Datasets:

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StivenLancheros

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all_datasets_wikis

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{ "title": [ "Design.", "Camp-out procedure.", "High-pressure gas tanks.", "Construction." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The \"Quest\" Airlock consists of two segments, the \"Equipment lock\" that stores spacesuits and equipment, and the \"Crew Lock\" from which astronauts can exit into space. It was derived from the Space Shuttle airlock, although it was significantly modified to waste less atmospheric gas when used. It was attached to the starboard CBM of the \"Unity\" during STS-104. It has mountings for four high-pressure gas tanks, two containing oxygen and two containing nitrogen, which provides for atmospheric replenishment to the American side of the space station, most specifically for the gas lost after a hatch opening during a space walk. \"Quest\" was necessary because American suits will not fit through a Russian airlock hatch and have different components, fittings, and connections. The airlock is designed to contain equipment that can work with both types of spacesuits, however, it is currently only able to host American spacewalks because the equipment necessary to work with Russian space suits has not been launched yet, which required the Expedition 9 crew to take a circuitous route to a worksite because of problems with the American space suits.", "\"Quest\" provides an environment where astronauts can \"camp out\" before a spacewalk in a reduced-nitrogen atmosphere to purge nitrogen from their bloodstream and avoid decompression sickness in the low-pressure () pure-oxygen atmosphere of the spacesuit. The previous method of preparing for spacewalks involved breathing pure oxygen for several hours prior to an EVA to purge the body of nitrogen. In April 2006, Expedition 12 Commander Bill McArthur and Expedition 13 flight engineer Jeffrey Williams tested a new method of preparing for spacewalks by \"camping out\", or spending the night, in the \"Quest\" Airlock. In the chamber, the pressure was reduced from the normal. Four hours into the Expedition 13 crew's sleep period, an error tone prompted mission controllers to cut short the activity, but the test was still deemed a success. American spacewalk activities thereafter have employed the \"camp-out\" pre-breathing technique.", "Two oxygen and two nitrogen high-pressure gas tanks are attached externally to the airlock. These tanks provide a replenishable source of gas to the atmosphere control and supply system and oxygen for recharging the space suits (EMUs). Recharging the high-pressure tanks was accomplished by the Space Shuttle fleet until its retirement. When an orbiter was docked to the station's Pressurized Mating Adapters (PMA-2 or PMA-3), oxygen was routed through pressure lines from the PMAs to the \"Quest\" Airlock. The pumping of the oxygen from the docked spacecraft tanks into \"Quest\"s high-pressure tank was accomplished by the Oxygen Recharge Compressor Assembly (ORCA). After the retirement of the Space Shuttle fleet, the Nitrogen Oxygen Recharge System (NORS) and spacecraft from the Commercial Crew Development program will take over this task.", "This module was manufactured by Boeing, under contract by NASA at the Marshall Space Flight Center in 2000. It is made from aluminum and steel alloys." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early years and education.", "Seventh International Medical Congress.", "Travel.", "Employment.", "Liverpool.", "Oxford.", "Retirement.", "Family.", "Honours and awards." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Official biographies claim Charles Scott Sherrington was born in Islington, London, England, on 27 November 1857 and that he was the son of James Norton Sherrington, a country doctor, and his wife Anne Thurtell. However James Norton Sherrington was an ironmonger and artist's colourman in Great Yarmouth, not a doctor, and died in Yarmouth in 1848, nearly 9 years before Charles was born. In the 1861 census, Charles is recorded as Charles Scott (boarder, 4, born India) with Anne Sherrington (widow) as the head and Caleb Rose (visitor, married, surgeon). He was brought up in this household with Caleb recorded as head in 1871, although Ann and Caleb did not marry until after the death of his wife in 1880. The relationship between Charles and his childhood family is unknown. During the 1860s the whole family moved to Anglesea Road, Ipswich, reputedly because London exacerbated Caleb Rose's tendency to asthma. Sherrington's origins have been discussed in several published sources: Chris Moss and Susan Hunter, in the Journal of Medical Biography of January 2018, presented an article discussing the potential origins of Charles Sherrington, i.e. whether he was born in India of unknown parents, or was the illegitimate child of Caleb Rose and Anne Sherrington. Erling Norrby, Ph.D, in \"Nobel Prizes and Notable Discoveries\" (2016) observed: \"His family origin apparently is not properly given in his official biography. Considering that motherhood is a matter of fact and fatherhood a matter of opinion, it can be noted that his father was not James Norton Sherrington, from whom his family name was derived. Charles was born 9 years after the death of his presumed father. Instead Charles and his two brothers were the illegitimate sons of Caleb Rose, a highly regarded Ipswich surgeon.\" In \"Ipswich Town: A History\", Susan Gardiner writes: \"George and William Sherrington, along with their older brother, Charles, were almost certainly the illegitimate sons of Anne Brookes, née Thurtell and Caleb Rose, a leading surgeon from Ipswich, with whom she was living in College Road, Islington at the time that all three boys were born. No father was named in the baptism register of St James' Church, Clerkenwell, and there is no official record of the registration of any of their births. It was claimed they were the sons of a country doctor, James Norton Sherrington. However, it was with Caleb Rose that Anne and the three Sherrington boys moved to Anglesea Road, Ipswich in 1860 and the couple were married in 1880 after Caleb's first wife had died.\" Of James Norton Sherrington, Judith Swazey, in \"Reflexes and Motor Integration: Sherrington's Concept of Integrative Action\" (1969), quotes Charles Scott Sherrington's son, Carr Sherrington: \"James N. Sherrington was always called Mr. and I have no knowledge that he was a Dr. either in law or in medicine... [He] was mainly interested in art and was a personal friend of J. B. Crone and other painters.\" Caleb Rose was noteworthy as both a classical scholar and an archaeologist. At the family's Edgehill House in Ipswich one could find a fine selection of paintings, books, and geological specimens. Through Rose's interest in the Norwich School of Painters, Sherrington gained a love of art. Intellectuals frequented the house regularly. It was this environment that fostered Sherrington's academic sense of wonder. Even before matriculation, the young Sherrington had read Johannes Müller's \"Elements of Physiology\". The book was given to him by Caleb Rose. Sherrington entered Ipswich School in 1871. Thomas Ashe, a famous English poet, worked at the school. Ashe served as an inspiration to Sherrington, the former instilling a love of classics and a desire to travel in the latter. Rose had pushed Sherrington towards medicine. Sherrington first began to study with the Royal College of Surgeons of England. He also sought to study at Cambridge, but a bank failure had devastated the family's finances. Sherrington elected to enroll at St Thomas' Hospital in September 1876 as a \"perpetual pupil\". He did so in order to allow his two younger brothers to do so ahead of him. The two studied law there. Medical studies at St. Thomas's Hospital were intertwined with studies at Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Physiology was Sherrington's chosen major at Cambridge. There, he studied under the \"father of British physiology,\" Sir Michael Foster. Sherrington played football for his grammar school, and for Ipswich Town Football Club; he played rugby for St. Thomas's, was on the rowing team at Oxford. During June 1875, Sherrington passed his preliminary examination in general education at the Royal College of Surgeons of England (RCS). This preliminary exam was required for Fellowship, and also exempted him from a similar exam for the Membership. In April 1878, he passed his Primary Examination for the Membership of the RCS, and twelve months later the Primary for Fellowship. In October 1879, Sherrington entered Cambridge as a non-collegiate student. The following year he entered Gonville and Caius College. Sherrington was a first-rate student. In June 1881, he took Part I in the Natural Sciences Tripos (NST) and was awarded a \"Starred first\" in physiology; there were nine candidates in all (eight men, one woman), of whom five gained First-class honours (\"Firsts\"); in June 1883, in Part II of the NST, he also gained a First, alongside William Bateson. Walter Holbrook Gaskell, one of Sherrington's tutors, informed him in November 1881 that he had earned the highest marks for his year in botany, human anatomy, and physiology; second in zoology; and highest overall. John Newport Langley was Sherrington's other tutor. The two were interested in how anatomical structure is expressed in physiological function. Sherrington earned his Membership of the Royal College of Surgeons on 4 August 1884. In 1885, he obtained a First Class in the Natural Science Tripos with the mark of distinction. In the same year, Sherrington earned the degree of M.B., Bachelor of Medicine and Surgery from Cambridge. In 1886, Sherrington added the title of L.R.C.P., Licentiate of the Royal College of Physicians.", "The conference was held in London in 1881. It was at this conference that Sherrington began his work in neurological research. At the conference controversy broke out. Friedrich Goltz of Strasbourg argued that localized function in the cortex did not exist. Goltz came to this conclusion after observing dogs who had parts of their brains removed. David Ferrier, who became a hero of Sherrington's, disagreed. Ferrier maintained that there was localization of function in the brain. Ferrier's strongest evidence was a monkey who suffered from hemiplegia, paralysis affecting one side of the body only, after a cerebral lesion. A committee, including Langley, was made up to investigate. Both the dog and the monkey were chloroformed. The right hemisphere of the dog was delivered to Cambridge for examination. Sherrington performed a histological examination of the hemisphere, acting as a junior colleague to Langley. In 1884, Langley and Sherrington reported on their findings in a paper. The paper was the first for Sherrington.", "In the winter of 1884–1885, Sherrington left England for Strasbourg. There, he worked with Goltz. Goltz, like many others, positively influenced Sherrington. Sherrington later said of Goltz that: \"[h]e taught one that in all things only the best is good enough.\" A case of asiatic cholera had broken out in Spain in 1885. A Spanish doctor claimed to have produced a vaccine to fight the outbreak. Under the auspices of Cambridge University, the Royal Society of London, and the Association for Research in Medicine, a group was put together to travel to Spain to investigate. C.S. Roy, J. Graham Brown, and Sherrington formed the group. Roy was Sherrington's friend and the newly elected professor of pathology at Cambridge. As the three travelled to Toledo, Sherrington was skeptical of the Spanish doctor. Upon returning, the three presented a report to the Royal Society. The report discredited the Spaniard's claim. Sherrington did \"not\" meet Santiago Ramón y Cajal on this trip. While Sherrington and his group remained in Toledo, Cajal was hundreds of miles away in Zaragoza. Later that year Sherrington travelled to Rudolf Virchow in Berlin to inspect the cholera specimens he procured in Spain. Virchow later on sent Sherrington to Robert Koch for a six weeks' course in technique. Sherrington ended up staying with Koch for a year to do research in bacteriology. Under these two, Sherrington parted with a good foundation in physiology, morphology, histology, and pathology. During this period he may have also studied with Waldeyer and Zuntz. In 1886, Sherrington went to Italy to again investigate a cholera outbreak. While in Italy, Sherrington spent much time in art galleries. It was in this country that Sherrington's love for rare books became an obsession.", "In 1891, Sherrington was appointed as superintendent of the Brown Institute for Advanced Physiological and Pathological Research of the University of London, a center for human and animal physiological and pathological research. Sherrington succeeded Sir Victor Alexander Haden Horsley. There, Sherrington worked on segmental distribution of the spinal dorsal and ventral roots, he mapped the sensory dermatomes, and in 1892 discovered that muscle spindles initiated the stretch reflex. The institute allowed Sherrington to study many animals, both small and large. The Brown Institute had enough space to work with large primates such as apes.", "Sherrington's first job of full-professorship came with his appointment as Holt Professor of Physiology at Liverpool in 1895, succeeding Francis Gotch. With his appointment to the Holt Chair, Sherrington ended his active work in pathology. Working on cats, dogs, monkeys, and apes that had been bereaved of their cerebral hemispheres, he found that reflexes must be considered integrated activities of the total organism, not just the result of activities of the so-called reflex-arcs, a concept then generally accepted. There he continued his work on reflexes and reciprocal innervation. His papers on the subject were synthesized into the Croonian lecture of 1897. Sherrington showed that muscle excitation was inversely proportional to the inhibition of an opposing group of muscles. Speaking of the excitation-inhibition relationship, Sherrington said \"desistence from action may be as truly active as is the taking of action.\" Sherrington continued his work on reciprocal innervation during his years at Liverpool. Come 1913, Sherrington was able to say that \"the process of excitation and inhibition may be viewed as polar opposites [...] the one is able to neutralize the other.\" Sherrington's work on reciprocal innervation was a notable contribution to the knowledge of the spinal cord.", "As early as 1895, Sherrington had tried to gain employment at Oxford University. By 1913, the wait was over. Oxford offered Sherrington the Waynflete Chair of Physiology at Magdalen College. The electors to that chair unanimously recommended Sherrington without considering any other candidates. Sherrington enjoyed the honor of teaching many bright students at Oxford, including Wilder Penfield, who he introduced to the study of the brain. Several of his students were Rhodes scholars, three of whom - Sir John Eccles, Ragnar Granit, and Howard Florey - went on to be Nobel laureates. Sherrington also influenced American pioneer brain surgeon Harvey Williams Cushing. Sherrington's philosophy as a teacher can be seen in his response to the question of what was the real function of Oxford University in the world. Sherrington said: \"after some hundreds of years of experience we think that we have learned here in Oxford how to teach what is known. But now with the undeniable upsurge of scientific research, we cannot continue to rely on the mere fact that we have learned how to teach what is known. We must learn to teach the best attitude to what is not yet known. This also may take centuries to acquire but we cannot escape this new challenge, nor do we want to.\" Sherrington's teachings at Oxford were interrupted by World War I. When the war started, it left his classes with only nine students. During the war, he laboured at a shell factory to support the war and to study fatigue in general, but specifically industrial fatigue. His weekday work hours were from 7:30am to 8:30pm; and from 7:30am to 6:00pm on the weekends. In March 1916, Sherrington fought for women to be admitted to the medical school at Oxford.", "Charles Sherrington retired from Oxford in the year of 1936. He then moved to his boyhood town of Ipswich, where he built a house. There, he kept up a large correspondence with pupils and others from around the world. He also continued to work on his poetic, historical, and philosophical interests. From 1944 until his own death he was President of the Ipswich Museum, on the committee of which he had previously served. Sherrington's mental faculties were crystal clear up to the time of his sudden death, which was caused by a sudden heart failure at age 94. His bodily health, however, did suffer in old age. Arthritis was a major burden of his. Speaking of his condition, Sherrington said \"old age isn't pleasant[,] one can't do things for oneself.\" The arthritis put Sherrington in a nursing home in the year before his death, in 1951.", "On 27 August 1891, Sherrington married Ethel Mary Wright (d.1933), daughter of John Ely Wright of Preston Manor, Suffolk, England. They had one child, a son named Charles (\"Carr\") E.R. Sherrington, who was born in 1897. His wife was both loyal and lively. She was a great host. On weekends during the Oxford years the couple would frequently host a large group of friends and acquaintances at their house for an enjoyable afternoon.", "Sherrington was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1893. At the time of his death Sherrington received \"honoris causa\" Doctors from twenty-two universities: Oxford, Paris, Manchester, Strasbourg, Louvain, Uppsala, Lyon, Budapest, Athens, London, Toronto, Harvard, Dublin, Edinburgh, Montreal, Liverpool, Brussels, Sheffield, Bern, Birmingham, Glasgow, and the University of Wales." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Classification.", "Tertian.", "Non-tertian.", "Types.", "Dominant seventh chord.", "Harmonic seventh chord.", "Major and minor seventh chords.", "Half-diminished seventh chord.", "Diminished seventh chord.", "Inversions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Most textbooks name these chords \"formally\" by the type of triad and type of seventh; hence, a chord consisting of a major triad and a minor seventh above the root is referred to as a major/minor seventh chord. When the triad type and seventh type are identical (i.e. they are both major, minor, or diminished), the name is shortened. For instance, a \"major/major\" seventh is generally referred to as a major seventh. This rule is not valid for augmented chords: since the augmented/augmented chord is not commonly used, the abbreviation augmented is used for \"augmented/minor\", rather than \"augmented/augmented\". Additionally, half-diminished stands for \"diminished/minor\", and dominant stands for \"major/minor\". When the type is not specified at all, the triad is assumed to be major, and the seventh is understood as a minor seventh (e.g. a \"C\" chord is a \"C major triad\", and a \"C\" chord is a \"C major/minor seventh chord\", also known as a \"C dominant seventh chord\"). For symbols used for seventh chords, see also.", "The most common chords are tertian, constructed using a sequence of major thirds (spanning 4 semitones) and/or minor thirds (3 semitones). Since there are 3 third intervals in a seventh chord (4 notes) and each can be major or minor, there are 8 possible combinations, however, only seven of them are commonly found in western music. The \"augmented augmented seventh chord\", defined by a root, a major third, an augmented fifth, and an augmented seventh (i.e., a sequence of 3 major thirds, such as C–E–G–B), is a rarely used tertian seventh chord. The reason is that the augmented seventh interval is enharmonically equivalent to one entire octave (in equal temperament, 3 major thirds = 12 semitones = 1 octave) and is hence perfectly consonant with the chord root. The seven commonly used chords are:", "Seventh chords can also be constructed using augmented or diminished thirds. These chords are not tertian and can be used in non-tertian harmony. There are many (mathematically, 64) chords that can be built, however, only few of them are used and are listed in the table below: In tuning systems other than equal temperament there are further possible seventh chords. In just intonation, for example, there is the harmonic seventh.", "", "A dominant seventh chord, or major-minor seventh chord is a chord composed of a root, major third, perfect fifth, and minor seventh. It can be also viewed as a major triad with an additional minor seventh. It is denoted using popular music symbols by adding a superscript \"7\" after the letter designating the chord root. The dominant seventh is found almost as often as the dominant triad. The chord can be represented by the integer notation {0, 4, 7, 10}. Of all the seventh chords, perhaps the most important is the dominant seventh. It was the first seventh chord to appear regularly in classical music. The name comes from the fact that the flat seventh occurs naturally in the chord built upon the dominant (i.e., the fifth degree) of a given major diatonic scale. Take for example the C major scale (C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C):<score lang=\"lilypond\" vorbis=\"1\"> { \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \\relative c' { </score> The note G is the dominant degree of C major—its fifth note. When we arrange the notes of the C major scale in ascending pitch and use only these notes to build a seventh chord, and we start with G (not C), then the resulting chord contains the four notes G–B–D–F and is called G dominant seventh (G). The note F is a minor seventh from G, and is also called the dominant seventh with respect to G. However, the 'dominant' seventh is used on notes other than the dominant, such as the subdominant.", "The harmonic seventh chord is a dominant seventh chord formed by a major triad plus a harmonic seventh interval. The harmonic seventh interval is a minor seventh tuned in the 7:4 pitch ratio, one of the possible \"just ratios\" defined for this interval in just intonation (slightly below the width of a minor seventh as tuned in equal temperament). With just intonation on all notes of the harmonic seventh chord, the ratio between the frequencies of the pitches in the chord is 4:5:6:7. For example, a justly intuned A harmonic seventh chord in root position starting at A440 consists of the pitches 440 Hz, 550 Hz, 660 Hz, and 770 Hz. Sometimes called a \"blue note\", the harmonic seventh is used by singers, through note bending on guitars, and on other instruments not restricted to equal temperament. An often heard example of the harmonic seventh chord is the last word of the modern addition to the song \"Happy Birthday to You\", with the lyrics, \"and many more!\" The harmony on the word \"more\" is typically sung as a harmonic seventh chord. Frequent use of the harmonic seventh chord is one of the defining characteristics of blues and barbershop harmony; barbershoppers refer to it as \"the barbershop seventh\". Since barbershop music tends to be sung in just intonation, the barbershop seventh chord may be accurately termed a harmonic seventh chord. The harmonic seventh chord is also widely used in blues-flavored music. As guitars, pianos, and other equal-temperament instruments cannot play this chord, it is frequently approximated by a dominant seventh. As a result, it is often called a dominant seventh chord and written with the same symbols (such as the blues progression I–V–IV).", "While the dominant seventh chord is typically built on the fifth (or dominant) degree of a major scale, the minor seventh chord is built on the second, third, or sixth degree. A minor seventh chord contains the same notes as an added sixth chord. For example, C–E–G–B can function as both a C minor seventh and an E added sixth (Id chord).Major seventh chords are usually constructed on the first or fourth degree of a scale, (in C or G major: C–E–G–B). Due to the major seventh interval between the root and seventh (C–B, an inverted minor second), this chord can sometimes sound dissonant, depending on the voicing used. For example, Bacharach and David's \"Raindrops Keep Fallin' on My Head\" opens with a major chord followed by a major seventh in the next measure. The major seventh is sometimes notated as 7 (a delta chord) or just a (which has the same meaning).", "A half-diminished seventh chord is a seventh chord built from the seventh degree of a major scale. It is considered \"half-diminished\" because a fully diminished seventh has a double-flatted (diminished) seventh, making it enharmonically the same as a major sixth. The half-diminished seventh chord uses a minor seventh over the root of a diminished triad. Example: (in the key of C major) B–D–F–A.", "A diminished seventh chord is made of three superimposed minor thirds (e.g., B–D–F–A), which is two tritones a minor third apart (e.g., B–F, D–A). The diminished seventh chord has been used by composers and musicians for a variety of reasons over time. Some reasons include: as a symbol of Sturm und Drang; modulation; and for characterisation. The diminished seventh chord is seen more frequently in late classical and romantic period works but is also found in Baroque and Renaissance period works, though not as frequently. All of the elements of the diminished seventh chord can be found in the dominant seventh flat nine (79) chord as seen in a comparison of the two chords.", "« \\override Score.TimeSignature \\override Score.SpacingSpanner.strict-note-spacing = ##t \\set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1/4) \\time 4/4 \\relative c' { » </score> There are four different inversions of a seventh chord. Following basso continuo notation, the inversions are as follows:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Empire of Japan.", "Republic of China.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Administrative divisions.", "Transportation.", "Rail.", "Bus." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The area of modern-day Pingtung City was originally a village of the Taiwanese Plains Aborigines which they called \"Akau\", which means \"the forest\". After the expulsion of the Dutch, the village grew into a Chinese market-town called \"A-kau\" ().", "In 1901, during the Japanese era, was one of twenty local administrative offices established. In 1909, this unit was merged with and to form. Beginning in 1920, the name was changed to, governed under Takao Prefecture. In 1933, the town was upgraded to City status.", "After the handover of Taiwan to the Republic of China from Japan on 25 October 1945, Pingtung City was established as a provincial city of Taiwan Province in December the same year. On 1 December 1951, it was downgraded to a county-controlled city of Pingtung County until today.", "Pingtung City is located northwestern Pingtung County. It is centered between the western coast and the eastern mountain range on the Pingtung Plain. Many residents work in Kaohsiung and commute daily by train.", "Pingtung City is located within the tropics and has a tropical climate, specifically a tropical monsoon climate, as of the rest of Taiwan, the warmest month is July and the coldest month is January, but the weather is hot starting from mid March to late November with an average daytime temperature peeking above 30 degrees Celsius, while the short cooler season starts from mid December and lasts till late February featuring relatively warm days and cool nights with temperatures ranging from 15-27 degrees Celsius. Pingtung county is known to be the hottest county of Taiwan and Pingtung city is well known of having high daytime temperatures typically year round.", "The city is administered as 79 villages: Anle, Anzeng, Beishi, Beixing, Bixin, Chonglan, Chongli, Chongwu, Chongzhi, Dahu, Dalian, Dapu, Datong, Dawu, Dazhou, Dingliu, Dingzhai, Duanzheng, Fengrong, Fengtian, Fengyuan, Fufeng, Gongguan, Goumei, Guanghua, Guangrong, Guangxing, Guixin, Haifeng, Hexing, Housheng, Huashan, Hunan, Huxi, Jianguo, Jinquan, Kongxiang, Lingyun, Longhua, Mingzheng, Minquan, Nanshu, Pengcheng, Pinghe, Qianjin, Qiaobei, Qiaonan, Qingchun, Qingxi, Renai, Renyi, Ruiguang, Sanshan, Shengfeng, Shengli, Siwen, Taian, Taiping, Tanqi, Wannian, Weixin, Wenming, Wumiao, Xingle, Xinhe, Xinsheng, Xinxing, Yixin, Yiyong, Yongan, Yongchang, Yongcheng, Yongguang, Yongshun, Yucheng, Zeren, Zhangan, Zhangchun and Zhongzheng.", "", "Pingtung City is served by Guilai Station, Liukuaicuo and Pingtung Station.", "Pingtung Bus (屏東客運), UBus (統聯客運) and Kuo-Kuang Bus operate services from Pingtung Bus station near Pingtung Rail Station." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Empire of Japan.", "Republic of China.", "Geography.", "Administrative divisions.", "Economy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "In 1920, the area of was formerly called \"Angmo Field\" (). In 1941, and merged to become under Shinchiku District, Shinchiku Prefecture.", "Zhubei was originally a township under Hsinchu County from 1950–1988. In October 1988, Zhubei Township was promoted to a county-controlled city.", "Zhubei borders Hsinchu City to the southwest, Xinfeng and Hukou Townships to the north, Qionglin and Xinpu to the East, Zhudong to the southeast, and the Taiwan Strait to its west. It is the discharge point of the Fongshan River and the Touqian River into the Taiwan Strait. Zhubei has been a satellite city of Hsinchu City since Hsinchu City reformed to become a special municipality in 1982. Due to the separation of Hsinchu City from Hsinchu County and Zhubei becoming the Hsinchu County seat, as well as its proximity to the Hsinchu Science and Technology Park and the semiconductor industry, the city has acquired an increasingly large amount of capital inflow from government, as well as a rapid population increase and a resulting spike in real estate values. The city's population was estimated at 176,966 in January 2017.", "The city is administered as 30 villages: Aikou, Baide, Beilun, Beixing, Chongyi, Damei, Dayi, Doulun, Fude, Lianxing, Luchang, Mayuan, Shangyi, Shixing, Taihe, Tunghai, Tungping, Tungxing, Wenhua, Xingan, Xingang, Xinguo, Xinlun, Xinshe, Xinzhuang, Xizhou, Zhongxing, Zhubei, Zhuren and Zhuyi.", "The agricultural aspect of Zhubei has shifted from mainly rice paddy farming to more floral and fruit cultivation that attracts tourists; however the majority of the local economy is now fueled by the semiconductor industry, real estate speculation and the service sector. Parts of Zhubei City have retained their traditional infrastructure following the demolition of the old city. There are also industrial parks in the city, which are the Hsinchu Biomedical Science Park and the Tai Yuen Hi-Tech Industrial Park." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Rationale.", "Amical protection.", "Colonial protection.", "Foreign relations.", "French protectorates.", "Sub-Saharan Africa.", "German protectorates.", "Italian protectorates.", "United States Protectorates.", "Contemporary usage by the United States." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "In amical protection, the terms are often very favorable for the protectorate. The political interest of the protector is frequently moral (a matter of accepted moral obligation, prestige, ideology, internal popularity, or dynastic, historical, or ethno-cultural ties). Or the protector's interest is in countering a rival or enemy power (e.g., preventing the rival from obtaining or maintaining control of areas of strategic importance). This may involve a very weak protectorate surrendering control of its external relations; this, however, may not constitute any real sacrifice, as the protectorate may not have been able to have similar use of them without the protector's strength. Amical protection was frequently extended by the great powers to other Christian (generally European) states and to smaller states that had no significant importance. In the post-1815 period, non-Christian states (such as China's Qing dynasty) also provided amical protection towards other much weaker states. In modern times, a form of amical protection can be seen as an important or defining feature of microstates. According to the definition proposed by Dumienski (2014): \"microstates are modern protected states, i.e. sovereign states that have been able to unilaterally depute certain attributes of sovereignty to larger powers in exchange for benign protection of their political and economic viability against their geographic or demographic constraints\". Examples of microstates understood as modern protected states include Andorra, Bhutan, Liechtenstein, San Marino, Monaco, Niue, the Cook Islands, and Palau.", "Conditions regarding protection are generally much less generous for areas of colonial protection. The protectorate was often reduced to a condition similar to a colony, but the pre-existing native state continuing as the agent of indirect rule. Occasionally, a protectorate was established by another form of indirect rule: a chartered company, which becomes a state in its European home state (but geographically overseas), allowed to be an independent country with its own foreign policy and generally its own armed forces. In fact, protectorates were declared despite not being duly entered into by the traditional states supposedly being protected, or only by a party of dubious authority in those states. Colonial protectors frequently decided to reshuffle several protectorates into a new, artificial unit without consulting the protectorates, a logic disrespectful of the theoretical duty of a protector to help maintain its protectorates' status and integrity. The Berlin agreement of February 26, 1885 allowed European colonial powers to establish protectorates in Black Africa (the last region to be divided among them) by diplomatic notification, even without actual possession on the ground. This aspect of history is referred to as the Scramble for Africa. A similar case is the formal use of such terms as \"colony\" and \"protectorate\" for an amalgamation, convenient only for the colonizer or protector, of adjacent territories over which it held () sway by protective or \"raw\" colonial logic.", "In practice, a protectorate often has direct foreign relations only with the protecting power, so other states must deal with it by approaching the protector. Similarly, the protectorate rarely takes military action on its own, but relies on the protector for its defence. This is distinct from annexation in that the protector has no formal power to control the internal affairs of the protectorate. Protectorates differ from League of Nations mandates and their successors, United Nations Trust Territories, whose administration is supervised, in varying degrees, by the international community. A protectorate formally enters into the protection through a bilateral agreement with the protector, while international mandates are stewarded by the world community-representing body, with or without a administering power. <nowiki>*</nowiki>protectorates which existed alongside a colony of the same name", "", "The legal regime of \"protection\" was the formal legal structure under which French colonial forces expanded in Africa between the 1830s and 1900. Almost every pre-existing state in the area later covered by French West Africa was placed under protectorate status at some point, although direct rule gradually replaced protectorate agreements. Formal ruling structures, or fictive recreations of them, were largely retained as the lowest level authority figure in the French Cercles, with leaders appointed and removed by French officials.", "The German Empire used the word \"\", literally protectorate, for all of its colonial possessions until they were lost during World War I, regardless of the actual level of government control. Cases involving indirect rule included: Before and during World War II, Nazi Germany designated the rump of occupied Czechoslovakia and Denmark as protectorates:", "In Europe: In the colonial empire:", "", "Some agencies of the United States government, such as the United States Environmental Protection Agency, still use the term protectorate to refer to insular areas of the United States such as Guam, the Northern Mariana Islands, Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. This was also the case with the Philippines and (it can be argued via the Platt Amendment) Cuba at the end of Spanish colonial rule. Liberia was the only African nation that was a colony for the United States but the government had no control over the land as it was controlled by the privately owned American Colonization Society. It was, however, a protectorate from January 7, 1822 until the Liberian Declaration of Independence from the American Colonization Society in July 26, 1847. Liberia was founded and established as a homeland for freed African-Americans and ex-Caribbean slaves who left the United States and the Caribbean islands with help and support from the American Colonization Society. However, the agency responsible for the administration of those areas, the Office of Insular Affairs (OIA) within the United States Department of Interior, uses only the term \"insular area\" rather than protectorate." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Ministry.", "Conversion.", "Theology." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In his youth, Ekman was a left-leaning atheist and sympathiser of Swedish Communist party KFML(r) before becoming a Christian, just before graduating from high school in 1970. He studied ethnography, history and theology at Uppsala University and in January 1979 was ordained in the Church of Sweden, returning to Uppsala University to work as the chaplain for several years. He studied for a year at Rhema Bible Training Center in Tulsa, Oklahoma, United States and upon his return to Uppsala in 1983 founded the Charismatic Evangelist church Livets Ord. He remained pastor of the church until passing on the pastorship to Robert Ekh in 2002 to focus on international work, though he later took up the position again. He also founded Livets Ord University and Word of Life Bible School. Through his church he has sent missionaries to Bangladesh, Russia, Ukraine, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Albania, Israel and India. Word of Life is also the host for the annual Christian event \"Europe Conference.\" In the former USSR he started to preach in pentecostal churches and in stadiums. In Riga, Latvia he worked closely with Aleksej Ledyaev and the \"New Generation Church\" where he is a pastor. In almost every big city of the former USSR a Word of Life Church and a New Generation Church was established. The number of people reached with the Gospel can be estimated to be between 250,000–500,000 people. Cooperation with New Generation Church ended in March 2004 in doctrinal disagreement. In the charismatic world, Ulf Ekman is considered to be a mentor, a spiritual father, and a pastor of pastors. Reverend Kong Hee has once claimed Ulf Ekman to be one of his mentors, and over the years they have developed a close relationship.", "During his Sunday service on 3 March 2013, Ekman informed the assembly of a major change – he, its founder and its pastor for 30 years, would resign in May and be succeeded by Joakim Lundqvist, the up–to–then youth pastor of the congregation. On 9 March 2014, Ekman announced his and his wife's leaving Livets Ord with the intent of joining the Catholic Church. The couple described the split as mainly amicable, and Ekman explained their decision in a lengthy sermon, claiming Jesus’ appeal, in 1 Corinthians 1:10, for unity among Christians, as well as growing and more enthusiastic theological closeness to Catholic doctrine - including during a lengthy stay in Israel, where the couple took up residence in the early 2000s - as the main reasons. Earlier harsh condemnation of the Catholic Church made the decision controversial both among the Christian community and in national debate, where Ekman’s firebrand image had been debated for decades. He indicated, that he received a confirming word of prophecy ahead of his decision from a pastor that just had attended Kenneth Copeland's Charismatic Evangelical Leadership Conference in February 2014, a Conference to which Pope Francis sent a video message through Tony Palmer urging for the protest of the Reformation to come to an end.", "Like many new Christian movements, Word of Life has been criticized by other Christians, but in particular by the media. Many critics claim that Word of Life's teachings about health and economic abundance created a survival of the fittest attitude, in opposition to the Christian ascetic ideal of being poor and humble. Ekman and Word of Life always responded to this criticism by saying that they strongly believed in God's promises in the Bible. Ekman claimed that a false image was created in the Swedish media on Word of Life as being against, for example, disabled persons, when the outspoken message was that God promises deliverance from sickness. Ekman's theology, along with other representatives of the Word of Faith movement, was criticized for having gnostic elements. A thesis written by Kent Gunnarsson at Umeå University, published in 2004, had this claim. The opponent at the dissertation, Professor Alexander Radler, criticized Gunnarsson for a too-wide definition of Gnosticism. Radler appreciated Gunnarsson's thesis for its rich information about modern Gnosticism, but thought that Ekman's teachings could not be seen as gnostic. Ekman's own attitude against Gnosticism is negative. Later on, Ekman rarely preached the typical Word of Faith teachings. He partially criticized some of them (for example, the Jesus Died Spiritually doctrine), but also wrote and said that the ground for his preaching was the revelation in the Bible he got from first listening to teachers like Kenneth Copeland and later studying at Kenneth Hagin's school in Tulsa. Ekman seems to have broadened his doctrinal horizons with studies in patristic and church history. He has now an ecumenical approach to other congregations. In 2006 the bishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Stockholm, Anders Arborelius, was invited to Word of Life church in Uppsala for a public discussion. Through the Livets Ord University, which is a branch of the Oral Roberts University, Ekman published a theological magazine called Keryx, containing articles from a broad, classical Christian point of view. This magazine had articles from different Christian traditions and excerpts from patristic writings. But a critical analysis of the Word of Faith movement's own teachings hasn’t been published to this day. In 2014, Ekman and his family converted to Roman Catholicism. He claims that the \"Catechism of the Catholic Church\" is \"the best book he has ever read\". In his 2015 book Den stora upptäckten. Vår väg till katolska kyrkan he claims that an important factor in his conversion to Catholicism was information about Međugorje in Herzegovina and subsequent visit to the place, where Ulf and Birgitta met with Franciscan Jozo Zovko." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Empire of Japan.", "Republic of China.", "Administrative divisions.", "Tourism.", "Golf course.", "Night market of Miao Dong.", "Economy.", "Transportation.", "Rail." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Before the arrival of the Han Chinese, the area of Fengyuan city was inhabited by Taiwanese aborigines. Their name for the area, meaning \"thriving pine forest\", was transcribed into Chinese characters as. Before the mid-18th century, the area was a territory of the Pazeh people, which they called \"Haluton\". This name was adapted into Hokkien as \"Haloton\" (). Han immigration to the area began during late Qing rule. Liu Mingchuan gave the area a nickname of \"little Suzhou\" due to its prosperity and scenic beauty.", "In 1905, during Japanese rule, the \"Holotun\" Station was erected, putting the area along a main thoroughfare. In 1920, the Governor-General of Taiwan gave the town its name,, meaning flourishing plain. Emperor Meiji′Emperor Taishō′Hirohito ate rice supplied from Fengyuan City.", "After the handover of Taiwan from Japan to the Republic of China in 1945, Fengyuan was organized as an urban township of Taichung County and was made the capital of the county. On 1 March 1973, Fengyuan was upgraded to a county-administered city due to its population. On 25 December 2010, Taichung County was merged with Taichung City and Fengyuan was upgraded to a district of the city with Xitun District was made as the capital of the city.", "Fengyuan, Fengrong, Dingjie, Zhongshan, Xiajie, Zhongyang, Danan, Beinan, Tungnan, Xinan, Fengxi, Zunliao, Fengzun, Fuchun, Hulu, Xian, Xishi, Zhongxing, Shepi, Sancun, Tungshi, Minsheng, Tianxin, Fengtian, Liancun, Yangming, Nanyang, Beiyang, Tungyang, Nancun, Nantian, Nansong, Wengming, Wengzi, Wengshe and Pozi Village.", "", "Eastern hill part of Fengyuan.", "In the 1970s, citizens created the Night market of Miao Dong (), there are full of Taiwanese street foods.", "The restaurant chain KLG has its headquarters in Fengyuan District.", "", "Fengyuan District is accessible from TRA Fengyuan Station." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Setting.", "Production.", "Manga.", "Spin-offs.", "Crossovers.", "Reception.", "Anime.", "Main installments.", "Manga-inspired series.", "\"Dragon Ball GT\".", "Other installments.", "Reception.", "Other media.", "Anime films.", "Live-action film.", "Theme park attractions.", "Video games.", "Merchandise.", "Soundtracks.", "Companion books.", "Cultural impact.", "Popular culture.", "Comics and animation.", "Film.", "Music and sports.", "Video games." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The Dragon Ball story takes place on Earth where Goku goes on adventures to find the Dragon Balls, as well as aspiring to become a great fighter, and compete in multiple martial arts tournaments. Goku later stops the evil Red Ribbon Army, then 3 years later, thwarts the Grand Demon King Piccolo's plans for world conquest, afterwards he and his friends protect the Earth from the Saiyan invasion. The setting also goes to Planet Namek later on in the series for Bulma, Gohan, and Kuririn to revive Goku's fallen friends from the Saiyan's attack, where they encounter Vegeta's higher ups, as well as the cosmic emperor,", "Akira Toriyama was a fan of Hong Kong martial arts films, including Bruce Lee films such as \"Enter the Dragon\" (1973) and Jackie Chan films such as \"Drunken Master\" (1978), and wanted to create a manga inspired by martial arts films. This led to Toriyama creating the 1983 one-shot manga \"Dragon Boy\", which he later redeveloped into \"Dragon Ball\". Toriyama loosely modeled the plot and characters of \"Dragon Ball\" on the classic Chinese novel \"Journey to the West\", with Goku being Sun Wukong (\"Son Goku\" in Japanese), Bulma as Tang Sanzang, Oolong as Zhu Bajie, and Yamcha being Sha Wujing. Toriyama wanted to create a story with the basic theme of \"Journey to the West\", but with \"a little kung fu.\" The title \"Dragon Ball\" was inspired by \"Enter the Dragon\" and later Bruceploitation knockoff kung fu films which frequently had the word \"Dragon\" in the title, and the fighting scenes were influenced by Jackie Chan movies. Since it was serialized in a shōnen manga magazine, he added the idea of the Dragon Balls to give it a game-like activity of gathering something, without thinking of what the characters would wish for. His concept of the Dragon Balls was inspired by the epic Japanese novel \"Nansō Satomi Hakkenden\" (1814–1842), which involves the heroes collecting eight Buddhist prayer beads, which Toriyama adapted into collecting seven Dragon Balls. He originally thought it would last about a year or end once the Dragon Balls were collected. Toriyama stated that although the stories are purposefully easy to understand, he specifically aimed \"Dragon Ball\" at readers older than those of his previous serial \"Dr. Slump\". He also wanted to break from the Western influences common in \"Dr. Slump\", deliberately going for Chinese scenery, referencing Chinese buildings and photographs of China his wife had bought. Toriyama wanted to set \"Dragon Ball\" in a fictional world largely based on Asia, taking inspiration from several Asian cultures including Japanese, Chinese, South Asian, Central Asian, Arabic and Indonesian cultures. The island where the is held is modeled after Bali (in Indonesia), which he, his wife and assistant visited in mid-1985, and for the area around Bobbidi's spaceship he consulted photos of Africa. Toriyama was also inspired by the jinn (genies) from \"The Arabian Nights\". During the early chapters of the manga Toriyama's editor, Kazuhiko Torishima, commented that Goku looked rather plain, so to combat this he added several characters like Kame-Sen'nin and Kuririn, and created the Tenkaichi Budōkai martial arts tournament to focus the storyline on fighting. It was when the first Tenkaichi Budōkai began that \"Dragon Ball\" truly became popular, having recalled", "Written and illustrated by Akira Toriyama, \"Dragon Ball\" was serialized in the manga anthology \"Weekly Shōnen Jump\" from December 3, 1984 to June 5, 1995, when Toriyama grew exhausted and felt he needed a break from drawing. The 519 individual chapters were published into 42 \"tankōbon\" volumes by Shueisha from September 10, 1985 through August 4, 1995. Between December 4, 2002 and April 2, 2004, the chapters were re-released in a collection of 34 \"kanzenban\" volumes, which included a slightly rewritten ending, new covers, and color artwork from its \"Weekly Shōnen Jump\" run. The February 2013 issue of \"V Jump\", which was released in December 2012, announced that parts of the manga will be fully colored and re-released in 2013. Twenty volumes, beginning from chapter 195 and grouped by story arcs, were released between February 4, 2013 and July 4, 2014. Twelve volumes covering the first 194 chapters were published between January 4 and March 4, 2016. A \"sōshūhen\" edition that aims to recreate the manga as it was originally serialized in \"Weekly Shōnen Jump\" with color pages, promotional text, and next chapter previews, was published in eighteen volumes between May 13, 2016 and January 13, 2017.", "Another manga penned by Ōishi, the three-chapter \"\" that revolves around Bardock, Goku's father, was published in the monthly magazine \"V Jump\" from August and October 2011. The final chapter of Toriyama's 2013 manga series \"Jaco the Galactic Patrolman\" revealed that it is set before \"Dragon Ball\",", "Toriyama also created a short series, \"Neko Majin\" (1999–2005), that became a self-parody of \"Dragon Ball\". In 2006, a crossover between \"Kochira Katsushika-ku Kameari Kōen-mae Hashutsujo\"", "\"Dragon Ball\" is one of the most popular manga series of all time, and it continues to enjoy high readership today. \"Dragon Ball\" is credited as one of the main reasons manga circulation was at its highest between the mid-1980s and mid-1990s. During \"Dragon Ball\"s initial run in \"Weekly Shōnen Jump\", the manga magazine reached an average circulation of 6.53million weekly sales, the highest in its history. During \"Dragon Ball\"s serialisation between 1984 and 1995, \"Weekly Shōnen Jump\" magazine had a total circulation of over 2.9billion copies, with those issues generating an estimated () in sales revenue. \"Dragon Ball\" also sold a record number of collected \"tankōbon\" volumes for its time. By 2000, more than 126million \"tankōbon\" copies had been sold in Japan alone. It sold over 150million copies in Japan by 2008, making it the best-selling manga ever at the", "", "\"Dragon Ball\" and \"Dragon Ball Z\" are adaptations of the original \"Dragon Ball\" manga, with various new material added in to make extra episodes so that Toriyama would have more time to write original chapters for them to adapt. \"Dragon Ball Z Kai\" is a version of the \"Dragon Ball Z\" that removes most of the episodes featuring content that was not part of the original manga. The sequel to the original manga is called \"Dragon Ball Super\", and its story is based on a plot outline by Toriyama. Unlike previous anime series, \"Super\" is released in parallel to, and many times ahead of,", "\"Dragon Ball GT\" and \"Super Dragon Ball Heroes\" are not originated from any direct source material from Toriyama, being fully created by their respective animation studios.", "premiered on Fuji TV on February 7, 1996 and ran until November 19, 1997 for 64 episodes. Unlike the first two anime series, it is not based on Akira Toriyama's original \"Dragon Ball\" manga, being created by Toei Animation as a sequel to the series or as Toriyama called it, a \"grand side story of the original \"Dragon Ball.\"\" Toriyama designed the main cast, the spaceship used in the show, the design of three planets, and came up with the title and logo. In addition to this, Toriyama also", "The short film \"\" was created for the Jump Super Anime Tour, which celebrated \"Weekly Shōnen Jump\" 40th anniversary, and debuted on September 21, 2008. A short animated adaptation of Naho Ōishi's Bardock spinoff manga, \"\", was shown on December 17–18, 2011 at the Jump Festa 2012 event. A two-episode original video animation", "The anime adaptations have also been very well-received and are better known in the Western world than the manga, with Anime News Network saying, \"Few anime series have mainstreamed it the way \"Dragon Ball Z\" has. To a certain generation of television consumers its characters are as well known as any in the animated realm, and for many it was the first step into the wilderness of anime fandom.\" In 2000, satellite TV channel Animax together with \"Brutus\", a men's lifestyle magazine, and Tsutaya, Japan's largest video rental chain, conducted a poll among 200,000 fans on the top anime series, with", "", "Twenty animated theatrical films based on the \"Dragon Ball\" series have been released in Japan. The three most recent films, \"\" (2013), \"\" (2015) and \"\" (2018), were produced as full-length feature films and were given stand-alone theatrical releases in Japan (as well as limited theatrical releases in the U.S.). They're also the first movies to have original creator Akira Toriyama deeply involved in their production; \"Battle of Gods\" and \"Resurrection 'F\"' were remade into the first and second arcs of the \"Dragon Ball Super\" anime, which told the same stories as the two films in expanded detail. The 1996 feature film, \"\", was", "An American live-action film titled \"Dragonball Evolution\" was produced by 20th Century Fox after it acquired the feature film rights to the \"Dragon Ball\" franchise in March 2002. Previous to the film, two unofficial live-action films had been produced decades prior. The film was directed by James Wong and produced by Stephen Chow, it was released in the United States on April 10, 2009. The film was meant to lead into sequels, which were cancelled, after the film flopped at the box office and became universally heralded", "\"Dragon Ball Z: The Real 4D\" debuted at Universal Studios Japan in the summer of 2016. It features a battle between Goku and Freeza. Unlike most \"Dragon", "The \"Dragon Ball\" franchise has spawned multiple video games across various genres and platforms. Earlier games of the series included a system of card battling and were released for the Famicom following the storyline of the series. Starting with the Super Famicom and Mega Drive, most of the games were from the fighting genre or RPG (Role Playing Game), such as the \"Super Butoden\" series. The first \"Dragon Ball\" game to be released in the United States was \"\" for the PlayStation in 1997. For the PlayStation 2 and PlayStation Portable games the characters were redone in 3D cel-shaded graphics. These games included the \"\" series and the \"\" series. \"\" was the first", "", "Myriad soundtracks were released in the anime, movies and the games. The music for the first two anime \"Dragon Ball\" and \"Z\" and its films was composed by Shunsuke Kikuchi, while the music from \"GT\" was composed by Akihito Tokunaga and the music from \"Kai\" was composed by Kenji Yamamoto and Norihito Sumitomo. For the first anime, the soundtracks", "There have been numerous companion books to the \"Dragon Ball\" franchise. Chief among these are the series, comprising seven hardback main volumes and three supplemental softcover volumes, covering the manga and the first two anime series and their theatrical films. The first of these, \"Dragon Ball: The Complete Illustrations\" (\"Daizenshuu\" volume 1), first published in Japan in 1995, is the only one that was released in English, being printed in 2008 by Viz Media. It contains all 264 colored illustrations Akira Toriyama drew for the \"Weekly Shōnen Jump\" magazines' covers, bonus giveaways and specials, and all", "\"Dragon Ball\" is one of the top twenty highest-grossing media franchises of all time, having generated an estimated in total franchise revenue. By 2011, the franchise had generated in merchandise sales. In 2012, the franchise grossed () from licensed merchandise sales in Japan. Bandai also sold over 2billion \"Dragon Ball\" Carddass cards in Japan by 1998, and over 1million Dragon Stars figurines in the Americas and Europe as of 2018. As of 2019, the mobile game \"\" has received over 300million downloads worldwide, and \"Dragon Ball FighterZ\" is one of the most popular eSports fighting games.", "Since its debut, \"Dragon Ball\" has had a considerable impact on global popular culture. In 2015, the Japan Anniversary Association officially declared May 9 as ; in Japanese, the numbers five and nine can be pronounced as \"Go\" and \"Ku\". It is similarly influential in international popular culture across other parts of the world. \"Dragon Ball\" is widely referenced in American popular culture, from television and music to celebrities and athletes, and the show has been celebrated with Goku making an appearance at the 2018 Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade, and with \"Dragon Ball\" murals appearing in cities such as Los Angeles, Chicago, Kansas City and Denver. \"Dragon Ball\" is also immensely popular in", "\"Dragon Ball\" has been cited as inspiration across various different media. \"Dragon Ball\" is credited with setting trends for popular shōnen manga and anime since the 1980s, with manga critic Jason Thompson in 2011 calling it \"by far the most influential shōnen manga of the last 30 years.\" Successful shōnen manga authors such as Eiichiro Oda (\"One Piece\"), Masashi Kishimoto (\"Naruto\"), Tite Kubo (\"Bleach\"), Hiro Mashima (\"Fairy Tail\") and Kentaro Yabuki (\"Black Cat\") have cited \"Dragon Ball\" as an influence on their own now popular works. According to Thompson, \"almost every \"Shonen Jump\" artist lists it as", "An unofficial live-action Mandarin Chinese film adaptation of the series, \"\", was released in Taiwan in 1989. In December 1990, the unofficial live-action Korean film \"\" was released. \"The Matrix\" franchise echoes \"Dragon Ball Z\" in several action scenes, including the climactic fights of the 2003 films \"Matrix Reloaded\" and \"Matrix Revolutions\". Filino-American film storyboard artist Jay Oliva has cited \"Dragon", "\"Dragon Ball\" has been channeled and referenced by numerous musicians. It is popular in the hip hop community, and has been referenced in numerous hip hop songs by rappers and artists such as Chris Brown, Chance the Rapper, Big Sean, Lil Uzi Vert, G-Mo Skee, The Weeknd, Childish Gambino, B.o.B, Soulja Boy, Drake, Frank Ocean, and Sese. Numerous athletes have also channeled", "The producer of the \"Tekken\" video game series, Katsuhiro Harada, said that \"Dragon Ball\" was one of the first works to visually depict chi and thereby influenced numerous Japanese video games, especially fighting games such as \"Tekken\" and \"Street Fighter\". Masaaki Ishikawa," ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Childhood: 1884–99.", "Ceylon and Borneo: 1900–11.", "Malaya and World War I: 1911–26.", "Marriage and archaeology: 1927–36.", "Return to Europe: 1936–38.", "Involvement in Wicca.", "The Rosicrucian Order: 1938–39.", "The New Forest coven: 1939–44.", "Bricket Wood and the Origins of Gardnerianism: 1945–50.", "Doreen Valiente and the Museum of Magic and Witchcraft: 1950–57.", "Later life and death.", "Personal life.", "Criticisms.