledge (while still employed by Sony). It was then-CEO, Norio Ohga, who recognised the potential in Kutaragi's chip, and in working with Nintendo on the project. Ohga kept Kutaragi on at Sony, and it was not until Nintendo cancelled the project that Sony decided to develop its own console. Sony also planned to develop a Super NES-compatible, Sony-branded console, but one which would be more of a home entertainment system playing both Super NES cartridges and a new CD format which Sony would design. This was also to be the format used in SNES-CDs, giving a large degree of control to Sony despite Nintendo's leading position in the video gaming market. The product, under the name \"Play Station\", was to be announced at the May 1991 Consumer Electronics Show (CES). However, when Nintendo's Hiroshi Yamauchi read the original 1988 contract between Sony and Nintendo, he realised that the earlier agreement essentially handed Sony complete control over any and all titles written on the SNES CD-ROM format. Yamauchi decided that the contract was totally unacceptable and he secretly cancelled all plans for the joint Nintendo–Sony SNES CD attachment. Instead of announcing a partnership between Sony and Nintendo, at 9 am the day of the CES, Nintendo chairman Howard Lincoln stepped onto the stage and revealed that Nintendo was now allied with Philips, and Nintendo was planning on abandoning all the previous work Nintendo and Sony had accomplished. Lincoln and Minoru Arakawa had, unbeknownst to Sony, flown to Philips' global headquarters in the Netherlands and formed an alliance of a decidedly different nature—one that would give Nintendo total control over its licenses on Philips machines. After the collapse of the joint-Nintendo project, Sony briefly considered allying itself with Sega to produce a stand-alone console. The Sega CEO at the time, Tom Kalinske, took the proposal to Sega's Board of Directors in Tokyo, who promptly vetoed the idea. Kalinske, in a 2013 interview recalled them saying \"that's a stupid idea, Sony doesn't know how to make hardware. They don't know how to make software either. Why would we want to do this?\". This prompted Sony into halting their research, but ultimately the company decided to use what it had developed so far with both Nintendo and Sega to make it into a complete console based upon the Super Famicom. As a result, Nintendo filed a lawsuit claiming breach of contract and attempted, in US federal court, to obtain an injunction against the release of what was originally christened the \"Play Station\", on the grounds that Nintendo owned the name. The federal judge presiding over the case denied the injunction and, in October 1991, the first incarnation of the aforementioned brand new game system was revealed. However, it is theorised that only 200 or so of these machines were ever produced. By the end of 1992, Sony and Nintendo reached a deal whereby the \"Play Station\" would still have a port for SNES games, but Nintendo would own the rights and receive the bulk of the profits from the games, and the SNES would continue to use the Sony-designed audio chip. However, Sony decided in early 1993 to begin reworking the \"Play Station\" concept to target a new generation of hardware and software. As part of this process the SNES cartridge port was dropped and the space between the names \"Play Station\" was removed becoming \"PlayStation\", thereby ending Nintendo's involvement with the project. According to a Sony engineer, all work on the console from the time of the partnership with Nintendo was eventually scrapped, and the PlayStation design was restarted from scratch. Sony's North American division, known as Sony Computer Entertainment America (SCEA), originally planned to market the new console under the alternative branding \"PSX\" following the negative feedback regarding \"PlayStation\" in focus group studies. Early advertising prior to the console's launch in North America referenced PSX, but the term was scrapped before launch. The console was not marketed with Sony's name in contrast to Nintendo's consoles; according to Phil Harrison, much of Sony's upper management feared that the \"Sony\" brand would be tarnished by connecting it with the console which they considered to be a \"toy\". According to SCE's producer Ryoji Akagawa and chairman Shigeo Maruyama, there was uncertainty over whether the console should primarily focus on 2D sprite graphics or 3D polygon graphics. It was only after witnessing the success of Sega's \"Virtua Fighter\" in Japanese arcades that \"the direction of the PlayStation became instantly clear\" and 3D polygon graphics became the console's primary focus. Since Sony had no experience in game development and the managers knew about it, the company turned to third-party game developers. With support from Namco, Konami, and Williams, as well as 250 other development teams in Japan alone, the company secured the launch of new games such as \"Ridge Racer\" and \"Mortal Kombat 3\". In addition, Sony bought the European company Psygnosis for million, and renamed it Sony Interactive Entertainment, which began developing games for the future console, including \"Wipeout\" and \"Destruction Derby\". The purchase of Psygnosis also brought other benefits to the company, including a dedicated game development kit for the console. With the help of Psygnosis, SN Systems was publishing software development tools called PSY-Q. Initially Sony planned to use its own game development kit based on the expensive R4000 processor; however, Andy Beveridge and Martin Day, owners of SN Systems, built a prototype of the development tool, which used an ordinary personal computer, and showed it to the representatives of Sony at the winter CES in 1994. Sony executives liked the alternative, and the company helped SN Systems with condensing the development kit on two PC extension boards. Industry hype for the console spread quickly, and in early 1994 \"GamePro\" reported that \"many video game companies [feel] that in the near future, the video game platforms to contend with will be from Nintendo, Sega... and \"Sony\".\" [emphasis in original].", "PlayStation went on sale in Japan on 3 December 1994, a week after the release of its rival Sega Saturn, at a price of. Sales in Japan began with a \"stunning\" success, with long lines in stores, and it sold 100,000 units on the first day, and then two million units after six months on the market. After a while, a gray market emerged for the consoles, which were shipped from Japan to the US and Europe, and buyers of such consoles paid large amounts of money in the range of. Before the release in North America, Sega and Sony presented their game consoles at the first Electronic Entertainment Expo conference, held in May 1995. First, Sega announced its Saturn console, and announced that it will be released at a price of. Immediately after that, Olaf Olafsson, the head of the Sony Computer Entertainment America (SCEA), summoned Steve Race, the head of development, to the conference stage, who said \"\" and left the audience with a round of applause. The attention to the Sony conference was also attracted by the appearance of Michael Jackson and the showcase of games for the console: \"WipEout\", \"Ridge Racer\" and \"Tekken\". In addition, Sony announced that \"Ridge Racer\" would not be bundled with the console as previously expected. In North America, PlayStation went on sale on 9 September 1995 at the previously announced price of. There were over 100,000 pre-orders placed and 17 games available on the market by the time of launch. The launch was a success, and the stores reportedly were running out of consoles and accessories. In Europe, PlayStation was released on 29 September 1995, and finally in November 1995 in Oceania. During the first four months – from September to the end of 1995 – sales of the console in the U.S. amounted to 800,000 units, giving the PlayStation a commanding lead over the other fifth generation consoles, though the Super NES and Sega Genesis from the fourth generation still outsold it. At the same time, according to the president of SCEA, the attach rate of sold games and consoles was 4 to 1. The console was marketed with advertising slogans such as, \"\"Live in your world. Play in ours\"\", stylised as \"LIVE IN YUR WRLD. PLY IN URS\". The slogan \"You Are Not Ready\" was also used briefly, stylised as \"U R NOT \" (red E). Regarding the second one, Sony's CCO Lee Clow explained that \"it's the ultimate challenge. Gamers love to respond to that tag line and say 'Bullshit. Let me show you how ready I am.'\" Critics generally welcomed the new console. The staff of \"Next Generation\" reviewed the PlayStation a few weeks after its North American launch, where they commented that, while the CPU is \"fairly average\", the supplementary custom hardware, such as the GPU and sound processor, is stunningly powerful. They praised the PlayStation's focus on 3D, and complemented on the comfort of its controller and the convenience of its memory cards. Giving the system 4 out of 5 stars, they concluded, \"To succeed in this extremely cut-throat market, you need a combination of great hardware, great games, and great marketing. Whether by skill, luck, or just deep pockets, Sony has scored three out of three in the first salvo of this war.\" In a special Game Machine Cross Review in May 1995, \"Famicom Tsūshin\" scored the PlayStation console a 19 out of 40.", "The PlayStation was immediately successful. Lee Hutchinson of Ars Technica, a Babbage's employee in 1995, recalled how PlayStation preorders greatly outnumbered Saturn sales at his store: Hutchinson attributed PlayStation's success to third party developers: While Sega and Nintendo took an isolationist approach, focusing primarily on first party development while generally ignoring the concerns of third party developers, Sony streamlined game production by providing a range of online programming libraries that were constantly updated. They also organised third party technical support teams, and in some cases gave direct development support to third parties. At the close of 1996, approximately 400 games were being developed for the PlayStation, compared to approximately 200 and 60 games being developed for the Saturn and the Nintendo 64 respectively. While the Sega Saturn was marketed towards 18 to 34-year-olds, the PlayStation was marketed roughly, but not exclusively, towards 12 to 24-year-olds. Both Sony and Sega reasoned that because younger players typically look up to older, more experienced players, advertising targeted at teens and adults would draw them in too. Additionally, Sony found that adults react best to advertising geared towards teenagers; according to Lee Clow, \"One of the first things we resolved early on was that everyone is 17 when they play video games. The young people look up to the best gamer who is usually a little older and more practiced and talented. Then there are people who start working and grow up, but when they go into their room and sit down with their video games, they're regressing and becoming 17 again.\" Initially, PlayStation demographics were skewed towards adults, but the audience broadened after the first price drop. In 1996, Sony expanded their CD production facilities in Springfield, Oregon, due to the high demand for PlayStation games. This increased their monthly output from 4 million discs to 6.5 million discs. This was necessary because PlayStation sales were running at twice the rate of Saturn sales, and dramatically increased their lead when both the PlayStation and Saturn dropped in price to $199 in May; this was largely because some retailers (such as KB Toys) did not stock the Saturn. The PlayStation also outsold the Saturn at a similar ratio in Europe during 1996, with an accumulated 2.2 million consoles sold in the region by the end of the year. Sales figures for PlayStation hardware and software only increased following the launch of the Nintendo 64. Sony Computer Entertainment president Teruhisa Tokunaka speculated that the Nintendo 64 launch had actually helped PlayStation sales by raising public awareness of the gaming market through Nintendo's added marketing efforts. However, the PlayStation took longer to achieve dominance in Japan. Tokunaka stated that, even after the PlayStation and Saturn had been on the market for nearly two years, the competition between them was still \"very close\", and that neither console had led in sales for any meaningful length of time.", "In addition to playing games, select PlayStation models are equipped to play audio CDs; further, Asian model SCPH-5903 can also play Video CDs. Like most CD players, the PlayStation can play songs in a programmed order, shuffle the playback order of the disc and repeat one song or the entire disc. Later PlayStation models utilise a music visualisation function called SoundScope. This function, as well as a memory card manager, is accessed by starting the console without either inserting a game or closing the CD tray, thereby accessing a GUI for the PlayStation BIOS. The GUI for the PS one and PlayStation differ depending on the firmware version: the original PlayStation GUI had a dark blue background with rainbow graffiti used as buttons, while the early PAL PlayStation and PS one GUI had a grey blocked background with 2 icons in the middle (these were different on each version). If the CD lid is closed with a game inside at any time while in the menu, the game will start.", "As of 30 June 2007, 7,918 software titles had been released worldwide for the PlayStation (counting games released in multiple regions as separate titles). As of 31 March 2007, the cumulative software shipment was at 962 million units. \"FIFA Football 2005\" was the last game released for the system in the United States. However, several reprinted and remastered editions were released in later years. On 26 July 2007, Konami released \"Metal Gear Solid: The Essential Collection\", which contained \"Metal Gear Solid\" in the original PlayStation format. In 2011, Capcom released the \"Resident Evil 15th Anniversary Collection\", and in 2012, Square Enix released the \"Final Fantasy 25th Anniversary Ultimate Box\" in Japan containing all of the \"Final Fantasy\" titles, a majority of which were in the original PlayStation format. Initially, in the United States, PlayStation games were packaged in long cardboard boxes, similar to non-Japanese 3DO and Saturn games. Sony later switched to the jewel case format typically used for audio CDs and Japanese video games, as this format took up less retailer shelf space (which was at a premium due to the large number of PlayStation games being released), and focus testing showed that most consumers preferred this format.", "The \"OK\" and \"Cancel\" buttons in most of the Japanese PlayStation games are reversed in their North American and European releases. In Japan, the button (\"maru\", right) is used as OK, while the button (\"batsu\", wrong) is used as Cancel. North American and European releases have the button or the buttons as OK, while either the or the button are used as Cancel (some titles, like \"Xenogears,\" use the button for cancelling actions and selections, along with the PlayStation 2 system browser and the XrossMedia Bar on the PlayStation 3 and the PSP). However, a few games, such as Square's \"Vagrant Story\", \"Final Fantasy VII\" (which uses the button as cancel) and \"Final Fantasy Tactics\", Namco's \"Ridge Racer Type 4\", and Konami's \"Metal Gear Solid\", use the Japanese button layout worldwide. Other games, like the Japanese version of \"Gran Turismo\", use controls that are similar to North American games. These Japanese button layouts also apply to future PlayStation consoles. This is because in the early years Sony America (SCEA), Sony Europe (SCEE), and Sony Japan (SCEJ) had different development and testing documents (TRCs) for their respective territories.", "In regard to the PlayStation's hardware, its designer Ken Kutaragi said, \"The technology came from an original idea to create a synthesizer for graphics, something that takes a basic graphic and then adds various effects to it quickly and easily.\" Kutaragi saw the biggest challenge in developing the system to be balancing the conflicting goals of high performance, low cost, and being easy to program for, and felt he and his team were successful in this regard: \"Sure, it would have been nice to, say, double the size of the RAM memory. This would have been very easy. But... it would have cost more at retail level, and we probably would not have sold as many. Sure, Nintendo 64 now has a faster clock speed, but the ratio of clock speed to price typically doubles every two years, so it's no surprise that it is faster. But PlayStation was the cutting-edge technology of its time, and I am happy with it.\" The PlayStation utilises a proprietary video compression unit called MDEC, which is integrated into the CPU, allowing for the presentation of full motion video at a higher quality than other consoles of its generation. Unusual for the time, the PlayStation lacks a dedicated 2D graphics processor; 2D elements are instead calculated as polygons by the Geometry Transfer Engine (GTE) so that they can be processed and displayed on screen by the GPU.", "With the early PlayStation units, particularly early 1000 models, many gamers experience skipping full-motion video or physical \"ticking\" noises coming from their units. The problem seemingly comes from poorly placed vents leading to overheating in some environments. This causes the plastic mouldings inside the console to warp slightly and create knock-on effects with the laser assembly. The solution is to sit the console on a surface which dissipates heat efficiently in a well vented area or raise the unit up slightly from its resting surface. Sony representatives also recommended unplugging the PlayStation when it is not in use, as the system draws in a small amount of power (and therefore heat) even when turned off. The first batch of PlayStations use a KSM-440AAM laser unit, whose case and movable parts are all built out of plastic. Over time, the plastic lens sled rail wears out—usually unevenly—due to friction. The placement of the laser unit close to the power supply accelerates wear, due to the additional heat, which makes the plastic more vulnerable to friction. Eventually, one side of the lens sled will become so worn that the laser can tilt, no longer pointing directly at the CD; after this, games will no longer load, due to data read errors. One common fix is turning the PlayStation upside down, which makes the lens sled rest on the unworn top rails. Sony eventually fixed the problem by making the sled out of die-cast metal and placing the laser unit further away from the power supply on later PlayStation models. The PlayStation does not produce a proper signal on several older models of televisions (due to an engineering oversight) causing the display to flicker or bounce around the screen. Sony decided not to change the console design, since only a small percentage of PlayStation owners used such televisions, and instead gave consumers the option of sending their PlayStation unit to a Sony service centre to have an official modchip installed, allowing it to play on older televisions.", "Prior to the PlayStation, reproducing copyrighted material for game consoles was restricted to either enthusiasts with exceptional technical ability, or people who had access to CD manufacturers. However, due to the increased availability of cheap CD burners at this time, Sony modified the shape of the first portion of the data track on PlayStation formatted discs: A normal data track follows a smooth spiral path around a disc, whereas the modified portion follows a wavy spiral path. As a result, any discs that did not contain this modification, such as CD-R copies or standard pirated discs, would not boot on the console. This modified portion of the data path is also used to encode the disc \"region\"; for example, a disc distributed in the NTSC-U/C region encoded the letters \"SCEA\", a disc in Europe encoded \"SCEE\", and a disc in Japan \"SCEI\". This served as copy protection as well as region-locking. The installation of an unofficial modchip allowed the PlayStation to play CD-R copies of games. It also allowed the console to play games from any region, as the modchip could inject the data for any region into the system. Since there was a multitude of electronic parts on the market, by the end of the system's life cycle, anyone with minimal soldering experience could perform these modifications. This created a wave of games developed without official approval using free, official tools, such as the Net Yaroze, as well as unofficial tools, and the reproduction of original discs. With the introduction of such devices the console became very attractive to programmers and illegal copiers alike, as well as those who wished to protect the lifespan of their lawful, original discs. In 1996 Sony filed lawsuits against many companies which advertised such modchips and pirated games, under the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act. Some companies (notably Datel) eventually produced discs that booted on unmodified retail units while using special equipment.", "Instead of a D-pad, which is used for directional movement in nearly every other console then on the market, the PlayStation controller uses four directional buttons.", "Peripherals released for the PlayStation include memory cards, the PlayStation Mouse, the PlayStation Analog Joystick, the PlayStation Link Cable, the Multiplayer Adapter (a four-player multitap), the Memory Drive (a disk drive for 3.5-inch floppy disks), the GunCon (a light gun), and the Glasstron (a monoscopic head-mounted display).", "The PlayStation went through a number of variants during its production run. From an external perspective, the most notable change between variants was the reduction in the number of connectors. The RCA jacks were removed in the first revision, and the Parallel I/O port was removed in the final revision. Sony marketed a development kit for hobbyists and developers also known as the Net Yaroze, which launched in June 1996 in Japan and in 1997 in other countries. Sold only through an ordering service, the development console came with the necessary documentation and software to program PlayStation games and applications.", "On 7 July 2000, Sony released the PS One (stylized as PS one), a smaller, redesigned version of the original PlayStation. It was the highest-selling console through the end of the year, outselling all other consoles – including Sony's own PlayStation 2. A total of 28.15 million PS one units had been sold by the time it was discontinued in March 2006. A version of the PS one included a LCD screen, referred to as the \"Combo pack\".", "On 19 September 2018, Sony announced the PlayStation Classic. It was released on 3 December 2018. It featured 20 pre-installed video games such as \"Tekken 3\", \"Final Fantasy VII\", \"Jumping Flash\", \"Wild Arms\" and \"Ridge Racer Type 4\". It also features two replicas of the wired PlayStation controllers without analog sticks. It also features an HDMI output. The maximum resolution is 720p. It is 45% smaller than the original console.", "In a 1997 year-end review, a team of five \"Electronic Gaming Monthly\" editors gave the PlayStation scores of 9.5, 8.5, 9.0, 9.0, and 9.5 - for all five editors, the highest score they gave to any of the five consoles reviewed in the issue. They lauded the breadth and quality of the games library, saying it had vastly improved over previous years due to Sony dropping its ban on 2D games and RPGs and developers mastering the system's capabilities. They also complimented the low price point of the games, especially as compared to Nintendo 64 releases, and noted that it was the only console on the market that could be relied upon to deliver a solid stream of games for the coming year, primarily due to third party developers almost unanimously favoring it over its competitors.", "Sony Computer Entertainment was an upstart in the video game industry in late 1994, as the early 1990s were dominated by Nintendo and Sega. Nintendo had been the clear leader in the video game industry since the introduction of the NES in 1985 and the Nintendo 64 was initially expected to maintain this position for Nintendo. The PlayStation's target audience included 15- to 17-year-olds who were not the primary focus of Nintendo, and 18- to 29-year-olds, who represented the first generation to grow up playing video games. By the late 1990s, Sony became a highly regarded console brand due to the PlayStation, with a significant lead over second-place Nintendo, while Sega was relegated to a distant third. The PlayStation's lead in installed base and developer support paved the way for the success of the next-generation PlayStation 2, which overcame an early launch from the Sega Dreamcast and then fended off competition from the Microsoft Xbox and Nintendo GameCube.", "The success of the PlayStation is widely believed to have influenced the demise of the cartridge-based home console. While not the first system to utilise an optical disc format, it is the first highly successful one, and ended up going head-to-head with the last major home console for over two decades to rely on proprietary cartridges—the Nintendo 64. Sony Computer Entertainment president Teruhisa Tokunaka remarked in 1996: Nintendo was very public about its scepticism toward using CDs and DVDs to store games, citing longer load times and durability problems. It was widely speculated that the company was even more concerned with the proprietary cartridge format's ability to help enforce copy protection, given its substantial reliance on licensing and exclusive titles for its revenue. Piracy was rampant on the PlayStation due to the relative ease of the installation of a modchip allowing the PlayStation to play games region free or recorded on a regular CD-R making the console very attractive to programmers and illegal copiers. The increasing complexity of games (in content, graphics, and sound) pushed cartridges to their storage limits and this gradually turned off some third-party developers. Part of the CD format's appeal to publishers was that they could be produced at a significantly lower cost and offered more production flexibility to meet demand. As a result, some third-party developers switched to the PlayStation, such as Squaresoft, whose \"Final Fantasy VII\", and Enix (later merged with Squaresoft create Square Enix), whose \"Dragon Quest VII\" titles were initially pre-planned for the N64; while some who remained released fewer games to the Nintendo 64 (Konami, releasing only thirteen N64 games but over fifty on the PlayStation). While new games were coming out rapidly for the PlayStation, new Nintendo 64 game releases were less frequent and that system's biggest successes were developed by either Nintendo itself or by second-parties, such as Rare. The lower production costs also allowed publishers an additional source of profit: budget-priced reissues of titles which had already recouped their development costs.", "A successor, the PlayStation 2, was released in Japan in March 2000, North America in October 2000 and Europe in November 2000." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Launch.", "\"Slim\" model.", "\"Super Slim\" model.", "Games.", "Hardware.", "Use in supercomputing.", "Technical specifications.", "Models.", "Controllers and accessories.", "Statistics regarding reliability.", "Software.", "System software.", "Graphical user interface.", "Digital rights management.", "Photo management.", "Video services.", "OtherOS support.", "Leap year bug.", "Features.", "PlayStation Portable connectivity.", "PlayStation Network.", "PlayStation Plus.", "PlayStation Store.", "What's New.", "PlayStation Home.", "Life with PlayStation.", "Outage.", "Sales and production costs.", "Critical reception.", "Original model.", "Slim model and rebranding.", "Super Slim model." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The PlayStation 3 began development in 2001 when Ken Kutaragi, then the President of Sony Computer Entertainment, announced that Sony, Toshiba, and IBM would collaborate on developing the Cell microprocessor. At the time, Shuhei Yoshida led a group of programmers within this hardware team to explore next-generation game creation. By early 2005, focus within Sony shifted towards developing PS3 launch titles. Sony officially unveiled PlayStation 3 to the public on May 16, 2005, at E3 2005, along with a boomerang-shaped prototype design of the Sixaxis controller. A functional version of the system was not present there, nor at the Tokyo Game Show in September 2005, although demonstrations (such as \"\") were held at both events on software development kits and comparable personal computer hardware. Video footage based on the predicted PlayStation 3 specifications was also shown (notably a \"Final Fantasy VII\" tech demo). The initial prototype shown in May 2005 featured two HDMI ports, three Ethernet ports and six USB ports; however, when the system was shown again a year later at E3 2006, these were reduced to one HDMI port, one Ethernet port and four USB ports, presumably to cut costs. Two hardware configurations were also announced for the console: a 20 GB model and a 60 GB model, priced at US$499 (€499) and US$599 (€599), respectively. The 60 GB model was to be the only configuration to feature an HDMI port, Wi-Fi internet, flash card readers and a chrome trim with the logo in silver. Both models were announced for a simultaneous worldwide release: November 11, 2006, for Japan and November 17, 2006, for North America and Europe. On September 6, 2006, Sony announced that PAL region PlayStation 3 launch would be delayed until March 2007, because of a shortage of materials used in the Blu-ray drive. At the Tokyo Game Show on September 22, 2006, Sony announced that it would include an HDMI port on the 20 GB system, but a chrome trim, flash card readers, silver logo and Wi-Fi would not be included. Also, the launch price of the Japanese 20 GB model was reduced by over 20%, and the 60 GB model was announced for an open pricing scheme in Japan. During the event, Sony showed 27 playable PS3 games running on final hardware.", "The PlayStation 3 was first released in Japan on November 11, 2006, at 07:00. According to Media Create, 81,639 PS3 systems were sold within 24 hours of its introduction in Japan. Soon after its release in Japan, PS3 was released in North America on November 17, 2006. Reports of violence surrounded the release of the PS3. A customer was shot, campers were robbed at gunpoint, customers were shot in a drive-by shooting with BB guns, and 60 campers fought over 10 systems. The console was originally planned for a", "Following speculation that Sony was working on a'slim' model, Sony officially announced the PS3 CECH-2000 model on August 18, 2009, at the Sony Gamescom press conference. New features included a slimmer form factor, decreased power consumption, and a quieter cooling system.", "In September 2012 at the Tokyo Game Show, Sony announced that a new, slimmer PS3 redesign (CECH-4000) was due for release in late 2012 and that it would be available with either a 250 GB or 500 GB hard drive. Three versions of the \"Super Slim\" model were revealed: one with a 500 GB hard drive, a second with a 250 GB hard drive which is not available in PAL regions, and a third with a 12 GB flash storage that was available in PAL regions, and in Canada. The storage of 12 GB model is upgradable with an official standalone 250 GB hard drive. A vertical stand was also released for the model. In the United Kingdom, the 500 GB model was released on September 28, 2012; and the 12 GB model was released on October 12, 2012.", "PlayStation 3 launched in North America with 14 titles, with another three being released before the end of 2006.After the first week of sales it was confirmed that \"\" from Insomniac Games was the top-selling launch game in North America. The game was heavily praised by numerous video game websites, including GameSpot and IGN, both of whom awarded it their PlayStation 3 Game of the Year award for 2006. Some titles missed the launch window and were delayed until early 2007, such as \"\", \"F.E.A.R.\" and \"Sonic the Hedgehog\". During the Japanese launch, \"Ridge Racer 7\" was the top-selling game, while \"\" also fared well in sales, both of which were offerings from Namco Bandai Games. PlayStation 3 launched in Europe with 24 titles, including ones that were not offered in North American and Japanese launches, such as \"Formula One Championship Edition\", \"MotorStorm\" and \"Virtua Fighter 5\". \"\" and \"MotorStorm\" were the most successful titles of 2007, and both games subsequently received sequels in the form of \"Resistance 2\" and \"\". At E3 2007, Sony was able to show a number of their upcoming video games for PlayStation 3, including \"Heavenly Sword\", \"Lair\", \"\", \"Warhawk\" and \"\"; all of which were released in the third and fourth quarters of 2007. It also showed off a number of titles that were set for release in 2008 and 2009; most notably \"Killzone 2\", \"Infamous\", \"Gran Turismo 5 Prologue\", \"LittleBigPlanet\" and \"\". A number of third-party exclusives were also shown, including the highly anticipated \"\", alongside other high-profile third-party titles such as \"Grand Theft Auto IV\", \"\", \"Assassin's Creed\", \"Devil May Cry 4\" and \"Resident Evil 5\". Two other important titles for PlayStation 3, \"Final Fantasy XIII\" and \"Final Fantasy Versus XIII\", were shown at TGS 2007 in order to appease the Japanese market. Sony have since launched their budget range of PlayStation 3 titles, known as the Greatest Hits range in North America, the Platinum range in Europe and Australia and The Best range in Japan. Among the titles available in the budget range include \"\", \"MotorStorm\", \"\", \"\", \"Call Of Duty 3\", \"Assassin's Creed\" and \"Ninja Gaiden Sigma\". As of October 2009 \"\", \"\", \"Devil May Cry 4\", \"Army of Two\", \"\" and \"\" have also joined the list. , there have been 595 million games sold for PlayStation 3. The best selling PS3 games are \"Grand Theft Auto V, Gran Turismo 5, The Last of Us, \" and \".\" The last game released on the PlayStation 3 was \"FIFA 19\", on September 28, 2018.", "PlayStation 3 is convex on its left side, with the PlayStation logo upright, when vertical (the top side is convex when horizontal) and has a glossy black finish. PlayStation designer Teiyu Goto stated that the Spider-Man-font-inspired logo \"was one of the first elements SCEI president Ken Kutaragi decided on and the logo may have been the motivating force behind the shape of PS3\". On March 22, 2007, SCE and Stanford University released the Folding@home software for PlayStation 3. This program allows PS3 owners to lend the computing power of their consoles to help study the process of protein folding for disease research.", "PS3's hardware has also been used to build supercomputers for high-performance computing. Fixstars Solutions sells a version of Yellow Dog Linux for PlayStation 3 (originally sold by Terra Soft Solutions). RapidMind produced a stream programming package for PS3, but were acquired by Intel in 2009. Also, on January 3, 2007, Dr. Frank Mueller, Associate Professor of Computer Science at NCSU, clustered 8 PS3s. Mueller commented that the 256 MB of system RAM is a limitation for this particular application and is considering attempting to retrofit more RAM. Software includes: Fedora Core 5 Linux ppc64,", "PlayStation 3 features a slot-loading 2x speed Blu-ray Disc drive for games, Blu-ray movies, DVDs, and CDs. It was originally available with hard drives of 20 and 60 GB (20 GB model was not available in PAL regions) but various sizes up to 500 GB have been made available since then (see: model comparison). All PS3 models have user-upgradeable 2.5\" SATA hard drives. PlayStation 3 uses the Cell microprocessor, designed by Sony, Toshiba and IBM, as its CPU, which is made up of one 3.2 GHz PowerPC-based \"Power Processing Element\" (PPE) and eight Synergistic Processing Elements (SPEs). To increase yields and reduce costs,", "PlayStation 3 has been produced in various models: the original, the Slim, and the Super", "Numerous accessories for the console have been developed. These accessories include the wireless Sixaxis and DualShock 3 controllers, the Logitech Driving Force GT, the Logitech Cordless Precision Controller, the BD Remote, the PlayStation Eye camera, and the PlayTV DVB-T tuner/digital video recorder accessory. At Sony's E3 press conference in 2006, the then standard wireless Sixaxis controller was announced. The controller was based on the same basic design as the PlayStation 2's DualShock 2 controller but was wireless, lacked vibration capabilities, had a built-in accelerometer (that could detect motion in three directional and three rotational axes; six in total, hence the name Sixaxis) and had a few cosmetic tweaks. At its press conference at the 2007 Tokyo Game", "According to Ars Technica, the number of PlayStation 3 consoles that have experienced failure is well within the normal failure rates in the consumer electronics industry; a 2009 study by SquareTrade, a warranty provider, found a two-year failure rate of 10% for PlayStation 3s. In September 2009, BBC's \"Watchdog\" television program aired a report investigating the issue, calling it the \"yellow light of death\" (YLOD). Among the consoles that", "", "Sony has included the ability for the operating system, referred to as \"System Software\", to be updated. The updates can be acquired in several ways: The original PlayStation 3 also included the ability to install other operating systems, such as Linux. This was not included in the newer slim models and was removed from all older PlayStation 3 consoles with the release of firmware update 3.21 in April 2010. The functionality is now only available to users of original consoles who choose not to update their system software beyond version 3.15 or who have installed third-party, modified and unofficial versions of the firmware instead.", "The standard PlayStation 3 version of the XrossMediaBar (pronounced Cross Media Bar, or abbreviated XMB) includes nine categories of options. These are: \"Users\", \"Settings\", \"Photo\", \"Music\", \"Video\", \"TV/Video Services\", \"Game\", \"Network\", \"PlayStation Network\" and \"Friends\" (similar to the PlayStation Portable media bar). The\"TV/Video Services\" category is for services like Netflix and/or if PlayTV or torne is installed; the first category in this section is \"My Channels\", which lets users download various streaming services, including Sony's own streaming services Crackle and PlayStation Vue. By default, the \"What's New\" section of \"PlayStation Network\" is displayed when the system", "PlayStation 3 console protects certain types of data and uses digital rights management to limit the data's use. Purchased games and content from the PlayStation Network store are governed by PlayStation's Network Digital Rights Management (NDRM). The NDRM allows users to", "Photo Gallery is an optional application to view, create and group photos from PS3, which is installed separately from the system software at 105 MB. It was introduced in system software version 2.60 and provides a range of tools for sorting through and displaying the system's pictures. The key feature of this application is that it can organize photos into groups according to various criteria. Notable categorizations are colors, ages, or facial expressions of the people in the photos. Slideshows can be viewed with the application, along with music and playlists. The software was updated with the release of system software version 3.40 allowing users to upload and browse photos on", "Since June 2009, VidZone has offered a free music video streaming service in Europe, Australia and New Zealand. In October 2009, Sony Computer Entertainment and Netflix announced that the Netflix streaming service would also be available on PlayStation 3 in the United States. A paid Netflix subscription was required for the service. The service became available in November 2009. Initially users had to use a free Blu-ray disc to access the service; however, in October 2010 the requirement to use a disc to gain access was removed. In April 2010, support for MLB.tv was added, allowing MLB.tv subscribers to watch regular season games live in HD and access new interactive features designed exclusively for PSN. In", "PlayStation 3 initially shipped with the ability to install an alternative operating system alongside the main system software; Linux and other Unix-based operating systems were available. The hardware allowed access to six of the seven \"Synergistic Processing Elements\" of the Cell microprocessor, but not the RSX 'Reality Synthesizer' graphics chip. The 'OtherOS' functionality was not present in the updated PS Slim models, and the feature was subsequently removed from previous versions of the PS3 as part of the machine's firmware update version 3.21 which was released on", "On March 1, 2010 (UTC), many of the original \"fat\" PlayStation 3 models worldwide were experiencing errors related to their internal system clock. The error had many symptoms. Initially, the main problem seemed to be the inability to connect to the PlayStation Network. However, the root cause of the problem was unrelated to the PlayStation Network, since even users who had never been online also had problems playing installed offline games (which queried the system timer as part of startup) and using system themes. At the same time many users noted that the console's clock had gone back to December 31, 1999. The event was nicknamed the ApocalyPS3, a play on the word \"apocalypse\" and PS3, the abbreviation for the PlayStation 3 console.", "", "PlayStation Portable can connect with PlayStation 3 in many ways, including in-game connectivity. For example, \"Formula One Championship Edition\", a racing game, was shown at E3 2006 using a PSP as a real-time rear-view mirror. In addition, users are able to download original PlayStation format games from the PlayStation Store, transfer and play them on PSP as well as PS3", "PlayStation Network is the unified online multiplayer gaming and digital media delivery service provided by Sony Computer Entertainment for PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Portable, announced during the 2006 PlayStation Business Briefing meeting in Tokyo. The service is always connected, free, and includes multiplayer support. The network enables online gaming, the PlayStation Store, PlayStation Home and other services. PlayStation Network uses real currency and PlayStation Network Cards as seen with the PlayStation Store and PlayStation Home.", "PlayStation Plus (commonly abbreviated \"PS+\" and occasionally referred to as \"PSN Plus\") is a premium PlayStation Network subscription service that was officially unveiled at E3 2010 by Jack Tretton, President and CEO of SCEA. Rumors of such service had been in speculation since Kaz Hirai's announcement at TGS 2009 of a possible paid service for PSN but with the current PSN service still available. Launched alongside PS3", "The PlayStation Store is an online virtual market available to users of Sony's PlayStation 3 (PS3) and PlayStation Portable (PSP) game consoles via the PlayStation Network. The Store offers a range of downloadable content both for purchase and available free of charge. Available content includes full games, add-on content, playable demos, themes and game and movie trailers. The service is accessible through an", "What's New was announced at Gamescom 2009 and was released on September 1, 2009, with PlayStation 3 system software 3.0. The feature was to replace the existing [Information Board], which displayed news from the PlayStation website associated with the user's region. The concept was developed further into a major PlayStation Network feature, which interacts with the [Status Indicator] to display a ticker of all content, excluding recently played content (currently in North America and Japan only). The system displays the What's", "PlayStation Home was a virtual 3D social networking service for the PlayStation Network. Home allowed users to create a custom avatar, which could be groomed realistically. Users could edit and decorate their personal apartments, avatars, or club houses with free, premium, or won content. Users could shop for new items or win prizes from PS3 games, or Home activities. Users could interact and connect with friends and customize content in a virtual world. Home also acted as a meeting place for", "Life with PlayStation, released on September 18, 2008 to succeed Folding@home, was retired November 6, 2012. \"Life with PlayStation\" used virtual globe data to display news and information by city. Along with Folding@home functionality, the application provided access to three other information \"channels\", the first being the \"Live Channel\" offering news headlines and weather which", "On April 20, 2011, Sony shut down the PlayStation Network and Qriocity for a prolonged interval, revealing on April 23 that this was due to \"an external intrusion on our system\". Sony later revealed that the personal information of 77 million users might have been taken, including: names; addresses; countries; email addresses; birthdates; PSN/Qriocity logins, passwords and handles/PSN online IDs.<ref name=\"PSN/Qriocity Service Update\"></ref> It also stated that it was possible that users' profile data, including purchase history", "Although its PlayStation predecessors had been very dominant against the competition and were hugely profitable for Sony, PlayStation 3 had an inauspicious start, and Sony chairman and CEO Sir Howard Stringer initially could not convince investors of a turnaround in its fortunes. The PS3 lacked the unique gameplay of the more affordable Wii which became that generation's most successful console in terms of units sold. Furthermore, PS3 had to compete directly with Xbox 360 which had a market head start, and as a result the platform no longer had exclusive titles that the PS2 enjoyed such as the \"Grand Theft Auto\" and \"Final Fantasy\" series (regarding cross-platform games, Xbox 360 versions were generally considered superior in 2006, although by 2008 the PS3 versions had reached parity or surpassed), and it took longer than expected for PS3 to enjoy strong sales and close the gap with Xbox 360. Sony also continued to lose money on each PS3 sold through 2010, although the redesigned \"slim\" PS3 has cut these losses since then. PlayStation 3's initial production cost is estimated by iSuppli to have been US$805.85 for the 20 GB model and US$840.35 for the 60 GB model. However, they were priced at US$499 and US$599 respectively, meaning that units may have been sold at an", "Early PlayStation 3 reviews after launch were critical of its high price and lack of quality games. Game developers regarded the architecture as difficult to program for. PS3 was, however, commended for its hardware including its Blu-ray home theater capabilities and graphics potential. Critical and commercial reception to PS3 improved over time, after a series of price revisions, Blu-ray's victory over HD DVD, and the release of several well received titles. \"Ars Technica\"s original launch review gave PS3 only a 6/10, but second review of the console in June 2008 rated it a 9/10. In September 2009, IGN named PlayStation 3 the 15th best gaming console of all time, behind both of its competitors: Wii (10th) and Xbox 360 (6th). However, PS3 has won IGN's \"Console Showdown\"—based on which console offers the best selection of games released during each year—in three of the four years since it began (2008, 2009 and 2011, with Xbox winning in 2010). IGN judged PlayStation 3 to have the best game line-up of 2008, based on their review scores in comparison to those of Wii and Xbox 360. In a comparison piece by \"PC Magazine\"s Will Greenwald in June 2012, PS3 was selected as an overall better console compared to Xbox 360. Pocket-lint said of the console \"The PS3 has always been a brilliant games console,\" and that \"For now, this is just about the best media device for the money.\"", "PS3 was given the number-eight spot on \"PC World\" magazine's list of \"The Top 21 Tech Screwups of 2006\", where it was criticized for being \"Late, Expensive and Incompatible\". GamesRadar ranked PS3 as the top item in a feature on game-related PR disasters, asking how Sony managed to \"take one of the most anticipated game systems of all time and — within the space of a year — turn it into a hate object reviled by the entire internet\", but added that despite its problems the system has \"untapped potential\". \"Business Week\" summed up the general opinion by stating that it was \"more impressed with what the PlayStation 3 could do than with what it currently does\". Developers also found the machine difficult to program for. In 2007, Gabe Newell of Valve said \"The PS3 is a total disaster on so many levels, I think it's really clear that Sony lost track of what customers and what developers wanted\". He continued \"I'd say, even at this late date, they should just cancel it and do a do over. Just say, 'This was a horrible disaster and we're sorry and we're going to stop selling this and stop trying to convince people to develop for it'\". Doug Lombardi VP of Marketing for Valve has since stated that Valve is interested in developing for the console and is looking to hire talented PS3 programmers for future projects. He later restated Valve's position, \"Until we have the ability to get a PS3 team together, until we find the people who want to come to Valve or who are at Valve who want to work on that, I don't really see us moving to that platform\". At Sony's E3 2010 press conference, Newell made a live appearance to recant", "The PlayStation 3 Slim received extremely positive reviews as well as a boost in sales; less than 24 hours after its announcement, PS3 Slim took the number-one bestseller spot on Amazon.com in the video games section for fifteen consecutive days. It regained the number-one position again one day later. PS3 Slim also received praise from PC World giving it a 90 out of 100 praising its new repackaging and the new value it brings at a lower price as well as praising its quietness and the reduction in its power consumption. This is in stark contrast to the", "The Super Slim model of PS3 has received positive reviews. Gaming website \"Spong\" praised the new Super Slim's quietness, stating \"The most noticeable noise comes when the drive seeks a new area of the disc, such as when starting to load a game, and this occurs infrequently.