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Gardner's family was wealthy and upper middle class, running a family firm, Joseph Gardner and Sons, which described itself as \"the oldest private company in the timber trade within the British Empire.\" Specialising in the import of hardwood, the company had been founded in the mid-18th century by Edmund Gardner (b. 1721), an entrepreneur who would subsequently become a Freeman of Liverpool. Gerald's father, William Robert Gardner (1844–1935) had been the youngest son of Joseph Gardner (b. 1791), after whom the firm had been renamed, and who with his wife Maria had had five sons and three daughters. In 1867, William had been sent", "In 1900, Com married David Elkington, one of her many suitors who owned a tea plantation in the British colony of Ceylon (modern Sri Lanka). It was agreed with the Gardners that Gerald would live with her on a tea plantation named Ladbroke Estate in Maskeliya district, where he could learn the tea trade. In 1901 Gardner and the Elkingtons lived briefly in a bungalow in Kandy, where a neighbouring bungalow had just been vacated by the occultists Aleister Crowley and Charles Henry Allan Bennett. At his father's expense, Gardner trained as a \"creeper\", or trainee planter, learning all about the growing of tea; although he disliked the \"dreary endlessness\" of the work, he enjoyed being outdoors and near to the forests.", "Arriving in Singapore, he initially planned to return to Ceylon, but was offered a job working as an assistant on a rubber plantation in Perak, northern Malaya, and decided to take it, working for the Borneo Company. Arriving in the area, he decided to supplement this income by purchasing his own estate, Bukit Katho, on which he could grow rubber; initially sized at 450 acres, Gardner purchased various pieces of adjacent land until it covered 600 acres. Here, Gardner made friends with an American man known as Cornwall, who", "Gardner's mother had died in 1920, but he had not returned to Britain on that occasion. However, in 1927 his father became very ill with dementia, and Gardner decided to visit him. On his return to Britain, Gardner began to investigate spiritualism and mediumship. He soon had several encounters which he attributed to spirits of deceased family members. Continuing to visit Spiritualist churches and séances, he was highly critical of much of what he saw, although he encountered several mediums he considered genuine. One medium apparently made contact with a deceased cousin of Gardner's, an event which impressed him greatly. His first biographer Jack Bracelin reports that this was a watershed in Gardner's life, and that a previous academic interest in spiritualism and life after death thereafter became a matter of firm personal belief for him. The very same", "In 1936, Gardner and Donna left Malaya and headed for Europe. She proceeded straight to London, renting them a flat at 26 Charing Cross Road. Gardner visited Palestine, becoming involved in the archaeological excavations run by J.L. Starkey at Lachish. Here he grew particularly interested in a temple containing statues to both the male deity of Judeo-Christian theology and the pagan goddess Ashtoreth. From Palestine, Gardner went to Turkey, Greece, Hungary, and Germany. He eventually reached England, but soon went on a visit to Denmark to attend a conference on weaponry at the Christiansborg Palace, Copenhagen, during which he gave a talk on the \"kris\". Returning to Britain, he found that", "", "In Highcliffe, Gardner came across a building describing itself as the \"First Rosicrucian Theatre in England\". Having an interest in Rosicrucianism, a prominent magico-religious tradition within Western esotericism, Gardner decided to attend one of the plays performed by the group; in August 1939, Gardner took his wife to a theatrical performance based on the life of Pythagoras. An amateur thespian, she hated the performance, thinking the quality of both actors and script terrible, and she refused to go again. Unperturbed", "Although sceptical of the Rosicrucian Order, Gardner got on well with a group of individuals inside the group who were \"rather brow-beaten by the others, kept themselves to themselves.\" Gardner's biographer Philip Heselton theorised that this group consisted of Edith Woodford-Grimes (1887–1975), Susie Mason, her brother Ernie Mason, and their sister Rosetta Fudge, all of whom had originally come from Southampton before moving to the area around Highcliffe, where they joined the Order. According to Gardner, \"unlike many of the others [in the Order], [they] had to earn their livings, were cheerful and optimistic and had a real interest in the occult\". Gardner became \"really very fond of them\", remarking that he \"would have gone through hell and high water even then for any of them.\" In particular he grew close to Woodford-Grimes, being invited over to her home to meet her daughter, and the two helped each other with their writing, Woodford-Grimes probably assisting Gardner edit \"A Goddess Arrives\" prior to publication. Gardner would subsequently give her the nickname \"Dafo\", for which she", "Throughout his time in the New Forest, Gardner had regularly travelled to London, keeping his flat at Buckingham Palace Mansions until mid-1939 and regularly visiting the Spielplatz nudist club there. At Spielplatz he befriended Ross Nichols, whom he would later introduce to the Pagan religion of Druidry; Nichols would become enamoured with this faith, eventually founding the Order of Bards, Ovates and Druids. However, following the war, Gardner decided to return to London, moving into 47 Ridgemount Gardens, Bloomsbury in late 1944 or early 1945. Continuing his interest in nudism, in 1945 he purchased a plot of land in Fouracres, a nudist colony near to the", "Gardner also came into contact with Cecil Williamson, who was intent on opening his own museum devoted to witchcraft; the result would be the Folk-lore Centre of Superstition and Witchcraft, opened in Castletown on the Isle of Man in 1951. Gardner and his wife moved to the island, where he took up the position of \"resident witch\". On 29 July, the \"Sunday Pictorial\" published an article about the museum in which Gardner declared \"Of course I'm a witch. And I get great fun out", "In 1960, Gardner's official biography, entitled \"Gerald Gardner: Witch\", was published. It was written by a friend of his, the Sufi mystic Idries Shah, but used the name of one of Gardner's High Priests, Jack L. Bracelin, because Shah was wary about being associated with Witchcraft. In May of that year, Gardner travelled to Buckingham Palace, where he enjoyed a garden party in recognition of his years of service to the Empire in the Far East. Soon after his trip, Gardner's wife Donna died, and Gardner himself once again began to suffer badly from asthma. The following year he, along with Shah and Lois Bourne, travelled to the island of Majorca to holiday with the poet Robert Graves, whose \"The White Goddess\" would play a significant part in the burgeoning Wiccan religion. In 1963, Gardner decided to go to Lebanon over the winter. Whilst returning home on the ship, \"The", "Gardner only married once, to Donna, and several who knew him made the claim that he was devoted to her. Indeed, after her death in 1960, he began to again suffer serious asthma attacks. Despite this, as many coven members slept over at his cottage due to living too far away to travel home safely, he was known to cuddle up to his young High Priestess, Dayonis, after rituals. The author Philip Heselton, who largely researched Wicca's origins, came to the conclusion that Gardner had held a long-term affair with Dafo, a theory expanded upon by Adrian Bott. Those who knew him within the modern witchcraft movement recalled", "In a 1951 interview with a journalist from the \"Sunday Pictorial\" newspaper, Gardner said he was a doctor of philosophy from Singapore and also to have a doctorate in literature from Toulouse. Later investigation by Doreen Valiente suggested that these claims were false. The University of Singapore did not exist at that time and the University of Toulouse had no record of his receiving a doctorate.", "Commenting on Gardner, Pagan studies scholar Ethan Doyle White commented that \"There are few figures in esoteric history who can rival him for his dominating place in the pantheon of Pagan pioneers.\" In 2012, Philip Heselton published a two-volume biography of Gardner, titled \"Witchfather\". The biography was reviewed by Pagan studies scholar Ethan Doyle White in \"The Pomegranate\" journal, where he commented that it was \"more exhaustive with greater detail\" than Heselton's prior tomes and was \"excellent in most respects\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Physical properties.", "Synthesis and processing.", "Reactions.", "Applications.", "Hydrogen storage and fuel.", "Precursor to complex metal hydrides.", "In nuclear chemistry and physics.", "Lithium deuteride.", "Safety." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2" ], "content": [ "LiH is a diamagnetic and an ionic conductor with a conductivity gradually increasing from at 443 °C to 0.18 Ωcm at 754 °C; there is no discontinuity in this increase through the melting point. The dielectric constant of LiH decreases from 13.0 (static, low frequencies) to 3.6 (visible-light frequencies). LiH is a soft material with a Mohs hardness of 3.5. Its compressive creep (per 100 hours) rapidly increases from < 1% at 350 °C to > 100% at 475 °C, meaning that LiH can't provide mechanical support when heated. The thermal conductivity of LiH decreases with temperature and depends on morphology: the corresponding values are 0.125 W/(cm·K) for crystals and 0.0695 W/(cm·K) for compacts at 50 °C, and 0.036 W/(cm·K) for crystals and 0.0432 W/(cm·K) for compacts at 500 °C. The linear thermal expansion coefficient is 4.2/°C at room temperature.", "LiH is produced by treating lithium metal with hydrogen gas: This reaction is especially rapid at temperatures above 600 °C. Addition of 0.001–0.003% carbon, or/and increasing temperature or/and pressure, increases the yield up to 98% at 2-hour residence time. However, the reaction proceeds at temperatures as low as 29 °C. The yield is 60% at 99 °C and 85% at 125 °C, and the rate depends significantly on the surface condition of LiH. Less common ways of LiH synthesis include thermal decomposition of lithium aluminium hydride (200 °C), lithium borohydride (300 °C), n-butyllithium (150 °C), or ethyllithium (120 °C), as well as several reactions involving lithium compounds of low stability and available hydrogen content. Chemical reactions yield LiH in the form of lumped powder, which can be compressed into pellets without a binder. More complex shapes can be produced by casting from the melt. Large single crystals (about 80 mm long and 16 mm in diameter) can be then grown from molten LiH powder in hydrogen atmosphere by the Bridgman–Stockbarger technique. They often have bluish color owing to the presence of colloidal Li. This color can be removed by post-growth annealing at lower temperatures (~550 °C) and lower thermal gradients. Major impurities in these crystals are Na (20–200 parts per million, ppm), O (10–100 ppm), Mg (0.5–6 ppm), Fe (0.5-2 ppm) and Cu (0.5-2 ppm). Bulk cold-pressed LiH parts can be easily machined using standard techniques and tools to micrometer precision. However, cast LiH is brittle and easily cracks during processing. A more energy efficient route to form lithium hydride powder is by ball milling lithium metal under high hydrogen pressure. A problem with this method is the cold welding of lithium metal due to the high ductility. By adding small amounts of lithium hydride powder the cold welding can be avoided.", "LiH powder reacts rapidly with air of low humidity, forming LiOH, and. In moist air the powder ignites spontaneously, forming a mixture of products including some nitrogenous compounds. The lump material reacts with humid air, forming a superficial coating, which is a viscous fluid. This inhibits further reaction, although the appearance of a film of \"tarnish\" is quite evident. Little or no nitride is formed on exposure to humid air. The lump material, contained in a metal dish, may be heated in air to slightly below 200 °C without igniting, although it ignites readily when touched by an open flame. The surface condition of LiH, presence of oxides on the metal dish, etc., have a considerable effect on the ignition temperature. Dry oxygen does not react with crystalline LiH unless heated strongly, when an almost explosive combustion occurs. LiH is highly reactive toward water and other protic reagents: LiH is less reactive with water than Li and thus is a much less powerful reducing agent for water, alcohols, and other media containing reducible solutes. This is true for all the binary saline hydrides. LiH pellets slowly expand in moist air, forming LiOH; however, the expansion rate is below 10% within 24 hours in a pressure of 2 Torr of water vapor. If moist air contains carbon dioxide, then the product is lithium carbonate. LiH reacts with ammonia, slowly at room temperature, but the reaction accelerates significantly above 300 °C. LiH reacts slowly with higher alcohols and phenols, but vigorously with lower alcohols. LiH reacts with sulfur dioxide: though above 50 °C the product is lithium dithionite. LiH reacts with acetylene to form lithium carbide and hydrogen. With anhydrous organic acids, phenols and acid anhydrides LiH reacts slowly, producing hydrogen gas and the lithium salt of the acid. With water-containing acids, LiH reacts faster than with water. Many reactions of LiH with oxygen-containing species yield LiOH, which in turn irreversibly reacts with LiH at temperatures above 300 °C:", "", "With a hydrogen content in proportion to its mass three times that of NaH, LiH has the highest hydrogen content of any hydride. LiH is periodically of interest for hydrogen storage, but applications have been thwarted by its stability to decomposition. Thus removal of H requires temperatures above the 700 °C used for its synthesis, such temperatures are expensive to create and maintain. The compound was once tested as a fuel component in a model rocket.", "LiH is not usually a hydride-reducing agent, except in the synthesis of hydrides of certain metalloids. For example, silane is produced in the reaction of lithium hydride and silicon tetrachloride by the Sundermeyer process: Lithium hydride is used in the production of a variety of reagents for organic synthesis, such as lithium aluminium hydride (LiAlH) and lithium borohydride (LiBH). Triethylborane reacts to give superhydride (LiBHEt).", "Lithium hydride (LiH) is sometimes a desirable material for the shielding of nuclear reactors, with the isotope lithium-7 (Li-7), and it can be fabricated by casting.", "Lithium deuteride, in the form of lithium-7 deuteride, is a good moderator for nuclear reactors, because deuterium (H-2) has a lower neutron absorption cross-section than ordinary hydrogen (H-1) does, and the cross-section for Li-7 is also low, decreasing the absorption of neutrons in a reactor. Lithium-7 is preferred for a moderator because it has a lower neutron capture cross-section, and it also forms less tritium (H-3) under bombardment with neutrons. The corresponding lithium-6 deuteride, Li</sup>H, or LiD, is the primary fusion fuel in thermonuclear weapons. In hydrogen warheads of the Teller–Ulam design, a nuclear fission trigger explodes to heat and compress the lithium-6 deuteride, and to bombard the LiD with neutrons to produce tritium in an exothermic reaction: Li + n → He + H. The deuterium and tritium (both isotopes of hydrogen) then fuse to produce helium-4, one neutron, and 17.59 MeV of free energy in the form of gamma rays, kinetic energy, etc. The helium is an inert byproduct. Before the Castle Bravo nuclear weapons test in 1954, it was thought that only the less common isotope lithium-6 would breed tritium when struck with fast neutrons. The Castle Bravo test showed (accidentally) that the more plentiful lithium-7 also does so under extreme conditions, albeit by an endothermic reaction.", "LiH reacts violently with water to give hydrogen gas and LiOH, which is caustic. Consequently, LiH dust can explode in humid air, or even in dry air due to static electricity. At concentrations of in air the dust is extremely irritating to the mucous membranes and skin and may cause an allergic reaction. Because of the irritation, LiH is normally rejected rather than accumulated by the body. Some lithium salts, which can be produced in LiH reactions, are toxic. LiH fire should not be extinguished using carbon dioxide, carbon tetrachloride, or aqueous fire extinguishers; they should be smothered by covering with a metal object or graphite or dolomite powder. Sand is less suitable, as it can explode when mixed with burning LiH, especially if not dry. LiH is normally transported in oil, using containers made of ceramic, certain plastics or steel, and is handled in an atmosphere of dry argon or helium. Nitrogen can be used, but not at elevated temperatures, as it reacts with lithium. LiH normally contains some metallic lithium, which corrodes steel or silica containers at elevated temperatures." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Production.", "Structure.", "Uses." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Lithium oxide is produced by thermal decomposition of lithium peroxide at 300-400°C. Lithium oxide forms along with small amounts of lithium peroxide when lithium metal is burned in the air and combines with oxygen: Pure can be produced by the thermal decomposition of lithium peroxide,, at 450 °C", "In the solid state lithium oxide adopts an antifluorite structure which is related to the, fluorite structure with Li cations substituted for fluoride anions and oxide anions substituted for calcium cations. The ground state gas phase molecule is linear with a bond length consistent with strong ionic bonding. VSEPR theory would predict a bent shape similar to.", "Lithium oxide is used as a flux in ceramic glazes; and creates blues with copper and pinks with cobalt. Lithium oxide reacts with water and steam, forming lithium hydroxide and should be isolated from them. Its usage is also being investigated for non-destructive emission spectroscopy evaluation and degradation monitoring within thermal barrier coating systems. It can be added as a co-dopant with yttria in the zirconia ceramic top coat, without a large decrease in expected service life of the coating. At high heat, lithium oxide emits a very detectable spectral pattern, which increases in intensity along with degradation of the coating. Implementation would allow in situ monitoring of such systems, enabling an efficient means to predict lifetime until failure or necessary maintenance. Lithium metal might be obtained from lithium oxide by electrolysis, releasing oxygen as by-product." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Properties.", "Preparation.", "Uses." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Sodium peroxide crystallizes with hexagonal symmetry. Upon heating, the hexagonal form undergoes a transition into a phase of unknown symmetry at 512 °C. With further heating above the 657 °C boiling point, the compound decomposes to NaO, releasing O.", "The octahydrate is produced by treating sodium hydroxide with hydrogen peroxide. Sodium peroxide can be prepared on a large scale by the reaction of metallic sodium with oxygen at 130–200 °C, a process that generates sodium oxide, which in a separate stage absorbs oxygen: It may also be produced by passing ozone gas over solid sodium iodide inside a platinum or palladium tube. The ozone oxidizes the sodium to form sodium peroxide. The iodine can be sublimed by mild heating. The platinum or palladium catalyzes the reaction and is not attacked by the sodium peroxide.", "Sodium peroxide hydrolyzes to give sodium hydroxide and hydrogen peroxide according to the reaction Sodium peroxide was used to bleach wood pulp for the production of paper and textiles. Presently it is mainly used for specialized laboratory operations, e.g., the extraction of minerals from various ores. Sodium peroxide may go by the commercial names of \"Solozone\" and \"Flocool\". In chemistry preparations, sodium peroxide is used as an oxidizing agent. It is also used as an oxygen source by reacting it with carbon dioxide to produce oxygen and sodium carbonate: It is thus particularly useful in scuba gear, submarines, etc. Lithium peroxide has similar uses." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Work.", "Political career.", "Honors." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Borel was born in Saint-Affrique, Aveyron, the son of a Protestant pastor. He studied at the Collège Sainte-Barbe and Lycée Louis-le-Grand before applying to both the École normale supérieure and the École Polytechnique. He qualified in the first position for both and chose to attend the former institution in 1889. That year he also won the concours général, an annual national mathematics competition. After graduating in 1892, he placed first in the agrégation, a competitive civil service examination leading to the position of professeur agrégé. His thesis, published in 1893, was titled \"Sur quelques points de la théorie des fonctions\" (\"On some points in the theory of functions\"). That year, Borel started a four-year stint as a lecturer at the University of Lille, during which time he published 22 research papers. He returned to the École normale in 1897, and was appointed to the chair of theory of functions, which he held until 1941. In 1901, Borel married 17-year-old Marguerite, the daughter of colleague Paul Émile Appel; she later wrote more than 30 novels under the pseudonym Camille Marbo. Émile Borel died in Paris on 3 February 1956.", "Along with René-Louis Baire and Henri Lebesgue, Émile Borel was among the pioneers of measure theory and its application to probability theory. The concept of a Borel set is named in his honor. One of his books on probability introduced the amusing thought experiment that entered popular culture under the name infinite monkey theorem or the like. He also published a series of papers (1921–27) that first defined games of strategy. With the development of statistical hypothesis testing in the early 1900s various tests for randomness were proposed. Sometimes these were claimed to have some kind of general significance, but mostly they were just viewed as simple practical methods. In 1909, Borel formulated the notion that numbers picked randomly on the basis of their value are almost always normal, and with explicit constructions in terms of digits, it is quite straightforward to get numbers that are normal. In 1913 and 1914 he bridged the gap between hyperbolic geometry and special relativity with expository work. For instance, his book \"Introduction Geometrique à quelques Théories Physiques\" described hyperbolic rotations as transformations that leave a hyperbola stable just as a circle around a rotational center is stable. In 1928 he co-founded Institut Henri Poincaré in Paris.", "In the 1920s, 1930s, and 1940s, he was active in politics. In 1922, he founded Paris Institute of Statistics, the oldest French school for statistics. From 1924 to 1936, he was a member of the French National Assembly. In 1925, he was Minister of Marine in the cabinet of fellow mathematician Paul Painlevé. During the Second World War, he was a member of the French Resistance.", "Besides the \"Centre Émile Borel\" at the Institut Henri Poincaré in Paris and a crater on the Moon, the following mathematical notions are named after him: Borel also described a poker model which he coins \"La Relance\" in his 1938 book \"Applications de la théorie des probabilités aux Jeux de Hasard\". Borel was awarded the Resistance Medal in 1950." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Operation.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A classic lava lamp contains a standard incandescent or halogen lamp which heats a tall (often tapered) glass bottle. A formula from a 1968 US patent consisted of water and a transparent, translucent, or opaque mix of mineral oil, paraffin wax, and carbon tetrachloride. The clear water or mineral oil can optionally be coloured with transparent dyes. Common wax has a density much lower than that of water and would float on top at any temperature. However, carbon tetrachloride is heavier than water (also nonflammable and miscible with wax) and is added to the wax to make its density at room temperature slightly higher than that of the water. When heated, the wax mixture becomes less dense than the water, because the wax expands more than water when both are heated. It also becomes fluid, and blobs of wax ascend to the top of the device where they cool (which increases their density relative to that of the water) and then they descend. A metallic wire coil in the base of the bottle acts as a surface tension breaker to recombine the cooled blobs of wax after they descend. However, lava lamps made for the US market since 1970 do not use carbon tetrachloride, because its use was banned that year due to toxicity. The manufacturer (Haggerty) stated that their current formulation is a trade secret. The underlying fluid mechanics phenomenon is a form of Rayleigh–Taylor instability. The bulb is normally 25 to 40 watts. Generally, it will take 45–60 minutes for the wax to warm up enough to form freely rising blobs, when operating the lamp at standard room temperature. It may take as long as 2 to 3 hours if the room is below standard room temperature. Once the wax is molten, the lamp should not be shaken or knocked over or the two fluids may emulsify, and the fluid surrounding the wax blobs will remain cloudy rather than clear. Some recombination will occur as part of the normal cycle of the wax in the container, but the only means to recombine all of the wax is to turn off the lamp and wait a few hours. The wax will settle back down at the bottom, forming one blob once again. Severe cases can require many heat-cool cycles to clear. In 2015, a new design was introduced into the market that uses ferrofluid in place of wax.", "British entrepreneur Edward Craven-Walker had the idea for the lava lamp in 1963 after watching a homemade egg timer, which was made from a cocktail shaker filled with liquids, as it was bubbling on a stove top in a pub. He hired British inventor David George Smith to develop the device and the chemical formula required put his idea into practice. Smith is credited as the inventor on the original for a \"Display Device\", that was filed and assigned to Craven-Walker's company in 1965, and subsequently issued in 1968. Craven-Walker's company was named Crestworth and was based in Poole, Dorset, in the United Kingdom. Craven-Walker named the lamp \"Astro\" and had variations such as the \"Astro Mini\" and the \"Astro Coach\" lantern. In 1965, two men named Adolph Wertheimer and Hy Spector were intrigued by Walker's product when they saw it at a German trade show. They bought the American rights and began the Lava Manufacturing Corporation in Chicago, Illinois to sell what they called the Lava Lite Lamp. In the late 1970s, the US rights were sold to Larry Haggerty, who created a subsidiary of his company, Haggerty Enterprises, called Lava World International, which produced American lava lamps for over 30 years. Craven-Walker retained the rights for the rest of the world, and took on two business partners in the late 1980s named Cressida Granger and David Mulley. Eventually Granger and Mulley took over the company and they changed the name to Mathmos in 1992. Edward Craven-Walker remained a consultant until his death in 2000. Mathmos continues to make Lava Lamps and related products. Mathmos won two Queens Awards for Export, as well as Best Multi-Media prize at the Design Week awards. Astro lava lamp was launched in 1963 and celebrated its 50th anniversary in 2013. Mathmos lava lamps are still made in the original factory in Poole, Dorset. In 2003, American lava lamp maker, Lava World International (formerly known as Lava-Simplex-Scribe Internationale), shipped production to China. In 2008, they were acquired by Talon Merchant Capital and the name was again changed to Lava Lite LLC. As of 2016, lava lamps were being sold under Lifespan brands in North America. In 2018, the 'Lava Lamp' brand was acquired by toy and gift maker Schylling Inc. of North Andover, MA." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Personal life.", "Career.", "Early career.", "Senior career.", "2001–2006.", "2006–2007 season.", "2007–2008 season.", "2008–2009 season.", "2009–2010 season.", "2010–2011 season.", "2011–2012 season.", "2012–2013 season.", "2013–2014 season.", "Post-competitive career.", "Skating technique.", "Coaching changes and training.", "Public life and endorsements.", "Competitive highlights." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Brian Joubert was born in Poitiers, Vienne to Raymonde and Jean-Michel Joubert. He has two older sisters, Sarah and Alexandra. He suffered a life-threatening illness at the age of 11 months, which led to the removal of one kidney. Joubert has been considered a heartthrob in his native country, France. This reputation has been contributed by media appearances after his first victory at the 2004 European Championships and silver medal at the World Championships and short relationship with former Miss France, Lætitia Bléger. He later brought a lawsuit against Bléger for 40,000 Euros for insinuating that he was homosexual and that their relationship was arranged to hide this. Bléger and two magazines that published her allegations were ordered by a French court to pay a total of 17,000 Euros, and to publish the court ruling in one of the two magazines. Joubert was later involved with Italian figure skater Valentina Marchei but the relationship ended by 2009. Joubert keeps many pets, which can be seen in television reports about his home life. He is also known as a motorcycle and car racing enthusiast. In March 2006, Joubert's biography, \"Brian Joubert: le Feu sur la Glace\" (Brian Joubert: the fire on ice), was published in French. A second book about him, entitled \"Brian Joubert sur papier glacé\" (Brian Joubert on paper ice), was published in February 2010.", "", "Brian Joubert began skating at the age of four, with his sisters. Although he originally hoped to play hockey, Joubert became fascinated with the jumping aspect of figure skating. Joubert took part in few international events as a junior. His first major international competition was the 2000 World Junior Championships, where he placed 15th. The following season, he placed 4th at both his junior Grand Prix assignments, and later finished 14th at senior nationals, and failed to qualify for the French team for 2001 Junior Worlds. The president of the French Ice Sports Federation, Didier Gailhaguet, entered Joubert in the 2001 Top Jump competition, where he placed second. Joubert turned senior following the 2000–2001 season.", "", "Joubert made his international senior debut at the 2001 Skate America, where he placed 9th. At French Nationals, he won the bronze medal, qualifying him for the 2002 European Championships. At the Europeans, Joubert surprised many by winning the bronze medal, which earned him a spot on the 2002 Olympic team. Joubert was the youngest athlete to represent France at the Salt Lake City games and finished 14th. He rose one spot to 13th at the 2002 World Championships the following month. Joubert improved upon his debut season in 2002–2003. Following the withdrawal of Alexei Yagudin from 2002 Skate America due to a hip injury, Joubert won the event; it was his first international title. Combined with a fifth-place finish at the 2002 Trophée Lalique, he qualified for his first Grand Prix of Figure Skating Final, where he won the bronze medal. Joubert also won the French national championships that season, the first of six consecutive titles. He was the silver medalist at the 2003 Europeans and placed 6th at the 2003 Worlds. In the 2003–2004 season, Joubert once again won a medal on the Grand Prix circuit. At the 2004 European Championships, he became the first Frenchman to win the event in 40 years and the first non-Russian to win the event since 1996. He won his first World medal, a silver, at that year's World Championships. The 2004–2005 season started well for Joubert; he won two Grand Prix medals and was the silver medalist at the 2005 European Championships, but dropped to 6th at the World Championships. Joubert fought back in 2005-2006, but had inconsistent results: he won two Grand Prix medals but did not qualify for the final, and won the bronze medal at the 2006 Europeans. Billed by the French media as a top medal contender for the Olympics, Joubert finished a disappointing sixth at the 2006 Winter Olympics. He had a better showing at the 2006 World Championships, winning the short program and finishing with a silver medal behind Stéphane Lambiel.", "Joubert won every event he entered in the 2006–2007 season, including his two Grand Prix assignments, the Trophée Eric Bompard and the Cup of Russia, as well as the Grand Prix Final in Saint Petersburg. He then reclaimed his European title at the 2007 European Championships in Warsaw. Joubert was injured while training in February 2007: the blade of his left skate slashed into his right foot during a triple lutz, an injury that required stitches to his tendon. He returned to the ice only a few days later but the injury did not fully heal until a few days prior to the 2007 World Championships, and he was unable to properly train lutzes and flips. Despite this setback, Joubert skated well enough in Tokyo to earn his first World title. He finished 3rd in the long program, but had built up enough of a lead in the short program to win overall, with a then-personal best score of 240.85. French daily evening newspaper Le Monde and French nationwide daily sports newspaper L'Équipe put him on the front page.", "Joubert began the 2007–2008 season at Skate Canada, which he won. He was forced to withdraw from the Trophée Eric Bompard, his second Grand Prix event, due to illness. Although he continued to suffer from fatigue for several weeks afterward, Joubert was able to win his sixth consecutive national title; at that point, he had won ten consecutive events over two seasons. At the 2008 European Championships in January 2008, Joubert earned the bronze medal despite a fall on the triple axel in the short program and mistakes in the long program. In March 2008, he competed at the 2008 World Championships, where he was sixth after the short program but rallied to win the silver medal behind Canadian Jeffrey Buttle.", "In the 2008–09 ISU Grand Prix season, Joubert finished 4th at the Trophée Eric Bompard, then won the Cup of Russia and qualified for the Grand Prix Final. He withdrew from the Final before the long program due to a back injury, and withdrew from the 2009 French Championships prior to the event. He replaced his first long program with a new one, the first time he had made such a change in the middle of a season. At the 2009 European Championships, Joubert scored a new personal best to take the lead after the short program, and finished second in the long program, with a total score high enough to win his third European title. At the 2009 World Championships, he led after the short program, but had problems on some of his jumps in the long program and finished third overall. He then made a coaching change prior to the season ending event, the inaugural World Team Trophy, where he finished second in the men's event; Team France finished 4th.", "In the 2009–10 ISU Grand Prix season, Joubert again had a disappointing fourth-place finish at the Trophée Eric Bompard, before winning the NHK Trophy for the first time in his career. The combined placements enabled him to qualify for the 2009–10 Grand Prix Final. However, he sustained a serious foot injury in practice in late November 2009. During a triple lutz attempt, his left blade sliced his right foot and cut to the bone – a similar injury to the one he had suffered in February 2007, but more serious than the previous time. Joubert required surgery to repair tendon and ligament damage, and consequently withdrew from the Grand Prix Final and from the French Championships in December. He was unable to resume normal training for several weeks. Joubert returned in time for the 2010 European championships, where he set a new personal best score for the short program but faltered in the free skate, finishing third overall. At the 2010 Winter Olympics, Joubert, considered by many to be a gold medal contender, skated poorly in the short program and wound up in 16th place at the end of the competition. \"It's another disappointment at the Olympic Games. These Games have beaten me\", Joubert told reporters. \"I just can't do it at the Olympic Games. Every time it goes badly. I don't understand why. I can't explain why.\" Forced to undergo a selection test in order to be sent to the World Championships, Joubert made an impressive recovery at that event. In the short program, he successfully landed a quad toe loop-triple toe loop combination and two additional triples, finishing third in that segment of the competition. He then landed two more quadruple toe loops in the free skate but made mistakes on some of his other jumps, finishing fourth in that segment and winning his fifth consecutive medal at Worlds, a bronze. Joubert later said that he was very proud of his performance; he added that he had been unsure whether he would be able to compete again and had achieved his main goal, which was to regain his confidence.", "Joubert's assigned events for the 2010–2011 ISU Grand Prix season were the 2010 Cup of China and the 2010 Trophée Eric Bompard. He once again began the season with a fourth-place finish at his first Grand Prix. Needing a win at the Trophée Eric Bompard to qualify for the Grand Prix final, Joubert had a difficult short program and withdrew prior to the long program because of gastroenteritis. Joubert recovered in time to compete at the French National Championships, and won his seventh national title. Only seventh after the short program, Joubert was first in the free skate to win the silver medal at the 2011 European Championships, with compatriot Florent Amodio taking gold. It was Joubert's tenth medal at the competition, equaling the record set by Ulrich Salchow and matched by Karl Schäfer for most medals by a singles skater at the Europeans; both Schäfer and Joubert won their medals consecutively. Joubert later said he feels less pressure with Amodio's emergence, \"It's good for me; [the media] are no longer focused on just me.\" Joubert injured his left knee during the season, and by the time of the 2011 Worlds, he was receiving injections in an attempt to manage the pain. A mistake on his quad jump, meant to be part of a jump combination, left Joubert in ninth place after the short program. In the free skating, Joubert cut his hand on his skate blade and required medical attention afterward, but skated well nonetheless to finish fourth in that segment, moving up one spot to eighth. Although it was the first time he had finished off the podium at Worlds since 2005, Joubert stated that he was very happy with his free skate, referring to it as the most emotional of his career. He added that it felt good to finish his season with such a performance. In a post-season interview, Joubert said that the 2010–11 season had not turned out as he had hoped, but that he still had a strong record throughout his career. He added that \"perhaps I was burned out after so many years. I was also worried about my left knee. I put pressure on my hips more and more to compensate for the pain I was feeling\". Following the season, Joubert consulted different specialists about his knee injury and was told he would be unlikely to fully recover his normal strength if he underwent surgery; he therefore decided on a strict diet and specific exercises to restore his musculature balance.", "At the beginning of the season, Joubert announced that he would continue working with coach Veronique Guyon and choreographer David Wilson. As part of his preparation for the season, he also spent three weeks beginning in mid-July in Luleå, Sweden at a summer camp headed by Alexei Urmanov, and then went to Toronto, Ontario, Canada to work with Wilson. Joubert intended to begin the 2011–12 season at the 2011 Nebelhorn Trophy, but withdrew prior to the event. His assignments for the 2011–12 Grand Prix season were the 2011 Cup of China and the 2011 Trophée Eric Bompard. He sustained a back injury in practice shortly before the Cup of China and consequently withdrew from that event as well as from the Trophée Eric Bompard. Although not fully healed, Joubert returned in time for the 2012 French National Championships and won his eighth national title. Joubert did not fare well at the 2012 European Figure Skating Championships and placed 8th, the first time he had failed to win a medal at the Europeans. His next event was the 2012 International Challenge Cup; he finished first in the free skating and overall, as well as receiving credit for two different quad jumps in the short program. At the 2012 Worlds, Joubert skated his best short program in two years and set a new personal best score in the free skating and overall to finish fourth. Joubert declared that skating at the World Championships in France was the highlight of his career and that he was very pleased with his performance and looking forward to the next season. Joubert's final event in the 2011-12 season was the 2012 World Team Trophy, where he competed as part of Team France and finished third in the men's event. At the end of the season, Joubert discussed his decision to use the older Matrix program: \"I knew that this wasn't a program to win or to achieve great results but it is a program I feel comfortable with and I needed it in order to take off next season.\" He added that \"With a program like The Matrix, you have a handicap of ten points from the outset compared to Patrick Chan. That means I am not allowed to make a technical mistake. If your components are good and you know that they can make up for an error on a jump, it is much easier psychologically.\"", "Joubert was assigned to the Cup of China and the Trophée Eric Bompard for the 2012–13 Grand Prix series. After placing 7th in the short program, he withdrew from the Cup of China due to abdominal pain and fever. Joubert returned to the ice in time to compete at the Trophee Eric Bompard, but stated that he was not fully prepared due to his illness. He went on to finish third in the short program and fourth overall. Joubert withdrew from the 2013 French National Championships on the day prior to the event as a result of the flu. In January 2013, it was reported that he had scrapped his free program and would instead skate to the Gladiator. At the 2013 Europeans, Joubert skated well in the short program to place third in that segment, but dropped to fourth overall after the free skate. He next competed at the 2013 Challenge Cup, where he successfully defended his title. He finished 9th at the 2013 World Championships.", "Joubert's assigned events for the 2013 Grand Prix season were Skate America and the 2013 Rostelecom Cup. Joubert returned to Poitiers and coach Veronique Guyon at the end of September 2013. He withdrew from the 2013 Master's de Patinage competition several days prior to the event, stating that he needed additional training time in order to prepare for the season. On 14 October Joubert was removed from the entry list for Skate America. Some reports indicated that this was a sanction for his withdrawal from the Masters competition, although the French ice skating federation claims that Joubert was withdrawn from the event due to illness. Joubert later withdrew from the Rostelecom Cup due to a back injury. He returned to competition at the 2013 NRW Trophy, where he finished second. At the 2014 French Nationals, Joubert finished second in the short program and first in the long program, winning silver overall. Joubert was 8th at the 2014 European Championships, finishing as the top Frenchman at the event. He competed at the 2014 Winter Olympics, his fourth time at the Olympics. The oldest competitor in the men's event, Joubert was 7th in the short program and 14th in the free skate, finishing 13th overall. He announced his retirement from competitive skating immediately following the free skate, and stated his intention to become a coach.", "In mid-May 2014, Joubert began learning pair skating in Caen with Daria Popova and coach Jean-François Ballester. For several days in June 2014, Joubert worked as a coach in Kazakhstan together with Denis Ten and Alexei Yagudin. From 7 July to 13 July, he trained in Moscow in partnership with Katarina Gerboldt and coach Oleg Vasiliev. His mother said it was a test and denied that he intended to compete for Russia. Joubert previously experienced back problems and said his condition would factor in his decision whether to compete in pairs. In November 2014, he confirmed his competitive retirement. In autumn 2014, he participated in the fifth season of TF1's \"Danse avec les Stars\", finishing third. Joubert is studying for a coaching diploma and intends to pursue a career as a skating coach. As part of his degree requirement, he intended to begin coaching in summer 2013 in Vaujany; however, due to travel problems he was unable to do so. Joubert coaches in Poitiers. He has worked with the following skaters:", "Joubert was considered a strong jumper during his competitive career. He landed the quadruple salchow jump in competition and had a consistent quadruple toe loop jump. In 2013, he became the first skater to land 100 quadruple jumps in international competition. At the 2006 Cup of Russia competition, Joubert landed three quadruple jumps in his free skate: two toe loops (one in combination) and a Salchow, the first skater to accomplish this under the IJS. Joubert has stated in interviews that he considers quadruple jumps to be important for the future of figure skating as a sport. Although the triple lutz was normally consistent for him in practice, he twice cut his right foot while picking in for the jump. According to the Japanese TV program \"Miracle Body\", Joubert's abdominal muscle is very strong, and he does not lose centrifugal force at the time of a turn. His muscular strength of the foot was compared to that of a track-and-field athlete who can run 100m in ten seconds. A sports science physician of the University of Poitiers said Joubert jumps at the best angle possible for quadruple jumps.", "Joubert kept his training base in Poitiers throughout his career, in order to remain close to his family. He trained for 15 years with Veronique Guyon, until she resigned from her position in the summer of 2003 to spend more time with her family. Joubert then started training with Laurent Depouilly, and took on Alexei Yagudin as an 'advisor'. Joubert later parted ways with Yagudin because of Yagudin's dislike for Nikolai Morozov, Joubert's choreographer at the time. Citing a lack of support from his coach, Joubert fired Depouilly and returned to Guyon for a brief period of time. However, Guyon's demands that Joubert stop working with his mother and that she should receive 10% of his prize money from the 2005–06 season caused their relationship to deteriorate, and they parted ways. Joubert switched to Andrei Berenzitsev until he stopped coaching; Joubert then briefly worked with Annick Dumont but they parted ways because she lived in Paris while he did not wish to leave Poitiers. In September 2006, he began working with Jean-Christophe Simond. Joubert left Simond following the 2009 Worlds, citing lack of trust. He returned to Laurent Depouilly in April 2009 and was coached by him until May 2010. Joubert later returned to his first coach, Veronique Guyon, and worked with Patrick Gueppe for part of the 2011-12 season. Following the 2012 World Championships, Joubert stated that he would train in different locations during the 2012–2013 season, because his home rink in Poitiers was to be torn down in order to build a new one by the 2013–2014 season. He was unable to get ice in nearby Niort. In September 2012, shortly before the Poitier rink's closure, Joubert relocated to Paris; he trained with Annick Dumont at Champigny-sur-Marne and remained in contact with Guyon. Joubert lived at the Institute of Physical Education (INSEP) and said that he might be able to return to the Poitiers rink at the end of June 2013. By January 2013, he had returned to Poitiers and was training in La Roche-sur-Yon. Later in the season, he trained with Katia Krier in Paris-Bercy. After it was announced that the Poitiers rink would reopen later than originally expected, Joubert decided to continue training with Katia Krier and Claude Péri in Paris in 2013–2014. However, the Poitiers rink renovation was ultimately ready in time for the season, and Joubert returned there in September to work with his longtime coach Veronique Guyon. In an April 2012 interview, Joubert said that he prefers to practice programs in parts: \"I like to train the programs in pieces over and over to know in order to really know them by heart. [...] Later, you have to combine both – skating a lot of pieces and skating the programs as a whole. Doing run-throughs all the time is something that I don't like and don't feel comfortable with.\"", "Joubert received the François Lafon Prize (Prize for young hope) 2003, the prize of the City of Paris 2007 from the French Academy of Sport. He also won the special prize of French Senate Trophy for Sports 2007. Joubert has sponsored an association for children with Williams syndrome, the assistance pet association Europe and others. He has also taken part in many local events of Poitiers city and Poitou-Charentes region. Joubert has toured primarily with the French show \"Stars Sur Glace (Stars on Ice)\" during the off-season in France, but has also performed in other countries, including Monaco, Italy, the United States, Russia, Japan and South Korea. Joubert has made many guest appearance on TV, including France 2's television gala \", figure skating world champion special\" (2 February 2008), \"Tous ensemble\" (the French version of, 12 February 2011) on TF1, the popular adventure game show \"Fort Boyard\" on France 2 in 2004, 2007, 2008 and 2012. He took on a starring role in the mini-series \"Brisons la Glace\" in 2012. Joubert has appeared in advertisements as a spokesperson for the French Olympic committee, his home city of Poitiers, and sponsor Damart, Risport Skate. His other former and current sponsors are the Eric Bompard company, MK, LPG Systems, Rossignol. He has also forged a partnership with French Alps ski resort Vaujany. In January 2014, he supported the socialist Alain Claeys in the Poitiers mayoral election.", "\"GP: Grand Prix; JGP: Junior Grand Prix\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Early work.", "The 1970s.", "Final years.", "Film work.", "Writing.", "Death and legacy.", "Film biopic.", "Exhibitions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Born in Paris, France, Gainsbourg was the son of Jewish Russian migrants, Joseph Ginsburg (28 December 1898, in Kharkov, Russian Empire now Ukraine—22 April 1971) and Olga (née Bessman; 1894 – 16 March 1985), who fled to Paris after the 1917 Russian Revolution. Joseph Ginsburg was a classically trained musician whose profession was playing the piano in cabarets and casinos; he taught his children—Gainsbourg and his twin sister Liliane—to play the piano. Gainsbourg's childhood was profoundly affected by the occupation of France by Germany during World War II. The identifying yellow star that Jews were required to wear haunted Gainsbourg; in later years he was able to transmute this memory into creative inspiration. During the occupation, the Jewish Ginsburg family was able to make their way from Paris to Limoges, traveling under false papers. Limoges was in the Zone libre under the administration of the collaborationist Vichy government and still a perilous refuge for Jews. After the war, Gainsbourg obtained work teaching music and drawing in a school outside of Paris, in Le Mesnil-le-Roi. The school was set up under the auspices of local rabbis, for the orphaned children of murdered deportees. Here Gainsbourg heard the accounts of Nazi persecution and genocide, stories that resonated for Gainsbourg far into the future. Before he was 30 years old, Gainsbourg was a disillusioned painter but earned his living as a piano player in bars. Gainsbourg changed his first name to Serge, feeling that this was representative of his Russian background and because, as Jane Birkin relates: \"Lucien reminded him of a hairdresser's assistant.\" He chose Gainsbourg as his last name, in homage to the English painter Thomas Gainsborough, whom he admired. He married Elisabeth \"Lize\" Levitsky on 3 November 1951 and divorced in 1957. He married a second time on 7 January 1964, to Françoise-Antoinette \"Béatrice\" Pancrazzi (b. 28 July 1931), with whom he had two children: a daughter named Natacha (b. 8 August 1964) and a son, Paul (born in spring 1968). He divorced Béatrice in February 1966. In late 1967 he had a brief but ardent love affair with Brigitte Bardot, to whom he dedicated the song and album \"Initials B.B.\". He initially composed the song \"Je t'aime... moi non plus\" as a duet with her, but Bardot, married at the time, pleaded with Gainsbourg not to release it. In mid-1968 Gainsbourg fell in love with the younger English singer and actress Jane Birkin, whom he met during the shooting of the film \"Slogan\". Their relationship lasted over a decade. In 1971 they had a daughter, the actress and singer Charlotte Gainsbourg. Although many sources state that they were married, according to their daughter Charlotte this was not the case. Birkin left Gainsbourg in 1980. Birkin remembers the beginning of her affair with Gainsbourg: he first took her to a nightclub, then to a transvestite club, and afterward to the Hilton hotel where he passed out in a drunken stupor. She left him when pregnant with her third daughter Lou by the film director Jacques Doillon. His last official partner was Bambou. In 1986, they had a son, Lucien, known as Lulu. In 2010, Lise Lévitzky published a book called \"Lise et Lulu\" which raises the possibility of Gainsbourg being bisexual. In 2017, Constance Meyer published a book called La jeune fille et Gainsbourg, in which she reveals that she had a love affair with the musician during his last years, which began in 1985 when, then aged 16, she sent him a love letter.", "His early songs were influenced by Boris Vian and were largely in the vein of old-fashioned \"chanson\". Around 1958 he backed the Parisian \"Cabaret Milord l'Arsouille\" star, singer Michèle Arnaud. She discovered a shy songwriter, who considered his compositions too modern and provocative for mainstream \"chanson\". Arnaud offered to sing and even record such songs, and propelled his early career. Later, Gainsbourg began to move beyond this and experiment with a succession of musical styles: modern jazz early on, yé-yé pop in the 1960s, then funk, rock and reggae in the 1970s and electronica in the 1980s. Many of his songs contained themes with a bizarre, morbid or sexual twist in them. An early success, \"Le Poinçonneur des Lilas\", describes the day in the life of a Paris Métro ticket man, whose job is to stamp holes in passengers' tickets. Gainsbourg describes this chore as so monotonous, that the man eventually thinks of putting a hole into his own head and being buried in another. By the time the yéyés emerged in France, Gainsbourg was 32 years old and was not feeling very comfortable: he spent much time with Jacques Brel or Juliette Gréco but the public and critics rejected him, mocking his prominent ears and nose. During this period, Gainsbourg began working with Gréco, a collaboration that lasted throughout the 'Left Bank' period culminating in the song \"La Javanaise\" in the fall of 1962. He performed a few duets in 1964 with the artist Philippe Clay, with whom he shared some resemblance. Around this time, Gainsbourg met Elek Bacsik, who pleased Gainsbourg, despite knowing that such a sound would not allow him access to success. The album \"Gainsbourg Confidentiel\" sold only 1,500 copies. The decision was taken right upon leaving the studio: \"I'll get into hack work and buy myself a Rolls\". Still, his next album, \"Gainsbourg Percussions\", inspired by the rhythms and melodies of Miriam Makeba and Babatunde Olatunji, was a world away from the yéyé wave, on the scene which was to become a key to the Gainsbourg fortune. More success began to arrive when, in 1965, his song \"Poupée de cire, poupée de son\" was the Luxembourg entry in the Eurovision Song Contest. Performed by French teen and charming singer France Gall, it won first prize. The song was recorded in English as \"A Lonely Singing Doll\" by British teen idol Twinkle. His next song for Gall, \"Les Sucettes\" (\"Lollipops\"), caused a scandal in France: Gainsbourg had written the song with double meanings and strong sexual innuendo, of which the singer was apparently unaware when she recorded it. Whereas Gall thought that the song was about a girl enjoying lollipops, it was actually about oral sex. The controversy arising from the song, although a big hit for Gall, threw her career off-track in France for several years. Gainsbourg arranged other Gall songs and LPs that were characteristic of the late 1960s psychedelic styles, among them her \"1968\" album. Another Gainsbourg song, \"Boum Bada Boum\", was entered by Monaco in the 1967 contest, sung by Minouche Barelli; it came fifth. He also wrote hit songs for other artists, such as Françoise Hardy (\"Comment te dire adieu\", based on a complex scheme of rare rhymes), Anna Karina (\"Sous le soleil exactement\", \"Ne dis rien\"), and his lifelong friend and \"muse-égérie\", Michèle Arnaud (\"Les Papillons Noirs\"). In 1967, Gainsbourg appeared as a dancer along with Jean Yanne and Sacha Distel in the Sacha Show with Marie Laforet singing \"Ivan, Boris & Moi\". His relationship with Brigitte Bardot led to a series of prominent pop duets, such as \"Ford Mustang\" and \"Bonnie and Clyde\". In 1969, he released \"Je t'aime... moi non-plus\", which featured explicit lyrics and simulated sounds of female orgasm. The song appeared that year on an LP, \"Jane Birkin/Serge Gainsbourg\". Originally recorded with Brigitte Bardot, it was released with his future girlfriend Birkin when Bardot backed out. While Gainsbourg declared it the \"ultimate love song\", it was considered too \"hot\"; the song was censored or banned from public broadcast in numerous countries and in France even the toned-down version was suppressed. The Vatican made a public statement citing the song as offensive. Despite (or perhaps because of) the controversy, it sold well and charted within the top ten in many European countries.", "\"Histoire de Melody Nelson\" was released in 1971. This concept album, produced and arranged by Jean-Claude Vannier, tells the story of a Lolita-esque affair, with Gainsbourg as the narrator. It features prominent string arrangements and even a massed choir at its tragic climax. The album has proven influential with artists such as Air, David Holmes, Jarvis Cocker, Beck and Dan the Automator. He had a heart attack in May 1973, but refused to cut back on smoking and drinking. In 1975, he released the album \"Rock Around the Bunker\", an album written entirely on the subject of National Socialism. Gainsbourg used black comedy, as he and his family had suffered during World War II, being forced to wear the yellow star as the mark of a Jew. \"Rock Around the Bunker\" belonged to the mid-1970s \"retro\" trend. The next year saw the release of another major work, \"L'Homme à tête de chou\" (Cabbage-Head Man), featuring the new character Marilou and sumptuous orchestral themes. Cabbage-Head Man is one of his nicknames, as it refers to his ears. Musically, \"L'homme à tête de chou\" turned out to be Gainsbourg's last LP in the English rock style he had favoured since the late 1960s. He would go on to produce two reggae albums recorded in Jamaica (1979 and 1981) and two electronic funk albums recorded in New York (1984 and 1987). In Jamaica in 1979, he recorded \"Aux Armes et cætera\", a reggae version of the French national anthem \"La Marseillaise\", with Robbie Shakespeare, Sly Dunbar and Rita Marley. Following harsh and anti-semitic criticism in right-wing newspaper \"Le Figaro\" by Charles de Gaulle biographer Michel Droit, his song earned him death threats from right-wing veteran soldiers of the Algerian War of Independence, who were opposed to their national anthem being arranged in reggae style. In 1979, a show had to be cancelled, because an angry mob of French Army parachutists came to demonstrate in the audience. Alone onstage, Gainsbourg raised his fist and answered: \"The true meaning of our national anthem is revolutionary\" and sang it \"a capella\" with the audience. The soldiers joined them, a scene enjoyed by millions as French TV news broadcast it, creating more publicity. Shortly afterward, Gainsbourg purchased the original manuscript of \"La Marseillaise\". He replied to his critics that his version was closer to the original as the manuscript actually features the words \"Aux armes et cætera...