\" They added that the fans are quieter than that of Slim, and went on to praise the new smaller, lighter size. Criticism was placed on the new disc loader, stating: \"The cover can be moved by hand if you wish, there's also an eject button to do the work for you, but there is no software eject from the triangle button menus in the Xross Media Bar (XMB) interface. In addition, you have to close the cover by hand, which can be a bit fiddly if it's upright, and the PS3 won't start reading a disc unless you do [close the cover].\" They also said there is no real drop in retail price. Tech media website CNET gave new Super Slim 4 out of 5 stars (\"Excellent\"), saying \"The Super Slim PlayStation 3 shrinks a powerful gaming machine into an even tinier package while maintaining the same features as its predecessors: a great gaming library and a strong array of streaming services [...]\", whilst also criticising the \"cheap\" design and disc-loader, stating: \"Sometimes [the cover] doesn't catch and you feel like you're using one of those old credit card imprinter machines. In short, it feels cheap. You don't realize how" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Current usage.", "Bangladesh.", "Brunei.", "Cameroon.", "Hong Kong.", "India.", "Malaysia.", "Mauritius.", "Nepal.", "Pakistan.", "Seychelles.", "Singapore.", "Sri Lanka.", "United Kingdom.", "A Level reforms in England.", "Zimbabwe.", "Former usage.", "Caribbean." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "A number of countries use A Levels as a school-leaving qualification. The A Levels taken by students in other countries may differ from the A Levels taken in the United Kingdom.", "In Bangladesh, the GCE AS and A Level are offered by Cambridge Assessment International Education (CIE) after completion of GCE O-Level or IGCSE (CIE), and is conducted by the British Council. GCE Advanced Level qualifications are offered by some of the private, public and international schools as an alternative to HSC (Higher Secondary School Certificate) offered by the Governments Board of Education. It has become a popular choice among students, but however due to financial implications, its reach is limited to the middle and upper classes in major cities such as Dhaka and Chittagong.", "In Brunei, the A Level qualification is offered, with examinations conducted by Cambridge International Examinations (CIE). Some subjects are unique to Brunei or have a format, curriculum, or syllabus that is unique to Brunei.", "The Advance level of Cameroon is based on the Cambridge International Examinations and similarly, conducted by the government of Cameroon in collaboration with Cambridge university. All the courses taken are related to what the candidate is willing to pursue as career in university and these courses are on a recognizable internationally standard for university entrance; as they are major relevant courses. You can select between 3 and 5 courses during your advance level studies, prior taken your advance level examination on which.", "The British A-level qualifications such as GCE A-level and International A-level are widely accepted in Hong Kong as an alternative to the Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education for both admission and employment purposes. It is one of the most popular qualifications used for university admission via the non-JUPAS channel. For example, average non-JUPAS offers from the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology require one to three A*s (the mid-50% range). Since the introduction of the high distinction grade (A*) in 2010, the British A-level examination has regained its power to differentiate the very top levels of ability. According to the British Department for Education, in the academic year 2014/15, approximately 7.3%, 2.7%, 1.0% and 0.3% of all the candidates from the GCSE cohort (548,480) achieved one to four A*s or a better result in the GCE A-level examination. This percentile rank is one important input for equating the levels in both examinations. On the sole basis of percentile ranks and the grade statistics from HKEAA in 2017, a score of 29/35 from the best five subjects in Hong Kong Diploma of Secondary Education is comparable to 1A*2A in the best three British A-levels, 32/35 to 2A*1A, 33/35 to 3A* and 34/35 to 4A*. In deriving inferences from these statistics, it is important to note that slightly more than a third of the GCSE candidates can go on to study in sixth form before applying to universities via the Universities and Colleges Admissions Service (UCAS) while almost all Hong Kong students can study Form 6 before sitting the HKDSE examination. Relevant authorities such as the Hong Kong Examination and Assessment Authority (HKEAA) and UCAS also sought to connect the results from both exam systems to open doors for the holders of these qualifications who wish to study locally or overseas. Officially, the top distinction levels, A* in A-level and 5** in HKDSE, are currently recognized as broadly equivalent. In particular, in the light of statistical evidence, the 1% cut-off line is often set by admission offices at 2A*1A as compared to a score of 43/45 in the International Baccalaureate Diploma but the Uniform Mark Scale (UMS) instead of the letter grades would be used in many cases to offer a much more subtle view of the candidate's academic potential. Typical offers from Cambridge Medical School require 2A*1A and Oxford University Medical School require 1A*2A whereas those from the medical schools of the University of Hong Kong and the Chinese University of Hong Kong require 4A* in A-level due to very intense competition.", "In India, Cambridge International Examinations (CIE) GCE Advanced Level qualifications are offered at private and international schools as an alternative to the conventional Higher Secondary Certificate (HSC).", "In Malaysia, the A Level qualification is offered, with examinations conducted by Cambridge International Examinations (CIE). Some subjects are unique to Malaysia or have a format, curriculum, or syllabus that is unique to Malaysia. For instance, there are two types of A Level in Malaysia, Cambridge A Level (administered by Cambridge International Examinations) and Edexcel International Advanced Level (administered by Pearson International).", "In Mauritius, A/AS Level qualifications are taken as part of the Higher School Certificate, awarded upon successful completion of secondary school after passing of examinations jointly administered by the Mauritius Examinations Syndicate and the University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate (UCLES). A number of exam papers for offered, such as French, are customised to support the national educational standards. Additionally, International A Level qualifications from Edexcel are available, for which exams may be registered through the Mauritius Examinations Syndicate.", "In Nepal, Cambridge International Examinations (CIE) GCE Advanced Level qualifications are offered by some of the private, public and international schools as an alternative to the National Examination Board (Nepal) (HSEB) +2. A-level has become a popular choice for a number of students in Nepal.", "A-levels are offered in Pakistan by non-governmental, private institutions, along with International Baccalaureate and other international examinations like the Advanced Placement. Examinations are handled by International British boards and the program is equivalent to Higher Secondary School Certificate. Cram Schools are established all around the country which prepare the students to take the examinations as a private candidate.", "In Seychelles, the A Level qualification is offered, with examinations conducted by Cambridge International Examinations (CIE). Some subjects are unique to Seychelles or have a format, curriculum, or syllabus that is unique to Seychelles.", "In Singapore, H1/H2/H3 level qualifications are awarded upon successful completion of examinations jointly administered by Singapore Ministry of Education (MOE), Singapore Examinations and Assessment Board (SEAB) and the University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate (UCLES).", "In Sri Lanka, A Level qualifications are offered by governmental and non governmental schools. The qualifications are awarded upon successful completion of examinations called Local A Levels while most of the private schools award them upon London A Levels. Local GCE Advanced Level qualifications are offered by the Department of Examinations. Passing A Levels is the major requirement for applying to local universities.", "A Levels are a college or sixth form leaving qualification offered in England, Wales, and Northern Ireland. These are not compulsory, unlike GCSEs. In Scotland, A Levels are also offered by selected schools as an alternative school-leaving qualification in place of the Scottish Advanced Higher. The five main examination boards which administer British A Levels in the UK are: Edexcel and Cambridge International Examinations (CIE) also offer international versions of the British A Levels in the United Kingdom and worldwide. The British variant of A/AS levels are also taken in many Commonwealth and former Commonwealth countries, as well as in examination centres worldwide. British international schools in foreign countries generally offer the British A Levels as offered through Edexcel or Cambridge International Examinations. At select examination centres, the British A Level exams may also be available to private candidates.", "Between 2015 and 2018 (first assessment Summer 2017), A Levels in England were reformed, transitioning from a modular to linear structure (initially across 13 subjects). This means all A Level exams are taken in one sitting as a set of terminal exams (3 exams for the majority of subjects), and there is no coursework set for many subjects. For A Levels which retain a coursework element, the percentage of the final grade determined by coursework has been reduced. An example of this can be seen in Edexcel's new English Literature A Level, reformed in 2015, which reduces the amount of coursework to 20% (from 40% in the old modular specification). A Levels are no longer separated into units, and students must resit all of their exams if they wish to resit the qualification. While these reforms were expected to be complete for first teaching in 2017, this was extended to 2018 to include the reforms of less common languages such as Modern Hebrew, Bengali among others. The AS Level is now a separate qualification and is not required for an A Level award, although it still encompasses the first year of the full A Level content. However, unlike AS Levels in the old modular courses, they are now worth only 40% as many UCAS points as a full A Level (from 50% in the modular courses), as content from the second year of A Level is considered more academically challenging than that of the first year. As these reforms took place in stages, many students took a combination of modular and linear courses before all reforms were complete, with AS Levels still being part of an A Level in older modular courses. These reforms look to combat grade inflation, where the proportion of students achieving the highest grades increases year upon year, causing the value of those grades to be eroded. The modular system has also been criticised for nurturing a'resit culture', while new linear courses give no opportunity to resit individual units. Controversially, some A Level course subjects have been abolished from 2017 as part of these reforms. These include archaeology, anthropology, creative writing, critical thinking, general studies and home economics. Many universities criticized the scrapping of exams taken at the end of AS level, which used to be worth 50% of the overall A level grade. This is because the universities used the grades achieved at AS level (available to universities after a student applies during the second year of A levels) as an indication of a student's ability and thus whether to give said student an offer. Opposition to these reforms in Wales and Northern Ireland has resulted in maintaining the modular structure of their qualification.", "The GCE Advanced Level qualification is offered by the Zimbabwe School Examinations Council (ZIMSEC). Before, this qualification was jointly offered by Cambridge International Examinations and the Council in Zimbabwe.", "", "In 2002, there has been a move away from the GCE Advanced Level to the CXC CAPE examinations, making them a de facto university entrance examination. Some universities also require applicants to take separate entrance examination. The International Baccalaureate and European Baccalaureate are also accepted." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Reception.", "Box office." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The script is based on Robert Grave's enigmatic poem, Beauty in Trouble and it begins with these words set to music sung by a chanteuse who accompanies herself with an accordion. The film is a naturalistic love story about the sex life of a beautiful woman, Marcela, and her concurrent relationships with three men; Jarda, her abusive husband, Risha, her abusive step-father, and Evzen, a dashing, older man she meets shortly after the film begins. With her husband, Jarda, she enjoys lustful sex and his physical abusiveness is an extension of a chauvinism that powers strong sexual encounters, but he is vain and not particularly bright about this. Richard, her mother's husband is unwittingly cruel, like an obnoxious and malicious child. He is played like one of Steve Martins \"wild and crazy guys\" but more repulsively. Evžen, who becomes Marcela's benefactor/meal ticket, is a man of sophisticated tastes and fortunate parentage, a Czech who has inherited vineyards in Tuscany, to which home he takes Marcela and her two children. At the beginning of the story, Marcela, Jarda and their children are living in Prague above the garage where Jarda operates his chop shop. She isn't happy with this situation. Jarda couldn't care less how she feels about their situation and is even less interested in the health of their son, who is suffering because of their living conditions. By chance, Jarda's associate steals Evžen’s car, which is equipped with a satellite tracking device and when Jarda goes to prison, Marcela takes her children to her mother's apartment, where they are met with Risha's venomous attention. Marcela despises her mother’s lecherous boyfriend and it eventually comes out that Risha fathered her first child and she escaped into marriage with Jarda at the age of seventeen. Evžen and Marcela meet at the police station, when they both came to deal with the fate of Jarda. Taken by her, although she doesn't encourage it, Evzen offers to help her and eventually, her children move into Jarda's empty manse in Prague when life with Risha becomes unbearable. Marcela gives herself to Evzen and they move to Italy but when Marcela’s mother dies, she and the children come back to Prague to the funeral where she sees Jarda, now released from prison. She and Jarda have one of their typical sexual encounters and when he speaks to her as he did during their marriage she pushes him away and leaves. Jarda's character is patently chauvinistic, which turns her on but insults her afterwards. When they return to Italy, ironically, Evjzen invites Risha to come with them to live in their guest house.", "Critic Roger Ebert rated the film three stars out of four, describing the film as \"This is the kind of film that achieves one simple but difficult thing: It pleases you.\"", "The film was released on 7 October 2006 in the Czech Republic and, has grossed 1,428,703 US$. It was released in the United States on 13 June 2008 and grossed $19,300 in revenue while it acquired $1,471,868 from foreign markets for worldwide total of $1,491,168." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Career.", "The Nobel Prize.", "Relatives.", "Public issues." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Hideki Shirakawa was born in Tokyo, Japan, in the family of a military doctor. He lived in Manchukuo and Taiwan during childhood. Around third grade, he moved to Takayama, Gifu, which is the hometown of his mother. Shirakawa graduated from Tokyo Institute of Technology (Tokyo Tech) with a bachelor's degree in chemical engineering in 1961, he also received doctorate from Tokyo Tech in 1966. Afterward, he obtained the post of assistant in Chemical Resources Laboratory at Tokyo Tech.", "While employed as an assistant at Tokyo Institute of Technology (Tokyo Tech) in Japan, Shirakawa developed polyacetylene, which has a metallic appearance. This result interested Alan MacDiarmid when MacDiarmid visited Tokyo Tech in 1975. In 1976, he was invited to work in the laboratory of Alan MacDiarmid as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Pennsylvania. The two developed the electrical conductivity of polyacetylene along with American physicist Alan Heeger. In 1977 they discovered that doping with iodine vapor could enhance the conductivity of polyacetylene. The three scientists were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2000 in recognition of the discovery. With regard to the mechanism of electric conduction, it is strongly believed that nonlinear excitations in the form of solitons play a role. In 1979, Shirakawa became an assistant professor in the University of Tsukuba, three years later, he advanced to a full professor. In 1991 he was appointed as Tsukuba's Chief of Science and Engineering Department of Graduate School (until March, 1993), and as Tsukuba's Chief of Category #3 group (until March, 1997).", "Shirakawa awarded the 2000 Nobel Prize in Chemistry together with UPenn's physics professor Alan J. Heeger and chemistry professor Alan G. MacDiarmid, \"for the discovery and development of conductive polymers\". He also became the first non-National Seven Universities graduate of Japanese Nobel laureates, and second Japanese chemistry Nobel laureates. Over the years, Shirakawa has been expressed that he doesn't want the Nobel Prizes to receive too much special treatment from mass media (especially the Japanese media). He hopes that many vital areas in fields outside the Nobel Prize categories will also become more widely known.", "One of his relatives, Hitomi Yoshizawa, is a member of the singing group Morning Musume \"Morning Girls\". He is also related to Naoko Takahashi, the women's marathon gold medalist of the 2000 Summer Olympics.", "On 6 December 2013, the House of Councillors (Japan) approved the bill of the State Secrecy Law. Shirakawa and physics Nobel laureate Toshihide Maskawa issued a statement saying that the law: \"threatens the pacifist principles and fundamental human rights established by the constitution and should be rejected immediately\"...(omitted)...\"Even in difficult times, protecting the freedom of the press, of thought and expression and of academic research is indispensable.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Taxonomic history.", "Etymology.", "Evolutionary history.", "Description.", "Senses.", "Behaviour and ecology.", "Diet.", "Saliva.", "Antibacterial immune factor.", "Venom.", "Reproduction.", "Parthenogenesis.", "Incidents with humans.", "Conservation.", "In captivity." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Komodo dragons were first documented by Europeans in 1910, when rumors of a \"land crocodile\" reached Lieutenant van Steyn van Hensbroek of the Dutch colonial administration. Widespread notoriety came after 1912, when Peter Ouwens, the director of the Zoological Museum at Bogor, Java, published a paper on the topic after receiving a photo and a skin from the lieutenant, as well as two other specimens from a collector. The first two live Komodo dragons to arrive in Europe were exhibited in the Reptile House at London Zoo when it opened in 1927. Joan Beauchamp Procter made some of the earliest observations of these animals in captivity and she demonstrated their behaviour at a Scientific Meeting of the Zoological Society of London in 1928. The Komodo dragon was the driving factor for an expedition to Komodo Island by W. Douglas Burden in 1926. After returning with 12 preserved specimens and two live ones, this expedition provided the inspiration for the 1933 movie \"King Kong\". It was also Burden who coined the common name \"Komodo dragon\". Three of his specimens were stuffed and are still on display in the American Museum of Natural History. The Dutch, realizing the limited number of individuals in the wild, soon outlawed sport hunting and heavily limited the number of individuals taken for scientific study. Collecting expeditions ground to a halt with the occurrence of World War II, not resuming until the 1950s and 1960s, when studies examined the Komodo dragon's feeding behavior, reproduction, and body temperature. At around this time, an expedition was planned in which a long-term study of the Komodo dragon would be undertaken. This task was given to the Auffenberg family, who stayed on Komodo Island for 11 months in 1969. During their stay, Walter Auffenberg and his assistant Putra Sastrawan captured and tagged more than 50 Komodo dragons. The research from the Auffenberg expedition would prove to be enormously influential in raising Komodo dragons in captivity. Research after that of the Auffenberg family has shed more light on the nature of the Komodo dragon, with biologists such as Claudio Ciofi continuing to study the creatures.", "The Komodo dragon is also sometimes known as the Komodo monitor or the Komodo Island monitor in scientific literature, although this name is uncommon. To the natives of Komodo Island, it is referred to as \"ora\", \"buaya darat\" (‘land crocodile’), or \"biawak raksasa\" (‘giant monitor’).", "The evolutionary development of the Komodo dragon started with the genus \"Varanus\", which originated in Asia about 40 million years ago and migrated to Australia, where it evolved into giant forms (the largest of all being the recently extinct \"Megalania\"), helped by the absence of competing placental carnivorans. Around 15 million years ago, a collision between the continental landmasses of Australia and Southeast Asia allowed these larger varanids to move back into what is now the Indonesian archipelago, extending their range as far east as the island of Timor. The Komodo dragon is believed to have differentiated from its Australian ancestors about 4 million years ago. However, recent fossil evidence from Queensland suggests the Komodo dragon actually evolved in Australia before spreading to Indonesia. Dramatic lowering of sea level during the last glacial period uncovered extensive stretches of continental shelf that the Komodo dragon colonised, becoming isolated in their present island range as sea levels rose afterwards. Fossils of extinct Pliocene species of similar size to the modern Komodo dragon, such as \"Varanus sivalensis\", have been found in Eurasia as well, indicating that they fared well even in environments containing competition such as mammalian carnivores until the climate change and extinction events that marked the beginning of the Pleistocene. Genetic analysis of mitochondrial DNA shows the Komodo dragon to be the closest relative (sister taxon) of the lace monitor (\"V. varius\"), with their common ancestor diverging from a lineage that gave rise to the crocodile monitor (\"Varanus salvadorii\") of New Guinea.", "In the wild, adult Komodo dragons usually weigh around, although captive specimens often weigh more. According to \"Guinness World Records\", an average adult male will weigh and measure, while an average female will weigh and measure. The largest verified wild specimen was long and weighed, including its undigested food. The Komodo dragon has a tail as long as its body, as well as about 60 frequently replaced, serrated teeth that can measure up to in length. Its saliva is frequently blood-tinged because its teeth are almost completely covered by gingival tissue that is naturally lacerated during feeding. It also has a long, yellow, deeply forked tongue. Komodo dragon skin is reinforced by armoured scales, which contain tiny bones called osteoderms that function as a sort of natural chain-mail. This rugged hide makes Komodo dragon skin a poor source of leather. Additionally, these osteoderms become more extensive and variable in shape as the Komodo dragon ages, ossifying more extensively as the lizard grows. These osteoderms are absent in hatchlings and juveniles, indicating that the natural armor develops as a product of age and competition between adults for protection in intraspecific combat over food and mates.", "As with other varanids, Komodo dragons have only a single ear bone, the stapes, for transferring vibrations from the tympanic membrane to the cochlea. This arrangement means they are likely restricted to sounds in the 400 to 2,000 hertz range, compared to humans who hear between 20 and 20,000 hertz. They were formerly thought to be deaf when a study reported no agitation in wild Komodo dragons in response to whispers, raised voices, or shouts. This was disputed when London Zoological Garden employee Joan Procter trained a captive specimen to come out to feed at the sound of her voice, even when she could not be seen. The Komodo dragon can see objects as far away as, but because its retinas only contain cones, it is thought to have poor night vision. It can distinguish colours, but has poor visual discrimination of stationary objects. As with many other reptiles, the Komodo dragon primarily relies on its tongue to detect, taste, and smell stimuli, with the vomeronasal sense using the Jacobson's organ, rather than using the nostrils. With the help of a favorable wind and its habit of swinging its head from side to side as it walks, a Komodo dragon may be able to detect carrion from away. It only has a few taste buds in the back of its throat. Its scales, some of which are reinforced with bone, have sensory plaques connected to nerves to facilitate its sense of touch. The scales around the ears, lips, chin, and soles of the feet may have three or more sensory plaques.", "The Komodo dragon prefers hot and dry places, and typically lives in dry, open grassland, savanna, and tropical forest at low elevations. As an ectotherm, it is most active in the day, although it exhibits some nocturnal activity. Komodo dragons are solitary, coming together only to breed and eat. They are capable of running rapidly in brief sprints up to, diving up to, and climbing trees proficiently when young through use of their strong claws. To catch out-of-reach prey, the Komodo dragon may stand on its hind legs and use its tail as a support. As it matures, its claws are used primarily as weapons, as its great size makes climbing impractical. For shelter, the Komodo dragon digs holes that can measure from wide with its powerful forelimbs and claws. Because of its large size and habit of sleeping in these burrows, it is able to conserve body heat throughout the night and minimise its basking period the morning after. The Komodo dragon hunts in the afternoon, but stays in the shade during the hottest part of the day. These special resting places, usually located on ridges with cool sea breezes, are marked with droppings and are cleared of vegetation. They serve as strategic locations from which to ambush deer.", "As a result of their size, Komodo dragons dominate the ecosystems in which they live. They are carnivores, although they have been considered as eating mostly carrion, they will frequently ambush live prey with a stealthy approach. When suitable prey arrives near a dragon's ambush site, it will suddenly charge at the animal at high speeds and go for the underside or the throat. Komodo dragons do not deliberately allow the prey to escape with fatal injuries, but try to kill prey outright using a combination of lacerating damage and blood loss. They have been recorded as killing wild pigs within seconds, and observations of Komodo dragons tracking prey for long distances are likely misinterpreted cases of prey escaping an attack before succumbing to infection. Komodo dragons have been observed knocking down large pigs and deer with their strong tails. They are able to locate carcasses using their keen sense of smell, which can locate a dead or dying animal from a range of up to. Komodo dragons eat by tearing large chunks of flesh and swallowing them whole while holding the carcass down with their forelegs. For smaller prey up to the size of a goat, their loosely articulated jaws, flexible skulls, and expandable stomachs allow them to swallow prey whole. The undigested vegetable contents of a prey animal's stomach and intestines are typically avoided. Copious amounts of red saliva the Komodo dragons produce help to lubricate the food, but swallowing is still a long process (15–20 minutes to swallow a goat). A Komodo dragon may attempt to speed up the process by ramming the carcass against a tree to force it down its throat, sometimes ramming so forcefully, the tree is knocked down. A small tube under the tongue that connects to the lungs allows it to breathe while swallowing. After eating up to 80% of its body weight in one meal, it drags itself to a sunny location to speed digestion, as the food could rot and poison the dragon if left undigested for too long. Because of their slow metabolism, large dragons can survive on as few as 12 meals a year. After digestion, the Komodo dragon regurgitates a mass of horns, hair, and teeth known as the gastric pellet, which is covered in malodorous mucus. After regurgitating the gastric pellet, it rubs its face in the dirt or on bushes to get rid of the mucus, suggesting it does not relish the scent of its own excretions. The largest animals eat first, while the smaller ones follow a hierarchy. The largest male asserts his dominance and the smaller males show their submission by use of body language and rumbling hisses. Dragons of equal size may resort to \"wrestling\". Losers usually retreat, though they have been known to be killed and eaten by victors. The Komodo dragon's diet is wide-ranging, and includes invertebrates, other reptiles (including smaller Komodo dragons), birds, bird eggs, small mammals, monkeys, wild boar, goats, deer, horses, and water buffalo. Young Komodos will eat insects, eggs, geckos, and small mammals, while adults prefer to hunt large mammals. Occasionally, they attack and bite humans. Sometimes they consume human corpses, digging up bodies from shallow graves. This habit of raiding graves caused the villagers of Komodo to move their graves from sandy to clay ground and pile rocks on top of them to deter the lizards. The Komodo dragon may have evolved to feed on the extinct dwarf elephant \"Stegodon\" that once lived on Flores, according to evolutionary biologist Jared Diamond. The Komodo dragon drinks by sucking water into its mouth via buccal pumping (a process also used for respiration), lifting its head, and letting the water run down its throat.", "Although previous studies proposed that Komodo dragon saliva contains a variety of highly septic bacteria that would help to bring down prey, research in 2013 suggested that the bacteria in the mouths of Komodo dragons are ordinary and similar to those found in other carnivores. They actually have surprisingly good mouth hygiene. As Bryan Fry put it: \"After they are done feeding, they will spend 10 to 15 minutes lip-licking and rubbing their head in the leaves to clean their mouth... Unlike people have been led to believe, they do not have chunks of rotting flesh from their meals on their teeth, cultivating bacteria.\" Nor do Komodo dragons wait for prey to die and track it at a distance, as vipers do; observations of them hunting deer, boar and in some cases buffalo reveal that they kill prey in less than half an hour, using their dentition to cause shock and trauma. The observation of prey dying of sepsis would then be explained by the natural instinct of water buffalos, who are not native to the islands where the Komodo dragon lives, to run into water after escaping an attack. The warm, faeces-filled water would then cause the infections. The study used samples from 16 captive dragons (10 adults and six neonates) from three US zoos.", "Researchers have isolated a powerful antibacterial peptide from the blood plasma of Komodo dragons, VK25. Based on their analysis of this peptide, they have synthesized a short peptide dubbed DRGN-1 and tested it against multidrug-resistant (MDR) pathogens. Preliminary results of these tests show that DRGN-1 is effective in killing drug-resistant bacterial strains and even some fungi. It has the added observed benefit of significantly promoting wound healing in both uninfected and mixed biofilm infected wounds.", "In late 2005, researchers at the University of Melbourne speculated the perentie (\"Varanus giganteus\"), other species of monitors, and agamids may be somewhat venomous. The team believes the immediate effects of bites from these lizards were caused by mild envenomation. Bites on human digits by a lace monitor (\"V. varius\"), a Komodo dragon, and a spotted tree monitor (\"V. scalaris\") all produced similar effects: rapid swelling, localised disruption of blood clotting, and shooting pain up to the elbow, with some symptoms lasting for several hours. In 2009, the same researchers published further evidence demonstrating Komodo dragons possess a venomous bite. MRI scans of a preserved skull showed the presence of two glands in the lower jaw. The researchers extracted one of these glands from the head of a terminally ill dragon in the Singapore Zoological Gardens, and found it secreted several different toxic proteins. The known functions of these proteins include inhibition of blood clotting, lowering of blood pressure, muscle paralysis, and the induction of hypothermia, leading to shock and loss of consciousness in envenomated prey. As a result of the discovery, the previous theory that bacteria were responsible for the deaths of Komodo victims was disputed. Other scientists have stated that this allegation of venom glands \"has had the effect of underestimating the variety of complex roles played by oral secretions in the biology of reptiles, produced a very narrow view of oral secretions and resulted in misinterpretation of reptilian evolution\". According to these scientists \"reptilian oral secretions contribute to many biological roles other than to quickly dispatch prey\". These researchers concluded that, \"Calling all in this clade venomous implies an overall potential danger that does not exist, misleads in the assessment of medical risks, and confuses the biological assessment of squamate biochemical systems\". Evolutionary biologist Schwenk says that even if the lizards have venom-like proteins in their mouths they may be using them for a different function, and he doubts venom is necessary to explain the effect of a Komodo dragon bite, arguing that shock and blood loss are the primary factors.", "Mating occurs between May and August, with the eggs laid in September. During this period, males fight over females and territory by grappling with one another upon their hind legs, with the loser eventually being pinned to the ground. These males may vomit or defecate when preparing for the fight. The winner of the fight will then flick his long tongue at the female to gain information about her receptivity. Females are antagonistic and resist with their claws and teeth during the early phases of courtship. Therefore, the male must fully restrain the female during coitus to avoid being hurt. Other courtship displays include males rubbing their chins on the female, hard scratches to the back, and licking. Copulation occurs when the male inserts one of his hemipenes into the female's cloaca. Komodo dragons may be monogamous and form \"pair bonds\", a rare behavior for lizards. Female Komodos lay their eggs from August to September and may use several types of locality; in one study, 60% laid their eggs in the nests of orange-footed scrubfowl (a moundbuilder or megapode), 20% on ground level and 20% in hilly areas. The females make many camouflage nests/holes to prevent other dragons from eating the eggs. Clutches contain an average of 20 eggs, which have an incubation period of 7–8 months. Hatching is an exhausting effort for the neonates, which break out of their eggshells with an egg tooth that falls off before long. After cutting themselves out, the hatchlings may lie in their eggshells for hours before starting to dig out of the nest. They are born quite defenseless and are vulnerable to predation. Sixteen youngsters from a single nest were on average 46.5 cm long and weighed 105.1 grams. Young Komodo dragons spend much of their first few years in trees, where they are relatively safe from predators, including cannibalistic adults, as juvenile dragons make up 10% of their diets. The habit of cannibalism may be advantageous in sustaining the large size of adults, as medium-sized prey on the islands is rare. When the young approach a kill, they roll around in faecal matter and rest in the intestines of eviscerated animals to deter these hungry adults. Komodo dragons take approximately 8 to 9 years to mature, and may live for up to 30 years.", "A Komodo dragon at London Zoo named Sungai laid a clutch of eggs in late 2005 after being separated from male company for more than two years. Scientists initially assumed she had been able to store sperm from her earlier encounter with a male, an adaptation known as superfecundation. On 20 December 2006, it was reported that Flora, a captive Komodo dragon living in the Chester Zoo in England, was the second known Komodo dragon to have laid unfertilised eggs: she laid 11 eggs, and seven of them hatched, all of them male. Scientists at Liverpool University in England performed genetic tests on three eggs that collapsed after being moved to an incubator, and verified Flora had never been in physical contact with a male dragon. After Flora's eggs' condition had been discovered, testing showed Sungai's eggs were also produced without outside fertilization. On 31 January 2008, the Sedgwick County Zoo in Wichita, Kansas, became the first zoo in the Americas to document parthenogenesis in Komodo dragons. The zoo has two adult female Komodo dragons, one of which laid about 17 eggs on 19–20 May 2007. Only two eggs were incubated and hatched due to space issues; the first hatched on 31 January 2008, while the second hatched on 1 February. Both hatchlings were males. Komodo dragons have the ZW chromosomal sex-determination system, as opposed to the mammalian XY system. Male progeny prove Flora's unfertilised eggs were haploid (n) and doubled their chromosomes later to become diploid (2n) (by being fertilised by a polar body, or by chromosome duplication without cell division), rather than by her laying diploid eggs by one of the meiosis reduction-divisions in her ovaries failing. When a female Komodo dragon (with ZW sex chromosomes) reproduces in this manner, she provides her progeny with only one chromosome from each of her pairs of chromosomes, including only one of her two sex chromosomes. This single set of chromosomes is duplicated in the egg, which develops parthenogenetically. Eggs receiving a Z chromosome become ZZ (male); those receiving a W chromosome become WW and fail to develop, meaning that only males are produced by parthenogenesis in this species. It has been hypothesised that this reproductive adaptation allows a single female to enter an isolated ecological niche (such as an island) and by parthenogenesis produce male offspring, thereby establishing a sexually reproducing population (via reproduction with her offspring that can result in both male and female young). Despite the advantages of such an adaptation, zoos are cautioned that parthenogenesis may be detrimental to genetic diversity.", "Attacks on humans are rare, but Komodo dragons have been responsible for several human fatalities, in both the wild and in captivity. According to data from Komodo National Park spanning a 38-year period between 1974 and 2012, there were 24 reported attacks on humans, five of them fatal. Most of the victims were local villagers living around the national park. Reports of attacks include:", "The Komodo dragon is classified by the IUCN as a vulnerable species and is listed on the IUCN Red List. The species' sensitivity to natural and man-made threats has long been recognized by conservationists, zoological societies, and the Indonesian government. Komodo National Park was founded in 1980 to protect Komodo dragon populations on islands including Komodo, Rinca, and Padar. Later, the Wae Wuul and Wolo Tado Reserves were opened on Flores to aid Komodo dragon conservation. Komodo dragons generally avoid encounters with humans. Juveniles are very shy and will flee quickly into a hideout if a human comes closer than about. Older animals will also retreat from humans from a shorter distance away. If cornered, they may react aggressively by gaping their mouth, hissing, and swinging their tail. If they are disturbed further, they may attack and bite. Although there are anecdotes of unprovoked Komodo dragons attacking or preying on humans, most of these reports are either not reputable or have subsequently been interpreted as defensive bites. Only a very few cases are truly the result of unprovoked attacks by abnormal individuals which lost their fear of humans. Volcanic activity, earthquakes, loss of habitat, fire, tourism, loss of prey due to poaching, and illegal poaching of the dragons themselves have all contributed to the vulnerable status of the Komodo dragon. Under Appendix I of CITES (the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species), commercial trade of Komodo dragon skins or specimens is illegal. Despite this, there are occasional reports of illegal attempts to trade in live Komodo dragons. The most recent attempt was in March 2019, when Indonesian police in the East Java city of Surabaya reported that a criminal network had been caught trying to smuggle 41 young Komodo dragons out of Indonesia. The plan was said to include shipping the animals to several other countries in Southeast Asia through Singapore. It was hoped that the animals could be sold for up to 500 million rupiah (around US$35,000) each. It was believed that the Komodo dragons had been smuggled out of East Nusa Tenggara province through the port at Ende in central Flores. In 2013, the total population of Komodo dragons in the wild was assessed as 3,222 individuals, declining to 3,092 in 2014 and 3,014 in 2015. Populations remained relatively stable on the bigger islands (Komodo and Rinca), but decreased on smaller islands such as Nusa Kode and Gili Motang, likely due to diminishing prey availability. On Padar, a former population of Komodo dragons has recently become extinct, of which the last individuals were seen in 1975. It is widely assumed that the Komodo dragon died out on Padar following a major decline of populations of large ungulate prey, for which poaching was most likely responsible.", "Komodo dragons have long been sought-after zoo attractions, where their size and reputation make them popular exhibits. They are, however, rare in zoos because they are susceptible to infection and parasitic disease if captured from the wild, and do not readily reproduce in captivity. The first Komodo dragons were displayed at London Zoo in 1927. A Komodo dragon was exhibited in 1934 in the United States at the National Zoo in Washington, D.C., but it lived for only two years. More attempts to exhibit Komodo dragons were made, but the lifespan of the animals proved very short, averaging five years in the National Zoological Park. Studies done by Walter Auffenberg, which were documented in his book \"The Behavioral Ecology of the Komodo Monitor\", eventually allowed for more successful management and breeding of the dragons in captivity. As of May 2009, there were 35 North American, 13 European, one Singaporean, two African, and two Australian institutions which housed captive Komodo dragons. A variety of behaviors have been observed from captive specimens. Most individuals become relatively tame within a short time, and are capable of recognising individual humans and discriminating between familiar and unfamiliar keepers. Komodo dragons have also been observed to engage in play with a variety of objects, including shovels, cans, plastic rings, and shoes. This behavior does not seem to be \"food-motivated predatory behavior\". Even seemingly docile dragons may become unpredictably aggressive, especially when the animal's territory is invaded by someone unfamiliar. In June 2001, a Komodo dragon seriously injured Phil Bronstein, the then-husband of actress Sharon Stone, when he entered its enclosure at the Los Angeles Zoo after being invited in by its keeper. Bronstein was bitten on his bare foot, as the keeper had told him to take off his white shoes and socks, which the keeper stated could potentially excite the Komodo dragon as they were the same colour as the white rats the zoo fed the dragon. Although he survived, Bronstein needed to have several tendons in his foot reattached surgically." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot summary.", "Productions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The comedy centres around Peter, a bachelor in his mid-thirties. He desperately wants to win back his girlfriend Jana and asks his friend Midge for help. Midge, another loner unable to form a long-lasting relationship with a woman, has gone through many break-ups and therefore considers himself an expert. Peter also has to visit his discontented parents. Peter's mother ruined the family with her endless preaching. She has developed a strong passion for blood donation, and is agitated about the war in Chechnya. Peter's father, a former commentator for Communist newsreel, escapes to his own thoughts. He is preoccupied with the idea of whether a light bulb would fit in a mouth. Peter's neighbour, a composer engaged in a battle to receive royalties for performances of his music by synthesizers in elevators, is also very eccentric. The cast includes 15 characters. The character of Petr's pedophile boss is sometimes omitted.", "The play's world premiere was in the Dejvice Theatre in Prague on 16 November 2001. The opening months were directed by the playwright, Petr Zelenka. The play ran until 13 October 2009. Ivan Trojan played the leading role as Petr. Nina Divíšková was nominated for a Thalia Award for her role as Petr's mother, and Miroslav Krobot received the Alfréd Radok Award for \"Talent of the Year\". Other notable actors in this production included Martin Myšička as Midge, and Lenka Krobotová as Silvie. The play was also staged at the Komorní scéna Arena in Prague, directed by Václav Klemens and with Marek Cisovský as Petr, and opened at the Western Bohemian Theatre in Cheb on 24 April 2010, directed by Petr Štindl and with Petr Konáš starring as Petr. The play premiered at the Southern Bohemian Theatre () in Český Krumlov on 1 November 2004, with Pavel Oubram as Petr. The play, in a production directed by Tereza Růžičková, opened at the Shadbold Centre for the Arts, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, on 28 April 2005. A Polish version, translated by Krystyna Krauze (), opened in the Teatr Ludowy in Kraków on 16 November 2007, with direction from Andrzej Celiński. Piotr Pilitowski played the role of Petr. A Slovak version, translated by Jana Beňová (), opened in the Andrej Bagár Theatre in Nitra on 13-14 December 2002, directed by Svetozár Sprušansk. Milan Ondrík appeared at Petr. On 8 May 2009, the a German version of the play () opened at the Landestheater Tübingen, with Danny Exnar as Petr. The play was later staged in Poland (Teatr Dramatyczny in Warsaw), Hungary (Katona József Theatre in Budapest), as well as in several other Czech theatres. It was also translated into Russian. In 2005, Zelenka wrote and directed a loose film adaptation, released as \"Wrong Side Up\". It was published in English in 2002 by Theatre Institut, (translated by Robert Russell)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geology and geography.", "Mythology.", "As metaphor.", "Cultural Change.", "National Park.", "Parnassos Ski Resort." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Parnassus is one of the largest mountainous regions of Mainland Greece and one of the highest Greek mountains. It spreads over three municipalities, namely of Boeotia, Phthiotis and Phocis, where its largest part lies. Its altitude is 2,457 meters and its highest peak is Liakouras. To the Northeast it is connected to Giona and to the south with Kirphe. Its name is due to the homonymous hero of the Greek mythology, son of Cleopompus (or Poseidon) and Cleodora, who had built on the mountain a city which was destroyed in the Deluge of Deukalion. Etymological analysis, however, shows a prehellenic origin of the name, relating it to the Pelasgians, and it appears to be from the Anatolian language Luwian. The mountain is delimited to the east by the valley of the Boeotian Kephissus and to the West by the valley of Amfissa. The geological particularity of Parnassus is its rich deposits of bauxite, which has led to their systematic mining since the end of the 1930s, resulting in ecological damage to part of the mountain.", "Mount Parnassus is named after Parnassos, the son of the nymph Kleodora and the man Kleopompus. A city, of which Parnassos was leader, was flooded by torrential rains. The citizens ran from the flood, following wolves' howling, up the mountain slope. There the survivors built another city, and called it Lykoreia, which in Greek means \"the howling of the wolves.\" While Orpheus was living with his mother and his eight beautiful aunts on Parnassus, he met Apollo who was courting the laughing muse Thalia. Apollo became fond of Orpheus and gave him a little golden lyre, and taught him to play it. Orpheus's mother taught him to make verses for singing. As the Oracle of Delphi was sacred to the god Apollo, so did the mountain itself become associated with Apollo. According to some traditions, Parnassus was the site of the fountain Castalia and the home of the Muses; according to other traditions, that honor fell to Mount Helicon, another mountain in the same range. As the home of the Muses, Parnassus became known as the home of poetry, music, and learning. Parnassus was also the site of several unrelated minor events in Greek mythology. Parnassus was also the home of Pegasus, the winged horse of Bellerophon.", "This relation of the mountain to the Muses offered an instigation to its more recent \"mystification\", with the poetic-artistic trend of the 19th century called \"Parnassism\". The Parnassic movement was established in France in the decade 1866–1876 as a reaction to Romanticism with a return to some classicistic elements and belief in the doctrine \"Art for the Art\", first expressed by Theophile Gautier. The periodical \"Modern Parnassus\" issued for the first time by Catul Mendes and Xavier Ricard contained direct references to Mt. Parnassus and its mythological feature as habitation of the Muses. The Parnassists, who did not exceed a group of twenty poets, exercised a relatively strong influence on the cultural life of Paris, particularly due to their tenacity on perfection of rhyme and vocabulary. Parnassism influenced several French poets, but it also exercised an influence on Modern Greek poets, particularly Kostis Palamas and Gryparis. The name of the mountain (Mont Parnasse) was also given to a quarter of Paris on the left bank of the Seine, where artists and poets used to gather and recite their poems in public. Montparnasse is nowadays one of the most renowned quarters of the city and in its cemetery many personalities of the arts and culture are buried. Parnassus figures earlier in Jonathan Swift's \"The Battle of the Books\" (1697) as the site of an ideological war between the ancients and the moderns.", "In 1995, Roland S. Moore, a representative from the Prevention Research Center in the US, conducted a study in this region on how the advent of tourism enacted cultural change in the region. Primarily, the research centered around how the climate surrounding alcohol use had changed, as well as the structure of the household. Prior to the 1970s and the boom of Greek tourism, residents of Mount Parnassus largely consumed only beers, wines, and distilled spirits, and even then it was primarily men drinking. As time went on, more and more liquors became common alongside female consumption. Since hospitality careers are more conducive for women and children, the familial structure of the patriarchal breadwinner also fell out of popularity, replaced by a more democratic familial structure.", "The significant biodiversity, both in flora and in fauna, led the authorities to the establishment of the National Park of Parnassus in 1938, the year when the systematic mining of bauxite started. The Park comprises a landscape of spreading on the mountainous region between Delphi, Arachova and Agoriani. Among the endemic flora species under protection are the Cephalonian fir tree and the Parnassian peony (\"Paeonia parnassica\"). In the Park sojourn prey birds and wolves, boars, badgers and weasels.", "The slopes of Mount Parnassus are composed of two ski sections, Kellaria and Fterolakka, which together make up the largest ski center in Greece. A smaller ski center (only two drag lifts) called Gerontovrahos is across a ridge from Kellaria. Parnassus is mined for its abundant supply of bauxite which is converted to aluminium oxide and then to aluminium. The construction of the ski resort started in 1975 and was completed in 1976, when the first two drag lifts operated in Fterolaka. In 1981 the construction of a new ski area was completed in Kelaria, while in winter season 1987–1988 the chair lift Hermes started operating and connected the two ski areas. Both ski resorts continued expanding and in 1993 the first high-speed quad in Greece was installed, named Hercules. In 2014–2015 two new hybrid lifts were installed along with a new eight-seater, replacing the old infrastructure. Today the Ski Center operates with 16 lifts, two hybrid ski lifts which combine an eight-seater Cabin and a six-seater chair, an eight-seater Cabin, a 4-seater chair lift, a 2-seater chair lift, 6 drag lifts and four baby lifts. The ski center boasts 25 marked ski runs and about 15 ski routes of total length while the longest run is." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Anti-Nazi activities.", "Awards." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Wiener trained as an Arabist and spent the years 1909 – 1911 in the Middle East. He fought in the First World War, winning the Iron Cross 2nd Class. From 1919, he was a high-ranking official in the Centralverein deutscher Staatsbürger jüdischen Glaubens (Central Association of German Citizens of Jewish Faith, CV), and identified the Nazi Party as the chief danger to the Jews of Germany and to German society as a whole as early as 1925. Wiener's first wife, Margarethe, died shortly after being released from Bergen-Belsen concentration camp on the way to Switzerland in 1945. In 1953, he married Lotte Philips. Wiener became a naturalized British citizen in the late 1940s.", "In 1928, Wiener was instrumental in creating the Büro Wilhelmstrasse of the CV, which documented Nazi activities and issued anti-Nazi materials until 1933 when Hitler came to power. Wiener and his family fled to Amsterdam where he, together with of Amsterdam University, founded the Jewish Central Information Office (JCIO). In 1939 he and the collection transferred to London. Wiener spent most of the war years in the USA, collecting materials for the JCIO and working for the British and American governments. He returned in 1945 to transform the Information Office into a library and centre for the scholarly study of the Nazi era. From the mid-1950s, Wiener travelled frequently to Germany to speak to groups of young people and establish contact with Christian groups.", "In 1955, Wiener was awarded the highest civilian decoration of West Germany, the Grand Cross of the Order of Merit (Grosses Verdienstkreuz des Verdienstordens)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Usage.", "Mathematics.", "Physics.", "Computing.", "Pipe.", "Disjunction.", "Concatenation.", "Delimiter.", "Backus–Naur form.", "Concurrency operator.", "APL.", "List comprehensions.", "Text markup.", "Phonetics and orthography.", "Literature.", "Punctuation.", "Poetry.", "Notation.", "Music scoring.", "Encoding.", "Solid vertical bar vs broken bar.", "Unicode code points." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The vertical bar is used as a mathematical symbol in numerous ways: The double vertical bar, formula_26, is also employed in mathematics. In LaTeX mathematical mode the ASCII vertical bar produces a vertical line, and codice_1 creates a double vertical line (codice_2 is set as formula_40). This has different spacing from codice_3 and codice_4, which are relational operators: codice_5 is set as formula_41. See below about LaTeX in text mode.", "The vertical bar is used in bra–ket notation in quantum physics. Examples:", "", "A pipe is an inter-process communication mechanism originating in Unix, which directs the output (standard out and, optionally, standard error) of one process to the input (standard in) to another. In this way, a series of commands can be \"piped\" together, giving users the ability to quickly perform complex multi-stage processing from the command line or as part of a Unix shell script (\"bash file\"). In most Unix shells (command interpreters), this is represented by the vertical bar character. For example: where the output from the grep process is piped to the more process. The same \"pipe\" feature is also found in later versions of DOS and Microsoft Windows. This usage has led to the character itself being called \"pipe\".", "In many programming languages, the vertical bar is used to designate the logic operation \"or\", either bitwise \"or\" or logical \"or\". Specifically, in C and other languages following C syntax conventions, such as C++, Perl, Java and C#, codice_6 denotes a bitwise \"or\"; whereas a double vertical bar codice_7 denotes a (short-circuited) logical \"or\". Since the character was originally not available in all code pages and keyboard layouts, ANSI C can transcribe it in form of the trigraph codice_8, which, outside string literals, is equivalent to the codice_9 character. In regular expression syntax, the vertical bar again indicates logical \"or\" (alternation). For example: the Unix command grep -E 'fu|bar' matches lines containing 'fu' or 'bar'.", "The double vertical bar operator \"||\" denotes string concatenation in PL/I, standard ANSI SQL, and theoretical computer science (particularly cryptography).", "Although not as common as commas or tabs, the vertical bar can be used as a delimiter in a flat file. Examples of a pipe-delimited standard data format are LEDES 1998B and HL7. It is frequently used because vertical bars are typically uncommon in the data itself. Similarly, the vertical bar may see use as a delimiter for regular expression operations (e.g. in sed). This is useful when the regular expression contains instances of the more common forward slash (codice_10) delimiter; using a vertical bar eliminates the need to escape all instances of the forward slash. However, this makes the bar unusable as the regular expression \"alternative\" operator.", "In Backus–Naur form, an expression consists of sequences of symbols and/or sequences separated by '|', indicating a choice, the whole being a possible substitution for the symbol on the left.", "In calculi of communicating processes (like pi-calculus), the vertical bar is used to indicate that processes execute in parallel.", "The pipe in APL is the modulo or \"residue\" function between two operands and the absolute value function next to one operand.", "The vertical bar is used for list comprehensions in some functional languages, e.g. Haskell and Erlang. Compare set-builder notation.", "The vertical bar is used as special character in lightweight markup languages, notably MediaWiki's Wikitext (in the templates and internal links). In LaTeX text mode, the vertical bar produces an em dash (—). The codice_11 command can be used to produce a vertical bar.", "In the Khoisan languages and the International Phonetic Alphabet, the vertical bar is used to write the dental click (). A double vertical bar is used to write the alveolar lateral click (). Since these are technically letters, they have their own Unicode code points in the Latin Extended-B range: U+01C0 for the single bar and U+01C1 for the double bar. Some Northwest and Northeast Caucasian languages written in the Cyrillic script have a vertical bar called palochka (), indicating the preceding consonant is an ejective. Longer single and double vertical bars are used to mark prosodic boundaries in the IPA.", "", "In medieval European manuscripts, a single vertical bar was a common variant of the virgula used as a period, scratch comma, and caesura mark. In Sanskrit and other Indian languages, a single vertical mark, a danda, has a similar function as a period (full stop). Two bars || (a 'double danda') is the equivalent of a pilcrow in marking the end of a stanza, paragraph or section. The danda has its own Unicode code point, U+0964.", "A double vertical bar or is the standard caesura mark in English literary criticism and analysis. It marks the strong break or caesura common to many forms of poetry, particularly Old English verse.", "In the Geneva Bible and early printings of the King James Version, a double vertical bar is used to mark margin notes that contain an alternative translation from the original text. These margin notes always begin with the conjunction \"Or\". In later printings of the King James Version, the double vertical bar is irregularly used to mark any comment in the margins.", "In music, when writing chord sheets, single vertical bars associated with a colon (|: A / / / :|) represents the beginning and end of a section (ie. Intro, Interlude, Verse, Chorus) of music. Single bars can also represent the beginning and end of measures (|: A / / / | D / / / | E / / / :|). A double vertical bar associated with a colon can represent the repeat of a given section (||: A / / / :|| - play twice).", "", "Many early video terminals and dot-matrix printers rendered the vertical bar character as the allograph broken bar. This may have been to distinguish the character from the lower-case 'L' and the upper-case \" on these limited-resolution devices, and to make a vertical line of them look more like a horizontal line of dashes. In the 1967 revision of ASCII, the code point was defined to be a broken vertical bar, and the exclamation mark character was allowed to be rendered as a solid vertical bar. The 1977 revision (ANSI X.3-1977) undid this, defining the code point to be a solid vertical bar, not a broken one (it also fixed the exclamation point, though examples of anybody changing it to a vertical bar are rare or non-existent). Some variants of EBCDIC included both versions of the character as different code points. The broad implementation of the extended ASCII ISO/IEC 8859 series in the 1990s also made a distinction between the two forms. This was preserved in Unicode as a separate character at U+00A6 (the term \"parted rule\" is used sometimes in Unicode documentation). Many fonts draw the characters the same (both are solid vertical bars, or both are broken vertical bars). The broken bar does not appear to have any clearly identified uses distinct from the vertical bar. In non-computing use — for example in mathematics, physics and general typography — the broken bar is not an acceptable substitute for the vertical bar. Many keyboards with US or US-International layout display the broken bar on a keycap even though the solid vertical bar character is produced. This includes many German QWERTZ keyboards. The broken bar character can be typed (depending on the layout) as or or on Windows and on Linux. It can be inserted into HTML as", "These glyphs are encoded in Unicode as follows:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "After World War II.", "Products.", "Hovercraft.", "Société d'Étude et de Développement des Aéroglisseurs Marins." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "3" ], "content": [ "As a teenager, Larry Bell saw his first plane at an air show, starting a lifelong fascination with aviation. Bell dropped out of high school in 1912 to join his brother in the burgeoning aircraft industry at the Glenn L. Martin Company, where by 1914 he had become shop superintendent. By 1920 Bell was vice president and general manager of Martin, by now based in Cleveland, OH. Feeling that he deserved part ownership, in late 1924 he presented Martin with an ultimatum. Mr. Martin refused, and Bell quit. Bell spent several years out of the aviation industry, but in 1928 was hired by Reuben H. Fleet at Consolidated Aircraft, in Buffalo, New York where he was guaranteed an interest in the company. Before long, Bell became general manager and business was booming, but he still wanted to run his own company. Although he could raise local capital, he knew he would not be able to compete with either Consolidated or Curtiss-Wright, the two major aircraft builders also based in Buffalo. Fortunately, in 1935 Fleet decided to move Consolidated Aircraft to San Diego, and Bell stayed behind to establish his own company, the Bell Aircraft Company, on 10 July 1935, headquartered in the former Consolidated plant at 2050 Elmwood Avenue in North Delaware area of Buffalo (next to Home Depot store and other businesses). Bell was the third major aircraft builder to occupy the site. The factory complex was originally built in 1916 for the Curtiss Aeroplane & Motor Company, and during World War I had been considered the largest airplane factory in the world. Bell's first military contract followed in 1937 with the development of the ill-fated YFM-1 Airacuda, an unconventional bomber-destroyer powered by two Allison-powered pusher propellers. The YFM-1 incorporated groundbreaking technology for the time, with gyro stabilized weapons sighting and a thermionic fire control system. Including the prototype, just 13 Airacudas were produced, and these saw only limited service with the USAAC before being scrapped in 1942. Bell enjoyed much success the following year with the development of the single engine P-39 Airacobra, of which 9,588 were built. Putting their previous experience with Allison engines to good use, the P-39 placed the engine in the center of the aircraft, with the propeller driven by a long shaft through which a 37mm cannon was also mounted, firing through the propeller's spinner. Due to persistent development and production problems, the original turbosupercharger was deleted from production models, instead using a single-stage, single-speed supercharger, as was standard on all other Allison-powered products, with the exception of the P-38. The P-39 performed poorly at high altitudes compared to newer, late-war designs. Most Allied forces thought the Airacobra effective only for ground attack roles, as demonstrated by a few U.S. Army Air Forces units that flew P-39s, such as the so-called \"Cactus Air Force\" on Guadalcanal in 1942–43. However, the Soviet Air Force used their Lend-Lease P-39s primarily in the air-to-air role, where they found it to excel as a front-line fighter against some of the best pilots and aircraft of the Luftwaffe. The Soviet-flown P-39s were the main reason that the aircraft is credited with highest number of individual kills attributed to any U.S. fighter type. A somewhat larger and more powerful version of the P-39 was produced shortly before the end of World War II. Called the P-63 Kingcobra, this warplane addressed many of the shortcomings of the P-39, though it was produced too late in the war to make any significant contribution. 2,971 P-63's were built between 1943 and 1945, many delivered to the Soviet Union. Also, by that time, the Army Air Forces already had the superior P-47 Thunderbolt and P-38 Lightning fighter-bombers. In October 1942, The Bell-built twin-jet P-59 Airacomet was the first American jet aircraft to fly. Unfortunately, performance was below expectations, roughly on par with contemporaneous propeller-driven aircraft, an outcome generally attributed to the extremely short development timeframe required by the USAAF, as well as the intense secrecy imposed on the project. Design had begun in September 1941, during which time the Bell team was guided mostly by theory, as General Electric would not finish and begin testing the first engine until March 1942. Also, General Henry \"Hap\" Arnold had forbidden use of wind tunnels to test and optimize the design, but later relented somewhat, only allowing the group to use the low-speed tunnel at Wright Field, Ohio. Bell engineers could only guess at the performance characteristics. Originally intended initially as a production aircraft, the P-59 nevertheless became an important experimental testbed for jet technology, providing invaluable data for development of later jet airplanes. During World War II, Bell also built heavy bombers under license from other aircraft companies at a factory near Marietta, Georgia, just northwest of Atlanta. Online by mid-1943, the new plant produced hundreds of Consolidated B-24 Liberators and Boeing B-29 Superfortress bombers. In mid-1944, the production of the B-24 was consolidated from several different companies (including some in Texas) to two large factories: Consolidated Vultee in San Diego and Ford Motor Company's Willow Run factory near Detroit, Michigan, which had been specially designed to produce B-24s. For the rest of the war, Bell's Marietta plant, under the management of Carl Cover and James V. Carmichael concentrated on producing B-29s, producing 668 of them by the time contract expired in the fall of 1945. Bell ranked 25th among United States corporations in the value of wartime production contracts.", "As the postwar defense industry downsized, Bell consolidated its operations at the Wheatfield plant, near Buffalo. The aircraft factory in Marietta later became the property of the Lockheed Corporation, which has used it for producing C-130 Hercules, C-141 Starlifter, and C-5 Galaxy transport planes. Although Bell designed several more fighter plane designs during and after WW II, none of these ever entered mass-production. The XP-77 was a small fighter using non-strategic materials; it was not successful. The XP-83 was a jet escort fighter similar in layout to the P-59 that was cancelled. The Bell XF-109 was a supersonic vertical takeoff fighter that was cancelled in 1961. Perhaps Bell Aircraft's most important contribution to the history of fixed-wing aircraft development would be the design and building of the experimental Bell X-1 rocket plane, the world's first airplane to break the sound barrier, and its follow-on, the Bell X-2. Unlike the usual designations for American aircraft, the X-1 models were successive (mostly identical) units of the X-1 program: the X-1, X-1A, X-1B, X-1C, X-1D, and X-1E. Bell went on to design and produce several different experimental aircraft during the 1950s. These helped the U.S. Air Force and the National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics (NACA) explore the boundaries of aircraft design, and paved the way for the founding of NASA and the exploration of outer space. The X-2 Starbuster achieved Mach 3 (2,100 mph) and a height of 126,000 ft in 1955, blazing a technological trail for the development of spacecraft. Bell played a crucial role in the development of rocket propulsion after WWII, spearheaded by the likes of some of the most brilliant minds in rocket science like Walter Dornberger (ex-commander of Nazi Germany Peenemünde Army Research Center) and Wendell Moore. Bell developed and fielded the world's first nuclear-tipped Air-to-Surface cruise missile, the GAM-63 RASCAL in 1957. Wendell Moore developed the Bell rocket belt, utilizing peroxide monopropellant rocket engines. While the rocket belt failed to be commercially developed, the rocket technology proved invaluable in future Bell programs. Bells crowning achievement in the realm of rocketry was the Agena rocket engine. The Agena was a 12,000 lbf bi-propellant rocket that is considered to this day to be one of the most reliable rockets ever built. 360 units were produced starting in the late 1950s and it was responsible for inserting into orbit most of the satellites launched by the United States in the 1960s. Helicopter development began at Bell Aircraft in 1941 with the Bell Model 30 first flying in 1943. Bell Helicopter became the only part of Bell Aircraft still producing aircraft when Bell was purchased by the Textron Corporation. That part of Textron is now known today as Bell Helicopter. After a series of successful helicopter designs, the UH-1 Iroquois became the most famous helicopter of the War in Vietnam, and Bell Helicopter still designs and manufactures helicopters today. Lawrence Bell died in 1956, and for several years afterwards the company was in financial difficulty. Textron purchased the Bell Aerospace division on 5 July 1960. Bell Aerospace was composed of three divisions of Bell Aircraft, including the helicopter division. Bell Aerospace Textron continued to play a significant role in NASA's mission to land men on the Moon in the 1960s. Bell designed and built the Reaction Control system for Project Mercury's Redstone command module and a similar system was incorporated into the North American X-15 spaceplane. NASA selected Bell to develop and built the LLRV Lunar Landing Research Vehicle, three of which were built in the early 1960s to train the Apollo astronauts to land on the Moon. Bell also designed the rocket engine used in the Apollo LEM Ascent Propulsion System, which was responsible for getting NASA's astronauts off the Moon.", "", "", "Société d'Étude et de Développement des Aéroglisseurs Marins (SEDAM) was a French-based unit of Bell founded in 1965 and builder of N500 Naviplane hovercraft, as well as N.300 Naviplane and Naviplane N102. SEDAM ceased operations in 1982 and factory site re-developed for non-aviation usage." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Bell Aircraft.", "Bell Helicopter.", "Product list.", "Commercial helicopters.", "Facilities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The company was founded on July 10, 1935 as Bell Aircraft Corporation by Lawrence Dale Bell in Buffalo, New York. The company focused on the designing and building of fighter aircraft. Their first fighters were the XFM-1 Airacuda, a twin-engine fighter for attacking bombers, and the P-39 Airacobra. The P-59 Airacomet, the first American jet fighter, the P-63 Kingcobra, the successor to the P-39, and the Bell X-1 were also Bell products. In 1941, Bell hired Arthur M. Young, a talented inventor, to provide expertise for helicopter research and development. It was the foundation for what Bell hoped would be a broader economic base for his company that was not dependent on government contracts. The Bell 30 was their first full-size helicopter (first flight December 29, 1942) and the Bell 47 became the first helicopter in the world rated by a civil aviation authority, becoming a civilian and military success.", "Textron purchased Bell Aerospace in 1960. Bell Aerospace was composed of three divisions of Bell Aircraft Corporation, including its helicopter division, which had become its only division still producing complete aircraft. The helicopter division was renamed Bell Helicopter Company and in a few years, with the success of the UH-1 Huey during the Vietnam War, it had established itself as the largest division of Textron. In January 1976, Textron changed the division's name to Bell Helicopter Textron. Bell Helicopter had a close association with AgustaWestland. The partnership dated back to separate manufacturing and technology agreements with Agusta (Bell 47 and Bell 206) and as a sublicence via Agusta with Westland (Bell 47). When the two European firms merged, the partnerships were retained, with the exception of the AB139, which is now known as the AW139. Bell and AW cooperated also on the AW609 tiltrotor. Bell planned to reduce employment by 760 in 2014 as fewer V-22s were made. A rapid prototyping center called XworX assists Bell's other divisions in reducing development time. The company was rebranded as \"Bell\" on February 22, 2018.", "", "Established in 1986, its Mirabel, Quebec facility assembles and delivers most Bell's commercial helicopters and delivered its 5,000th helicopter on December 12, 2017.", "Bell manufacturing and support facilities are:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Services.", "Online services.", "Mobile services.", "Windows Phone.", "iOS.", "Feature phone.", "Search services.", "Developer services.", "Software.", "Windows Live Butterfly.", "User interface.", "Blue Vapor/Flair.", "Wave 2.", "Wave 3.", "Wave 4." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Windows Live was first announced on November 1, 2005. In its initial release, several Windows Live properties were rebranded and enhanced from Microsoft's MSN set of products and services. However, MSN still exists alongside Windows Live as a means of delivering content (as opposed to customized content and communications). In May 2012 Microsoft began renaming Windows Live services, partly in anticipation of Windows 8, which integrates many of the Windows Live products and services into the operating system.", "", "The following services were once part of Windows Live but are still online. Outlook.com and OneDrive still use the \"Live\" branding in the URL even though the brand name is dropped.", "", "My Windows Phone is a free online companion service for Windows Phone mobile devices that provides users with a free mobile phone back-up solution by wirelessly synchronizing contacts, calendar appointments, photos, and OneNote notebooks with a password-protected online portal. Users can access and manage their information stored on their Windows Phone devices via the online portal using their Microsoft account, as well as accessing a set of features for remotely ringing, locking, mapping, and erasing their lost phones. This service integrates tightly with other Windows Live services including Outlook.com People and Calendar, and SkyDrive.", "Microsoft released a Windows Live Messenger application on the iOS App Store, which allows users on mobile devices running the iOS to communicate with their contacts via the Microsoft Messenger service. In addition to the instant messaging functionalities, the application also allows users to view their Messenger social feed, view their friends' Profile's, and integrate with Hotmail and Photos.", "Windows Live also provides customised services specifically created for feature phones. It is offered via three channels — through Client-based (for Windows Mobile and other supported mobile devices such as Nokia phones), Web-based (for WAP or GPRS-enabled mobile web browsers), or SMS-based services.", "Bing, a replacement of the search engine \"Live Search\", was originally named Windows Live Search (and \"MSN Search\" prior to that) and was once part of the Windows Live family of services. Windows Live Search once occupied the homepage of Live.com, the domain for all Windows Live services. However, on March 21, 2007, Microsoft decided to separate its search developments from its Windows Live services family, forming part of the \"Live Search and Ad Platform\". As part of this reorganization, the new search brand, \"Live Search\", was consolidated with Microsoft adCenter, a part of Microsoft's Platform and Systems division. However, Microsoft recognised that there was a brand issue as the word \"Live\" continued to remain in the brand. As an effort to create a new identity for Microsoft's search services, on June 3, 2009, Live Search was officially rebranded as Bing.", "Live Connect is a collection of APIs and common controls that allow developers to have a deeper control and offers access to the core Windows Live services and data through open and easily accessible application programming interfaces (APIs). Live Connect is built on standard web technologies such as OAuth 2.0, Representational State Transfer (REST), and JavaScript Object Notation (JSON), and is designed to work with any technology or device. Live Connect unites the previously separate APIs of Windows Live into a single API that is based on industry standards and specifications.", "Microsoft has released several computer programs with \"Windows Live\" brand, a summary of which is included below. All except Windows Live OneCare are freeware and published in a software suite called Windows Essentials (formerly Windows Live Essentials). Essentials programs are designed to integrate well with each other, within Windows, and with other Windows Live services such as OneDrive and Outlook.com. Windows Live OneCare on the other hand, was a commercial consumers utility marketed with a software as a service licensing model.", "The Windows Live Butterfly awards program (formerly the MSN Butterfly program) was a program whose members were given the benefit of new Microsoft software to test before the beta releases went public and they were in direct contact with the program managers for Windows Live products. Microsoft had initiated the Windows Live Butterfly program in order to recognize the contributions made by exemplary beta testers. Prospective 'butterflies' were selected by the Windows Live product team and were nominated for a term of one year, after which they could be renominated. The Windows Live Butterfly program was closed in June 2009.", "All Windows Live websites sport a common theme. Different themes have been used on the sites with each phase of product release, called \"Waves.\" Each Wave has a set of online services and desktop programs (Windows Essentials). The web services are labelled by each Wave, for example, Hotmail Wave 4. The programs from Windows Essentials are usually called by a year number, for example, Windows Live Messenger 2011.", "Most original Windows Live applications and services used a visual theme known as \"Blue Vapor\" or \"Flair\".", "With the public beta release of the \"Windows Live Wave 2 Suite\" (\"Wave\" refers to the group or wave of products to be released), a new visual theme was released to enable the Aero transparency effect in Windows Vista.", "Microsoft released a set of new themes for their Windows Live Wave 3 services, which allows users to customize their pages on Windows Live using a set of pre-selected background pictures. Several of these themes are dynamic and change according to the time of day and the current weather condition of the user.", "In addition to the themes provided in Windows Live Wave 3, the release of Windows Live Wave 4 provided additional themes for users to customise their pages on Windows Live, with several dynamic themes that changes according to the time of day and weather conditions at the user's location. Several of these newly added themes are similar to wallpapers originating from Windows 7. In addition, the Windows Live Wave 4 header features a reorganised dynamic navigation menu that displays the number of the user's current online contacts and the number of unread e-mails, as well as an in-built Windows Live Web Messenger service allowing users to connect to the Microsoft Messenger service and Facebook chat service to chat with their online contacts while browsing any Windows Live properties using a web browser." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Precursor.", "Activity and stability.", "In laryngopharyngeal reflux.", "Storage.", "Inhibitors.", "Applications.", "Genes." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Pepsin was one of the first enzymes to be discovered in 1836 by Theodor Schwann. Schwann coined its name from the Greek word \"pepsis\", meaning \"digestion\" (from \"peptein\" \"to digest\"). Scientists around this time began discovering many biochemical compounds that play a significant role in biological processes, and pepsin was one of them. An acidic substance that was able to convert nitrogen-based foods into water-soluble material was determined to be pepsin. In 1928, it became one of the first enzymes to be crystallized when John H. Northrop crystallized it using dialysis, filtration, and cooling.", "Pepsin is expressed as a zymogen called pepsinogen, whose primary structure has an additional 44 amino acids compared to the active enzyme. In the stomach, chief cells release pepsinogen. This zymogen is activated by hydrochloric acid (HCl), which is released from parietal cells in the stomach lining. The hormone gastrin and the vagus nerve trigger the release of both pepsinogen and HCl from the stomach lining when food is ingested. Hydrochloric acid creates an acidic environment, which allows pepsinogen to unfold and cleave itself in an autocatalytic fashion, thereby generating pepsin (the active form). Pepsin cleaves the 44 amino acids from pepsinogen to create more pepsin. Pepsinogens are mainly grouped in 5 different groups based on their primary structure: pepsinogen A (also called pepsinogen I), pepsinogen B, progastricsin (also called pepsinogen II and pepsinogen C), prochymosin (also called prorennin) and pepsinogen F (also called pregnancy-associated glycoprotein).", "Pepsin is most active in acidic environments between pH 1.5 to 2.5. The optimum temperature of pepsin is between 37 °C and 42 °C. Accordingly, its primary site of synthesis and activity is in the stomach (pH 1.5 to 2). In humans the concentration of pepsin in the stomach reaches 0.5 - 1 mg/mL. Pepsin is inactive at pH 6.5 and above, however pepsin is not fully denatured or irreversibly inactivated until pH 8.0. Therefore, pepsin in solutions of up to pH 8.0 can be reactivated upon re-acidification. The stability of pepsin at high pH has significant implications on disease attributed to laryngopharyngeal reflux. Pepsin remains in the larynx following a gastric reflux event. At the mean pH of the laryngopharynx (pH = 6.8) pepsin would be inactive but could be reactivated upon subsequent acid reflux events resulting in damage to local tissues. Pepsin exhibits a broad cleavage specificity. Pepsin will digest up to 20% of ingested amide bonds. Residues in the P1 and P1' positions are most important in determining cleavage probability. Generally, hydrophobic amino acids at P1 and P1' positions increase cleavage probability. Phenylalanine, leucine and methionine at the P1 position, and phenylalanine, tryptophan and tyrosine at the P1' position result in the highest cleavage probability. Cleavage is disfavoured by positively charged amino acids histidine, lysine and arginine at the P1 position. Pepsin cleaves PheVal, GlnHis, GluAla, AlaLeu, LeuTyr, TyrLeu, GlyPhe, Phe in the insulin B chain.", "Pepsin is one of the primary causes of mucosal damage during laryngopharyngeal reflux. Pepsin remains in the larynx (pH 6.8) following a gastric reflux event. While enzymatically inactive in this environment, pepsin would remain stable and could be reactivated upon subsequent acid reflux events. Exposure of laryngeal mucosa to enzymatically active pepsin, but not irreversibly inactivated pepsin or acid, results in reduced expression of protective proteins and thereby increases laryngeal susceptibility to damage. Pepsin may also cause mucosal damage during weakly acidic or non-acid gastric reflux. Weak or non-acid reflux is correlated with reflux symptoms and mucosal injury. Under non-acid conditions (neutral pH), pepsin is internalized by cells of the upper airways such as the larynx and hypopharynx by a process known as. The receptor by which pepsin is endocytosed is currently unknown. Upon cellular uptake, pepsin is stored in intracellular vesicles of low pH at which its enzymatic activity would be restored. Pepsin is retained within the cell for up to 24 hours. Such exposure to pepsin at neutral pH and endocyctosis of pepsin causes changes in gene expression associated with inflammation, which underlies signs and symptoms of reflux, and tumor progression. This and other research implicates pepsin in carcinogenesis attributed to gastric reflux. Pepsin in airway specimens is considered to be a sensitive and specific marker for laryngopharyngeal reflux. Research to develop new pepsin-targeted therapeutic and diagnostic tools for gastric reflux is ongoing. A rapid non-invasive pepsin diagnostic called Peptest is now available which determines the presence of pepsin in saliva samples.", "Pepsins should be stored at very low temperatures (between −80 °C and −20 °C) to prevent autolysis (self-digestion).", "Pepsin may be inhibited by high pH (see Activity and stability) or by inhibitor compounds. Pepstatin is a low molecular weight compound and potent inhibitor specific for acid proteases with a Ki of about 10 M for pepsin. The statyl residue of pepstatin is thought to be responsible for pepstatin inhibition of pepsin; statine is a potential analog of the transition state for catalysis by pepsin and other acid proteases. Pepstatin does not covalently bind pepsin and inhibition of pepsin by pepstatin is therefore reversible. 1-bis(diazoacetyl)-2-phenylethane reversibly inactivates pepsin at pH 5, a reaction which is accelerated by the presence of Cu(II). Porcine pepsin is inhibited by pepsin inhibitor-3 (PI-3) produced by the large roundworm of pig (\"Ascaris suum\"). PI-3 occupies the active site of pepsin using its N-terminal residues and thereby blocks substrate binding. Amino acid residues 1 - 3 (Gln-Phe-Leu) of mature PI-3 bind to P1' - P3' positions of pepsin. The N-terminus of PI-3 in the PI-3:pepsin complex is positioned by hydrogen bonds which form an eight-stranded β-sheet, where three strands are contributed by pepsin and five by PI-3. Pepsin also undergoes feedback inhibition; a product of protein digestion slows down the reaction by inhibiting pepsin. Sucralfate also inhibits pepsin activity.", "Commercial pepsin is extracted from the glandular layer of hog stomachs. It is a component of rennet used to curdle milk during the manufacture of cheese. Pepsin is used for a variety of applications in food manufacturing: to modify and provide whipping qualities to soy protein and gelatin, to modify vegetable proteins for use in nondairy snack items, to make precooked cereals into instant hot cereals, and to prepare animal and vegetable protein hydrolysates for use in flavoring foods and beverages. It is used in the leather industry to remove hair and residual tissue from hides and in the recovery of silver from discarded photographic films by digesting the gelatin layer that holds the silver. Pepsin was historically an additive of Beeman's gum brand chewing gum by Dr. Edward E. Beeman. Pepsin is commonly used in the preparation of F(ab')2 fragments from antibodies. In some assays, it is preferable to use only the antigen-binding (Fab) portion of the antibody. For these applications, antibodies may be enzymatically digested to produce either an Fab or an F(ab')2 fragment of the antibody. To produce an F(ab')2 fragment, IgG is digested with pepsin, which cleaves the heavy chains near the hinge region. One or more of the disulfide bonds that join the heavy chains in the hinge region are preserved, so the two Fab regions of the antibody remain joined together, yielding a divalent molecule (containing two antibody binding sites), hence the designation F(ab')2. The light chains remain intact and attached to the heavy chain. The Fc fragment is digested into small peptides. Fab fragments are generated by cleavage of IgG with papain instead of pepsin. Papain cleaves IgG above the hinge region containing the disulfide bonds that join the heavy chains, but below the site of the disulfide bond between the light chain and heavy chain. This generates two separate monovalent (containing a single antibody binding site) Fab fragments and an intact Fc fragment. The fragments can be purified by gel filtration, ion exchange, or affinity chromatography. Fab and F(ab')2 antibody fragments are used in assay systems where the presence of the Fc region may cause problems. In tissues such as lymph nodes or spleen, or in peripheral blood preparations, cells with Fc receptors (macrophages, monocytes, B lymphocytes, and natural killer cells) are present which can bind the Fc region of intact antibodies, causing background staining in areas that do not contain the target antigen. Use of F(ab')2 or Fab fragments ensures that the antibodies are binding to the antigen and not Fc receptors. These fragments may also be desirable for staining cell preparations in the presence of plasma, because they are not able to bind complement, which could lyse the cells. F(ab')2, and to a greater extent Fab, fragments allow more exact localization of the target antigen, i.e., in staining tissue for electron microscopy. The divalency of the F(ab')2 fragment enables it to cross-link antigens, allowing use for precipitation assays, cellular aggregation via surface antigens, or rosetting assays.", "The following three genes encode identical human pepsinogen A enzymes: A fourth human gene encodes gastricsin also known as pepsinogen C:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Production, occurrence, reactions.", "Uses.", "Use in photography.", "PMK.", "510-pyro.", "Safety." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "It is produced in the manner it was first prepared by Scheele (1786): heating gallic acid. Presently gallic acid is obtained from tannin. Heating induces decarboxylation: Because tannin is expensive, many alternative routes have been devised. An alternate preparation involves treating \"para\"-chlorophenoldisulfonic acid with potassium hydroxide, a variant on the time-honored route to phenols from sulfonic acids. The aquatic plant \"Myriophyllum spicatum\" produces pyrogallic acid. When in alkaline solution, it absorbs oxygen from the air, turning brown from a colourless solution. It can be used in this way to calculate the amount of oxygen in air, notably via the use of the Orsat apparatus.", "One can find its uses in hair dyeing, dyeing of suturing materials and for oxygen absorption in gas analysis. It also has antiseptic properties. Pyrogallol was also used as a developing agent in black-and-white developers, but its use is largely historical except for special purpose applications. Hydroquinone is more commonly used today. It is also used in isolation of inert gases from a mixture of gases, which requires absorption of oxygen from the mixture.", "Though a popular photographic developing agent in the 19th and early 20th centuries, pyrogallol largely fell out of favor around the 1920s, although it was still used by a few notable photographers including Edward Weston. In those days it had a reputation for erratic and unreliable behavior, due possibly to its propensity for oxidation. It experienced a revival starting in the 1980s due largely to the efforts of experimenters Gordon Hutchings and John Wimberley.", "Hutchings spent over a decade working on pyrogallol formulas, eventually producing one he named PMK for its main ingredients: pyrogallol, Metol, and Kodalk (the trade name of Kodak for sodium metaborate). This formulation resolved the consistency issues, and Hutchings found that an interaction between the greenish stain given to film by pyro developers and the color sensitivity of modern variable-contrast photographic papers gave the effect of an extreme compensating developer. From 1969 to 1977, Wimberley experimented with the Pyrogallol developing agent. He published his formula for WD2D in 1977 in Petersen's Photographic. PMK and other modern pyro formulations are now used by many black-and-white photographers. The Film Developing Cookbook has examples.", "Another developer mainly based on pyrogallol was formulated by Jay DeFehr. The 510-pyro, is a concentrate that uses Triethanolamine as Alkali, and pyrogallol and phenidone as combined developers. This developer has both staining and tanning properties and negatives developed with it are immune to the callier effect. It can be used for small and large negative formats. The Darkroom Cookbook (Alternative Process Photography) has examples.", "Pyrogallol use, e.g. in hair dye formulations, is declining because of concerns about its toxicity. Its (oral, rat) is 300 mg/kg." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Species and varieties.", "Schorl.", "Dravite.", "Elbaite.", "Chemical composition of the tourmaline group.", "Physical properties.", "Crystal structure.", "Color.", "Magnetism.", "Treatments.", "Geology.", "Localities.", "United States.", "Brazil.", "World's largest.", "Africa." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "According to the \"Madras Tamil Lexicon\" the name comes from the word \"thoramalli\" (තෝරමල්ලි) or \"tōra- molli\", which is applied to a group of gemstones found in the southern parts of the Indian Subcontinent. According to the same source, the Tamil \"tuvara-malli\" (துவரைமல்லி) and \"toramalli\" are also derived from the Sinhalese root word. This etymology is also given in other standard dictionaries including the Oxford English Dictionary.", "Brightly colored Ceylonese gem tourmalines were brought to Europe in great quantities by the Dutch East India Company to satisfy a demand for curiosities and gems. Tourmaline was sometimes called the \"Ceylonese Sri Lankan Magnet\" because it could attract and then repel hot ashes due to its pyroelectric properties. Tourmalines were used by chemists in the 19th century to polarize light by shining rays onto a cut and polished surface of the gem.", "Commonly encountered species and varieties: Schorl species: Dravite species: from the Drave district of Carinthia Elbaite species: named after the island of Elba, Italy", "The most common species of tourmaline is \"schorl\", the sodium iron (divalent) endmember of the group. It may account for 95% or more of all tourmaline in nature. The early history of the mineral schorl shows that the name \"schorl\" was in use prior to 1400 because a village known today as Zschorlau (in Saxony, Germany) was then named \"Schorl\" (or minor variants of this name), and the village had a nearby tin mine where, in addition to cassiterite, black tourmaline was found. The first description of schorl with the name \"schürl\" and its occurrence (various tin mines in the Ore Mountains) was written by Johannes Mathesius (1504–1565) in 1562 under the title \"Sarepta oder Bergpostill\". Up to about 1600, additional names used in the German language were \"Schurel\", \"Schörle\", and \"Schurl\". Beginning in the 18th century, the name \"Schörl\" was mainly used in the German-speaking area. In English, the names \"shorl\" and \"shirl\" were used in the 18th century. In the 19th century the names \"common schorl\", \"schörl\", \"schorl\" and \"iron tourmaline\" were the English words used for this mineral.", "Dravite, also called brown tourmaline, is the sodium magnesium rich tourmaline endmember. Uvite, in comparison, is a calcium magnesium tourmaline. Dravite forms multiple series, with other tourmaline members, including schorl and elbaite. The name \"dravite\" was used for the first time by Gustav Tschermak (1836–1927), Professor of Mineralogy and Petrography at the University of Vienna, in his book \"Lehrbuch der Mineralogie\" (published in 1884) for magnesium-rich (and sodium-rich) tourmaline from village Dobrova near Unterdrauburg in the Drava river area, Carinthia, Austro-Hungarian Empire. Today this tourmaline locality (type locality for dravite) at Dobrova (near Dravograd), is a part of the Republic of Slovenia. Tschermak gave this tourmaline the name dravite, for the Drava river area, which is the district along the Drava River (in German: \"Drau\", in Latin: \"Drave\") in Austria and Slovenia. The chemical composition which was given by Tschermak in 1884 for this dravite approximately corresponds to the formula NaMg(Al,Mg)BSiO(OH), which is in good agreement (except for the OH content) with the endmember formula of dravite as known today. Dravite varieties include the deep green chromium dravite and the vanadium dravite.", "A lithium-tourmaline elbaite was one of three pegmatitic minerals from Utö, Sweden, in which the new alkali element lithium (Li) was determined in 1818 by Johan August Arfwedson for the first time. Elba Island, Italy, was one of the first localities where colored and colorless Li-tourmalines were extensively chemically analysed. In 1850 Karl Friedrich August Rammelsberg described fluorine (F) in tourmaline for the first time. In 1870 he proved that all varieties of tourmaline contain chemically bound water. In 1889 Scharitzer proposed the substitution of (OH) by F in red Li-tourmaline from Sušice, Czech Republic. In 1914 Vladimir Vernadsky proposed the name \"Elbait\" for lithium-, sodium-, and aluminum-rich tourmaline from Elba Island, Italy, with the simplified formula (Li,Na)HAlBSiO. Most likely the type material for elbaite was found at Fonte del Prete, San Piero in Campo, Campo nell'Elba, Elba Island, Province of Livorno, Tuscany, Italy. In 1933 Winchell published an updated formula for elbaite, HNaLiAlBAlSiO, which is commonly used to date written as Na(LiAl)Al(BO)[SiO](OH)(OH). The first crystal structure determination of a Li-rich tourmaline was published in 1972 by Donnay and Barton, performed on a pink elbaite from San Diego County, California, United States.", "The tourmaline mineral group is chemically one of the most complicated groups of silicate minerals. Its composition varies widely because of isomorphous replacement (solid solution), and its general formula can be written as where: Luinaite-(OH) is a monoclinic distorted variant. A revised nomenclature for the tourmaline group was published in 2011.", "", "Tourmaline is a six-member ring cyclosilicate having a trigonal crystal system. It occurs as long, slender to thick prismatic and columnar crystals that are usually triangular in cross-section, often with curved striated faces. The style of termination at the ends of crystals is sometimes asymmetrical, called hemimorphism. Small slender prismatic crystals are common in a fine-grained granite called aplite, often forming radial daisy-like patterns. Tourmaline is distinguished by its three-sided prisms; no other common mineral has three sides. Prisms faces often have heavy vertical striations that produce a rounded triangular effect. Tourmaline is rarely perfectly euhedral. An exception was the fine dravite tourmalines of Yinnietharra, in western Australia. The deposit was discovered in the 1970s, but is now exhausted. All hemimorphic crystals are piezoelectric, and are often pyroelectric as well.", "Tourmaline has a variety of colors. Iron-rich tourmalines are usually black to bluish-black to deep brown, while magnesium-rich varieties are brown to yellow, and lithium-rich tourmalines are almost any color: blue, green, red, yellow, pink, etc. Rarely, it is colorless. Bi-colored and multicolored crystals are common, reflecting variations of fluid chemistry during crystallization. Crystals may be green at one end and pink at the other, or green on the outside and pink inside; this type is called watermelon tourmaline. Some forms of tourmaline are dichroic; they change color when viewed from different directions. The pink color of tourmalines from many localities is the result of prolonged natural irradiation. During their growth, these tourmaline crystals incorporated Mn and were initially very pale. Due to natural gamma ray exposure from radioactive decay of K in their granitic environment, gradual formation of Mn ions occurs, which is responsible for the deepening of the pink to red color.", "Opaque black schorl and yellow tsilaisite are idiochromatic tourmaline species that have high magnetic susceptibilities due to high concentrations of iron and manganese respectively. Most gem-quality tourmalines are of the elbaite species. Elbaite tourmalines are allochromatic, deriving most of their color and magnetic susceptibility from schorl (which imparts iron) and tsilaisite (which imparts manganese). Red and pink tourmalines have the lowest magnetic susceptibilities among the elbaites, while tourmalines with bright yellow, green and blue colors are the most magnetic elbaites. Dravite species such as green chromium dravite and brown dravite are diamagnetic. A handheld neodymium magnet can be used to identify or separate some types of tourmaline gems from others. For example, blue indicolite tourmaline is the only blue gemstone of any kind that will show a drag response when a neodymium magnet is applied. Any blue tourmaline that is diamagnetic can be identified as paraiba tourmaline colored by copper in contrast to magnetic blue tourmaline colored by iron.", "Some tourmaline gems, especially pink to red colored stones, are altered by heat treatment to improve their color. Overly dark red stones can be lightened by careful heat treatment. The pink color in manganese-containing near-colorless to pale pink stones can be greatly increased by irradiation with gamma-rays or electron beams. Irradiation is almost impossible to detect in tourmalines, and does not, currently, affect the value. Heavily included tourmalines, such as rubellite and Brazilian paraiba, are sometimes clarity-enhanced. A clarity-enhanced tourmaline (especially the paraiba variety) is worth much less than an untreated gem of equal clarity.", "Tourmaline is found in granite and granite pegmatites and in metamorphic rocks such as schist and marble. Schorl and lithium-rich tourmalines are usually found in granite and granite pegmatite. Magnesium-rich tourmalines, dravites, are generally restricted to schists and marble. Tourmaline is a durable mineral and can be found in minor amounts as grains in sandstone and conglomerate, and is part of the ZTR index for highly weathered sediments.", "Gem and specimen tourmaline is mined chiefly in Brazil and Africa. Some placer material suitable for gem use comes from Sri Lanka and India. In addition to Brazil, tourmaline is mined in Tanzania, Nigeria, Kenya, Madagascar, Mozambique, Namibia, Afghanistan, India, Sri Lanka, Belitung Island - Indonesia and Malawi.", "Some fine gems and specimen material have been produced in the United States, with the first discoveries in 1822, in the state of Maine. California became a large producer of tourmaline in the early 1900s. The Maine deposits tend to produce crystals in raspberry pink-red as well as minty greens. The California deposits are known for bright pinks, as well as bicolors. During the early 1900s, Maine and California were the world's largest producers of gem tourmalines. The Empress Dowager Cixi of China loved pink tourmaline and bought large quantities for gemstones and carvings from the then new Himalaya Mine, located in San Diego County, California. It is not clear when the first tourmaline was found in California. Native Americans have used pink and green tourmaline as funeral gifts for centuries. The first documented case was in 1890 when Charles Russel Orcutt found pink tourmaline at what later became the Stewart Mine at Pala, San Diego County.", "Almost every color of tourmaline can be found in Brazil, especially in the Brazilian states of Minas Gerais and Bahia. The new type of tourmaline, which soon became known as paraiba tourmaline, came in blue and green. Brazilian paraiba tourmaline usually contains abundant inclusions. Much of the paraiba tourmaline from Brazil actually comes from the neighboring state of Rio Grande do Norte. Material from Rio Grande do Norte is often somewhat less intense in color, but many fine gems are found there. It was determined that the element copper was important in the coloration of the stone.", "A large cut tourmaline from Paraiba, measuring and weighing 191.87 carats, was included in the Guinness World Records. The large natural gem, owned by Billionaire Business Enterprises, is a bluish-green in color. The flawless oval shaped cut stone was presented in Montreal, Quebec, Canada on 14 October 2009.", "In the late 1990s, copper-containing tourmaline was found in Nigeria. The material was generally paler and less saturated than the Brazilian materials, although the material generally was much less included. A more recent African discovery from Mozambique has also produced tourmaline colored by copper, similar to the Brazilian paraiba. While its colors are somewhat less bright than top Brazilian material, Mozambique paraiba is often less-included and has been found in larger sizes. The Mozambique paraiba material usually is more intensely colored than the Nigerian. Another highly valuable variety is chrome tourmaline, a rare type of dravite tourmaline from Tanzania. Chrome tourmaline is a rich green color due to the presence of chromium atoms in the crystal. Of the standard elbaite colors, blue indicolite gems are typically the most valuable, followed by green verdelite and pink to red rubellite." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Delfs was born in Flensburg, West Germany. He began studying piano and music theory at age ten, and by age twenty was named Music Director of the Hamburg University Orchestra. Delfs graduated from Hamburg Conservatory in 1981, and earned his Master's at Juilliard School of Music in 1984. At Hamburg, Delfs studied under Aldo Ceccato and Christoph von Dohnanyi. After receiving his Master's, he accepted the post of Assistant Conductor of the Pittsburgh Symphony Orchestra, then under the music directorship of Lorin Maazel. From 1984 to 1995 he also held the position of chief conductor of the Swiss Youth Symphony Orchestra (SYSO). Delfs was appointed Music Director and conductor of the Milwaukee Symphony Orchestra in 1997. In 1999, he led the Orchestra on a tour of Cuba, the first by an American orchestra in more than 37 years. In December 2006, the orchestra announced that Delfs would relinquish the music directorship of the Milwaukee Symphony after the 2008-2009 season (the Orchestra's fiftieth season), and become its Conductor Laureate. Delfs held the post of Music Director of the St. Paul Chamber Orchestra from 2001 to 2004, and the position of General Music Director of Hannover from 1996 to 2000. In March 2007, Delfs was named Principal Conductor of the Honolulu Symphony, with an initial contract of 3 years. His tenure with the Honolulu Symphony ended when it went bankrupt and filed for liquidation in December 2010. In June 2015, Delfs was appointed music director of the Temple University Symphony Orchestra at the Boyer College of Music and Dance, replacing the retired Luis Biava. In addition, he will also serve as a professor under the school's Department of Instrumental Studies." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "Islands.", "Settlements." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The northern coastline is overlooked by the hill Cruach An Aonaich, that is situated at the centre of the V shape of the loch, and the ridge of An t Aonach which follows the coastline northeast to the edge of the loch, where the ridge flattens out to sea level. The southern coastline is dominated by the fine cone shaped former volcano of An Stac, which is a Corbett and overlooks Lochailort to the north. Further behind An Stac to south, and overlooking the great expanse of the sea loch, is the west facing ridge that is made up of the Sgurr na Ba Glaise in the east followed by Rois-Bhein and Cruach Doir'an Raoigh, which are also, all Corbetts.", "Loch Ailort has a number of islands. At the entrance to the loch is two islands. Eilean nan Gobhar, or Eilean na Gour at the south of the loch mouth, and the other is Eilean á Chaolis. Eilean nan Gobhar, is famous for two vitrified forts. Further to the west lies the island of Eilean Buidhe, which lies at the centre of the channel and marks the point the sea loch turns northeast, for the upswing of the V shape. Further northeast, and visible from the village of Lochailort is the small mid channel island grouping of Eilean Dubh.", "Loch Ailort is remote and its coastline is only sparsely populated. At the head of the loch lies the hamlet of Lochailort. To the north, the Ardnish peninsula is mostly empty, apart from the occasional farmhouse or hunting lodge. The southern coastline contains Alisary in the east and Roshven in the west. Further west, lying outside the mouth of the sea loch, lies the hamlet of Glenuig" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Properties.", "Acidity.", "Condensation with aldehydes and ketones.", "C-Alkylation with alkenes.", "Other reactions.", "Synthesis.", "Classification." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Phenols are more acidic than typical alchols. The acidity of the hydroxyl group in phenols is commonly intermediate between that of aliphatic alcohols and carboxylic acids (their pK is usually between 10 and 12). Deprotonation of a phenol forms a corresponding negative phenolate ion or phenoxide ion, and the corresponding salts are called phenolates or phenoxides (aryloxides according to the IUPAC Gold Book).", "Phenols are susceptible to Electrophilic aromatic substitutions. Condensation with formaldehyde gives resinous materials, famously Bakelite. Another industrial-scale electrophilic aromatic substitution is the production of bisphenol A, which is produced by the condensation with acetone.", "Phenol is readily alkylated at the ortho positions using alkenes in the presence of a Lewis acid such as aluminium phenoxide: More than 100,000 tons of tert-butyl phenols are produced annually (year: 2000) in this way, using isobutylene (CH=CMe) as the alkylating agent. Especially important is 2,6-ditert-butylphenol, a versatile antioxidant.", "Phenols undergo esterfication. Phenol esters are active esters, being prone to hydrolysis. Phenols are reactive species toward oxidation. Oxidative cleavage, for instance cleavage of 1,2-dihydroxybenzene to the monomethylester of 2,4 hexadienedioic acid with oxygen, copper chloride in pyridine Oxidative de-aromatization to quinones also known as the Teuber reaction. and oxone. In reaction depicted below 3,4,5-trimethylphenol reacts with singlet oxygen generated from oxone/sodium carbonate in an acetonitrile/water mixture to a para-peroxyquinole. This hydroperoxide is reduced to the quinole with sodium thiosulfate. Phenols are oxidized to hydroquinones in the Elbs persulfate oxidation. Reaction of naphtols and hydrazines and sodium bisulfite in the Bucherer carbazole synthesis", "Many phenols of commercial interest are prepared by elaboration of phenol or cresols. They are typically produced by the alkylation of benzene/toluene with propylene to form cumene then is added with to form phenol (Hock process). In addition to the reactions above, many other more specialized reactions produce phenols:", "There are various classification schemes. A commonly used scheme is based on the number of carbons and was devised by Jeffrey Harborne and Simmonds in 1964 and published in 1980:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "Climate.", "History.", "Demographics.", "Governance.", "Popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The town of Bilisht is the most southeastern city of Albania. It is located to the east of the Devoll Valley, about 880-970m above sea level in a hilly relief that stretches from the Devoll River bed to Kokogllava hill over the city and covers an area of 1.4km2. With average altitude 925 m above sea level Bilisht is the second highest city in Albania after Ersekë (1020m above sea level). The city has a very favorable geographic position as it passes through the motorway link connecting Albania with Greece via the Kapshticë customs that is 7 km east of it. In the north the town is bordered by Bitinckë (3 km east of it), east bounded by the hills of Kokogllava (1140m above sea level), Stranra (1280m above sea level), Sellcë (an early residence near Bilisht) and Vërnik, (5 km east), south is bordered by Vishoçicë (3 km south), while west is bordered by Devoll River and villages like Poloskë (4 km), Kuç (3 km), Baban (5.5 km ) and Hoçisht (6.5 km). Bilisht has a population of about 12,000 and is the capital of the Municipality of Devoll. The tyrbe (tomb) of the Muslim Sufi saint Qazim Baba is located in Bilisht.", "The climate in Bilisht is Mediterranean transient, but with remarkable continental influence. The high sea level (930m), as well as the distance from the sea, makes the summer in Bilisht to be warm and fresh, with a cold and snowy winter, as well as with the fall of fresh autumn. The average annual temperature is 9.9 degrees. The hottest month of the year is July with an average of 19.5 degrees C, where the highest and lowest temperatures range from 14 degrees in the night and 26.6 degrees during the day. The coldest month is January with an average of 0.2 degrees, with average temperatures ranging from -3.6 degrees at night and 4.1 degrees during the day. The maximum temperature was reached in July 1988 (39 degrees) while the minimum was reached in January 2012 (-20 degrees). The annual temperature range is 19.3 degrees. The precipitation in Bilisht is lower than in other cities of Albania as a result of the strong continental and mountain ranges that surround this area. The average annual rainfall is 780mm. The largest amount of rainfall is reached in the spring and fall months: November (100mm) and October (89mm). Most of the precipitation is in May where on average there are 15 days of rainfall and 16 days of dryness. The dryest months are August (39mm) and July (40mm). The highest number of dry days is August, where on average there are 23 dry days and 8 days of rainfall In the second half of autumn snowfall begins which falls until April. During the winter the largest amount of snowfall falls, mainly in January (4 days on average) and February (5 days on average). Usually snow precipitation may be present even in the spring months. The frosts in Bilisht are present during the 8 months of the year, the month with the highest number of frosts is January (19 days), while the month with fewer days with frost is May (0.1 days) and October (1.3 days) The wind at Bilisht is mainly blowing from the west and the north, the month with the highest wind speed is February with March (9 km / h), while the lowest speed is August at 6 km / h. The largest windmill is March, where the average wind speed averages 5 km / h over the course of 15 days, while the less windy month is October, where the wind averaged 5 km / h in 7 days. Sunny days and sunset: The most sunny month is August, where on average there are 13 sunny days and 17 days partly cloudy or wintry, while the waning month is May where on average 25 days are cloudy or partly cloudy and 6 days with Sun.", "A fortified location dating from the early Iron Age exists nearby Bilisht. Bilisht was part of the Ottoman Empire for several centuries. Muslims in the kaza (district) of Bilisht owned tenet farms (baștina) in the late 16th century. Bilisht became an important centre for the Sufi Halveti order and maintained two or three tekkes in the town that were reliant on its tekke in Ohrid. During the Great Eastern Crisis, the Treaty of San Stefano nearly placed Albanian areas such as Bilisht in a proposed large Bulgarian state. Shortly thereafter it was superseded by the Treaty of Berlin that left the town and its surrounding area in the Ottoman Empire. In the late Ottoman period, the nahiya (sub-district) of Bilisht was a centre of revolutionary activity for Albanian and Aromanian cheta groups, whom collectively numbered some 150-200 individuals. Until the early twentieth century, Bilisht experienced population growth from the surrounding rural area, as it was a centre for artisan activities and trade located on important transport lines. It also made the town vulnerable in times of crisis to robberies and war. Following the Balkan Wars (1912-1913), Bilisht became part of Albania. Some Muslim Albanian villages on the Greek side of the border had Bilisht as their market town until their inhabitants were sent to Turkey during the Greco-Turkish exchange of populations (1923), based on religious criteria. Due to the Albanian census of 1923, the urban status of Bilisht was recognised. During the interwar period a tekke of the Rifa`i Sufi Order existed in Bilisht and part of the surrounding Muslim rural population emigrated to Australia. Bilisht was also the centre of the Bilisht district. In the 1960s, the area around Bilisht and neighboring Korçë had the highest densities of population in mountainous districts within the country (500 metres and above). During the early 1990s, Christianity and later Islam were revived in Albania. As such in Bilisht, the Orthodox church of Saint Veneranda (Shën e Premte) was rebuilt in 1992 followed by a new mosque in 1995. The town in post communist Albania has also been a recipient of in-migration by a small number of people from other parts of the country, due to pre-existing family connections. New shops have opened in Bilisht and it has been one of a number of towns in the wider area that has attracted investment.", "Ottoman geographer Hadji Khalfa (1609-1657) wrote that during the mid seventeenth century the nahiya (sub-district) of Bilisht was populated by a mixed Albanian and Bulgarian population and the Christian element was declining due to local disturbances and inhabitants converting to Islam. In the early nineteenth century, the ethnic border between Albanians and the neighbouring Slavic (Bulgarian) population ran close and to the east of Bilisht. Between 1805–1807, the British traveller William Martin Leake passed through the area, referred to the ethnic border and stated that the people of Bilisht spoke Albanian. According to Georgi Trajchev in 1929, Bilisht in 1912-1913 was recorded as having 20 households and 106 inhabitants with the settlement described as a Bulgarian village. During the 1980s, the population was 5600. In post-communist Albania, Bilisht contains a mixed population of Muslims and Orthodox Christians. In 1995, it had 8000 inhabitants and 7000 in 2001. Apart from the village of Vërnik, all other settlements of the Devoll region including Bilisht are populated by an Albanian speaking population. A Romani community also exists in the town that settled in Bilisht during the 17th century.", "The municipal council for Devoll composed of 17 members is located in Bilisht. In local Albanian elections of the early 2000s, a member of the Romani community was elected to the municipal council as a councilor. At the 2011 Albanian local elections, the Macedonian minority succeeded in electing one councilor to the municipal council. In the early 1990s, the Greek political party Omonia in Albania fielded a local candidate from Bilisht in elections, however it was later withdrawn after threats of violence.", "The town of Bilisht is the location for events in an Albanian polyphonic song \"Në plepat Bilishtit\" (The poplars of Bilisht) that commemorates male bravery, honour and family values." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Uses.", "Kalos.", "Agathos.", "Related terms." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The word was a term used in Greek when discussing the concept of aristocracy. It became a fixed phrase by which the Athenian aristocracy referred to itself; in the ethical philosophers, the first of whom were Athenian gentlemen, the term came to mean the ideal or perfect man. The phrase could be used both in a generic sense, or with certain specific force. As a generic term, it may have been used as the combination of distinct virtues, which we might translate as \"handsome and brave\", or the intersection of the two words \"good\" or \"upstanding\". Translations such as \"gentleman\" or \"knight\" have traditionally been suggested to convey the social aspect of the phrase, while \"war hero\" or the more cynical \"martyr\" are more recent versions, and emphasise the military element. Its recorded usage dates from the second half of the 5th and in the 4th century B.C.. For example, in Plato's \"Lysis\", a young man is described as \"imbued with kalokagathia\". There is thematic discussion of \"kalokagathia\" in Aristotle's \"Eudemian Ethics\", Book VIII, chapter 3 (1248b). And how a \"kalos kagathos\" (gentleman) should live is also discussed at length in Xenophon's Socratic dialogues, especially the \"Oeconomicus\". In Aristotle, the term becomes important as a technical term used in discussions about Ethics.", "The adjective means beautiful and encompasses meanings equivalent to English \"good\", \"noble\", and \"handsome\". The form given by convention is the masculine, but it was equally used of women (the feminine form is ) and could also describe animals or inanimate objects. Plato, in his work \"Republic\", used the term (the neutral form) in his attempts to define ideals. However, his protagonist in the dialogue, Socrates, stated that he did not fully comprehend the nature of this.", "This second adjective means \"good\" in a broad and general sense, and had no particular physical or aesthetic connotations, but could describe a person's excellence of character (ethical virtue), for example their bravery. In the 4th century, it often carried implications of dutiful citizenship.", "In Aristotle's ethical works such as the Nicomachean Ethics and Eudemian Ethics, the term \"megalopsuchia\" (\"greatness of soul\", magnanimity) has been interpreted as being \"large scale kalokagathia\" by the scholar Jennifer Whiting (1998). Her interpretation is dependent upon the interpretation that for Aristotle, both kalokagathia and megalopsuchia, are not, in their true forms, virtues that come about only because people want to be honoured for doing good things. The possession of the beautiful and the good has a correspondent in Latin: (\"a healthy soul in a healthy body\"). It is also seen as a target in balanced education of body and spirit." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Military career.", "Honours and awards." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Peter Leon Berbecki, born on a farm in Kalinowszczyzna in what is now Lublin, was one of four children. After graduating from grammar school, Berbecki enlisted in the army in 1891.", "After a short stint as an enlisted man in the 44th Infantry Regiment, Berbecki was sent to a Junkers military school, returning to his regiment in 1893. After serving as a junior officer, including a stint as quartermaster of his regiment, he left the army in 1901 to study at the Kharkiv Institute of Technology. In early 1903, he was drafted into the Imperial Russian Army as an officer. He later joined the Polish Legions during World War I (commander of a regiment, battalion, member of headquarters), distinguishing himself in the Battle of Raśna in 1915. After the Oath crisis in 1917, he headed the Polish Auxiliary Corps and was the training inspector of the Polnische Wehrmacht. After Poland regained its independence in 1918, he joined the Polish Army. Promoted to general in June of that year, Berbecki fought in the Polish-Ukrainian War and Polish-Soviet War, commanding the 3rd Polish Legions Division. During the interwar period, he held various functions in the Polish Army and retired in March 1939. He did not participate in the Polish September Campaign that marked the start of World War II but was arrested by Nazi Germany and interned along with other Polish officers. He returned to Poland in 1945, and published his memoirs \"Pamiętnik generała broni\" (Memoires of a General) in 1959.", "Recipient of Virtuti Militari (V class), Cross of Independence with Swords, Cross of Valor (4 times) and Cross of Merit (5 times)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "The two analytical models.", "Use by different portfolio styles.", "Top-down and bottom-up approaches.", "Procedures.", "Automation.", "Criticisms." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "There are two basic methodologies investors rely upon when the objective of the analysis is to determine what stock to buy and at what price: Investors can use one or both of these complementary methods for stock picking. For example, many fundamental investors use technical indicators for deciding entry and exit points. Similarly, a large proportion of technical investors use fundamental indicators to limit their pool of possible stocks to \"good\" companies. The choice of stock analysis is determined by the investor's belief in the different paradigms for \"how the stock market works\". For explanations of these paradigms, see the discussions at efficient-market hypothesis, random walk hypothesis, capital asset pricing model, Fed model Theory of Equity Valuation, market-based valuation, and behavioral finance. Fundamental analysis includes: The intrinsic value of the shares is determined based upon these three analyses. It is this value that is considered the true value of the share. If the intrinsic value is higher than the market price, buying the share is recommended. If it is equal to market price, it is recommended to hold the share; and if it is less than the market price, then one should sell the shares.", "Investors may also use fundamental analysis within different portfolio management styles.", "Investors using fundamental analysis can use either a top-down or bottom-up approach.", "The analysis of a business's health starts with a financial statement analysis that includes financial ratios. It looks at dividends paid, operating cash flow, new equity issues and capital financing. The earnings estimates and growth rate projections published widely by Thomson Reuters and others can be considered either \"fundamental\" (they are facts) or \"technical\" (they are investor sentiment) based on perception of their validity. Determined growth rates (of income and cash) and risk levels (to determine the discount rate) are used in various valuation models. The foremost is the discounted cash flow model, which calculates the present value of the future: The amount of debt a company possesses is also a major consideration in determining its health. It can be quickly assessed using the debt-to-equity ratio and the \"current ratio\" (current assets/current liabilities). The simple model commonly used is the P/E ratio (price-to-earnings ratio). Implicit in this model of a perpetual annuity (time value of money) is that the inverse, or the E/P rate, is the discount rate appropriate to the risk of the business. This model does not incorporate earnings growth. Growth estimates are incorporated into the PEG ratio. Its validity depends on the length of time analysts believe the growth will continue. IGAR models can be used to impute expected changes in growth from current P/E and historical growth rates for the stocks relative to a comparison index.", "The process of fundamental analysis has significantly dropped in difficulty over the past 10 years. Ever since computers became a household product, people have built software designed to make the investor's life easier. Fundamental analysis is one of the most time-consuming forms of analysis. Furthermore, with the fast-paced trading style of the 21st century, where markets are dominated by HFT firms and day traders, it is difficult to keep up with the market in a timely fashion. One way to go about cutting down analysis time, is to subscribe to either free or paid screening services. Screening services will allow you to search the entire market for stocks that match the quantitative fields you are looking for. These types of software then automatically give you results, hence cutting down on time spent sifting through SEC filings. Reference - Fundamental Analysis Software for more information on fundamental analysis software.", "Economists such as Burton Malkiel suggest that neither fundamental analysis nor technical analysis is useful in outperforming the markets. This is especially true of low liquidity markets or securities." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Geography.", "Demography.", "Economy.", "History.", "Twin towns — Sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The name \"“Zábřeh”\" consists of two parts. The prefix \"“zá”\", meaning “behind”, and the noun \"“břeh”\" meaning \"“riverbank”\". It is a reference to the nearby Moravská Sázava river. The town's railway station is named \"\"Zábřeh na Moravě“\" (literally \"Zábřeh in Moravia\") to distinguish it from another station called Zábřeh, now part of Dolní Benešov in Silesia, therefore the town is sometimes called \"“Zábřeh na Moravě”\", however its official name is just Zábřeh”. “Hohenstadt” is the German name. This name consists of the adjective “hohen” (“high”) and the noun “stadt” (“town”). A name with the same meaning is used in Latin sources – “Alta Civitas”. The origin of this name is unclear, as the town is situated in lowlands.", "About half of the town is situated in the lowlands of the Mohelnická brázda depression and the second half is located on the hillside of Zábřežská vrchovina (literally \"“Zábřeh Highlands”\") The Moravská Sázava river flows through the south of the town, and an international railway corridor runs along this river. The town is a part of the Hanakia ethnographic region. The Zábřeh Town Council also administers four nearby villages – Dolní Bušínov, Hněvkov, Pivonín and Václavov.", "The population of the town is around 13,500. Zábřeh was originally a Czech town with a German minority and a Jewish community. Most Jews were killed during the Nazi occupation, and the Germans were expelled in 1945 after Germany's borders were redrawn by the victorious Allied powers. Abandoned houses were taken over by Czechs from different parts of the country. Nowadays, the town is populated by a Czech majority and significant Romani and Vietnamese minorities.", "The unemployment rate was 12.7% in 2011. Historically Zábřeh was a textile town profiting from its location next to the international railway. Textile companies bankrupted in the 1990s due to former communist administration and cheap Asian competition. Therefore, the west part of the town is occupied by brownfield land which hasn’t been revitalized yet and is sporadically used as warehouses, workshops and as recreation space. Zábřeh is situated in fertile lowland which is used for agricultural production. Maize, wheat, oilseed rape, poppy and fodder plant are grown. A tall silo is situated in outskirt of the town and helps create town panorama. In the south of the town, next to the railway, a dairy is located. The Olma dairy produces yoghurts, milk, cream, butter and cheese. Its products are known in Czech Republic as well in Slovakia, Poland and Hungary. The owner is Andrej Babiš. The Sulko factory produces plastic windows and doors. Part of the production is exported to west Europe. The HDO factory processes zinc alloy. The Pass company, connected with automotive training school, provides complex truck and cars repair services. The butchery of Jiří Rýznar and The Hevos, the kitchen producer and designer, are regionally significant. U.S.-based Belmont Trading Company operates an eMaterials processing and recycling facility which prepares used mobile devices, computing equipment, and telecom network equipment for resale or recycling.", "Zábřeh has a long and rich past. The first note about the town dates back to 1254, when a man by the name of Sulislav from Zábřeh was mentioned. It is known that the city itself was founded before 1289, because of the name Hohenstadt appearing in sources. This was most likely a fortress around which a plantation began to grow, transforming into a town gradually. The ownership of Zábřeh can be ascribed to many famous houses of the time. The most famous one and probably the most cruel one was the house of Tunkl. Their ownership of the town dates back to 1442. The house was known for its countless arguments with neighbouring masters and also for its behaviour towards its vassals. However, they rebuilt the fortress and changed it into a castle, they had also a merit in pond foundation around the river Moravská Sázava. The struggle of vassals against their master Jiří Sr. Tunkl between 1492 and 1494 marked the end of this house. Then the town came under the mastership of the house Trčkové from Lípa, but only for a little while. The house was replaced by a more powerful one – the Boskovicové. The town went through a lot during further years. The situation improved in the 18th century, when the castle was rebuilt once again and extended along with a baroque parish church. In the 19th century the Prague - Olomouc railway was built through the town marking Zábřeh as a powerful centre of economy, government and cultural life. Until 1918, \"Hohenstadt - Zábřeh\" (German name only before 1867) was part of the Austrian monarchy (Austria side after the compromise of 1867), head of the district with the same name, one of the 34 \"Bezirkshauptmannschaften\" in Moravia. The city was connected to the railway before 1850. In 1938, it was occupied by the Nazi Army as one of the municipalities in Sudetenland. The German speaking population was expelled in 1945 (see the Beneš decrees).", "Zábřeh is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Structure and catalytic mechanism.", "Physiological distribution.", "Human lipases.", "Industrial uses.", "Diagnostic use.", "Medical use.", "References." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A diverse array of genetically distinct lipase enzymes are found in nature, and they represent several types of protein folds and catalytic mechanisms. However, most are built on an alpha/beta hydrolase fold and employ a chymotrypsin-like hydrolysis mechanism using a catalytic triad consisting of a serine nucleophile, a histidine base, and an acid residue, usually aspartic acid.", "Lipases are involved in diverse biological processes which range from routine metabolism of dietary triglycerides to cell signaling and inflammation. Thus, some lipase activities are confined to specific compartments within cells while others work in extracellular spaces.", "The main lipases of the human digestive system are pancreatic lipase (PL) and pancreatic lipase related protein 2 (PLRP2), which are secreted by the pancreas. Humans also have several related enzymes, including hepatic lipase, endothelial lipase, and lipoprotein lipase. Not all of these lipases function in the gut (see table). Other lipases include,,,,,,,,, and. There also are a diverse array of phospholipases, but these are not always classified with the other lipases.", "Lipases serve important roles in human practices as ancient as yogurt and cheese fermentation. However, lipases are also being exploited as cheap and versatile catalysts to degrade lipids in more modern applications. For instance, a biotechnology company has brought recombinant lipase enzymes to market for use in applications such as baking, laundry detergents and even as biocatalysts in alternative energy strategies to convert vegetable oil into fuel. High enzyme activity lipase can replace traditional catalyst in processing biodiesel, as this enzyme replaces chemicals in a process which is otherwise highly energy intensive, and can be more environmentally friendly and safe. Industrial application of lipases requires process intensification for continuous processing using tools like continuous flow microreactors at small scale. Lipases are generally animal sourced, but can also be sourced microbially.", "Blood tests for lipase may be used to help investigate and diagnose acute pancreatitis and other disorders of the pancreas. Measured serum lipase values may vary depending on the method of analysis.", "Lipase can also assist in the breakdown of fats into lipids in those undergoing pancreatic enzyme replacement therapy (PERT). It is a key component in Sollpura (Liprotamase).", "25. Gulzar, Bio-degradation of hydrocarbons using different bacterial and fungal species. Published in international conference on biotechnology and neurosciences. CUSAT (cochin university of science and technology), 2003" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Antiquity.", "Medieval and Ottoman period.", "Legend." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Due to its strategic location, the hill has been settled since antiquity. It was an Illyrian stronghold during the rule of the Labeates and Ardiaei, whose capital was Scodra. During the Third Illyrian War the Illyrian king Gentius concentrated his forces in Scodra. When he was attacked by the Roman army lead by L. Anicius Gallus, Gentius fled into the city and was trapped there hoping that his brother Caravantius would come at any moment with a large relieving army, but it didn't happen. After his defeat, Gentius sent two prominent tribal leaders, Teuticus and Bellus, as envoys to negotiate with the Roman commander. On the third day of the truce, Gentius surrendered to the Romans, was placed in custody and sent to Rome. The Roman army marched north of Scutari Lake where, at Meteon, they captured Gentius' wife queen Etuta, his brother Caravantius, his sons Scerdilaidas and Pleuratus along with leading Illyrians. The fall of the Ardiaean Kingdom in 168 BC is transmitted by Livy in a ceremonial manner of the triumph of Anicius in Rome:", "The 19th-century German author and explorer Johann Georg von Hahn suggested that the ancient and medieval city of Shkodër was located immediately south of the Rozafa hill, between the hill and the confluence of Buna and Drin. The fortifications, as they have been preserved to date, are mostly of Venetian origin. Within the Castle there are the ruins of a 13th-century Venetian Catholic church, considered by scholars as the St. Steven's Cathedral, which after the siege of Shkodër in the 15th century, when the Ottoman Empire captured the city, was transformed into the Fatih Sultan Mehmet Mosque. The castle has been the site of several famous sieges, including the siege of Shkodër of 1478-79 and the siege of Shkodër of 1912-13. The castle and its surroundings form an Archaeological Park of Albania.", "There is a famous legend among Albanians associated with the construction of the Rozafa Castle, which has been transmitted orally from ancient times, with immurement and human sacrifice as main themes. The story tells about the initiative of three brothers who set down to build a castle. They worked all day, but the foundation walls fell down at night. They met a wise old man who seems to know the solution of the problem asking them if they were married. When the three brothers responded positively, the old man said: The three brothers swore on \"besa\" to not speak with their wives of that happened. However the two eldest brothers broke their promise and quietly told their wives everything, while the honest youngest brother kept his \"besa\" and said nothing. The mother of the three brothers knew nothing of their agreement, and while the next afternoon at lunch time, she asked her daughters-in-law to bring lunch to the workers, two of them refused with an excuse. The brothers waited anxiously to see which wife was carrying the basket of food. It was Rozafa, the wife of the youngest brother, who left her younger son at home. Embittered, the youngest brother explained to her what the deal was, that she was to be sacrificed and buried in the wall of the castle so that they could finish building it, and she didn't protest but, worried about her infant son, she accepted being immured and made a request:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Faith and reason.", "Philosophical thought.", "Nominalism.", "Efficient reasoning.", "Natural philosophy.", "Theory of knowledge.", "Political theory.", "Logic.", "Literary Ockhamism/nominalism.", "Works.", "In fiction." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "William of Ockham was born in Ockham, Surrey in 1285. He received his elementary education in the London House of the Greyfriars. It is believed that he then studied theology at the University of Oxford from 1309 to 1321, but while he completed all the requirements for a master's degree in theology, he was never made a regent master. Because of this, he acquired the honorific title \"Venerabilis Inceptor\", or \"Venerable Beginner\" (an \"inceptor\" was a student formally admitted to the ranks of teachers by the university authorities). During the Middle Ages, theologian Peter Lombard's \"Sentences\" (1150) had become a standard work of theology, and many ambitious theological scholars wrote commentaries on it. William of Ockham was among these scholarly commentators. However, William's commentary was not well received by his colleagues, or by the Church authorities. In 1324, his commentary was condemned as unorthodox by a synod of bishops, and he was ordered to Avignon, France, to defend himself before a papal court. An alternative understanding, recently proposed by George Knysh, suggests that he was initially appointed in Avignon as a professor of philosophy in the Franciscan school, and that his disciplinary difficulties did not begin until 1327. It is generally believed that these charges were levied by Oxford chancellor John Lutterell. The Franciscan Minister General, Michael of Cesena, had been summoned to Avignon, to answer charges of heresy. A theological commission had been asked to review his \"Commentary on the Sentences\", and it was during this that William of Ockham found himself involved in a different debate. Michael of Cesena had asked William to review arguments surrounding Apostolic poverty. The Franciscans believed that Jesus and his apostles owned no property either individually or in common, and the Rule of Saint Francis commanded members of the order to follow this practice. This brought them into conflict with Pope John XXII. Because of the pope's attack on the Rule of Saint Francis, William of Ockham, Michael of Cesena and other leading Franciscans fled Avignon on 26 May 1328, and eventually took refuge in the court of the Holy Roman Emperor Louis IV of Bavaria, who was also engaged in dispute with the papacy, and became William's patron. After studying the works of John XXII and previous papal statements, William agreed with the Minister General. In return for protection and patronage William wrote treatises that argued for emperor Louis to have supreme control over church and state in the Holy Roman Empire. \"On June 6, 1328, William was officially excommunicated for leaving Avignon without permission,\" and William argued that John XXII was a heretic for attacking the doctrine of Apostolic poverty and the Rule of Saint Francis, which had been endorsed by previous popes. William of Ockham's philosophy was never officially condemned as heretical. He spent much of the remainder of his life writing about political issues, including the relative authority and rights of the spiritual and temporal powers. After Michael of Cesena's death in 1342, William became the leader of the small band of Franciscan dissidents living in exile with Louis IV. William of Ockham died (prior to the outbreak of the plague) on 9 April 1347.", "William of Ockham espoused fideism, stating that \"only faith gives us access to theological truths. The ways of God are not open to reason, for God has freely chosen to create a world and establish a way of salvation within it apart from any necessary laws that human logic or rationality can uncover.\" He believed that science was a matter of discovery and saw God as the only ontological necessity. His importance is as a theologian with a strongly developed interest in logical method, and whose approach was critical rather than system building.", "In scholasticism, William of Ockham advocated reform in both method and content, the aim of which was simplification. William incorporated much of the work of some previous theologians, especially Duns Scotus. From Duns Scotus, William of Ockham derived his view of divine omnipotence, his view of grace and justification, much of his epistemology and ethical convictions. However, he also reacted to and against Scotus in the areas of predestination, penance, his understanding of universals, his formal distinction (that is, \"as applied to created things\"), and his view of parsimony which became known as Occam's Razor.", "William of Ockham was a pioneer of nominalism, and some consider him the father of modern epistemology, because of his strongly argued position that only individuals exist, rather than supra-individual universals, essences, or forms, and that universals are the products of abstraction from individuals by the human mind and have no extra-mental existence. He denied the real existence of metaphysical universals and advocated the reduction of ontology. William of Ockham is sometimes considered an advocate of conceptualism rather than nominalism, for whereas nominalists held that universals were merely names, i.e. words rather than extant realities, conceptualists held that they were mental concepts, i.e. the names were names of concepts, which do exist, although only in the mind. Therefore, the universal concept has for its object, not a reality existing in the world outside us, but an internal representation which is a product of the understanding itself and which \"supposes\" in the mind the things to which the mind attributes it; that is, it holds, for the time being, the place of the things which it represents. It is the term of the reflective act of the mind. Hence the universal is not a mere word, as Roscelin taught, nor a \"sermo\", as Peter Abelard held, namely the word as used in the sentence, but the mental substitute for real things, and the term of the reflective process. For this reason William has sometimes also been called a \"terminist\", to distinguish him from a nominalist or a conceptualist. William of Ockham was a theological voluntarist who believed that if God had wanted to, he could have become incarnate as a donkey or an ox, or even as both a donkey and a man at the same time. He was criticized for this belief by his fellow theologians and philosophers.", "One important contribution that he made to modern science and modern intellectual culture was efficient reasoning with the principle of parsimony in explanation and theory building that came to be known as Occam's Razor. This maxim, as interpreted by Bertrand Russell, states that if one can explain a phenomenon without assuming this or that hypothetical entity, there is no ground for assuming it, i.e. that one should always opt for an explanation in terms of the fewest possible causes, factors, or variables. He turned this into a concern for ontological parsimony; the principle says that one should not multiply entities beyond necessity – – although this well-known formulation of the principle is not to be found in any of William's extant writings. He formulates it as: \"For nothing ought to be posited without a reason given, unless it is self-evident (literally, known through itself) or known by experience or proved by the authority of Sacred Scripture.