\" for the chorus. This album, described by legendary drummer Sly Dunbar as \"Perhaps the best record he ever played on\", was his biggest commercial success, including major hits \"Lola Rastaquouère\", \"Aux armes et cætera\" and a French version of Sam Theard's jazz classic \"You Rascal You\" entitled \"Vieille canaille\". Rita Marley and the I-Three would record another controversial reggae album with him in 1981, \"Mauvaises nouvelles des étoiles\". Bob Marley was furious, when he discovered that Gainsbourg made his wife Rita sing erotic lyrics. Posthumous new mixes, including dub versions by Soljie Hamilton and versions of both albums by Jamaican artists, were released as double \"Dub Style\" albums in 2003, to critical praise in France as well as abroad and to international commercial success. Although belatedly, \"Aux Armes Et Cætera – Dub Style\" and \"Mauvaises Nouvelles Des Étoiles – Dub Style\" further established Gainsbourg, posthumously, as an influential icon in European pop music.", "In 1982, Gainsbourg wrote an album for French rocker Alain Bashung, \"Play blessures\". The album, although now considered a masterpiece by French critics, was a commercial failure. After a turbulent 13-year relationship, Jane Birkin left Gainsbourg. He still went on to write and produce three more albums for her: \"Baby Alone in Babylone\" (1983), \"Lost Song\" (1987), \"Amour des feintes\" (1990), with many songs being about their relationship (including \"Fuir le bonheur de peur qu'il ne se sauve\", which would be read by Catherine Deneuve during Gainsbourg funerals in 1991). In the 1980s, near the end of his life, Gainsbourg became a regular figure on French TV. His appearances were increasingly devoted to his controversial sense of humour and provocation. In March 1984, he burned three-quarters of a 500-French-franc bill on television to protest against taxes rising up to 74% of income. He would show up drunk and unshaven on stage: in April 1986, on Michel Drucker's live Saturday evening television show \"Champs-Élysées\", with the American singer Whitney Houston, he objected to Drucker's translating his comments to Whitney Houston and in English stated: \"I said, I want to fuck her\"—Drucker, utterly embarrassed, insisted that this meant \"He says you are great...\" That same year, in another talk show interview, he appeared alongside Catherine Ringer, the well-known singer from Les Rita Mitsouko who had appeared in pornographic films. Gainsbourg spat out at her, \"You're nothing but a filthy whore\". For many in France, this incident was the last straw, and much of his later work was overlooked since it was often done and performed while he was inebriated. After Gainsbourg's passing, Eddy Mitchell reported that their duet of \"You Rascal You\" had far fewer sales than would have normally been expected because of this. Michel Drucker, also, reported that he had a difficult time apologizing to Whitney Houston. After that particular incident, Gainsbourg was never again really \"clean\" in public, almost always having a drink in his hand and a lit cigarette between his lips, thus disgusting many with his behavior and demeanor in all he said and did. Famous humorist Pierre Desproges, who commented the incident with Catherine Ringer, said that he had admired Gainsbourg \"when he was alive\" (meaning to say that he was currently as good as dead), and that he was \"the only genius looking like a garbage can\" (\"le seul génie qui ressemble à une poubelle\"). His songs became increasingly eccentric during this period, ranging from the anti-drug \"Aux Enfants de la Chance\", to the highly controversial duet with his daughter Charlotte named \"Lemon Incest\". This translates as \"\"Inceste de citron\"\", a wordplay on \"\"un zeste de citron\"\" (a lemon zest). The title demonstrates Gainsbourg's love for silly and sometimes outrageous puns – another example of which is \"Beau oui comme Bowie\", a song he gave to Isabelle Adjani. Yet he continued to produce albums and songs for women—typically women with a frail voice—some of them highly successful, like the aforementioned \"Baby Alone in Babylone\" (1983) and \"Amour des feintes\" (1987) for Jane Birkin, \"Variations sur le même t'aime\" (1990) for Vanessa Paradis, \"Pull marine\" (1983) for Isabelle Adjani, \"White and Black Blues\" for Joëlle Ursull (which came second at the 1990 Eurovision). In December 1988, while a judge at a film festival in Val d'Isère, he was extremely intoxicated at a local theatre where he was to do a presentation. While on stage he began to tell an obscene story about Brigitte Bardot and a champagne bottle, only to stagger offstage and collapse in a nearby seat. Subsequent years saw his health deteriorate. He had to undergo liver surgery but denied any connection to cancer or cirrhosis. His appearances and releases became sparser as he had to rest and recover in Vezelay. During these final years, he released \"Love on the Beat\", a controversial electronic album with mostly sexual themes (examplified by the titular song, for which he sampled actual sexual screams from Bambou), and his last studio album, \"You're Under Arrest\", which presented more synth-driven songs, as well as two live albums.", "Gainsbourg appeared in nearly 50 film and television roles. In 1960, he co-starred with Rhonda Fleming in the Italian film \"La rivolta degli schiavi\" (\"The Revolt of the Slaves\") as Corvino, the Roman Emperor Massimiano's evil henchman. In 1968 he wrote music for and appeared as himself in \"Le Pacha\" directed by Georges Lautner. In 1969, he appeared in William Klein's pop art satire \"Mr. Freedom\", and in the same year he co-starred alongside Jane Birkin in \"The Pleasure Pit\" as well as in \"Slogan\", for which he wrote the title song \"La Chanson de Slogan\". Also with Birkin, he acted in the French-Yugoslav film \"\" (\"19 girls and one sailor\") where he played a role of a partisan. They acted together again in \"Cannabis\" the following year, and again in \"Seven Deaths in the Cat's Eye\" in 1973. He also made a brief appearance with Birkin in Herbert Vesely's 1980 film \"Egon Schiele – Exzess und Bestrafung\". Gainsbourg wrote and directed four feature films: \"Je t'aime moi non plus\", \"Équateur\", \"Charlotte for Ever\", and \"Stan the Flasher.\" He also made a short film, \"Le Physique et le Figuré\", and co-wrote the first color film made for French television \"Anna.\" He directed a few music videos, including the controversial \"Morgane de toi\" for his friend Renaud Seychan, featuring a group of naked children running on a beach. Throughout his career, Gainsbourg wrote the soundtracks for nearly 60 films and television programs. In 1996, he received a posthumous César Award for Best Music Written for a Film for \"Élisa\", along with Zbigniew Preisner and Michel Colombier.", "Gainsbourg wrote a short novel entitled \"Evguénie Sokolov\", a first person narrative where the titular protagonist recounts how he became a famous \"avant-garde\" painter by exploiting his uncontrollable and violent farts, generating the trademark shaky graphic style of his works which he calls \"gazogrammes\".", "Gainsbourg, who smoked five packs of unfiltered Gitane cigarettes a day, died on 2 March 1991 of a heart attack, a month shy of his 63rd birthday. He was buried in the Jewish section of the Montparnasse Cemetery in Paris. French President François Mitterrand said of him, \"He was our Baudelaire, our Apollinaire... He elevated the song to the level of art.\" Since his death, Gainsbourg's music has reached legendary stature in France. He has also gained a following in the English-speaking world, with numerous artists influenced by his arrangements. One of the most frequent interpreters of Gainsbourg's songs was British singer Petula Clark, whose success in France was propelled by her recordings of his tunes. In 2003, she wrote and recorded \"La Chanson de Gainsbourg\" as a tribute to the composer of some of her biggest hits. The majority of Gainsbourg's lyrics are collected in the volume \"Dernières nouvelles des étoiles\". The Parisian house in which Gainsbourg lived from 1969 until 1991, at 5 bis Rue de Verneuil, remains a celebrated shrine, with his ashtrays and collections of various items, such as police badges and bullets, intact. The outside of the house is covered in graffiti dedicated to Gainsbourg, as well as with photographs of significant figures in his life, including Bardot and Birkin.", "Comics artist Joann Sfar wrote and directed a feature film titled \"Gainsbourg (Vie héroïque)\", which was released in France in 2010. Gainsbourg is portrayed by Eric Elmosnino and Kacey Mottet Klein. The film won three César Awards, including Best Actor for Elmosnino, and nominated for an additional eight.", "In 2008, Paris' Cité de la Musique held the \"Gainsbourg 2008\" exhibition, curated by sound artist Frédéric Sanchez." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Dakota natives, city founded.", "Waterpower; lumber and flour milling.", "Corruption, bigotry, social movements, urban renewal.", "Geography and climate.", "Climate.", "Demographics.", "Economy.", "Culture.", "Visual arts.", "Theater and performing arts.", "Music.", "Literature.", "Charity.", "Cuisine.", "Sports.", "Parks and recreation.", "Government.", "Education.", "Primary and secondary education.", "Colleges and universities.", "Libraries.", "Media.", "Infrastructure.", "Transportation.", "Health and utilities.", "Twin towns – sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The Dakota name for Minneapolis is Bdeóta Othúŋwe (Many Lakes City). Several names were proposed for the new city after its incorporation, including Lowell, Adasville, and Albion, with the latter name suggested by Hennepin County itself. Daniel Payne, John H. Stevens, and George Bowman contributed to replacing Albion. While the", "", "The Dakota Sioux were the region's sole residents when French explorers arrived in 1680. Gradually, more European-American settlers arrived, competing for game and other resources with the Native Americans. By the Treaty of Paris following the Revolutionary War, British land east of the Mississippi River became part of the United States. In the early 19th century, the United States acquired land to the west of the river from France in the Louisiana Purchase. Fort Snelling was built in 1819 by the U.S. Army at the southern edge of present-day Minneapolis and also bordering Saint Paul as the U.S. military's most remote outpost, to direct Indian trade away from the French", "Minneapolis developed around Saint Anthony Falls, the highest waterfall on the Mississippi River and a source of power for its early industry. Forests in northern Minnesota were a valuable resource for the lumber industry, which operated seventeen sawmills on power from the waterfall. By 1871, the west river bank had twenty-three businesses, including flour mills, woolen mills, iron works, a railroad machine shop, and mills for cotton, paper, sashes, and planing wood. Due to the occupational hazards of milling, six local sources of artificial limbs were competing in the prosthetics business by the 1890s. The farmers of the Great Plains grew grain that was shipped by rail to the city's 34 flour mills. Millers have used hydropower elsewhere since the 1st century B.C., but the results in Minneapolis between 1880 and 1930 were so remarkable the city has been described as \"the greatest direct-drive waterpower center the world has ever seen.\" A father of modern milling in America and founder of what became General Mills, Cadwallader C. Washburn converted his business from gristmills to truly revolutionary", "Known initially as a kindly physician, Doc Ames led the city into corruption during four terms as mayor just before 1900. The gangster Kid Cann was famous for bribery and intimidation during the 1930s and 1940s. The city made dramatic changes to rectify discrimination as early as 1886 when Martha Ripley founded Maternity Hospital for both married and unmarried mothers. Different forms of bigotry played roles during the first half of the 20th century. In 1910, a Minneapolis developer started writing restrictive covenants based on race and ethnicity into his deeds. Copied by other developers, the practice prevented minorities from owning or leasing such properties. Though such language was prohibited by state law in 1953 and by the federal Fair Housing Act of 1968, restrictive covenants against minorities remained in many Minneapolis deeds as recently as 2017. The Ku Klux Klan succeeded by entering family life, but effectively was a force in the city only from 1921 until 1923. After Minnesota passed a eugenics law in 1925, the proprietors of Eitel Hospital sterilized about one thousand people at the Faribault State", "The history and economic growth of Minneapolis are tied to water, the city's defining physical characteristic, which was brought to the region during the last ice age 10,000 years ago. Ice blocks deposited in valleys by retreating glaciers created the lakes of Minneapolis. Fed by a receding glacier and Lake Agassiz, torrents of water from a glacial river cut the Mississippi riverbed and created the river's only waterfall, Saint Anthony Falls, important to the early settlers of Minneapolis. Lying on an artesian aquifer and flat terrain, Minneapolis has a total area of and of this 6% is water. Water supply is managed by four watershed districts that correspond to the Mississippi and the city's three creeks. Twelve lakes, three large ponds, and five unnamed wetlands are within Minneapolis. Battered by logs in the river and reduced by quarrying of its limestone, Spirit Island at one time marked the river at Saint Anthony Falls, until white settlement erased its Dakota tradition. The United States Army Corps of Engineers removed the island from the river in 1960. The city center is located at 45° N latitude. The city's lowest elevation of is near where Minnehaha Creek meets the Mississippi River. The site of the Prospect Park Water Tower is often cited as the city's highest point and a placard in Deming Heights Park denotes the highest elevation. A spot at in or near Waite Park in Northeast Minneapolis, however, is corroborated by Google Earth as the highest ground.", "Minneapolis experiences a hot-summer humid continental climate (\"Dfa\" in the Köppen climate classification), typical of southern parts of the Upper Midwest, and is situated in USDA plant hardiness zone 4b, with small enclaves of the city classified as being zone 5a. The city features very cold, snowy winters and humid, warm to hot summers. As is typical in a continental climate,", "As of the 2010 U.S. census, the racial composition was as follows: European Americans make up about three-fifths of Minneapolis's population. This community is predominantly of German and Scandinavian descent. There are 82,870 German Americans in the city, making up over one-fifth (23.1%) of the population. The Scandinavian-American population is primarily Norwegian and Swedish. There are 39,103 Norwegian Americans, making up 10.9% of the population; there are 30,349 Swedish Americans, making up 8.5% of the city's population. Danish Americans are not nearly as numerous as there are 4,434 of them, making up only 1.3% of the population. Norwegian, Swedish, and Danish Americans together make up 20.7% of the population. This means that ethnic Germans and Scandinavians together make up 43.8% of Minneapolis's population, and make up the majority of Minneapolis's non-Hispanic white population. Other significant European groups in the city include those of Irish (11.3%), English (7.0%), Polish (3.9%), French (3.5%) and Italian (2.3%) descent. African Americans make up 18.6% of the city's population, with a large fraction hailing from Rust Belt cities such as Chicago and Gary, Indiana over the past three decades. There are 10,711 individuals who identify as multiracial in Minneapolis: People of black and white ancestry number at 3,551, and make up 1.0% of the population. People of white and Native American ancestry number at 2,319, and make up 0.6% of the population. Those of white and Asian ancestry number at 1,871, and make up 0.5% of the population. Lastly, people of black and Native American ancestry number at 885, and make up 0.2% of Minneapolis's population. As early as the 16th century, Dakota tribes, mostly the Mdewakanton, were known as permanent settlers near their sacred site of St. Anthony Falls. New settlers arrived during the 1850s and 1860s in Minneapolis from New England, New York, Bohemia (now the Czech Republic) and Canada, and, during the mid-1860s, immigrants from Finland, Sweden, Norway and Denmark began to call the city home. Migrant workers from Mexico and Latin America also interspersed. Other immigrants came from Germany, Poland, Italy, and Greece. Many Central European immigrants settled in the Northeast neighborhood of the city, which to this day remains diverse and is known for its Czech (see Czech Americans) and Polish cultural heritage. Jews from Central and Eastern Europe, and Russia began arriving in the 1880s and settled primarily on the north side of the city before moving in large numbers to the western suburbs in the 1950s and 1960s. Asians came from China, the Philippines, Japan, and Korea. Two groups came for a short while during U.S. government relocations: Japanese during the 1940s, and Native Americans during the 1950s. From 1970 onward, Asians arrived from Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and Thailand. Beginning in the 1990s, a sizable Latino population arrived, along with immigrants from the Horn of Africa, especially Somalia. Like other major cities, the metropolitan area has been an immigrant gateway that had a 127% increase in foreign-born residents between 1990 and 2000. The U.S. Census Bureau estimates the population of Minneapolis to be 422,331 as of 2017, a 10.4% increase since the 2010 census. The population grew until 1950, when the census peaked at 521,718, and then declined until about 1990 as people moved to the suburbs. Among U.S. cities as of 2006, Minneapolis has the fourth-highest percentage of gay, lesbian, or bisexual people in the adult population, with 12.5% (behind San Francisco, and slightly behind both Seattle and Atlanta). In 2012, \"The Advocate\" named Minneapolis the seventh gayest city in America. In 2013, the city was among 25 U.S. cities to receive the highest possible score from the Human Rights Campaign, signifying its support for LGBT residents. Racial and ethnic minorities in the city lag behind white counterparts in education, with 15.0% of blacks and 13.0% of Hispanics holding bachelor's degrees compared to 42.0% of the white population. The standard of living is on the rise, with incomes among the highest in the Midwest, but median household income among minorities is below that of whites by over $17,000. Regionally, home ownership among minority residents is half that of whites, though Asian home ownership has doubled. In 2000, the poverty rate for whites was 4.2%; for blacks it was 26.2%; for Asians, 19.1%; Native Americans, 23.2%; and Hispanics, 18.1%. In December 2018, the Minneapolis City Council voted to end single-family zoning citywide. At the time, 70% of residential land was zoned for detached single-family homes. \"The New York Times\" explains that the United States, as a whole, is suffering from an acute shortage of affordable places to live, particularly in urban areas where economic opportunity is concentrated, leading to rising homelessness rates and housing prices. Studies have found that single-family neighborhoods exacerbates the problem of the rising cost of housing by limiting the supply of available units. Many Minneapolis blocks today date to before the 1920s, with duplexes or small apartment buildings next to single-family homes. For years, those older buildings were considered \"nonconforming\" to the cities' ordinances. Under Minneapolis's new plan, that distinction will end as townhomes, duplexes and apartments will become the preferred norm. Therefore, most improvements of these ideas are not new, but rather retroactively undoing typical notions and policies set in the past. \"Slate Magazine\" explained that single-family home zoning was devised as a legal way to keep black Americans and other minorities from moving into certain neighborhoods, and it still functions as an effective barrier today. Thus, zoning was used as an indirect way to enact residential racial segregation. Further, \"Politico Magazine\" explains that single-family-only neighborhoods, which were common of city and suburban planning for years, and have been components of the American dream: streets lined with stand-alone houses, green lawns and plenty of room. Minneapolis' new plan would reshape the urban streetscape around walking and mass transit. Minneapolis's approach has been to upzone every single-family neighborhood at once. In addition to cost, single-family neighborhoods constrain the economic potential of cities by limiting growth and contributes to climate change, by necessitating sprawl and long commutes. Increasing housing density, which can be measured as the number of dwelling units per acre of residential area, not including streets, open space, or other non-residential space, can be a way that cities can become more environmentally sustainable.", "The Minneapolis–St. Paul area is the third largest economic center in the Midwest, behind Chicago and Detroit. During the city's formative years, millers had to pay cash for wheat during the growing season and then hold it until it was needed for flour. This required large amounts of capital, which stimulated the local banking industry and made Minneapolis a major financial center. The economy of Minneapolis today is based in commerce, finance, rail and trucking services, health care, and industry. Smaller components are in publishing, milling, food processing, graphic arts, insurance, education, and high technology. Industry produces metal and automotive products, chemical and agricultural products, electronics, computers, precision medical instruments and devices, plastics, and machinery. The city at one time produced farm implements. The Twin Cities metropolitan area has the fifth highest concentration of major corporate headquarters in the country, with five Fortune 500 corporations headquartered within the city limits of Minneapolis: Target, U.S. Bancorp, Xcel Energy, Ameriprise Financial and Thrivent Financial. As of 2015, the city's", "Minneapolis's cultural organizations draw creative people and audiences to the city for theater, visual art, writing and music. The community's diverse population also continues to manage a long tradition of charitable support through progressive public social programs, VOLAGs and volunteering, as well as through private and corporate philanthropy.", "The Walker Art Center, one of the five largest modern art museums in the U.S., sits atop Lowry Hill, near the downtown area. The size of the center was doubled with an addition in 2005 by Herzog & de Meuron, and expanded with the conversion of a park designed by Michel Desvigne, located across the street from the Minneapolis Sculpture Garden. Known as Mia since its 100th anniversary, the Minneapolis Institute of Art, designed by McKim, Mead & White in 1915 in south central Minneapolis, is the largest art museum in the city, with 100,000 pieces in its permanent collection.", "Minneapolis has been a cultural center for theatrical performances since the mid 1800s. Early theaters included the Pence Opera House, the Academy of Music, the Grand Opera House, the Lyceum, and later the Metropolitan Opera House, which opened in 1894. The city is second only to New York City in terms of the number of theater companies per capita and is the third-largest theater market in the United States. Theater companies and troupes such as the Illusion, Jungle, Mixed Blood, Penumbra, Mu Performing Arts, Bedlam Theatre, Blackout Improv, HUGE Improv Theater, the Brave New Workshop, the Minnesota Dance Theatre, Red Eye Theater, Skewed", "The Minnesota Orchestra plays classical and popular music at the city's Orchestra Hall under music director Osmo Vänskä—a critic writing for \"The New Yorker\" in 2010 described it as \"the greatest orchestra in the world.\" The orchestra was nominated in 2013 for its recording of \"Sibelius: Symphonies Nos. 2 & 5,\" and it won a Grammy Award in 2014 for \"Sibelius: Symphonies Nos 1 & 4.\" Vänskä departed in 2013 when a labor dispute remained unresolved, which forced the cancellation of concerts scheduled for Carnegie Hall. After a 15-month lockout, a contract settlement resulted in the return of the performers, including Vänskä, to Orchestra Hall in January 2014. According to \"DownBeat\", for 25 years the Dakota Jazz Club has been one of the world's best jazz venues. Newer on the scene, Crooners in northeast Minneapolis also won world's best in 2020. Singer and multi-instrumentalist Prince was born in Minneapolis and lived in the area most of his life. After Jimmy Jam and his 11-piece Mind & Matter broke through discrimination that had", "Minneapolis is the third-most literate city in the U.S. and hosted the founding of Open Book, the largest literary and book arts center in the country. The Center consists of the Loft Literary Center, the", "Philanthropy and charitable giving are part of the community. More than 40% of adults in the Minneapolis–Saint Paul area give time to volunteer work, the highest percentage of any large metropolitan area in the United States. The metropolitan area gives 13% of its total charitable donations to the arts and culture. The majority of the estimated $1 billion recent expansion of", "West Broadway Avenue was a cultural center during the early 20th century but by the 1950s, flight to the suburbs began, and streetcars closed down. One of the largest urban food deserts in the United States was in North Minneapolis, where, as of mid-2017, 70,000 people had only two grocery stores. Wirth Co-op since opened in 2017 but closed within a year. North Market opened in 2017. As of 2019, Minneapolis-based chefs have won James Beard Foundation Awards: Ann", "Minneapolis is home to four professional sports teams. The Minnesota Timberwolves brought NBA basketball back to Minneapolis in 1989, followed by the Minnesota Lynx in 1999. Both basketball teams play in the Target Center. In recent years, the Lynx have been the most successful sports team in the city and a dominant force in the WNBA, reaching the WNBA Finals in 2011, 2012, 2013, 2015, 2016, and 2017 and winning in 2011, 2013, 2015 and 2017. The Minnesota Vikings football team and the Minnesota Twins baseball team have played in the state since 1961. The Vikings were an NFL expansion team, and the Twins were formed when the Washington Senators relocated to Minnesota. The Twins have won 11 division titles (1969, 1970, 1987, 1991, 2002–04, 2006, 2009, 2010, and 2019), three American League Pennants (1965, 1987 and 1991) and the World Series in 1987 and 1991. The Twins have played at Target Field since 2010. The Vikings played in the Super Bowl following the 1969, 1973, 1974, and 1976 seasons (Super Bowl IV, Super Bowl VIII, Super Bowl IX and Super Bowl XI, respectively), losing all four games. The Minnesota Wild of the NHL play in St. Paul at the Xcel Energy Center. The MLS soccer team Minnesota United FC played the 2017 and 2018 seasons at the University of Minnesota's TCF Bank Stadium, and relocated to Allianz Field in St. Paul. Other professional teams have played in Minneapolis in the past: First playing in 1884, the Minneapolis Millers baseball team produced the best won-lost record in their league at the time and contributed fifteen players to the Baseball Hall of Fame. During the 1920s, Minneapolis was home to the NFL", "The Minneapolis park system has been called the best-designed, best-financed, and best-maintained in America. The parks are governed and operated by the Minneapolis Park and Recreation Board, an independent park district. Foresight, donations and effort by community leaders enabled Horace Cleveland to create his finest landscape architecture, preserving geographical landmarks and linking them with boulevards and parkways. The city's Chain of Lakes, consisting of seven lakes and Minnehaha Creek, is connected by bike, running, and walking paths and used for swimming, fishing, picnics, boating, and ice skating. A parkway for cars, a bikeway for riders, and a walkway for pedestrians runs parallel along the route of the Grand Rounds National Scenic Byway. Theodore Wirth is credited with the development of the parks system. His goal was to establish a park within walking distance of every child in the city. Today, 16.6% of the city is parks and there are of parkland for each resident, ranked in 2008 as the most parkland per resident within cities of similar population densities. In its 2019 ParkScore ranking, the Trust for Public Land reported that Minneapolis had the No. 3 best park system among the 100 most populous U.S. cities. Parks", "Minneapolis is a stronghold for the Minnesota Democratic–Farmer–Labor Party (DFL), an affiliate of the Democratic Party. The Minneapolis City Council holds the most power and represents the city's thirteen districts called wards. The city adopted instant-runoff voting in 2006, first using it in the 2009 elections. The council has 12 DFL members and one from the Green Party. Election issues in 2013 included funding for a new Vikings stadium over which some incumbents lost their positions. That year, Minneapolis elected Abdi Warsame, Alondra Cano, and Blong Yang, the city's first Somali-American, Mexican-American, and Hmong-American city councilpeople, respectively. Jacob Frey of the DFL is the current mayor of Minneapolis. The office of mayor is relatively weak but has some power to appoint individuals such as the chief of police. Parks, taxation, and public housing are semi-independent boards and levy their own taxes and fees subject to Board of Estimate and Taxation limits. Lisa Bender is the current president of the City Council. In 2018, the city council passed the Minneapolis Comprehensive 2040 Plan and submitted it for Metropolitan Council approval. Watched nationally, the plan rezones predominantly single-family residential neighborhoods for triplexes to increase affordable housing, seeks to reduce the effects of climate change, and tries to rectify some of the city's racial disparities. After the Metropolitan Council approved the plan, in November 2019 the city council voted unanimously to allow duplexes and triplexes citywide. The Brookings Institution called it \"a relatively rare example of success for the YIMBY agenda\" and \"the most wonderful plan of the year.\" At the federal level, Minneapolis proper sits within Minnesota's 5th congressional district, which has been represented since 2018 by Democrat Ilhan Omar, one of the first two practicing Muslim women and the first Somali-American in Congress. Both of Minnesota's two U.S. Senators, Amy Klobuchar and Tina Smith, were elected or appointed while living in Minneapolis and are also Democrats. The Republican Party of Minnesota in January 2014 moved its state headquarters from Saint Paul to the Seward neighborhood of Minneapolis. Citizens had a unique and powerful influence in neighborhood government. Neighborhoods coordinated activities under the Neighborhood Revitalization Program (NRP), which ended in 2009. Minneapolis is divided into communities, each containing neighborhoods. In some cases two or more neighborhoods act together under one organization. Some areas are commonly known by nicknames of business", "", "Minneapolis Public Schools enroll over 35,000 students in public primary and secondary schools. The district administers about 100 public schools including 45 elementary schools, seven middle schools, seven high schools, eight special education schools, eight alternative schools, 19 contract alternative schools, and five charter schools. With authority granted by the state legislature, the school", "Minneapolis's collegiate scene is dominated by the main campus of the University of Minnesota where more than 50,000 undergraduate, graduate, and professional students attend 20 colleges, schools, and institutes. The graduate school programs ranked highest in 2007 were counseling and personnel services, chemical engineering, psychology, macroeconomics, applied mathematics and non-profit management. Augsburg University, Minneapolis College", "The Hennepin County Library system began to operate the city's public libraries in 2008. The Minneapolis Public Library, founded by T. B. Walker in 1885, faced a severe budget shortfall for 2007, and was forced to temporarily close three", "Five major newspapers are published in Minneapolis: \"Star Tribune\", \"Finance and Commerce\", \"Minnesota Spokesman-Recorder\", the university's \"The Minnesota Daily\" and \"MinnPost.com\". Other publications are the \"City Pages\" weekly, the \"Mpls.St.Paul\" and \"Minnesota Monthly\" monthlies, and \"the Southwest Journal\". Minneapolis has a mix of radio stations and healthy listener support for public radio. In the commercial market three radio broadcasting companies iHeartMedia (formerly Clear Channel), Entercom, and Cumulus Media operate the majority of the radio stations in the market. Listeners support three Minnesota Public Radio non-profit stations and two community non-profit stations, the Minneapolis Public Schools and the University of Minnesota each operate a station, and religious organizations run four stations. The city's first television was broadcast in 1948 by", "", "Half of Minneapolis–Saint Paul residents work in the city where they live. Most residents drive cars, but 60% of the 160,000 people working downtown commute by means other than a single person per auto. The Metropolitan Council's Metro Transit, which operates the light rail system and most of the city's buses, provides free travel vouchers through the \"Guaranteed Ride Home\" program to allay fears that commuters might otherwise be occasionally stranded if, for example, they work late hours. On January 1, 2011, the city's limit of 343 taxis was lifted. Minneapolis currently has two light rail lines and one commuter rail line. The METRO Blue Line LRT (formerly the Hiawatha Line) serves 34,000 riders daily and connects the Minneapolis–Saint Paul International Airport and Mall of America in Bloomington to downtown. Most of the line runs", "Minneapolis has seven hospitals, four ranked among America's best by \"U.S. News & World Report\"—Abbott Northwestern Hospital (part of Allina), Children's Hospitals and Clinics, Hennepin County Medical Center (HCMC) and the University of Minnesota Medical Center. Minneapolis VA Medical Center, Shriners Hospitals for Children and Allina's Phillips Eye Institute also serve the city. The Mayo Clinic in Rochester, Minnesota is a 75-minute drive away. Cardiac surgery was developed at the university's Variety Club Hospital, where by 1957, more than 200 patients had survived open-heart operations, many of them children. Working with surgeon C. Walton Lillehei, Medtronic began to build portable and implantable cardiac pacemakers about this time. Hennepin Healthcare opened in 1887 as City Hospital and was also known as Minneapolis General Hospital, Hennepin County General Hospital and HCMC. A public teaching hospital and Level I trauma center, the HCMC safety net", "Minneapolis' sister cities are:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Traditional variations.", "Non-traditional variations.", "Hard-shell tacos.", "Soft-shell tacos.", "Breakfast taco.", "Indian taco.", "Puffy tacos, taco kits, and tacodillas.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "The origins of the taco are not precisely known, and etymologies for the culinary usage of the word are generally theoretical. According to the Real Academia Española, publisher of \"Diccionario de la Lengua Española\", the word \"taco\" describes a typical Mexican dish of a maize tortilla folded around food. This meaning of the Spanish word \"taco\" is a Mexican innovation, but in other dialects \"taco\" is used to mean \"wedge; wad, plug; billiard cue; blowpipe; ramrod; short, stocky person; [or] short, thick piece of wood.\" In this non-culinary usage, the word \"taco\" has cognates in other European languages, including the French word \"tache\" and the English word \"tack (nail).\" According to one etymological theory, the culinary meaning of \"taco\" derives from its \"plug\" meaning as employed among Mexican silver miners, who used explosive charges in plug form consisting of a paper wrapper and gunpowder filling. Indigenous origins for the culinary word \"taco\" are also proposed. One possibility is that the word derives from the Nahuatl word \"tlahco\", meaning \"half\" or \"in the middle,\" in the sense that food would be placed in the middle of a tortilla. Furthermore, dishes analogous to the taco were known to have existed in Pre-Columbian society—for example, the Nahuatl word \"tlaxcalli\" (a type of corn tortilla).", "The taco predates the arrival of the Spanish in Mexico. There is anthropological evidence that the indigenous people living in the lake region of the Valley of Mexico traditionally ate tacos filled with small fish. Writing at the time of the Spanish conquistadors, Bernal Díaz del Castillo documented the first taco feast enjoyed by Europeans, a meal which Hernán Cortés arranged for his captains in Coyoacán.", "There are many traditional varieties of tacos: As an accompaniment to tacos, many taco stands will serve whole or sliced red radishes, lime slices, salt, pickled or grilled chilis (hot peppers), and occasionally cucumber slices, or grilled cambray onions.", "", "The hard-shell or crispy taco is a tradition that developed in the United States. The most common type of taco in the US is the hard-shell, U-shaped version, first described in a cookbook in 1949. This type of taco is typically served as a crisp-fried corn tortilla filled with seasoned ground beef, cheese, lettuce, and sometimes tomato, onion, salsa, sour cream, and avocado or guacamole. Such tacos are sold by restaurants and by fast food chains, while kits are readily available in most supermarkets. Hard shell tacos are sometimes known as \"tacos dorados\" (\"golden tacos\") in Spanish, a name that they share with taquitos. Various sources credit different individuals with the invention of the hard-shell taco, but some form of the dish likely predates all of them. Beginning from the early part of the twentieth century, various types of tacos became popular in the country, especially in Texas and California but also elsewhere. By the late 1930s, companies like Ashley Mexican Food and Absolute Mexican Foods were selling appliances and ingredients for cooking hard shell tacos, and the first patents for hard-shell taco cooking appliances were filed in the 1940s. In the mid-1950s, Glen Bell opened Taco Tia, and began selling a simplified version of the tacos being sold by Mexican restaurants in San Bernardino, particularly the \"tacos dorados\" being sold at the Mitla Cafe, owned by Lucia and Salvador Rodriguez across the street from another of Bell's restaurants. Over the next few years, Bell owned and operated a number of restaurants in southern California including four called El Taco. At this time, Los Angeles was racially-segregated, and the tacos sold at Bell's restaurants were many white Americans' first introduction to Mexican food. Bell sold the El Tacos to his partner and built the first Taco Bell in Downey in 1962. Kermit Becky, a former Los Angeles police officer, bought the first Taco Bell franchise from Glen Bell in 1964, and located it in Torrance. The company grew rapidly, and by 1967, the 100th restaurant opened at 400 South Brookhurst in Anaheim. In 1968, its first franchise location east of the Mississippi River opened in Springfield, Ohio.", "Traditionally, soft-shelled tacos referred to corn tortillas that were cooked to a softer state than a hard taco - usually by grilling or steaming. More recently, the term has come to include flour tortilla based tacos mostly from large manufacturers and restaurant chains. In this context, \"soft tacos\" are tacos made with wheat flour tortillas and filled with the same ingredients as a hard taco.", "The breakfast taco, found in Tex-Mex cuisine, is a soft corn or flour tortilla filled with meat, eggs, or cheese, and can also contain other ingredients. Some have claimed that Austin, Texas is the home of the breakfast taco. However, food writer and \"OC Weekly\" editor Gustavo Arellano responded that such a statement reflects a common trend of \"whitewashed\" foodways reporting, noting that predominantly Hispanic San Antonio, Texas \"never had to brag about its breakfast taco love—folks there just call it 'breakfast'.", "Indian tacos, or \"Navajo tacos\", are made using frybread instead of tortillas. They are commonly eaten at pow-wows, festivals, and other gatherings by and for indigenous people in the United States and Canada. This kind of taco is not known to have been present before the arrival of Europeans in what is now the Southwestern United States. Navajo tradition indicates that frybread came into use in the 1860s when the government forced the tribe to relocate from their homeland in Arizona in a journey known as the Long Walk of the Navajo. It was made from ingredients given to them by the government to supplement their diet since the region couldn’t support growing the agricultural commodities that had been previously used.", "Since at least 1978, a variation called the \"puffy taco\" has been popular. \"Henry's Puffy Tacos\", opened by Henry Lopez in San Antonio, Texas, claims to have invented the variation, in which uncooked corn tortillas (flattened balls of masa dough) are quickly fried in hot oil until they expand and become \"puffy\". Fillings are similar to hard-shell versions. Restaurants offering this style of taco have since appeared in other Texas cities, as well as in California, where Henry's brother, Arturo Lopez, opened \"Arturo's Puffy Taco\" in Whittier, not long after Henry's opened. Henry's continues to thrive, managed by the family's second generation. Kits are available at grocery and convenience stores and usually consist of taco shells (corn tortillas already fried in a U-shape), seasoning mix and taco sauce. Commercial vendors for the home market also market soft taco kits with tortillas instead of taco shells. The tacodilla contains melted cheese in between the two folded tortillas, thus resembling a quesadilla.", "In the United States, the \"National Taco Day\" is celebrated annually on October 4." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Discovery and naming.", "Naming of species.", "Specimens.", "Description.", "Size.", "Skull.", "Postcranial skeleton.", "Classification.", "Phylogeny.", "Paleobiology.", "Function of neural spines.", "Diet and feeding.", "Aquatic habits.", "Locomotion and posture.", "Ontogeny.", "Paleoecology.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Two species of \"Spinosaurus\" have been named: \"Spinosaurus aegyptiacus\" (meaning \"Egyptian spine lizard\") and the disputed \"Spinosaurus maroccanus\" (meaning \"Moroccan spine lizard\"). The first described remains of \"Spinosaurus\" were found and described in the early 20th century. In 1912, Richard Markgraf discovered a partial skeleton of a giant theropod dinosaur in the Bahariya Formation of western Egypt. In 1915, German paleontologist Ernst Stromer published an article assigning the specimen to a new genus and species, \"Spinosaurus aegyptiacus\". Fragmentary additional remains from Bahariya, including vertebrae and hindlimb bones, were designated by Stromer as \"\"Spinosaurus B\"\" in 1934. Stromer considered them different enough to belong to another species, and", "Six main partial specimens of \"Spinosaurus\" have been described. BSP 1912 VIII 19, described by Stromer in 1915 from the Bahariya Formation, was the holotype. The material consisted of the following items, most of which were incomplete: right and left dentaries and splenials from the lower jaw measuring long; a straight piece of the left maxilla that was described but not drawn; 20 teeth; 2 cervical vertebrae; 7 dorsal (trunk) vertebrae; 3 sacral vertebrae; 1 caudal vertebra; 4 thoracic ribs; and gastralia. Of the nine neural spines whose heights are given, the longest (\"i,\" associated with a dorsal vertebra) was in length. Stromer claimed that the specimen was from the early Cenomanian, about 97 million years ago. This specimen was destroyed in World War II, specifically \"during the night of 24/25 April 1944 in a British bombing raid of Munich\" that severely damaged the building housing the Paläontologisches Museum München (Bavarian State Collection of Paleontology). However, detailed drawings and descriptions of the specimen remain. Stromer's son donated Stromer's archives to the Paläontologische Staatssammlung München in 1995, and Smith and colleagues analyzed two photographs of the \"Spinosaurus\" holotype specimen BSP 1912 VIII 19 discovered in the archives in 2000. On the basis of a photograph of the lower jaw and a photograph of the entire specimen as mounted, Smith concluded that Stromer's original 1915 drawings were slightly inaccurate. In 2003, Oliver Rauhut suggested that Stromer's \"Spinosaurus\" holotype was a chimera, composed of vertebrae and neural spines from a carcharodontosaurid similar to \"Acrocanthosaurus\" and a dentary from \"Baryonyx\" or \"Suchomimus\". This analysis was rejected in at least one subsequent paper. NMC 50791, held by the Canadian Museum of Nature, is a mid-cervical vertebra which is long from the Kem Kem Beds of Morocco. It is the holotype of \"Spinosaurus maroccanus\" as described by Russell in 1996. Other specimens referred to \"S. maroccanus\" in the same paper were two other mid-cervical vertebrae (NMC 41768 and NMC 50790), an anterior dentary fragment (NMC 50832), a mid-dentary fragment (NMC 50833), and an anterior dorsal neural", "", "Since its discovery, \"Spinosaurus\" has been a contender for the longest and largest theropod dinosaur. Both Friedrich von Huene in 1926 and Donald F. Glut in 1982 listed it as among the most massive theropods in their surveys, at in length and upwards of in weight. In 1988, Gregory Paul also listed it as the longest theropod at, but gave a lower mass estimate of. In 2005, Dal Sasso and colleagues assumed that \"Spinosaurus\" and the spinosaurid \"Suchomimus\" had the same body proportions in relation to their skull lengths, and thereby calculated that \"Spinosaurus\" was in length and in weight. These estimates were criticized because the skull", "The skull had a narrow snout filled with straight conical teeth that lacked serrations. There were six or seven teeth on each side of the very front of the upper jaw, in the premaxillae, and another twelve in both maxillae behind them. The second and third teeth on each side were noticeably larger than the rest of the teeth in the premaxilla, creating a space between them and the large teeth in the front of the maxilla; large teeth in the", "As a spinosaurid, \"Spinosaurus\" would have had a long, muscular neck, curved in a sigmoid, or S-shape. Its shoulders were prominent, and the forelimbs large and stocky, bearing three clawed digits on each hand. The first finger (or \"thumb\") would have been the largest. \"Spinosaurus\" had long phalanges (finger bones), and only somewhat recurved claws, suggesting that its hands were longer compared to those of other spinosaurids. Very tall neural spines growing on the back vertebrae of \"Spinosaurus\" formed the basis of what is usually", "\"Spinosaurus\" gives its name to the dinosaur family Spinosauridae, which includes two subfamilies: Baryonychinae and Spinosaurinae. The Baryonychinae include \"Baryonyx\" from southern England and \"Suchomimus\" from Niger in central Africa. The Spinosaurinae include \"Spinosaurus\", \"Sigilmassasaurus\", \"Oxalaia\", \"Siamosaurus\", \"Ichthyovenator\", \"Irritator\" from Brazil, and \"Angaturama\" (which maybe be synonymous with \"Irritator\") from Brazil. The Spinosaurinae share unserrated straight teeth that are widely spaced (e.g., 12 on one side of the maxilla), as opposed to the Baryonychinae which have serrated curved teeth that are numerous (e.g., 30 on one side of the maxilla). An analysis of Spinosauridae by Arden and colleagues (2018) named the clade Spinosaurini and defined it as all spinosaurids closer to \"Spinosaurus aegyptiacus\" than to \"Irritator challengeri\" or \"Oxalaia quilombensis\"; it also found \"Siamosaurus suteethorni\" and \"Icthyovenator laosensis\" to be members of the Spinosaurinae.", "The subfamily Spinosaurinae was named by Sereno in 1998, and defined by Holtz and colleagues (2004) as all taxa closer to \"Spinosaurus aegyptiacus\" than to \"Baryonyx walkeri\". And the subfamily Baryonychinae was named by Charig & Milner in 1986. They erected both the subfamily and the family Baryonychinae for the newly discovered \"Baryonyx\", before it was referred to", "", "The function of the dinosaur's sail or hump is uncertain; scientists have proposed several hypotheses including heat regulation and display. In addition, such a prominent feature on its back could make it appear even larger than it was, intimidating other animals. The structure may have been used for thermoregulation. If the structure contained abundant blood vessels, the animal could have used the sail's large surface area to absorb heat. This would imply that the animal was only partly warm-blooded at best and lived in climates where nighttime temperatures were cool or low and the sky usually not cloudy. It is also possible that the structure was used to radiate excess heat from the body, rather than to collect it. Large animals, due to the relatively small ratio of surface area of their body", "It is unclear whether \"Spinosaurus\" was primarily a terrestrial predator or a piscivore, as indicated by its elongated jaws, conical teeth and raised nostrils. The hypothesis of spinosaurs as specialized fish eaters has been suggested before by A. J. Charig and A. C. Milner for \"Baryonyx\". They base this on the anatomical similarity with crocodilians and the presence of digestive acid-etched fish scales in the rib cage of the type specimen. Large fish are known from the faunas containing other spinosaurids, including the \"Mawsonia\", in the mid-Cretaceous of northern Africa and Brazil. Direct evidence for spinosaur diet comes from related European and South American taxa. \"Baryonyx\" was found with fish scales and bones from juvenile \"Iguanodon\" in its stomach, while a tooth embedded in a South American pterosaur bone suggests that spinosaurs occasionally preyed", "A 2010 isotope analysis by Romain Amiot and colleagues found that oxygen isotope ratios of spinosaurid teeth, including teeth of \"Spinosaurus\", indicate semiaquatic lifestyles. Isotope ratios from tooth enamel and from other parts of \"Spinosaurus\" (found in Morocco and Tunisia) and of other predators from the same area such as \"Carcharodontosaurus\" were compared with isotopic compositions from contemporaneous theropods, turtles, and crocodilians. The study found that \"Spinosaurus\" teeth from five of six sampled localities had oxygen isotope ratios closer to those of turtles and crocodilians when compared with other theropod teeth from the same localities. The authors postulated that \"Spinosaurus\" switched between terrestrial and aquatic habitats to compete for food with large crocodilians and other large theropods respectively. A 2018 study by Donald Henderson, however, refutes the claim that \"Spinosaurus\" was semiaquatic. By studying the buoyancy in lungs of crocodilians and comparing it to the lung placement in \"Spinosaurus\", it was discovered that \"Spinosaurus\" could not sink or dive below the water surface. It was also", "Although traditionally depicted in the scientific community as a biped, \"Spinosaurus\" was often depicted in the mid-20th century as an obligate quadruped akin to \"Dimetrodon\". Starting in the mid-1970s, it was hypothesised \"Spinosaurus\" was at least an occasional quadruped, bolstered by the discovery of \"Baryonyx\", a relative with robust arms. Because of the mass of the hypothesized fatty dorsal humps of \"Spinosaurus\", Bailey (1997) was open to the possibility of a quadrupedal posture, leading to new restorations of it as such. Theropods, including spinosaurids, could not pronate their hands (rotate the forearm so the palm faced the ground), but a resting position on the side of the hand was possible, as shown by fossil prints from an Early Jurassic theropod. The hypothesis that \"Spinosaurus\" had a typical quadrupedal gait since fell out of favor, however it was still believed that spinosaurids may have crouched in a quadrupedal posture, due to biological and physiological constraints. The possibility of a quadrupedal \"Spinosaurus\" was revived by a", "An ungual phalanx measuring belonging to a very young juvenile \"Spinosaurus\" indicates that the theropod developed its semiaquatic adaptations at a very young age or at birth and maintained them", "The environment inhabited by \"Spinosaurus\" is only partially understood, and covers a great deal of what is now northern Africa. The region of Africa \"Spinosaurus\" is preserved in dates from 112 to 93.5 million years ago. Although a potential specimen has been found in Campanian deposits. A 1996 study concluded from Moroccan fossils that \"Spinosaurus\", \"Carcharodontosaurus\", and \"Deltadromeus\" \"ranged across north Africa during the late Cretaceous (Cenomanian).\" Those \"Spinosaurus\" that lived in the Bahariya Formation of what is now Egypt may have", "\"Spinosaurus\" appeared in the 2001 film \"Jurassic Park III\", replacing \"Tyrannosaurus\" as the main antagonist. The film's consulting paleontologist John R. Horner was quoted as saying: \"If we base the ferocious factor on the length of the animal, there was nothing that ever lived on this planet that could match this creature [\"Spinosaurus\"]. Also my hypothesis is that T-rex was actually a scavenger rather than a killer. \"Spinosaurus\" was really the predatory animal.\" He has since retracted the statement about T. rex being a scavenger. In the film, \"Spinosaurus\" was portrayed as larger and more powerful than \"Tyrannosaurus\": in a scene depicting a battle between the two resurrected predators, \"Spinosaurus\" emerges victorious by snapping the \"Tyrannosaurus\"' neck. In the fourth film \"Jurassic World\", there is a nod to this fight where the \"T. rex\" smashes through the skeleton of a \"Spinosaurus\" in the climatic fight near the end of the film. \"Spinosaurus\" has long been depicted in popular books about dinosaurs, although only recently has there been enough information about spinosaurids for an accurate depiction. After an influential 1955 skeletal reconstruction by Lapparent and Lavocat based on a 1936 diagram by Stromer, it has been treated as a generalized upright theropod, with a skull similar to that of other large theropods and a sail on its back, even having four-fingered hands. In addition to films, action figures, video games, and books, \"Spinosaurus\" has been depicted on postage stamps from countries such as Angola, The Gambia, and Tanzania." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Development.", "Initial designs: A23, A24.", "Creation of the Meteor engine.", "Design splits, and production commences: A24, A27L, A27M.", "Rover enters.", "Possible cancellation, and armaments trouble.", "Early trials.", "Final specification.", "Production.", "Design.", "Hull.", "Turret and armament.", "Cromwell and Centaur differences.", "Further developments.", "Performance.", "Combat service.", "World War II.", "Post war.", "Variants.", "Hull variants.", "Vehicles based on chassis.", "Conversions.", "Designs based on the Cromwell.", "Surviving vehicles.", "Cromwell tanks.", "Centaur tanks.", "Others." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Development of the Cromwell and Centaur dates to 1940, as the Crusader tank was being readied for service. The General Staff was aware that the Crusader would become obsolete, and in late 1940 they set out the specifications for a replacement tank, expected to enter service in 1942, fitted with the QF 6 pounder gun. Vauxhall responded with the A23, a scaled down version of their A22 Churchill infantry tank. This would have had 75 mm of frontal armour, used a 12-cylinder Bedford engine, carried a crew of five and would have had the same suspension as the A22. Nuffield submitted the A24, heavily based on its Crusader", "With the start of the war, Rolls-Royce ended car production and set up a design team looking for other ways to use their design capability. The team formed under the direction of Roy Robotham at Clan Foundry near Belper, north of Derby. They began recovering and refurbishing parts from crashed Merlin engines with the intention of using them for non-aviation purposes. In October 1940, Robotham met Henry Spurrier of Leyland Motors to discuss British tank design. The Tank Board desperately needed a more powerful tank engine to replace the aging Liberty. Robotham and Spurrier decided to attempt to", "Refitting the design of the A24 Cromwell for the Meteor engine was not acceptable to Nuffield, and hence a new specification of tank was created working with Leyland, the A27 Cromwell. In mid-1941, Leyland changed its mind, concerned about cooling problems. This was a major concern for the Tank Board, as cooling issues had been a major problem for the previous generation of Crusader and Covenanter tanks. The Tank board was still committed to the Meteor, but to avoid dedicating all resources into a potentially flawed design, the design was split into three separate vehicles: These early design designations of Cromwell I, II, and III are not to be confused with the later production designations of Cromwell I, II, etc. which were production variants of the A27M. While Leyland continued with the Liberty under A27L, the Tank Board continued with the Meteor engine by placing an order directly with Rolls-Royce. Leyland also suggested using a diesel engine of their own design, although this was later abandoned. Cromwell's cooling system was", "Rolls was at this time having trouble meeting demand for the Merlin, let alone the Meteor. Meanwhile, Rover was having troubles developing Frank Whittle's Power Jets W.2 jet engine design due to increasing animosity between the engineers at Power Jets and Rover. Things became particularly heated when Whittle learned that Rover had set up a secret lab to develop their own versions of the design. Whittle had, during the same period, contacted Rolls for help delivering some of the required parts that Rover proved unable to produce. A solution to both their problems was offered by Ernest Hives, a Rolls board member, who had met Whittle", "To increase production of Meteor engines Rover and Morris required machine tools from the US, which took time to arrive. In the interim, Centaur production continued, to avoid closing Cromwell tank production lines. The Cromwell had originally been intended to mount the high velocity QF 6-pounder tank gun as primary armour piercing (AP) armament with a few mounting the Ordnance QF 95 mm howitzer to fire high explosive and smoke shells as close support tanks. The earlier introduction of US M3 Grant and M4 Sherman tanks placed a dual purpose 75 mm gun into British", "The first real field test of the design was carried out in August–September 1943, when examples of the Centaur, Cromwell, Sherman M4A2 (diesel engine) and Sherman M4A4 (multi-bank petrol engine) were tested in Exercise Dracula, a long trip around Britain. The Shermans proved to be the most reliable by far, requiring 420 hours of specialist fitter attention over a total distance travelled of. This corresponds to 0.03 hours per mile. In comparison, the Cromwells drove and required 814 hours, or 0.07 hours per mile. The Centaur managed only due to constant breakdown, and required 742 hours, or 0.087 hours per mile. The Cromwell and Centaur were", "The production model design was finalised on 2 February 1944 when Leyland released specifications for what they called the \"Battle Cromwell\". This included a number of minor changes to the basic design, including of extra armour below the crew compartment, the introduction of an all-round vision cupola for the commander, seam welding all joints to waterproof and", "Total A27 production consisted of 4,016 tanks, 950 of which were Centaurs and 3,066 Cromwells. In addition, 375 Centaur hulls were built to be fitted with an anti-aircraft gun turret; only 95 of these were completed. Production was led by Leyland Motors on Centaur, and Birmingham Railway Carriage and Wagon Company on Cromwell. Several other British firms also built Centaur and Cromwell tanks, however, as the numbers required were greater than any one company could deliver. Companies contracted to build the tanks included English Electric, Harland and Wolff, John Fowler & Co., LMS Railway, Metro-Cammell, Morris Motors and Ruston-Bucyrus.", "", "The frame was of riveted construction, though welding was used later. The armour plate was then bolted to the frame; large bosses on the outside of the plate were used on the turret. The suspension was of the Christie type, with long helical springs (in tension) angled back to keep the hull sides low. Of the five road wheels each side, four had shock absorbers. The tracks were driven by sprocketed wheels at the rear and tension adjusted at the front idler, this being standard", "In common with British tank doctrine of the time, the vehicle was designed to fire on the move. The turret offered hydraulically powered turret traverse motors with proportional speed control. Later vehicles fitted an all-round view cupola for the commander to identify and track targets. Both gunner and commander had Vickers rotating and pivoting periscopes, while episcopes were fitted in the cupola. There was a 7.92 mm Besa machine gun mounted co-axially to the main armament, operated by the gunner. A second was gimbal mounted in the front of the", "Aside from the engine and its ancillaries (fans, radiator, clutch, etc.), both vehicles are very similar designs. While similar however, there were a number of minor variations between Cromwell and Centaur caused by the divergence of design and production. Increases in Cromwell's design weight from 24 to 27 tons resulted in a reworking of the suspension during the design process, which was not reflected on Centaur. Cromwell had heavier grade suspension with longer suspension arms. Cromwell's shock absorbers and springs were improved against Cavalier, and increased to four (compared with Centaur's three). The method of track tensioning is a commonly noted difference. Initially, the design", "An earlier requirement for a 17-pounder armed tank became more important when the Vickers HV 50 calibre 75mm gun failed to fit on Cromwell. A version of Cromwell mounting the more powerful Ordnance QF 17-pounder (76.2 mm) had been commenced early in the development process. This required a much larger turret ring, which in turn required the hull to be lengthened and an additional road wheel to be added to each side for a total of six. The result was the", "The A24 design specification had originally been constrained by the available tank engines of the time, delivering only 300 hp and limiting the weight. The evolution to A27M increased the weight slightly, but fitting a 600 hp engine almost doubled the power-to-weight ratio and created a very fast tank. This was combined with the Merrit-Brown gearbox that allowed the tank to steer while still powering both tracks, allowing it to maintain speed while manoeuvring, while tanks like the Sherman or T-34 lost power while turning and necessarily slowed down. Cromwell was the fastest British tank to serve in the Second World War, with a top speed of. This speed was extremely beneficial in both attack and defence, outmanoeuvring opponents. At least one case is known of vehicle commanders using the vehicle's fast speed to jump large gaps. In The Netherlands, a troop of three Cromwells was able to leap a 20 ft wide canal when surprised by enemy forces. This speed proved too much for even the Christie suspension and in later models the final drive ratio was changed to lower the top speed to, which was still fast for its time. The Cromwell's armament was changed from the 6-pounder to the dual purpose 75mm. This gave a significant reduction in armour penetration compared to newer 6-pounder ammunition, which was becoming available,", "", "The Cromwell tank entered front-line service with the Allied invasion of Normandy in June 1944. Cromwells landed with the following forces on D+1. They saw extensive action with the British Army, forming part of the 6th Airborne Division, 7th Armoured Division, 11th Armoured Division, Guards Armoured Division, and 1st (Polish) Armoured Division. The tank was also used by the 1st (Czechoslovakian) Independent Armoured Brigade Group as part of the First Canadian Army in Dunkirk. Cromwells were used as the main tank in the armoured brigades of the 7th Armoured Division,", "After the war, the Cromwell remained in British service, and saw service in the Korean War with the 8th King's Royal Irish Hussars. Some tanks were captured by the Chinese and one tank was knocked out by a Centurion tank of the 8th Hussars. Cromwell Tanks were used by Czechoslovakia and Israel. Fifty-two Centaur I tanks were donated in early 1946 to the Greek Army, during the opening stages of the Greek Civil War but they were kept in storage due to the lack of trained personnel. In 1947, the first Greek officers returned from training", "Development of hull types and armaments occurred independently. Hull types applied to all variants. A single mark could cover up to four types, and a type up to six marks making classification complex. Combinations of mark and type were applied by different manufacturers.", "Hull types ranged from Type A to Type F. Each type applied a different package of", "", "A number of further vehicles were based on the Cromwell tank hull, either re-working existing vehicles", "The Cromwell tank design was also used as the basis for the design of following vehicles: The majority of following British tank designs utilised", "Around 56 Centaur and Cromwell tanks survive, ranging from scrapyard wrecks to fully restored museum vehicles.", "Around 26 Cromwell", "Around 17 Centaurs and", "There are also a few chassis" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Recent corporate history.", "Roxy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Quiksilver purchased Skis Rossignol for $560 million in 2005, but sold Rossignol on 12 November 2008 for $37.5 million (30 million euros) in cash and a $12.5 million note (10 million euro). Quiksilver owned golf-equipment maker Cleveland Golf up until 31 October 2007, when it sold the company to a Japanese sporting goods company. In 2009, Moody's included Quiksilver on its Bottom Rung list of companies most likely to default on its debt. As of 2013, Quiksilver operated 834 stand-alone stores in major cities across Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific, Europe, North and South America, Asia and Africa. At that time, there were two types of Quiksilver-operated stores, known as either \"Boardriders Club\" or \"Factory\" stores. Their products were also sold in many other outlets across the world, such as PacSun, the Fells Point Surf Company and the Ron Jon Surf Shop. With PacSun's decline in retail prominence, Quiksilver and other brands suffered diminished sales. In addition, the company operated a number of separate Roxy and Quiksilver Youth stores. As of 2013, the company had lost financially for six years and initiated a turnaround plan in an attempt to resolve this. In September 2015, the company filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy. Co-founder and CEO of Quiksilver Bob McKnight stepped down as CEO on 11 January 2013. He then acted as Executive Chairman, until retiring in October 2014. Andy Mooney, who was formerly chairman of Disney Consumer Products, served as CEO from 2013 to 2015. Mooney stepped down as the CEO of Quiksilver and was replaced in March 2015 by longtime Quiksilver employee Pierre Agnes to restructure the brand. In 2015, Pierre Agnes was promoted from president to CEO. Quiksilver emerged from bankruptcy in early 2016, and the company once again became privately held, with Oaktree Capital Management as the majority shareholder. By the end of 2016, their retail presence had significantly diminished after restructuring by Oaktree. The company's name was changed in March 2017 to Boardriders, Inc., and it is the owner of the Quiksilver, Roxy and DC Shoes brands. Boardriders purchased Billabong International Limited in 2018. On 30 January 2018, the global CEO of Boardriders, Pierre Agnes, was declared missing after his sailboat washed ashore without him near Biarritz, France, after he radioed in to delay his return in thick fog conditions. A search operation by air and sea was launched the same day. The search was called off a few days later, as he was declared lost at sea and presumed dead. Dave Tanner, the company's former chief turnaround officer, became CEO on 6 February 2018. Boardriders, Inc. currently owns the following brands: Quiksilver, Roxy, DC Shoes, Billabong, Element, Von Zipper, RVCA and XCEL.", "In 1990, Quiksilver launched its sister brand for young women, Roxy. The brand was shuttered after the 1991 surf industry crash but revived by Bob McKnight and Danny Kwock in 1992, signing Lisa Andersen in 1993. It was differentiated from the main Quiksilver line \"for fear it would damage the men's brand\", according to Randy Hild, the company's senior vice president of marketing. Roxy was chosen because it sounded like a punk band or club (likely Roxy Music and The Roxy respectively), and is also the name of the daughters of both CEO Bob McKnight and founder Alan Green. About 30% of Quiksilver's sales come from the Roxy line. Since inception, Roxy has grown to be the largest action sport fashion apparel company for young women. In addition to apparel, it now also produces accessories, homewares, hard goods (snow and surf), wetsuits, footwear, books and perfumes. It has sub-brands for its children's ranges, Roxy Girl and Teenie Wahine. In the spring of 2013, the \"DVF loves Roxy\" collection was released as a one-time limited edition collaboration line of swim and beach wear as well as accessories." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Personal life.", "Skating career.", "Early years.", "Partnership with Anissina.", "Post-skating career." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Both of Gwendal Peizerat's parents were involved in figure skating, his father serving as the general secretary of the French federation and his mother in charge of a club in Lyon. His sister is two years older. Peizerat holds a management degree from EMLYON Business School, a DEUG in materials science, and a in from Claude Bernard University Lyon 1. He has two daughters, Shanelle (born in 2012), and Lilas (born 21 December 2013). He released a single \"Baby Rock\" in 2014.", "", "Peizerat started skating at age four when he and his sister followed their parents to the ice rink. He went into ice dancing straight away. He was coached by Muriel Boucher-Zazoui since the age of six and throughout his entire career. Boucher-Zazoui paired seven-year-old Peizerat with his first partner, French skater Marina Morel, who was the same age as him; Morel and Peizerat skated together for fourteen years. They won bronze at the 1989 World Junior Championships and then silver in 1991. Morel retired in 1992.", "Following the end of his partnership with Morel, Peizerat responded to a letter he had received a few months earlier from Russian World Junior champion Marina Anissina, who chose him after watching competitions on video. Anissina arrived in Lyon in February 1993 and wanted to take him to Russia but his family objected. She settled in France, focusing intensely on skating and insisting her partner, who was dividing his time between skating and his education, be equally focused on their career. Their first year together produced many quarrels and they came close to splitting up. Their coach Muriel Boucher-Zazoui, however, immediately felt it was a promising partnership, saying \"They are like fire and ice\". Anissina and Peizerat were selected for the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer but her French citizenship was granted a few weeks too late. The Olympics, unlike most skating competitions, require both partners to be citizens of the country they are representing. Anissina and Peizerat won the 1998 Olympic bronze medal and 1998 and 1999 World silver medals behind Anjelika Krylova and Oleg Ovsyannikov. The Russians retired due to injury and Anissina and Peizerat then developed a rivalry with the Italians Barbara Fusar-Poli and Maurizio Margaglio. The French won the 2000 European and World Championships. In 2001, Anissina and Peizerat won European and World silver behind the Italians but surged past them in 2002 to reclaim their European title and become the Olympic Champions. At the 2002 Olympics, they led after the compulsory dances and the original dance. Their free dance, \"Liberty\", mixed music with sections from the famed freedom speech by Martin Luther King Jr.; a 5-4 split of the judges' panel had them in first place in this segment ahead of Irina Lobacheva and Ilia Averbukh, and they became the first French ice dancers to win the Olympic gold medal. After the Olympics, Anissina and Peizerat retired from competition but continued skating together for many years in shows around the world. During their career, they represented the club Lyon TSC. Their signature move was Anissina lifting Peizerat off the ice, switching the traditional gender roles in lifts. Peizerat was named a Chevalier of the National Order of Merit (France) in 1998 and a Chevalier of the Legion of Honour in 2003. He has done some choreography for other skaters.", "In 2003, Peizerat founded a consulting firm, Soléus. He has also worked for Eurosport, interviewing athletes. In 2010, Peizerat was elected regional councillor on the list of the Socialist Party in the Rhone Alpes region and was subsequently appointed Councillor Delegate in charge of sports in the Regional Executive headed by Jean-Jack Queyranne." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and education.", "Career.", "Personal life.", "Books.", "\"The Saga of Darren Shan\".", "\"The City Trilogy\".", "\"The Saga of Larten Crepsley\".", "\"Zom-B\".", "\"Archibald Lox\".", "Stand-alone books.", "\"Koyasan\".", "\"The Thin Executioner\".", "\"Lady of the Shades\".", "\"Hagurosan\".", "Darren Dash.", "Unpublished books.", "Film." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Shan was born in St Thomas's Hospital in London, opposite the Houses of parliament. At the age of three, he started school at English Martyrs' near the Elephant and Castle where he lived. When he was six, he moved with his parents and younger brother, to Limerick in Ireland, where he has lived ever since. He received his primary education in Askeaton, and attended secondary school at Copsewood College, Pallaskenry, graduating in 1989. He returned to London in 1990 to pursue a degree in Sociology and English from Roehampton University.", "Shan bought his first typewriter when he was fourteen and wrote many short stories, comic scripts, and books that he never finished, many of which are unpublished. Shan claims that most of these stories will never be published. His first success came to him at age fifteen, when he was a runner-up in a TV script-writing competition for RTÉ in Ireland, with a dark comedy story entitled \"A Day in the Morgue\". After university, Shan worked in a TV cable company in Limerick for two years, before becoming a full-time writer at the age of 23. His breakthrough came with \"Ayuamarca\", released under his real name (Darren O'Shaughnessy). It was published in February 1999 by Orion Publishing Group. The sequel, \"Hell's Horizon\", was published in February 2000. \"Ayuamarca\" was re-released in March 2008 under the title \"Procession of the Dead\" and the pen-name \"D.B. Shan\". \"Hell's Horizon\" followed in March 2009, and the third in the trilogy, \"City of the Snakes\" in March 2010 (but this time under the name of Darren Shan). In January 2000, Shan released \"Cirque du Freak\", the first book of \"The Saga of Darren Shan\" series in the UK and Ireland. The series was a huge global success and by 2019 his books were on sale in 40 countries, in 32 languages, and had sold in excess of twenty-five million copies worldwide. Shan signed up with the Christopher Little Literary Agency in 1996 and they have continued to represent him and his novels up to the present day.", "Shan continues to live in Pallaskenry in Limerick, Ireland with his wife Dr Helen Basini, a freelance university lecturer and global aid specialist. On 23 September 2014, the couple celebrated the birth of their first child, Dante, named after the famous Italian author. Shan and his wife Helen welcomed their second child, a daughter named Gaia, on 26 March 2019.", "", "Also known as \"Cirque Du Freak\" series.", "\"The City Trilogy\" was written for adult readers and was originally released under the name of Darren O'Shaughnessy. The third book was never published and the original versions are now out of print. They were published by Orion Publishing Group. However, in March 2008, \"Ayuamarca\" was re-published as \"Procession of the Dead\" (with substantial changes) by the Voyager imprint of HarperCollins (Shan's children's publisher). \"Hell's Horizon\" was released in March 2009 and \"City of the Snakes\" was released in March 2010. All three books are now also available in the US, as well as in several other countries.", "This is a four-book series covering 200 years in the life of Larten Crepsley, a vampire first introduced to readers in \"Cirque Du Freak\".", "On 12 October 2011, it was announced that Darren Shan's next series for teenagers would focus on zombies, and that the title of the series was \"Zom-B\". There were twelve books in total. The first book was released in the UK and USA in late September 2012, and the last book was released in April 2016. A short novel titled \"Zom-B Circus\", set between \"Zom-B Gladiator\" and \"Zom-B Mission\", was released on 27 April 2014. This is officially book 6.5 in the series chronology.", "On 2 April 2020, Shan announced that he had silently released three books digitally, making up the first volume of the \"Archibald Lox\" series, a few days previously.", "", "A short novel released for World Book Day in the UK in 2006. The paperback edition is out of print, but it is available in ebook format through Kindle on Amazon stores worldwide. It has also been translated and released in several other countries.", "A one-off novel, \"The Thin Executioner\" was released in April 2010. Inspired in part by The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and based in a brutal, fantastical world, it details the perilous quest of Jebel, the thin son of a respected executioner, to petition a fire god for invincibility, so that he can succeed his father. Shan has stated that this is his favourite out of all of the books he has written.", "\"Lady of the Shades\" was released in the UK and Ireland on 30 August 2012.", "A short story originally released in a book collection called Kids Night In in the UK in 2003. Shan tweaked and slightly expanded it ten years later, and it was released as a book by the publishing group Barrington Stoke with illustrations by Zack McLaughlin.", "In 2014, Shan started publishing his books for adults under the name of \"Darren Dash\", so that they would not be confused with his children's books. The first, in 2014, was \"The Evil and the Pure\", followed by \"Sunburn\" in 2015, \"An Other Place\" in 2016, and \"Midsummer's Bottom\" in 2018. Shan plans to write the rest of his adult books under this pen name from this point onwards.", "In July 2009, Shan revealed that he had written first drafts of 53 books in total. Most of those have now been published, although there are several which have yet to see the light of day, which he plans to release in the future, most probably under his Darren Dash umbrella. There are also a few that will very likely never be published. Shan has not revealed details of any of his unpublished books, with two exceptions — \"Mute Pursuit\" and \"The Cannibal King\":", "Universal Studios bought the film rights to the first three books of \"The Saga of Darren Shan\" and combined them to make a single film, \"\", released in the US on 23 October 2009. Lauren Shuler Donner produced the film and Paul Weitz directed. The original screenplay was written by Brian Helgeland but rewritten entirely by Paul Weitz." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Inversions.", "Major chord table.", "Just intonation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A given major chord may be voiced in many ways. For example, the notes of a C major triad, C–E–G, may be arranged in many different vertical orders and the chord will still be a C major triad. However, if the lowest note (i.e. the bass note) is \"not\" the root of the chord, then the chord is said to be in an inversion: it is in root position if the lowest note is the root of the chord, it is in first inversion if the lowest note is its third, and it is in second inversion if the lowest note is its fifth. These inversions of a C major triad are shown below.<score lang=\"lilypond\"> \\override Score.TimeSignature \\override Score.SpacingSpanner.strict-note-spacing = ##t \\set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1/4) \\time 4/4 \\relative c' { </score>The additional notes above the bass note can be in any order and the chord still retains its inversion identity. For example, a C major chord is considered to be in first inversion if its lowest note is E, regardless of how the notes above it are arranged or even doubled.", "In this table, the chord names are in the leftmost column. The chords are given in root position. For a given chord name, the following three columns indicate the individual notes that make up this chord. Thus in the first row, the chord is C major, which is made up of the individual pitches C, E and G.", "Most Western keyboard instruments are tuned to equal temperament. In equal temperament, each semitone is the same distance apart and there are four semitones between the root and third, three between the third and fifth, and seven between the root and fifth. Another tuning system that is used is just intonation. In just intonation, a major chord is tuned to the frequency ratio 4:5:6 (). This may be found on I, IV, V, VI, III, and VI. In equal temperament, the fifth is only two cents narrower than the just perfect fifth, but the major third is noticeably different at about 14 cents wider." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Chemistry.", "Byproducts and wastes.", "Carbon sequestration and the Solvay process." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The name \"soda ash\" is based on the principal historical method of obtaining alkali, which was by using water to extract it from the ashes of certain plants. Wood fires yielded potash and its predominant ingredient potassium carbonate (KCO), whereas the ashes from these special plants yielded \"soda ash\" and its predominant ingredient sodium carbonate (NaCO). The word \"soda\" (from the Middle Latin) originally referred to certain plants that grow in salt solubles; it was discovered that the ashes of these plants yielded the useful alkali soda ash. The cultivation of such plants reached a particularly high state of development in the 18th century in Spain, where the plants are named \"barrilla\"; the English word is \"barilla\". The ashes of kelp also yield soda ash, and were the basis of an enormous 18th century industry in Scotland. Alkali was also mined from dry lakebeds in Egypt. By the late 18th century these sources were insufficient to meet Europe's burgeoning demand for alkali for soap, textile, and glass industries. In 1791, the French physician Nicolas Leblanc developed a method to manufacture soda ash using salt, limestone, sulfuric acid, and coal. Although the Leblanc process came to dominate alkali production in the early 19th century, the expense of its inputs and its polluting byproducts (including hydrogen chloride gas) made it apparent that it was far from an ideal solution. It has been reported that in 1811 French physicist Augustin Jean Fresnel discovered that sodium bicarbonate precipitates when carbon dioxide is bubbled through ammonia-containing brines – which is the chemical reaction central to the Solvay process. The discovery wasn't published. As has been noted by Desmond Reilly, \"The story of the evolution of the ammonium-soda process is an interesting example of the way in which a discovery can be made and then laid aside and not applied for a considerable time afterwards.\" Serious consideration of this reaction as the basis of an industrial process dates from the British patent issued in 1834 to H. G. Dyar and J. Hemming. There were several attempts to reduce this reaction to industrial practice, with varying success. In 1861, Belgian industrial chemist Ernest Solvay turned his attention to the problem; he was apparently largely unaware of the extensive earlier work. His solution, a gas absorption tower in which carbon dioxide bubbled up through a descending flow of brine. This, together with efficient recovery and recycling of the ammonia, proved effective. By 1864 Solvay and his brother Alfred had acquired financial backing and constructed a plant in Couillet, today a suburb of the Belgian town of Charleroi. The new process proved more economical and less polluting than the Leblanc method, and its use spread. In 1874, the Solvays expanded their facilities with a new, larger plant at Nancy, France. In the same year, Ludwig Mond visited Solvay in Belgium and acquired rights to use the new technology. He and John Brunner formed the firm of Brunner, Mond & Co., and built a Solvay plant at Winnington, near Northwich, Cheshire, England. The facility began operating in 1874. Mond was instrumental in making the Solvay process a commercial success. He made several refinements between 1873 and 1880 that removed byproducts that could slow or halt the process. In 1884, the Solvay brothers licensed Americans William B. Cogswell and Rowland Hazard to produce soda ash in the US, and formed a joint venture (Solvay Process Company) to build and operate a plant in Solvay, New York. By the 1890s, Solvay-process plants produced the majority of the world's soda ash. In 1938 large deposits of the mineral trona were discovered near the Green River in Wyoming from which sodium carbonate can be extracted more cheaply than produced by the process. With the closing of the original Solvay, New York plant in 1986, there have been no Solvay-based plants operating in North America. Throughout the rest of the world the Solvay process remains the major source of soda ash.", "The Solvay process results in soda ash (predominantly sodium carbonate (NaCO)) from brine (as a source of sodium chloride (NaCl)) and from limestone (as a source of calcium carbonate (CaCO)). The overall process is: The actual implementation of this global, overall reaction is intricate. A simplified description can be given using the four different, interacting chemical reactions illustrated in the figure. In the first step in the process, carbon dioxide (CO) passes through a concentrated aqueous solution of sodium chloride (table salt, NaCl) and ammonia (NH). In industrial practice, the reaction is carried out by passing concentrated brine (salt water) through two towers. In the first, ammonia bubbles up through the brine and is absorbed by it. In the second, carbon dioxide bubbles up through the ammoniated brine, and sodium bicarbonate (baking soda) precipitates out of the solution. Note that, in a basic solution, NaHCO is less water-soluble than sodium chloride. The ammonia (NH) buffers the solution at a basic (high) pH; without the ammonia, a hydrochloric acid byproduct would render the solution acidic, and arrest the precipitation. Here, NH along with ammoniacal brine acts as a \"mother liquor\". The necessary ammonia \"catalyst\" for reaction (I) is reclaimed in a later step, and relatively little ammonia is consumed. The carbon dioxide required for reaction (I) is produced by heating (\"calcination\") of the limestone at 950–1100 °C, and by calcination of the sodium bicarbonate (see below). The calcium carbonate (CaCO) in the limestone is partially converted to quicklime (calcium oxide (CaO)) and carbon dioxide: The sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO) that precipitates out in reaction (I) is filtered out from the hot ammonium chloride (NHCl) solution, and the solution is then reacted with the quicklime (calcium oxide (CaO)) left over from heating the limestone in step (II). CaO makes a strong basic solution. The ammonia from reaction (III) is recycled back to the initial brine solution of reaction (I). The sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO) precipitate from reaction (I) is then converted to the final product, sodium carbonate (washing soda: NaCO), by calcination (160–230 °C), producing water and carbon dioxide as byproducts: The carbon dioxide from step (IV) is recovered for re-use in step (I). When properly designed and operated, a Solvay plant can reclaim almost all its ammonia, and consumes only small amounts of additional ammonia to make up for losses. The only major inputs to the Solvay process are salt, limestone and thermal energy, and its only major byproduct is calcium chloride, which is sometimes sold as road salt. In the modified Solvay process developed by Chinese chemist Hou Debang in 1930s, the first few steps are the same as the Solvay process. However, the CaCl is supplanted by ammonium chloride (NHCl). Instead of treating the remaining solution with lime, carbon dioxide and ammonia are pumped into the solution, then sodium chloride is added until the solution saturates at 40 °C. Next, the solution is cooled to 10 °C. Ammonium chloride precipitates and is removed by filtration, and the solution is recycled to produce more sodium carbonate. Hou's process eliminates the production of calcium chloride. The byproduct ammonium chloride can be refined, used as a fertilizer and may have greater commercial value than CaCl, thus reducing the extent of waste beds. Additional details of the industrial implementation of this process are available in the report prepared for the European Soda Ash Producer's Association.", "The principal byproduct of the Solvay process is calcium chloride (CaCl) in aqueous solution. The process has other waste and byproducts as well. Not all of the limestone that is calcined is converted to quicklime and carbon dioxide (in reaction II); the residual calcium carbonate and other components of the limestone become wastes. In addition, the salt brine used by the process is usually purified to remove magnesium and calcium ions, typically to form carbonates; otherwise, these impurities would lead to scale in the various reaction vessels and towers. These carbonates are additional waste products. In inland plants, such as that in Solvay, New York, the byproducts have been deposited in \"waste beds\"; the weight of material deposited in these waste beds exceeded that of the soda ash produced by about 50%. These waste beds have led to water pollution, principally by calcium and chloride. The waste beds in Solvay, New York substantially increased the salinity in nearby Onondaga Lake, which used to be among the most polluted lakes in the U.S. and is a superfund pollution site. As such waste beds age, they do begin to support plant communities which have been the subject of several scientific studies. At seaside locations, such as those at Saurashtra, Gujarat, India, the CaCl solution may be discharged directly into the sea, apparently without substantial environmental harm, the major concern is discharge location falls within the Marine National Park of Gulf of Kutch which serves as habitat for coral reefs, seagrass and seaweed community. At Osborne, South Australia, a settling pond is now used to remove 99% of the CaCl as the former discharge was silting up the shipping channel. At Rosignano Solvay in Tuscany, Italy the limestone waste produced by the Solvay factory has changed the landscape, producing the \"White Sands\" beaches that are a fine sight for tourists, but cannot be used for bathing, due to the concentration of toxic chemicals, especially mercury, in the water. According to a report published in 1999 by the United Nations Environment Programme, the Spiagge Bianche has been among the 15 most polluted coastal sites on the Mediterranean Sea.", "Variations in the Solvay process have been proposed for carbon sequestration. One idea is to react carbon dioxide, produced perhaps by the combustion of coal, to form solid carbonates (such as sodium bicarbonate) that could be permanently stored, thus avoiding carbon dioxide emission into the atmosphere. The Solvay process could be modified to give the overall reaction: Variations in the Solvay process have been proposed to convert carbon dioxide emissions into sodium carbonates, but carbon sequestration by calcium or magnesium carbonates appears more promising. However, the amount of carbon dioxide exhausted by mankind as compared to the amount which can be used for carbon sequestration with calcium or magnesium is very low. Moreover, variation on the Solvay process will most probably add an additional energy step, which will increase carbon dioxide emissions." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Origins.", "Design.", "Connection to the ISS.", "Launch risks." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The basic structural frame of \"Zvezda\", known as \"DOS-8\", was initially built in the mid-1980s to be the core of the \"Mir-2\" space station. This means that \"Zvezda\" is similar in layout to the core module (DOS-7) of the \"Mir\" space station. It was in fact labeled as \"Mir-2\" for quite some time in the factory. Its design lineage thus extends back to the original \"Salyut\" stations. The space frame was completed in February 1985 and major internal equipment was installed by October 1986. The \"Mir-2\" space station was redesigned after the failure of the \"Polyus\" orbital weapons platform core module to reach orbit. \"Zvezda\" is around 1/4 the size of \"Polyus\", and has no armaments.", "\"Zvezda\" consists of the cylindrical \"Work Compartment\" where the crews work and live (and which makes up the bulk of the module's volume), the small spherical \"Transfer Compartment\" located at the front (with three docking ports), and at the aft end the cylindrical \"Transfer Chamber\" (with one docking port) which is surrounded by the unpressurized \"Assembly Compartment\" – this gives \"Zvezda\" four docking ports in total. The component weighs about and had a length of. The solar panels extend. The \"Transfer Compartment\" attaches to the \"Zarya\" module, and has docking ports intended for the Science Power Platform and the Universal Docking Module. As in the early days of \"Mir\", the transfer compartment provides a suitable EVA airlock where spacewalkers in Orlan suits removed a hatch after closing a few that connected the compartment to the rest of the station. It was used only during Expedition 2, where Yury Usachov and James Voss put a docking cone on the nadir port. The lower port connects to \"Pirs\" and the top port connects to \"Poisk\". Eventually, the plan for Pirs is for it to be deorbited and replaced by \"Nauka\" (Multipurpose Laboratory Module). The \"Assembly Compartment\" holds external equipment such as thrusters, thermometers, antennas, and propellant tanks. The \"Transfer Chamber\" is equipped with automatic docking equipment and is used to service Soyuz and Progress spacecraft. \"Zvezda\" can support up to six crew including separate sleeping quarters for two cosmonauts at a time. It also has a NASA-provided Treadmill with Vibration Isolation System and a bicycle for exercise, a toilet and other hygiene facilities and a galley with a refrigerator and freezer. The module contains the primary Russian computers for guidance and navigation. \"Zvezda\" has 14 windows— There are two windows, one in each of the two crew sleep compartments (windows No. 1 and 2). Six windows (No. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8) on the forward Transfer Compartment earth facing floor. As well a window in the main Working Compartment (No. 9) and one window in the aft transfer compartment (No. 10). There are a further three windows in the forward end of the forward transfer compartment (No. 12, 13 and 14), for observing approaching craft. Note: Window No. 11 is unaccounted for in all available sources. \"Zvezda\" also contains the Elektron system that electrolyzes condensed humidity and waste water to provide hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrogen is expelled into space and the oxygen is used for breathing air. The condensed water and the waste water can be used for drinking in an emergency, but ordinarily fresh water from Earth is used. There are 16 small thrusters and two large S5.79 thrusters for propulsion. The oxidizer used for the propulsion system is dinitrogen tetroxide and the fuel is UDMH, the supply tanks being pressurised with nitrogen. Additionally, it has eight batteries for storing power. The Elektron system has required significant maintenance work, having failed several times and requiring the crew to use the Solid Fuel Oxygen Generator canisters (also called \"Oxygen Candles\", which were the cause of a fire on \"Mir\") when it has been broken for extended amounts of time. It also contains the Vozdukh, a system which removes carbon dioxide from the air based on the use of regenerable absorbers of carbon dioxide gas. \"Zvezda\" has been criticized for being excessively noisy and the crew has been observed wearing earplugs inside it. \"Zvezda\" contains the ESA's Digital Management System, a computer that controls ISS. \"Zvezda\" is also the home of the Lada Greenhouse, which is a test for growing plants in space.", "The rocket used for launch to the ISS carried advertising; it was emblazoned with the logo of Pizza Hut restaurants, for which they are reported to have paid more than US$1 million. The money helped support Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Center and the Russian advertising agencies that orchestrated the event. On July 26, 2000, \"Zvezda\" became the third component of the ISS when it docked at the aft port of \"Zarya\". (U.S. \"Unity\" module had already been attached to the \"Zarya\".) Later in July, the computers aboard \"Zarya\" handed over ISS commanding functions to computers on \"Zvezda\". On September 11, 2000, two members of the STS-106 Space Shuttle crew completed final connections between \"Zvezda\" and \"Zarya\"; during a 6-hour, 14 minute EVA, astronaut Ed Lu and cosmonaut Yuri Malenchenko connected nine cables between \"Zvezda\" and \"Zarya\", including four power cables, four video and data cables and a fiber-optic telemetry cable. The next day, STS-106 crew members floated into \"Zvezda\" for the first time, at 05:20 UTC on September 12, 2000. \"Zvezda\" provided early living quarters, a life support system, a communication system (\"Zvezda\" introduced a 10 Mbit/s Ethernet network to the ISS), electrical power distribution, a data processing system, a flight control system, and a propulsion system. These quarters and some, but not all, systems have since been supplemented by additional ISS components. The two main engines on \"Zvezda\" can be used to raise the station's altitude. This was done on April 25, 2007. This was the first time the engines had been fired since \"Zvezda\" arrived in 2000.", "Due to Russian financial problems, \"Zvezda\" was launched with no backup and no insurance. Due to this risk, NASA had constructed an Interim Control Module in case it was delayed significantly or destroyed on launch." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Before the war.", "Collaboration.", "After the war." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "After studying at a Jesuit college and attempting to get a degree in law and political sciences from the Catholic University of Leuven, but never graduating, Degrelle worked as a journalist for the conservative Roman Catholic periodical \"Christus Rex.\" During his time at this publication, he became attracted to the ideas of Charles Maurras and French Integralism. Until 1934, Degrelle worked as a correspondent for the paper in Mexico, during the Cristero War. He led a radical group inside the Catholic Party, based on the \"Éditions de Rex\" publishing house. The \"Éditions\" drew its name from the battle cry of the \"Cristeros\": \"Viva Cristo Rey y Santa María de Guadalupe,\" alluding to \"Christ the King\". Degrelle's actions inside the Catholic Party saw him come into opposition with the mainstream of the same party, many of whom were monarchist conservatives or centrists. The Rexist group, including the likes of Jean Denis, separated itself from the Catholic Party in 1935, after a meeting in Kortrijk. The newly formed party was heavily influenced by Fascism and Corporatism (but also included several elements interested solely in Nationalism or Ultramontanism); it had a vision of social equality that drew comparisons with Marxism but was staunchly anti-communist (anti-bolshevik). The party also came to denounce political corruption in Belgian politics. In 1936, in which Rex reached peak votes, it drew its support from Brussels (18.50%), Wallonia (15.16%), Flanders (7.01%), and Eupen-Malmedy (26.44%). Rexism had a Flemish ideological competitor in the Vlaamsch Nationaal Verbond which advocated an independent Flanders and exclusive use of the Dutch language. In 1936, Degrelle met Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler, both of them providing Rexism with funds (2 million lire and 100,000 marks) and ideological support. Elections in that year had given the \"Parti Rexiste\" 21 deputies and 12 senators, although its influence declined by 1939 when it managed to win only four seats in each Chamber. The party progressively added Nazi-inspired Antisemitism to its agenda, and soon established contacts with fascist movements around Europe. Degrelle notably met with Falange leader José Antonio Primo de Rivera and the Iron Guard's Corneliu Zelea Codreanu. During this time (mid-1930s), Degrelle became acquainted with the cartoonist Hergé. In a volume published after his death (\"Tintin mon copain\"), the Rexist leader claimed that his years of journalism had inspired the creation of \"The Adventures of Tintin\"—ignoring Hergé's statements that the character was in fact based on his brother, Paul Remi. Degrelle had been shipping Mexican newspapers containing American cartoons to Belgium, and Hergé did admit years later in 1975 that Degrelle deserved credit for introducing him to the comic \"strip\".", "When the war began, Degrelle approved of King Leopold III's policy of neutrality. After the Germans invaded Belgium on 10 May 1940, the Rexist Party split over the matter of resistance. He was arrested as a suspected collaborator and evacuated to France. Unlike other Belgian deportees, Degrelle was spared in the and instead sent into a French concentration camp. He was later released when the occupation began. Degrelle returned to Belgium and proclaimed reconstructed Rexism to be in close union with Nazism—in marked contrast with the small group of former Rexists (such as Théo Simon and Lucien Mayer) who had begun fighting against the Nazi occupiers from the underground. In August, Degrelle started contributing to a Nazi news source, \"Le Pays Réel\" (a reference to Charles Maurras). Degrelle joined the Walloon legion of the Wehrmacht, which was raised in August 1941, to fight against the Soviet Union on the Eastern Front. The leadership of the Rexists then passed to Victor Matthys. Lacking any previous military service, Degrelle joined as a private and was awarded the Iron Cross Second Class in March 1942. He quickly rose through the ranks, becoming a lieutenant in May 1942, and received the Iron Cross First Class the same month. Initially, the group was meant to represent a continuation of the Belgian Army, and fought as such during Operation Barbarossa, while integrating many Walloons who had volunteered for service. The Walloons were transferred from the Wehrmacht to the Waffen-SS in June 1943, becoming the Sturmbrigade Wallonien and served on the Eastern Front. From 1940, the Belgian Roman Catholic hierarchy had banned all uniforms during Mass. On 25 July 1943, in his native Bouillon, Degrelle was told by Dean Rev Poncelet to leave a Requiem Mass, because he was wearing his SS uniform, which church authorities had prohibited. Degrelle was excommunicated by the Bishop of Namur, but the excommunication was later lifted by the Germans since as a German officer he was under the jurisdiction of the German chaplaincy. After being wounded at Cherkasy in 1943, Degrelle continued to climb the SS hierarchy after the inclusion of Walloons in the Waffen-SS. During the battle of the Korsun-Cherkassy Pocket, fought from 24 January to 16 February 1944, the \"Wallonien\" was given the task of defending against Soviet attacks on the eastern side of the pocket. While General Wilhelm Stemmermann, the overall commander for the trapped forces, moved them to the west of the pocket in readiness for a breakout attempt, \"Wallonien\" and \"Wiking\" were ordered to act as a rearguard. After Lippert was killed, Degrelle took command of the Brigade, and the \"Wallonien\" began its withdrawal under heavy fire. Of the brigade's 2,000 men, only 632 survived. For his actions at Korsun, Degrelle was promoted to SS-Sturmbannführer (major). He was awarded the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross (\"Ritterkreuz\") by Hitler in February 1944. Degrelle later claimed Hitler told him, \"You are truly unique in history. You are a political leader who fights like a soldier. If I had a son, I would want him to be like you.\" Six months later Degrelle was awarded the Knight's Cross with Oak Leaves, as were seven other non-Germans. The unit was sent back to Wildflecken to be reformed. In June 1944, a 440-man battalion of the Wallonien was sent to Estonia to assist in the defence of the Tannenberg Line. After Operation Bagration began, Army Group North began to fall back into the Kurland Pocket. The battalion left through the port of Tallinn (Reval) on the Baltic Sea. The remnants of the Battalion were sent back to join the rest of the brigade, which was located at Breslau. On 8 July 1944 Degrelle's brother Édouard, a pharmacist, was killed in Degrelle's hometown of Bouillon by Belgian resistance fighters. Shortly afterwards, a Rexist hit squad executed pharmacist Henri Charles. A few days later, three civilian hostages were executed, apparently on Degrelle's orders, as all three were known to be his political enemies. He commanded \"Sturmbrigade Wallonien\" from 18 September 1944 to 8 May 1945. He led the unit in the defense of Estonia against the Soviets. He was promoted to SS-Obersturmbannführer (lieutenant colonel) in the early months of 1945. Degrelle was promoted to SS-Standartenführer (colonel) on 20 April 1945. On 1 May 1945, Degrelle was promoted by SS Reichsfuhrer Heinrich Himmler to Brigadeführer (brigadier general). This promotion, however, was extralegal due to Himmler having been removed from office on Hitler's orders on 28 April. Degrelle was wounded in action several times during the war and received the Wound Badge 1st Class and the Gold Close Combat Clasp. Although, none of his injuries were serious enough to require hospitalization.", "With the final surrender of Berlin on 2 May 1945, Degrelle was desperate to avoid Russian captivity and ordered as many of his worn-out veterans as possible to make for the Baltic port of Lübeck to surrender to the British. Degrelle himself fled first to Denmark and then Norway, where he commandeered a Heinkel He 111 aircraft, allegedly provided by Albert Speer. After a flight over portions of Allied-occupied Europe, he crash-landed on the beach at San Sebastian in northern Spain, but was gravely injured and hospitalized for over a year. Several attempts were made to bring Degrelle to justice, including an attempt to kidnap him, but they all failed. In 1954, in order to prevent extradition to Belgium, Spain granted him Spanish citizenship under the name José León Ramírez Reina after being adopted by an older Spanish woman, and the Falange assigned him the leadership of a construction firm that benefited from state contracts, including with the U.S. government to build military airfields in Spain. Meanwhile, friends scoured Europe for his children. In time, all were found and spirited to Spain. While in Francoist Spain, Degrelle maintained a high standard of living and frequently appeared in public and private meetings in a white uniform featuring his German decorations, while expressing his pride over his close contacts and \"thinking bond\" with Adolf Hitler. He continued to live undisturbed when Spain transitioned to democracy after the death of Franco, and continued publishing polemics, voicing his support for the political far right. He became active in the Neo-Nazi \"Círculo Español de Amigos de Europa\" (Cedade) and ran its printing press in Barcelona, where he published a large portion of his writings, including an \"Open Letter\" to Pope John Paul II on the topic of the Auschwitz concentration camp, asking the Pope not to go. His repeated statements on the topic of Nazi genocide brought Degrelle to trial with Violeta Friedman, a Romanian-born survivor of the camps. Although lower courts were initially favourable to Degrelle, the Supreme Court of Spain decided he had offended the memory of the victims, both Jews and non-Jews, and sentenced him to pay a substantial fine. Asked if he had any regrets about the war, his reply was \"Only that we lost!\" In 1994, Léon Degrelle died of cardiac arrest in a hospital in Málaga." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Acoustic consonance of the minor chord.", "Just intonation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A unique particularity of the minor chord is that this is the only chord of three notes in which the three notes have one harmonic – hearable and with a not too high row – in common (more or less exactly, depending on the tuning system used). This harmonic, common to the three notes, is situated 2 octaves above the high note of the chord. This is the sixth harmonic of the root of the chord, the fifth of the middle note, and the fourth of the high note: Demonstration:", "In just intonation, a minor chord is often (but not exclusively) tuned in the frequency ratio 10:12:15 (). This is the first occurrence of a minor triad in the harmonic series (if on C: E–G–B). This may be found on iii, vi, vi, iii, and vii. In 12-TET, or twelve-tone equal temperament (now the most common tuning system in the West), a minor chord has 3 semitones between the root and third, 4 between the third and fifth, and 7 between the root and fifth. It is represented by the integer notation 0,3,7. The 12-TET fifth (700 cents) is only two cents narrower than the just perfect fifth (3:2, 701.9 cents), but the 12-TET minor third (300 cents) is noticeably (about 16 cents) narrower than the just minor third (6:5, 315.6 cents). The 12-TET minor third (300 cents) more closely approximates the 19-limit (Limit (music)) minor third 16:19 (297.5 cents, the nineteenth harmonic) with only 2 cents error. Ellis proposes that the conflict between mathematicians and physicists on one hand and practicing musicians on the other regarding the supposed inferiority of the minor chord and scale to the major may be explained due to physicists' comparison of just minor and major triads, in which case minor comes out the loser, versus the musicians' comparison of the equal tempered triads, in which case minor comes out the winner since the ET major third is 14 cents sharp from the just major third while the ET minor third closely approximates the consonant 19:16 minor third, which many find pleasing. In the 16th through 18th centuries, prior to 12-TET, the minor third in meantone temperament was 310 cents and much rougher than the 300 cent ET minor third. Other just minor chord tunings include the supertonic triad in just intonation (27:32:40) the false minor triad,, 16:19:24, 12:14:18 (6:7:9) (septimal minor third), and the Pythagorean minor triad (54:64:81). More tunings of the minor chord are also available in various equal temperaments other than 12-TET. Rather than directly from the harmonic series, Sorge derived the minor chord from joining two major triads; for example the A minor triad being the confluence of the F and C major triads. A–C–E = \"F\"–A–C–E–\"G\". Given justly tuned major triads this produces a justly tuned minor triad: 10:12:15 on 8:5." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Composition.", "Critical response.", "Commercial performance.", "Music video.", "Live performances.", "Credits and personnel." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In 1999, Spears began work on her second studio album, \"Oops!... I Did It Again\" (2000), in Sweden and Switzerland. After meeting with Robert Lange in Switzerland, the singer started to record several songs for the album, including \"Don't Let Me Be the Last to Know\". After finishing the track, Spears revealed in an interview with \"Billboard\" that \"with the first album, I didn't get to show my voice off. The songs were great, but they weren't very challenging. This song is incredible. It's going to surprise people in the best way.\" \"Don't Let Me Be the Last to Know\" was written and produced by Robert Lange, while additional lyrics were written by his then-wife Shania Twain and Keith Scott. Spears recorded her vocals for the song between November and December 1999 at Robert Lange's and Shania Twain's chateau in La-Tour-de Peilz, Switzerland, and it was later mixed by Nigel Green and programmed by Cory Churko, Kevin Churko and Richard Meyer. During a live concert at Hawaii, included on her second home video release \"Live and More!\" (2000), Spears said the song is one of her favorites on \"Oops!... I Did It Again\". \"Don't Let Me Be the Last to Know\" was released on January 17, 2001 as the final single from the album.", "\"Don't Let Me Be the Last to Know\" is a pop ballad that lasts for three minutes and 51 seconds. The song is composed in the key of E major and is set in time signature of common time with a tempo of 76 beats per minute, and Spears' vocal range spans from the low-note of F to the high-key of D. A \"NME\" staff reviewer said that the song takes the riff of David Bowie and Iggy Pop's \"China Girl\" (1983) and \"puts it over schmaltzy cocktail-hour bass and love film strings.\" Tom Terrell of MTV, however, compared the riff to the one of A Taste of Honey's cover of \"Sukiyaki\" (1981). Terrell further commented that the \"Eagles-esque chorus\" features \"an '80s hair band power ballad groove\" where \"Britney soul-maxes with a vocal that channels both Stevie Wonder (via \"Knocks Me Off My Feet\") and Shania herself.\" Stephanie McGrath of Jam! said the song is \"a nice break from the 'baby babys', 'yeah yeahs' and insistent drum beats that pepper the other songs\" of Oops!. David Veitch of the \"Calgary Sun\" compared the backing vocals to \"nicely old-fashioned shoo-be-doo-doos\". Lyrically, \"Don't Let Me Be the Last to Know\" alludes to how Spears wants to hear her boyfriend say he needs her all the way and that he loves her. Spears considered it a \"pure and delicate\" song. \"It's just one of those songs that pull you in. That's why I like it, and I like singing it as well\", she continued. \"I think they wrote it'specially for me, because the lyrics of the song, if you really listen... they're more of what I can relate to, 'cause they're kind of young lyrics, I think. I don't think Shania would probably sing some of the words that I'm saying.\"", "\"Don't Let Me Be the Last to Know\" received mostly positive reviews from contemporary critics. Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic deemed it \"sweetly sentimental\" and akin to the other ballads on \"Oops!... I Did It Again\", while a Rhapsody review considered them \"perfectly constructed ballads\". Stephanie McGrath of Jam! called the song \"the best showcase of Spears' talents\". A \"NME\" staff reviewer considered the track \"absolutely frightening\", with Tracy E. Hopkins of \"Barnes & Noble\" deeming \"Don't Let Me Be the Last to Know\" a \"polished ballad\", and praising Shania Twain for the songwriting. \"Billboard\" journalist Michael Paoletta noted that Spears may not have the vocal range of \"colleagues Jessica Simpson and Christina Aguilera, but she does have an instantly recognizable style-and Oops!... indicates that she's developing a soulful edge and emotional depth that can't be conjured with a glass-shattering note\", further commenting that this can be confirmed \"on the hitworthy, Shania Twain-penned ballad 'Don't Let Me Be the Last to Know'\". While reviewing 2011's Femme Fatale Tour, Jocelyn Vena of MTV considered the song, along with \"Toxic\", \"old-school jams\". \"Bustle\"s Alex Kristelis highlighted its \"epic\" chorus while the staff from \"Entertainment Weekly\" called it \"a pretty mid tempo melody\", and placed it at number 84 on their ranking of Spears' songs. Nayer Nissim from \"Pink News\", said that \"it's not that Britney can’t do slow tracks, but her vocals don’t always have the energy to push them\", citing \"Don't Let Me Be the Last to Know\" as an example. Nicholas Hautman, from \"Us Weekly\", concluded that \"Spears showcases her soulful, unwavering vocals on this well-executed ballad\". \"Don't Let Me Be the Last to Know\" was nominated at Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards in the category of \"Best Song\" in 2002.", "\"Don't Let Me Be the Last to Know\" was not commercially available in the United States, and was sent only to mainstream radio on April 2, 2001. Therefore, the track failed to appear on any major music chart in the United States. However, \"Don't Let Me Be the Last to Know\" was successful in Europe, debuting and peaking at number nine on the European Hot 100 Singles on the chart issue dated April 14, 2001. The song was also able to reach the top ten in Austria and Switzerland, while attaining top 20 positions in Belgium (Flanders), Finland, Ireland, Norway and Sweden. In the United Kingdom, it debuted and peaked at number 12 on April 7, 2001, exiting the UK Singles Chart after eight weeks. \"Don't Let Me Be the Last to Know\" achieved commercial success in Romania, where it reached number one and was the third best-selling single of 2001. The song also reached number one in Mexico and was the sixth best-selling single of 2001. Despite reaching number 14 in Denmark, the song was later certified Gold by International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (IFPI), for shipping over 5,000 units of the single in the county. The single was not released in Australia; instead, it was included as a bonus second disc of the limited edition of \"Oops!... I Did It Again\" released in the country.", "The music video for \"Don't Let Me Be the Last to Know\" was directed by the American photographer Herb Ritts, and shot at Key Biscayne in Miami, Florida in the last week of January 2001. Spears revealed she was inspired by Janet Jackson's video for \"Love Will Never Do (Without You)\"(1990) to select Ritts as the video's director. According to Ritts, the singer \"wanted to do something fresh. There was one outfit, no dancing, and that meant that it boiled down to her. She really had to act the song, and she was very impressive.