\" For William of Ockham, the only truly necessary entity is God; everything else is contingent. He thus does not accept the principle of sufficient reason, rejects the distinction between essence and existence, and opposes the Thomistic doctrine of active and passive intellect. His scepticism to which his ontological parsimony request leads appears in his doctrine that human reason can prove neither the immortality of the soul; nor the existence, unity, and infinity of God. These truths, he teaches, are known to us by revelation alone.", "William wrote a great deal on natural philosophy, including a long commentary on Aristotle's \"Physics\". According to the principle of ontological parsimony, he holds that we do not need to allow entities in all ten of Aristotle's categories; we thus do not need the category of quantity, as the mathematical entities are not \"real\". Mathematics must be applied to other categories, such as the categories of substance or qualities, thus anticipating modern scientific renaissance while violating Aristotelian prohibition of \"metabasis\".", "In the theory of knowledge, William rejected the scholastic theory of species, as unnecessary and not supported by experience, in favour of a theory of abstraction. This was an important development in late medieval epistemology. He also distinguished between intuitive and abstract cognition; intuitive cognition depends on the existence or non-existence of the object, whereas abstractive cognition \"abstracts\" the object from the existence predicate. Interpreters are, as yet, undecided about the roles of these two types of cognitive activities.", "William of Ockham is also increasingly being recognized as an important contributor to the development of Western constitutional ideas, especially those of government with limited responsibility. He was one of the first medieval authors to advocate a form of church/state separation, and was important for the early development of the notion of property rights. His political ideas are regarded as \"natural\" or \"secular\", holding for a secular absolutism. The views on monarchical accountability espoused in his \"Dialogus\" (written between 1332 and 1347) greatly influenced the Conciliar movement and assisted in the emergence of liberal democratic ideologies. William argued for complete separation of spiritual rule and earthly rule. He thought that the pope and churchmen have no right or grounds at all for secular rule like having property, citing 2 Tim. 2:4. That belongs solely to earthly rulers, who may also accuse the pope of crimes, if need be. After the Fall God had given men, including non-Christians, two powers: private ownership and the right to set their rulers, who should serve the interest of the people, not some special interests. Thus he preceded Thomas Hobbes in formulating social contract theory along with earlier scholars. William of Ockham said that the Franciscans avoided both private and common ownership by using commodities, including food and clothes, without any rights, with mere \"usus facti\", the ownership still belonging to the donor of the item or to the pope. Their opponents such as pope John XXII wrote that use without any ownership cannot be justified: \"\"It is impossible that an external deed could be just if the person has no right to do it.\"\" Thus the disputes on the heresy of Franciscans led William of Ockham and others to formulate some fundamentals of economic theory and the theory of ownership.", "In logic, William of Ockham wrote down in words the formulae that would later be called De Morgan's Laws, and he pondered ternary logic, that is, a logical system with three truth values; a concept that would be taken up again in the mathematical logic of the 19th and 20th centuries. His contributions to semantics, especially to the maturing theory of supposition, are still studied by logicians. William of Ockham was probably the first logician to treat empty terms in Aristotelian syllogistic effectively; he devised an empty term semantics that exactly fit the syllogistic. Specifically, an argument is valid according to William's semantics if and only if it is valid according to \"Prior Analytics\".", "William of Ockham and his works have been discussed as a possible influence on several late medieval literary figures and works, especially Geoffrey Chaucer, but also Jean Molinet, the \"Gawain\" poet, François Rabelais, John Skelton, Julian of Norwich, the York and Townely Plays, and Renaissance romances. Only in very few of these cases is it possible to demonstrate direct links to William of Ockham or his texts. Correspondences between Ockhamist and Nominalist philosophy/theology and literary texts from medieval to postmodern times have been discussed within the scholarly paradigm of literary nominalism. Erasmus, in his \"Praise of Folly\", criticized him together with Duns Scotus as fuelling unnecessary controversies inside the Church.", "The standard edition of the philosophical and theological works is: \"William of Ockham: Opera philosophica et theologica\", Gedeon Gál, et al., eds. 17 vols. St. Bonaventure, N. Y.: The Franciscan Institute, 1967–88. The seventh volume of the \"Opera Philosophica\" contains the doubtful and spurious works. The political works, all but the \"Dialogus\", have been edited in H. S. Offler, et al., eds. \"Guilelmi de Ockham Opera Politica\", 4 vols., 1940–97, Manchester: Manchester University Press [vols. 1–3]; Oxford: Oxford University Press [vol. 4]. Abbreviations: OT = Opera Theologica voll. 1–10; OP = Opera Philosophica voll. 1–7.", "William of Occam served as an inspiration for the creation of William of Baskerville, the main character of Umberto Eco's novel \"The Name of the Rose\", and is the main character of \"La abadía del crimen\" (\"The Abbey of Crime\"), a video game based upon said novel." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Filesystem.", "Features.", "Forks." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Each MyISAM table is stored on disk in three files (if it is not partitioned). The files have names that begin with the table name and have an extension to indicate the file type. MySQL uses a.frm file to store the definition of the table, but this file is not a part of the MyISAM engine; instead it is a part of the server. The data file has a.MYD (MYData) extension. The index file has a.MYI (MYIndex) extension.", "MyISAM is optimized for environments with heavy read operations, and few writes, or none at all. A typical area in which one could prefer MyISAM is data warehouse because it involves queries on very big tables, and the update of such tables is done when the database is not in use (usually by night). The reason MyISAM allows for fast reads is the structure of its indexes: each entry points to a record in the data file, and the pointer is offset from the beginning of the file. This way records can be quickly read, especially when the format is FIXED. Thus, the rows are of constant length. Inserts are easy too because new rows are appended to the end of the data file. However, delete and update operations are more problematic: deletes must leave an empty space, or the rows' offsets would change; the same goes for updates, as the length of the rows becomes shorter; if the update makes the row longer, the row is fragmented. To defragment rows and claim empty space, the OPTIMIZE TABLE command must be executed. Because of this simple mechanism, MyISAM index statistics are usually quite accurate. However, the simplicity of MyISAM has several drawbacks. The major deficiency of MyISAM is the absence of transactions support. Also, foreign keys are not supported. In normal use cases, InnoDB seems to be faster than MyISAM. Versions of MySQL 5.5 and greater have switched to the InnoDB engine to ensure referential integrity constraints, and higher concurrency. MyISAM supports FULLTEXT indexing and OpenGIS data types.", "MariaDB has a storage engine called Aria, which is described as a \"crash-safe alternative to MyISAM\". However, the MariaDB developers still work on MyISAM code. The major improvement is the \"Segmented Key Cache\". If it is enabled, MyISAM indices' cache is divided into segments. This improves the concurrency because threads rarely need to lock the entire cache. In MariaDB, MyISAM also supports virtual columns. Drizzle does not include MyISAM." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Consolidation of the shogunate.", "Foreign trade relations.", "Society.", "Economic development.", "Population.", "Economy and financial services.", "Artistic and intellectual development.", "Education.", "Philosophy and religion.", "Culture.", "Entertainment.", "Fashion.", "End of the shogunate.", "Decline of the Tokugawa.", "End of seclusion.", "Bakumatsu modernization and conflicts.", "Events.", "Era Names.", "In popular culture.", "Sources." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A revolution took place from the time of the Kamakura shogunate, which existed with the Tennō's court, to the Tokugawa, when the \"samurai\" became the unchallenged rulers in what historian Edwin O. Reischauer called a \"centralized feudal\" form of shogunate. Instrumental in the rise of the new bakufu was Tokugawa Ieyasu, the main beneficiary of the achievements of Oda Nobunaga and Toyotomi Hideyoshi. Already a powerful daimyo, Ieyasu profited by his transfer to the rich Kantō area. He maintained two million \"koku\" of land, a new headquarters at Edo, a strategically situated castle town (the future Tokyo), and also had an additional two million \"koku\" of land and thirty-eight vassals under his control. After Hideyoshi's death, Ieyasu moved quickly to seize control from the Toyotomi clan. Ieyasu's victory over the western \"daimyō\" at the Battle of Sekigahara (October 21, 1600, or in the Japanese calendar on the 15th day of the ninth month of the fifth year of the Keichō era) gave him control of all Japan. He rapidly abolished numerous enemy \"daimyō\" houses, reduced others, such as that of the Toyotomi, and redistributed the spoils of war to his family and allies. Ieyasu still failed to achieve complete control of the western \"daimyō\", but his assumption of the title of \"shōgun\" helped consolidate the alliance system. After further strengthening his power base, Ieyasu installed his son Hidetada (1579–1632) as \"shōgun\" and himself as retired \"shōgun\" in 1605. The Toyotomi were still a significant threat, and Ieyasu devoted the next decade to their eradication. In 1615, the Tokugawa army destroyed the Toyotomi stronghold at Osaka. The Tokugawa (or Edo) period brought 250 years of stability to Japan. The political system evolved into what historians call \"bakuhan\", a combination of the terms \"bakufu\" and \"han\" (domains) to describe the government and society of the period. In the \"bakuhan\", the \"shōgun\" had national authority and the \"daimyō\" had regional authority. This represented", "Like Hideyoshi, Ieyasu encouraged foreign trade but also was suspicious of outsiders. He wanted to make Edo a major port, but once he learned that the Europeans favored ports in Kyūshū and that China had rejected his plans for official trade, he moved to control existing trade and allowed only certain ports to handle specific kinds of commodities. The beginning of the Edo period coincides with the last decades of the Nanban trade period during which intense interaction with European powers, on the economic and religious plane, took place. It is at the beginning of the Edo period that Japan built its first ocean-going Western-style warships, such as the \"San Juan Bautista\", a 500-ton galleon-type ship that transported a Japanese embassy headed by Hasekura Tsunenaga to the Americas and then to Europe. Also during that period, the \"bakufu\" commissioned around 720 Red Seal Ships, three-masted and armed trade ships, for intra-Asian commerce. Japanese adventurers, such as Yamada Nagamasa, used those ships throughout Asia. The \"Christian problem\" was, in effect, a problem of controlling both the Christian \"daimyō\" in Kyūshū and their trade with the Europeans. By 1612, the \"shōgun\"s retainers and residents of Tokugawa lands had been ordered to forswear", "During the Tokugawa period, the social order, based on inherited position rather than personal merits, was rigid and highly formalized. At the top were the emperor and court nobles (\"kuge\"), together with the \"shōgun\" and \"daimyō\". Below them the population was divided into four classes in a system known as \"mibunsei\" (身分制): the samurai on top (about 5% of the population) and the peasants (more than 80% of the population) on the second level. Below the peasants were the craftsmen, and even below them, on the fourth level, were the merchants. Only the peasants lived in the rural areas. Samurai, craftsmen and merchants lived in the cities that were built around \"daimyō\" castles, each restricted to their own quarter. Edo society had an elaborate social structure, in which every family knew its place and level of prestige. At the top were the Emperor and the court nobility, invincible in prestige but weak in power. Next came the shōgun, \"daimyō\" and layers of feudal lords whose rank was indicated by their closeness to the Tokugawa. They had power. The \"daimyō\" comprised about 250 local lords of local \"han\" with annual outputs of 50,000 or more bushels of rice. The upper strata was much given to elaborate and expensive rituals, including elegant architecture, landscaped gardens, Noh drama, patronage of the arts, and the tea ceremony. Then came the 400,000 warriors, called \"samurai\", in numerous grades and degrees. A few upper samurai were eligible for high office; most were foot soldiers (ashigaru). Since there was very little fighting, they became civil servants paid by the daimyo, with minor duties. The samurai were affiliated with senior lords in a well-established chain of command. The shogun had 17,000 samurai retainers; the daimyo each had hundreds. Most lived in modest homes near their lord's headquarters, and lived off of hereditary rights and stipends.", "The Edo period bequeathed a vital commercial sector to be in burgeoning urban centers, a relatively well-educated elite, a sophisticated government bureaucracy, productive agriculture, a closely unified nation with highly developed financial and marketing systems, and a national infrastructure of roads. Economic development during the Tokugawa period included urbanization, increased shipping of commodities, a significant expansion of domestic and, initially, foreign commerce, and a diffusion of trade and handicraft industries. The construction trades flourished, along with banking facilities and merchant associations. Increasingly, \"han\" authorities oversaw the rising agricultural production and the spread of rural handicrafts.", "By the mid-18th century, Edo had a population of more than one million, likely the biggest city in the world at the time. Osaka and Kyoto each had more than 400,000 inhabitants. Many other castle towns grew as well. Osaka and Kyoto became busy trading and handicraft production centers, while Edo was the center for the supply of food and essential urban consumer goods. Around the year 1700, Japan was perhaps the most urbanized country in the world, at a rate of around 10-12%. Half of that figure would be samurai, while the other half, consisting of merchants and artisans, would be", "The Tokugawa era brought peace, and that brought prosperity to a nation of 31 million, 80% of them rice farmers. Rice production increased steadily, but population remained stable. Rice paddies grew from 1.6 million chō in 1600 to 3 million by 1720. Improved technology helped farmers control the all-important flow of water to their paddies. The daimyos operated several hundred castle towns, which became loci of domestic trade. The system of \"sankin kōtai\" meant that daimyos and their families often resided in Edo or travelled back to their domains, giving demand to an enormous consumer market in Edo and trade throughout the country. Samurai and daimyos, after prolonged peace, are accustomed to more elaborate lifestyles. To keep up with growing expenditures, the \"bakufu\" and daimyos often encouraged commercial crops and artifacts within their domains, from textiles to tea. The concentration of wealth also led to the development of financial markets. As the shogunate only allowed \"daimyos\" to sell surplus rice in Edo and Osaka, large-scale rice markets developed there. Each daimyo also had a capital city, located near the one castle they were allowed to maintain. Daimyos would have agents in various commercial centers, selling rice and cash crops, often exchanged for paper credit to be redeemed elsewhere. Merchants invented credit instruments to transfer money, and currency came into common use. In the cities and towns, guilds of merchants and artisans met the growing demand for goods and services. The merchants benefited enormously, especially those with official patronage. However, the Neo-Confucian ideology of the shogunate focused the virtues of frugality and hard work; it had a rigid class system, which emphasized agriculture and despised commerce and merchants. A century after the Shogunate's establishment, problems began to emerge. The samurai, forbidden to engage in farming or business but allowed", "", "The first shogun Ieyasu set up Confucian academies in his \"shinpan\" domains and other \"daimyos\" followed suit in their own domains, establishing what's known as \"han\" schools (藩校, \"hankō\"). Within a generation, almost all samurai were literate, as their careers often required knowledge of literary arts. These academies were staffed mostly with other samurais, along with some buddhist and shinto clergymen who were also learned in Neo-Confucianism and the works of Zhu Xi. Beyond kanji (Chinese characters), the Confucian classics, calligraphy, basic arithmetics, and etiquette, the samurai also learned various martial arts and military skills in schools. The \"chōnin\"", "The flourishing of Neo-Confucianism was the major intellectual development of the Tokugawa period. Confucian studies had long been kept active in Japan by Buddhist clerics, but during the Tokugawa period, Confucianism emerged from Buddhist religious control. This system of thought increased attention to a secular view of man and society. The ethical humanism, rationalism, and historical perspective of neo-Confucian doctrine appealed to the official class. By the mid-17th century, neo-Confucianism was Japan's dominant legal philosophy and contributed directly to the development of the \"kokugaku\" (national learning) school of thought. Advanced studies and growing applications of neo-Confucianism contributed", "For the first time, urban populations had the means and leisure time to support a new mass culture. Their search for enjoyment became known as \"ukiyo\" (the floating world), an ideal world of fashion, popular entertainment, and the discovery of aesthetic qualities in objects and actions of everyday life. This increasing interest in pursuing recreational activities helped to develop an array of new industries, many of which could be found in an area known as Yoshiwara. The region was better known for being the center of Edo's developing sense of elegance and refinement. This", "The Edo period was characterized by an unprecedented series of economic developments (despite termination of contact with the outside world) and cultural maturation, especially in terms of theater, music, and other entertainment. For example, a poetic meter for music called kinsei kouta-chō was invented during this time and is", "Clothing acquired a wide variety of designs and decorative techniques, especially for kimono worn by women. The main consumers of kimono were the samurai who used lavish clothing and other material luxuries to signal their place at the top of the social order. Driven by this demand, the textile industry grew and used increasingly sophisticated methods of weaving, dyeing, and embroidery. Over this period, women adopted brighter colours and bolder designs, whereas women's and men's kimono had been very similar. The rise of a merchant class fuelled more demand for elaborate costumes. While ordinary kimono would usually be created by women at home, luxurious silk kimono were designed and created by specialist artists who were usually men. A kind of kimono specific to the military elite is the or \"palace court style\", which would be worn in", "", "The end of this period is specifically called the late Tokugawa shogunate. The cause for the end of this period is controversial but is recounted as the forcing of Japan's opening to the world by Commodore Matthew Perry of the US Navy, whose armada (known by Japanese as \"the black ships\") fired weapons from Edo Bay. Several artificial land masses were created to block the range of the armada, and this land remains in what is presently called the Odaiba district. The Tokugawa did not eventually collapse simply because of intrinsic failures. Foreign intrusions helped to precipitate a complex political struggle between the \"bakufu\" and a coalition of its critics. The continuity of the anti-\"bakufu\" movement in the mid-19th century would finally bring down the Tokugawa. Historians consider that a major contributing factor to the decline of the Tokugawa was \"poor management of the central government by the \"shōgun\", which caused the social classes in", "When Commodore Matthew C. Perry's four-ship squadron appeared in Edo Bay in July 1853, the bakufu was thrown into turmoil. The chairman of the senior councillors, Abe Masahiro (1819–1857), was responsible for dealing with the Americans. Having no precedent to manage this threat to national security, Abe tried to balance the desires of the senior councillors to compromise with the foreigners, of the emperor who wanted to keep the foreigners out, and of the \"daimyō\" who wanted to go to war. Lacking consensus, Abe decided to compromise by accepting Perry's demands for opening Japan to foreign trade while also making military preparations. In March 1854, the Treaty of Peace and Amity (or Treaty of Kanagawa) opened two ports to American ships seeking provisions, guaranteed good treatment to shipwrecked American sailors, and allowed a United States consul to take up residence in Shimoda, a seaport on the Izu", "During the last years of the \"bakufu\", or \"bakumatsu\", the \"bakufu\" took strong measures to try to reassert its dominance, although its involvement with modernization and foreign powers was to make it a target of anti-Western sentiment throughout the country. The army and the navy were modernized. A naval training school was established in Nagasaki in 1855. Naval students were sent to study in Western naval schools for several years, starting a tradition of foreign-educated future leaders, such as Admiral Enomoto. French naval engineers were hired to build naval arsenals, such as Yokosuka and Nagasaki. By the end of the Tokugawa shogunate in 1867, the Japanese navy of the \"shōgun\" already possessed eight Western-style steam warships around the flagship \"Kaiyō Maru\", which were used against pro-imperial forces during the Boshin War under the command of Admiral Enomoto. A French military mission was established to help modernize the armies of the \"bakufu\". Revering the", "", "The Imperial Eras proclaimed", "The Edo period is the setting of many works of popular culture. These include novels, comics, stageplays, films, television", "Japan" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Revenue.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "MySQL AB representatives are commonly cited as champions of what they claim to be a \"second generation\" of open source companies. The revenues of both first and second generation open source companies usually derive from selling support, consulting services, and training for their products. What generally distinguishes this \"second generation\" of companies, such as MySQL AB and Trolltech, from earlier \"open source\" business models is dual licensing — the software is supplied under an open source license, but traditional software licences are also sold by the company that owns the software. As an example, MySQL AB makes MySQL available under the GPL at no charge, but sells it under other more traditional licenses to clients who do not find the GPL to be ideal for their purposes, such as inclusion of MySQL AB technology in a closed source product. Other sources of revenue for MySQL AB were providing support and consulting, as well as training and certification for MySQL Server. Together with some additional services, MySQL also provided a subscription-based product called MySQL Enterprise, which is also resold by other companies such as Dell, HP, and Novell. A third round of about $18.5 million financing led by Institutional Venture Partners, including Intel Capital, Red Hat, SAP Ventures, and others was disclosed in February 2006.", "On January 16, 2008, MySQL AB announced that it had agreed to be acquired by Sun Microsystems for approximately $1 billion. The acquisition completed on 26 February, 2008. Oracle Corporation then acquired Sun in 2010." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Names.", "Description.", "Lifestyle.", "Desert conditions.", "Prolonged drought.", "Uses." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Common names for this plant include flower of stone, false rose of Jericho, rose of Jericho, resurrection plant, resurrection moss, dinosaur plant, siempre viva, stone flower, and doradilla. \"Selaginella lepidophylla\" is not to be confused with \"Anastatica\". Both species are resurrection plants and form tumbleweeds. They share the common name \"rose of Jericho\", in reference to the biblical city of Jericho, constantly reborn from its ashes. Similarly, the capacity of \"S. lepidophylla\" for revival on rehydration allows it to resurrect and resume growth after long periods of drought.", "The striking feature of \"Selaginella lepidophylla\" is its adaptation to conditions of prolonged drought in its natural environment. It deploys the physiological strategy of drying up and rolling inwards in the absence of water to form a ball, and can survive for up to several years, and lose up to 95% of its moisture content, without suffering damage. When ground and air humidity begin to rise again, even a considerable time after it has wilted, the plant \"resuscitates\". If rehydrated, it continues its life cycle, fully recovering its photosynthesis and growth abilities. When desiccated, its rooted leaves become leathery at the base, appearing dark brown or light to reddish brown. The dry ball opens a few hours after being placed in contact with water, the parched leaves gradually resuming their green colour. If the roots are not too damaged, the plant may survive in pozzolanic ash. No matter how dried or damaged it becomes, because of the particular biological structure of its leaves the plant retains the ability to imbibe water and unfold itself, even many years after its death. The plant enters a dormant state in the absence of water, avoiding tissue and cell damage during drying by synthesizing trehalose, a crystallized sugar that acts as a compatible solute. Dissolved salts become concentrated in the plant tissues as water evaporates. The trehalose produced by the plant acts in place of the evaporating water, so preventing the salts from causing damage and protecting against death due to an excess of salinity. \"S. lepidophylla\" also uses betaines, substances which have the same function as trehalose. Once water is restored to the plant tissues, the sugar crystals dissolve and the plant's metabolism, until then paralyzed, reactivates. Leaves that seemed dead turn green, and open.", "", "Adapted to the desert environment, \"Selaginella lepidophylla\" can survive without water for several years, drying up until it retains only 3% of its mass. The plant can live and reproduce in arid regions for long periods of time. When living conditions become too difficult, the plant's survival mechanism allows it to dry out gradually. Its leaves turn brown and fold in, giving the plant the appearance of a ball. In dormancy, all of its metabolic functions are reduced to a minimum.", "Where drought persists, the roots may detach, allowing the plant to be carried by the wind. If it encounters moisture, \"Selaginella lepidophylla\" may rehydrate and take root in the new location. Plants that go through the resurrection process are not always able to \"rise again\". If dehydration has been too rapid, or in the event of irregular alternation of drought and wet conditions, the plant has insufficient time to prepare properly to resist the water stress to which it is subjected. Likewise, the ability to dry up and rehydrate may diminish, in which case, after dozens of cycles of alternate desiccation and regrowth, the plant dies. As a sporophyte, \"S. lepidophylla\" does not produce flowers or seeds but reproduces through spores. \"Selaginella\" are neither aquatic plants nor epiphytic plants.", "\"Selaginella lepidophylla\" is sold as a novelty item, as bare root stock in its dry state, in which it may be revived with only a little water. The plant's ability to survive extreme desiccation was noted by Spanish missionaries when they reached the New World, including the area that was to become the United States. The missionaries used \"S. lepidophylla\" to demonstrate to potential native converts the concept of being reborn. Because of its properties, the false rose of Jericho was considered a lucky charm, and was passed on in families from generation to generation. \"Selaginella lepidophylla\" has been used as a herbal medicine. An infusion is made by steeping a tablespoon of dried material in hot water, and the resulting tea is used as an antimicrobial to treat colds and sore throat. In Mexico, \"S. lepidophylla\" is sold as a diuretic. Women drink the water in which the plant is soaked to facilitate childbirth. The speed at which the plant blossoms in the water is interpreted as an indication of whether the delivery will be easy or difficult. The plant is also used in the rites of voodoo and Cuban \"santería\" to invoke love and fortune. The plant is said to absorb \"negative energy\" when worn on the body." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "New German Theatre.", "Nazi era.", "Theatre of the Fifth of May.", "Smetana Theatre.", "Prague State Opera.", "Archives." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The history of the theatre currently known as the Prague State Opera dates back to the late 19th Century. While often overshadowed by the more prominent National Theatre of Prague, the company has its own distinct history. The birth of a magnificent Czech Theatre, the National Theatre, in 1883 indirectly created a longing among the Prague German community for a German-speaking opera house of its own. At that time the Czech lands were part of the Austro-Hungarian empire and there was a large German minority living in Prague. On 4 February 1883 the Deutscher Theaterverein was founded with the goal of raising funds for the new theatre. The plans were developed by the well-known Viennese firm Fellner & Helmer along with Karl Hasenauer, architect of the Burgtheater in Vienna. The resulting Neues deutsches Theater (New German Theatre) was designed by the Prague architect Alfons Wertmüller and built within 20 months. With its spacious auditorium and elaborate neo-rococo décor, the theater was one of the most beautiful in Europe. Performances commenced on 5 January 1888 with Richard Wagner's opera \"Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg\". The first director became Angelo Neumann, who brought there distinguished musicians and set high artistic standards so that the Theatre reached soon international recognition. Neumann's successors were Heinrich Teweles, Leopold Kramer, Robert Volkner, Paul Eger, and Pavel Ludikar. Artists associated with the theatre in its first phase included Kurt Adler (Conductor), Alexander Zemlinsky, Georg Széll, Erich Kleiber, Otto Klemperer, Alfred Piccaver, Hans Hotter, Kurt Baum, and Wilhelm Elsner. Guest artists included Nellie Melba, Enrico Caruso, Emma Calvé, Lilli Lehmann, Selma Kurz, Maria Jeritza, Richard Tauber and Leo Slezak.", "In the 1930s, with the growing Nazi threat, the New German Theatre in Prague was among the bastions of democracy, serving as a refuge for artists fleeing from Germany. Political developments shortly before signing of the Munich Agreement along with financial problems however led the German Theatre Association to close the theatre in September 1938. The Czechoslovak state expressed an interest in the building but the Nazi occupation of Czechoslovakia on 15 March 1939 and establishment of the \"Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia\" thwarted its plans. Under the new title Deutsches Opernhaus (German Opera House), the theatre served for political assemblies of the Nazi Party, and for the occasional guest presentations by ensembles from the Reich.", "A radical change came in May 1945 following the fall of the Nazi-led government. A group of Czech artists headed by Alois Hába, Václav Kašlík, and Antonín Kurš founded the Theatre of the Fifth of May in the former German Opera House. For the first time the theatre became a home for Czech, rather than German opera. The first performance was of Bedřich Smetana's \"Brandenburgers in Bohemia\" on 4 September 1945. The artistic agenda of the new ensemble strove to create an avant-garde theatre that would serve as an alternative to the more conservative National Theatre. A striking new theatrical production of Jacques Offenbach's \"The Tales of Hoffmann\" on 29 August 1946 and a non-traditional staging of the previously-untouchable Bedřich Smetana's \"The Bartered Bride\", were followed by Alois Hába's quarter-tone opera \"Mother\", Sergei Prokofiev's \"Betrothal in a Monastery\", and others. The theatre's ground-breaking productions aroused attention on the part of the public and media including acclaim from abroad. Unfortunately, the success of the Grand Opera of the Fifth of May began to create unwanted competition for the National Theatre. Starting with the 1948-49 season, by government decree the Grand Opera was incorporated into the National Theatre. Thus the second significant creative period of the theatre ended after only three seasons.", "In November 1949, the building was renamed the \"Smetana Theatre\", now functioning as a second house of the National Theatre under the Czech Communist Party government. Given the stage facilities, it was suitable for large-scale works from the worldwide operatic repertoire. Ballet was given a prominent place. Opera productions mounted at the Smetana Theatre could moreover enlist the services of all soloists, conductors and directors. However, the organizational division of the productions often gave rise to immense operational difficulties. The repertoire provided for productions of Czech contemporary operas, but the works of Bedřich Smetana, Antonín Dvořák and Leoš Janáček were not neglected. However, the standard repertoire was formed out of the major and minor works from the world's operatic literature and quite a few productions met with international acclaim. Due to its large stage facilities, the Smetana Theatre was frequently used by international opera, ballet and drama companies invited to Prague for guest performances. Among these were a series of six performance by the Bolshoi Theatre (May 23–28, 1973) and two performances by the Vienna State Opera of Richard Strauss ́s \"Ariadne auf Naxos\", conducted by Karl Böhm with Edita Gruberova as Zerbinetta (25 and 27 April 1979).", "After the Velvet Revolution in November 1989, efforts to regain independence for the Smetana Theatre were crowned with success and on 1 April the Prague State Opera was established there and the theatre was renamed once again. Karel Drgáč became its first director. He enlarged the repertoire by further key works of the world opera literature. What earned him an unambiguous critical praise, though, was most notably his systematic cultivation of the legacy of 20th century production (Alexander Zemlinsky, Hans Krása, Gottfried von Einem). The new style of work, and the much-stressed orientation toward the traditions of the New German Theatre were not always well received. Thus Drgáč had to fight a series of battles to win the war for the State Opera's existence. And meanwhile he lost his own battle, when upon expiration of his three-year term the mezzo-soprano Eva Randová emerged victorious from the competition held in 1995 for the post of director. However, not even a singer who had experience in the most prestigious Theatres of the world could avoid later criticism of her manner of managing the Theatre. Her successor, Daniel Dvořák, in many ways continued in the trend of Karel Drgáč. He understood the Prague State Opera as a Theatre that needed to be incorporated into the European context, and opera as a genre whose development needed to be helped through support of new works. During his four seasons (1998–2002) Prague had the opportunity to experience an unprecedented number of world premieres. After Dvořák left his post to take over as the Director of the National Theatre of Prague, the Czech Minister of Culture appointed Jaroslav Vocelka to head the Prague State Opera. Previously its managing director, Vocelka's long experience in opera administration allowed a smooth transition for the company. The Prague State Opera maintains a policy of progressive programming. New productions of Scott Joplin ́s \"Treemonisha\"; Ruggero Leoncavallo's \"La bohème\"; Eugen d'Albert's \"Tiefland\"; and Leonard Bernstein's \"Candide\" have all been key works in the house's program-building policy. Vocelka has also continued a tradition of staging benefit concerts for many charitable and humanitarian concerns and has made the theatre available for cultural and social events. In 2003, the opera's ballet corps merged with the noted Prague Chamber Ballet company to create the Prague State Opera Ballet.", "An important part of the Prague State Opera's operation is its Documentation Centre. Apart from keeping systematic archival records of the theatre's activities, it has focused on the reconstruction of the lost archives of the New German Theatre. In 2004, the Prague State Opera published, with the Slovart publishing company, a book on its history, \"The Prague State Opera: A History of the Theatre in Pictures and Dates\". The book, with texts in Czech, English and German, documents the history of the opera house from the New German Theatre to the present. Drawing material from a wide array of sources, both domestic and international, the publication grouped together an invaluable literary and photographic archive, including a number of documents which were published for the first time." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "Town name.", "Demographics." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "According to the United States Census Bureau, the town has a total area of 45.1 square miles (116.8 km), of which 45.1 square miles (116.8 km) is land and 0.02% is water.", "According to Esther Munroe Swift's book \"Vermont Place-names: Footprints of History\" the town of Johnson is named for the American jurist, statesman and educator William Samuel Johnson. Johnson, Vermont and a part of neighboring Cambridge, Vermont were together known as King's College Tract being created by a royal charter of British King George III in 1774. The King's College Tract was reserved for the eventual expansion of Kings College in New York, today's Columbia University. After the Declaration of Independence, Vermont's Council of Censors granted the town to Johnson in 1785.", "As of the census of 2000, there were 3,274 people, 1,170 households, and 669 families residing in the town. The population density was 72.6 people per square mile (28.0/km). There were 1,263 housing units at an average density of 28.0 per square mile (10.8/km). The racial makeup of the town was 96.58% White, 0.61% Black or African American, 0.43% Native American, 0.67% Asian, 0.31% from other races, and 1.41% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.73% of the population. There were 1,170 households, out of which 30.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 41.4% were couples living together and joined in either marriage or civil union, 10.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 42.8% were non-families. 28.2% of all households were made up of individuals, and 8.5% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.43 and the average family size was 2.99. In the town, the population was spread out, with 21.6% under the age of 18, 26.4% from 18 to 24, 25.4% from 25 to 44, 18.2% from 45 to 64, and 8.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 26 years. For every 100 females, there were 103.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 102.2 males. The median income for a household in the town was $31,343, and the median income for a family was $38,224. Males had a median income of $28,257 versus $20,610 for females. The per capita income for the town was $15,014. About 13.8% of families and 18.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 21.6% of those under age 18 and 11.7% of those age 65 or over." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Greece.", "Levant and Cyprus.", "Southern Europe and Sardinia.", "Bulgaria.", "Oman.", "Somalia." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In Greece, the vaulted \"tholoi\" are a monumental Late Bronze Age development. Their origin is a matter of considerable debate: were they inspired by the tholoi of Crete which were first used in the Early Minoan period or were they a natural development of tumulus burials dating to the Middle Bronze Age? In concept, they are similar to the much more numerous Mycenaean chamber tombs which seem to have emerged at about the same time. Both have chamber, doorway stomion and entrance passage dromos but tholoi are largely built while chamber tombs are rock-cut. A few early examples of tholoi have been found in Messenia in the SW Peloponnese Greece (for example at Voidhokoilia), and recently near Troezen in the NE Peloponnese. These tholoi are built on level ground and then enclosed by a mound of earth. A pair of tumuli at Marathon, Greece indicate how a built rectangular (but without a vault) central chamber was extended with an entrance passage. After about 1500 BCE, beehive tombs became more widespread and are found in every part of the Mycenaean heartland. In contrast, however, to the early examples these are almost always cut into the slope of a hillside so that only the upper third of the vaulted chamber was above ground level. This masonry was then concealed with a relatively small mound of earth. The tombs usually contain more than one burial, in various places in the tomb either on the floor, in pits and cists or on stone-built or rock-cut benches, and with various grave goods. After a burial, the entrance to the tomb was filled in with soil, leaving a small mound with most of the tomb underground. The chamber is always built in masonry, even in the earliest examples, as is the stomion or entrance-way. The dromos in early examples was usually just cut from the bedrock, as in the Panagia Tomb at Mycenae itself. In later examples such as the Treasury of Atreus and Tomb of Clytemnestra (both at Mycenae), all three parts were constructed of fine ashlar masonry. The chambers were built as corbelled vaults, with layers of stone placed closer together as the vault tapers toward the top of the tomb. These stone layers were trimmed from inside the tomb, creating a smooth dome. The entrances provided an opportunity for conspicuous demonstration of wealth. That of the Treasury of Atreus, for example, was decorated with columns of red and green “Lapis Lacedaimonius” brought from quarries over 100 km away. The abundance of such tombs, often with more than one being associated with a settlement during one specific time period, may indicate that their use was not confined to the ruling monarchy only, although the sheer size and therefore the outlay required for the larger tombs (ranging from about 10 meters to about 15 meters in diameter and height) would argue in favour of royal commissions. The larger tombs contained amongst the richest finds to have come from the Late Bronze Age of Mainland Greece, despite the tombs having been pillaged both in antiquity and more recently. Although the Vapheio tholos, south of Sparta, had been robbed, two cists in the floor had escaped notice. These contained, among other valuable items, the two gold “Vapheio cups” decorated with scenes of bull taming which are among the best known of Mycenaean treasures.", "Circular structures were commonly built in the Near East, including the examples known as \"tholoi\" found in the Neolithic Halaf culture of Iraq, Syria and Turkey. They were probably used as both houses and as storage structures, but ritual use may also have occurred. Other, later examples are found in Cyprus (Khirokitia), where they were used as homes. There is no clear connection between these domestic, circular buildings and later tholos tombs.", "In the Chalcolithic period of the Iberian peninsula, beehive tombs appear among other innovative \"megalithic\" variants, since c. 3000 BCE. They are especially common in southern Spain and Portugal, while in Central Portugal and southeastern France other styles (artificial caves especially) are preferred instead. The civilization of Los Millares and its Bronze Age successor, El Argar, are particularly related to this burial style. The Bronze Age fortifications known as \"motillas\" in La Mancha (Spain) also use the \"tholos\" building technique. The imposing stone structures known as \"nuraghi\" as well as the similar structures of southern Corsica, dominated the Bronze Age landscape of Sardinia (Italy). Nuraghi are truncated conical towers of dry-laid stone, about 40 feet in diameter, sloping up to a circular roof some 50 feet above the ground. The vaulted ceiling is 20 to 35 feet above the floor. Although the remains of some 7,000 nuraghi have been found, up to 30,000 may have been built. There are also recorded Etruscan tombs at a necropolis at Banditaccia from the 6th and 7th Centuries BCE having an external appearance similar to a beehive. The interiors are decorated and furnished as Etruscan dwellings.", "The beehive Thracian Tomb of Kazanlak is an example of the richly decorated tholoi tombs of Thracian rulers, many of which are found in modern Bulgaria and date from the 4th-3rd century BC. The walls of the Kazanlak tomb are covered with plaster and stucco, with ornate scenes from the life of the deceased. Other tumuli, known as \"mogili\" in Bulgarian, that feature underground chambers in the form of a beehive dome include, among others, the Thracian tomb of Aleksandrovo, Golyama Arsenalka, Thracian tomb of Seuthes III. There have been several significant gold and silver treasures associated with Thracian tombs currently kept at Bulgaria's Archaeological and National History Museums and other institutions.", "The earliest stone-built tombs which can be called \"beehive\" are in Oman, built of stacked flat stones which occur in nearby geological formations. They date to between 3,500 and 2,500 years BCE, to a period when the Arabian peninsula was subject to much more rainfall than now, and supported a flourishing civilisation in what is now desert, to the west of the mountain range along the Gulf of Oman. No burial remains have ever been retrieved from these \"tombs\", though there seems no other purpose for their building. They have only superficial similarities with the Aegean tombs (circular shape) as they are built entirely above ground level and do not share the same tripartite structure - the entrances are usually an undifferentiated part of the circular walling of the tomb. Currently there are three areas where these tombs can be found: Al Hajar Region, Hat Region, and Hadbin area close to Barka. The Hajar tombs are very numerous and one or two have been restored, allowing one to crawl into the centre of a 5-6m tall stone structure.", "NE of Qandala is a field of tombs of varying sizes." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Characteristics.", "Lack of scientific method.", "Opposition to the archaeological establishment.", "Nationalist motivations.", "Religious motivations.", "Description.", "In history.", "Academic archaeological responses.", "Conferences and anthologies.", "Inclusive attitudes." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Various different terms have been employed to refer to these non-academic interpretations of archaeology. During the 1980s, the term \"cult archaeology\" was used by figures like John R. Cole (1980) and William H. Stiebing Jr. (1987). \"Fantastic archaeology\" was used in the 1980s as the name of an undergraduate course at Harvard University taught by Stephen Williams, who published a book with the same title. In the 2000s, the term \"alternative archaeology\" began to be instead applied by academics like Tim Sebastion (2001), Robert J. Wallis (2003), Cornelius Holtorf (2006), and Gabriel Moshenka (2008). Garrett F. Fagan and Kenneth Feder (2006) however claimed this term was only chosen because it \"imparts a warmer, fuzzier feel\" that \"appeals to our higher ideals and progressive inclinations\". They argued that the term \"pseudoarchaeology\" was far more appropriate, a term also used by other prominent academic and professional archaeologists such as Colin Renfrew (2006). Other academic archaeologists have chosen to use other terms to refer to these interpretations. Glyn Daniel, the editor of \"Antiquity\", used the derogative \"bullshit archaeology\", and similarly the academic William H. Stiebing Jr. noted that there were certain terms used for pseudoarchaeology that were heard \"in the privacy of professional archaeologists' homes and offices but which cannot be mentioned in polite society\".", "William H. Stiebing Jr. argued that despite their many differences, there were a set of core characteristics that almost all pseudoarchaeological interpretations shared. He believed that because of this, pseudoarchaeology could be categorised as a \"single phenomenon\". He went on to identify three core commonalities of pseudeoarchaeological theories: the unscientific nature of its method and evidence, its history of providing \"simple, compact answers to complex, difficult issues\", and its tendency to present itself as being persecuted by the archaeological establishment, accompanied by an ambivalent attitude towards the scientific ethos of the Enlightenment. This idea that there are core characteristics of pseudoarchaeologies is shared by other academics.", "Academic critics have pointed out that pseudoarchaeologists typically neglect to use the scientific method. Instead of testing the evidence to see what hypotheses it fits, pseudoarchaeologists \"press-gang\" the archaeological data to fit a \"favored conclusion\" that is often arrived at through hunches, intuition, or religious or nationalist dogma. Different pseudoarchaeological groups hold a variety of basic assumptions which are typically unscientific: the Nazi pseudoarchaeologists for instance took the cultural superiority of the ancient Aryan race as a basic assumption, whilst Christian fundamentalist pseudoarchaeologists conceive of the Earth as being less than 10,000 years old and Hindu fundamentalist pseudoarchaeologists believe that the \"Homo sapiens\" species is much older than the 200,000 years old it has been shown to be by archaeologists. Despite this, many of pseudoarchaeology's proponents claim that they reached their conclusions using scientific techniques and methods, even when it is demonstrable that they have not. Academic archaeologist John R. Cole believed that most pseudoarchaeologists do not understand how scientific investigation works, and that they instead believe it to be a \"simple, catastrophic right versus wrong battle\" between contesting theories. It was because of this failure to understand the scientific method, he argued, that the entire pseudoarchaeological approach to their arguments was faulty. He went on to argue that most pseudoarchaeologists do not consider alternative explanations to that which they want to propagate, and that their \"theories\" were typically just \"notions\", not having sufficient supporting evidence to allow them to be considered \"theories\" in the scientific, academic meaning of the word. Commonly lacking scientific evidence, pseudoarchaeologists typically use other forms of evidence to support their arguments. For instance, they often make use of \"generalized cultural comparisons\", taking various artefacts and monuments from one society, and highlighting similarities with those of another to support a conclusion that both had a common source—typically an ancient lost civilisation like Atlantis, Mu, or an extraterrestrial influence. This takes the different artefacts or monuments entirely out of their original contexts, something which is anathema to academic archaeologists, for whom context is of the utmost importance. Another form of evidence used by a number of pseudoarchaeologists is the interpretation of various myths as reflecting historical events, but in doing so these myths are often taken out of their cultural contexts. For instance, pseudoarchaeologist Immanuel Velikovsky claimed that the myths of migrations and war gods in the Central American Aztec civilisation represented a cosmic catastrophe that occurred in the 7th and 8th centuries BCE. This was criticised by academic archaeologist William H. Stiebing Jr., who noted that such myths only developed in the 12th to the 14th centuries CE, over a millennium after Velikovsky claimed that the events had occurred, and that the Aztec society itself had not even developed by the 7th century BCE.", "Pseudoarchaeologists typically present themselves as being underdogs facing the much larger archaeological establishment. They often use language which disparages academics and dismisses them as being unadventurous, spending all their time in dusty libraries and refusing to challenge the orthodoxies of the establishment lest they lose their jobs. In some more extreme examples, pseudoarchaeologists have accused academic archaeologists of being members of a widespread conspiracy to hide the truth about history from the public. When academics challenge pseudoarchaeologists and criticise their theories, many pseudoarchaeologists see it as further evidence that their own ideas are right, and that they are simply being suppressed by members of this academic conspiracy. The prominent English archaeologist Colin Renfrew admitted that the archaeological establishment was often \"set in its ways and resistant to radical new ideas\" but that this was not the reason why pseudoarchaeological theories were outright rejected by academics. Garrett G. Fagan expanded on this, noting how in the academic archaeological community, \"New evidence or arguments have to be thoroughly scrutinised to secure their validity... and longstanding, well-entrenched positions will take considerable effort and particularly compelling data to overturn.\" Fagan noted that pseudoarchaeological theories simply do not have sufficient evidence to back them up and allow them to be accepted by professional archaeologists. Conversely, many pseudoarchaeologists, whilst criticising the academic archaeological establishment, also attempt to get support from people with academic credentials and affiliations. At times, they quote historical, and in most cases dead academics to back up their arguments; for instance prominent pseudoarchaeologist Graham Hancock, in his seminal \"Fingerprints of the Gods\" (1995), repeatedly notes that the eminent physicist Albert Einstein once commented positively on the pole shift hypothesis, a theory that has been abandoned by the academic community but which Hancock supports. As Fagan noted however, the fact that Einstein was a physicist and not a geologist is not even mentioned by Hancock, nor is the fact that the understanding of plate tectonics (which came to disprove earth crustal displacement) only came to light following Einstein's death.", "Pseudoarchaeology can be motivated by nationalism (\"cf.\" Nazi archaeology, using cultural superiority of the ancient Aryan race as a basic assumption to establish the Germanic people as the descendants of the original Aryan'master race') or a desire to prove a particular religious (\"cf.\" intelligent design), pseudohistorical, political, or anthropological theory. In many cases, an \"a priori\" conclusion is established, and fieldwork is undertaken explicitly to corroborate the theory in detail. Archaeologists distinguish their research from pseudoarchaeology by pointing to differences in research methodology, including recursive methods, falsifiable theories, peer review, and a generally systematic approach to collecting data. Though there is overwhelming evidence of cultural connections informing folk traditions about the past, objective analysis of folk archaeology—in anthropological terms of their cultural contexts and the cultural needs they respond to—have been comparatively few. However, in this vein, Robert Silverberg located the Mormon's use of Mound Builder culture within a larger cultural nexus and the voyage of Madoc and \"Welsh Indians\" was set in its changing and evolving sociohistorical contexts by Gwyn Williams.", "Religiously motivated pseudoarchaeological theories include the young earth theory of some Judeo-Christian fundamentalists. They argue that the Earth is 4,000-10,000 years old, with figures varying, depending on the source. Some Hindu pseudoarchaeologists believe that the \"Homo sapiens\" species is much older than the 200,000 years it is generally believed to have existed. Archaeologist John R. Cole refers to such beliefs as \"cult archaeology\" and believes them to be pseudoarchaeological. He went on to say that this \"pseudoarchaeology\" had \"many of the attributes, causes, and effects of religion\". A more specific example of religious pseudoarcheology is the claim of Ron Wyatt to have discovered Noah's ark, the graves of Noah and his wife, the location of Sodom and Gomorrah, the Tower of Babel, and numerous other important sites. However, he has not presented evidence sufficient to impress Bible scholars, scientists, and historians. Answers in Genesis propagates many pseudoscientific notions as part of its creationist ministry.", "Pseudoarchaeology can be practised intentionally or unintentionally. Archaeological frauds and hoaxes are considered \"intentional pseudoarchaeology\". Genuine archaeological finds may be unintentionally converted to pseudoarchaeology through unscientific interpretation. (\"cf.\" confirmation bias) Especially in the past, but also in the present, pseudoarchaeology has been motivated by racism, especially when the basic intent was to discount or deny the abilities of non-white peoples to make significant accomplishments in astronomy, architecture, sophisticated technology, ancient writing, seafaring, and other accomplishments generally identified as evidence of \"civilization\". Racism can be implied by attempts to attribute ancient sites and artefacts to Lost Tribes, Pre-Columbian trans-oceanic contact, or even extraterrestrial intelligence rather than to the intelligence and ingenuity of indigenous peoples. Practitioners of pseudoarchaeology often rail against academic archaeologists and established scientific methods, claiming that conventional science has overlooked critical evidence. Conspiracy theories may be invoked, in which \"the Establishment\" colludes in suppressing evidence. Countering the misleading \"discoveries\" of pseudoarchaeology binds academic archaeologists in a quandary, described by Cornelius Holtorf as whether to strive to disprove alternative approaches in a \"crusading\" approach or to concentrate on better public understanding of the sciences involved; Holtorf suggested a third, relativist and contextualised approach, in identifying the social and cultural needs that both scientific and alternative archaeologies address and in identifying the engagement with the material remains of the past in the present in terms of critical understanding and dialogue with \"multiple pasts\", such as Barbara Bender explored for Stonehenge. In presenting the quest for truths as process rather than results, Holtorf quoted Gotthold Lessing (\"Eine Duplik\", 1778): If God were to hold in his right hand all the truth and in his left the unique ever-active spur for truth, although with the corollary to err forever, asking me to choose, I would humbly take his left and say \"Father, give; for the pure truth is for you alone!\" \"Archaeological readings of the landscape enrich the experience of inhabiting or visiting a place,\" Holtorf asserted. \"Those readings may well be based on science but even non-scientific research contributes to enriching our landscapes.\" The question for opponents of folk archaeology is whether such enrichment is delusional. Participatory \"public\" or \"community\" archaeology offers guided engagement.", "In the mid-2nd century, those exposed by Lucian's sarcastic essay \"Alexander the false prophet\" prepared an archaeological \"find\" in Chalcedon to prepare a public for the supposed oracle they planned to establish at Abonoteichus in Paphlagonia (Pearse, 2001): At Glastonbury Abbey in 1291, at a time when King Edward I desired to emphasize his \"Englishness\", a fortunate discovery was made: the coffin of King Arthur, unmistakably identified with an inscribed plaque. Arthur was reinterred at Glastonbury in a magnificent ceremonial attended by the king and queen.", "Pseudoarchaeological theories have come to be heavily criticised by academic and professional archaeologists. One of the first books to address these directly was by archaeologist Robert Wauchope of Tulane University. Prominent academic archaeologist Colin Renfrew stated his opinion that it was appalling that pseudoarchaeologists treated archaeological evidence in such a \"frivolous and self-serving way\", something he believed trivialised the \"serious matter\" of the study of human origins. Academics like John R. Cole, Garrett G. Fagan and Kenneth L. Feder have argued that pseudoarchaeological interpretations of the past were based upon sensationalism, self-contradiction, fallacious logic, manufactured or misinterpreted evidence, quotes taken out of context and incorrect information. Fagan and Feder characterised such interpretations of the past as being \"anti-reason and anti-science\" with some being \"hyper-nationalistic, racist and hateful\". In turn, many pseudoarchaeologists have dismissed academics as being closed-minded and not willing to consider theories other than their own. Many academic archaeologists have argued that the spread of alternative archaeological theories is a threat to the general public's understanding of the past. Fagan was particularly scathing of television shows that presented pseudoarchaeological theories to the general public, believing that they did so because of the difficulties in making academic archaeological ideas comprehensible and interesting to the average viewer. Renfrew however believed that those television executives commissioning these documentaries knew that they were erroneous, and that they had allowed them to be made and broadcast simply in the hope of \"short-term financial gain\". Fagan and Feder believed that it was not possible for academic archaeologists to successfully engage with pseudoarchaeologists, remarking that \"you cannot reason with unreason\". Speaking from their own experiences, they thought that attempted dialogues just became \"slanging matches in which the expertise and motives of the critic become the main focus of attention.\" Fagan has maintained this idea elsewhere, remarking that arguing with supporters of pseudoarchaeological theories was \"pointless\" because they denied logic. He noted that they included those \"who openly admitted to not having read a word written by a trained Egyptologist\" but who at the same time \"were pronouncing how academic Egyptology was all wrong, even sinister.\"", "At the 1986 meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, its organizers, Kenneth Feder, Luanne Hudson and Francis Harrold decided to hold a symposium to examine pseudoarchaeological beliefs from a variety of academic standpoints, including archaeology, physical anthropology, sociology, history and psychology. From this symposium, an anthology was produced, entitled \"Cult Archaeology & Creationism: Understanding Pseudoarchaeological Beliefs about the Past\" (1987). At the 2002 annual meeting of the Archaeological Institute of America, a workshop was held on the topic of pseudoarchaeology. It subsequently led to the publication of an academic anthology, \"Archaeological Fantasies: How Pseudoarchaeology Misinterprets the Past and Misleads the Public\" (2006), which was edited by Garrett G. Fagan. On 23 and 24 April 2009, The American Schools of Oriental Research and the Duke University Center for Jewish Studies, along with the Duke Department of Religion, the Duke Graduate Program in Religion, the Trinity College of Arts and Sciences Committee on Faculty Research, and the John Hope Franklin Humanities Institute, sponsored a conference entitled \"Archaeology, Politics, and the Media,\" which addressed the abuse of archaeology in the Holy Land for political, religious, and ideological purposes. Emphasis was placed on the media's reporting of sensational and politically motivated archaeological claims and the academy's responsibility in responding to it.", "Academic archaeologist Cornelius Holtorf believed however that critics of alternative archaeologies like Fagan were \"opinionated and patronizing\" towards alternative theories, and that purporting their views in such a manner was damaging to the public's perception of archaeologists. Holtorf highlighted that there were similarities between academic and alternative archaeological interpretations, with the former taking some influence from the latter. As evidence, he highlighted archaeoastronomy, which was once seen as a core component of fringe archaeological interpretations before being adopted by mainstream academics. He also noted that certain archaeological scholars, like William Stukeley (1687–1765), Margaret Murray (1863–1963) and Marija Gimbutas (1921–1994) were seen as significant figures to both academic and alternative archaeologists. He came to the conclusion that a constructive dialogue should be opened up between academic and alternative archaeologists. Fagan and Feder have responded to Holtorf's views in detail, asserting that such a dialogue is no more possible than is one between evolutionary biologists and creationists or between astronomers and astrologers: one approach is scientific, the other is anti-scientific. In the early 1980s, Kenneth Feder conducted a survey of his archaeology students. On the 50-question survey, 10 questions had to do with archaeology and/or pseudoscience. Some of the claims were more rational; the world is 5 billion years old, and human beings came about through evolution. However, questions also included issues such as, King Tut’s tomb actually killed people upon discovery, and there is solid evidence for the existence of Atlantis. As it turned out, some of the students Feder was teaching put some stake in the pseudoscience claims. 12% actually believed people on Howard Carter’s expedition were killed by an ancient Egyptian curse." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Route.", "A26 Genova – Gravellona Toce.", "A7/A26 Bettole – Predosa Link.", "A4/A26 Stroppiana – Santhià Link.", "A8/A26 Gallarate – Gattico Link." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The A26 begins from the Genoese town of Pra', which lies on the coast to the west of the city centre. (Note that the gate of Pra' is still wrongly named \"Voltri\", nevertheless Voltri has anything to do with the motorway gate and that the City of Genova has formally asked for the change of its name in \"Gate of Pra' \"). It crosses the Apennines at the Passo del Turchino (532m) and passes through Ovada. Near Castelferro (\"frazione\" of Predosa) an eastern branch, the Autostrada A26/A7, provides links to Novi Ligure and to the Autostrada A7 (Genoa – Milan) which it joins near Spineto Scrivia, to the south of Tortona. The A26 continues northwards until near Alessandria there is an interchange with the Autostrada A21 (Turin – Brescia). The road crosses the Po River just east of Casale Monferrato. South of Vercelli a western branch, the Autostrada A4/26, provides a connection to the Autostrada A4 (Turin – Trieste) near Santhià, and continues as the Autostrada A4/A5 to the Autostrada A5 (Turin – Aosta – Monte Bianco) which it joins at Pavone Canavese, just south of Ivrea. Further north, between Greggio and Biandrate Vicolungo to the west of Novara, the A26 intersects with the Autostrada A4 (Turin – Trieste), and at Sesto Calende with the Autostrada A8. The road passes close to Romagnano Sesia and Ghemme where there is an exit for the Valsesia. It proceeds north-east and follows the shore of Lago Maggiore with exits for Arona, Brovello-Carpugnino, Baveno - Stresa, Verbania and Gravellona Toce. From here the Strada Statale SS 33 del Sempione continues the route northwards, initially as a superstrada (a form of expressway), to Domodossola and then via the Val Divedro to the Swiss border, affording access to the Simplon Pass.", "The Autostrada A7/A26 Diramazione Bettole-Predosa (A7/A26) is a 17 km motorway which links the A26 near Predosa with the Autostrada A7 near Bettole (a \"frazione\" of Pozzolo Formigaro). The entire autostrada is within the Province of Alessandria. Its sole exit is for Novi Ligure and it provides a convenient means of access to both the A7 and the A26 from that town.", "The Autostrada A4/A26 Diramazione Stroppiana-Santhià (A4/A26) is a 32 km motorway which links the A26 near Stroppiana with the Autostrada A4 near Santhià. It forms part of the 1,547 km European route E25 which connects Hoek van Holland in the Netherlands to Palermo in Sicily. The layout of the road is level with two lanes in each direction.", "The Autostrada A8/A26 Diramazione Gallarate-Gattico (A8/A26) is a motorway which connects the A26 near Gattico with the Autostrada A8 near Gallarate. It forms part of the 1,290 km European route E62 which connects Nantes in western France to Genova. The road was built to provide a route for traffic from Domodossola and the Simplon Pass to Milan and thence to the parts of the peninsula to the east of the Apennines. It has two lanes in each direction from Gallarate to Sesto Calende and three from Sesto Calende to Gattico." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Geography.", "Cityscape.", "Green space.", "Climate and environment.", "Demographics.", "Religion.", "Economy.", "Culture.", "Festivals and special events.", "Zoos and aquariums.", "Sports.", "Law, government and politics.", "Education.", "School system.", "Colleges and universities.", "Libraries.", "Media.", "Newspaper.", "Radio.", "Television.", "Infrastructure.", "Waste treatment.", "Transportation.", "Mass transit.", "Walkability.", "Roads and highways.", "Air.", "Intercity transportation.", "Sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "The Catawba Native Americans were the first known historic tribe to settle Mecklenburg County (in the Charlotte area) and were first recorded around 1567 in Spanish records. By 1759 half the Catawba tribe had died from smallpox, which was endemic among Europeans, because the Catawba had not acquired immunity to the new disease. At the time of their largest population, Catawba people numbered 10,000, but by 1826 their total population had dropped to 110. The European-American city of Charlotte was developed first by a wave of migration of Scots-Irish Presbyterians, or Ulster-Scot settlers from Northern Ireland, who dominated the culture of the Southern Piedmont Region. They made up the principal founding European population in the backcountry. German immigrants also settled the area before the American Revolutionary War, but in much smaller numbers. They still contributed greatly to the early foundations of the region. Mecklenburg County was initially part of Bath County (1696 to 1729) of New Hanover Precinct, which became New Hanover County in 1729. The western portion of New Hanover split into Bladen County in 1734, its western portion splitting into Anson County in 1750. Mecklenburg County formed from Anson County in 1762. Further apportionment was made in 1792, after the American Revolutionary War, with Cabarrus County formed from Mecklenburg. In 1842, Union County formed from Mecklenburg's southeastern portion and a western portion of Anson County. These areas were all part of one of the original six judicial/military districts of North Carolina known as the Salisbury District. The area that is now Charlotte was settled by people of European descent around 1755, when Thomas Spratt and his family settled near what is now the Elizabeth neighborhood. Thomas Polk (granduncle of U.S. President James K. Polk), who later married Thomas Spratt's daughter, built his house by the intersection of two Native American trading paths between the Yadkin and Catawba rivers. One path ran north–south and was part of the Great Wagon Road; the second path ran east–west along what is now Trade Street. Nicknamed the \"Queen City\", like its county a few years earlier, Charlotte was named in honor of German princess Charlotte of Mecklenburg-Strelitz, who had become the Queen Consort of Great Britain and Ireland in 1761, seven years before the town's incorporation. A second nickname derives from the American Revolutionary War, when British commander General Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis occupied the city but was driven out by hostile residents. He wrote that Charlotte was \"a hornet's nest of rebellion\", leading to the nickname \"The Hornet's Nest\". Within decades of Polk's settling, the area grew to become the Town of Charlotte, incorporating in 1768. Though chartered as Charlotte, the name appears as a form of \"Charlottesburgh\" on many maps until around 1800. The crossroads in the Piedmont became the heart of Uptown Charlotte. In 1770, surveyors marked the streets in a grid pattern for future development. The east–west trading path became Trade Street, and the Great Wagon Road became Tryon Street, in honor of William Tryon, a royal governor of colonial North Carolina. The intersection of Trade and Tryon—commonly known today as \"Trade & Tryon\", or simply \"The Square\"—is more properly called \"Independence Square\". While surveying the boundary between the Carolinas in 1772, William Moultrie stopped in Charlotte Town, whose five or six houses were \"very ordinary built of logs\". Local leaders came together in 1775 and signed the Mecklenburg Resolves, more popularly known as the Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence. While not a true declaration of independence from British rule, it is among the first such declarations that eventually led to the American Revolution. May 20, the traditional date of the signing of the declaration, is celebrated annually in Charlotte as \"MecDec\", with musket and cannon fire by reenactors in Independence Square. North Carolina's state flag and state seal also bear the date.", "According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of, of which is land and is water. Charlotte lies at an elevation of. Charlotte constitutes most of Mecklenburg County in the Carolina Piedmont. Charlotte center city sits atop a long rise between two creeks, Sugar Creek and Irwin Creek, and was built on the gunnies of the St. Catherine's and Rudisill gold mines. Though the Catawba River and its lakes lie several miles west, there are no significant bodies of water or other geological features near the city center. Consequently, development has neither been constrained nor helped by waterways or ports that have contributed to many cities of similar size. The lack of these obstructions has contributed to Charlotte's growth as a highway, rail, and air transportation hub.", "Charlotte has 199 neighborhoods radiating in all directions from Uptown. Biddleville, the primary historic center of Charlotte's African American community, is west of Uptown, starting at the Johnson C. Smith University campus and extending to the airport. East of The Plaza and north of Central Avenue, Plaza-Midwood is known for its international population, including Eastern Europeans, Greeks, Middle-Easterners, and Hispanics. North Tryon and the Sugar Creek area include several Asian American communities. NoDa (North Davidson), north of Uptown, is an emerging center for arts and entertainment. Myers Park, Dilworth, and Eastover are home to some of Charlotte's oldest", "The 120‐acre Park Road Park is a prominent landmark near the SouthPark area. Park Road Park features eight basketball courts, two horseshoe pits, six baseball fields, five picnic shelters, volleyball courts, playgrounds, trails, tennis courts, and an eleven-acre lake. The Charlotte-Mecklenburg Parks & Recreation Department operates 36 tennis facilities and the 12 lighted tennis courts at the park. The urban section of Little Sugar Creek Greenway was completed in 2012. Inspired in part by the San Antonio River Walk, and", "Charlotte, like much of the Piedmont region of the southeastern United States, has a humid subtropical climate (Köppen \"Cfa\"), with four distinct seasons; the city itself is part of USDA hardiness zone 8a, transitioning to 7b in the suburbs in all directions except the south. Winters are cool to mild, with a normal January daily mean temperature of. On average, there are 59 nights per year that drop to or below freezing, and only 1.5 days that fail to rise above freezing. April is the driest month, with an average of of precipitation. Summers are hot and humid, with a normal July daily mean temperature of. There is an average 44 days per year with highs at or above. Official record temperatures range from recorded six times, most recently from June 29 to July 1, 2012, down to recorded on", "The most recent U.S. Census estimate (2019, released in May 2020) showed 885,708 residents living within Charlotte's city limits and 1,093,901 in Mecklenburg County. The combined statistical area, or trade area, of Charlotte–Concord–Gastonia, NC–SC had a population of 2,728,933. Figures from the more comprehensive 2010 census show Charlotte's population density to be 2,457 per square mile (948.7/km2). There were 319,918 housing units at an average density of 1,074.6 per square mile (414.9/km2). According to the 2010 United States Census, the racial composition of Charlotte was 45.1% White or Caucasian, 35.0% Black or African American, 13.1% Hispanic or Latin American, 5.0% Asian, 0.5% American Indian, 0.1% Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander, 6.8% some other race, and 2.7% two or more races. In 1970, the Census Bureau reported Charlotte's population as 30.2% Black and 68.9% White. The median income for a household in the city was $48,670, and the median income for a family was $59,452. Males had a median income of $38,767 versus $29,218 for females. The per capita income for the city was $29,825. The percentage of the population living at or below the poverty line was 10.6%, with 7.8% of families living at or below the poverty line. Out of the total population, 13.8% of those under the age of 18 and 9.7% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line.", "Charlotte has historically been a Protestant city. It is the birthplace of Billy Graham, and is also the historic seat of Southern Presbyterianism, but the changing demographics of the city's increasing population have brought scores of new denominations and faiths. The Billy Graham Evangelistic Association, Wycliffe Bible Translators' JAARS Center, SIM Missions Organization, and The Christian Research Institute make their homes in the Charlotte general area. In total, Charlotte proper has over 700 places of worship. The Presbyterian Church (USA) is now the fourth largest denomination in", "Charlotte has become a major U.S. financial center with the second-most banking assets after New York City. The nation's second largest financial institution by total assets, Bank of America, calls the city home. It is also home to the nation's sixth largest financial institution, Truist, formed from the merger of BB&T and SunTrust in 2019. The city was also the former corporate home of Wachovia until its 2008 acquisition by Wells Fargo; Wells Fargo integrated legacy Wachovia, with the two banks fully merged at the end of 2011, which included transitioning all of the Wachovia branches in the Carolinas to Wells Fargo branches by October 2011. Since then, Charlotte has become the regional headquarters for East Coast operations of Wells Fargo, which is headquartered in San Francisco, California. Charlotte also serves as the headquarters for Wells Fargo's capital markets activities including sales and trading, equity research, and investment banking. Bank of America's headquarters, along with other regional banking and financial services companies, are located primarily in the Uptown central business district. Microsoft's East Coast headquarters are located in Charlotte. As of 2019, Charlotte has seven Fortune 500 companies in its metropolitan area. Listed in order of their rank, they are: Bank of America, Honeywell, Nucor, Lowe's, Duke Energy, Sonic Automotive and Brighthouse Financial. The Charlotte area includes a diverse range of businesses, including foodstuffs such as Harris Teeter, Snyder's-Lance, Carolina Foods Inc, Bojangles', Food Lion, Compass Group USA, and Coca-Cola Bottling Co. Consolidated (Charlotte being the nation's second largest Coca-Cola bottler); packaging company Sealed Air, financial services company", "", "The Charlotte region is home to many annual festivals and special events. The Carolina Renaissance Festival operates on Saturdays and Sundays each October and November. Located near the intersection of Highway 73 and Poplar Tent Road, the Carolina Renaissance Festival is one of the largest renaissance themed events in the country. It features 11 stages of outdoor variety entertainment, a 22-acre village marketplace, an interactive circus, an arts and crafts fair, a jousting tournament, and a feast, all rolled into one non-stop, day-long family adventure. The Yiasou Greek Festival is an award-winning Greek Festival. It began in 1978 and since then has become one of Charlotte's largest cultural events. The Yiasou (the Greek word for Hello, Goodbye and Cheers)", "Charlotte is \"... the largest metropolitan area in the United States without a zoo\". The Charlotte Zoo initiative is a proposal to allocate of natural North Carolina land to be dedicated to the zoological foundation, which was incorporated in 2008. On August 18, 2012, News Channel 14 says that the initiative is \"... still a few years away\" and the plot of land is \"... just seven", "Charlotte is home to three major professional sports franchises: the Carolina Panthers of the National Football League (NFL), the Charlotte Hornets of the National Basketball Association (NBA), and a future team in Major League Soccer (MLS). The Panthers have been located in Charlotte since the team's creation in 1995, and the current Hornets franchise has been located in Charlotte since its creation in 2004. The Panthers play their home games in Bank of America Stadium, while the Hornets play in the Spectrum Center. The Panthers have won six division titles from (1996, 2003, 2008, 2013, 2014, 2015) and two NFC championships in 2003 and 2015. Carolina has reached the Super Bowl twice however they've been unsuccessful in both losing to the New England Patriots in Super Bowl XXXVIII in 2003 and against the Denver Broncos in Super Bowl 50 in 2016. The original Hornets NBA franchise was established in 1988 as an expansion team, but it relocated to New Orleans, Louisiana in 2002 after animosity grew between the team's fans and principal owner George Shinn. The NBA quickly granted Charlotte an expansion franchise following the departure of the Hornets, and the new franchise, the Charlotte Bobcats, began to play in 2004. The team retook the Hornets name when the New Orleans-based team renamed itself the New Orleans Pelicans in 2013. The name change became official on May 20, 2014. On the same day, the franchise reclaimed the history and", "Charlotte has a council-manager form of government. The mayor and city council are elected every two years, with no term limits. The mayor is \"ex officio\" chair of the City Council, and only votes in case of a tie. Unlike other mayors in council-manager systems, Charlotte's mayor has the power to veto ordinances passed by the Council; vetoes can be overridden by a two-thirds majority of the Council. The Council appoints a city manager to serve as chief administrative officer. Unlike some other cities and towns in North Carolina, elections are held on a partisan basis. Vi Lyles, a Democrat elected in 2017, became the 59th mayor of Charlotte, North Carolina. She is in her second term. Patrick Cannon, a Democrat, was sworn in as mayor on December 2, 2013. On March 26, 2014, Cannon was arrested on public corruption charges. Later the same day, he resigned as mayor. Mayor Pro Temp Michael Barnes served as Acting Mayor until April 7, when the City Council selected State Senator Dan Clodfelter, also a Democrat, to serve the remainder of Cannon's term. Former Mecklenburg County Commission chairwoman Jennifer Roberts defeated Clodfelter in the 2015 Democratic primary and went on to win the general election, becoming the first Democratic woman to be elected to the post. She was ousted in the 2017 Democratic primary by Mayor Pro Tem Vi Lyles, who later defeated Republican City Councilman Kenny Smith in the general election to become Mayor of Charlotte. Historically, voters have been friendly to moderates of both parties. However, in recent years, Charlotte has swung heavily to the Democrats. Republican strength is concentrated in the southeastern portion of the city, while Democratic strength is concentrated in the south-central, eastern, and northern areas. The city council comprises 11 members (7 from districts and 4 at-large). Democrats control the council with a 9-to-2 advantage, winning all 4 of the at-large seats in the November 2013, 2015, and 2017 municipal elections. While the City Council is responsible for passing ordinances, the City's budget, and other policies, all decisions can be overridden by the North Carolina General Assembly, since North Carolina municipalities do not have home rule. While municipal powers have been broadly construed since the 1960s, the General Assembly still retains considerable authority over local matters. Charlotte is split between two congressional districts on the federal level. The southeastern portion is part of the 9th District, represented by Republican Dan Bishop. Most of the city is in the 12th District, represented by Democrat Alma Adams. Charlotte was selected in 2011 to host the 2012 Democratic National Convention, which was held at the Spectrum Center. It began September 4, 2012, and ended on September 6, 2012. In 2018, Charlotte was chosen to host the Republican National Convention in August 2020.", "", "The city's public school system, Charlotte-Mecklenburg Schools, is the 2nd largest in North Carolina and 17th largest in the nation. In 2009, it won the NAEP", "Charlotte is home to a number of universities and colleges such as Central Piedmont Community College, Johnson C. Smith University, Johnson & Wales University, Queens University of Charlotte, and the University of North Carolina at Charlotte. Several notable colleges are located in the metropolitan suburbs. Located in Davidson, North Carolina, Davidson College is ranked in the top ten nationally among liberal arts colleges, according to U.S. News & World Report. Additional colleges in the area include Belmont Abbey College in the suburb of Belmont, North", "The Charlotte Mecklenburg Library serves the Charlotte area with a large collection (more than 1.5 million) of books, CDs and DVDs at 15 locations in the city of Charlotte, with branches in the surrounding towns of Matthews, Mint Hill, Huntersville, Cornelius and Davidson. All locations provide free access to Internet-enabled computers and WiFi, and a library card from one location is accepted at all 20 locations. Although the library's roots go back to the \"Charlotte Literary and Library Association,\" founded on January 16, 1891, the state-chartered Carnegie Library, which opened on the current North Tryon site of the Main Library, was the first non-subscription library opened to members of the public in the city of Charlotte. The philanthropist Andrew Carnegie donated", "", "Charlotte has one major daily newspaper, \"The Charlotte", "Charlotte is the 24th largest radio market in the nation, according to Arbitron. While major groups like Entercom, iHeartMedia, and Radio One", "According to Nielsen Media Research, Charlotte is the 22nd largest television market in the nation (as of the 2016–2017 season) and the largest in the state of North Carolina. Major television stations located in Charlotte include CBS affiliate WBTV 3 (the oldest television station in the Carolinas), ABC affiliate WSOC-TV 9, NBC affiliate WCNC-TV 36, CW affiliate WCCB 18, and PBS member station WTVI 42. Two", "", "Charlotte has a municipal waste system consisting of trash pickup, water distribution, and waste treatment. There are five waste water treatment plants operated by Charlotte Water (previously Charlotte-Mecklenburg Utility Department). Charlotte has a biosolids program. Some", "The city of Charlotte has a lower than average percentage of households without a car. In 2015, 7.4 percent of Charlotte households lacked a car, and decreased to 6 percent in 2016. The national average was 8.7 percent in 2016. Charlotte averaged 1.65 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8.", "The Charlotte Area Transit System (CATS) is the agency responsible for operating mass transit in Charlotte and Mecklenburg County. CATS operates light rail transit, streetcar, express shuttles, and bus services serving Charlotte and its immediate suburbs. The LYNX light rail system comprises a 18.9‐mile line north–south line known as the Blue Line, which saw 2025 ridership projections (18,500) exceeded after its first year of service. Bus ridership", "A 2011 study by Walk Score ranked Charlotte", "Charlotte's central location between the population centers of the northeast and southeast has made it a transportation focal point and primary distribution center, with two major interstate highways, I-85 and I-77, intersecting near the city's center. The latter highway also connects to the population centers of the Rust Belt. Charlotte's beltway, designated I-485 and simply called \"485\" by local residents, has been", "Charlotte Douglas International Airport is the sixth busiest airport in both the U.S. and the world overall as measured by traffic (aircraft movements). The airport handled just over 50 million travellers in 2019, as well as", "Charlotte is served daily by three Amtrak routes with ten daily trips from a station on North Tryon Street, just outside downtown. Charlotte is also served by both Greyhound and low-cost curbside carrier Megabus. Charlotte is a service stop for Greyhound routes running to Atlanta, Detroit, Jacksonville, New York and Philadelphia. It is also a stop for buses running out of Megabus' hub in Atlanta, with connections to Megabus' northeastern routes out of New York. The city is planning a new centralized downtown multimodal station called Gateway Station, It is expected to house Amtrak, Greyhound and the future LYNX Red Line. It is under construction at the former site of the Greyhound station; Greyhound is currently operating from a temporary station nearby.", "Sister Cities International has designated nine sister cities of Charlotte: Charlotte has also been known to have a sister city agreement with Port-au-Prince in Ouest, Haiti, although its status may now be inactive." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Demographics.", "Immigrants.", "Religion.", "General information.", "Name.", "Coat-of-arms.", "History.", "Frogner Manor in Skien.", "Kapitelberget.", "Transportation.", "Roads.", "Water.", "Railroads.", "Air.", "Culture and recreation.", "Ibsen and Telemark Museums.", "Music and entertainment.", "Amusement parks.", "Media.", "Economy.", "Commerce and industry.", "Shopping.", "International relations.", "Twin towns and sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "16.8% of the population in Skien are immigrants.", "67% of people in Skien belong to the Church of Norway. 17% of people belong to a religious group outside of the Church of Norway.", "", "The Old Norse form of the name was \"Skiða\" (from the word \"skiða\" which means \"straight plank\"), and the town is probably named after a brook (with a straight run) with this name.", "The coat-of-arms is derived from the oldest known seal of the city, dating back to 1609. The seal shows two skis and in the middle a cross, with a small star on the crosspoint. The skis are a semi-canting element (based on a misunderstanding of the meaning of the town's name) and the cross is a religious symbol. There have been several theories about the meaning of the cross, but its meaning is not clearly known. It has been suggested that it is a symbol for the main church in Skien, the Holy Cross church. The small star may be a symbol of St. Mary as the second medieval church of Skien was devoted to her. Besides the skis and cross, there are two meadow buttercups on each side. In 1854, the arms were shown as two skis, but the cross was now made from ski poles, as another canting element. This remained so until the early half of the 20th century. In the 1980s, the city officially adopted the current arms, which are identical to the oldest seal. The colours are the colours that have been used since the 19th century. The differences between the seal and the present arms are that in the arms the cross is placed on top of the skis and the star is changed from a four-pointed star to a six-pointed star, and that the cross is made of ski-poles.", "Until 1979, it was thought that Skien was founded in the 14th century. However, the archaeological discovery of a carving of the Skien animal has established that its founding preceded 1000 A.D. The city was then a meeting place for inland farmers and marine traders, and also a centre for trading whetstones from Eidsborg (inland Telemark). Gimsøy Abbey was founded in the 12th century. Skien was given formal commercial town rights by the Norwegian crown in 1358. Timber has historically been the principal export from Skien, and in the sixteenth century the city became the Kingdom's leading port for shipping timber. The oldest remaining building is Gjerpen church (built in approximately 1150). From the 16th century, the city came to be dominated by a group of families known as patricians. In an 1882 letter to Georg Brandes, Henrik Ibsen mentions the families Paus, Plesner, von der Lippe, Cappelen and Blom as the most prominent patrician families when he grew up there. The current town layout was fixed after the last town fire in 1886. In 1964, the rural municipalities Solum and Gjerpen were merged with Skien town, forming the Skien municipality.", "Frogner Manor (\"Frogner Hovedgård\") is a manor house on the outskirts of Skien. The manor house was built for shipowner and timber merchant Christopher Hansen Blom (died 1879) and his wife Marie Elisabeth (Cappelen) Blom (died 1834). The main building is influenced by Italian Renaissance architecture. The garden was laid out in English landscape style in the 1850s.", "The Church on Kapitelberget (\"Kirken på Kapitelberget\") was a medieval church. Kapitelberget was a private chapel on Bratsberg farm dating to the early 1100s. It is not known when the church went out of use, but Bratsberg farm burned down in 1156. in 1576, Peder Claussøn Friis reviewed it as a ruin. The site was first excavated in 1901. In 1928, Gerhard Fischer undertook restoration and preservation. The work was completed in 1933.", "", "The main road into Skien is from the E18 road and through Porsgrunn, on either road 36 or 354 that runs up alongs Skienselva on each side. Another common route used by most buses coming from Oslo is road 32, that goes through Siljan, Steinsholt, Lågendalen, Hvittingfoss and Hof. Road 32 enters the E18 in Hof. 564598-168", "Skien is the main terminus for the Telemark Canal. The \"Norsjø-Skienskanalen\" section of the canal, with one terminus at Skien and the other at Løveid, was built in 1854–1861. In Europe, canals were commonly built in the pre-railroad period to transport goods, timber, and passengers. The \"Porsgrunn river\" runs from the lock at Skien through Porsgrunn to the Frierfjord. Skien harbour is located at \"Vold havneterminal\".", "Skien was connected to the Norwegian railway network (Vestfoldbanen) in 1882. In 1919, Bratsbergbanen opened between Skien and Notodden. Norges Statsbaner still operates regular train services on both railways.", "The local airport is Skien Airport, Geiteryggen. It serves domestic flights to Bergen and Stavanger as well as flights to Trondheim by the airline Vildanden. For the present, no commercial flights are operated from Geiteryggen.", "", "Skien was the birthplace of the author and playwright Henrik Ibsen, probably the most important writer to emerge from Norway. Many of Ibsen's plays are set in an unnamed provincial town that suggests Skien. The former Ibsen family homestead at Venstøp outside Skien was established as the Ibsen Museum in 1958. The Ibsen Museum has now been incorporated into the multi-site Telemark Museum, which includes several other historical sites.", "Ibsenhuset is the local culture and conference center in Skien. It also houses concerts by international and national artists, opera, theatre and other cultural events. Skien kunstforening has a department in Ibsenhuset, and the local culture school and library are also located in the building. The venue is also home to the regional symphony orchestra, Grenland Symfoniorkester. Teater Ibsen is the city theatre, and is still used for small productions. Skien Church is the largest church in Telemark county, and is famous for its two twin towers and great organ. In the summer of 2009 Elton John held a concert at the new Skagerak Arena, the soccer pitch for the local soccer team Odd Grenland. Next to Skagerak Arena is Stevneplassen, where car shows, concerts, flea markets and the annual \"Handelsstevnet\" – a trade fair with entertainment and a small amusement park – are held. The Handelsstevnet was closed down after the annual fair in 2011. In Skotfoss, a small suburb of Skien further up the Telemark Canal, concerts are held at Løveid Sluser. There are plans to hold cultural events and concerts at Klosterøya (a downtown graffiti park).", "There are no local amusement parks in Skien. Lekeland was a small amusement park for children just outside the town, but it closed in 2008. Every year there is a traveling carnival with rides and merry-go-arounds for a week, in \"Stevneplassen\". Norway's biggest outside climbing park, Himalaya Park, is located in Skien. There is an indoor waterpark in Skien Fritidspark.", "The daily newspapers \"Varden\" and \"Telemarksavisa\" are published in Skien. The local television for Telemark, TVTelemark, is located in Skien.", "", "The largest industries are ABB Asea Brown Boveri (engineering firm), Norske Skog Union (a paper mill which was closed down in the spring of 2006), and EFD Induction (induction heating and induction welding). Other important places of work are the Telemark Hospital and the County Governor of Telemark. Agder Court of Appeal is located in Skien. Because the E18 highway lies outside of the metropolitan area of Grenland, Skien has lost many important companies to the cities in Vestfold.", "Skien has three shopping malls:", "", "The following cities are twinned with Skien:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Recording and production.", "Themes.", "Composition.", "Music.", "Lyrics.", "Artwork.", "Critical reception.", "Accolades.", "Commercial performance.", "Touring.", "Legacy.", "Adaptations.", "Stage musical.", "Film.", "Documentary.", "Release history.", "Track listing.", "Personnel.", "Certifications and sales." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Green Day was one of the most popular rock acts of the 1990s. However, their 2000 album \"Warning\" was a commercial disappointment, despite largely positive reviews. In early 2002, they embarked on the Pop Disaster Tour, headlining with Blink-182. The tour created momentum for the band, who were earning a reputation as \"elder statesmen\" of the pop punk scene, which consisted of bands like Good Charlotte, Sum 41, and New Found Glory. Things had come to a point regarding unresolved personal issues between the three band members. The band was argumentative and miserable, according to band member Mike Dirnt, and needed to \"shift directions\". In addition, the band released a greatest hits album, \"International Superhits!\", which they felt was \"an invitation to midlife crisis\". Frontman Billie Joe Armstrong called Dirnt and asked him, \"Do you wanna do [the band] anymore?\" He felt insecure, having become \"fascinated and horrified\" by his reckless lifestyle, and his marriage was in jeopardy. Dirnt and Tré Cool viewed the frontman as controlling, while Armstrong feared to show his bandmates new songs. Beginning in January 2003, the group had weekly personal discussions, which resulted in a revitalized feeling among the musicians. They settled on more musical input from Cool and Dirnt, with \"more respect and less criticism\". Green Day had spent much of 2002 recording new material at Studio 880 in Oakland, California for an album titled \"Cigarettes and Valentines\", creating \"polka songs, filthy versions of Christmas tunes, [and] salsa numbers\" for the project, hoping to establish something new within their music. After completing 20 songs, the demo master tapes were stolen that November. In 2016, Armstrong and Dirnt said that they eventually recovered the material and were using it for ideas. After the theft, the band consulted longtime producer Rob Cavallo. Cavallo told them to ask themselves if the missing tracks represented their best work. Armstrong said that they \"couldn't honestly look at ourselves and say, 'That was the best thing we've ever done.' So we decided to move on and do something completely new.