\" He also revealed that the video was set at \"a funky beach shack\" similar to the videos for Madonna's \"Cherish\" and Chris Isaak's \"Wicked Game\" (1989). \"The story is, pretty much, Britney longing for him to tell her the words\", said Ritts, who was impressed with the chemistry between the singer and her on-screen boyfriend, played by French model Brice Durand. Spears' real-life boyfriend at the time Justin Timberlake, however, \"was said to be miffed at Spears' kissing scenes with French model\", according to Jennifer Vineyard of MTV. Spears mother, Lynne, also criticized considered the original music video for being too racy at the time, because it contained sexually explicit material. Parts of the video were edited before its release to the public. The music video debuted at number one on MTV's \"TRL\" on March 2, 2001. The video begins with Spears and her boyfriend in a hammock. Cuts of her cuddling with her love interest beside a fire are also included. We also see her and her boyfriend on the seashore doing a love scene. Inside a tiki hut, Spears exclaims the words she wants her boyfriend to know. In the second half of the video, she is seen on a tree where her boyfriend reaches for her. There are also scenes where she is running on the beach and her boyfriend is chasing after her. Spears wears only a bikini top and a pair of cutoff shorts during the whole video, going barefoot throughout. The music video was considered by Spears as \"the funnest [\"sic\"] video I've ever done.\" An alternate footage of the video can be found on the DVD of Spears first compilation album \"\". Vineyard considered the footage as the one that \"makes the most use of Britney's body of work, with the spaceman from \"Oops!... I Did It Again\", an opening door from \"My Prerogative\" and one love interest from \"Toxic\" all making cameos\".", "The first performance of \"Don't Let Me Be the Last to Know\" was on March 8, 2000, during the Crazy 2k Tour in Pensacola, Florida, where Spears appeared onstage sitting on a magic carpet and flew over the audience while singing the song. After releasing her second studio album, \"Oops!... I Did It Again\", Spears performed the song on the American music show \"TRL\", on \"Saturday Night Live\" and on \"The View\". She also performed the song live on 2000s Oops!... I Did It Again World Tour. After performing \"Sometimes\", she climbed the staircase and briefly spoke to the audience before moving into the performance of the song, for which she wore a long white dress trimmed with boa feathers. \"Don't Let Me Be the Last to Know\" was performed also on the Dream Within a Dream Tour in 2001 and 2002. The performance consisted of Spears singing the song on an elevated platform wearing an evening gown with artificial snow falling from the ceiling, while two of her dancers performed a routine. Almost ten years later, \"Don't Let Me Be the Last to Know\" was performed by Spears on 2011's Femme Fatale Tour. The performance consists of Spears sitting on a swing singing the song, whilst a male dancer dances beneath her, at one point attaching himself by his feet to the swing whilst midair. Shirley Halperin of \"The Hollywood Reporter\" named it one of the best performances of the show along with \"Piece of Me\" and \"3\", stating that \"ironically enough, [they] were the ones with fewest frills.\" In a review of the special broadcast by American premium television channel Epix of the tour, Jocelyn Vena of MTV summarized her thoughts about the performance saying, \"It's rare these days to see Britney Spears show her soft side, but she takes a break from the nonstop, fist-pumping music during the spectacle that is the Femme Fatale Tour and kicks it old-school, showing us she still has the heart and soul to bust out a power ballad.\"", "Credits for \"Don't Let Me Be the Last to Know\" adapted from \"Oops!... I Did It Again\" liner notes. Technical Personnel" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Analysis.", "In popular music.", "In classical music.", "Tuning." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Whereas a major triad, such as C–E–G, contains a major third (C–E) and a minor third (E–G), with the interval of the fifth (C–G) being perfect, the augmented triad has an augmented fifth, becoming C–E–G. In other words, the top note is raised a semitone. H.R. Palmer notes: The augmented chord on I may contain the major seventh (I () or I ()), while the augmented chord on V may contain the minor seventh (V (), V (), or V ()). In C: C–E–G–B and G–B–D–F. The augmented triad on the V may be used as a substitute dominant, and may also be considered as III+. The example below shows III+ as a substitute dominant in a ii-V-I turnaround in C major.<score vorbis=\"1\" lang=\"lilypond\"> \\override Score.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f \\relative c' { </score>", "Examples of popular music songs featuring the augmented chord include its introductory use in Chuck Berry's \"School Days\", Aaron Neville's \"Tell It Like It Is\", The Beatles' \"Oh! Darling\", after intros in Gene Pitney's \"Town Without Pity\", The Beach Boys' \"The Warmth of the Sun\", Joe Cocker's \"Delta Lady\", at the end of the bridge in Patience and Prudence's \"Tonight You Belong to Me\", The Caravelles' \"You Don't Have to Be a Baby to Cry\", The Beatles' \"From Me to You\", The Dave Clark Five's \"Glad All Over\", and Martha and the Vandellas' \"Dancing in the Street\". One of the few examples of an augmented chord on the opening downbeat is in the Carmen Lombardo song \"Seems Like Old Times\": in \"Barber Shop Memories, Book 2\" the 4-part vocal score for the song (in the key of F) uses B–D–F to harmonize the downbeat as IV+ (the enharmonic equivalent of VI+). An augmented chord also harmonizes the opening downbeat of the chorus of the 1908 song \"Shine On, Harvest Moon\", heard at the beginning of the 1931 recording by Ruth Etting.Other examples of the augmented chord include its use as a chromatic passing function over the first degree, the rising to then harmonized as IV, as in Jay and the Americans' \"Some Enchanted Evening\", Lesley Gore's \"It's My Party\" (I – I+ – IV – iv) (see also minor major seventh chord), Herman's Hermits' \"There's a Kind of Hush\" (continues to 7 harmonized by Im), by ii Roy Orbison's \"Crying\", followed by 6 – 6 – 5 motion in \"Crying\", The Guess Who's \"Laughing\", Dave Clark Five's \"Because\" (verse: I – I+ – vi – Im... ii and cadence on V+), The Monkees' \"Tapioca Tundra\" (I – I+ – vi, and V+ after bridge). Though rare, the augmented chord occurs in rock music, \"almost always as a linear embellishment linking an opening tonic chord with the next chord,\" for example John Lennon's \"(Just Like) Starting Over\" and The Beatles' \"All My Loving\". Thus, with an opening tonic chord, an augmented chord results from ascending or descending movement between the fifth and sixth degrees, such as in the chord progression I – I+ – vi. This progression forms the verse for Oasis's 2005 single \"Let There Be Love\" (I – I+ – vi – IV)", "The augmented triad differs from the other kinds of triad (the major triad, the minor triad, and the diminished triad) in that it does not naturally arise in a diatonic scale. Although it could be conceptualized as a triad built on the third degree of a harmonic minor scale or melodic minor scale, it virtually never occurs in this way (since any chord on the third degree is itself rare, usually being a new tonic). This rarity makes the augmented triad a special chord that touches on the atonal. Its uses to'suspend' tonality are famous; for example, in Franz Liszt's \"Faust Symphony\", in Richard Wagner's \"Siegfried Idyll\", and in Arnold Schoenberg's \"Walzer\" (\"Fünf Klavierstücke\" Op. 23 No. 5). However, the augmented triad occurs in tonal music, with a perfectly tonal meaning, since at least J.S. Bach (see the first chord in the opening chorus to his cantata \"Ach Gott, vom Himmel sieh darein, BWV 2\") and Joseph Haydn (see, for example, the Trio from Haydn's String Quartet Op. 54 No. 2). It results diatonically in minor mode from a dominant chord where the fifth (the second degree) is replaced by the third degree, as an anticipation of the resolution chord. Ludwig van Beethoven's Symphony No. 9 features such a chord at key moments in the slow movement. Johannes Brahms's \"Tragic Overture\" also features the chord prominently (A–C–E), in alternation with the regular dominant (A–C–E). In this example one can also see other aspect of the appeal of the chord to composers: it is a 'conflation' of the fifth degree and the third degree, the usual contrasting keys of a piece in the minor mode. With the lead of Franz Schubert (in his \"Wanderer Fantasy\"), Romantic composers started organizing many pieces by descending major thirds, which can be seen as a large-scale application of the augmented triad (although it probably arose from other lines of development not necessarily connected to the augmented triad). This kind of organization is common; in addition to Schubert, it is found in music of Franz Liszt, Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, Louis Vierne and Richard Wagner, among others.", "In just intonation, the interval between two major thirds and an octave, 2:(5:4), is 32:25, which is flatter by a septimal kleisma of size 225:224 than the septimal major third with ratio 9:7. While septimal meantone temperament tempers out the septimal kleisma, some other temperaments, for example miracle temperament, do so also, and in all of these temperaments the augmented triad may be identified with a circle of two major and one septimal major thirds, making up an octave." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Design and development.", "Defensive gun turret emplacements.", "Pressurization.", "Operational history.", "World War II.", "Forward base in China.", "New Mariana Islands air bases.", "The atomic bombs.", "B-29s in Europe and Australia.", "Soviet Tupolev Tu-4.", "Transition to USAF.", "Korean War and postwar service.", "Variants.", "Surviving aircraft.", "Accidents and incidents.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In the run up to World War II, the United States Army Air Corps concluded that the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress, which would be the United States' primary strategic bomber of the war, would be inadequate for the Pacific Theater, which required a bomber that could carry a larger payload more than 3,000 miles. In response, Boeing began work on pressurized long-range bombers in 1938. Boeing's design study for the Model 334 was a pressurized derivative of the Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress with nosewheel undercarriage. Although the Air Corps did not have money to pursue the design, Boeing continued development with its own funds as a private venture. In April 1939, Charles Lindbergh convinced general Henry H. Arnold to produce a new bomber in large numbers to counter the Nazi production. In December 1939, the Air Corps issued a formal specification for a so-called \"superbomber\", that could deliver of bombs to a target away and at a speed of. Boeing's previous private venture studies formed the starting point for its response to this specification. Boeing submitted its Model 345 on 11 May 1940, in competition with designs from Consolidated Aircraft (the Model 33, later to become the B-32), Lockheed (the Lockheed XB-30), and Douglas (the Douglas XB-31). Douglas and Lockheed soon abandoned work on their projects, but Boeing received an order for two flying prototypes, given the designation XB-29, and an airframe for static testing on 24 August 1940, with the order being revised to add a third flying aircraft on 14 December. Consolidated continued to work on its Model 33 as it was seen by the Air Corps as a backup in case of problems with Boeing's design. Boeing received an initial production order for 14 service test aircraft and 250 production bombers in May 1941, this being increased to 500 aircraft in January 1942. The B-29 featured a fuselage design with circular cross-section for strength. The need for pressurization in the cockpit area also led to the B-29 being one of very few American combat aircraft of World War II to have a stepless cockpit design, without a separate windscreen for the pilots. Manufacturing the B-29 was a complex task. It involved four main-assembly factories: a pair of Boeing operated plants at Renton, Washington (Boeing Renton), and Wichita, Kansas (now Spirit AeroSystems), a Bell plant at Marietta, Georgia near Atlanta (\"Bell-Atlanta\"), and a Martin plant at Omaha, Nebraska (\"Martin-Omaha\" – Offutt Field). Thousands of subcontractors were involved in the project. The first prototype made its maiden flight from Boeing Field, Seattle on 21 September 1942. The combined effects of the aircraft's highly advanced design, challenging requirements, immense pressure for production, and hurried development caused setbacks. The second prototype, which, unlike the unarmed first, was fitted with a Sperry defensive armament system using remote-controlled gun turrets sighted by periscopes, first flew on 30 December 1942, this flight being terminated due to a serious engine fire. On 18 February 1943, the second prototype, flying out of Boeing Field in Seattle, experienced an engine fire and crashed. The crash killed Boeing test pilot Edmund T. Allen and his 10-man crew, 20 workers at the Frye Meat Packing Plant and a Seattle firefighter. Changes to the production craft came so often and so fast that in early 1944, B-29s flew from the production lines directly to modification depots for extensive rebuilds to incorporate the latest changes. AAF-contracted modification centers and its own air depot system struggled to handle the scope of the requirements. Some facilities lacked hangars capable of housing the giant B-29, requiring outdoor work in freezing cold weather, further delaying necessary modification. By the end of 1943, although almost 100 aircraft had been delivered, only 15 were airworthy. This prompted an intervention by General Hap Arnold to resolve the problem, with production personnel being sent from the factories to the modification centers to speed availability of sufficient aircraft to equip the first Bomb Groups in what became known as the \"Battle of Kansas\". This resulted in 150 aircraft being modified in the five weeks between 10 March and 15 April 1944. The most common cause of maintenance headaches and catastrophic failures were the engines. Although the Wright R-3350 Duplex-Cyclone radial engines later became a trustworthy workhorse in large piston-engined aircraft, early models were beset with dangerous reliability problems. This problem was not fully cured until the aircraft was fitted with the more powerful Pratt & Whitney R-4360 \"Wasp Major\" in the B-29D/B-50 program, which arrived too late for World War II. Interim measures included cuffs placed on propeller blades to divert a greater flow of cooling air into the intakes which had baffles installed to direct a stream of air onto the exhaust valves. Oil flow to the valves was also increased, asbestos baffles installed around rubber push rod fittings to prevent oil loss, thorough pre-flight inspections made to detect unseated valves, and frequent replacement of the uppermost five cylinders (every 25 hours of engine time) and the entire engines (every 75 hours). Pilots, including the present day pilots of the Commemorative Air Force's \"Fifi\", one of the last two remaining flying B-29s, describe flight after takeoff as being an urgent struggle for airspeed (generally, flight after takeoff should consist of striving for altitude). Radial engines need airflow to keep them cool, and failure to get up to speed as soon as possible could result in an engine failure and risk of fire. One useful technique was to check the magnetos while already on takeoff roll rather than during a conventional static engine-runup before takeoff. In wartime, the B-29 was capable of flight at altitudes up to, at speeds of up to (true airspeed). This was its best defense, because Japanese fighters could barely reach that altitude, and few could catch the B-29 even if they did attain that altitude. Only the heaviest of anti-aircraft weapons could reach it, and since the Axis forces did not have proximity fuzes, hitting or damaging the aircraft from the ground in combat proved difficult.", "The General Electric Central Fire Control system on the B-29 directed four remotely controlled turrets armed with two.50 Browning M2 machine guns each. All weapons were aimed optically with targeting computed by analog electrical instrumentation. There were five interconnected sighting stations located in the nose and tail positions and three Plexiglas blisters in the central fuselage. Five General Electric analog computers (one dedicated to each sight) increased the weapons' accuracy by compensating for factors such as airspeed, lead, gravity, temperature and humidity. The computers also allowed a single gunner to operate two or more turrets (including tail guns) simultaneously. The gunner in the upper position acted as fire control officer, managing the distribution of turrets among the other gunners during combat. The tail position initially had two.50 Browning machine guns and a single M2 20 mm cannon. Later aircraft had the 20 mm cannon removed, and sometimes replaced by a third machine gun. In early 1945 Major General Curtis Lemay, commander of XXI Bomber Command—the Marianas-based B-29-equipped bombing force—ordered most of the defensive armament and remote-controlled sighting equipment removed from the B-29s under his command. The affected aircraft had the same reduced defensive firepower as the nuclear weapons-delivery intended \"Silverplate\" B-29 airframes, and could carry greater fuel and bomb loads as a result of the change. The lighter defensive armament was made possible by a change in mission from high-altitude, daylight bombing with high explosive bombs to low-altitude night raids using incendiary bombs. As a consequence of this requirement, Bell Atlanta (BA) produced a series of 311 B-29Bs that had turrets and sighting equipment omitted, except for the tail position, which was fitted with AN/APG-15 fire control radar. This version could also have an improved APQ-7 \"Eagle\" bombing-through-overcast radar fitted in an airfoil shaped radome under the fuselage. Most of these aircraft were assigned to the 315th Bomb Wing, Northwest Field, Guam.", "The crew would enjoy, for the first time in a bomber, full-pressurization comfort. This first-ever cabin pressure system for an Allied production bomber was developed for the B-29 by Garrett AiResearch. Both the forward and rear crew compartments were to be pressurized, but the designers had to decide whether to have bomb bays that were not pressurized or a fully pressurized fuselage that would have to be de-pressurized prior to opening the bomb bay doors. The solution was to have bomb bays that were not pressurized, and a long tunnel joining the forward and rear crew compartments. Crews could use the tunnel if necessary to crawl from one pressurized compartment to the other.", "", "In September 1941, the Army Air Forces plans for war against Germany and Japan proposed basing the B-29 in Egypt for operations against Germany as British airbases were likely to be overcrowded. Air Force planning throughout 1942 and early 1943 continued to have the B-29 deployed initially against Germany, only transferring to the Pacific after the end of the war in Europe. By the end of 1943, however, plans had changed, partly due to production delays, and the B-29 was dedicated to the Pacific Theater. A new plan implemented at the direction of President Franklin D. Roosevelt as a promise to China, called Operation Matterhorn, deployed the B-29 units to attack Japan from four forward bases in southern China, with five main bases in India, and to attack other targets in the region from China and India as needed. The Chengdu region was eventually chosen over the Guilin region to avoid having to raise, equip, and train 50 Chinese divisions to protect the advanced bases from Japanese ground attack. The XX Bomber Command, initially intended to be two combat wings of four groups each, was reduced to a single wing of four groups because of the lack of availability of aircraft, automatically limiting the effectiveness of any attacks from China. This was an extremely costly scheme, as there was no overland connection available between India and China, and all supplies had to be flown over the Himalayas, either by transport aircraft or by the B-29s themselves, with some aircraft being stripped of armor and guns and used to deliver fuel. B-29s started to arrive in India in early April 1944. The first B-29 flight to airfields in China (over the Himalayas, or \"The Hump\") took place on 24 April 1944. The first B-29 combat mission was flown on 5 June 1944, with 77 out of 98 B-29s launched from India bombing the railroad shops in Bangkok and elsewhere in Thailand. Five B-29s were lost during the mission, none to hostile fire.", "On 5 June 1944, B-29s raided Bangkok, in what is reported as a test before being deployed against the Japanese home islands. Sources do not report from where they launched, and vary as to the numbers involved—77, 98, and 114 being claimed. Targets were Bangkok's Memorial Bridge and a major power plant. Bombs fell over two kilometres away, damaged no civilian structures, but destroyed some tram lines and destroyed both a Japanese military hospital and the Japanese secret police headquarters. On 15 June 1944, 68 B-29s took off from bases around Chengdu, 47 B-29s bombed the Imperial Iron and Steel Works at Yawata, Fukuoka Prefecture, Japan. This was the first attack on Japanese islands since the Doolittle raid in April 1942. The first B-29 combat losses occurred during this raid, with one B-29 destroyed on the ground by Japanese fighters after an emergency landing in China, one lost to anti-aircraft fire over Yawata, and another, the \"Stockett's Rocket\" (after Capt. Marvin M. Stockett, Aircraft Commander) B-29-1-BW 42-6261, disappeared after takeoff from Chakulia, India, over the Himalayas (12 KIA, 11 crew and one passenger). This raid, which did little damage to the target, with only one bomb striking the target factory complex, nearly exhausted fuel stocks at the Chengdu B-29 bases, resulting in a slow-down of operations until the fuel stockpiles could be replenished. Starting in July, the raids against Japan from Chinese airfields continued at relatively low intensity. Japan was bombed on: B-29s were withdrawn from airfields in China by the end of January 1945. Throughout this prior period, B-29 raids were also launched from China and India against many other targets throughout Southeast Asia, including a series of raids on Singapore and Thailand. On 2 November 1944, 55 B-29s raided Bangkok's Bang Sue marshalling yards in the largest raid of the war. Seven RTAF Nakajima Ki-43 \"Hayabusa\"s from Foong Bin (Air Group) 16 and 14 IJAAF Ki-43s attempted intercept. RTAF Flt Lt Therdsak Worrasap attacked a B-29, damaging it, but was shot down by return fire. One B-29 was lost, possibly the one damaged by Flt Lt Therdsak. On 14 April 1945, a second B-29 raid on Bangkok destroyed two key power plants, and was the last major attack conducted against Thai targets. The B-29 effort was gradually shifted to the new bases in the Mariana Islands in the Central Pacific, with the last B-29 combat mission from India flown on 29 March 1945.", "In addition to the logistical problems associated with operations from China, the B-29 could only reach a limited part of Japan while flying from Chinese bases. The solution to this problem was to capture the Mariana Islands, which would bring targets such as Tokyo, about north of the Marianas within range of B-29 attacks. The Joint Chiefs of Staff agreed in December 1943 to seize the Marianas. US forces invaded Saipan on 15 June 1944. Despite a Japanese naval counterattack which led to the Battle of the Philippine Sea and heavy fighting on land, Saipan was secured by 9 July. Operations followed against Guam and Tinian, with all three islands secured by August. Naval construction battalions (Seabees) began at once to construct air bases suitable for the B-29, commencing even before the end of ground fighting. In all, five major air fields were built: two on the flat island of Tinian, one on Saipan, and two on Guam. Each was large enough to eventually accommodate a bomb wing consisting of four bomb groups, giving a total of 180 B-29s per airfield. These bases could be supplied by ship, and unlike the bases in China, were not vulnerable to attacks by Japanese ground forces. The bases became the launch sites for the large B-29 raids against Japan in the final year of the war. The first B-29 arrived on Saipan on 12 October 1944, and the first combat mission was launched from there on 28 October 1944, with 14 B-29s attacking the Truk atoll. The 73rd Bomb Wing launched the first mission against Japan from bases in the Marianas, on 24 November 1944, sending 111 B-29s to attack Tokyo. For this first attack on the Japanese capital since the Doolittle Raid in April 1942, 73rd Bomb Wing wing commander Brigadier General Emmett O'Donnell Jr. acted as mission command pilot in B-29 \"Dauntless Dotty\". The campaign of incendiary raids started with the bombardment of Kobe on 4 February 1945, then peaked early with the most destructive bombing raid in history (even when the later \"Silverplate\"-flown nuclear attacks on Hiroshima and Nagasaki are considered) on the night of 9–10 March 1945 on Tokyo. From then on, the raids intensified, being launched regularly until the end of the war. The attacks succeeded in devastating most large Japanese cities (with the exception of Kyoto and several others), and they gravely damaged Japan's war industries. Although less publicly appreciated, the mining of Japanese ports and shipping routes (Operation Starvation) carried out by B-29s from April 1945 reduced Japan's ability to support its population and move its troops.", "Perhaps the most famous B-29s were the sixty-five examples of the Silverplate series, which were modified to drop atomic bombs. They were also stripped of all guns, except for those on the tail, in order to have a lighter aircraft. The Silverplate aircraft were handpicked by Lieutenant Colonel Paul W. Tibbets for the mission, straight off the assembly line at the Omaha plant that was to become Offutt Air Force Base. The Silverplate bombers differed from other B-29s then in service by having fuel injection and reversible props. Pilot Charles Sweeney credits the reversible props for saving \"Bockscar\" after making an emergency landing on Okinawa following the Nagasaki bombing. \"Enola Gay\", flown by Tibbets, dropped the first bomb, called Little Boy, on Hiroshima on 6 August 1945. \"Enola Gay\" is fully restored and on display at the Smithsonian's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center, outside Dulles Airport in Washington, D.C. \"Bockscar\" dropped the second bomb, called Fat Man, on Nagasaki three days later. \"Bockscar\" is on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force. Following the surrender of Japan, called V-J Day, B-29s were used for other purposes. A number supplied POWs with food and other necessities by dropping barrels of rations on Japanese POW camps. In September 1945, a long-distance flight was undertaken for public relations purposes: Generals Barney M. Giles, Curtis LeMay, and Emmett O'Donnell Jr. piloted three specially modified B-29s from Chitose Air Base in Hokkaidō to Chicago Municipal Airport, continuing to Washington, D.C., the farthest nonstop distance (c.6400 miles) to that date flown by U.S. Army Air Forces aircraft and the first-ever nonstop flight from Japan to Chicago. Two months later, Colonel Clarence S. Irvine commanded another modified B-29, \"Pacusan Dreamboat\", in a world-record-breaking long-distance flight from Guam to Washington, D.C., traveling in 35 hours, with a gross takeoff weight of. Almost a year later, in October 1946, the same B-29 flew 9,422 miles nonstop from Oahu, Hawaii, to Cairo, Egypt, in less than 40 hours, demonstrating the possibility of routing airlines over the polar icecap.", "Although considered for other theaters, and briefly evaluated in the UK, the B-29 was exclusively used in World War II in the Pacific Theatre. The use of YB-29-BW \"41-36393\", the so-named \"Hobo Queen\", one of the service test aircraft flown around several British airfields in early 1944, was part of a \"disinformation\" program from its mention in an American-published German language propaganda leaflet from Leap Year Day in 1944, meant to be circulated within the Reich, with the intent to deceive the Germans into believing that the B-29 would be deployed to Europe. American post-war military assistance programs loaned the RAF enough Superfortresses to equip several RAF Bomber Command squadrons. The aircraft were known as the Washington B.1 in RAF service, and served from March 1950 until the last bombers were returned in early 1954. The phase out was occasioned by deliveries of the English Electric Canberra bombers. Three Washingtons modified for ELINT duties and a standard bomber version used for support by No. 192 Squadron RAF were decommissioned in 1958, being replaced by de Havilland Comet aircraft. Two British Washington B.1 aircraft were transferred to the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) in 1952. They were attached to the Aircraft Research and Development Unit and used in trials conducted on behalf of the British Ministry of Supply. Both aircraft were placed in storage in 1956 and were sold for scrap in 1957.", "At the end of World War II, Soviet development with modern four-engined heavy bombers lagged behind the west. The Petlyakov Pe-8—the sole heavy bomber operated by the Soviet Air Forces—first flew in 1936. Intended to replace the obsolete Tupolev TB-3, only 93 Pe-8s were built by the end of World War II. During 1944 and 1945 four B-29s made emergency landings in Soviet territory after bombing raids on Japanese Manchuria and Japan. In accordance with Soviet neutrality in the Pacific War, the bombers were interned by the Soviets despite American requests for their return. Rather than return the aircraft, the Soviets reverse engineered the American B-29s and used them as a pattern for the Tupolev Tu-4. On 31 July 1944 \"Ramp Tramp\" (serial number 42-6256), of the United States Army Air Force 462nd (Very Heavy) Bomb Group was diverted to Vladivostok, Russia, after an engine failed and the propeller could not be feathered. This B-29 was part of a 100-aircraft raid against the Japanese Showa steel mill in Anshan, Manchuria. On 20 August 1944, \"Cait Paomat\" (42-93829), flying from Chengdu, was damaged by anti-aircraft gunfire during a raid on the Yawata Iron Works. Due to the damage sustained, the crew elected to divert to the Soviet Union. The aircraft crashed in the foothills of Sikhote-Alin mountain range east of Khabarovsk after the crew bailed out. On 11 November 1944, during a night raid on Omura in Kyushu, Japan, the \"General H. H. Arnold Special\" (42-6365) was damaged and forced to divert to Vladivostok in the Soviet Union. The crew was interned. On 21 November 1944, \"Ding Hao\" (42-6358) was damaged during a raid on an aircraft factory at Omura, and was also forced to divert to Vladivostok. The interned crews of these four B-29s were allowed to escape into American-occupied Iran in January 1945 but none of the B-29s were returned after Stalin ordered the Tupolev OKB to examine and copy the B-29, and produce a design ready for quantity production as soon as possible. Because aluminum in the USSR was supplied in different gauges from that available in the US (metric vs imperial), the entire aircraft had to be extensively re-engineered. In addition, Tupolev substituted his own favored airfoil sections for those used by Boeing, with the Soviets themselves already having their own Wright R-1820-derived 18 cylinder radial engine, the Shvetsov ASh-73 of comparable power and displacement to the B-29's Duplex Cyclone radials available to power their design. In 1947, the Soviets debuted both the Tupolev Tu-4 (NATO ASCC code named Bull), and the Tupolev Tu-70 transport variant. The Soviets used tail-gunner positions similar to the B-29 in many later bombers and transports.", "Production of the B-29 was phased out after World War II with the last example completed by Boeing's Renton factory on 28 May 1946. Many aircraft went into storage, being declared excess inventory and were ultimately scrapped as surplus. Others remained in the active inventory and equipped the Strategic Air Command when it formed on 21 March 1946. In particular, the \"Silverplate\" modified aircraft of the 509th Composite Group remained the only aircraft capable of delivering the atomic bomb, and so the unit was involved in the Operation Crossroads series of tests, with B-29 \"Dave's Dream\" dropping a \"Fat Man\"-type bomb in Test \"Able\" on 1 July 1946. Some B-29s, fitted with filtered air sampling scoops, were used to monitor above ground nuclear weapons testing by the United States and the USSR by sampling airborne radioactive contamination. The USAF also used the aircraft for long-range weather reconnaissance (WB-29), for signals intelligence gathering (EB-29) and photographic reconnaissance (RB-29).", "The B-29 was used in 1950–53 in the Korean War. At first, the bomber was used in normal strategic day-bombing missions, though North Korea's few strategic targets and industries were quickly destroyed. More importantly, in 1950 numbers of Soviet MiG-15 jet fighters appeared over Korea, and after the loss of 28 aircraft, future B-29 raids were restricted to night-only missions, largely in a supply-interdiction role. The B-29 dropped the 1,000-lb VB-3 \"Razon\" (a range-controllable version of the earlier Azon guided ordnance device) and the 12,000 lb. VB-13 \"Tarzon\" MCLOS radio-controlled bombs in Korea, mostly for demolishing major bridges, like the ones across the Yalu River, and for attacks on dams. The aircraft also was used for numerous leaflet drops in North Korea, such as those for Operation Moolah. A Superfortress of the 91st Strategic Reconnaissance Squadron flew the last B-29 mission of the war on 27 July 1953. Over the course of the war, B-29s flew 20,000 sorties and dropped 200,000 tonnes (180,000 tons) of bombs. B-29 gunners were credited with shooting down 27 enemy aircraft. In turn 78 B-29 were lost; 57 B-29 and reconnaissance variants were lost in action and 21 were non-combat losses. Soviet records show that one MiG-15 jet fighter was shot down by a B-29 during the war. This occurred on 6 December 1950, when a B-29 shot down Lieutenant N. Serikov. With the arrival of the mammoth Convair B-36, the B-29 was reclassified as a medium bomber by the Air Force. However, the later B-50 Superfortress variant (initially designated B-29D) was good enough to handle auxiliary roles such as air-sea rescue, electronic intelligence gathering, air-to-air refueling, and weather reconnaissance. The B-50D was replaced in its primary role during the early 1950s by the Boeing B-47 Stratojet, which in turn was replaced by the Boeing B-52 Stratofortress. The final active-duty KB-50 and WB-50 variants were phased out in the mid-1960s, with the final example retired in 1965. A total of 3,970 B-29s were built.", "The variants of the B-29 were outwardly similar in appearance but were in fact built around different wing center sections that affected the wingspan dimensions. The wing of the Renton built B-29A-BN used a different subassembly process and was a foot longer in span. The Georgia built B-29B-BA weighed less through armament reduction. A planned C series with more reliable R-3350s was not built. Moreover, engine packages changed; including the type of propellers and range of the variable pitch. A notable example were the eventual 65 airframes (up to 1947's end) for the Silverplate and successor-name \"Saddletree\" specifications; built for the Manhattan Project with Curtiss Electric reversible pitch propellers. The other differences came about through added equipment for varied mission roles. These roles included cargo carriers (CB); rescue aircraft (SB); weather ships (WB); and trainers (TB); and aerial tankers (KB). Some were used for odd purposes such as flying relay television transmitters under the name of Stratovision. The B-29D led progressively to the XB-44, and the family of B-50 Superfortress (which was powered by four Pratt & Whitney R-4360-35 Wasp Major engines). Another role was as a mothership. This included being rigged for carrying the experimental parasite fighter aircraft, such as the McDonnell XF-85 Goblin and Republic F-84 Thunderjets as in flight lock on and offs. It was also used to develop the Airborne Early Warning program; it was the ancestor of various modern radar picket aircraft. A B-29 with the original Wright Duplex Cyclone powerplants was used to air-launch the famous Bell X-1 supersonic research rocket aircraft, as well as Cherokee rockets for the testing of ejection seats. Some B-29s were modified to act as test beds for various new systems or special conditions, including fire-control systems, cold-weather operations, and various armament configurations. Several converted B-29s were used to experiment with aerial refueling and re-designated as KB-29s. Perhaps the most important tests were conducted by the XB-29G; it carried prototype jet engines in its bomb bay, and lowered them into the air stream to conduct measurements.", "Twenty-two B-29s are preserved at various museums worldwide, including two flying examples; \"FIFI\", which belongs to the Commemorative Air Force, and \"Doc\", which belongs to Doc's Friends. Doc made its first flight in 60 years from Wichita, Kansas, on 17 July 2016. There are also four complete airframes either in storage or under restoration, eight partial airframes in storage or under restoration, and four known wreck sites. The B-29 \"Miss Marilyn Gay\" flew 27 bombing missions during World War II, mainly over Japan, and five POW relief missions; it is displayed at Dobbins Air Reserve Base in Georgia. There is a restored B-29A, \"Jack's Hack\", at the 58th Bomb Wing Memorial of the New England Air Museum in Windsor Locks, Connecticut. The \"Quaker-city\" (Serial number 44-70016) is on display at the Pima Air and Space Museum, Tucson, Arizona. The cell of the \"Command decision\", which can be visited, is on display at the National Museum of the USAF, Dayton, Ohio. Three of the Silverplate B-29s modified to drop nuclear bombs survive. The \"Enola Gay\" (nose number 82), which dropped the first atomic bomb, was fully restored and placed on display at the Smithsonian's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center of the National Air & Space Museum near Washington Dulles International Airport in 2003. The B-29 that dropped Fat Man on Nagasaki, \"Bockscar\" (nose number 77), is restored and on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson AFB in Dayton, Ohio. The third is the 15th Silverplate to be delivered, on the last day of the war in the Pacific. It is on display at the National Museum of Nuclear Science and History in Albuquerque, New Mexico, posed with a replica of the Mark-3 \"Fat Man\" nuclear bomb. Only two of the 22 museum aircraft are outside the United States: \"It's Hawg Wild\" at the Imperial War Museum Duxford and another at the KAI Aerospace Museum in Sachon, South Korea. One F-13, a photo-reconnaissance version of the B-29, is located outside at Georgia Veterans State Park, near Cordele, Georgia.", "Accidents and incidents involving B-29's include:", "[[Category:Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki]] [[Category:Boeing military aircraft|B-29 Superfortress]] [[Category:Four-engined tractor aircraft]] [[Category:1940s United States bomber aircraft|Boeing B-29]] [[Category:World War II bombers of the United States]] [[Category:Boeing B-29 Superfortress| ]] [[Category:Mid-wing aircraft]] [[Category:Aircraft first flown in 1942]] [[Category:Four-engined piston aircraft]]" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Harmonic function.", "In popular music.", "Tuning." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In major scales, a diminished triad occurs only on the seventh scale degree. For instance, in the key of C, this is a B diminished triad (B, D, F). Since the triad is built on the seventh scale degree, it is also called the \"leading-tone triad\". This chord has a dominant function. Unlike the dominant triad or dominant seventh, the leading-tone triad functions as a prolongational chord rather than a structural chord since the strong root motion by fifth is absent. On the other hand, in natural minor scales, the diminished triad occurs on the second scale degree; in the key of C minor, this is the D diminished triad (D, F, A). This triad is consequently called the \"supertonic diminished triad\". Like the supertonic triad found in a major key, the supertonic diminished triad has a predominant function, almost always resolving to a dominant functioning chord. The leading-tone diminished triad and supertonic diminished triad are usually found in first inversion (vii and ii, respectively) since the spelling of the chord forms a diminished fifth with the bass. This differs from the fully diminished seventh chord, which commonly occurs in root position. In both cases, the bass resolves up and the upper voices move downwards in contrary motion.", "Walter Everett writes that \"In rock and pop music, the diminished triad nearly always appears on the second scale degree, forming a generally maudlin and dejected ii with its members, 2–4–6.\" Songs that feature ii include Santo & Johnny's \"Sleep Walk\", Jay and the Americans' \"Cara Mia\", and The Hollies' \"The Air That I Breathe\". Not so rare but rare enough so as to imply knowledge of and conscious avoidance on the part of rock musicians, examples of its use include Oasis' \"Don't Look Back in Anger\", David Bowie's \"Space Oddity\", and two in Daryl Hall's \"Everytime You Go Away\". If the song is in a minor key, diminished triads are usually on the raised seventh note, vii. This is because the ascending melodic minor scale has a raised sixth and seventh degree. For example, the chord progression vii–i is common.", "In a twelve-tone equal temperament, a diminished triad has three semitones between the third and fifth, three semitones between the root and third, and six semitones between the root and fifth. In 5-limit just intonation, the diminished chord on VII (in C: B–D–F) is 15:8, 9:8, and 4:3, while on II (in C: D–F–A) it is 9:8, 4:3, and 8:5 (135:160:192). According to Georg Andreas Sorge, the trumpet, in its overtone series on C, gives the diminished triad E–G–B = 5:6:7 (\"perfect diminished chord\"), but the 7 is too flat and 45:54:64 is preferred. Helmholtz describes the diminished triad as − D | F, giving a just minor third and Pythagorean minor third (45:54:64) in the notation system used in \"On the Sensations of Tone as a Physiological Basis for the Theory of Music\". Play, (5-limit major), or on C." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Work.", "\"How to Do Things with Words\".", "Performative utterance.", "\"Sense and Sensibilia\".", "\"Philosophical Papers\".", "\"Are there \"A Priori\" Concepts?\".", "\"The Meaning of a Word\".", "\"Other Minds\".", "\"A Plea for Excuses\".", "Austin, Wittgenstein and Ryle." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Austin was born in Lancaster, England, the second son of Geoffrey Langshaw Austin (1884–1971), an architect, and his wife Mary Hutton Bowes-Wilson (1883–1948; \"née\" Wilson). In 1921 the family moved to Scotland, where Austin's father became the secretary of St Leonards School, St Andrews. Austin was educated at Shrewsbury School in 1924, earning a scholarship in Classics, and went on to study Classics at Balliol College, Oxford in 1929. In 1933, he received a First in Literae Humaniores (Classics and Philosophy) as well as the Gaisford Prize for Greek prose and first class honours in his finals. Literae Humaniores introduced him to serious philosophy and gave him a lifelong interest in Aristotle. He undertook his first teaching position in 1935, as fellow and tutor at Magdalen College, Oxford. Austin's early interests included Aristotle, Kant, Leibniz, and Plato (especially the \"Theaetetus\"). His more contemporary influences included especially G. E. Moore, John Cook Wilson and H. A. Prichard. The contemporary influences shaped their views about general philosophical questions on the basis of careful attention to the more specific judgements we make. They took our specific judgements to be more secure than more general judgements. It's plausible that some aspects of Austin's distinctive approach to philosophical questions derived from his engagement with the last three. During World War II Austin served in the British Intelligence Corps. It has been said of him that, \"he more than anybody was responsible for the life-saving accuracy of the D-Day intelligence\" (reported in Warnock 1963: 9). Austin left the army with the rank of lieutenant colonel and was honored for his intelligence work with an OBE (Officer of the Order of the British Empire), the French Croix de guerre, and the U.S. Officer of the Legion of Merit. After the war Austin became White's Professor of Moral Philosophy at Oxford, as a Professorial Fellow of Corpus Christi College. Publishing little, his influence would largely make itself felt through his teaching in lectures and tutorials and, especially, his famous ‘Saturday morning meetings’. Austin visited Harvard and Berkeley in the mid-fifties, in 1955 delivering the William James Lectures at Harvard that would become \"How to Do Things With Words\", and offering a seminar on excuses whose material would find its way into \"A Plea for Excuses\". It was at this time that he met and befriended Noam Chomsky. He was president of the Aristotelian Society from 1956 to 1957. Austin died, shortly after being diagnosed with lung cancer, at the age of 48. At the time, he was developing a semantic theory based on sound symbolism, using the English gl-words as data.", "", "\"How to Do Things with Words\" (1955/1962) is perhaps Austin's most influential work. In contrast to the positivist view, he argues, sentences with truth-values form only a small part of the range of utterances. After introducing several kinds of sentences which he asserts are neither true nor false, he turns in particular to one of these kinds of sentences, which he calls \"performative utterances\" or just \"performatives\". These he characterises by two features: He goes on to say that when something goes wrong in connection with a performative utterance it is, as he puts it, \"infelicitous\", or \"unhappy\" rather than false. The action which is performed when a 'performative utterance' is issued belongs to what Austin later calls a \"speech-act\" (more particularly, the kind of action Austin has in mind is what he subsequently terms the \"illocutionary act\"). For example, if you say \"I name this ship the \"Queen Elizabeth\",\" and the circumstances are appropriate in certain ways, then you will have done something special, namely, you will have performed the act of naming the ship. Other examples include: \"I take this man as my lawfully wedded husband,\" used in the course of a marriage ceremony, or \"I bequeath this watch to my brother,\" as occurring in a will. In all three cases the sentence is not being used to describe or state what one is 'doing', but being used to actually 'do' it. After numerous attempts to find more characteristics of performatives, and after having met with many difficulties, Austin makes what he calls a \"fresh start\", in which he considers \"more generally the senses in which to say something may be to do something, or in saying something we do something\". For example: John Smith turns to Sue Snub and says ‘Is Jeff’s shirt red?’, to which Sue replies ‘Yes’. John has produced a series of bodily movements which result in the production of a certain sound. Austin called such a performance a \"phonetic act\", and called the act a \"phone\". John's utterance also conforms to the lexical and grammatical conventions of English—that is, John has produced an English sentence. Austin called this a \"phatic act\", and labels such utterances \"phemes\". John also referred to Jeff's shirt, and to the colour red. To use a pheme with a more or less definite sense and reference is to utter a \"rheme\", and to perform a \"rhetic act\". Note that rhemes are a sub-class of phemes, which in turn are a sub-class of phones. One cannot perform a rheme without also performing a pheme and a phone. The performance of these three acts is the performance of a \"locution\"—it is the act of saying something. John has therefore performed a locutionary act. He has also done at least two other things. He has asked a question, and he has elicited an answer from Sue. Asking a question is an example of what Austin called an \"illocutionary act.\" Other examples would be making an assertion, giving an order, and promising to do something. To perform an illocutionary act is to use a locution with a certain force. It is an act performed \"in\" saying something, in contrast with a locution, the act \"of\" saying something. Eliciting an answer is an example of what Austin calls a \"perlocutionary act\", an act performed \"by\" saying something. Notice that if one successfully performs a perlocution, one also succeeds in performing both an illocution and a locution. In the theory of speech acts, attention has especially focused on the illocutionary act, much less on the locutionary and perlocutionary act, and only rarely on the subdivision of the locution into phone, pheme and rheme. \"How to Do Things With Words\" is based on lectures given at Oxford between 1951 and 1954, and then at Harvard in 1955.", "According to J. L. Austin, \"performative utterance\" refers to a not truth-valuable action of \"performing\", or \"doing\" a certain action. For example, when people say \"I promise to do so and so\", they are generating the action of making a promise. In this case, without any flaw (the promise is flawlessly fulfilled), the \"performative utterance\" is \"happy\", or to use J. L. Austin's word, \"felicitous\"; if on the other hand, one fails to do what he or she promised, it can be \"unhappy\", or \"infelicitous\". Notice that performative utterance is not truth-valuable, which means nothing said can be judged based on truth or falsity. There are four types of performative s according to Austin: explicit, implicit, primitive, and inexplicit. \"How to Do Things With Words\", edited by J. O. Urmson and Marina Bissau, records Austin's lectures on this topic. In this book, Austin offers examples for each type of performative mentioned above. For explicit performative, he mentioned \"I apologize\", \"I criticize\" (Page 83), which are so explicit to receivers that it would not make sense for someone to ask \"Does he really mean that?\". Inexplicit performative are opposite, so the receiver will have understandable doubts. For primary performative, the example Austin gave is \"I shall be there\". Compared with explicit performative, there is uncertainty in implicit performative. People might ask if he or she is promising to be there with primary performative, however, this uncertainty is not strong enough as in explicit performative. Most examples given are explicit because it is easy to identify and observe, and identifying other performative requires comparison and contrast with explicit performative.", "In the posthumously published \"Sense and Sensibilia\" (the title is Austin's own, and wittily echoes the title of \"Sense and Sensibility\", Jane Austen's first book, just as his name echoes hers), Austin criticizes the claims put forward by A. J. Ayer's \"The Foundations of Empirical Knowledge (1940)\", and to a lesser extent, H. H. Price's \"Perception\" (1932) and G. J. Warnock's \"Berkeley\" (1953), concerning the sense-data theory. He states that perceptual variation, which can be attributed to physical causes, does not involve a figurative disconnect between sense and reference, due to an unreasonable separation of parts from the perceived object. Central to his argument, he shows that \"there is no one kind of thing that we ‘perceive’ but many different kinds, the number being reducible if at all by scientific investigation and not by philosophy\" (Austin 1962a, 4). Austin argues that Ayer fails to understand the proper function of such words as \"illusion\", \"delusion\", \"hallucination\", \"looks\", \"appears\" and \"seems\", and uses them instead in a \"special way...invented by philosophers.\" According to Austin, normally these words allow us to express reservations about our commitment to the truth of what we are saying, and that the introduction of sense-data adds nothing to our understanding of or ability to talk about what we see. As an example, Austin examines the word ‘real’ and contrasts the ordinary meanings of that word based on everyday language and the ways it is used by sense-data theorists. In order to determine the meaning of ‘real’ we have to consider, case by case, the ways and contexts in which it is used. By observing that it is (i) a substantive-hungry word that is sometimes a (ii) adjuster-word, as well as a (iii) dimension-word and (iv) a word whose negative use \"wears the trousers,\" Austin highlights its complexities. Only by doing so, according to Austin, can we avoid introducing false dichotomies.", "Austin's papers were collected and published posthumously as \"Philosophical Papers\" by J. O. Urmson and Geoffrey Warnock. The book originally contained ten papers, two more being added in the second edition and one in the third. His paper Excuses has had a massive impact on criminal law theory. Chapters 1 and 3 study how a word may have different, but related, senses. Chapters 2 and 4 discuss the nature of knowledge, focusing on performative utterance. Chapters 5 and 6 study the correspondence theory, where a statement is true when it corresponds to a fact. Chapters 6 and 10 concern the doctrine of speech acts. Chapters 8, 9, and 12 reflect on the problems that language encounters in discussing actions and considering the cases of excuses, accusations, and freedom.", "This early paper contains a broad criticism of Idealism. The question set dealing with the existence of \"a priori\" concepts is treated only indirectly, by dismissing the concept of \"concept\" that underpins it. The first part of this paper takes the form of a reply to an argument for the existence of Universals: from observing that we do use words such as \"grey\" or \"circular\" and that we use a single term in each case, it follows that there must be a \"something\" that is named by such terms—a universal. Furthermore, since each case of \"grey\" or \"circular\" is different, it follows that universals \"themselves\" cannot be sensed. Austin carefully dismantles this argument, and in the process other transcendental arguments. He points out first that universals are not \"something we stumble across\", and that they are \"defined\" by their relation to particulars. He continues by pointing out that, from the observation that we use \"grey\" and \"circular\" as if they were the names of things, it simply \"does not follow\" that there is something that is named. In the process he dismisses the notion that \"words are essentially proper names\", asking \"...why, if 'one identical' word is used, \"must\" there be 'one identical object' present which it denotes\". In the second part of the article, he generalizes this argument against universals to address concepts as a whole. He points out that it is \"facile\" to treat concepts as if they were \"an article of property\". Such questions as \"Do we possess such-and-such a concept\" and \"how do we come to possess such-and-such a concept\" are meaningless, because concepts are not the sort of thing that one possesses. In the final part of the paper, Austin further extends the discussion to relations, presenting a series of arguments to reject the idea that there is some \"thing\" that is a relation. His argument likely follows from the conjecture of his colleague, S. V. Tezlaf, who questioned what makes \"this\" \"that\".", "\"The Meaning of a Word\" is a polemic against doing philosophy by attempting to pin down the \"meaning\" of the words used, arguing that 'there is \"no\" simple and handy appendage of a word called \"the meaning of the word (x)\"'. Austin warns us to take care when removing words from their ordinary usage, giving numerous examples of how this can lead to error.", "In \"Other Minds\", one of his most highly acclaimed pieces, Austin criticizes the method that philosophers have used since Descartes to analyze and verify statements of the form \"That person S feels X.\" This method works from the following three assumptions: Although Austin agrees with (2), quipping that \"we should be in a pretty predicament if I did\", he found (1) to be false and (3) to be therefore unnecessary. The background assumption to (1), Austin claims, is that if I say that I know X and later find out that X is false, I did not know it. Austin believes that this is not consistent with the way we actually use language. He claims that if I was in a position where I would normally say that I know X, if X should turn out to be false, I would be speechless rather than self-corrective. He gives an argument that this is so by suggesting that believing is to knowing as intending is to promising— knowing and promising are the speech-act versions of believing and intending respectively.", "\"A Plea for Excuses\" is both a demonstration by example, and a defense of the methods of ordinary language philosophy, which proceeds on the conviction that: \"...our common stock of words embodies all the distinctions men have found worth drawing, and the connections they have found worth marking, in the lifetime of many generations: these surely are likely to be more numerous, more sound, since they have stood up to the long test of survival of the fittest, and more subtle, at least in all ordinary and reasonable practical matters, than any that you or I are likely to think up in our armchair of an afternoon—the most favourite alternative method.\" An example of such a distinction Austin describes in a footnote is that between the phrases \"by mistake\" and \"by accident\". Although their uses are similar, Austin argues that with the right examples we can see that a distinction exists in when one or the other phrase is appropriate. Austin proposes some curious philosophical tools. For instance, he uses a sort of word game for developing an understanding of a key concept. This involves taking up a dictionary and finding a selection of terms relating to the key concept, then looking up each of the words in the explanation of their meaning. This process is iterated until the list of words begins to repeat, closing in a \"family circle\" of words relating to the key concept.", "Austin occupies a place in philosophy of language alongside the Cantabrigian Wittgenstein and Austin's fellow Oxonian, Gilbert Ryle, in staunchly advocating the examination of the way words are ordinarily \"used\" in order to elucidate meaning and by this means avoid philosophical confusions. Unlike many ordinary language philosophers, however, Austin disavowed any overt indebtedness to Wittgenstein's later philosophy." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Cooperation with the European Space Agency.", "Canadian space program.", "Canadian astronauts.", "Canadian satellites.", "International projects.", "Facilities.", "Future programs.", "Rockets." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The origins of the Canadian upper atmosphere and space program can be traced back to the end of the Second World War. With the launch of Alouette 1 in September 1962, Canada became the third country to put an artificial satellite into space. At the time, Canada only possessed upper atmospheric launch capabilities (sounding rockets), therefore, Alouette 1 was sent aloft by the American National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) from Vandenberg Air Force Base in Lompoc, California. The technical excellence of the satellite, which lasted for ten years instead of the expected one, prompted the further study of the ionosphere with the joint Canadian-designed, U.S.-launched ISIS satellite program. This undertaking was designated an International Milestone of Electrical Engineering by IEEE in 1993. The launch of Anik A-1 in 1972 made Canada the first country in the world to establish its own domestic geostationary communication satellite network. These and other space-related activities in the 1980s compelled the Canadian government to promulgate the \"Canadian Space Agency Act\", which established the Canadian Space Agency. The Act received royal assent on May 10, 1990, and came into force on December 14, 1990. The mandate of the Canadian Space Agency is to promote the peaceful use and development of space, to advance the knowledge of space through science and to ensure that space science and technology provide social and economic benefits for Canadians. The Canadian Space Agency's mission statement says that the agency is committed to leading the development and application of space knowledge for the benefit of Canadians and humanity. In 1999 the CSA was moved from project-based to \"A-base\" funding and given a fixed annual budget of $300 million. The actual budget varies from year to year due to additional earmarks and special projects. In 2009, Dr. Nicole Buckley was appointed Chief Scientist of Life Science.", "The CSA has been a cooperating state of the European Space Agency (ESA) since the 1970s and has several formal and informal partnerships and collaborative programs with space agencies in other countries, such as NASA, ISRO, JAXA, and SNSA. Canada's collaboration with Europe in space activities predated both the European Space Agency and the Canadian Space Agency. From 1968, Canada held observer status in the European Space Conference (ESC), a ministerial-level organization set up to determine future European space activities, and it continued in this limited role after ESA was created in 1975. Since January 1, 1979, Canada has had the special status of a \"Cooperating State\" with the ESA, paying for the privilege and also investing in working time and providing scientific instruments that are placed on ESA probes. Canada is allowed to participate in optional programs; it also has to contribute to the General Budget but not as much as associate membership entail. This status was unique at the time and remains so today. On 15 December 2010 the accord was renewed for a further 10 years, until 2020. By virtue of this accord, Canada takes part in ESA deliberative bodies and decision-making and in ESA's programmes and activities. Canadian firms can bid for and receive contracts to work on programmes. The accord has a provision specifically ensuring a fair industrial return to Canada. The head of the Canadian delegation to ESA is the president of the Canadian Space Agency. As of February 2009, there are currently 30 Canadians that are employed as staff members at ESA. (Distributed over various ESA sites: 20 at ESTEC; 4 at ESOC; 4 at ESA HQ; 2 at ESRIN).", "The Canadian space program is administered by the Canadian Space Agency. Canada has contributed technology, expertise and personnel to the world space effort, especially in collaboration with ESA and NASA. In addition to its astronauts and satellites, some of the most notable Canadian technological contributions to space exploration include the Canadarm on the Space Shuttle and Canadarm2 on the International Space Station. Canada's contribution to the International Space Station is the $1.3 billion Mobile Servicing System. This consists of Canadarm2 (SSRMS), Dextre (SPDM), mobile base system (MBS) and multiple robotics workstations that together make up the Mobile Servicing System on the ISS. The Canadarm, Canadarm2 and Dextre all employ the Advanced Space Vision System, which allows more efficient use of the robotic arms. Another Canadian technology of note is the Orbiter Boom Sensor System, which was an extension for the original Canadarm used to inspect the Space Shuttle's thermal protection system for damage while in orbit. Before the Space Shuttle's retirement, the boom was modified for use with Canadarm2; STS-134 (the Space Shuttle program's penultimate mission) left it for use on the ISS.", "There have been four recruiting campaigns for astronauts for the CSA. The first, in 1983, led to the selection of Roberta Bondar, Marc Garneau, Robert Thirsk, Ken Money, Bjarni Tryggvason and Steve MacLean. The second, in 1992, selected Chris Hadfield, Julie Payette, Dafydd Williams and Michael McKay. On May 13, 2009, it was announced after the completion of a third selection process that two new astronauts, Jeremy Hansen and David Saint-Jacques, had been chosen. The latest recruitment campaign was launched in 2016, attracting 3,772 applicants for 2 candidates. In 2017, Joshua Kutryk and Jennifer Sidey were chosen. Nine Canadians have participated in 17 manned missions in total: 14 NASA Space Shuttle missions (including one mission to Mir) and 3 Roscosmos Soyuz missions. Two former Canadian astronauts never flew in space: Michael McKay resigned due to medical reasons and Ken Money resigned in 1992, eight years after his selection. On December 19, 2012, Canadian astronaut Chris Hadfield launched aboard a Soyuz spacecraft to reach the International Space Station. This mission marked the completion of NASA's compensation to Canada for its contribution to the Shuttle and International Space Station programs, meaning that there were no confirmed remaining space flight opportunities for Canadian astronauts. In June 2015, the Canadian government announced a renewed commitment to the International Space Station, securing flights for both of Canada's remaining active astronauts. In May 2016, the CSA announced that David Saint-Jacques would fly to the International Space Station aboard a Roscosmos Soyuz rocket in November 2018 for 6 months, as part of the Expedition 58/59 crew.", "Additionally, there are commercial satellites launched by the telecommunications company Telesat, a former Crown corporation that was privatized in 1998. These are the Anik satellites, the Nimiq satellites (all currently used by Bell TV), and MSAT-1. Further, technology and research satellites have been developed by UTIAS-SFL, including the CanX program, ExactView-9, and GHGSat-D.", "The CSA contributes to many international projects, including satellites, rovers, and space telescopes. The CSA has contributed components to ESA, NASA, ISRO, JAXA, and SNSB projects in the past. Currently, Canada is contributing the Fine Guidance Sensor to NASA's upcoming James Webb Space Telescope. Additionally, Canadian universities and aerospace contractors, including the University of Calgary, UTIAS-SFL, COM DEV, MDA, Magellan Aerospace, Telesat and others, have provided components to various international space agencies.", "A number of launch facilities have been used by the Canadian Space Agency and its predecessors: Canada United States Other international", "With the successful launching of Radarsat-2 in December 2007 and completion of Canada's C$1.4 billion contribution to the International Space Station in early 2008, the CSA found itself with no major follow-on projects. This fact was highlighted by Marc Garneau, Canada's first astronaut and former head of the CSA, who in the fall of 2007 called upon the Canadian government to develop and institute a space policy for Canada. A modest step has been taken to resolve this problem. In November 2008, the Agency signed a $40 million 16-month contract with MacDonald, Dettwiler and Associates of Vancouver to begin the design of the RADARSAT Constellation (3 satellite) earth observation mission. In August 2010 further funding was awarded for detailed design work scheduled for completion by 2012. Launch of the three satellites is scheduled for NET March 2019. Also in the 2009 Federal budget, the agency was awarded funding for the preliminary design of robotic Lunar/Martian rovers. On February 28, 2019, Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau announced Canada's commitment to the Lunar Gateway, an international NASA-led project to put a small space station in lunar orbit. The announcement made Canada the first international partner in the Lunar Gateway project. As part of the announcement, Canada has committed to spending $2.05 billion over 24 years to develop the next generation Canadarm 3. This marks Canada's largest ever single financial commitment to a single project, surpassing the $1.7 billion spent on projects for the International Space Station. A number of initiatives are without funding. The CSA is the lead agency for the Polar Communication and Weather mission (PCW), which involves the proposed launch of two satellites in polar orbit to provide Canadian authorities with improved weather information and communications capabilities in the high arctic. Launch of the two satellites was proposed to take place in 2016, but funding could not be obtained and the program was cancelled.", "The Canadian Space Agency has no indigenous launch system capability beyond upper atmospheric sounding rockets. Canada relies on other countries, such as the U.S., India and Russia, to launch its spacecraft into orbit, but both the Defence Department and the space agency are looking at the option of constructing a Canadian-made launcher. The CSA announced in 2011 it was researching locations in Cape Breton, Nova Scotia, or the potential reopening of the Churchill Rocket Research Range in Manitoba for a micro satellite (150 kg) launch site to end its reliance on foreign launch providers. However, Canadian politicians seldom change funding without having at least some idea of the expected economic, social and national defense benefits that could reasonably accrue to their constituents from the program. Another possible location, CFB Suffield, remains an option. According to Canadian Space Agency officials, it would take 10 to 12 years for a full-scale project to design and build a small satellite launcher. There has been no funding for these activities announced. Although a new launch facility at Canso, Nova Scotia, is in progress (2020 expected operation), its intended use is for commercial launches of the Ukrainian Cyclone-4M rocket. The facility is a project of the Maritime Launch Services company. Any CSA involvement has not been announced." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Hydrates.", "Applications.", "Main applications.", "Glass manufacture.", "Water softening.", "Food additive and cooking.", "Inexpensive, weak base.", "Miscellaneous.", "Physical properties.", "Occurrence as natural mineral.", "Production.", "Mining.", "Barilla and kelp.", "Leblanc process.", "Solvay process.", "Hou's process.", "External links." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Sodium carbonate is obtained as three hydrates and as the anhydrous salt: The decahydrate is formed from water solutions crystallizing in the temperature range -2.1 to +32.0 C, the heptahydrate in the narrow range 32.0 to 35.4 C and above this temperature the monohydrate forms. In dry air the decahydrate and heptahydrate lose water to give the monohydrate. Other hydrates have been reported, e.g. with 2.5 units of water per sodium carbonate unit (\"pentahemihydrate\").", "", "In terms of its largest applications, sodium carbonate is used in the manufacture of glass, paper, rayon, soaps, and detergents.", "Sodium carbonate serves as a flux for silica, lowering the melting point of the mixture to something achievable without special materials. This \"soda glass\" is mildly water-soluble, so some calcium carbonate is added to the melt mixture to make the glass insoluble. Bottle and window glass (Soda-lime glass) is made by melting such mixtures of sodium carbonate, calcium carbonate, and silica sand (silicon dioxide (SiO)). When these materials are heated, the carbonates release carbon dioxide. In this way, sodium carbonate is a source of sodium oxide. Soda lime glass has been the most common form of glass for centuries.", "Sodium carbonate is used to soften water by removing Mg and Ca. These ions form insoluble solid precipitates upon treatment with carbonate ions: Sodium carbonate is an inexpensive and water-soluble source of carbonate ions.", "Sodium carbonate is a food additive (E500) used as an acidity regulator, anticaking agent, raising agent, and stabilizer. It is one of the components of, a solution of alkaline salts used to give ramen noodles their characteristic flavor and texture. It is used in the production of \"snus\" to stabilize the pH of the final product. Sodium carbonate is used in the production of sherbet powder. The cooling and fizzing sensation results from the endothermic reaction between sodium carbonate and a weak acid, commonly citric acid, releasing carbon dioxide gas, which occurs when the sherbet is moistened by saliva. In China, it is used to replace lye-water in the crust of traditional Cantonese moon cakes, and in many other Chinese steamed buns and noodles. In cooking, it is sometimes used in place of sodium hydroxide for lyeing, especially with German pretzels and lye rolls. These dishes are treated with a solution of an alkaline substance to change the pH of the surface of the food and improve browning.", "Sodium carbonate is also used as a relatively strong base in various fields. As a common alkali, it is preferred in many chemical processes because it is cheaper than NaOH and far safer to handle. Its mildness especially recommends its use in domestic applications. For example, it is used as a pH regulator to maintain stable alkaline conditions necessary for the action of the majority of photographic film developing agents. It is also a common additive in swimming pools and aquarium water to maintain a desired pH and carbonate hardness (KH). In dyeing with fiber-reactive dyes, sodium carbonate (often under a name such as soda ash fixative or soda ash activator) is used to ensure proper chemical bonding of the dye with cellulose (plant) fibers, typically before dyeing (for tie dyes), mixed with the dye (for dye painting), or after dyeing (for immersion dyeing). It is also used in the froth flotation process to maintain a favourable pH as a float conditioner besides CaO and other mildly basic compounds. Sodium (NaHCO) or baking soda, also a component in fire extinguishers, is often generated from sodium carbonate. Although NaHCO is itself an intermediate product of the Solvay process, the heating needed to remove the ammonia that contaminates it decomposes some NaHCO, making it more economic to react finished NaCO with CO: In a related reaction, sodium carbonate is used to make sodium bisulfite (NaHSO), which is used for the \"sulfite\" method of separating lignin from cellulose. This reaction is exploited for removing sulfur dioxide from flue gases in power stations: This application has become more common, especially where stations have to meet stringent emission controls. Sodium carbonate is used by the cotton industry to neutralize the sulfuric acid needed for acid delinting of fuzzy cottonseed.", "Sodium carbonate is used by the brick industry as a wetting agent to reduce the amount of water needed to extrude the clay. In casting, it is referred to as \"bonding agent\" and is used to allow wet alginate to adhere to gelled alginate. Sodium carbonate is used in toothpastes, where it acts as a foaming agent and an abrasive, and to temporarily increase mouth pH. Sodium carbonate is also used in the processing and tanning of animal hides.", "The integral enthalpy of solution of sodium carbonate is −28.1 kJ/mol for a 10% w/w aqueous solution. The Mohs hardness of sodium carbonate monohydrate is 1.3.", "Sodium carbonate is soluble in water, and can occur naturally in arid regions, especially in mineral deposits (\"evaporites\") formed when seasonal lakes evaporate. Deposits of the mineral natron have been mined from dry lake bottoms in Egypt since ancient times, when natron was used in the preparation of mummies and in the early manufacture of glass. The anhydrous mineral form of sodium carbonate is quite rare and called natrite. Sodium carbonate also erupts from Ol Doinyo Lengai, Tanzania's unique volcano, and it is presumed to have erupted from other volcanoes in the past, but due to these minerals' instability at the earth's surface, are likely to be eroded. All three mineralogical forms of sodium carbonate, as well as trona, trisodium hydrogendicarbonate dihydrate, are also known from ultra-alkaline pegmatitic rocks, that occur for example in the Kola Peninsula in Russia. Extraterrestrially, known sodium carbonate is rare. Deposits have been identified as the source of bright spots on Ceres, interior material that has been brought to the surface. While there are carbonates on Mars, and these are expected to include sodium carbonate, deposits have yet to be confirmed, this absence is explained by some as being due to a global dominance of low pH in previously aqueous Martian soil.", "", "Trona, trisodium hydrogendicarbonate dihydrate (NaHCOCO·2HO), is mined in several areas of the US and provides nearly all the domestic consumption of sodium carbonate. Large natural deposits found in 1938, such as the one near Green River, Wyoming, have made mining more economical than industrial production in North America. There are important reserves of trona in Turkey; two million tons of soda ash have been extracted from the reserves near Ankara. It is also mined from some alkaline lakes such as Lake Magadi in Kenya by dredging. Hot saline springs continuously replenish salt in the lake so that, provided the rate of dredging is no greater than the replenishment rate, the source is fully sustainable.", "Several \"halophyte\" (salt-tolerant) plant species and seaweed species can be processed to yield an impure form of sodium carbonate, and these sources predominated in Europe and elsewhere until the early 19th century. The land plants (typically glassworts or saltworts) or the seaweed (typically \"Fucus\" species) were harvested, dried, and burned. The ashes were then \"lixiviated\" (washed with water) to form an alkali solution. This solution was boiled dry to create the final product, which was termed \"soda ash\"; this very old name refers derives from the Arabic word \"soda\", in turn applied to salsola soda, one of the many species of seashore plants harvested for production. \"Barilla\" is a commercial term applied to an impure form of potash obtained from coastal plants or kelp. The sodium carbonate concentration in soda ash varied very widely, from 2–3 percent for the seaweed-derived form (\"kelp\"), to 30 percent for the best barilla produced from saltwort plants in Spain. Plant and seaweed sources for soda ash, and also for the related alkali \"potash\", became increasingly inadequate by the end of the 18th century, and the search for commercially viable routes to synthesizing soda ash from salt and other chemicals intensified.", "In 1792, the French chemist Nicolas Leblanc patented a process for producing sodium carbonate from salt, sulfuric acid, limestone, and coal. In the first step, sodium chloride is treated with sulfuric acid in the Mannheim process. This reaction produces sodium sulfate (\"salt cake\") and hydrogen chloride: The salt cake and crushed limestone (calcium carbonate) was reduced by heating with coal. This conversion entails two parts. First is the carbothermic reaction whereby the coal, a source of carbon, reduces the sulfate to sulfide: The second stage is the reaction to produce sodium carbonate and calcium sulfide: This mixture is called \"black ash\". The soda ash is extracted from the black ash with water. Evaporation of this extract yields solid sodium carbonate. This extraction process was termed lixiviation. The hydrochloric acid produced by the Leblanc process was a major source of air pollution, and the calcium sulfide byproduct also presented waste disposal issues. However, it remained the major production method for sodium carbonate until the late 1880s.", "In 1861, the Belgian industrial chemist Ernest Solvay developed a method to make sodium carbonate by first reacting sodium chloride, ammonia, water, and carbon dioxide to generate sodium bicarbonate and ammonium chloride: The resulting sodium bicarbonate was then converted to sodium carbonate by heating it, releasing water and carbon dioxide: Meanwhile, the ammonia was regenerated from the ammonium chloride byproduct by treating it with the lime (calcium oxide) left over from carbon dioxide generation: The Solvay process recycles its ammonia. It consumes only brine and limestone, and calcium chloride is its only waste product. The process is substantially more economical than the Leblanc process, which generates two waste products, calcium sulfide and hydrogen chloride. The Solvay process quickly came to dominate sodium carbonate production worldwide. By 1900, 90% of sodium carbonate was produced by the Solvay process, and the last Leblanc process plant closed in the early 1920s. The second step of the Solvay process, heating sodium bicarbonate, is used on a small scale by home cooks and in restaurants to make sodium carbonate for culinary purposes (including pretzels and alkali noodles). The method is appealing to such users because sodium bicarbonate is widely sold as baking soda, and the temperatures required ( to ) to convert baking soda to sodium carbonate are readily achieved in conventional kitchen ovens.", "This process was developed by Chinese chemist Hou Debang in the 1930s. The earlier steam reforming byproduct carbon dioxide was pumped through a saturated solution of sodium chloride and ammonia to produce sodium bicarbonate by these reactions: The sodium bicarbonate was collected as a precipitate due to its low solubility and then heated up to approximately or to yield pure sodium carbonate similar to last step of the Solvay process. More sodium chloride is added to the remaining solution of ammonium and sodium chlorides; also, more ammonia is pumped at 30-40 °C to this solution. The solution temperature is then lowered to below 10 °C. Solubility of ammonium chloride is higher than that of sodium chloride at 30 °C and lower at 10 °C. Due to this temperature-dependent solubility difference and the common-ion effect, ammonium chloride is precipitated in a sodium chloride solution. The Chinese name of Hou's process, \"lianhe zhijian fa\" (), means \"coupled manufacturing alkali method\": Hou's process is coupled to the Haber process and offers better atom economy by eliminating the production of calcium chloride, since ammonia no longer needs to be regenerated. The byproduct ammonium chloride can be sold as a fertilizer.", "<br" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Bobbi Gibb and Kathrine Switzer.", "Rosie Ruiz, the impostor.", "Participant deaths.", "2011: Geoffrey Mutai and the IAAF.", "2013: Bombing.", "2014: Women's race disqualification.", "2016: Bobbi Gibb as grand marshal.", "2020: COVID-19 cancels marathon.", "Race.", "Qualifying.", "Race day.", "Starting times.", "Course.", "Heartbreak Hill.", "Records.", "The B.A.A..", "Divisions.", "Memorial.", "Notable features.", "Spectators.", "Scream Tunnel.", "Boston Red Sox.", "Dick and Rick Hoyt.", "Bandits.", "Costumes." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The Boston Marathon was first run in April 1897, having been inspired by the revival of the marathon for the 1896 Summer Olympics in Athens, Greece. It is the oldest continuously running marathon, and the second longest continuously running footrace in North America, having debuted five months after the Buffalo Turkey Trot. On April 19, 1897, ten years after the establishment of the B.A.A., the association held the marathon to conclude its athletic competition, the B.A.A. Games. The inaugural winner was John J. \"JJ\" McDermott, who ran the 24.5 mile course in 2:55:10, leading a field of 15. The event was scheduled for the recently established holiday of Patriots' Day, with the race linking the Athenian and American struggles for liberty. The race, which became known as the Boston Marathon, has been held every year since then, even during the World War years & the Great Depression, making it the world's oldest annual marathon. In 1924, the starting line was moved from Metcalf's Mill in Ashland to Hopkinton Green and the course was lengthened to to conform to the standard set by the 1908 Summer Olympics and codified by the IAAF in 1921. The Boston Marathon was originally a local event, but its fame and status have attracted runners from all over the world. For most of its history, the Boston Marathon was a free event, and the only prize awarded for winning the race was a wreath woven from olive branches. However, corporate-sponsored cash prizes began to be awarded in the 1980s, when professional athletes refused to run the race unless they received a cash award. The first cash prize for winning the marathon was awarded in 1986. Walter A. Brown was the President of the Boston Athletic Association from 1941 to 1964. During the height of the Korean War in 1951, Brown denied Koreans entry into the Boston Marathon. He stated: \"While American soldiers are fighting and dying in Korea, every Korean should be fighting to protect his country instead of training for marathons. As long as the war continues there, we positively will not accept Korean entries for our race on April 19.\"", "The Boston Marathon rule book until after the 1967 race made no mention of gender, nor did the Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) exclude women from races that included men until after the 1967 Boston Marathon. A separate women's race was not established at the Boston Marathon until 1972. Roberta \"Bobbi\" Gibb is recognized by the race organizers as the first woman to run the entire Boston Marathon in 1966. Gibb's attempt to register for that race was refused by race director Will Cloney in a letter in which he claimed women were physiologically incapable of running 26 miles. Gibb finished the 1966 race in three hours, twenty-one minutes and forty seconds, ahead of two-thirds of the runners. In 1967, Kathrine Switzer, who registered for the race using her official AAU registration number, paying the entry fee, providing a properly acquired fitness certificate, and signing her entry form with her usual signature 'K. V. Switzer', was the first woman to run and finish with a valid official race registration. As a result of Switzer's completion of the race as the first officially registered woman runner, the AAU changed its rules to ban women from competing in races against men. Switzer finished the race despite an infamous incident in which race official Jock Semple repeatedly assaulted her in an attempt to rip off her race numbers and eject her from the race. In 1996 the B.A.A. retroactively recognized as champions the unofficial women's leaders of 1966 through 1971. In 2015, about 46 percent of the entrants were female.", "In 1980, Rosie Ruiz crossed the finish line first in the women's race. Marathon officials became suspicious when it was discovered that Ruiz did not appear in race videotapes until near the end of the race. A subsequent investigation concluded that Ruiz had skipped most of the race and blended into the crowd about one mile (1.6km) from the finish line, where she then ran to her false victory. Ruiz was officially disqualified, and Canadian Jacqueline Gareau was proclaimed the winner.", "In 1905, James Edward Brooks of North Adams, Massachusetts died of pneumonia shortly after running the marathon. In 1996, a 61-year-old Swedish man, Humphrey Siesage, died of a heart attack during the 100th running. In 2002, Cynthia Lucero, 28, died of hyponatremia.", "On April 18, 2011, Geoffrey Mutai of Kenya won the 2011 Boston Marathon in a time of 2:03:02:00. Although this was the fastest marathon ever run at the time, the International Association of Athletics Federations noted that the performance was not eligible for world record status given that the course did not satisfy rules that regarded elevation drop and start/finish separation (the latter requirement being intended to prevent advantages gained from a strong tailwind, as was the case in 2011). The Associated Press (AP) reported that Mutai had the support of other runners who describe the IAAF's rules as \"flawed\". According to the \"Boston Herald\", race director Dave McGillivray said he was sending paperwork to the IAAF in an attempt to have Mutai's mark ratified as a world record. Although this was not successful, the AP indicated that the attempt to have the mark certified as a world record \"would force the governing bodies to reject an unprecedented performance on the world's most prestigious marathon course\".", "On April 15, 2013, the Boston Marathon was still in progress at 2:49p.m. EDT (nearly three hours after the winner crossed the finish line), when two homemade bombs were set off about apart on Boylston Street, in approximately the last of the course. The race was halted, preventing many from finishing. Three spectators were killed and an estimated 264 were injured. Entrants who completed at least half the course and did not finish due to the bombing were given automatic entry in 2014. In 2015, Dzhokhar Tsarnaev, one of the perpetrators of the bombing, was found guilty of 30 federal offenses in connection with the attack and was sentenced to death. His brother Tamerlan was killed by police.", "Bizunesh Deba of Ethiopia was eventually named women's winner of the 2014 Boston Marathon, following the disqualification of Rita Jeptoo from the event. Deba finished in a time of 2:19:59, and became the course record holder. Her performance bested that of Margaret Okayo, who ran a time of 2:20:43 in 2002.", "In the 2016 Boston Marathon, Jami Marseilles, an American, became the first female double amputee to finish the Boston Marathon. Bobbi Gibb, the first woman to have run the entire Boston Marathon (1966), was the grand marshal of the race. The Women's Open division winner, Atsede Baysa, gave Gibb her trophy; Gibb said that she would go to Baysa's native Ethiopia in 2017 and return it to her.", "Due to the coronavirus pandemic, the 2020 Boston Marathon was rescheduled from April 20 to September 14. It was the first postponement in the history of the event. On May 28, 2020, the marathon was cancelled. In its place, the BAA announced plans to have a virtual race so that the tradition can continue in a safe manner. This became the first time the marathon was cancelled, and the second time it has been modified; the first time being in 1918, when the race was changed from a marathon to a military relay race because of.", "", "The Boston Marathon is open to runners 18 or older from any nation, but they must meet certain qualifying standards. To qualify, a runner must first complete a standard marathon course certified by a national governing body affiliated with the International Association of Athletics Federations within a certain period of time before the date of the desired Boston Marathon (usually within approximately 18 months prior). In the 1980s and 1990s, membership in USA Track & Field was required of all runners, but this requirement has been eliminated. Qualifying standards for the 2013 race were tightened on February 15, 2011, by five minutes in each age-gender group for marathons run after September 23, 2011. Prospective runners in the age range of 18–34 must run a time of no more than 3:05:00 (3 hours 5 minutes) if male, or 3:35:00 (3 hours 35 minutes) if female; the qualifying time is adjusted upward as age increases. In addition, the 59-second grace period on qualifying times has been completely eliminated; for example, a 40- to 44-year-old male will no longer qualify with a time of 3:15:01. For many marathoners, to qualify for Boston (to \"BQ\") is a goal and achievement in itself. An exception to the qualification times is for runners who receive entries from partners. About one-fifth of the marathon's spots are reserved each year for charities, sponsors, vendors, licensees, consultants, municipal officials, local running clubs, and marketers. In 2010, about 5,470 additional runners received entries through partners, including 2,515 charity runners. The marathon currently allocates spots to two dozen charities who in turn are expected to raise more than $10 million a year. In 2017, charity runners raised $34.2 million for more than 200 non-profit organizations. The Boston Athletic Association's Official Charity Program raised $17.96 million, John Hancock's Non-Profit Program raised $12.3 million, and the last $3.97 million was raised by other qualified and invitational runners. On October 18, 2010, the 20,000 spots reserved for qualifiers were filled in a record-setting eight hours and three minutes. The speed of registration prompted the B.A.A. to change its qualifying standards for the 2013 marathon onward. In addition to lowering qualifying times, the change includes a rolling application process, which gives faster runners priority. Organizers decided not to significantly adjust the number of non-qualifiers. On September 27, 2018, the B.A.A. announced that they were lowering the qualifying times for the 2020 marathon by another five minutes, with male runners in the 18-34 age group required to run a time of 3:00:00 (3 hours) or less and female runners in the 18-34 age group required to run a time of 3:30:00 (3 hours, 30 minutes) or less in order to qualify.", "The race has traditionally been held on Patriots' Day, a state holiday in Massachusetts, and until 1969 that was every April 19, whichever day of the week that fell on. Starting in 1969, the holiday was observed on the third Monday in April and so the marathon date was correspondingly fixed to that Monday, often referred to by local residents as \"Marathon Monday\".", "Through 2005, the race began at noon, (wheelchair race at 11:25a.m., and elite women at 11:31a.m.), at the official starting point in Hopkinton, Massachusetts. In 2006, the race used a staggered \"wave start\", where top-seeded runners (the elite men's group) and a first batch of up to 10,000 runners started at noon, with a second group starting at 12:30. The next year the starting times for the race were moved up, allowing runners to take advantage of cooler temperatures and enabling the roads to be reopened earlier. The marathon later added third and fourth waves to help further stagger the runners and reduce congestion. The starting times for 2019 were:", "The course runs through of winding roads, following Route 135, Route 16, Route 30 and city streets into the center of Boston, where the official finish line is located at Copley Square, alongside the Boston Public Library. The race runs through eight Massachusetts cities and towns: Hopkinton, Ashland, Framingham, Natick, Wellesley, Newton, Brookline, and Boston. The Boston Marathon is considered to be one of the more difficult marathon courses because of the Newton hills, which culminate in \"Heartbreak Hill\" near Boston College. While the three hills on Commonwealth Avenue (Route 30) are better known, a preceding hill on Washington Street (Route 16), climbing from the Charles River crossing at, is regarded by Dave McGillivray, the long-term race director, as the course's most difficult challenge. This hill, which follows a drop in a stretch, forces many lesser-trained runners to a walking pace.", "Heartbreak Hill is an ascent over between the 20- and 21-mile (32- and 34-km) marks, near Boston College. It is the last of four \"Newton hills\", which begin at the mark and challenge contestants with late (if modest) climbs after the course's general downhill trend to that point. Though Heartbreak Hill itself rises only vertically (from an elevation of ), it comes in the portion of a marathon distance where muscle glycogen stores are most likely to be depleted—a phenomenon referred to by marathoners as \"hitting the wall\". It was on this hill that, in 1936, defending champion John A. \"Johnny\" Kelley overtook Ellison \"Tarzan\" Brown, giving him a consolatory pat on the shoulder as he passed. This gesture renewed the competitive drive in Brown, who rallied, pulled ahead of Kelley, and went on to win—thereby, it was said, breaking Kelley's heart.", "Because the course drops from start to finish and the start is quite far west of the finish, allowing a helpful tailwind, the Boston Marathon does not satisfy two of the criteria necessary for the ratification of world or American records. At the 2011 Boston Marathon on April 18, 2011, Geoffrey Mutai of Kenya ran a time of 2:03:02, which was the fastest ever marathon at the time (since surpassed by Eliud Kipchoge's 2:01:39 in Berlin 2018). However, due to the reasons listed above, Mutai’s performance was not ratified as an official world record. Bezunesh Deba from Ethiopia set the women's course record with a 2:19:59 performance on April 21, 2014. This was declared after Rita Jeptoo from Kenya was disqualified following a confirmed doping violation. Other course records include: On only four occasions have world record times for marathon running been set in Boston. In 1947, the men's record time set was 2:25:39, by Suh Yun-Bok of South Korea. In 1975, a women's world record of 2:42:24 was set by Liane Winter of West Germany, and in 1983, Joan Benoit Samuelson of the United States ran a women's world record time of 2:22:43. In 2012 Joshua Cassidy of Canada set a men's wheelchair marathon world-record time of 1:18:25. In 2007, astronaut Sunita Williams was an official entrant of the race, running a marathon distance while on the International Space Station, becoming the first person to run a marathon in space. She was sent a specialty bib and medal by the BAA on the STS-117 flight of the Space Shuttle \"Atlantis\". The race's organizers keep a standard time clock for all entries, though official timekeeping ceases after the six-hour mark.", "The \"Boston Athletic Association\" is a non-profit, organized sports association that organizes the Boston Marathon and other events.", "In 1975, the Boston Marathon became the first major marathon to include a wheelchair division competition. Bob Hall wrote race director Will Cloney to ask if he could compete in the race in his wheelchair. Cloney wrote back that he could not give Hall a race number, but would recognize Hall as an official finisher if he completed the race in under 3 hours and 30 minutes. Hall finished in 2 hours and 58 minutes, paving the way for the wheelchair division. Handcyclists have competed in the race since at least 2014. Starting in 2017, handcyclists are honored the same way runners and wheelchair racers are: with wreaths, prize money, and the playing of the men's and women's winners' national anthems. In addition to the push rim wheelchair division, the Boston Marathon also hosts a blind/visually impaired division and a mobility impaired program. Similar to the running divisions, a set of qualifying times has been developed for these divisions to motivate aspiring athletes and ensure competitive excellence. In 1986, the introduction of prize money at the Boston Marathon gave the push rim wheelchair division the richest prize purse in the sport. More than 1,000 people with disabilities and impairments have participated in the wheelchair division, while the other divisions have gained popularity each year. In 2013, 40 blind runners participated.", "The Boston Marathon Memorial in Copley Square, which is near the finish line, was installed to mark the one-hundredth running of the race. A circle of granite blocks set in the ground surrounds a central medallion that traces the race course and other segments that show an elevation map of the course and the names of the winners.", "", "With approximately 500,000 spectators, the Boston Marathon is New England's most widely viewed sporting event. About 1,000 media members from more than 100 outlets received media credentials in 2011. For the entire distance of the race, thousands line the sides of the course to cheer the runners on, encourage them, and provide free water and snacks to the runners.", "At Wellesley College, a women's college, it is traditional for the students to cheer on the runners in what is referred to as the Scream Tunnel. For about a quarter of a mile (400m), the students line the course, scream, and offer kisses. The Scream Tunnel is so loud runners claim it can be heard from a mile away. The tunnel is roughly half a mile (0.8km) prior to the halfway mark of the course.", "Every year, the Boston Red Sox play a home game at Fenway Park, starting at 11:05a.m. When the game ends, the crowd empties into Kenmore Square to cheer as the runners enter the final mile. This tradition started in 1903. In the 1940s, the Red Sox from the American League and the Boston Braves from the National League (who moved to Milwaukee after the 1953 season) alternated yearly as to which would play the morning game. In 2007, the game between the Red Sox and the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim was delayed until 12:18p.m. due to heavy rain. The marathon, which had previously been run in a wide variety of weather conditions, was not delayed. The 2018 game hosting the Baltimore Orioles was postponed into May due to rain.", "Dick and Rick Hoyt are one of the most recognized duos each year at the Boston Marathon. Dick is the father of Rick, who has cerebral palsy. While doctors said he would never have a normal life and thought that institutionalizing Rick was the best option, Dick and his wife disagreed and raised him as an ordinary child. Eventually, a computer device was developed that helped Rick communicate with his family, and they learned that one of his biggest passions was sports. \"Team Hoyt\" (Dick and Rick) started competing in charity runs, with Dick pushing Rick in a wheelchair. Dick and Rick have competed in 66 marathons and 229 triathlons (as of August 2008). Their top marathon finish was 2:40:47. The team completed their 30th Boston Marathon in 2012, when Dick was 72 and Rick was 50. They had intended the 2013 marathon to be their final one, but due to the Boston Marathon bombing, they were stopped a mile short of completing their run, and decided to run one more marathon the following year. They completed the 2014 marathon on April 21, 2014, having previously announced that it would be their last. In tribute to his connection with the race, Dick Hoyt was named the Grand Marshal of the 2015 marathon.", "Unlike many other races, the Boston Marathon tolerated \"bandits\" (runners who do not register and obtain a bib number). They used to be held back until after all the registered runners had left the starting line, and then were released in an unofficial fourth wave. They were generally not pulled off the course and mostly allowed to cross the finish line. For decades, these unofficial runners were treated like local folk heroes, celebrated for their endurance and spunk for entering a contest with the world's most accomplished athletes. Boston Marathon race director Dave McGillivray was once a teenage bandit. Given the increased field that was expected for the 2014 Marathon, however, organizers planned \"more than ever\" to discourage bandits from running. As of September 2015 the B.A.A. website states: Q: Can I run in the Boston Marathon as an unofficial or \"bandit\" runner? A: No, please do NOT run if you have not been officially entered in the race. Race amenities along the course and at the finish, such as fluids, medical care, and traffic safety, are provided based on the number of expected official entrants. Any addition to this by way of unofficial participants, adversely affects our ability to ensure a safe race for everyone.", "A number of people choose to run the course in a variety of costumes each year. During the 100th running in 1996, one runner wore a scale model of the Old North Church steeple on his back. Old North Church is where the signal was lit that set Paul Revere off on his midnight ride, which is commemorated each year on the same day as the Marathon. During the 2014 marathon, runners and spectators were discouraged from wearing \"costumes covering the face or any non-form fitting, bulky outfits extending beyond the perimeter of the body,\" for security reasons following the 2013 bombing. However, state authorities and the Boston Athletic Association did not outright ban such costumes." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Intervals.", "Chords.", "Root position and inverted chords.", "Notating root position and inversions.", "Figured bass.", "Popular-music notation.", "Lower-case letters.", "History.", "Counterpoint.", "Invertible counterpoint.", "Examples.", "Melodies.", "Twelve-tone music.", "Inversional equivalency and symmetry.", "Set theory.", "Jazz theory." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "3", "4", "4", "4", "3", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "An interval is inverted by raising or lowering either of the notes by one or more octaves so that the positions of the notes reverse (i.e. the higher note becomes the lower note and vice versa). For example, the inversion of an interval consisting of a C with an E above it (the third measure below) is an E with a C above it – to work this out, the C may be moved up, the E may be lowered, or both may be moved. \\override Score.TimeSignature \\override Score.SpacingSpanner.strict-note-spacing = ##t \\set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1/4) \\new Staff « </score> The tables to the right show the changes in interval quality and interval number under inversion. Thus, perfect intervals remain perfect, major intervals become minor and vice versa, and augmented intervals become diminished and vice versa. (Doubly diminished intervals become doubly augmented intervals, and vice versa.). Traditional interval numbers add up to nine: seconds become sevenths and vice versa, thirds become sixths and vice versa, and so on. Thus, a perfect fourth becomes a perfect fifth, an augmented fourth becomes a diminished fifth, and a simple interval (that is, one that is narrower than an octave) and its inversion, when added together, equal an octave. See also complement (music).", "A chord's inversion describes the relationship of its lowest notes to the other notes in the chord. For instance, a C-major triad contains the tones C, E and G; its inversion is determined by which of these tones is the lowest note (or bass note) in the chord. The term \"inversion\" often categorically refers to the different possibilities, though it may also be restricted to only those chords where the lowest note is not also the root of the chord. Texts that follow this restriction may use the term \"position\" instead, to refer to all of the possibilities as a category.", "A chord is in root position if its root is the lowest note. This is sometimes known as the \"parent chord\" of its inversions. For example, the root of a C-major triad is C, so a C-major triad will be in root position if C is the lowest note and its third and fifth (E and G, respectively) are above it – or, on occasion, don't sound at all. The following C-major triads are \"both\" in root position, since the lowest note is the root. The rearrangement of the notes above the bass into different octaves (here, the note E) and the doubling of notes (here, G), is known as \"voicing\" – the first voicing is close voicing, while the second is open. \\override Score.TimeSignature \\override Score.SpacingSpanner.strict-note-spacing = ##t \\set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1/4) \\time 4/4 \\relative c' { </score> In an inverted chord, the root is \"not\" the lowest note. The inversions are numbered in the order their lowest notes appear in a close root-position chord (from bottom to top). \\override Score.TimeSignature \\override Score.SpacingSpanner.strict-note-spacing = ##t \\set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1/4) \\time 4/4 \\relative c' { </score> As shown above, a C-major triad (or any chord with three notes) has two inversions: Chords with four notes (such as seventh chords) work in a similar way, except that they have three inversions, instead of just two. The three inversions of a G dominant seventh chord are: \\override Score.TimeSignature \\override Score.SpacingSpanner.strict-note-spacing = ##t \\set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1/4) \\time 4/4 \\relative c' { </score>", "", "Figured bass is a notation in which chord inversions are indicated by Arabic numerals (the \"figures\") either above or below the bass notes, indicating a harmonic progression. Each numeral expresses the interval that results from the voices above it (usually assuming octave equivalence). For example, in root-position triad C–E–G, the intervals above bass note C are a third and a fifth, giving the figures. If this triad were in first inversion (e.g., E–G–C), the figure would apply, due to the intervals of a third and a sixth appearing above the bass note E. Certain conventional abbreviations exist in the use of figured bass. For instance, root-position triads appear without symbols (the is understood), and first-inversion triads are customarily abbreviated as just, rather than. The table to the right displays these conventions. Figured-bass numerals express distinct intervals in a chord only as they relate to the bass note. They make no reference to the key of the progression (unlike Roman-numeral harmonic analysis), they do not express intervals \"between\" pairs of upper voices themselves – for example, in a C–E–G triad, the figured bass does not signify the interval relationship between E–G, they do not express notes in upper voices that double, or are unison with, the bass note. However, the figures are often used on their own (without the bass) in music theory simply to specify a chord's inversion. This is the basis for the terms given above such as \"chord\" for a second inversion triad. Similarly, in harmonic analysis the term I refers to a tonic triad in first inversion.", "A notation for chord inversion often used in popular music is to write the name of a chord followed by a forward slash and then the name of the bass note. This is called a \"slash chord\". For example, a C-major chord in first inversion (i.e., with E in the bass) would be notated as \"C/E\". This notation works even when a note not present in a triad is the bass; for example, F/G is a way of notating a particular approach to voicing an Fadd chord (G–F–A–C). This is quite different from analytical notations of \"function\"; e.g., the notation \"IV/V\" represents the subdominant of the dominant.", "Lower-case letters may be placed after a chord symbol to indicate root position or inversion. Hence, in the key of C major, a C-major chord in first inversion may be notated as \"Ib\", indicating \"chord I, first inversion\". (Less commonly, the root of the chord is named, followed by a lower-case letter: \"Cb\"). If no letter is added, the chord is assumed to be in root inversion, as though \"a\" had been inserted.", "In Jean-Philippe Rameau's theory, chords in different inversions are considered functionally equivalent. However, theorists before Rameau spoke of different intervals in different ways, such as the \"regola delle terze e seste\" (\"rule of sixths and thirds\"), which requires the resolution of imperfect consonances to perfect ones and would not propose a similarity between and sonorities, for instance.", "In contrapuntal inversion, two melodies, having previously accompanied each other once, accompany each other again but with the melody that had been in the high voice now in the low, and vice versa. The action of changing the voices is called \"textural inversion\". This is called \"double counterpoint\" when two voices are involved and \"triple counterpoint\" when three are involved. The inversion in two-part invertible counterpoint is also known as \"rivolgimento\".", "Themes that \"can\" be developed in this way without violating the rules of counterpoint are said to be in \"invertible counterpoint\". Invertible counterpoint can occur at various intervals, usually the octave, less often at the tenth or twelfth. To calculate the interval of inversion, add the intervals by which each voice has moved and subtract one. For example: If motif A in the high voice moves down a sixth, and motif B in the low voice moves up a fifth, in such a way as to result in A and B having exchanged registers, then the two are in double counterpoint at the tenth (6 + 5 – 1 = 10). In J.S. Bach's \"The Art of Fugue\", the first canon is at the octave, the second canon at the tenth, the third canon at the twelfth, and the fourth canon in augmentation and contrary motion. Other exemplars can be found in the fugues in G minor and B major [external Shockwave movies] from J.S. Bach’s \"The Well-Tempered Clavier,\" Book 2, both of which contain invertible counterpoint at the octave, tenth, and twelfth.", "For example, in the keyboard prelude in A major from J.S. Bach’s \"The Well-Tempered Clavier\", Book 1, the following passage, from bars 9–18, involves two lines, one in each hand: When this passage returns in bars 26–35 these lines are exchanged: J.S. Bach’s Three-Part Invention in F minor, BWV 795 involves exploring the combination of three themes. Two of these are announced in the opening two bars. A third idea joins them in bars 3–4. When this passage is repeated a few bars later in bars 7–9, the three parts are interchanged: The piece goes on to explore four of the six possible permutations of how these three lines can be combined in counterpoint. One of the most spectacular examples of invertible counterpoint occurs in the finale of Mozart’s \"Jupiter Symphony\". Here, no less than five themes are heard together: The whole passage brings the symphony to a conclusion in a blaze of brilliant orchestral writing. According to Tom Service:", "A melody is inverted by flipping it \"upside-down\", reversing the melody's contour. For instance, if the original melody has a rising major third, then the inverted melody has a falling major third (or, especially in tonal music, perhaps a falling \"minor\" third). According to \"The Harvard Dictionary of Music\", \"The intervals between successive pitches may remain exact or, more often in total music, they may be the equivalents in the diatonic scale. Hence c'–d–e' may become c'–b–a (where the first descent is by a semitone rather than by a whole tone) instead of c'–b–a.\" Moreover, the inversion \"may\" start on the same pitch as the original melody, but it doesn't have to, as illustrated by the example to the right.", "In twelve-tone technique, the inversion of a tone row is one of its four traditional permutations (the others being the prime form, the retrograde, and the retrograde inversion). These four permutations (labeled \"p\"rime, \"r\"etrograde, \"i\"nversion, and \"r\"etrograde \"i\"nversion) for the tone row used in Arnold Schoenberg's Variations for Orchestra, Op. 31 are shown below. \\override Score.TimeSignature \\override Score.SpacingSpanner.strict-note-spacing = ##t \\new StaffGroup « » </score> In set theory, the inverse operation is sometimes designated as formula_1, where formula_2 means \"invert\" and formula_3 means \"transpose by some interval formula_4\" measured in number of semitones. Thus, inversion is a combination of an inversion followed by a transposition. To apply the inversion operation formula_2, you subtract the pitch class, in integer notation, from 12 (by convention, inversion is around pitch class 0). Then we apply the transposition operation formula_3 by adding formula_4. For example, to calculate formula_8, first subtract 3 from 12 (giving 9) and then add 5 (giving 14, which is equivalent to 2). Thus, formula_9. To invert a set of pitches, simply invert each pitch in the set in turn.", "", "In set theory, \"inversional equivalency\" is the concept that intervals, chords, and other sets of pitches are the same when inverted. It is similar to enharmonic equivalency, octave equivalency and even transpositional equivalency. Inversional equivalency is used little in tonal theory, though it is assumed that sets that can be inverted into each other are remotely in common. However, they are only assumed identical or nearly identical in musical set theory. Sets are said to be inversionally symmetrical if they map onto themselves under inversion. The pitch that the sets must be inverted around is said to be the axis of symmetry (or center). An axis may either be at a specific pitch or halfway between two pitches (assuming that microtones are not used). For example, the set C–E–E–F–G–B has an axis at F, and an axis, a tritone away, at B if the set is listed as F–G–B–C–E–E. As another example, the set C–E–F–F–G–B has an axis at the dyad F/F and an axis at B/C if it is listed as F–G–B–C–E–F.", "In jazz theory, a pitch axis is the center around which a melody is inverted. The \"pitch axis\" works in the context of the compound operation transpositional inversion, where transposition is carried out after inversion. However, unlike in set theory, the transposition may be a chromatic or diatonic transposition. Thus, if D-A-G (P5 up, M2 down) is inverted to D-G-A (P5 down, M2 up) the \"pitch axis\" is D. However, if it is inverted to C-F-G the pitch axis is G while if the pitch axis is A, the melody inverts to E-A-B. The notation of octave position may determine how many lines and spaces appear to share the axis. The pitch axis of D-A-G and its inversion A-D-E either appear to be between C/B or the single pitch F." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Course.", "Runner statistics.", "Records.", "Economic impact.", "Charity program." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "The first modern marathon at the 1896 Games of the I Olympiad in Greece generated interest in the sport which led to similar races throughout most western countries and across the United States. While marathons sporadically occurred in New York City and St. Louis, the Boston Marathon had established an annual marathon in 1897, soon to be followed by a Chicago annual race. Beginning in 1905, the Chicago Marathon (organized first by the Illinois Athletic Club 1905 to 1909, then sponsored by the Chicago Daily News after 1910) was held annually, with significant community and spectator support, until the early 1920s. The first Chicago Marathon was run on September 23, 1905. That first race began at the Evanston Golf Club and finished in front of a standing-room-only paying crowd at Washington Park Race Track. Beginning with a little over a dozen runners, only seven completed the course. In a stunning upset, a reported 100,000 or more spectators watched Chicagoan Rhud Metzner come from behind to steal a late-race victory from the favored Louis Marks. With that first race, the Chicago Marathon began an annual run of epic races that continued until the early 1920s, eventually on a revised course that largely resembles today's marathon route. The second year, feet bleeding, Canadian Dennis Bennett won, while a band played \"Maple Leaf Forever.