\" They agreed to spend the next three months writing new material.", "The members of Green Day individually crafted their own ambitious thirty-second songs. Armstrong recalled, \"It started getting more serious as we tried to outdo one another. We kept connecting these little half-minute bits until we had something.\" This musical suite became \"Homecoming\", and the band wrote another suite, \"Jesus of Suburbia\". It changed the development of the album, and the band began viewing songs as more than their format—as chapters, movements, or potentially a feature film or novel. Soon afterward, Armstrong penned the title track, which explicitly addresses sociopolitical issues. The group then decided that they would steer the development of the album toward what they dubbed a \"punk rock opera.\" Prior to recording, Green Day rented rehearsal space in Oakland. Armstrong invited Cavallo to attend the sessions and help guide their writing processes. Cavallo encouraged the idea of a concept album, recalling a conversation the two had a decade prior, in which Armstrong expressed his desire for their career to have a \"Beatles-like arc to their creativity.\" During the sessions at Studio 880, Green Day spent their days writing material and would stay up late, drinking and discussing music. The band set up a pirate radio station from which it would broadcast jam sessions, along with occasional prank calls. The band demoed the album sufficiently so that it would be completely written and sequenced before they went to record. Hoping to clear his head and develop new ideas for songs, Armstrong traveled to New York City alone for a few weeks, renting a small loft in the East Village of Manhattan. He spent much of this time taking long walks and participating in jam sessions in the basement of Hi-Fi, a bar in Manhattan. He began socializing with songwriters Ryan Adams and Jesse Malin. Many songs from the album were written based on his time in Manhattan, including \"Boulevard of Broken Dreams\" and \"Are We the Waiting\". While there, he also formulated much of the album's storyline, about people \"going away and getting the hell out, while at the same time fighting their own inner demons.\" With demos completed, Green Day relocated to Los Angeles. They first recorded at Ocean Way Recording, then moved to Capitol Studios to complete the album. Cool brought multiple drum kits, including over seventy-five snares. Drum tracks were recorded on two-inch tape to produce a compressed sound and were transferred to Pro Tools to be digitally mixed with the other instruments. All drum tracks were produced at Ocean Way Studio B, picked for its high ceiling and acoustic tiling, which produced better sound. The songs were recorded in order as they appear on the track listing, a first for Green Day. Each song was recorded in its entirety before proceeding to the next. They reversed the order in which they recorded guitars and bass (recording the guitars first), as they heard that was how the Beatles recorded songs. Armstrong said that at points he expressed fear at the amount of work before him, likening it to climbing a mountain. The band took a relaxed approach to recording. For five months, they stayed at a Hollywood hotel during the recording sessions, where they would often play loud music late at night, prompting complaints. The band admitted to partying during the L.A. sessions; Armstrong had to schedule vocal recording sessions around his hangovers. Armstrong described the environment: \"For the first time, we separated from our pasts, from how we were \"supposed\" to behave as Green Day. For the first time, we fully accepted the fact that we're rock stars.\" \"American Idiot\" took ten months to complete, at a cost of $650,000. By the end of the process, Armstrong felt \"delirious\" regarding the album: \"I feel like I'm on the cusp of something with this. [...] I really feel [...] like we're really peaking right now.\"", "\"American Idiot\" was inspired by contemporary American political events, like the presidency of George W. Bush and the war in Iraq. There are only two explicitly political songs on the album (\"American Idiot\" and \"Holiday\"), but the album \"draws a casual connection between contemporary American social dysfunction [...] and the Bush ascendancy.\" While the content is clearly of the times, Armstrong hoped it would remain timeless and become more an overarching statement on confusion. Armstrong expressed dismay at the then-upcoming presidential election. He felt confused by the country's culture war, noting the particular division among the general public on the Iraq War. Summing up his feelings in an interview at the time, he said, \"This war that's going on in Iraq [is] basically to build a pipeline and put up a fucking Wal-Mart.\" Armstrong felt a duty to keep his sons away from violent images, including video games and news coverage of the war in Iraq and the 9/11 attacks. Armstrong noted divisions between America's \"television culture\" (which he said only cared about cable news) versus the world's view of America, which could be considered as careless warmongers. Dirnt felt similarly, especially so after viewing the 2004 documentary \"Fahrenheit 9/11\". \"You don't have to analyze every bit of information in order to know that something's not fucking right, and it's time to make a change.\" Cool hoped the record would influence young people to vote Bush out, or, as he put it, \"make the world a little more sane.\" He had previously felt that it was not his place to \"preach\" to kids, but felt there was so much \"on the line\" in the 2004 election that he must. The album also takes aim at giant corporations putting small companies out of business. Cool made an example out of record shops closing when a national retailer makes it to town. \"It's like there's just one voice you can hear,\" he said. \"Not to sound like a preachy person, but it's getting towards the Big Brother of George Orwell's \"Nineteen Eighty-Four\"— except here you have two or three corporations running everything.\"", "", "Speaking on the album's musical content, Armstrong remarked, \"For us, \"American Idiot\" is about taking those classic rock and roll elements, kicking out the rules, putting more ambition in, and making it current.\" Part of recording the album was attempting to expand their familiar punk rock sound by experimenting with different styles such as new wave, Latin, and polka music. The band listened to various rock operas, including the Who's \"Tommy\" (1969) and David Bowie's \"The Rise and Fall of Ziggy Stardust and the Spiders from Mars\" (1972). Armstrong was particularly inspired by the Who's \"Quadrophenia\", finding more in common with its \"power chord mod-pop aesthetic\" than other concept records, such as \"The Wall\" by Pink Floyd. In addition, they listened to the cast recordings of Broadway musicals \"West Side Story\", \"The Rocky Horror Show\", \"Grease\", and \"Jesus Christ Superstar\", and they let contemporary music influence them, including rappers Eminem and Kanye West, as well as rock band Linkin Park. Armstrong considered rock music a \"conservative\" business with regard to the rigidity in which a band must release a single, create a music video, or head out on tour. He felt groups like hip hop duo OutKast were \"kicking rock's ass, because there's so much ambition.\" The band used more loud guitar sounds for the record. Armstrong said \"We were like, 'Let's just go balls-out on the guitar sound—plug in the Les Pauls and Marshalls and let it rip'\". Armstrong added tracks of acoustic guitar-playing throughout the record to augment his electric guitar rhythms and Cool's drumming. For most of the record, Dirnt used an Ampeg SVT bass amplifier, recording with his signature Fender Precision Bass. For the album, he and Cavallo strived for a \"solid, big, thunderous\" bass sound as opposed to one centered on countermelodies. Dirnt ran his bass guitar through an Evil Twin direct box, a staple of his recording methods since \"Dookie\". Cool also employs unorthodox instruments for punk music—timpani, glockenspiel, and hammer bells—which he received out of a promotional deal with Ludwig. These instruments are especially evident on \"Homecoming\" and on \"Wake Me Up When September Ends\", the latter of which includes an African bead gourd that was welded to a remote hi-hat pedal for future live performances. \"Extraordinary Girl\", originally titled \"Radio Baghdad\", features tablas in the intro performed by Cool. For \"Whatsername\", Cool recorded drums in a room designed to record guitars to achieve a dry sound. With all these techniques and influences considered, critics have called the album pop punk and alternative rock, as well as the aforementioned punk rock. With total track time of 57 minutes, \"American Idiot\" is the band's second longest studio album.", "\"American Idiot\" is a concept album that describes the story of a central character named Jesus of Suburbia, an anti-hero created by Billie Joe Armstrong. It is written from the perspective of a lower-middle-class suburban American teen, raised on a diet of \"soda pop and Ritalin.\" Jesus of Suburbia hates his town and those close to him, so he leaves for the city. The second character introduced in the story is St. Jimmy, a \"swaggering punk rock freedom fighter par excellence.\" Whatsername, \"a 'Mother Revolution' figure,\" is introduced as a nemesis of St. Jimmy in the song \"She's a Rebel\". The album's story is largely indeterminate, as the group was unsure of where to lead the plot's third quarter. In this sense, Armstrong decided to leave the ending up to the listeners' imagination. The two secondary characters exemplify the record's main theme—\"rage versus love\"—in that while St. Jimmy is driven by \"rebellion and self-destruction,\" Whatsername is focused on \"following your beliefs and ethics.\" Jesus of Suburbia eventually decides to follow the latter, resulting in the figurative suicide of St. Jimmy, which is revealed to be a facet of his personality. In the album's final song, Jesus of Suburbia loses his connection with Whatsername as well, to the point in which he can't even remember her name. Through the story, Armstrong hoped to detail coming of age in America at the time of the album's release. While he considered their previous record heartfelt, he felt a more instinctual feeling to speak for the time period in which the album was released. He had felt the desire to increase the amount of political content in his lyricism as he grew into adulthood, noting that the \"climate\" surrounding his aging produced feelings of responsibility in the songs he wrote. Armstrong said, \"As soon as you abandon the verse-chorus-verse-chorus-bridge song structure... it opens up your mind to this different way of writing, where there really are no rules.\" In addition to the album's political content, it also touches on interpersonal relationships and what Dirnt labeled \"confusion and loss of individuality.\" \"American Idiot\" contends that mass media has orchestrated paranoia and idiocy among the public, particularly cable news, which Armstrong felt had crossed the line from journalism to reality television, only showcasing violent footage intercut with advertisements. The song emphasizes strong language, juxtaposing the homophobic slur \"faggot\" and \"America\" to create what he imagined would be a voice for the disenfranchised. \"Holiday\" took two months to finish writing, as Armstrong continually felt his lyrics were not good enough. Encouraged by Cavallo, he completed the song. He later characterized the song as an outspoken \"fuck you\" to Bush. \"Give Me Novacaine\" touches on American reality television of that time, which Armstrong likened to \"gladiators in the coliseum.\" \"She's a Rebel\" was inspired by Bikini Kill's \"Rebel Girl\".", "After finishing the music for the album, the band decided that the artwork needed to reflect the themes on the record, likening the change of image to a political campaign. Armstrong recalled, \"We wanted to be firing on all cylinders. Everything from the aesthetic to the music to the look. Just everything.\" Green Day drew inspiration from Chinese communist propaganda art the band saw in art galleries on Melrose Avenue and recruited artist Chris Bilheimer, who had designed the art for the previous records \"Nimrod\" and \"International Superhits!\" to create the cover. The band aimed for the cover to be \"at once uniform and powerful\". The album's artwork—\"a Posada-stark print of a heart-shaped hand grenade gripped in a blood-soaked fist\"—is representative of its political content. After listening to the new music on his computer, Bilheimer took note of the lyric \"And she's holding on my heart like a hand grenade\" from \"She's a Rebel\". Influenced by artist Saul Bass's poster for the 1955 drama film \"The Man with the Golden Arm\", Bilheimer created an upstretched arm holding a red heart-shaped grenade. Although he felt that red is the \"most overused color in graphic design\", he felt that the \"immediate\" qualities of the color deemed it appropriate for use on the cover. He explained, \"I'm sure there's psychological theories of it being the same color of blood and therefore has the powers of life and death... And as a designer I always feel it's kind of a cop-out, so I never used it before. But there was no way you couldn't use it on this cover.\" The band also underwent \"a significant image change,\" and they began wearing black and red uniforms onstage. Armstrong considered it a natural extension of his showmanship, which began in his childhood.", "\"American Idiot\" received generally positive reviews from critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications, the album received an average score of 79, based on 26 reviews. According to AllMusic, it earned Green Day \"easily the best reviewed album of their career.\" The website's editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine praised the album as either \"a collection of great songs\" or as a whole, writing that, \"in its musical muscle and sweeping, politically charged narrative, it's something of a masterpiece\". \"Pitchfork\" deemed it \"ambitious\" and successful in getting across its message, while \"keep[ing] its mood and method deliberately, tenaciously, and angrily on point\". \"NME\" characterized it as \"an onslaught of varied and marvellously good tunes presented in an unexpectedly inventive way.\" \"Q\" called the album \"a powerful work, noble in both intent and execution.\" \"The New York Times\" commended Green Day for trumping \"any pretension with melody and sheer fervor\". \"Chicago Sun-Times\" critic Jim DeRogatis wrote that the band had successfully \"hit upon an actual 'adult' style of pop punk\", while \"USA Today\"s Edna Gundersen wrote that they had steered away from the \"cartoonish\" qualities of their previous work in favor of more mature, politically-oriented themes. \"Entertainment Weekly\" said that despite being based on a musical theater concept \"that periodically makes no sense\", Green Day \"makes the journey entertaining enough\". It described some of the songs as forgettable, though, arguing the album focuses more on lyrics than music. \"Rolling Stone\" said the album could have been, and was, a mess, but that the \"individual tunes are tough and punchy enough to work on their own\". \"The Guardian\" called \"American Idiot\" a mess—\"but a vivid, splashy, even courageous mess\". \"Slant Magazine\" described it as a \"pompous, overwrought,\" but nonetheless \"glorious concept album\". \"Uncut\" was more critical and wrote in a mixed review that although the album was heavily politically focused, \"slam-dancing is still possible\". In a negative review, Robert Christgau of \"The Village Voice\" called the album a \"dud\" and asserted that Armstrong's lyrics eschew \"sociopolitical content\" for \"the emotional travails of two clueless punks—one passive, one aggressive, both projections of the auteur\", adding that \"there's no economics, no race, hardly any compassion.\" Ian Winwood of \"Kerrang!\" called it a \"modern day masterpiece\". Josh Tyrangiel of \"Time\" said, \"For an album that bemoans the state of the union, it is irresistibly buoyant.\"", "In 2005, \"American Idiot\" won a Grammy Award for Best Rock Album and was nominated in six other categories including Album of the Year. The album helped Green Day win seven of the eight awards it was nominated for at the 2005 MTV Video Music Awards; the \"Boulevard of Broken Dreams\" video won six of those awards. A year later, \"Boulevard of Broken Dreams\" won a Grammy Award for Record of the Year. In 2009, \"Kerrang!\" named \"American Idiot\" the best album of the decade, \"NME\" ranked it number 60 in a similar list, and \"Rolling Stone\" ranked it 22nd. \"Rolling Stone\" also listed \"Boulevard of Broken Dreams\" and \"American Idiot\" among the 100 best songs of the 2000s, at number 65 and 47 respectively. In 2005, the album was ranked number 420 in \"Rock Hard\" magazine's book of \"The 500 Greatest Rock & Metal Albums of All Time\". In 2012, the album was ranked number 225 on \"Rolling Stone\"'s list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time.", "\"American Idiot\" became Green Day's first number one album in the United States, selling 267,000 copies in its first week of release, their biggest opening sales week. The album became 2005's fourth-highest seller, moving over 3.4 million units. \"American Idiot\" remained in the top 10 of the \"Billboard\" 200 upwards of a year following its release, staying on the chart for 101 weeks. The album has been certified six times platinum status in the United States. The album also debuted at number 1 in the UK, selling 89,385 copies in the first week. In 2005, commenting on the success \"American Idiot\" brought the band, Samuel Bayer, director of all of \"American Idiot\"'s music videos, stated \"The Billie Joe that I work with now is not the same guy that walked onto the \"American Idiot\" set a year ago. Now, he's a \"rock star.\" They were famous. They had done big stuff. But it's transcended that. But he hasn't changed. And they haven't changed. They're three friends who love one another.\" Courtney Love also commented on the success of the band, stating \"Billie Joe looks absolutely beautiful. You know how when people get super A-list, their face gets prettier? I think it's perception. It's something that happens in your subconscious\". At the time of \"American Idiot\"s release, the album was not sold in Wal-Mart due to its explicit content. As of 2014, \"American Idiot\" has sold 6.2 million albums in the United States, making it second to \"Dookie\" within their catalogue. Worldwide, its sales are estimated at 16 million copies.", "Touring in support of the album began in the US, where the band performed in conservative stronghold states like Texas, Tennessee, and Georgia. The group headlined arenas that were only \"60 to 75 percent full\" and were often booed for performing songs from the album. Armstrong often chanted \"Fuck George W. Bush!\" Jonah Weiner of \"Blender\" likened the band's live performances of the time to an \"anti-Bush rally.\" Armstrong admitted that they did \"everything to piss people off,\" including wearing a Bush mask onstage in weeks preceding the election. The European tour sold 175,000 tickets in less than an hour. In April, the band began a one-month US arena tour. The band soon began playing stadiums, performing at New Jersey's Giants Stadium, San Francisco's SBC Park, and Los Angeles' Home Depot Center between September and October 2005.", "John Colapinto of \"Rolling Stone\" summarized its immediate impact in a 2005 story: Jon Pareles of \"The New York Times\" deemed it \"both a harbinger and a beneficiary of the Bush administration's plummeting approval, selling steadily through 2005 as the response to Hurricane Katrina and the protracted war in Iraq turned much of the country against the government.\" \"Wake Me Up When September Ends\" became symbolic during various events such as the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina; one online blogger paired the song with television coverage of the disaster, creating a viral video. Ian Winwood of \"Kerrang!\" said that the album pushed rock music back into the mainstream. \"American Idiot\" was a career comeback for Green Day, and their unexpected maturation \"stunned the music industry.\"", "In late 2005, DJ Party Ben and producer Team9, under the shared alias Dean Gray (a spoonerism of \"Green Day\"), released an online-only mash-up version of the album—called \"American Edit\". This became a cause célèbre when a cease and desist order was served by Green Day's record label. Tracks include \"American Edit\", \"Dr. Who on Holiday\", \"Novocaine Rhapsody\", and \"Boulevard of Broken Songs.\" Billie Joe Armstrong later stated that he heard one of the songs on the radio and \"enjoyed it.\"", "An \"American Idiot\" stage musical adaptation premiered at the Berkeley Repertory Theatre in September 2009. The musical was a collaboration between Green Day and director Michael Mayer. Green Day did not appear in the production, but the show featured an onstage band. The production transferred to Broadway at the St. James Theatre, and opened in April 2010. The show received mixed to positive reviews from critics, but received a rave review from \"The New York Times\". The show features all of the songs from the album \"American Idiot\", including B-sides, as well as songs from Green Day's follow-up album, \"21st Century Breakdown\". Armstrong appeared in the Broadway production as St. Jimmy multiple times. With his return in 2011, the show grossed over $1 million. \"American Idiot\" won two Tony Awards: Best Scenic Design of a Musical for Christine Jones and Best Lighting Design of a Musical for Kevin Adams. It also received a nomination for Best Musical. The Broadway production closed in April 2011, after 27 previews and 421 regular performances. The first national tour started in late 2011. A documentary regarding the musical, titled \"Broadway Idiot\", was released in 2013.", "Billie Joe Armstrong had at one point, prior to its release, suggested the album would make good material for an adapted feature film. Shortly after the album was released, there was speculation that \"American Idiot\" might be made into a film. In an interview with VH1, Armstrong said, \"We've definitely been talking about someone writing a script for it, and there's been a few different names that have been thrown at us. It sounds really exciting, but for right now it's just talk.\" Armstrong later stated that filming would begin in 2006, stressing, \"We want to see how it turns out first so that it doesn't suck.\" On June 1, 2006, Armstrong announced in an interview with MTV that the movie was \"definitely unfolding\" and that \"every single week there's more ideas about doing a film for \"American Idiot\", and it's definitely going to happen\". In the summer of 2010, when asked by Virgin Radio if the film was \"true, a lie, or a mystery\", Tré Cool responded by saying that it was \"a true mystery\". In April 2011, production company Playtone optioned the musical to develop a film version, and Universal Pictures began initial negotiations to distribute it. Michael Mayer, who directed the Broadway production, was named as director. Dustin Lance Black was initially hired to adapt the musical. Billie Joe Armstrong was asked to star as St. Jimmy, and the film was proposed for a 2013 release. Armstrong later posted on his Twitter account that he had not \"totally committed\" to the role but was interested in it. In July 2013, Mayer reported that the film adaptation was still happening, but production had not been scheduled due to \"Hollywood bullshit\". In March 2014, playwright Rolin Jones told the \"Hartford Courant\" that he was writing a new screenplay for the film. Comparing it to the musical, Jones said, \"The idea is to get it a little dirtier and a little nastier and translate it into visual terms. There's not going to be a lot of dialogue and it probably should be a little shorter, too. After that, it just takes its'movie time' in getting done\". He expected to finish the script by the end of the month. In October 2016, in an interview with \"NME\", Armstrong revealed that the film was now being made at HBO and the script was getting rewrites. He confirmed he would reprise his Broadway role as St. Jimmy. In November 2016, Armstrong stated that the film was \"going to be a lot different from the musical. It's kind of, more surreal but I think there's going to be parts of it that might offend people – which is good. I think it's a good time to offend people. I think there's just going to be a lot of imagery that we couldn't pull off in the musical in the stage version. You know, I don't want to give away too much, but it will be shocking in a way which makes you think.\" In February 2020, Billie Joe Armstrong revealed to \"NME\" that plans for the film adaptation of \"American Idiot\" have been \"pretty much scrapped\", without providing any more details as to the reason.", "Heart Like a Hand Grenade is a 2015 film featuring Green Day during the recording of \"American Idiot\". It was directed by John Roecker and filmed over the process of fifteen months between 2003 and 2004. It is a documentary about the songwriting and recording process of the album.", "The film had a limited, one night release in Hollywood at Grauman's Egyptian Theatre on March 25, 2009 to a crowd of more than 400 people. On July 15, 2014, director John Roecker announced on his Facebook page that the film would be released to the public. On May 18, 2015, Roecker mentioned on his personal Facebook page that the sound mix was done and that the movie was in Warner Brothers' hands: \"I am happy to announce that \"Heart Like A Hand Grenade: The Making of American Idiot\" is finished. Sound mix done and now off to Warner Brothers. I want to thank Scott Gawlik and Dylan Melody for their amazing talent and making this film incredible. Also thank you Chris Dugan for creating an \"American Idiot\" overture the one I wanted 11 years ago!\" On June 12, 2015, director John Roecker confirmed on his Facebook page that Warner Brothers had a release date/period for the film: \"Deal with Warners is Done! Praise Satan! See you in September. \"Heart Like A Hand Grenade: The Making of American Idiot\" teaser coming soon. I want to thank my brothers Dylan Melody, Dean Gonzalez, Scott Gawlik for making my film how I envisioned it. Eleven years but it has been worth it...you will not be disappointed this film is the shit.\" \"Heart Like a Hand Grenade\" made its world premiere on October 8, 2015 at the 38th Mill Valley Film Festival, and it was released to theaters in the US the following week. It received a worldwide release on November 11, and it was available on DVD and digital release on November 13.", "All lyrics written by Billie Joe Armstrong, except where noted; all music composed by Green Day. In 2015, \"Kerrang!\" Magazine released a cover album of \"American Idiot\", covered by various artists.", "Credits adapted from the liner notes of \"American Idiot\". Green Day Additional musicians Production", "!scope=\"row\"|Israel (IFPI) !scope=\"row\"|Worldwide" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Heliocentrism.", "Before Copernicus.", "Ptolemaic Model.", "Ptolemy and \"The Mathematical Compilation\".", "Nicolaus Copernicus.", "Reception.", "Tycho Brahe.", "Johannes Kepler.", "Galileo Galilei.", "Sphere of the fixed stars.", "Isaac Newton.", "Immanuel Kant.", "Chinese astronomy.", "Arabic astronomy.", "Maragha observatory.", "Tusi couple.", "Arabic mathematics.", "Metaphorical usage." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "The \"Copernican Revolution\" is named for Nicolaus Copernicus, whose \"Commentariolus\", written before 1514, was the first explicit presentation of the heliocentric model in Renaissance scholarship. The idea of heliocentrism is much older; it can be traced to Aristarchus of Samos, a Hellenistic author writing in the 3rd century BC, who may in turn have been drawing on even older concepts in Pythagoreanism. Ancient heliocentrism was, however, eclipsed by the geocentric model presented by Ptolemy and accepted in Aristotelianism. European scholars were well aware of the problems with Ptolemaic astronomy since the 13th century. The debate was precipitated by the reception by Averroes' criticism of Ptolemy, and it was again revived by the recovery of Ptolemy's text and its translation into Latin in the mid-15th century. Otto E. Neugebauer in 1957 argued that the debate in 15th-century Latin scholarship must also have been informed by the criticism of Ptolemy produced after Averroes, by the Ilkhanid-era (13th to 14th centuries) Persian school of astronomy associated with the Maragheh observatory (especially the works of Al-Urdi, Al-Tusi and Ibn al-Shatir). The state of the question as received by Copernicus is summarized in the \"Theoricae novae planetarum\" by Georg von Peuerbach, compiled from lecture notes by Peuerbach's student Regiomontanus in 1454 but printed only in 1472. Peuerbach attempts to give a new, mathematically more elegant presentation of Ptolemy's system, but he does not arrive at heliocentrism. Regiomontanus himself was the teacher of Domenico Maria Novara da Ferrara, who was in turn the teacher of Copernicus. There is a possibility that Regiomontanus already arrived at a theory of heliocentrism before his death in 1476, as he paid particular attention to the heliocentric theory of Aristarchus in a late work, and mentions the \"motion of the Earth\" in a letter.", "Up until Copernicus, people believed in the Ptolemaic Model of planetary motion which promoted a view of the universe in which the earth was at the center. Ptolemy’s followers believed thoroughly in this theory, as although it has been disproved, he was able to come up with explanations not only for moving planets, but also for retrograde motion. Using many complicated concepts involving both mathematics and astronomy, Ptolemy was also able to accurately calculate the paths of the Moon, Sun, and other planets. Ptolemy wrote about his findings in a book knows as \"The Mathematical Compilation.\" This book was a source of contention for many astronomers, and Copernicus along with many other astronomers began to discredit his work with their own theories, thus marking the initial movement away from Ptolemy's theories", "Ptolemy’s work on this book occurred in the second century. This book attempted to tackle issues such as the motion of the stars along with planetary motion. Although it has obviously since been disproved, Ptolemy’s theory of the universe being geocentric was one that was followed for over a thousand years. His writing in \"The Mathematical\" \"Compilation\" was translated into a few languages including Arabic, Latin, Greek, and others. The accessibility of his writing created a large following and the eventual undoubted belief that the universe was geocentric.", "Copernicus studied at Bologna University during 1496–1501, where he became the assistant of Domenico Maria Novara da Ferrara. He is known to have studied the \"Epitome in Almagestum Ptolemei\" by Peuerbach and Regiomontanus (printed in Venice in 1496) and to have performed observations of lunar motions on 9 March 1497. Copernicus went on to develop an explicitly heliocentric model of planetary motion, at first written in his short work \"Commentariolus\" some time before 1514, circulated in a limited number of copies among his acquaintances. He continued to refine his system until publishing his larger work, \"De revolutionibus orbium coelestium\" (1543), which contained detailed diagrams and tables. The Copernican model makes the claim of describing the physical reality of the cosmos, something which the Ptolemaic model was no longer believed to be able to provide. Copernicus removed Earth from the center of the universe, set the heavenly bodies in rotation around the Sun, and introduced Earth's daily rotation on its axis. While Copernicus's work sparked the \"Copernican Revolution\", it did not mark its end. In fact, Copernicus's own system had multiple shortcomings that would have to be amended by later astronomers. Copernicus did not only come up with a theory regarding the nature of the sun in relation to the earth, but thoroughly worked to debunk some of the minor details within the geocentric theory. In his article about heliocentrism as a model, author Owen Gingerich writes that in order to persuade people of the accuracy of his model, Copernicus created a mechanism in order to return the description of celestial motion to a “pure combination of circles.” Copernicus’s theories made a lot of people uncomfortable and somewhat upset. Even with the scrutiny that he faced regarding his conjecture that the universe was not centered around the Earth, he continued to gain support- other scientists and astrologists even posited that his system allowed a better understanding of astronomy concepts than did the geocentric theory.", "", "Tycho Brahe (1546–1601) was a Danish nobleman who was well known as an astronomer in his time. Further advancement in the understanding of the cosmos would require new, more accurate observations than those that Nicolaus Copernicus relied on and Tycho made great strides in this area. Tycho Brahe accepted Copernicus's model but reasserted geocentricity. In 1572, Tycho Brahe observed a new star in the constellation Cassiopeia. For eighteen months, it shone brightly in the sky with no visible parallax, indicating it was part of the heavenly region of stars according to Aristotle's model. However, according to that model, no change could take place in the heavens so Tycho's observation was a major discredit to Aristotle's theories. In 1577, Tycho observed a great comet in the sky. Based on his parallax observations, the comet passed through the region of the planets. According to Aristotelian theory, only uniform circular motion on solid spheres existed in this region, making it impossible for a comet to enter this region. Tycho concluded there were no such spheres, raising the question of what kept a planet in orbit. With the patronage of the King of Denmark, Tycho Brahe established Uraniborg, an observatory in Hven. For 20 years, Tycho and his team of astronomers compiled astronomical observations that were vastly more accurate than those made before. These observations would prove vital in future astronomical breakthroughs. Tycho also formulated his own astronomical system, claiming it to be superior to those of Ptolemy and Copernicus. Although Tycho appreciated the advantages of Copernicus's system, he could not accept the movement of the Earth and settled on geoheliocentrism, meaning the Sun moved around the Earth while the planets orbited the Sun.", "Kepler found employment as an assistant to Tycho Brahe and, upon Brahe's unexpected death, replaced him as imperial mathematician of Emperor Rudolph II. He was then able to use Brahe's extensive observations to make remarkable breakthroughs in astronomy, such as the three laws of planetary motion. Kepler would not have been able to produce his laws without the observations of Tycho, because they allowed Kepler to prove that planets traveled in ellipses, and that the Sun does not sit directly in the center of an orbit but at a focus. Galileo Galilei came after Kepler and developed his own telescope with enough magnification to allow him to study Venus and discover that it has phases like a moon. The discovery of the phases of Venus was one of the more influential reasons for the transition from geocentrism to heliocentrism. Sir Isaac Newton's \"Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica\" concluded the Copernican Revolution. The development of his laws of planetary motion and universal gravitation explained the presumed motion related to the heavens by asserting a gravitational force of attraction between two objects. In 1596, Kepler published his first book, the \"Mysterium Cosmographicum\", which was the first to openly endorse Copernican cosmology by an astronomer since 1540. The book described his model that used Pythagorean mathematics and the five Platonic solids to explain the number of planets, their proportions, and their order. The book garnered enough respect from Tycho Brahe to invite Kepler to Prague and serve as his assistant. In 1600, Kepler set to work on the orbit of Mars, the second most eccentric of the six planets known at that time. This work was the basis of his next book, the \"Astronomia nova\", which he published in 1609. The book argued heliocentrism and ellipses for planetary orbits instead of circles modified by epicycles. This book contains the first two of his eponymous three laws of planetary motion. In 1619, Kepler published his third and final law which showed the relationship between two planets instead of single planet movement. Kepler's work in astronomy was new in part. Unlike those who came before him, he discarded the assumption that planets moved in uniform circular motion, replacing it with elliptical motion. Also, like Copernicus, he asserted the physical reality of a heliocentric model as opposed to a geocentric one. Yet, despite all of his breakthroughs, Kepler could not explain the physics that would keep a planet in its elliptical orbit.", "Galileo Galilei was an Italian scientist who is sometimes referred to as the \"father of modern observational astronomy\". His improvements to the telescope, astronomical observations, and support for Copernicanism were all integral to the Copernican Revolution. Based on the designs of Hans Lippershey, Galileo designed his own telescope which, in the following year, he had improved to 30x magnification. Using this new instrument, Galileo made a number of astronomical observations which he published in the \"Sidereus Nuncius\" in 1610. In this book, he described the surface of the Moon as rough, uneven, and imperfect. He also noted that \"the boundary dividing the bright from the dark part does not form a uniformly oval line, as would happen in a perfectly spherical solid, but is marked by an uneven, rough, and very sinuous line, as the figure shows.\" These observations challenged Aristotle's claim that the Moon was a perfect sphere and the larger idea that the heavens were perfect and unchanging. Galileo's next astronomical discovery would prove to be a surprising one. While observing Jupiter over the course of several days, he noticed four stars close to Jupiter whose positions were changing in a way that would be impossible if they were fixed stars. After much observation, he concluded these four stars were orbiting the planet Jupiter and were in fact moons, not stars. This was a radical discovery because, according to Aristotelian cosmology, all heavenly bodies revolve around the Earth and a planet with moons obviously contradicted that popular belief. While contradicting Aristotelian belief, it supported Copernican cosmology which stated that Earth is a planet like all others. In 1610, Galileo observed that Venus had a full set of phases, similar to the phases of the moon we can observe from Earth. This was explainable by the Copernican system which said that all phases of Venus would be visible due to the nature of its orbit around the Sun, unlike the Ptolemaic system which stated only some of Venus's phases would be visible. Due to Galileo's observations of Venus, Ptolemy's system became highly suspect and the majority of leading astronomers subsequently converted to various heliocentric models, making his discovery one of the most influential in the transition from geocentrism to heliocentrism.", "In the sixteenth century, a number of writers inspired by Copernicus, such as Thomas Digges, Giordano Bruno and William Gilbert argued for an indefinitely extended or even infinite universe, with other stars as distant suns. This contrasts with the Aristotelian view of a sphere of the fixed stars. Although opposed by Copernicus and Kepler (with Galileo not expressing a view), by the middle of the 17th century this became widely accepted, partly due to the support of René Descartes.", "Newton was a well known English physicist and mathematician who was known for his book \"Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica\". He was a main figure in the Scientific Revolution for his laws of motion and universal gravitation. The laws of Newton are said to be the ending point of the Copernican Revolution. Newton used Kepler's laws of planetary motion to derive his law of universal gravitation. Newton's law of universal gravitation was the first law he developed and proposed in his book \"Principia\". The law states that any two objects exert a gravitational force of attraction on each other. The magnitude of the force is proportional to the product of the gravitational masses of the objects, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. Along with Newton's law of universal gravitation, the \"Principia\" also presents his three laws of motion. These three laws explain inertia, acceleration, action and reaction when a net force is applied to an object.", "Immanuel Kant in his \"Critique of Pure Reason\" (1787 edition) drew a parallel between the \"Copernican revolution\" and the epistemology of his new transcendental philosophy. Kant's comparison is made in the Preface to the second edition of the \"Critique of Pure Reason\" (published in 1787; a heavy revision of the first edition of 1781). Kant argues that, just as Copernicus moved from the supposition of heavenly bodies revolving around a stationary spectator to a moving spectator, so metaphysics, \"proceeding precisely on the lines of Copernicus' primary hypothesis\", should move from assuming that \"knowledge must conform to objects\" to the supposition that \"objects must conform to our [\"a priori\"] knowledge\". Much has been said on what Kant meant by referring to his philosophy as \"proceeding precisely on the lines of Copernicus' primary hypothesis\". There has been a long-standing discussion on the appropriateness of Kant's analogy because, as most commentators see it, Kant inverted Copernicus' primary move. According to Tom Rockmore, Kant himself never used the \"Copernican revolution\" phrase about himself, though it was \"routinely\" applied to his work by others.", "Much like the early Greeks, the Chinese initially believed in a geocentric universe. They used elaborate star charts along with research done by notable Chinese astronomers to back their theories. The \"gai tian\" astronomical tradition theorized the sky as forming a dome or canopy around the Earth, which provided an explanation for day and night, and as the cause of seasonal variation. The following \"hun tian\" theory that also developed in the first century by Zhang Heng (78-139) elaborated further on the earlier Chinese astronomical model as “The heavens are like a hen’s egg; the earth is like the yolk of the egg, and lies alone in the center.”", "In the Arabic-Islamic world, primarily the 10th and 11th centuries, was considered a resourceful era in Islamic science. Thus leading Copernicus a better understanding of the Ptolemaic model. Muslim scholars such as Ibn al-Haytham, al-Shatir, al-Tusi, al-Urdi contributed to the development of astronomy. Ibn al-Haytham put forward a planetary motion idea questioning and doubted Ptolemy's model. By the 11th and 12th century, Al-Haytham work reached Spain and Asia. Ibn al-Shatir created similar models to Copernicus away from the Ptolemaic model. Which evidently led to a new research for Islam. Arabic mathematicians unable to make Ptolemaic astronomy connect to Aristotelian cosmology modified the Ptolemaic system, and heavily criticized its tradition. Medieval European astronomers inherited Arabic attempts at mathematical realism in the Ptolemaic system that created a new line of scientific motivation, which influenced the direction of Copernicus’s work. Without a doubt, the contributions that the Arabic-Islamic civilization made to help the development of modern science before the 13th century are significant by \"its contributions to the fund of knowledge, logical, mathematical, and [the] methodological.\" However, the lack of societal \"freedom of thought and expression\" inhibited Arabic-Islamic science from advancing any further, and eventually led to its decline in the 15th century.", "The Maragha observatory in Iran was an institution that specialized in astronomy. Ibn al-Tusi was a part of the observatory and provided a better insight of the Ptolemy's faulty model. Maraghan predecessors were able to configure a fragmented heliocentric model. Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (1201-1274) spent much of his time addressing problems with Ptolemy's model that resulted in the first non-Ptolemaic model for the Moon at the Maragha school observatory. Copernicus can be seen in the shadows of the Maragha school. They both shared strong ideas of astronomy that questions the connection between the school findings and Copernicus discovery.", "Ibn al-Tusi was able to illustrate a model that would represent the motion of planets. This model, the Tusi couple, was created in the 13th century. Copernicus applied this method to his own model. Evidently he made the model more \"complicated\". Not only that but, Copernicus uses the Alphabetic letters as Tusi does.", "Mohammed ibn Musa al-Khowarizimi, developed algebra and his work would help develop European algebra. Arabic algebra conversion expanded Copernicus understanding to mathematics.", "Following Kant, the phrase \"Copernican Revolution\" in the 20th century came to be been used for any (supposed) paradigm shift, for example in reference to Freudian psychoanalysis or postmodern critical theory." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early years.", "Tennis career.", "After retiring from tennis.", "Personal life.", "Death.", "Career finals (Open era).", "Singles (5 wins, 5 losses).", "Performance timeline.", "Professional Grand Slam." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Andrés came from a family which loved tennis, and his father Esteban supported his efforts to play the game. Esteban had been a good tennis player and he became Andres' coach. They practiced at Real Club de Tenis Barcelona. At an early age Andres started to become a really good tennis player, winning some important tournaments in his region. At age sixteen, he won the U-18 Championship of Spain. In 1954, he won the Championship of Spain in the doubles category playing with Juan Manuel Couder. At the same time, he stopped studying to focus on his tennis career. He was not only a successful tennis player in Spain, but also represented his country throughout Europe. He played in the Galea's Cup, the European Championship U21, and won it in 1956 and 1957. He was the runner-up in 1958. After that, he decided to go to Australia to play with the man who was considered the best tennis coach in the world, Harry Hopman. He improved his tennis level and soon, he had two important victories in the championships in Perth and in Sydney.", "Gimeno went back to Spain in 1960 where he then had his best year as an amateur, winning the titles in Barcelona, Caracas, Monte Carlo, and at Queen's Club. In Barcelona, he became the first Spanish player to win the Torneo Conde de Godó, beating the Italian player Giuseppe Merlo. That same year he reached the doubles final of the French Open too, losing to an Australian duo. After that year, he joined the professional group World Championship Tennis, where Jack Kramer offered him $50,000 for three years, and more money for each victory. The group consisted of some of the best tennis players in history such as Rod Laver, Pancho Gonzales and Ken Rosewall. Gimeno won the Poertschach pro tournament in August 1963 beating Rosewall and Frank Sedgman. He also won the Genoa Pro in September 1963 beating Laver and Rosewall. Gimeno won the College Park Pro in May 1964 beating Lew Hoad in the final. He won tournaments in Noordwijk and Munich in August and September 1964 beating Laver and Rosewall in both events. Gimeno won the Milan Pro in September 1965 over Laver and Rosewall and beat Laver in the final of the pro event at Port Elizabeth in October 1965. Gimeno won the US Pro hardcourt event at St. Louis in June 1966 beating Laver in the final. He won the World pro championships in Oklahoma City in July 1966 beating Laver and Rosewall. He also won the Geneva and Barcelona pro tournaments in September 1966 (both over Laver). He won the Cincinnati Pro in July 1967 beating Laver and Rosewall. In September 1967, Gimeno won the Border Pro at Selborne (over Rosewall and Fred Stolle) and the Eastern Province Pro at Port Elizabeth (over Laver and Rosewall). Gimeno's best Grand Slam results as a singles player came in 1968 when the Open era started and the professional could participate in Grand Slams. His first good result was the final in Australian Open in 1969, where he lost to Rod Laver in three sets. Gimeno won events at Barcelona, Cologne and New York in 1969, Dallas in 1970 and Hamburg in 1971. Gimeno's best year was in 1972, when he was a finalist in Brussels and in Paris, and he won in Los Angeles, in Eastbourne, in Gstaad, and the French Open. The Catalan won his first and only Grand Slam in 1972. He holds the record for the oldest male player to win the French Open (at the age of 34). In the final, he beat the French player Patrick Proisy in four sets. In addition, he reached the semifinals at Wimbledon in 1970. In 1973, he reached the final of the Dutch Open in Hilversum, where Tom Okker beat him in five sets. Gimeno was an active Davis Cup player, recording an 18–5 singles record and 5–5 doubles record. His debut was in the match that Spain played against Egypt with one of the most important players in Spain, Manuel Santana. He could not play the competition while he was a part of the professional group, but he participated as coach in 1966. In 1973, he injured his meniscus and decided to quit playing tennis. He became the tennis coach in the RFET, Tennis’ Spanish Federation and then in the Suisse Federation.", "After his professional career, he decided to join the tennis circuit for retired players called Legends Championship. He also founded a tennis club in 1974 called \"Club de Tenis Andres Gimeno\" in Castelldefels, Barcelona. He was elected to the International Tennis Hall of Fame in 2009, becoming the fourth Spanish tennis player in it, after Arantxa Sánchez Vicario, Manuel Alonso and Manuel Santana.", "Gimeno married Cristina Corolla in 1962 and together they had three children: Alejo Gimeno, Andres Gimeno Jr. and Cristina Gimeno. In 2011, Gimeno lost all his money, and some of the best Spanish tennis players such as Rafael Nadal, Tommy Robredo, Feliciano López and David Ferrer played an exhibition tennis tournament in Palau Blaugrana to raise funds for him.", "Gimeno died following a long illness, on 9 October 2019, at the age of 82.", "", "Source: ATP", "", "Source:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Military service.", "World War II.", "Korean War.", "Later life.", "Death.", "Memorials.", "Medals and decorations." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Winters was born in New Holland, Pennsylvania, to Richard and Edith Winters on January 21, 1918. The family soon moved to nearby Ephrata, and then to Lancaster when he was eight years old. He graduated from Lancaster Boys High School in 1937 and attended Franklin and Marshall College. At Franklin and Marshall, Winters was a member of the Upsilon chapter of Delta Sigma Phi fraternity and participated in intramural football and basketball. He had to give up wrestling, his favorite sport, and most of his social activities for his studies and the part-time jobs that paid his way through college. He graduated in 1941 with a B.S in Economics. He obtained the highest academic standing in the business college. Following graduation, he enlisted in the Army to fulfill a one-year requirement of service, although he later wrote in his memoirs that at the time he \"...had no desire to get into the war...\" and that he had volunteered so that he would not be drafted later.", "", "Winters enlisted in the United States Army on August 25, 1941. In September, he underwent basic training at Camp Croft, South Carolina. He remained at Camp Croft to help train draftees and other volunteers, while the rest of his battalion was deployed to Panama. In April 1942, four months after the United States entered World War II, he was selected to attend Officer Candidate School (OCS) at Fort Benning, Georgia. There he became friends with Lewis Nixon, with whom he served throughout the war. He was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the infantry after graduating from OCS on July 2, 1942. During his officer training, Winters decided to join the parachute infantry, part of the U.S. Army's new airborne forces. Upon completing training, he returned to Camp Croft to train another class of draftees as there were no positions available in the paratroopers at that time. After five weeks, he received orders to join the 506th Parachute Infantry Regiment (506th PIR) at Camp Toccoa (formerly Camp Toombs) in Georgia. The 506th was commanded by Colonel Robert Sink. Winters arrived at Toccoa in mid-August 1942 and was assigned to Company E, 2nd Battalion, 506th PIR, which later became better known as \"Easy Company\" in accordance with the contemporaneous Joint Army/Navy Phonetic Alphabet. Serving under First Lieutenant Herbert Sobel, Winters was made platoon leader of 2nd Platoon, earning a promotion to first lieutenant in October 1942 and made acting company executive officer, although this was not made official until May 1943. The 506th PIR was an experimental unit, the first regiment to undertake airborne training as a formed unit. The training at Toccoa was very tough. Of the 500 officers who had volunteered, only 148 completed the course; of 5,000 enlisted volunteers, only 1,800 were ultimately selected for duty as paratroopers. On June 10, 1943, after more tactical training at Camp Mackall, North Carolina, the 506th PIR was attached to Major General William Lee's 101st \"Screaming Eagles\" Airborne Division. Later in the year, they embarked on the \"Samaria\", and arrived in Liverpool on 15 September 1943. They proceeded to Aldbourne, Wiltshire, where they began intense training for the Allied invasion of Europe planned for spring 1944. In November and December 1943, while Easy Company was at Aldbourne, the tension that had been brewing between Winters and Sobel came to a head. For some time, Winters had privately held concerns over Sobel's ability to lead the company in combat. Many of the enlisted men in the company had come to respect Winters for his competence and had also developed their own concerns about Sobel's leadership. Winters later said that he never wanted to compete with Sobel for command of Easy Company; still, Sobel attempted to bring Winters up on trumped-up charges for \"failure to carry out a lawful order\". Feeling that his punishment was unjust and sensing Sobel's tactically of the matter, Winters requested that the charge be reviewed by court-martial. After Winters' punishment was set aside by the battalion commander, Major Robert L. Strayer, Sobel brought Winters up on another charge the following day. During the investigation, Winters was transferred to the Headquarters Company and appointed as the battalion mess officer. Following this, though Winters tried to talk them out of it, a number of the company's non-commissioned officers (NCOs) gave the regimental commander, Colonel Sink, an ultimatum: either Sobel be replaced, or they would surrender their stripes. Sink was not impressed and several of the NCOs were subsequently demoted and/or transferred out of the company. Nevertheless, Sink realized that something had to be done and decided to transfer Sobel out of Easy Company, giving him command of a new parachute training school at Chilton-Foliat. Winters' court-martial was set aside and he returned to Easy Company as leader of 1st Platoon. Winters later said he felt that at least part of Easy Company's success had been due to Sobel's strenuous training and high expectations. In February 1944, First Lieutenant Thomas Meehan was given command of Easy Company. Meehan remained in command of the company until the invasion of Normandy, when at about 1:15 a.m. on June 6, 1944, D-Day, the C-47 Skytrain transporting the company Headquarters Section was shot down by German anti-aircraft fire, killing everyone on board. Winters jumped that night and landed safely near Sainte-Mère-Église. Losing his weapon during the drop, he nevertheless oriented himself, assembled several paratroopers, including members of the 82nd Airborne Division, and proceeded toward the unit's assigned objective near Sainte-Marie-du-Mont. With Meehan's fate unknown, Winters became the \"de facto\" commanding officer (CO) of Easy Company, which he remained for the duration of the Normandy campaign. Later that day, Winters led an attack that destroyed a battery of German 105mm howitzers, which were firing onto the causeways that served as the principal exits from Utah Beach. The Americans estimated that the guns were defended by about a platoon of 50 German troops, while Winters had 13 men. This action south of the village of Le Grand-Chemin, called the Brécourt Manor Assault, has been taught at the military academy at West Point as an example of a textbook assault on a fixed position by a numerically inferior force. In addition to destroying the battery, Winters also obtained a map that showed German gun emplacements near Utah Beach. On July 1, 1944, Winters was told that he had been promoted to captain. The next day, he was presented with the Distinguished Service Cross by General Omar Bradley, then the commander of the U.S. First Army. Shortly after, the 506th Parachute Infantry was withdrawn from France and returned to Aldbourne, England, for reorganization. In September 1944, the 506th PIR took part in Operation Market Garden, an airborne operation in the Netherlands. On 5 October 1944, a German force attacked the 2nd Battalion's flank and threatened to break through the American lines. At the same time, four men in an Easy Company patrol were wounded. Returning to the headquarters, they reported that they had encountered a large group of Germans at a crossroads about to the east of the company command post. Realizing the seriousness of the situation, Winters took one squad from 1st Platoon, and moved off toward the crossroads, where they observed a German machine gun firing to the south, toward the battalion headquarters, from a long distance. After surveying the position, Winters led the squad in an assault on the gun crew. Soon after taking the position, the squad took fire from a German position opposite them. Estimating that this position was held by at least a platoon, Winters called for reinforcements from the rest of the 1st Platoon and led them in a successful assault. Later it was discovered there had been at least 300 Germans. On October 9, Winters became the battalion executive officer (XO), following the death of the battalion's former XO, Major Oliver Horton. Although this position was normally held by a major, Winters filled it as a captain. The 101st Airborne Division was withdrawn to France soon afterward. On December 16, 1944, German forces launched a counter-offensive against the Western Allies in Belgium, commencing the Battle of the Bulge. The 101st Airborne Division was trucked to the Bastogne area two days later. Still serving as XO of the 2nd Battalion, Winters helped defend the line northeast of Bastogne near the town of Foy. The entire 101st Airborne and elements of the 10th Armored Division battled about 15 German divisions, supported by heavy artillery and armor, for nearly a week before General George Patton's U.S. Third Army broke through the German lines surrounding Bastogne, reopening ground supply lines. After being relieved, the 2nd Battalion attacked Foy on January 9, 1945. On March 8, 1945, the 2nd Battalion was moved to Haguenau in Alsace, after which Winters was promoted to major. Shortly afterwards, Robert Strayer, now a lieutenant colonel, was elevated to the regimental staff and Winters took over as acting commander of the 2nd Battalion. In April, the battalion carried out defensive duties along the Rhine before deploying to Bavaria later in the month. In early May, the 101st Airborne Division received orders to capture Berchtesgaden. The 2nd Battalion set out from the town of Thalem through streams of surrendering German soldiers and reached the alpine retreat at noon on 5 May 1945. Three days later, the war in Europe ended. After the end of hostilities, Winters remained in Europe as the process of occupation and demobilization began. Even though he had enough points to return to the United States, he was told that he was needed in Germany. Later, he was offered a regular (non-reserve) commission, but declined it. He finally embarked from Marseille aboard the \"Wooster Victory\" on 4 November 1945. He was separated from the Army on November 29, 1945, although he was not officially discharged until January 22, 1946, and he remained on terminal leave until then. Winters was recommended for the Medal of Honor for his leadership at Brécourt Manor, but instead received the U.S. Army's second-highest award for combat valor, the Distinguished Service Cross. After the release of the \"Band of Brothers\" television miniseries, Representative Tim Holden (D-PA) introduced a bill asking the President to grant the Medal, but the bill died in the House Armed Services Committee Subcommittee on Military Personnel in 2007.", "After leaving the Army, Winters worked for his close wartime friend Captain Lewis Nixon at Nixon's family business, Nixon Nitration Works of Edison, New Jersey, rising to become general manager in 1950. On May 16, 1948, Winters married Ethel Estoppey and continued to pursue his education through the GI Bill, attending a number of business and personnel management courses at Rutgers University. In June 1951, Winters was recalled to active duty in the Army during the Korean War. He was ordered to join the 11th Airborne Division at Fort Campbell, Kentucky, but he was given six months to report and in this time he traveled to Washington, D.C., to speak to General Anthony McAuliffe, in the hope that he could convince the Army not to send him to Korea. He explained to McAuliffe that he had seen enough of war and apparently McAuliffe understood his position but explained that he was needed because of his command experience. Winters then reported to Fort Dix, New Jersey, where he was assigned as a regimental planning and training officer. While at Fort Dix, Winters became disillusioned with his job, finding that he had little enthusiasm for training officers who lacked discipline and did not attend their scheduled classes. As a result, he volunteered to attend Ranger School, where he passed and became a Ranger. He then received orders to deploy to Korea and traveled to Seattle, where, during pre-deployment administration, he was offered the option of resigning his commission, which he accepted.", "Winters was discharged from the Army and became a production supervisor at a plastics adhesive business in New Brunswick, New Jersey. In 1951, he and his wife bought a small farm where later they built a home and raised two children. In 1972, Winters went into business for himself, starting his own company and selling animal feed products to farmers throughout Pennsylvania. Soon afterward, he moved his family to Hershey, Pennsylvania. He retired in 1997. During the 1990s, Winters was featured in a number of books and television series about his experiences and those of the men in Easy Company. In 1992, Stephen Ambrose wrote the book \"Band of Brothers: Easy Company, 506th Regiment, 101st Airborne from Normandy to Hitler's Eagle's Nest\", which was subsequently turned into an HBO mini-series \"Band of Brothers\" with Damian Lewis portraying Winters. When the miniseries won Primetime Emmy awards, Winters attended the ceremony to accept on behalf of Easy Company while other surviving members of the company watched from the St. Regis Hotel in Los Angeles. Winters was also the subject of the 2005 book \"Biggest Brother: The Life of Major Dick Winters, The Man Who Led the Band of Brothers\", written by Larry Alexander. His own memoir, \"Beyond Band of Brothers: The War Memoirs of Major Dick Winters\", co-written by military historian and retired U.S. Army Colonel Cole C. Kingseed, was published in early 2006. He also gave a number of lectures on leadership to cadets at the United States Military Academy at West Point. On May 16, 2009, Franklin and Marshall College conferred an Honorary Doctorate in Humane Letters upon Winters. Despite the many accolades he had received, Winters remained humble about his service. During the interview segment of the miniseries \"Band of Brothers\", Winters quoted a passage from a letter he received from Sergeant Mike Ranney, \"I cherish the memories of a question my grandson asked me the other day when he said, 'Grandpa, were you a hero in the war?' Grandpa said 'No...but I served in a company of heroes'.\"", "Winters died on January 2, 2011, at an assisted living facility in Campbelltown, Pennsylvania. He had suffered from Parkinson's disease for several years. Winters was buried in a private funeral service, which was held on 8 January 2011. He was buried in the Bergstrasse Evangelical Lutheran Church cemetery in Ephrata, Pennsylvania, next to his parents in the Winters' family plot. His grave is marked \"Richard D. Winters, World War II 101st Airborne\". His wife Ethel died in 2012, at age 89.", "On June 6, 2012, the 68th anniversary of the D-Day landings, a 12-foot bronze statue of Winters by sculptor Stephen C. Spears was unveiled near the village of Sainte-Marie-du-Mont, France. Winters agreed for the statue to bear his resemblance on the condition that the monument would be dedicated to all junior officers who served and died during the Normandy landings. A cast of the sculpture was placed in Ephrata, Pennsylvania, in a plaza on the Ephrata-to-Warwick linear trail park near Railroad Street and East Fulton Street, where Winters lived with his family from ages two to eight. That statue was dedicated on May 25, 2015. Some of Winters' World War II uniforms and memorabilia are on display at two museums:", "Five Overseas Service Bars for serving 21⁄2 years in combat in Europe. In 2001, Winters, as a representative on behalf of the U.S. Army, was one of five World War II veterans to be awarded the Freedom Medal & Freedom from Fear Medal from the Roosevelt Institute." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Example.", "Measures of association.", "Odds ratio.", "Phi coefficient.", "Cramér's \"V\" and the contingency coefficient \"C\".", "Tetrachoric correlation coefficient.", "Lambda coefficient.", "Uncertainty coefficient." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Suppose there are two variables, sex (male or female) and handedness (right or left handed). Further suppose that 100 individuals are randomly sampled from a very large population as part of a study of sex differences in handedness. A contingency table can be created to display the numbers of individuals who are male right handed and left handed, female right handed and left handed. Such a contingency table is shown below. The numbers of the males, females, and right- and left-handed individuals are called marginal totals. The grand total (the total number of individuals represented in the contingency table) is the number in the bottom right corner. The table allows users to see at a glance that the proportion of men who are right handed is about the same as the proportion of women who are right handed although the proportions are not identical. The strength of the association can be measured by the odds ratio, and the population odds ratio estimated by the sample odds ratio. The significance of the difference between the two proportions can be assessed with a variety of statistical tests including Pearson's chi-squared test, the \"G\"-test, Fisher's exact test, Boschloo's test and Barnard's test, provided the entries in the table represent individuals randomly sampled from the population about which conclusions are to be drawn. If the proportions of individuals in the different columns vary significantly between rows (or vice versa), it is said that there is a \"contingency\" between the two variables. In other words, the two variables are \"not\" independent. If there is no contingency, it is said that the two variables are \"independent\". The example above is the simplest kind of contingency table, a table in which each variable has only two levels; this is called a 2 × 2 contingency table. In principle, any number of rows and columns may be used. There may also be more than two variables, but higher order contingency tables are difficult to represent visually. The relation between ordinal variables, or between ordinal and categorical variables, may also be represented in contingency tables, although such a practice is rare. For more on the use of a contingency table for the relation between two ordinal variables, see Goodman and Kruskal's gamma.", "The degree of association between the two variables can be assessed by a number of coefficients. The following subsections describe a few of them. For a more complete discussion of their uses, see the main articles linked under each subsection heading.", "The simplest measure of association for a 2 × 2 contingency table is the odds ratio. Given two events, A and B, the odds ratio is defined as the ratio of the odds of A in the presence of B and the odds of A in the absence of B, or equivalently (due to symmetry), the ratio of the odds of B in the presence of A and the odds of B in the absence of A. Two events are independent if and only if the odds ratio is 1; if the odds ratio is greater than 1, the events are positively associated; if the odds ratio is less than 1, the events are negatively associated. The odds ratio has a simple expression in terms of probabilities; given the joint probability distribution: the odds ratio is:", "A simple measure, applicable only to the case of 2 × 2 contingency tables, is the phi coefficient (φ) defined by where χ is computed as in Pearson's chi-squared test, and \"N\" is the grand total of observations. φ varies from 0 (corresponding to no association between the variables) to 1 or −1 (complete association or complete inverse association), provided it is based on frequency data represented in 2 × 2 tables. Then its sign equals the sign of the product of the main diagonal elements of the table minus the product of the off–diagonal elements. φ takes on the minimum value −1.0 or the maximum value of +1.0 if and only if every marginal proportion is equal to 0.5 (and two diagonal cells are empty).", "Two alternatives are the \"contingency coefficient\" \"C\", and Cramér's V. The formulae for the \"C\" and \"V\" coefficients are: \"k\" being the number of rows or the number of columns, whichever is less. \"C\" suffers from the disadvantage that it does not reach a maximum of 1.0, notably the highest it can reach in a 2 × 2 table is 0.707. It can reach values closer to 1.0 in contingency tables with more categories; for example, it can reach a maximum of 0.870 in a 4 × 4 table. It should, therefore, not be used to compare associations in different tables if they have different numbers of categories. \"C\" can be adjusted so it reaches a maximum of 1.0 when there is complete association in a table of any number of rows and columns by dividing \"C\" by formula_6 where \"k\" is the number of rows or columns, when the table is square, or by formula_7 where \"r\" is the number of rows and \"c\" is the number of columns.", "Another choice is the tetrachoric correlation coefficient but it is only applicable to 2 × 2 tables. Polychoric correlation is an extension of the tetrachoric correlation to tables involving variables with more than two levels. Tetrachoric correlation assumes that the variable underlying each dichotomous measure is normally distributed. The coefficient provides \"a convenient measure of [the Pearson product-moment] correlation when graduated measurements have been reduced to two categories.\" The tetrachoric correlation coefficient should not be confused with the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient computed by assigning, say, values 0.0 and 1.0 to represent the two levels of each variable (which is mathematically equivalent to the φ coefficient).", "The lambda coefficient is a measure of the strength of association of the cross tabulations when the variables are measured at the nominal level. Values range from 0.0 (no association) to 1.0 (the maximum possible association). Asymmetric lambda measures the percentage improvement in predicting the dependent variable. Symmetric lambda measures the percentage improvement when prediction is done in both directions.", "The uncertainty coefficient, or Theil's U, is another measure for variables at the nominal level. Its values range from −1.0 (100% negative association, or perfect inversion) to +1.0 (100% positive association, or perfect agreement). A value of 0.0 indicates the absence of association. Also, the uncertainty coefficient is conditional and an asymmetrical measure of association, which can be expressed as This asymmetrical property can lead to insights not as evident in symmetrical measures of association." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Personal life.", "Illness and death." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Jordan was born in Charleston, South Carolina. He served two tours in Vietnam (from 1968 to 1970) with the United States Army as a helicopter gunner. He was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross with oak leaf cluster, the Bronze Star with \"V\" and oak leaf cluster, and two Vietnamese Gallantry Crosses with palm. After returning from Vietnam he attended The Citadel, where he received an undergraduate degree in physics; after graduating he was employed by the United States Navy as a nuclear engineer. He began writing in 1977.", "He was a history buff and enjoyed hunting, fishing, sailing, poker, chess, pool, and pipe-collecting. He described himself as a \"High Church\" Episcopalian and received communion more than once a week. He lived with his wife, Harriet McDougal, who works as a book editor (currently with Tor Books; she was also Jordan's editor) in a house built in 1797.", "On March 23, 2006, Jordan disclosed that he had been diagnosed with cardiac amyloidosis and that with treatment, his median life expectancy was four years. In a separate blog post, he encouraged his fans not to worry about him and stated that he intended to lead a long and creative life. He began chemotherapy at Mayo Clinic in early April 2006. He was enrolled in a study of Revlimid, which had recently been approved for multiple myeloma but not yet tested on primary amyloidosis. Jordan died on September 16, 2007, and his funeral service was held on September 19, 2007. He was cremated and his ashes buried in the churchyard of St. James Church in Goose Creek, outside Charleston, South Carolina. Jordan's papers can be found in the special collections of the College of Charleston." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design and development.", "Operators.", "Incidents and accidents." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Development began in the late 1970s with two Bell 212s being converted into 412 prototypes. An advanced four-blade main rotor with a smaller diameter replaced the 212's two-blade rotor. A Bell 412 prototype first flew in August 1979. The initial model was certified in January 1981 with deliveries commencing in the same month.The 412 model was followed by the 412SP (Special Performance) version featuring larger fuel capacity, higher takeoff weight and optional seating arrangements. In 1991, the 412HP (High Performance) variant with improved transmission replaced the SP version in production. The current production version, 412EP (Enhanced Performance), is equipped with a dual digital automatic flight control system. In 2013 Bell introduced the 412EPI which includes an electronic (Digital) engine control for a PT6T-9 engine upgrade, and a glass cockpit display system similar to the Bell model 429. Also featured is a Garmin touchscreen navigation system, and the BLR Strake and Fast Fin upgrades for improved hover performance. Over 700 Model 412s (including 260 by AgustaWestland) have been built.", "The Bell 412 is used by private and commercial operators. It is particularly popular in the oil industries, military, and for law enforcement use.", "On April 4, 1991, a Bell 412 collided with a small plane carrying United States Senator H. John Heinz III, which killed the senator. On April 22, 1994, a Bell 412 medical Helicopter AirCare from North Carolina Baptist Hospital crashed into mountainous terrain near Bluefield, WV killing all 4 crew members on board. On 09 July 2002, a Bell 412 from the El Salvador Air Force crashed after a lightning strike killing all 4 crew members and 3 passengers on board. On December 10, 2006, a Bell 412 medical helicopter Mercy Air 2 crashed in mountainous terrain near Hesperia, California. All three crew members on board died." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Mythological foundation.", "Origins.", "Identity and distribution.", "History.", "Archaic period.", "Classical period.", "Achaemenid Thrace.", "Odrysian Kingdom.", "Macedonian Thrace.", "Roman Thrace.", "Roman rule.", "Barbarians.", "Aftermath and legacy.", "Culture.", "Religion.", "Marriage.", "Warfare.", "Physical appearance.", "Notable people.", "Thracology.", "Archaeology.", "Genetics." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The first historical record of the Thracians is found in the \"Iliad\", where they are described as allies of the Trojans in the Trojan War against the Ancient Greeks. The ethnonym \"Thracian\" comes from Ancient Greek Θρᾷξ (plural Θρᾷκες;, ) or Θρᾴκιος (; Ionic: Θρηίκιος, ), and the toponym Thrace comes from Θρᾴκη (; Ionic: Θρῄκη, ). These forms are all exonyms as applied by the Greeks.", "In Greek mythology, \"Thrax\" (by his name simply the quintessential Thracian) was regarded as one of the reputed sons of the god Ares. In the \"Alcestis\", Euripides mentions that one of the names of Ares himself was \"Thrax\" since he was regarded as the patron of Thrace (his golden or gilded shield was kept in his temple at Bistonia in Thrace).", "The origins of the Thracians remain obscure, in the absence of written historical records. Evidence of proto-Thracians in the prehistoric period depends on artifacts of material culture. Leo Klejn identifies proto-Thracians with the multi-cordoned ware culture that was pushed away from Ukraine by the advancing timber grave culture or Srubnaya. It is generally proposed that a proto-Thracian people developed from a mixture of indigenous peoples and Indo-Europeans from the time of Proto-Indo-European expansion in the Early Bronze Age when the latter, around 1500 BC, mixed with indigenous peoples. During the Iron Age (about 1000 BC) Dacians and Thracians began developing from proto-Thracians.", "Divided into separate tribes, the Thracians did not manage to form a lasting political organization until the Odrysian state was founded in the fifth century BC. A strong Dacian state appeared in the first century BC, during the reign of King Burebista. The mountainous regions were home to various peoples, including the Illyrians, regarded as warlike and ferocious Thracian tribes, while the plains peoples were apparently regarded as more peaceable. Thracians inhabited parts of the ancient provinces of Thrace, Moesia, Macedonia, Dacia, Scythia Minor, Sarmatia, Bithynia, Mysia, Pannonia, and other regions of the Balkans and Anatolia. This area extended over most of the Balkans region, and the Getae north of the Danube as far as beyond the Bug and including Pannonia in the west. There were about 200 Thracian tribes.", "", "The first Greek colonies in Thrace were founded in the eighth century BC. Thrace south of the Danube (except for the land of the Bessi) was ruled for nearly half a century by the Persians under Darius the Great, who conducted an expedition into the region from 513 to 512 BC. The Persians called Thrace \"\"Skudra\"\".", "", "In the first decade of the sixth century BC, the Persians conquered Thrace and made it part of their satrapy Skudra. Thracians were forced to join the invasions of European Scythia and Greece. According to Herodotus, the Bithynian Thracians also had to contribute a large contingent to Xerxes' invasion of Greece in 480 BC. Subjugation of Macedonia was part of Persian military operations initiated by Darius the Great (521–486) in 513: after immense preparations, a huge Achaemenid army invaded the Balkans and tried to defeat the European Scythians roaming north of the Danube River. Darius' army subjugated several Thracian peoples at the same time, and virtually all other regions that touch the European part of the Black Sea, including parts of present-day Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, and Russia, before returning to Asia Minor. Darius left in Europe one of his commanders, Megabazus, whose task was to accomplish conquests in the Balkans. The Persian troops subjugated gold-rich Thrace, the coastal Greek cities, and the powerful Paeonians. Finally, Megabazus sent envoys to Amyntas I, King of Macedon demanding acceptance of Persian domination, which the Macedonian agreed to. By this time, many if not most Thracians were under Persian rule. By the fifth century BC, the Thracian population was large enough that Herodotus called them the second-most numerous people in the part of the world known by him (after the Indians), and potentially the most powerful, if not for their lack of unity. The Thracians in classical times were broken up into a large number of groups and tribes, though a number of powerful Thracian states were organized, such as the Odrysian kingdom of Thrace and the Dacian kingdom of Burebista. The \"peltast\", a type of soldier of this period, probably originated in Thrace. During this period, a subculture of celibate ascetics called the \"ctistae\" lived in Thrace, where they served as philosophers, priests and prophets.", "The Odrysian Kingdom was a state union of over 40 Thracian tribes and 22 kingdoms that existed between the 5th century BC and the 1st century AD. It consisted mainly of present-day Bulgaria, spreading to parts of Southeastern Romania (Northern Dobruja), parts of Northern Greece and parts of modern-day European Turkey.", "During this period, contacts between the Thracians and Classical Greece intensified. After the Persians withdrew from Europe and before the expansion of the Kingdom of Macedon, Thrace was divided into three regions (east, central, and west). A notable ruler of the East Thracians was Cersobleptes, who attempted to expand his authority over many of the Thracian tribes. He was eventually defeated by the Macedonians. The Thracians were typically not city-builders and their only polis was Seuthopolis. The conquest of the southern part of Thrace by Philip II of Macedon in the fourth century BC made the Odrysian kingdom extinct for several years. After the kingdom was reestablished, it was a vassal state of Macedon for several decades under generals such as Lysimachus of the Diadochi. In 279 BC, Celtic Gauls advanced into Macedonia, southern Greece and Thrace. They were soon forced out of Macedonia and southern Greece, but they remained in Thrace until the end of the third century BC. From Thrace, three Celtic tribes advanced into Anatolia and established the kingdom of Galatia. In western parts of Moesia, Celts (Scordisci) and Thracians lived alongside each other, as evident from the archaeological findings of pits and treasures, spanning from the third century BC to the first century BC.", "During the Macedonian Wars, conflict between Rome and Thrace was unavoidable. The rulers of Macedonia were weak, and Thracian tribal authority resurged. But after the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC, Roman authority over Macedonia seemed inevitable, and the governance of Thrace passed to Rome. Initially, Thracians and Macedonians revolted against Roman rule. For example, the revolt of Andriscus, in 149 BC, drew the bulk of its support from Thrace. Incursions by local tribes into Macedonia continued for many years, though a few tribes, such as the Deneletae and the Bessi, willingly allied with Rome. After the Third Macedonian War, Thrace acknowledged Roman authority. The client state of Thracia comprised several tribes.", "The next century and a half saw the slow development of Thracia into a permanent Roman client state. The Sapaei tribe came to the forefront initially under the rule of Rhascuporis. He was known to have granted assistance to both Pompey and Caesar, and later supported the Republican armies against Antonius and Octavian in the final days of the Republic. The heirs of Rhascuporis became as deeply enmeshed in political scandal and murder as were their Roman masters. A series of royal assassinations altered the ruling landscape for several years in the early Roman imperial period. Various factions took control with the support of the Roman Emperor. The turmoil would eventually end with one final assassination. After Rhoemetalces III of the Thracian Kingdom of Sapes was murdered in AD 46 by his wife, Thracia was incorporated as an official Roman province to be governed by Procurators, and later Praetorian prefects. The central governing authority of Rome was in Perinthus, but regions within the province were under the command of military subordinates to the governor. The lack of large urban centers made Thracia a difficult place to manage, but eventually the province flourished under Roman rule. However, Romanization was not attempted in the province of Thracia. The \"Balkan Sprachbund\" does not support Hellenization. Roman authority in Thracia rested mainly with the legions stationed in Moesia. The rural nature of Thracia's populations, and distance from Roman authority, certainly inspired local troops to support Moesia's legions. Over the next few centuries, the province was periodically and increasingly attacked by migrating Germanic tribes. The reign of Justinian saw the construction of over 100 legionary fortresses to supplement the defense. Thracians in Moesia were Romanized. Those in Thrace and surrounding areas would come to be known as the Bessi. In the 6th century AD the Bessian (i.e. Thracian) language was reportedly still in use by monks at a Mount Sinai monastery.", "Thracians were regarded by other peoples as warlike, ferocious, and bloodthirsty. They were seen as \"barbarians\" by ancient Greeks and Romans. Plato in his \"Republic\" groups them with the Scythians, calling them extravagant and high spirited; and his \"Laws\" portrays them as a warlike nation, grouping them with Celts, Persians, Scythians, Iberians and Carthaginians. Polybius wrote of Cotys's sober and gentle character being unlike that of most Thracians. Tacitus in his \"Annals\" writes of them being wild, savage and impatient, disobedient even to their own kings. Polyaenus and Strabo write how the Thracians broke their pacts of truce with trickery. The Thracians struck their weapons against each other before battle, \"in the Thracian manner,\" as Polyaneus testifies. Diegylis was considered one of the most bloodthirsty chieftains by Diodorus Siculus. An Athenian club for lawless youths was named after the Triballi. According to ancient Roman sources, the Dii were responsible for the worst atrocities of the Peloponnesian War, killing every living thing, including children and dogs in Tanagra and Mycalessos. Thracians would impale Roman heads on their spears and rhomphaias such as in the Kallinikos skirmish at 171 BC. Herodotus writes that \"they sell their children and let their maidens commerce with whatever men they please\". The accuracy and impartiality of these descriptions have been called into question in modern times, given the seeming embellishments in Herodotus's histories, for one. Archaeologists have attempted to piece together a fuller understanding of Thracian culture through study of their artifacts.", "The ancient languages of these people and their cultural influence were highly reduced due to the repeated invasions of the Balkans by Ancient Macedonians, Romans, Celts, Huns, Goths, Scythians, Sarmatians and Slavs, accompanied by, hellenization, romanization and later slavicisation. However, the Thracians as a group did not entirely disappear, with the Bessi surviving at least until the late 4th century. Towards the end of the 4th century, Nicetas the Bishop of Remesiana brought the gospel to \"those mountain wolves\", the Bessi. Reportedly his mission was successful, and the worship of Dionysus and other Thracian gods was eventually replaced by Christianity. In 570, Antoninus Placentius said that in the valleys of Mount Sinai there was a monastery in which the monks spoke Greek, Latin, Syriac, Egyptian and Bessian. The origin of the monasteries is explained in a medieval hagiography written by Simeon Metaphrastes, in Vita Sancti Theodosii Coenobiarchae in which he wrote that Theodosius the Cenobiarch founded on the shore of the Dead Sea a monastery with four churches, in each being spoken a different language, among which Bessian was found. The place where the monasteries were founded was called \"Cutila\", which may be a Thracian name. The further fate of the Thracians is a matter of dispute. Some authors like Schramm derived the Albanians from the Christian Bessi, or Bessians, an early Thracian people who were pushed westwards into Albania, while more mainstream historians support Illyrian-Albanian continuity or a possible Thraco-Illyrian creole. Most probably the remnants of the Thracians were assimilated into the Roman and later in the Byzantine society and became part of the ancestral groups of the modern Southeastern Europeans.", "", "One notable cult that existed in Thrace, Moesia and Scythia Minor was that of the \"Thracian horseman\", also known as the \"Thracian Heros\", at Odessos (near Varna) known by a Thracian name as Heros \"Karabazmos\", a god of the underworld, who was usually depicted on funeral statues as a horseman slaying a beast with a spear. Dacians had a monotheistic religion based on the god Zalmoxis. The supreme Balkan thunder god Perkon was part of the Thracian pantheon, although cults of Orpheus and Zalmoxis likely overshadowed his. Some think that the Greek god Dionysus evolved from the Thracian god Sabazios.", "The Thracians were polygamous. Menander puts it: \"\"All Thracians, especially us and the Getae, are not much abstaining, because no one takes less than ten, eleven, twelve wives, some even more. If one dies and has only four or five wives he is called ill-fated, unhappy and unmarried.\"\" According to Herodotus virginity among women was not valued, and unmarried Thracian women could have sex with any man they wished to. There were men perceived as holy Thracians, who lived without women and were called \"ktisti\". In myth Orpheus became attracted to men after the death of Eurydice and is thought of as the establisher of homosexuality among Thracian men. Because he advocated love between men and turning away from loving women he was killed by the Bistones women.", "The Thracians were a warrior people, known as both horsemen and lightly armed skirmishers with javelins. Thracian peltasts had a notable influence in Ancient Greece. The history of Thracian warfare spans from c. 10th century BC up to the 1st century AD in the region defined by Ancient Greek and Latin historians as Thrace. It concerns the armed conflicts of the Thracian tribes and their kingdoms in the Balkans and in the Dacian territories. Emperor Traianus, also known as Trajan, conquered Dacia after two wars in the 2nd century AD. The wars ended with the occupation of the fortress of Sarmisegetusa and the death of the king Decebalus. Besides conflicts between Thracians and neighboring nations and tribes, numerous wars were recorded among Thracian tribes too.", "Several Thracian graves or tombstones have the name \"Rufus\" inscribed on them, meaning \"redhead\" – a common name given to people with red hair which led to associating the name with slaves when the Romans enslaved this particular group. Ancient Greek artwork often depicts Thracians as redheads. Rhesus of Thrace, a mythological Thracian king, was so named because of his red hair and is depicted on Greek pottery as having red hair and a red beard. Ancient Greek writers also described the Thracians as red-haired. A fragment by the Greek poet Xenophanes describes the Thracians as blue-eyed and red haired: Bacchylides described Theseus as wearing a hat with red hair, which classicists believe was Thracian in origin. Other ancient writers who described the hair of the Thracians as red include Hecataeus of Miletus, Galen, Clement of Alexandria, and Julius Firmicus Maternus. Nevertheless, academic studies have concluded that people often had different physical features from those described by primary sources. Ancient authors described as red-haired several groups of people. They claimed that all Slavs had red hair, and likewise described the Iranic Scythians as red haired. According to Dr. Beth Cohen, Thracians had \"the same dark hair and the same facial features as the Ancient Greeks.\" On the other hand, Dr. Aris N. Poulianos states that Thracians, like modern Bulgarians, belonged mainly to the Aegean anthropological type.", "This is a list of historically important personalities being entirely or partly of Thracian ancestry:", "", "The branch of science that studies the ancient Thracians and Thrace is called Thracology. Archaeological research on the Thracian culture started in the 20th century, especially after World War II, mainly in southern Bulgaria. As a result of intensive excavations in the 1960s and 1970s a number of Thracian tombs and sanctuaries were discovered. Most significant among them are: the Tomb of Sveshtari, the Tomb of Kazanlak, Tatul, Seuthopolis, Perperikon, the Tomb of Aleksandrovo, Sarmizegetusa in Romania and others. Also a large number of elaborately crafted gold and silver treasure sets from the 5th and 4th century BC were unearthed. In the following decades, those were exhibited in museums around the world, thus calling attention to ancient Thracian culture. Since the year 2000, Bulgarian archaeologist Georgi Kitov has made discoveries in Central Bulgaria, in an area now known as \"The Valley of the Thracian Kings\". The residence of the Odrysian kings was found in Starosel in the Sredna Gora mountains. A 1922 Bulgarian study claimed that there were at least 6,269 necropolises in Bulgaria.", "A genetic study published in \"Scientific Reports\" in April 2019 examined the mtDNA of 25 Thracian remains in Bulgaria from the 3rd and 2nd millenniums BC. They were found to harbor a mixture of ancestry from Western Steppe Herders (WSHs) and Early European Farmers (EEFs)." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Nature and conservation.", "History.", "Transport.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Loch Shiel is a Special Protection Area (SPA) due to its importance for breeding black-throated divers, and the area surrounding the loch is also designated as an SPA due to the presence of breeding golden eagles. Other bird species living around the loch include white-tailed sea eagles, red-throated divers, peregrine falcons, sparrowhawks, kestrels, ospreys and hen harrier. Several species of duck are also present, including little grebes, goosanders, red-breasted mergansers, mallards, goldeneyes and tufted ducks. Fish in the loch include salmon, sea trout and brown trout. Fishing rights are controlled by the Lochaber Fisheries Trust, who issue permits for fishing from Acharacle at the south west end of the loch. There are areas of remnant Caledonian Forest on the islands of the loch such as Eilean Camas and Eilean Ghleann Fhoinainn, as well as at Meall na h-Airigh at the northern end of the loch. There are also areas of oak and alder woodlands (see Celtic rain forest) on the shoreline of the loch which have been designated a Special Area of Conservation by Scottish Natural Heritage, who noted that overgrazing and invasive species were threats to the area. The shoreline of the loch is also home to a population of otters. Claish Moss, to the south of the loch, is one of the best examples of a raised bog in Britain. The bog has developed over the past 8,000 years, with pollen grains preserved by the peat forming a record of the bog’s plant life since the bog first began to form. The bog is designated as an SAC, and was also formerly a national nature reserve, but was de-designated in 2011 due to poor access for visitors. The loch gives its name to Loch Shiel National Scenic Area, one of 40 such areas in Scotland, which are defined so as to identify areas of exceptional scenery and to ensure its protection via the planning system by the restriction of certain forms of development. The Loch Shiel NSA covers 13,045 ha, and extends to the summits of the hills on either side of the loch, as well as the hills surrounding Glen Hurich and the monument at Glenfinnan.", "A ruined medieval chapel found on the largest island, Eilean Fhianain, is dedicated to St. Finan, and may stand on the site of a cell thought to have been built on the island by the saint in the seventh century. The chapel is thought to have been built by Alan MacRuaridh, a chief of Clan Ranald; the clan used the island as a burial place until the end of the sixteenth century. The island continues to be used for burials, and is a Scheduled Ancient Monument. Acharacle, at the south of the Loch, is the site of the 1140 battle in which Somerled defeated the Norse to found the ruling dynasty of Lord of the Isles. During these times, the loch had strategic importance as a communications route through the mountains, as the short River Shiel was easily navigable in ancient times, however is no longer navigable as the depth drops to less than a foot. In the medieval period the loch formed the boundary between the provinces or lordships of Moidart to the west, Ardgour to the east, and Sunart in the south. Castle Tioram on the tidal island Eilean Tioram in Loch Moidart, is located so as to control access to Loch Shiel, and thus to Lochaber and the Great Glen, from the sea. The castle appears to have originally been a principal stronghold of Clann Ruaidhrí. According to early modern tradition, preserved by the seventeenth-century \"Sleat History\", the castle was erected by Áine Nic Ruaidhrí (fl. 1318–50), and certainly served as the seat of the latter's Clann Raghnaill descendants for centuries. Alasdair mac Mhaighstir Alasdair, the poet and Scottish Gaelic tutor of Bonnie Prince Charlie, was born and raised in the area. At the start of the Jacobite rising of 1745, the prince disembarked at Loch nan Uamh and was rowed the length of Loch Shiel in order to raise his standard at Glenfinnan. After the defeat of the rising at Culloden a number of prominent Jacobites, including Cameron of Lochiel, hid on the small island of Eilean Mhic Dhomnuill Dhuibh in Loch Shiel. In 1842, during the Highland Clearances when tenants were cleared off the land to make way for sheep farming, the women of Loch Shiel apparently drove off the eviction party. The women were apparently armed with shearing hooks and aprons filled with stones.", "Prior to the construction of the A861 road the loch served as a main transport route in the area, linking the communities at the south end of the loch to the West Highland railway line at Glenfinnan. The regular service carrying mail and passengers was operated by David MacBrayne's between 1953 and 1967, ceasing with the construction of the new road between Lochailort and Kinlochmoidart. The West Highland railway line and the A830 road both pass the northern end of the Loch Shiel at Glenfinnan, whilst the A861 road also runs close to the lochside for about 4 km at the southern end. There are no public roads that run the full length of the loch: a forestry track runs along the southern side between Polloch and Glenfinnan, whilst no tracks or paths exist on the northern side. Cruises on the loch are available from Glenfinnan, Acharacle and Polloch.", "Loch Shiel was the purported secret location of the Black Lake near Hogwarts school in the \"Harry Potter\" films. The area was the fictional birthplace of Connor and Duncan MacLeod from the \"Highlander\" franchise, and served as the actual location of the boat scene with Ramirez in \"Highlander\" (1986). Loch Shiel was also used in the filming of the movie \"The Master of Ballantrae\" starring Errol Flynn." ] }