\" In the early years, runners had their own regimens: John Lindquist from Brooklyn took a commanding lead in 1907 while doing whiskey shots, but by mile 23, he was apparently falling asleep; while, the next year, the French-born Chicagoan Albert Corey had more success sipping champagne. Over the years elite fields included Olympic champions, world records were continually sought, and the marathon continued to inspire Chicago communities and spectators until challenges of the early 1920s sidelined the event. It was not until the health consciousness of the 1960s that marathon growth gained traction in the public's eyes. Frank Shorter's 1972 Games of the XX Olympiad marathon victory represented the convergence of many middle-class American ideals. Then the 1976 New York City Marathon, which was the first New York City Marathon to embrace the five borough course, popularized the big city marathon. As the New York marathon began to grow exponentially in the 1970s, the Chicago Marathon was established as a rival to the New York City Marathon. By the mid-1980s, the Chicago Marathon was ensconced as one of the big four marathons. During the mid-1980s, it was named America's Marathon/Chicago and opened up the way for appearance payments. Joan Benoit Samuelson described the Chicago Marathons of the mid-1980s as \"The World's Marathon\". The Bank of America Chicago Marathon is an open race with no qualifying time to participate. The Modern Era Chicago Marathon was founded over the objection of Ed Kelly, Chicago Park District Superintendent who refused permission to run in the parks or along the Lake Michigan lakefront. With the help of Lee Flaherty, the event's founder who operated out of Flair House in the Near North Side community area of Chicago, Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley's support for the marathon was enlisted. Although Mayor Daley died, his successor Michael Anthony Bilandic approved the race and got Kelly on board. Michael Bilandic, a runner, and his wife actually passed out medals at the first marathon on September 25, 1977. This first edition of the modern Chicago Marathon was called the Mayor Daley Marathon. Flaherty footed the bill for the first race, which had no sponsors. He again footed the bill in 1978 when the race was again called the Mayor Daley Marathon. In 1979, however, Beatrice Foods became the first race sponsor. In the early years the Chicago Marathon was held in August. It has from its inception with 4,200 runners and 2,128 finishers been one of the nation's largest marathons. The 2000 running was second only to New York. The 1979 and 1980 events, however, continued to be gatherings of amateur runners. By 1982, the race finally had sufficient prize money to attract world class athletes. The 1982 was the first with world class times such as the 2:10:59 by Greg Meyer. By 1983, the Chicago Marathon had achieved its status as one of America's most important marathons. In 1984, Beatrice raised the purse to $250,000 ($50,000 more than New York's). The race had become a legitimate rival to New York and continues to vie for top runners. The 1985 race was spectacular with Steve Jones breaking his own course record (2 seconds short of the world record) and Joan Benoit Samuelson the 1984 Olympic Champion, two-time defending Chicago Marathon Champion and Olympic Bronze Medalist, Rosa Mota and the fourth place Olympic finisher and world record setting Ingrid Kristiansen. Benoit set a record that stood nearly a generation. At that time, it was considered the premier marathon in the United States, if not the world. Although 1986 had 40 world-class runners among the 8,000 participants the times paled in comparison. Beatrice dropped out as a sponsor in 1987. Because of this only a half-marathon race was held that year and the marathon was moved to the spring of 1988 and attracted Heileman Brewing Company to sponsor the 1988 Old Style Chicago Marathon. The race resulted in three women who had been passed over for the 1988 Games of the XXIV Olympiad placing in the top positions. In 1991, Heileman discontinued its sponsorship and both the prize money and performances waned. In 1992, the race again had no sponsorship, but 1993 brought new sponsor LaSalle Bank. In 1994, the race became the LaSalle Bank Chicago Marathon. In 1996, LaSalle Bank purchased the Chicago Marathon from Major Events, Inc., who had purchased the race three years prior from Flaherty. In 1998, the race began using transponder timing. In 2001, when Catherine Ndereba broke the women's world record marathon time, both the men's and women's then-current world records had been set at the Chicago Marathon. For 2008, the race was sponsored by Bank of America following the purchase of LaSalle Bank from ABN Amro to Bank of America, and the new title will be in use. In 2007, Bank of America acquired LaSalle Bank's parent company ABN AMRO North America in 2007 and assumed the race's title sponsorship. The 2007 race made history with the first ever CEO Marathon Challenge. The race featured a special competition among the CEOs, presidents, company owners and c-suite executives of companies with at least $5 million in annual gross revenue ($2.5 million for women). The 2007 race also made history for having three (men's, women's & men's wheelchair) of its four races decided in the final 100 meters in a day of record setting heat. The race was partially shut down early (after three and a half hours) as temperatures rose to an unseasonably hot 88 °F (31 °C), which surpassed both the temperature records for the Chicago Marathon and official Chicago records for October 7. Over 10,000 registrants chose not to run in the record temperatures, while 10,934 people did not finish (many were called after the course closed early for safety). One runner died, over 30 were hospitalized, and over 400 others sought medical attention. Marathon owner and sponsor Bank of America, which had just acquired LaSalle Bank, has denied culpability. Similar hot conditions have been experienced in other city center races. In 2003, London's The British 10K also had extremely hot weather that affected many runners.", "The marathon course is a loop course, starting and ending at Grant Park. From here, the current course winds through 29 of the city's neighborhoods. The course loop can be generally divided into three sections: North, West, and South. In each of these sections, three of the city's main stadiums are near the course's turning points: Wrigley Field to the north; the United Center to the west; and Guaranteed Rate Field to the south. The city's fourth professional stadium, Soldier Field, is located near the start/finish area. For the first three miles, runners wind through Chicago's downtown area. Eventually, they head north along LaSalle Street. Runners are supported by over 12,000 volunteers spread throughout the course including at 20 aid stations located approximate every 1–3 miles. For runners in distress, aid station volunteers include medical staff and ambulatory services are scattered throughout the course. Digital timers are positioned every 5 kilometers, as well as the halfway point.", "The Bank of America Chicago Marathon has grown significantly from its beginnings. In 1905, 20 runners registered for the first Chicago Marathon, 15 actually started the race, and 7 finished. For the first \"modern\" marathon race in 1977, 4,200 people took part. In 1995, 9,000 people registered, and in 1999, over 29,000 people registered. The 2001 marathon run on October 7 reached its cap of 37,500, which was instituted after the 2000 race drew 33,171 runners, just prior to the entry deadline on September 19. In 2003, 2004, 2005, and 2006 it reached its cap of 40,000. The October 10, 2004, October 9, 2005 and October 22, 2006 races reached their 40,000 entrant caps on August 16, July 14, and May 26 respectively. On April 18, 2007, the 2007 race run on October 7 reached its cap of 45,000 entrants. There was a late registration exemption whereby elite runners (marathon times of less than 2:31/3:01 or half marathon times of 1:11/1:21 for (men/women)) could register until September 1 even though the race had reached its registration cap in the spring. The 40,000 registrants and 33,000 finishers in 2003 made the Chicago Marathon the third or fourth largest marathon depending on which metric (registrants or finishers) is used. The Chicago Marathon is entered by predominantly Caucasian entrants from middle- to upper-middle-class affluence with a wide range in age and near equality in the sexes. The Chicago Marathon has never excluded women. Historically, however, the women's field has been smaller than the men's. This seems to be the result of older age categories having large multiples of men to women, but the women are beginning to outnumber the men in the 20s age group of the field.", "World records have been broken at Chicago five times. In 1984, Steve Jones broke the world record with 2:08:05. In 1999, Khalid Khannouchi was the first to surpass 2:06:00 with 2:05:42. The women's record was broken in two consecutive years. In 2001, Catherine Ndereba broke the record in 2:18:47, and Paula Radcliffe surpassed that mark with 2:17:18 the year after. In 2019, Brigid Kosgei won in a world record time of 2:14:04 which is now the women's course record. The men's record is 2:03:45, set in the 2013 race by Dennis Kimetto.", "Much of the marathon's impact is derived from the tourism industry. More than 10,000 of the runners in 2010 indicated that it was their first visit to Chicago. Of that, 6,000 came from 100 countries. Due to the travelers, the event increases hotel occupancy rates during the marathon. According to an independent study by the University of Illinois, the 2015 marathon contributed an estimated US$277 million worth of activity to the Chicago economy, equivalent to 1,948 jobs.", "Since the charity program was officially established in 2002, more than 106,000 runners have raised over $207 million for local, national and global causes. Charity fundraising is now closely intertwined with the event as the runners now raise money for research, aid the suffering and heighten public awareness of different causes. The marathon offers all registered entrants the opportunity to fundraise for a charity partner. The marathon recognizes four levels of charities based on the number of participants recruited, and fundraising levels. Runners can also opt out of the public lottery or obtain a guaranteed place after this has been drawn by choosing to run for an official charity. The 2016 event had over 170 charity partners, and raised more than US$16.9 million." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Formation and recruitment.", "Service.", "First engagements: Siege of Madrid.", "Battle of Jarama.", "Battle of Guadalajara.", "Other battles.", "Casualties.", "Disbandment.", "Composition.", "Overview.", "Status after the war.", "East Germany.", "Canada.", "Switzerland.", "United Kingdom.", "United States.", "Recognition.", "Spain.", "France.", "Symbolism and heraldry." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Using foreign communist parties to recruit volunteers for Spain was first proposed in the Soviet Union in September 1936—apparently at the suggestion of Maurice Thorez—by Willi Münzenberg, chief of Comintern propaganda for Western Europe. As a security measure, non-communist volunteers would first be interviewed by an NKVD agent. By the end of September, the Italian and French Communist Parties had decided to set up a column. Luigi Longo, ex-leader of the Italian Communist Youth, was charged to make the necessary arrangements with the Spanish government. The Soviet Ministry of Defense also helped, since they had an experience of dealing with corps of international volunteers during the Russian Civil War. The idea was initially opposed by Largo Caballero, but after the first setbacks of the war, he changed his mind and finally agreed to the operation on 22 October. However, the Soviet Union did not withdraw from the Non-Intervention Committee, probably to avoid diplomatic conflict with France and the United Kingdom. The main recruitment center was in Paris, under the supervision of Soviet colonel Karol \"Walter\" Świerczewski. On 17 October 1936, an open letter by Joseph Stalin to José Díaz was published in \"Mundo Obrero\", arguing that victory for the Spanish second republic was a matter not only for Spaniards but also for the whole of \"progressive humanity\"; in short order, communist activists joined with moderate socialist and liberal groups to form anti-fascist \"popular front\" militias in several countries, most of them under the control of or influenced by the Comintern. Entry to Spain was arranged for volunteers, for instance, a Yugoslav, Josip Broz, who would become famous as Marshal Josip Broz Tito, was in Paris to provide assistance, money, and passports for volunteers from Eastern Europe. Volunteers were sent by train or ship from France to Spain, and sent to the base at Albacete. Many of them also went by themselves to Spain. The volunteers were under no contract, nor defined engagement period, which would later prove a problem. Also, many Italians, Germans, and people from other countries joined the movement, with the idea that combat in Spain was the first step to restore democracy or advance a revolutionary cause in their own country. There were also many unemployed workers (especially from France), and adventurers. Finally, some 500 communists who had been exiled to Russia were sent to Spain (among them, experienced military leaders from the First World War like \"Kléber\" Stern, \"Gomez\" Zaisser, \"Lukacs\" Zalka and \"Gal\" Galicz, who would prove invaluable in combat). The operation was met with enthusiasm by communists, but by anarchists with skepticism, at best. At first, the anarchists, who controlled the borders with France, were told to refuse communist volunteers, but reluctantly allowed their passage after protests. A group of 500 volunteers (mainly French, with a few exiled Poles and Germans) arrived in Albacete on 14 October 1936. They were met by international volunteers who had already been fighting in Spain: Germans from the Thälmann Battalion, Italians from the Centuria Gastone Sozzi and French from the Commune de Paris Battalion. Among them was British poet John Cornford. Men were sorted according to their experience and origin and dispatched to units. On 30 May 1937, the Spanish liner \"Ciudad de Barcelona\", carrying 200–250 volunteers from Marseille to Spain, was torpedoed by a Nationalist submarine off the coast of Malgrat de Mar. The ship sunk and up to 65 volunteers are estimated to have drowned. Albacete soon became the International Brigades headquarters and its main depot. It was run by a \"troika\" of Comintern heavyweights: André Marty was commander; Luigi Longo (\"Gallo\") was Inspector-General; and Giuseppe Di Vittorio (\"Nicoletti\") was chief political commissar. The French Communist Party provided uniforms for the Brigades. They were organized into mixed brigades, the basic military unit of the Republican People's Army. Discipline was severe. For several weeks, the Brigades were locked in their base while their strict military training was underway.", "", "The battle of Madrid was a major success for the Republic, and staved off the prospect of a rapid defeat at the hands of Francisco Franco's forces. The role of the International Brigades in this victory was generally recognized but was exaggerated by Comintern propaganda so that the outside world heard only of their victories and not those of Spanish units. So successful was such propaganda that the British Ambassador, Sir Henry Chilton, declared that there were no Spaniards in the army which had defended Madrid. The International Brigade forces that fought in Madrid arrived after another successful Republican fighting. Of the 40,000 Republican troops in the city, the foreign troops numbered less than 3,000. Even though the International Brigades did not win the battle by themselves, nor significantly change the situation, they certainly did provide an example by their determined fighting and improved the morale of the population by demonstrating the concern of other nations in the fight. Many of the older members of the International Brigades provided valuable combat experience, having fought during the First World War (Spain remained neutral in 1914–1918) and the Irish War of Independence (some had fought in the British Army while others had fought in the Irish Republican Army (IRA)). One of the strategic positions in Madrid was the Casa de Campo. There the Nationalist troops were Moroccans, commanded by General José Enrique Varela. They were stopped by III and IV Brigades of the Spanish Republican Army. On 9 November 1936, the XI International Brigade – comprising 1,900 men from the Edgar André Battalion, the Commune de Paris Battalion and the Dabrowski Battalion, together with a British machine-gun company — took up position at the Casa de Campo. In the evening, its commander, General Kléber, launched an assault on the Nationalist positions. This lasted for the whole night and part of the next morning. At the end of the fight, the Nationalist troops had been forced to retreat, abandoning all hopes of a direct assault on Madrid by Casa de Campo, while the XIth Brigade had lost a third of its personnel. On 13 November, the 1,550-man strong XII International Brigade, made up of the Thälmann Battalion, the Garibaldi Battalion and the André Marty Battalion, deployed. Commanded by General \"Lukacs\", they assaulted Nationalist positions on the high ground of Cerro de Los Angeles. As a result of language and communication problems, command issues, lack of rest, poor coordination with armored units, and insufficient artillery support, the attack failed. On 19 November, the anarchist militias were forced to retreat, and Nationalist troops — Moroccans and Spanish Foreign Legionnaires, covered by the Nazi Condor Legion — captured a foothold in the University City. The 11th Brigade was sent to drive the Nationalists out of the University City. The battle was extremely bloody, a mix of artillery and aerial bombardment, with bayonet and grenade fights, room by room. Anarchist leader Buenaventura Durruti was shot there on 19 November 1936 and died the next day. The battle in the University went on until three-quarters of the University City was under Nationalist control. Both sides then started setting up trenches and fortifications. It was then clear that any assault from either side would be far too costly; the Nationalist leaders had to renounce the idea of a direct assault on Madrid, and prepare for a siege of the capital. On 13 December 1936, 18,000 nationalist troops attempted an attack to close the encirclement of Madrid at Guadarrama — an engagement known as the Battle of the Corunna Road. The Republicans sent in a Soviet armored unit, under General Dmitry Pavlov, and both XI and XII International Brigades. Violent combat followed, and they stopped the Nationalist advance. An attack was then launched by the Republic on the Córdoba front. The battle ended in a form of stalemate; a communique was issued, saying: \"During the day the advance continued without the loss of any territory.\" Poets Ralph Winston Fox and John Cornford were killed. Eventually, the Nationalists advanced, taking the hydroelectric station at El Campo. André Marty accused the commander of the Marseillaise Battalion, Gaston Delasalle, of espionage and treason and had him executed. (It is doubtful that Delasalle would have been a spy for Francisco Franco; he was denounced by his second-in-command, André Heussler, who was subsequently executed for treason during World War II by the French Resistance.) Further Nationalist attempts after Christmas to encircle Madrid met with failure, but not without extremely violent combat. On 6 January 1937, the Thälmann Battalion arrived at Las Rozas, and held its positions until it was destroyed as a fighting force. On 9 January, only 10 km had been lost to the Nationalists, when the XIII International Brigade and XIV International Brigade and the 1st British Company, arrived in Madrid. Violent Republican assaults were launched in an attempt to retake the land, with little success. On 15 January, trenches and fortifications were built by both sides, resulting in a stalemate. The Nationalists did not take Madrid until the very end of the war, in March 1939, when they marched in unopposed. There were some pockets of resistance during the subsequent months.", "On 6 February 1937, following the fall of Málaga, the nationalists launched an attack on the Madrid–Andalusia road, south of Madrid. The Nationalists quickly advanced on the little town of Ciempozuelos, held by the XV International Brigade. was composed of the British Battalion (British Commonwealth and Irish), the Dimitrov Battalion (miscellaneous Balkan nationalities), the Sixth February Battalion (Belgians and French), the Canadian Mackenzie-Papineau Battalion and the Abraham Lincoln Brigade. An independent 80-men-strong (mainly) Irish unit, known afterward as the Connolly Column, also fought. Battalions were rarely composed entirely of one nationality, rather they were, for the most part, a mix of many. On 11 February 1937, a Nationalist brigade launched a surprise attack on the André Marty Battalion (XIV International Brigade), killing its sentries silently and crossing the Jarama. The Garibaldi Battalion stopped the advance with heavy fire. At another point, the same tactic allowed the Nationalists to move their troops across the river. On 12 February, the British Battalion, XV International Brigade took the brunt of the attack, remaining under heavy fire for seven hours. The position became known as \"Suicide Hill\". At the end of the day, only 225 of the 600 members of the British battalion remained. One company was captured by ruse, when Nationalists advanced among their ranks singing \"The Internationale\". On 17 February, the Republican Army counter-attacked. On 23 and 27 February, the International Brigades were engaged, but with little success. The Lincoln Battalion was put under great pressure, with no artillery support. It suffered 120 killed and 175 wounded. Amongst the dead was the Irish poet Charles Donnelly and Leo Greene. There were heavy casualties on both sides, and although \"both claimed victory... both suffered defeats\". The battle resulted in a stalemate, with both sides digging in and creating elaborate trench systems. On 22 February 1937, the League of Nations Non-Intervention Committee ban on foreign volunteers went into effect.", "After the failed assault on the Jarama, the Nationalists attempted another assault on Madrid, this time from the northeast. The objective was the town of Guadalajara, 50 km from Madrid. The whole Italian expeditionary corps — 35,000 men, with 80 battle tanks and 200 field artillery — was deployed, as Benito Mussolini wanted the victory to be credited to Italy. On 9 March 1937, the Italians made a breach in the Republican lines but did not properly exploit the advance. However, the rest of the Nationalist army was advancing, and the situation appeared critical for the Republicans. A formation drawn from the best available units of the Republican army, including the XI and XII International Brigades, was quickly assembled. At dawn on 10 March, the Nationalists closed in, and by noon, the Garibaldi Battalion counterattacked. Some confusion arose from the fact that the sides were not aware of each other's movements, and that both sides spoke Italian; this resulted in scouts from both sides exchanging information without realizing they were enemies. The Republican lines advanced and made contact with XI International Brigade. Nationalist tanks were shot at and infantry patrols came into action. On 11 March, the Nationalist army broke the front of the Republican army. The Thälmann Battalion suffered heavy losses, but succeeded in holding the Trijueque–Torija road. The Garibaldi also held its positions. On 12 March, Republican planes and tanks attacked. The Thälmann Battalion attacked Trijuete in a bayonet charge and re-took the town, capturing numerous prisoners.", "The International Brigades also saw combat in the Battle of Teruel in January 1938. The 35th International Division suffered heavily in this battle from aerial bombardment as well as shortages of food, winter clothing, and ammunition. The XIV International Brigade fought in the Battle of Ebro in July 1938, the last Republican offensive of the war.", "Although exact figures are not available, an estimated 5,857 to 25,229 members of the International Brigades died in Spain, of an estimated 23,670 to 59,380 who served, with estimated death rates of 16.7% to 29.2%. These high casualty rates are blamed on lack of training, poor leadership and use as shock troops.", "In October 1938, at the height of the Battle of the Ebro, the Non-Intervention Committee demanded the withdrawal of the International Brigades. The Republican government of Juan Negrín announced the decision in the League of Nations on 21 September 1938. The disbandment was part of an ill-advised effort to get the Nationalists' foreign backers to withdraw their troops and to persuade the Western democracies such as France and Britain to end their arms embargo on the Republic. By this time there were about an estimated 10,000 foreign volunteers still serving in Spain for the Republican side, and about 50,000 foreign conscripts for the Nationalists (excluding another 30,000 Moroccans). Perhaps half of the International Brigadistas were exiles or refugees from Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy or other countries, such as Hungary, which had authoritarian right-wing governments at the time. These men could not safely return home and some were instead given honorary Spanish citizenship and integrated into Spanish units of the Popular Army. The remainder were repatriated to their own countries. The Belgian and Dutch volunteers lost their citizenship because they had served in a foreign army.", "", "The first brigades were composed mostly of French, Belgian, Italian, and German volunteers, backed by a sizeable contingent of Polish miners from Northern France and Belgium. The XIth, XIIth and XIIIth were the first brigades formed. Later, the XIVth and XVth Brigades were raised, mixing experienced soldiers with new volunteers. Smaller Brigades — the 86th, 129th and 150th - were formed in late 1937 and 1938, mostly for temporary tactical reasons. About 32,000 foreigners volunteered to defend the Spanish Republic, the vast majority of them with the International Brigades. Many were veterans of World War I. Their early engagements in 1936 during the Siege of Madrid amply demonstrated their military and propaganda value. The international volunteers were mainly socialists, communists, or others willing to accept communist authority, and a high proportion were Jewish. Some were involved in the Barcelona May Days fighting against leftist opponents of the Communists: the Workers' Party of Marxist Unification (POUM) (\"Partido Obrero de Unificación Marxista\", an anti-Stalinist Marxist party) and the anarchist CNT (CNT, Confederación Nacional del Trabajo) and FAI (FAI, Iberian Anarchist Federation), who had strong support in Catalonia. These libertarian groups attracted fewer foreign volunteers. To simplify communication, the battalions usually concentrated on people of the same nationality or language group. The battalions were often (formally, at least) named after inspirational people or events. From spring 1937 onwards, many battalions contained one Spanish volunteer company of about 150 men. Later in the war, military discipline tightened and learning Spanish became mandatory. By decree of 23 September 1937, the International Brigades formally became units of the Spanish Foreign Legion.<ref name=\" Beevor 2006/309\"></ref> This made them subject to the Spanish Code of Military Justice. However, the Spanish Foreign Legion itself sided with the Nationalists throughout the coup and the civil war. The same decree also specified that non-Spanish officers in the Brigades should not exceed Spanish ones by more than 50 percent.", "After the Civil War was eventually won by the Nationalists, the brigaders were initially on the \"wrong side\" of history, especially as most of their home countries had right-wing governments (in France, for instance, the Popular Front was not in power anymore). However, since most of these countries soon found themselves at war with the very powers which had been supporting the Nationalists, the brigadistas gained some prestige as the first guard of the democracies, as having foreseen the danger of fascism and gone to fight it. Retrospectively, it was clear that the war in Spain was as much a precursor of the Second World War as a Spanish civil war. Some glory therefore accrued to the volunteers (a great many of the survivors also fought during World War II), but this soon faded in the fear that it would promote communism by association. An exception is among some left-wingers, for example many anarchists. Among these, the Brigades, or at least their leadership, are criticized for their role in suppressing the Spanish Revolution. An example of a modern work that promotes this view is Ken Loach's film \"Land and Freedom\". A well-known contemporary account of the Spanish Civil War which also takes this view is George Orwell's book \"Homage to Catalonia\".", "Germany was undivided until after the Second World War. At that time, the new German Democratic Republic began to create a national identity which was separate from and antithetical to the former Nazi Germany. The Spanish Civil War, and especially the role of the International Brigades, became a substantial part of East Germany's memorial rituals because of the substantial numbers of German communists who had served in the brigades. These showcased a commitment by many Germans to antifascism at a time when Germany and Nazism were often conflated together.", "Survivors of the Mackenzie-Papineau Battalion were often investigated by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police and denied employment when they returned to Canada. Some were prevented from serving in the military during the Second World War due to \"political unreliability\". In 1995 a monument to veterans of the war was built near Ontario's provincial parliament. On 12 February 2000, a bronze statue \"The Spirit of the Republic\" based on an original poster from the Spanish Republic, by sculptor Jack Harman, was placed on the grounds of the British Columbia Legislature. And in 2001, the few remaining Canadian veterans of the Spanish Civil War dedicated a monument to Canadian members of the International Brigades in Ottawa's Green Island Park.", "In Switzerland, public sympathy was high for the Republican cause, but the federal government banned all fundraising and recruiting activities a month after the start of the war so as to preserve Swiss neutrality. Around 800 Swiss volunteers joined the International Brigades, among them a small number of women. Sixty percent of Swiss volunteers identified as communists, while the others included socialists, anarchists and antifascists. Some 170 Swiss volunteers were killed in the war. The survivors were tried by military courts upon their return to Switzerland for violating the criminal prohibition on foreign military service. The courts pronounced 420 sentences which ranged from around two weeks to four years in prison, and often also stripped the convicts of their political rights. In the judgment of Swiss historian Mauro Cerutti, volunteers were punished more harshly in Switzerland than in any other democratic country. Motions to pardon the Swiss brigades on the account that they fought for a just cause have been repeatedly introduced in the Swiss federal parliament. A first such proposal was defeated in 1939 on neutrality grounds. In 2002, Parliament again rejected a pardon of the Swiss war volunteers, with a majority arguing that they did break a law that remains in effect to this day. In March 2009, Parliament adopted the third bill of pardon, retroactively rehabilitating Swiss brigades, only a handful of whom were still alive.", "On disbandment, 305 British volunteers left Spain. They arrived at Victoria Station on 7 December, to be met by a crowd of supporters including Clement Attlee, Stafford Cripps, Willie Gallacher, and Will Lawther. The last surviving British member of the International Brigades, Geoffrey Servante, died in April 2019 aged 99.", "In the United States, the returned volunteers were labeled \"premature anti-fascists\" by the FBI, denied promotion during service in the U.S. military during World War II, and pursued by Congressional committees during the Red Scare of 1947–1957. However, threats of loss of citizenship were not carried out.", "", "On 26 January 1996, the Spanish government gave Spanish citizenship to the Brigadistas. At that time, roughly 600 remained. At the end of 1938, Prime Minister Juan Negrín had promised Spanish citizenship to the Brigadistas, which was of course not recognized by the Nationalists who were about to take over the entire country.", "In 1996, Jacques Chirac, then French President, granted the former French members of the International Brigades the legal status of former service personnel (\"ancient combatants\") following the request of two French communist Members of Parliament, Lefort and Asensi, both children of volunteers. Before 1996, the same request was turned down several times including by François Mitterrand, the former Socialist President.", "The International Brigades were inheritors of a socialist aesthetic. The flags featured the colors of the Spanish Republic: red, yellow and purple, often along with socialist symbols (red flags, hammer and sickle, fist). The emblem of the brigades themselves was the three-pointed red star, which is often featured." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Education and early life.", "Research and career.", "Apologies and retractions.", "Personal." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Tony Hoare was born in Colombo, Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) to British parents, His father was a colonial civil servant and his mother was the daughter of a tea planter. Hoare was educated in England at the Dragon School in Oxford and the King's School in Canterbury. He then studied Classics and Philosophy (\"Greats\") at Merton College, Oxford. On graduating in 1956 he did 18 months National Service in the Royal Navy, where he learned Russian. He returned to the University of Oxford in 1958 to study for a postgraduate certificate in statistics, and it was here that he began computer programming, having been taught Autocode on the Ferranti Mercury by Leslie Fox. He then went to Moscow State University as a British Council exchange student, where he studied machine translation under Andrey Kolmogorov.", "In 1960, Hoare left the Soviet Union and began working at Elliott Brothers Ltd, a small computer manufacturing firm located in London. There, he implemented the language ALGOL 60 and began developing major algorithms. He served as a member of the International Federation for Information Processing (IFIP) IFIP Working Group 2.1, which supports and maintains the languages ALGOL 60 and ALGOL 68. He became the Professor of Computing Science at the Queen's University of Belfast in 1968, and in 1977 returned to Oxford as the Professor of Computing to lead the Programming Research Group in the Oxford University Computing Laboratory (now Department of Computer Science, University of Oxford), following the death of Christopher Strachey. He is now an Emeritus Professor there, and is also a principal researcher at Microsoft Research in Cambridge, England. Hoare's most significant work has been in the following areas: his sorting and selection algorithm (Quicksort and Quickselect), Hoare logic, the formal language communicating sequential processes (CSP) used to specify the interactions between concurrent processes, structuring computer operating systems using the monitor concept, and the axiomatic specification of programming languages.", "Speaking at a software conference named QCon London in 2009, he apologised for inventing the null reference: For many years under his leadership, his Oxford department worked on formal specification languages such as CSP and Z. These did not achieve the expected take-up by industry, and in 1995 Hoare was led to reflect upon the original assumptions:", "In 1962, Hoare married Jill Pym, a member of his research team." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Early political career.", "Tennessee state legislator.", "Jackson disciple.", "Ways and Means chair and Speaker of the House.", "Governor of Tennessee.", "Election of 1844.", "Democratic nomination.", "General election.", "Presidency (1845–1849).", "Transition, inauguration and appointments.", "Foreign policy.", "Partition of Oregon Country.", "Annexation of Texas.", "Mexican-American War.", "Postwar and the territories.", "Other initiatives.", "Domestic policy.", "Fiscal policy.", "Development of the country.", "Judicial appointments.", "Election of 1848.", "Post-presidency and death.", "Burials.", "Polk and slavery.", "Legacy and historical view." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "James Knox Polk was born on November 2, 1795, in a log cabin in Pineville, North Carolina. He was the first of 10 children born into a family of farmers. His mother Jane named him after her father, James Knox. His father Samuel Polk was a farmer, slaveholder, and surveyor of Scots-Irish descent. The Polks had immigrated to America in the late 1600s, settling initially on the Eastern Shore of Maryland but later moving to south-central Pennsylvania and then to the Carolina hill country. The Knox and Polk families were Presbyterian. While Polk's mother remained a devout Presbyterian, his father, whose own father Ezekiel Polk was a deist, rejected dogmatic Presbyterianism. He refused to declare his belief in Christianity at his son's baptism, and the minister refused to baptize young James. Nevertheless, James' mother \"stamped her rigid orthodoxy on James, instilling lifelong Calvinistic traits of self-discipline, hard work, piety, individualism, and a belief in the imperfection of human nature\", according to James A. Rawley's \"American National Biography\" article. In 1803, Ezekiel Polk led four of his adult children and their families to the Duck River area in what is now Maury County, Tennessee; Samuel Polk and his family followed in 1806. The Polk clan dominated politics in Maury County and in the new town of Columbia. Samuel became a county judge, and the guests at his home included Andrew Jackson, who had already served as a judge and in Congress. James learned from the political talk around the dinner table; both Samuel and Ezekiel were strong supporters of", "", "By the time the legislature adjourned its session in September 1822, Polk was determined to be a candidate for the Tennessee House of Representatives. The election was in August 1823, almost a year away, allowing him ample time for campaigning. Already involved locally as a member of the Masons, he was commissioned in the Tennessee militia as a captain in the cavalry regiment of the 5th Brigade. He was later appointed a colonel on the staff of Governor William Carroll, and was afterwards often referred to as \"Colonel\". Although many of the voters were members of the Polk clan,", "When Polk arrived in Washington, D.C. for Congress' regular session in December 1825, he roomed in Benjamin Burch's boarding house with other Tennessee representatives, including Sam Houston. Polk made his first major speech on March 13, 1826, in which he said that the Electoral College should be abolished and that the president should be elected by popular vote. Remaining bitter at the alleged Corrupt Bargain between Adams and Clay, Polk became a vocal critic of the administration, frequently voting against", "In December 1833, after being elected to a fifth consecutive term, Polk, with Jackson's backing, became the chairman of Ways and Means, a powerful position in the House. In that position, Polk supported Jackson's withdrawal of federal funds from the Second Bank. Polk's committee issued a report questioning the Second Bank's finances, and another supporting Jackson's actions against it. In April 1834, the Ways and Means Committee reported a bill to regulate state deposit banks, which, when passed, enabled Jackson to deposit funds in pet banks, and Polk got legislation passed to allow the sale of the government's stock in the Second Bank. In June 1834, Speaker of the House Andrew Stevenson resigned", "In 1835, the Democrats had lost the governorship of Tennessee for the first time in their history, and Polk decided to return home to help the party. Polk returned to a Tennessee afire for White and Whiggism; the state had changed greatly in its political loyalties since the days of Jacksonian domination. Polk undertook his first statewide campaign, against the Whig incumbent, Newton Cannon, who sought a third two-year term as governor. The fact that Polk was the one called upon to \"redeem\" Tennessee from the Whigs tacitly acknowledged him as head of the state Democratic Party. Polk campaigned on national issues, whereas Cannon stressed matters local to Tennessee.", "", "Despite his loss, Polk was determined to become the next vice president of the United States, seeing it as a path to the presidency. Van Buren was the frontrunner for the 1844 Democratic nomination, and Polk engaged in a careful campaign to become his running mate. The former president faced opposition from Southerners who feared his views on slavery, while his handling of the Panic of 1837—he had refused to rescind the Specie Circular—aroused opposition from some in the West (today's Midwest) who believed his hard money policies had hurt their section of the country. Many Southerners backed Calhoun's candidacy, Westerners rallied around Senator Lewis Cass of Michigan, and former Vice President Johnson also maintained a strong following among Democrats. Jackson assured Van Buren by letter that Polk in his campaigns for governor had \"fought the battle well and fought it alone\". Polk hoped to gain Van Buren's support, hinting in a letter that a Van Buren/Polk ticket could carry Tennessee, but found him unconvinced. The biggest political issue in the United States at that time was territorial expansion. The Republic of Texas had successfully revolted against Mexico in 1836. With the republic largely populated by American emigres, those on both sides of the Sabine River border between the", "Rumors of Polk's nomination reached Nashville on June 4, much to Jackson's delight; they were substantiated later that day. The dispatches were sent on to Columbia, arriving the same day, and letters and newspapers describing what had happened at Baltimore were in Polk's hands by June 6. He accepted his nomination by letter dated June 12, alleging that he had never sought the office, and stating his intent to serve only one term. Wright was embittered by what he called the \"foul plot\" against Van Buren, and demanded assurances that Polk had played no part; it was only after Polk professed that he had remained loyal to Van Buren that Wright supported his campaign. Following the custom of the time that presidential candidates avoid electioneering or appearing to seek the office, Polk remained in Columbia and made no speeches. He engaged in an extensive correspondence with Democratic Party officials as he managed his campaign. Polk made his views", "With a slender victory in the popular vote, but with a greater victory in the Electoral College (170–105), Polk proceeded to implement his campaign promises. He presided over a country whose population had doubled every twenty years since the American Revolution and which had reached demographic parity with Great Britain. Polk's tenure saw continued technological improvements, including the continued expansion of railroads and increased use of the telegraph. These improved communications and growing demographics increasingly made the United States into a strong military power, while also stoking expansionism. However, sectional divisions remained and became worse during his tenure. Polk set four clearly defined goals for his administration: While his domestic aims represented continuity with past Democratic policies, successful completion of Polk's foreign policy goals would represent the first major American territorial gains since the Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819.", "After being informed of his victory on November 15, 1844, Polk turned his attention to forming a geographically-balanced Cabinet. He consulted Jackson and one or two other close allies, and decided that the large states of New York, Pennsylvania and Virginia should have representation in the six-member Cabinet, as should his home state of Tennessee. At a time when an incoming president might retain some or all of his predecessor's department heads, Polk wanted an entirely fresh Cabinet, but this proved delicate. Tyler's final Secretary of State was Calhoun, leader of a considerable faction of the Democratic Party, but, when approached by emissaries, he did not take offense and was willing to step down. Polk did not want his Cabinet to contain presidential hopefuls, though he chose to nominate", "", "Britain derived its claim to the Oregon Country from the voyages of Captains James Cook and George Vancouver, the Americans from the explorations of the Lewis and Clark expedition and from the discovery of the Columbia River by the American sea captain, Robert Gray. By treaty, Russia had waived any claim south of the southern border of Alaska, which it possessed until 1867, and Spain, which claimed the Pacific Coast to the 42nd parallel, ceded any claims it might have north of that to the United States under the Adams–Onís Treaty of 1819. This was just before Mexico gained its independence from Spain in 1821. Claims of the indigenous peoples of the region to their traditional lands were not a factor. Rather than war over the distant and low-population territory, the United States and Britain had negotiated. Since the signing of the Treaty of 1818, the", "The annexation resolution signed by Tyler gave the president the choice of asking Texas to approve annexation, or reopening negotiations; Tyler immediately sent a messenger to the U.S. representative in Texas, Andrew Jackson Donelson, choosing the former option. Thus, Polk's first major decision in office was whether to recall Tyler's courier to Texas. Though it was within Polk's power to recall the messenger, he chose to allow him to continue, with the hope that Texas would accept the offer. He also sent Congressman Archibald Yell of Arkansas as his personal emissary, taking his private assurance that the United States would defend Texas, and would fix its southern", "", "Polk had been anxious to establish a territorial government for Oregon once the treaty was effective in 1846, but the matter became embroiled in the arguments over slavery, though few thought Oregon suitable for that institution. A bill to establish an Oregon territorial government passed the House after being amended to bar slavery; the bill died in the Senate when opponents ran out the clock on the congressional session. A resurrected bill, still barring slavery, again passed the House in January 1847 but it was not considered by the Senate before Congress adjourned in March. By the time Congress met again in December, California and New Mexico were in U.S. hands, and Polk in his annual message urged the establishment of territorial governments in all three. The Missouri Compromise had settled the issue of the geographic reach of slavery within", "Polk's ambassador to the Republic of New Granada, Benjamin Alden Bidlack, negotiated the Mallarino–Bidlack Treaty. Though Bidlack had initially only sought to remove tariffs on American goods, Bidlack and New Granadan Foreign Minister Manuel María Mallarino negotiated a broader agreement that deepened military and trade ties between the two countries. The treaty also allowed for the construction of the Panama Railway. In an era of slow overland travel, the treaty gave the United States a route for a quicker journey between its eastern and western coasts. In exchange, Bidlack agreed to have the United States guarantee New Granada's sovereignty over the Isthmus of Panama. The treaty won ratification in both countries in 1848. The", "", "In his inaugural address, Polk called upon Congress to re-establish the Independent Treasury System under which government funds were held in the Treasury and not in banks or other financial institutions. President Van Buren had previously established a similar system, but it had been abolished during the Tyler administration. Polk made clear his opposition to a national bank in his inaugural address, and in his first annual message to Congress in December 1845, he called for the government to keep its funds itself. Congress was slow to act; the House passed a bill in April 1846 and the Senate in August, both without a single Whig vote. Polk signed the Independent Treasury Act into law on", "Congress passed the Rivers and Harbors Bill in 1846 to provide $500,000 to improve port facilities, but Polk vetoed it. Polk believed that the bill was unconstitutional because it unfairly favored particular areas, including ports that had no foreign trade. Polk considered internal improvements to be matters for the states, and feared that passing the bill would encourage legislators to compete for favors for their home district—a type of corruption that he felt would spell doom to the virtue of the republic. In this regard he followed his hero Jackson, who had vetoed the Maysville Road Bill in 1830 on similar grounds. Opposed by conviction to Federal funding for internal improvements, Polk stood strongly against all such bills. Congress, in 1847, passed another internal improvements bill; he pocket vetoed it and sent Congress a full veto message when it met in December. Similar bills continued to advance in Congress in 1848, though none reached his desk. When he came to the Capitol to sign bills on March 3, 1849, the last day of the congressional session and", "Polk appointed the following justices to the U.S. Supreme Court: The 1844 death of Justice Henry Baldwin left a vacant place on the Supreme Court, but Tyler had been unable to get the Senate to confirm a nominee. At the time, it was the custom to have geographic balance on the Supreme Court, and Baldwin had been from Pennsylvania. Polk's efforts to fill Baldwin's seat became embroiled in Pennsylvania politics and the efforts of factional leaders to secure the lucrative post of Collector of Customs for the Port of Philadelphia. As Polk attempted to find his way through the minefield of Pennsylvania politics, a second position on the high court became vacant with the death, in September 1845,", "Honoring his pledge to serve only one term, Polk declined to seek re-election. At the 1848 Democratic National Convention, Lewis Cass led on every ballot, though it was not until the fourth that he attained a two-thirds vote. William Butler, who had replaced Winfield Scott as the commanding general in Mexico City, won the vice presidential nomination. The 1848 Whig National Convention nominated Zachary Taylor for president and former congressman Millard Fillmore of New York for vice president. New York Democrats remained bitter because of what they deemed shabby treatment of Van Buren in 1844, and the former president had drifted from the party in the years since. Many of Van Buren's faction of the party, the Barnburners, were younger men who strongly opposed the spread of slavery, a position with which, by 1848, Van Buren agreed. Senator Cass was a strong expansionist, and slavery might find new fields under him; accordingly the Barnburners bolted", "Polk's time in the White House took its toll on his health. Full of enthusiasm and vigor when he entered office, Polk left the presidency exhausted by his years of public service. He left Washington on March 6 for a pre-arranged triumphal tour of the South, to end in Nashville. Polk had two years previously arranged to buy a house there, afterwards dubbed Polk Place, that had once belonged to his mentor, Felix Grundy. James and Sarah Polk progressed down the Atlantic coast, and then westward through the Deep South. He was enthusiastically received and banqueted. By the time the Polks reached Alabama, he was suffering from a bad cold, and soon became concerned by reports of cholera—a passenger on Polk's riverboat died of it, and it was rumored to be common in New Orleans, but it was too late to change plans. Worried about his health, he would have departed the city quickly, but was overwhelmed by Louisiana hospitality. Several passengers", "Polk's rest has been twice interrupted. After his death, he was buried in what is now Nashville City Cemetery, due to a legal requirement related to his infectious disease death. Polk was then moved to a tomb on the grounds of Polk Place (as specified in his will) in 1850. Then, in 1893, the bodies of James and Sarah Polk were relocated to their current resting place on the grounds of", "Polk was a slaveholder for most of his adult life. His father, Samuel Polk, in 1827 left Polk more than 8,000 acres (32 km2) of land, and divided about 53 slaves among his widow and children in his will. James inherited twenty of his father's slaves, either directly or from deceased brothers. In 1831, he became an absentee cotton planter, sending slaves to clear plantation land that his father had left him near Somerville, Tennessee. Four years later Polk sold his Somerville plantation and, together with his brother-in-law, bought 920 acres (3.7 km2) of land, a cotton plantation near Coffeeville, Mississippi, hoping to increase his income. The land in Mississippi was richer than that in Somerville, and Polk transferred his Tennessee slaves there, taking care to conceal from them that they were to be sent south. From the start of 1839, Polk, having bought out his brother-in-law, owned all of the Mississippi plantation, and ran it on a mostly absentee basis for the rest of his life. He occasionally visited—for example, he spent much of April 1844 on his Mississippi plantation, right before the Democratic convention. Adding to the inherited slaves, in 1831, Polk purchased five more, mostly buying them in Kentucky, and expending $1,870; the youngest had a recorded age of 11. As older children sold for a higher price, slave sellers routinely lied about age. Between 1834 and 1835, he bought five more, aged from 2 to 37, the youngest a granddaughter of the oldest. The amount expended was $2,250. In 1839, he bought eight slaves from his brother William at a cost of $5,600. This represented three young adults and most of a family, though not including the father, whom James Polk had previously owned, and who had been sold to a slave trader as a chronic runaway. The expenses of four campaigns (three for governor, one for the presidency) in six years kept Polk from making more slave purchases until after he was living in the White House. In an era when the presidential salary was expected to cover wages for the White House servants, Polk replaced them with slaves from his home in Tennessee. Polk did not purchase slaves with his presidential salary, likely for political reasons. Instead, he reinvested earnings from his plantation in the purchase of slaves, enjoining secrecy on his agent: \"that as my \"private business\" does not concern the public, you will keep it to yourself\". Polk saw the plantation as his route to a comfortable existence after his presidency for himself and his wife; he did not intend to return to the practice of law. Hoping the increased labor force would increase his retirement income, he purchased seven slaves in 1846, through an agent, aged roughly between 12 and 17. The 17 year old and one of the 12 year olds were purchased together at an estate", "After his death, Polk's historic reputation was initially formed by the attacks made on him in his own time. Whig politicians claimed that he was drawn from a well-deserved obscurity. Sam Houston is said to have observed that Polk, a teetotaler, was \"a victim of the use of water as a beverage\". Little was published about him but two biographies released in the wake of his death. Polk was not again the subject of a major biography until 1922, when Eugene I. McCormac published \"James K. Polk: A Political Biography\". McCormac relied heavily on Polk's presidential diary, first published in 1909. When historians began ranking the presidents in 1948, Polk ranked 10th in Arthur M. Schlesinger Sr.'s poll, and has subsequently ranked 8th in Schlesinger's 1962 poll, 11th in the Riders-McIver Poll (1996), and 14th in the 2017 survey by C-SPAN. Borneman deemed Polk the most effective president prior to the Civil War, and noted that Polk expanded the power of the presidency, especially in its power as commander in chief and its oversight over the Executive Branch. Steven G. Calabresi and Christopher S. Yoo, in their history of presidential power, praised Polk's conduct of the Mexican War, \"it seems unquestionable that his management of state affairs during this conflict was one of the strongest examples since Jackson of the use of presidential power to direct specifically the conduct of subordinate officers.\" Harry S. Truman called Polk \"a great president. Said what he intended to do and did it.\" Bergeron noted that the matters that Polk settled, he settled for his time. The questions of the banking system, and of the tariff, which Polk had made two of the main issues of his presidency, were not significantly revised until the 1860s. Similarly, the Gadsden Purchase, and that of Alaska (1867), were the only major U.S. expansions until the 1890s. Paul H. Bergeron wrote in his study of Polk's presidency: \"Virtually everyone remembers Polk and his expansionist successes. He produced a new map of the United States, which fulfilled a continent-wide vision.\" \"To look at that map,\" Robert W. Merry concluded, \"and to take in the western and southwestern expanse included in it, is to see the magnitude of Polk's presidential accomplishments.\" Amy Greenberg, in her history of the Mexican War, found Polk's legacy to be more than territorial, \"during a single brilliant term, he accomplished a feat that earlier presidents would have considered impossible. With the help of his wife, Sarah, he masterminded, provoked and successfully prosecuted a war that turned the United States into a world power.\" Borneman noted that in securing this expansion, Polk did not consider the likely effect on Mexicans and Native Americans, \"That ignorance may well be debated on moral grounds, but it cannot take away Polk's stunning political achievement.\" James A. Rawley wrote in his \"American National Biography\" piece on Polk, \"he added extensive territory to the United States, including Upper California and its valuable ports, and bequeathed a legacy of a nation poised on the Pacific rim prepared to emerge as a superpower in future generations\". Historians have criticized Polk for not perceiving that his territorial gains set the table for civil war. Pletcher stated that Polk, like others of his time, failed \"to understand that sectionalism and expansion had formed a new, explosive compound\". Fred I. Greenstein, in his journal article on Polk, noted that Polk \"lacked a far-seeing awareness of the problems that were bound to arise over the status of slavery in the territory acquired from Mexico\" William Dusinberre, in his volume on Polk as slave owner, suggested \"that Polk's deep personal involvement in the plantation slavery system... colored his stance on slavery-related issues\". Greenberg noted that Polk's war served as the training ground for that later conflict:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Biology.", "Systematics." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The vendace is a slim, streamlined fish with an adipose fin - an additional small fin on the back between the dorsal fin and the tail (caudal fin), as is typical of the salmon family. Its lower jaw is longer than the upper one. It is similar in appearance to both the common whitefish (\"Coregonus lavaretus\" sensu lato), whose upper jaw is longer than its lower one, and the peled (\"Coregonus peled\"), whose jaws are of equal length. The back is bluish green or brown, the flanks are silvery and the belly white. This fish seldom grows more than long.", "Vendace mainly feed on zooplankton, such as small crustaceans and their larvae, but larger fish also feed on floating insects and fish fry. The fish live in schools made up of large groups of individuals. They lay their eggs on pebbly or sandy ground, some in shallow water and others at depths of down to. The fish mature at a young age and most spawn for the first time in their second year, but a few may breed in their first autumn.", "The European vendace is very closely related to the Siberian \"Coregonus sardinella\" (sardine cisco) and also to \"C. peled\", although phenotypic differences are clear. Within the vendace, taxonomic subdivisions have been suggested both on geographical grounds and between sympatric ecotypes. FishBase lists the British populations of vendace as a separate species, \"Coregonus vandesius\", but this distinction is not accepted by all scientists. \"Coregonus albula\" generally breeds in the autumn, but in several North European lakes distinct spring-spawning populations of vendace exist, some of which have been described as separate species: in Sweden, as \"Coregonus trybomi\", and in two lakes of northern Germany, as \"Coregonus fontanae\" and \"Coregonus lucinensis\". These populations are sympatric with autumn-spawning vendace and seem to have evolved post-glacially from them independently in each lake." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Career.", "Early career.", "Dukla.", "Personal life." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "Nečas made his Gambrinus liga debut for Slavia Prague in August 2006 as a substitute in a match against Teplice. He went on to make a total of four league appearances for Slavia, all as a substitute. Nečas joined Mladá Boleslav from Slavia in January 2007, signing a four-year contract. Having failed to make a single league appearance for Boleslav in his first year, Nečas moved to Czech 2. Liga side Dukla Prague on loan in January 2008. Nečas did not make his league debut for Boleslav until August 2008, when he appeared as a substitute against Sparta. He made a total of seven league appearances for Boleslav, all as a substitute, in the 2008–09 Gambrinus liga. The following season, Nečas played just 20 minutes of first-team football before the end of the year, coming on as a substitute against Baník Ostrava. He moved on loan to Slovácko in February 2010 until the end of the season, where he made five appearances including his first Gambrinus liga start. During this time he also made his debut for the Czech Republic under-21 team. However, he was one of eight players released by Slovácko at the end of the season.", "In July 2010, Nečas moved to Dukla permanently. In the 2010–11 season Nečas was limited to seven league appearances, all as a substitute. However, he did score his first goal for Dukla in April 2011 against Sparta Prague B after coming on as a 54th-minute substitute. Dukla finished the season as winners of the 2010–11 Czech 2. Liga and were promoted to the Gambrinus liga. In the first half of the 2011–12 Gambrinus liga, Nečas found it difficult to break into the starting line up, making just two substitute appearances. In the winter break he moved to FC Graffin Vlašim on loan for the remainder of the season.", "He is the son of Radim Nečas, a former national team player." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Middle Ages.", "Early modern period.", "Since 1815.", "Geography and demographics.", "Topography.", "Administrative division.", "Demographics.", "Culture, sights and cityscape.", "Museums.", "Cityscape.", "Economy.", "Transport.", "Education and research.", "Politics.", "Mayor and city council.", "Twin towns - sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The name comes from the German words \"Ulmen\" (i.e. Elms) and \"Aue\" (i.e. floodplain), in reference to the floodplain of the Ilm river, which was covered with elms before the foundation of the town. The mascots (\"town animals\") of Ilmenau are the hen and the goat. The origins of Ilmenau are unknown. It is possible that the village was founded by the St. Peter's monastery of Saalfeld, which encouraged the settlement of this part of Thuringia during the High Middle Ages. However, there are no written sources to verify or disprove this. A first church was built during the 12th century; its walls were found under today's St. James Church. The first written mention of Ilmenau followed later, in 1273, as the village had already existed many decades. At that time, Ilmenau belonged to the Counts of Käfernburg. They died out in 1302 and Ilmenau became part of the Schwarzburg County. After 1320, an important trade route from Nuremberg in the south to Erfurt in the north was relocated next to Ilmenau, so that a castle was established to control the traffic. Soon after, the Schwarzburgs founded a planned town (relatively similar to Königsee) and Ilmenau received municipal rights in 1341. By 1343 the Schwarzburgs had sold their new town to the Counts of Henneberg, who held it until their line died out in 1583. Nevertheless, the Hennebergs often mortgaged Ilmenau to other houses like the Schwarzburgs (1351–1420 and 1445–1464), the Witzlebens (1420–1434) and the Schaumbergs (1476–1498).", "Between 1471 and 1626, copper mining made an important contribution to the economy of Ilmenau. In 1611, the mines produced an estimated 38 tons of copper and 188 kg of silver. Production reached these levels again in the 1730s until the operations ceased in 1739 because of an ingress of water in the mines. A brief revival of copper mining under the leadership of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe failed during the first decades of the 19th century. The Ilmenau mint was in use between 1690 and 1705 producing silver Talers and smaller copper coins. A subsequent blow to the economy after the end of mining in 1739 occurred in 1752, as the town was nearly completely destroyed by fire. The population was impoverished and living conditions were bad. Reconstruction took decades under the leadership of Gottfried Heinrich Krohne, a famous late-Baroque architect in Germany, who planned the new church, town hall and street plan, and so on. After the Hennebergs died out in 1583, the city belonged to the Wettins and since 1661 to the Wettin-Ernestine duchy of Saxe-Weimar (until the end of monarchy in Germany in 1918). The dukes tried to foster the town's economy by founding porcelain and glass manufactures. Whereas the foundation of the porcelain manufacture in 1777 was successful, the glass industry failed twice until industrialisation started in the 1850s. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe visited Ilmenau often between 1776 and 1831, sometimes as minister of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach and sometimes for private holidays. Some Ilmenau-related parts of his written works are the poem \"Ilmenau\" (1783, the only town that Goethe dedicated a poem to), the poem \"Wanderer's Nightsong II\" (1780, which was written at Kickelhahn mountain) and the 4th act of \"Iphigenia\" (1779, written at Schwalbenstein rock).", "Since 1838, Ilmenau had been a spa ressort, based on water cure treatments at hydropathic establishments. Ilmenau's hydropathic establishment was serviced by Drs Schwabe, Fitzler, Baumbach, and Preller. The later 19th century brought a boost to the town's development: the former 2000 people-small town arose to an industrial centre of glass, porcelain and toy production. Furthermore, mining saw a resurgence by gaining fluorite and \"Braunstein\" (manganese ore). After being connected by railway in 1879, the industrial revolution reached the town. Some factories for porcelain (\"Graf von Henneberg Porzellan\" since 1777), glasswares (the \"Sophienhütte\" since 1852) and toys developed and grew until the Great Depression. It weakened especially private consumption, so that Ilmenau's toy industry collapsed, same as some porcelain producers focussed on bibelot. The precursor to the current university was founded in 1894 as the \"Thüringisches Technikum\". Now, it is the Technische Universität Ilmenau, where the ISWI takes place every two years. After the German Revolution of 1918–19, the Thuringian small states, including Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, were merged into the new federal state of Thuringia in 1920 of which Ilmenau became part. It belonged to the Arnstadt district, which was divided in 1952 into the new Ilmenau district (southern part, to Bezirk Suhl) and the Arnstadt district (northern part, to Bezirk Erfurt). In 1994, both districts were reunited with the new name \"Ilm-Kreis\" (by the river Ilm) and Arnstadt as capital. The FIL European Luge Championships of 1934 took place in the town. In the last few years of World War II, Ilmenau was the site of manufacture of the mock-up production of the single-seat fighter version of the Horten Ho 229 V6 (Version 6) jet aircraft. The only surviving example of the Horten jet is the Horten Ho 229 V3. In December 2011, the Horten V3 was transferred to the Smithsonian Institution's Paul E. Garber Restoration Facility in Suitland, Maryland, USA.", "", "Ilmenau is located within a basin, formed by Ilm river on the northern edge of the Thuringian Forest at an altitude of 500m. The surrounding mountains are the \"Pörlitzer Höhe\" (573 m) in the north, the \"Ehrenberg\" (528 m) and the \"Tragberg\" (534 m) in the east, the \"Lindenberg\" (749 m) in the south, the \"Kickelhahn\" (861 m) in the south-west and the \"Hangeberg\" (701 m) in the west. Whereas the first three belong to the foothills, the last are part of the mountainous Thuringian Forest. There is also a geological border between them: the mountain range is of porphyry and the foothills are of Muschelkalk (in the west) and Buntsandstein (in the east). The Kickelhahn is one of the most visited mountains within the Thuringian Forest and hosts an old viewing tower with a panorama above the town and the forest landscape. The Ilm river has two significant tributaries in the vicinity of Ilmenau: the \"Gabelbach\" is a small creek with a small valley between Kickelhahn and Lindenberg south of the city. It is one of the most preferred areas for walks next to Ilmenau. The other is the Schorte, a bigger creek within a deep, long valley in the south-east, marked by many abandoned mining tunnels, including one that can be visited as a mining museum. The area north of Pörlitzer Höhe is not part of the Ilm's drainage basin, the emanating rivers here (Reichenbach near Roda district and Wipfra near Oberpörlitz district) are tributaries of the Gera, which is itself a tributary of River Unstrut. There is a water area in the centre of the town, the \"Ilmenauer Teichgebiet\". This lies between the old town and the main campus of the university with 5 lakes, laid out by monks during the Middle Ages for providing fish. The biggest lake with an area of 95 hectares is made up of the Wipfra river next to Heyda district by the Heyda Dam, built in the 1980s. Nearly all the unbuilt municipal area is covered by forest with spruces and pines (in the north) as the main species. Smaller areas are also covered by beeches. The forest monocultures of spruces were caused by the enormous need of wood for mining and glass industry during the previous centuries. However, they are susceptible to diseases and windthrow and will be replaced by more natural mixed forest during the next few decades after storm conditions Kyrill led to enormous damage within the town's forests in 2007.", "Ilmenau abuts the following municipalities, which are all part of the Ilm district: Neusiß, Plaue and Wipfratal in the north, Wolfsberg and Langewiesen in the east, Stützerbach, Schmiedefeld am Rennsteig and Gehlberg in the south as well as Elgersburg and Martinroda in the west. There are five villages which are incorporated as municipal districts of Ilmenau: Heyda (incorporated in 1994), Manebach (1994), Oberpörlitz (1993), Roda (1939) and Unterpörlitz (1981). In July 2018 the former municipalities of Gehren, Langewiesen, Pennewitz and Wolfsberg were merged with Ilmenau. In January 2019 the former municipalities of Frauenwald and Stützerbach were also merged with Ilmenau.", "In the past, Ilmenau had been a small town of less than 2,000 inhabitants. Population growth began in the 19th century from 2,000 in 1800, 2,800 in 1850 and reaching 3,400 in 1870. Subsequently, the population grew rapidly to 10,400 in 1900 and 17,300 in 1940. After World War II, the population rose further to 20,000 in 1975 and to the peak in 1988 with a population of 29,500. The unfavourable economic situation in the old East Germany after reunification in 1990 resulted in a decline in the population, which fell to 27,000 in 2000 before stabilising. The average decline of population between 2009 and 2012 was approximately -0.03% p. a, whereas the population in bordering rural areas is declining more and more rapidly. Suburbanization has played only a small role in Ilmenau. It occurred after reunification for a short time in the 1990s, but most of the suburban areas were situated within the administrative city borders (e.g. Oberpörlitz and Hüttenholz settlement), others were Langewiesen or Elgersburg. The birth deficit was 132 in 2012, this is -5.1 per 1,000 inhabitants (Thuringian average: -4.5; national average: -2.4). The net migration rate was +2.8 per 1,000 inhabitants in 2012 (Thuringian average: -0.8; national average: +4.6). The most important regions of origin of Ilmenau migrants are rural areas of Thuringia as well as foreign countries. Like other eastern German cities, Ilmenau has only a small immigrant population: circa 4.4% are non-Germans by citizenship and overall 9.5% are migrants (according to 2011 EU census). Differing from the national average, the biggest groups of migrants in Ilmenau are Chinese, Russians and Syrians. During recent years, the economic situation of the city has improved: the unemployment rate within the Ilm district has declined from 21% in 2005 to 7% in 2013. Owing to the official atheism in former GDR, most of the population is non-religious. 17.4% are members of the Evangelical Church in Central Germany (Lutheran) and 5.0% are Roman Catholics, according to 2011 EU census.", "", "There are some museums in Ilmenau:", "The town fire in 1752 destroyed nearly all the buildings in Ilmenau, so that the town was rebuilt during the 1750s and 1760s in a relatively uniform late-Baroque style by Gottfried Heinrich Krohne. The town centre is located between Obertorstraße in the north, Poststrasse in the east, Mühlgraben in the south and Burggasse in the west. Two older suburbs are the quarters around Rasen in the north-west and Lindenstraße in the south-west. Between 1871 and 1914, some interesting parts of the town with large villas developed: a larger one in the south-west around Waldstraße and Goetheallee and a smaller one in the west around Sturmheide, which are hosting noble mansions in Gründerzeit and Art Nouveau style. On the one hand, prosperous factory owners lived here and on the other hand, many buildings were in use as guesthouses as Ilmenau was a spa town during the 19th century. During the GDR period, two big Plattenbau estates were established in the south-east (\"Stollen\") and in the north (\"Pörlitzer Höhe\"). The university's main campus at Ehrenberg in the east was set up in the 1950s and enlarged during the following decades up to the present time. It hosts also some interesting architecture from Stalinist neo-classicism to contemporary glass-and-steel architecture.", "Agriculture plays an insignificant role in the economy of Ilmenau as only 18% of the municipal territory are cultivated. The soil is not that fertile and the climate is harsh. The main crops are maize and rapeseed/ In addition there is cattle farming on some areas. 64% of the territory is forest, so that wood production is important in Ilmenau. Industry was based on the production of glassware and porcelain during the 19th and 20th century with many large and famous companies (porcelain brands: \"Henneberg\" (est. 1777), \"Metzler & Ortloff\" (est. 1873)). The porcelain industry did not survive the structural change after German reunification in 1990, so that factories closed like most in Western Germany earlier during the 1970s and 1980s. The glass industry always concentrated on laboratory glassware such as thermometers, test tubes and other chemical and medical requisites. During the GDR period, all the glass factories of Ilmenau and the surrounding villages were centralized in a new Kombinat, opened in 1976 with 5,000 workers in Ilmenau being one of the biggest glass producers within the Comecon states. After reunification, the factory survived and is still a leading company for laboratory glassware in Germany, nevertheless, due to rationalization efforts during the 1990s, the number of employees decreased to 225. After 1990, new branches were established in Ilmenau. Mechanical engineering and polymer processing are now playing an especially important role in Ilmenau, as is software engineering. These new secgtors benefit from the vicinity to the university and the research institutes. In 2012, there were 26 companies in industrial production with more than 20 workers employing 1,500 persons and generating a turnover of €170 million. Local employment (such asretail, hospital, cinema etc.) include serving the university in particular (which is the biggest employer with 2,000 employees), but also research and industrial services. Tourism has also played a large role since the town became a spa in the 1830s. In 2012, there were 49,000 hotel guests having 114,000 overnight stays in Ilmenau.", "Ilmenau station is located in the city centre on the Plaue–Themar railway, which opened to Ilmenau in 1879. Ilmenau station and stations in the districts of \"Pörlitzer Höhe\" and \"Roda\" are connected by an hourly service to Erfurt via Arnstadt. Another line to Großbreitenbach was opened in 1881 and closed in 1998 and a third one to Themar via Schleusingen opened in 1904. Since 1998, there has no longer been a regular service, but there are some historical steam locomotives running at special events on the line, which crosses the Thuringian Forest on one of the steepest lines in Germany (with a gradient of 6%). Freight transport by rail is no longer important, with exception of a train transporting the town's refuse to the incinerator at Leuna. Ilmenau is situated close to the Bundesautobahn 71 to Erfurt in the north and Würzburg/Nuremberg (via A 73) to the south. Near the town, the Autobahn crosses the Thuringian Forest with some of Germany's largest tunnels and bridges. Furthermore, there were three Bundesstraßen connecting Ilmenau: the Bundesstraße 4 to Erfurt in the north and Coburg in the south (annulled after the opening of A 71 during the 2000s), the Bundesstraße 87 to Weimar in the north-east (now starting at the Autobahn some kilometres north-east of the town) and the Bundesstraße 88 to Eisenach in the north-west and Rudolstadt in the east, which was relocated around Ilmenau as a bypass (via the A 71 in the north and on a new line in the east). The nearest local airport to Ilmenau is the Erfurt–Weimar Airport, approx. to the north, which serves mostly for holiday flights to the Mediterranean and other turistic regions. The next major airports are Frankfurt Airport, the upcoming Berlin Brandenburg Airport and Munich Airport. Biking is becoming ever more popular since the construction of quality cycle paths began in the 1990s. For tourism serve the \"Ilm track\" from the Rennsteig within the Thuringian Forest to the Saale valley at the Saxony-Anhalt border via Ilmenau and Weimar. In addition, there are cycle paths which connect to the \"Gera track\" (in Elgersburg) to Erfurt nearby and to the Saale valley in the east via Gehren, Königsee and Rudolstadt. Many ways through the forest are used by mountain bikers, as mountain biking is very popular in the region. There are only few cycle lanes for inner city every-day traffic but using side roads and paths is working well. Despite the hilly terrain in some parts, Ilmenau is a cycle-friendly city owing in part to the high percentage of residents being students. Public transport includes a bus line network connecting the city centre with the outskirts and neighbouring villages.", "The Technische Universität Ilmenau has 7,000 students and is Thuringia's second-largest university, founded in 1894 as \"Thüringisches Technikum\", converted to a university in 1992. Its emphasis is on mathematics, physics, informatics, several engineering disciplines and media studies. Furthermore, there are two Gymnasiums in Ilmenau, one offers a focus in sciences as an elite boarding school in addition to the common curriculum. They are the Gymnasium \"Am Lindenberg\" - which focuses on languages and economics, and Goetheschule which specialises in science and mathematics. Notable research institutes are:", "", "The current mayor Daniel Schultheiß (Independent) has been in office since November 2018. The last municipal election was held in 2009 with the following results:", "Ilmenau is twinned with: More notable people" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Poisk module.", "Nauka module.", "Design and construction.", "Launch.", "Future." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "A second docking compartment, Stykovochniy Otsek 2 (SO-2), was planned with the same design. However, when the Russian segment of the ISS was redesigned in 2001, the new design no longer included the SO-2, and its construction was canceled. After another change of plans the SO-2 module finally evolved into the \"Poisk\" module, which was added to the ISS in 2009.", "\"Pirs\" was scheduled to be detached from the ISS and deorbited in 2017 by Progress MS-06, to make room for the Russian Multipurpose Laboratory Module \"Nauka\". However, due to the repetitive delays with the laboratory module, this maneuver was postponed for Progress MS-15 in 2020.", "The docking compartment has two primary functions: provide a docking port for visiting Soyuz and Progress spacecraft and serve as an airlock for Russian EVAs. The docking port can accommodate one Soyuz-TMA or one Progress-M spacecraft. Visiting spacecraft can deliver people and cargo to and from to the space station. In addition, the Docking Compartment can transfer fuel from the fuel tanks of a docked Progress resupply vehicle to either the Zvezda Service Module Integrated Propulsion System or the Zarya Functional Cargo Block. It can also transfer propellant from \"Zvezda\" and \"Zarya\" to the propulsion system of docked vehicles—Soyuz and Progress. The two airlocks are used for spacewalks by cosmonauts wearing Russian Orlan-M spacesuits. The \"Pirs\" docking compartment was manufactured by RKK Energia. The Docking Compartment is similar to the Mir Docking Module used on the Mir space station. The docking compartment's planned lifetime as part of the station was five years.", "\"Pirs\" was launched on 14 September 2001, as ISS Assembly Mission 4R, on a Russian Soyuz-U rocket, using a modified Progress spacecraft, Progress DC-1, as an upper stage. The 3580 kilogram \"Pirs\" Docking Compartment is attached to the nadir (bottom, Earth-facing) port of the \"Zvezda\" service module. It docked to the International Space Station on 16 September 2001, and was configured during three spacewalks by the Expedition 3 crew. Two \"Strela\" cargo cranes were later added by the STS-96 and STS-101 missions, carried up on Integrated Cargo Carriers and installed during EVAs.", "\"Pirs\" was originally scheduled to be detached from the nadir (bottom) port of the \"Zvezda\" module in 2013 to make room for the Russian Multipurpose Laboratory Module \"Nauka\". This has been delayed first to 2017 and then to 2018 due to a series of launch failures with the Proton rocket leading to delays in the launch of \"Nauka\". With the detachment currently scheduled for 2020, \"Pirs\" could become the first permanent ISS module to be decommissioned, and would be destroyed during atmospheric re-entry." ] }

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{ "title": [ "World War II.", "Early history.", "Hiroshima mission.", "Nagasaki mission.", "Crews.", "Hiroshima mission.", "Nagasaki mission.", "Subsequent history.", "Restoration.", "Exhibition controversy.", "Complete restoration and display." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The \"Enola Gay\" (Model number B-29-45-MO, Serial number 44-86292, Victor number 82) was built by the Glenn L. Martin Company (later part of Lockheed Martin) at its Bellevue, Nebraska, plant, located at what is now known as Offutt Air Force Base. The bomber was one of the first 15 B-29s built to the \"Silverplate\" specification— of 65 eventually completed during and after World War II—giving them the primary ability to function as nuclear \"weapon delivery\" aircraft. These modifications included an extensively modified bomb bay with pneumatic doors and British bomb attachment and release systems, reversible pitch propellers that gave more braking power on landing, improved engines with fuel injection and better cooling, and the removal of protective armor and gun turrets. \"Enola Gay\" was personally selected by Colonel Paul W. Tibbets Jr., the commander of the 509th Composite Group, on 9 May 1945, while still on the assembly line. The aircraft was accepted by the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) on 18 May 1945 and assigned to the 393d Bombardment Squadron, Heavy, 509th Composite Group. Crew B-9, commanded by Captain Robert A. Lewis, who took delivery of the bomber and flew it from Omaha to the 509th base at Wendover Army Air Field, Utah, on 14 June 1945. Thirteen days later, the aircraft left Wendover for Guam, where it received a bomb-bay modification, and flew to North Field, Tinian, on 6 July. It was initially given the Victor (squadron-assigned identification) number 12, but on 1 August, was given the circle R tail markings of the 6th Bombardment Group as a security measure and had its Victor number changed to 82 to avoid misidentification with actual 6th Bombardment Group aircraft. During July, the bomber made eight practice or training flights, and flew two missions, on 24 and 26 July, to drop pumpkin bombs on industrial targets at Kobe and Nagoya. \"Enola Gay\" was used on 31 July on a rehearsal flight for the actual mission. The partially assembled Little Boy gun-type fission weapon L-11, weighing, was contained inside a × × wooden crate that was secured to the deck of the. Unlike the six uranium-235 target discs, which were later flown to Tinian on three separate aircraft arriving 28 and 29 July, the assembled projectile with the nine uranium-235 rings installed was shipped in a single lead-lined steel container weighing that was locked to brackets welded to the deck of Captain Charles B. McVay III's quarters. Both the L-11 and projectile were dropped off at Tinian on 26 July 1945.", "On 5 August 1945, during preparation for the first atomic mission, Tibbets assumed command of the aircraft and named it after his mother, Enola Gay Tibbets, who, in turn, had been named for the heroine of a novel. When it came to selecting a name for the plane, Tibbets later recalled that: The name was painted on the aircraft on 5 August by Allan L. Karl, an enlisted man in the 509th. Regularly-assigned aircraft commander Robert Lewis was unhappy to be displaced by Tibbets for this important mission, and became furious when he arrived at the aircraft on the morning of 6 August to see it painted with the now-famous nose art. Hiroshima was the primary target of the first nuclear bombing mission on 6 August, with Kokura and Nagasaki as alternative targets. \"Enola Gay\", piloted by Tibbets, took off from North Field, in the Northern Mariana Islands, about six hours' flight time from Japan, accompanied by two other B-29s, \"The Great Artiste\", carrying instrumentation, and a then-nameless aircraft later called \"Necessary Evil\", commanded by Captain George Marquardt, to take photographs. The director of the Manhattan Project, Major General Leslie R. Groves, Jr., wanted the event recorded for posterity, so the takeoff was illuminated by floodlights. When he wanted to taxi, Tibbets leaned out the window to direct the bystanders out of the way. On request, he gave a friendly wave for the cameras. After leaving Tinian, the aircraft made their way separately to Iwo Jima, where they rendezvoused at and set course for Japan. The aircraft arrived over the target in clear visibility at. Captain William S. \"Deak\" Parsons of Project Alberta, who was in command of the mission, armed the bomb during the flight to minimize the risks during takeoff. His assistant, Second Lieutenant Morris R. Jeppson, removed the safety devices 30 minutes before reaching the target area. The release at 08:15 (Hiroshima time) went as planned, and the Little Boy took 53 seconds to fall from the aircraft flying at to the predetermined detonation height about above the city. \"Enola Gay\" traveled before it felt the shock waves from the blast. Although buffeted by the shock, neither \"Enola Gay\" nor \"The Great Artiste\" was damaged. The detonation created a blast equivalent to. The U-235 weapon was considered very inefficient, with only 1.7% of its fissile material reacting. The radius of total destruction was about one mile (1.6 km), with resulting fires across. Americans estimated that of the city were destroyed. Japanese officials determined that 69% of Hiroshima's buildings were destroyed and another 6–7% damaged. Some 70,000–80,000 people, 30% of the city's population, were killed by the blast and resultant firestorm, and another 70,000 injured. Out of those killed, 20,000 were soldiers and 20,000 Korean slave laborers. \"Enola Gay\" returned safely to its base on Tinian to great fanfare, touching down at 2:58 pm, after 12 hours 13 minutes. \"The Great Artiste\" and \"Necessary Evil\" followed at short intervals. Several hundred people, including journalists and photographers, had gathered to watch the planes return. Tibbets was the first to disembark, and was presented with the Distinguished Service Cross on the spot.", "The Hiroshima mission was followed by another atomic strike. Originally scheduled for 11 August, it was brought forward by two days to 9 August owing to a forecast of bad weather. This time, a Fat Man nuclear weapon was carried by B-29 \"Bockscar\", piloted by Major Charles W. Sweeney. \"Enola Gay\", flown by Captain George Marquardt's Crew B-10, was the weather reconnaissance aircraft for Kokura, the primary target. \"Enola Gay\" reported clear skies over Kokura, but by the time \"Bockscar\" arrived, the city was obscured by smoke from fires from the conventional bombing of Yahata by 224 B-29s the day before. After three unsuccessful passes, \"Bockscar\" diverted to its secondary target, Nagasaki, where it dropped its bomb. In contrast to the Hiroshima mission, the Nagasaki mission has been described as tactically botched, although the mission did meet its objectives. The crew encountered a number of problems in execution, and had very little fuel by the time they landed at the emergency backup landing site Yontan Airfield on Okinawa.", "", "\"Enola Gay\"'s crew on 6 August 1945, consisted of 12 men. The crew was: Of mission commander Parsons, it was said: \"There is no one more responsible for getting this bomb out of the laboratory and into some form useful for combat operations than Captain Parsons, by his plain genius in the ordnance business.\"", "For the Nagasaki mission, \"Enola Gay\" was flown by Crew B-10, normally assigned to \"Up An' Atom\":", "On 6 November 1945, Lewis flew the \"Enola Gay\" back to the United States, arriving at the 509th's new base at Roswell Army Air Field, New Mexico, on 8 November. On 29 April 1946, \"Enola Gay\" left Roswell as part of the Operation Crossroads nuclear weapons tests in the Pacific. It flew to Kwajalein Atoll on 1 May. It was not chosen to make the test drop at Bikini Atoll and left Kwajalein on 1 July, the date of the test, reaching Fairfield-Suisun Army Air Field, California, the next day. The decision was made to preserve the \"Enola Gay\", and on 24 July 1946, the aircraft was flown to Davis–Monthan Air Force Base, Tucson, Arizona, in preparation for storage. On 30 August 1946, the title to the aircraft was transferred to the Smithsonian Institution and the \"Enola Gay\" was removed from the USAAF inventory. From 1946 to 1961, the \"Enola Gay\" was put into temporary storage at a number of locations. It was at Davis-Monthan from 1 September 1946 until 3 July 1949, when it was flown to Orchard Place Air Field, Park Ridge, Illinois, by Tibbets for acceptance by the Smithsonian. It was moved to Pyote Air Force Base, Texas, on 12 January 1952, and then to Andrews Air Force Base, Maryland, on 2 December 1953, because the Smithsonian had no storage space for the aircraft. It was hoped that the Air Force would guard the plane, but, lacking hangar space, it was left outdoors on a remote part of the air base, exposed to the elements. Souvenir hunters broke in and removed parts. Insects and birds then gained access to the aircraft. Paul E. Garber of the Smithsonian Institution, became concerned about the \"Enola Gay\"s condition, and on 10 August 1960, Smithsonian staff began dismantling the aircraft. The components were transported to the Smithsonian storage facility at Suitland, Maryland, on 21 July 1961. \"Enola Gay\" remained at Suitland for many years. By the early 1980s, two veterans of the 509th, Don Rehl and his former navigator in the 509th, Frank B. Stewart, began lobbying for the aircraft to be restored and put on display. They enlisted Tibbets and Senator Barry Goldwater in their campaign. In 1983, Walter J. Boyne, a former B-52 pilot with the Strategic Air Command, became director of the National Air and Space Museum, and he made the \"Enola Gay\"s restoration a priority. Looking at the aircraft, Tibbets recalled, was a \"sad meeting. [My] fond memories, and I don't mean the dropping of the bomb, were the numerous occasions I flew the airplane... I pushed it very, very hard and it never failed me... It was probably the most beautiful piece of machinery that any pilot ever flew.\" Restoration of the bomber began on 5 December 1984, at the Paul E. Garber Preservation, Restoration, and Storage Facility in Suitland-Silver Hill, Maryland. The propellers that were used on the bombing mission were later shipped to Texas A&M University. One of these propellers was trimmed to for use in the university's Oran W. Nicks Low Speed Wind Tunnel. The lightweight aluminum variable-pitch propeller is powered by a 1,250 kVA electric motor, providing a wind speed up to. Two engines were rebuilt at Garber and two at San Diego Air & Space Museum. Some parts and instruments had been removed and could not be located. Replacements were found or fabricated, and marked so that future curators could distinguish them from the original components.", "", "\"Enola Gay\" became the center of a controversy at the Smithsonian Institution when the museum planned to put its fuselage on public display in 1995 as part of an exhibit commemorating the 50th anniversary of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima. The exhibit, \"The Crossroads: The End of World War II, the Atomic Bomb and the Cold War,\" was drafted by the Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum staff, and arranged around the restored \"Enola Gay\". Critics of the planned exhibit, especially those of the American Legion and the Air Force Association, charged that the exhibit focused too much attention on the Japanese casualties inflicted by the nuclear bomb, rather than on the motives for the bombing or the discussion of the bomb's role in ending the conflict with Japan. The exhibit brought to national attention many long-standing academic and political issues related to retrospective views of the bombings. After attempts to revise the exhibit to meet the satisfaction of competing interest groups, the exhibit was canceled on 30 January 1995. Martin O. Harwit, Director of the National Air and Space Museum, was compelled to resign over the controversy. He later reflected that The forward fuselage went on display on 28 June 1995. On 2 July 1995, three people were arrested for throwing ash and human blood on the aircraft's fuselage, following an earlier incident in which a protester had thrown red paint over the gallery's carpeting. The exhibition closed on 18 May 1998 and the fuselage was returned to the Garber Facility for final restoration.", "Restoration work began in 1984, and would eventually require 300,000 staff hours. While the fuselage was on display, from 1995 to 1998, work continued on the remaining unrestored components. The aircraft was shipped in pieces to the National Air and Space Museum's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center in Chantilly, Virginia from March–June 2003, with the fuselage and wings reunited for the first time since 1960 on 10 April 2003 and assembly completed on 8 August 2003. The aircraft has been on display at the Udvar-Hazy Center since the museum annex opened on 15 December 2003. As a result of the earlier controversy, the signage around the aircraft provided only the same succinct technical data as is provided for other aircraft in the museum, without discussion of the controversial issues. It read: The display of the \"Enola Gay\" without reference to the historical context of World War II, the Cold War, or the development and deployment of nuclear weapons aroused controversy. A petition from a group calling themselves the Committee for a National Discussion of Nuclear History and Current Policy bemoaned the display of \"Enola Gay\" as a technological achievement, which it described as an \"extraordinary callousness toward the victims, indifference to the deep divisions among American citizens about the propriety of these actions, and disregard for the feelings of most of the world's peoples\". It attracted signatures from notable figures including historian Gar Alperovitz, social critic Noam Chomsky, whistle blower Daniel Ellsberg, physicist Joseph Rotblat, writer Kurt Vonnegut, producer Norman Lear, actor Martin Sheen and filmmaker Oliver Stone." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "Geology.", "Biodiversity.", "Fauna.", "Flora.", "Islands.", "Elba.", "Giglio.", "Capraia.", "Montecristo.", "Pianosa.", "Gorgona.", "Giannutri.", "Islets.", "Formiche di Grosseto.", "Palmaiola.", "Skerries.", "Meloria.", "Scoglietto di Portoferraio.", "Scoglio d'Africa." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The Tuscan Archipelago lies between Corsica and the Tuscan coast and contains seven major islands (Capraia, Elba, Giannutri, Giglio, Gorgona, Montecristo and Pianosa); all are protected as part of the Arcipelago Toscano National Park. The Archipelago extends from the northernmost island (Gorgona) to the southernmost (Giannutri) and from the westernmost (Capraia) to the Tuscan coast. Main Islands (from north to south): There are several islets in the archipelago including: and skerries as: Others islets and skerries that are not part of the archipelago:", "The Tuscan Archipelago represents a region of correlation between the Sardinia-Corsica block and the Italian Peninsula; it is formed by seven islands and several islets and skerries which have different geological provenance as magmatic, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. The origin of the archipelago dates to the Triassic period according to the type of the rocks. In the Quaternary the archipelago was related to the sea level fluctuations due to the glacial and interglacial periods; in the last glaciation the sea level fell, and Elba became a peninsula joined to the continent and to Pianosa. The Würm glaciation was followed by a warming phase, and the sea rose slowly to reach its current level.", "", "The archipelago is distinguished by some endemic taxa which are protected in order to avoid the loss of the biodiversity of fauna and flora. The most important are \"Oxychilus pilula\" of Capraia; and \"Oxychilus gorgonianus\" of Gorgona; \"Coenonympha corinna\", \"Podarcis muralis colosi\" and \"Vipera aspis francisciredi\" of Elba; and \"Vipera aspis montecristi\" of Montecristo. 31 species of mammals, several introduced, are known from the Tuscan archipelago, with the greatest diversity on Elba, with 24 species. The introduction of the wild boar to Elba several years ago has caused problems regarding the conservation of some plant species. All the islands of the Tuscan Archipelago are a place where the migrant birds take a stop along their seasonal movement from north to south and vice versa; the favourite places are Gorgona, Palmaiola, Cerboli and Montecristo. The \"Falco peregrinus brookei\" nests on Elba and Capraia, the shearwater and the rare Audouin's gull are common on all the islands. The rich productivity of the coastal waters provides habitats for various marine life, even dolphins and whales, including fin and sperm whales.", "The archipelago is characterized by a Mediterranean climate with high insolation all year round. The archipelago's flora differs from island to island; the smaller have a vegetation similar each other of \"macchia mediterranea\" and garrigue formed by evergreen plants. Elba has a complex orography including the mountain Mount Capanne which favoured the preservation of the chestnut, the holm oak and the black alder mostly on the northern side. The main plant formations are those of shrubs of Erica, strawberry tree, Genisteae, mastic, Mediterranean buckthorn, myrtus and Phoenician juniper; On Elba and Capraia the cork oak is present, while the Aleppo pine and the maritime pine are widely spread on Elba and Gorgona. The endemic species of the archipelago are \"Centaurea aetalieae\" (eastern Elba), \"Centaurea gymnocarpa\" (Capraia), \"Centaurea ilvensis\" (western Elba), \"Crocus ilvensis\" (western Elba), \"Limonium doriae\" (Formica Grande), \"Limonium gorgonae\" (Gorgona), \"Limonium ilvae\" (Elba), \"Limonium planesiae\" (Pianosa), \"Limonium sommerierianum\" (Giglio, Giannutri and Montecristo), \"Linaria capraria\" (all main islands except for Giannutri), \"Romulea insularis\" (Capraia) and \"Silene capraria\" (Capraia). Endemic taxa of lower rank are \"Biscutella pichiana\" subsp. \"ilvensis\" (Elba), \"Festuca gamisansii\" subsp. \"aethaliae\" (Elba), \"Mentha requienii\" subsp. \"bistaminata\" (Montecristo and Capraia) and \"Viola corsica\" subsp. \"ilvensis\" (Elba).", "", "Elba is a Mediterranean island in Tuscany, Italy, from the coastal town of Piombino. The largest island of the Tuscan Archipelago, Elba is also part of the Arcipelago Toscano National Park and the third largest island in Italy, after Sicily and Sardinia. It is located in the Tyrrhenian Sea, about east of the French island of Corsica.", "Isola del Giglio is an Italian island and comune situated in the Tyrrhenian Sea, off the coast of Tuscany, and is part of the Province of Grosseto. The island is one of seven that form the Tuscan Archipelago, lying within the Arcipelago Toscano National Park. \"Giglio\" means \"lily\" in Italian, and though the name would appear consistent with the insignia of Medici Florence, it derives from \"Aegilium\", \"Goat Island\", a Latin transliteration of the Greek word for \"little goat\" (Ancient greek: \"Aigýllion\", \"Αιγύλλιον\").", "Capraia is an Italian island, is the north-westernmost of the seven islands of the Tuscan Archipelago, and the third largest after Elba and Giglio; it is also a \"comune\" (municipality) belonging to the Province of Livorno. The island has a population of about 400.", "Montecristo is an island in the Tyrrhenian Sea and part of the Tuscan Archipelago. Administratively it belongs to the municipality of Portoferraio in the province of Livorno, Italy. The island has an area of and is approximately wide at its widest point; the coasts are steep, and extend for. The island is a state nature reserve and forms part of the Tuscan Archipelago National Park.", "The small island of Pianosa, about in area, has a coastal perimeter of, forms part of Italy's Tuscan Archipelago in the Tyrrhenian Sea.", "Gorgona is the northernmost island in the Tuscan Archipelago. Between Corsica and Livorno, this diminutive island has been valued most for its wildlife, especially marine birds, and its isolation. The latter quality resulted in the foundation of Gorgona Abbey in the Middle Ages. After its closure, the monastery grounds and buildings were appropriated in 1869, at the foundation of an agricultural penal colony, which is currently in use.", "Giannutri is a small island in the Tyrrhenian Sea off the coast of Tuscany, Italy; it is the southernmost island of the Tuscan Archipelago and it is a \"frazione\" of the \"comune\" of Isola del Giglio in the Province of Grosseto.", "", "The Formiche di Grosseto (\"Ants of Grosseto\") is a group of islets which emerge sharply in the Tuscan Archipelago. They are located in open sea among the coast of the Natural Park of Maremma and Pianosa, approximately from Porto Santo Stefano on Monte Argentario and from Marina di Grosseto; they are part of the \"comune\" of Grosseto and are placed in a nature reserve which makes part of a special protection area.", "Palmaiola is an islet placed in the middle of Piombino Channel, at from Elba and from Piombino; it is part of the comune of Rio Marina.", "", "Meloria is a rocky skerry, surrounded by a shoal, off the Tuscan coast, in the Ligurian sea, north-west of Livorno.", "Scoglietto di Portoferraio is a rocky skerry without vegetation placed in front of Portoferraio. It is a marine protected area since 1971, and from January 2014 it is a Site of Community Importance. The skerry is long and wide and it is placed at from \"Punta Capo Bianco\" and from \"Punta Falconaia\". On the islet is an active lighthouse.", "Scoglio d'Africa (or Scoglio d'Affrica), also named Formica di Monte Cristo (\"Monte Cristo's Ant\"), is a solitary small skerry belonging to the Tuscan Archipelago located in open sea between Tyrrhenian Sea and Corsica Channel. It is located west of the Island of Montecristo, south of Pianosa Island and east of Corsica. Administratively it belongs to the municipality of Campo nell'Elba. It is also part of the Tuscan Archipelago National Park." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geometric introduction.", "Via coordinate transitions.", "Tensor bundles.", "Notation.", "The \"C\"(\"M\") module explanation.", "Applications.", "Tensor calculus.", "Twisting by a line bundle.", "The flat case.", "Cocycles and chain rules.", "Generalizations.", "Tensor densities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Intuitively, a vector field is best visualized as an \"arrow\" attached to each point of a region, with variable length and direction. One example of a vector field on a curved space is a weather map showing horizontal wind velocity at each point of the Earth's surface. The general idea of tensor field combines the requirement of richer geometry – for example, an ellipsoid varying from point to point, in the case of a metric tensor – with the idea that we don't want our notion to depend on the particular method of mapping the surface. It should exist independently of latitude and longitude, or whatever particular \"cartographic projection\" we are using to introduce numerical coordinates.", "Following and, the concept of a tensor relies on a concept of a reference frame (or coordinate system), which may be fixed (relative to some background reference frame), but in general may be allowed to vary within some class of transformations of these coordinate systems. For example, coordinates belonging to the \"n\"-dimensional real coordinate space formula_1 may be subjected to arbitrary affine transformations: (with \"n\"-dimensional indices, summation implied). A covariant vector, or covector, is a system of functions formula_3 that transforms under this affine transformation by the rule The list of Cartesian coordinate basis vectors formula_5 transforms as a covector, since under the affine transformation formula_6. A contravariant vector is a system of functions formula_7 of the coordinates that, under such an affine transformation undergoes a transformation This is precisely the requirement needed to ensure that the quantity formula_9 is an invariant object that does not depend on the coordinate system chosen. More generally, a tensor of valence (\"p\",\"q\") has \"p\" downstairs indices and \"q\" upstairs indices, with the transformation law being The concept of a tensor field may be obtained by specializing the allowed coordinate transformations to be smooth (or differentiable, analytic, etc). A covector field is a function formula_3 of the coordinates that transforms by the Jacobian of the transition functions (in the given class). Likewise, a contravariant vector field formula_7 transforms by the inverse Jacobian.", "The vector bundle is a natural idea of \"vector space depending continuously (or smoothly) on parameters\" – the parameters being the points of a manifold \"M\". For example, a \"vector space of one dimension depending on an angle\" could look like a Möbius strip as well as a cylinder. Given a vector bundle \"V\" over \"M\", the corresponding field concept is called a \"section\" of the bundle: for \"m\" varying over \"M\", a choice of vector where \"V\" is the vector space \"at\" \"m\". Since the tensor product concept is independent of any choice of basis, taking the tensor product of two vector bundles on \"M\" is routine. Starting with the tangent bundle (the bundle of tangent spaces) the whole apparatus explained at component-free treatment of tensors carries over in a routine way – again independently of coordinates, as mentioned in the introduction. We therefore can give a definition of tensor field, namely as a section of some tensor bundle. (There are vector bundles which are not tensor bundles: the Möbius band for instance.) This is then guaranteed geometric content, since everything has been done in an intrinsic way. More precisely, a tensor field assigns to any given point of the manifold a tensor in the space where \"V\" is the tangent space at that point and \"V\" is the cotangent space. See also tangent bundle and cotangent bundle. Given two tensor bundles \"E\" → \"M\" and \"F\" → \"M\", a linear map \"A\": Γ(\"E\") → Γ(\"F\") from the space of sections of \"E\" to sections of \"F\" can be considered itself as a tensor section of formula_14 if and only if it satisfies \"A\"(\"fs\"...) = \"fA\"(\"s\"...) in each argument, where \"f\" is a smooth function on \"M\". Thus a tensor is not only a linear map on the vector space of sections, but a \"C\"(\"M\")-linear map on the module of sections. This property is used to check, for example, that even though the Lie derivative and covariant derivative are not tensors, the torsion and curvature tensors built from them are.", "The notation for tensor fields can sometimes be confusingly similar to the notation for tensor spaces. Thus, the tangent bundle \"TM\" = \"T\"(\"M\") might sometimes be written as to emphasize that the tangent bundle is the range space of the (1,0) tensor fields (i.e., vector fields) on the manifold \"M\". This should not be confused with the very similar looking notation in the latter case, we just have one tensor space, whereas in the former, we have a tensor space defined for each point in the manifold \"M\". Curly (script) letters are sometimes used to denote the set of infinitely-differentiable tensor fields on \"M\". Thus, are the sections of the (\"m\",\"n\") tensor bundle on \"M\" which are infinitely-differentiable. A tensor field is an element of this set.", "There is another more abstract (but often useful) way of characterizing tensor fields on a manifold \"M\" which makes tensor fields into honest tensors (i.e. \"single\" multilinear mappings), though of a different type (although this is \"not\" usually why one often says \"tensor\" when one really means \"tensor field\"). First, we may consider the set of all smooth (C) vector fields on \"M\", formula_18 (see the section on notation above) as a single space — a module over the ring of smooth functions, \"C\"(\"M\"), by pointwise scalar multiplication. The notions of multilinearity and tensor products extend easily to the case of modules over any commutative ring. As a motivating example, consider the space formula_19 of smooth covector fields (1-forms), also a module over the smooth functions. These act on smooth vector fields to yield smooth functions by pointwise evaluation, namely, given a covector field \"ω\" and a vector field \"X\", we define Because of the pointwise nature of everything involved, the action of \"ω\" on \"X\" is a \"C\"(\"M\")-linear map, that is, for any \"p\" in \"M\" and smooth function \"f\". Thus we can regard covector fields not just as sections of the cotangent bundle, but also linear mappings of vector fields into functions. By the double-dual construction, vector fields can similarly be expressed as mappings of covector fields into functions (namely, we could start \"natively\" with covector fields and work up from there). In a complete parallel to the construction of ordinary single tensors (not fields!) on \"M\" as multilinear maps on vectors and covectors, we can regard general (\"k\",\"l\") tensor fields on \"M\" as \"C\"(\"M\")-multilinear maps defined on \"l\" copies of formula_18 and \"k\" copies of formula_19 into \"C\"(\"M\"). Now, given any arbitrary mapping \"T\" from a product of \"k\" copies of formula_19 and \"l\" copies of formula_18 into \"C\"(\"M\"), it turns out that it arises from a tensor field on \"M\" if and only if it is a multilinear over \"C\"(\"M\"). Thus this kind of multilinearity implicitly expresses the fact that we're really dealing with a pointwise-defined object, i.e. a tensor field, as opposed to a function which, even when evaluated at a single point, depends on all the values of vector fields and 1-forms simultaneously. A frequent example application of this general rule is showing that the Levi-Civita connection, which is a mapping of smooth vector fields formula_24 taking a pair of vector fields to a vector field, does not define a tensor field on \"M\". This is because it is only \"R\"-linear in \"Y\" (in place of full \"C\"(\"M\")-linearity, it satisfies the \"Leibniz rule,\" formula_25)). Nevertheless, it must be stressed that even though it is not a tensor field, it still qualifies as a geometric object with a component-free interpretation.", "The curvature tensor is discussed in differential geometry and the stress–energy tensor is important in physics and mathematics of these are related by Einstein's theory of general relativity. In electromagnetism, the electric and magnetic fields are combined into an electromagnetic tensor field. It is worth noting that differential forms, used in defining integration on manifolds, are a type of tensor field.", "In theoretical physics and other fields, differential equations posed in terms of tensor fields provide a very general way to express relationships that are both geometric in nature (guaranteed by the tensor nature) and conventionally linked to differential calculus. Even to formulate such equations requires a fresh notion, the covariant derivative. This handles the formulation of variation of a tensor field \"along\" a vector field. The original \"absolute differential calculus\" notion, which was later called \"tensor calculus\", led to the isolation of the geometric concept of connection.", "An extension of the tensor field idea incorporates an extra line bundle \"L\" on \"M\". If \"W\" is the tensor product bundle of \"V\" with \"L\", then \"W\" is a bundle of vector spaces of just the same dimension as \"V\". This allows one to define the concept of tensor density, a 'twisted' type of tensor field. A \"tensor density\" is the special case where \"L\" is the bundle of \"densities on a manifold\", namely the determinant bundle of the cotangent bundle. (To be strictly accurate, one should also apply the absolute value to the transition functions – this makes little difference for an orientable manifold.) For a more traditional explanation see the tensor density article. One feature of the bundle of densities (again assuming orientability) \"L\" is that \"L\" is well-defined for real number values of \"s\"; this can be read from the transition functions, which take strictly positive real values. This means for example that we can take a \"half-density\", the case where \"s\" = 1⁄2. In general we can take sections of \"W\", the tensor product of \"V\" with \"L\", and consider tensor density fields with weight \"s\". Half-densities are applied in areas such as defining integral operators on manifolds, and geometric quantization.", "When \"M\" is a Euclidean space and all the fields are taken to be invariant by translations by the vectors of \"M\", we get back to a situation where a tensor field is synonymous with a tensor'sitting at the origin'. This does no great harm, and is often used in applications. As applied to tensor densities, it \"does\" make a difference. The bundle of densities cannot seriously be defined 'at a point'; and therefore a limitation of the contemporary mathematical treatment of tensors is that tensor densities are defined in a roundabout fashion.", "As an advanced explanation of the \"tensor\" concept, one can interpret the chain rule in the multivariable case, as applied to coordinate changes, also as the requirement for self-consistent concepts of tensor giving rise to tensor fields. Abstractly, we can identify the chain rule as a 1-cocycle. It gives the consistency required to define the tangent bundle in an intrinsic way. The other vector bundles of tensors have comparable cocycles, which come from applying functorial properties of tensor constructions to the chain rule itself; this is why they also are intrinsic (read, 'natural') concepts. What is usually spoken of as the 'classical' approach to tensors tries to read this backwards – and is therefore a heuristic, \"post hoc\" approach rather than truly a foundational one. Implicit in defining tensors by how they transform under a coordinate change is the kind of self-consistency the cocycle expresses. The construction of tensor densities is a 'twisting' at the cocycle level. Geometers have not been in any doubt about the \"geometric\" nature of tensor \"quantities\"; this kind of descent argument justifies abstractly the whole theory.", "", "The concept of a tensor field can be generalized by considering objects that transform differently. An object that transforms as an ordinary tensor field under coordinate transformations, except that it is also multiplied by the determinant of the Jacobian of the inverse coordinate transformation to the \"w\"th power, is called a tensor density with weight \"w\". Invariantly, in the language of multilinear algebra, one can think of tensor densities as multilinear maps taking their values in a density bundle such as the (1-dimensional) space of \"n\"-forms (where \"n\" is the dimension of the space), as opposed to taking their values in just R. Higher \"weights\" then just correspond to taking additional tensor products with this space in the range. A special case are the scalar densities. Scalar 1-densities are especially important because it makes sense to define their integral over a manifold. They appear, for instance, in the Einstein–Hilbert action in general relativity. The most common example of a scalar 1-density is the volume element, which in the presence of a metric tensor \"g\" is the square root of its determinant in coordinates, denoted formula_26. The metric tensor is a covariant tensor of order 2, and so its determinant scales by the square of the coordinate transition: which is the transformation law for a scalar density of weight +2. More generally, any tensor density is the product of an ordinary tensor with a scalar density of the appropriate weight. In the language of vector bundles, the determinant bundle of the tangent bundle is a line bundle that can be used to 'twist' other bundles \"w\" times. While locally the more general transformation law can indeed be used to recognise these tensors, there is a global question that arises, reflecting that in the transformation law one may write either the Jacobian determinant, or its absolute value. Non-integral powers of the (positive) transition functions of the bundle of densities make sense, so that the weight of a density, in that sense, is not restricted to integer values. Restricting to changes of coordinates with positive Jacobian determinant is possible on orientable manifolds, because there is a consistent global way to eliminate the minus signs; but otherwise the line bundle of densities and the line bundle of \"n\"-forms are distinct. For more on the intrinsic meaning, see density on a manifold." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Scripting support.", "LiveConnect.", "XPConnect.", "Object connection.", "Security.", "NPRuntime.", "Support/deprecation.", "Similar technologies.", "ActiveX.", "PPAPI." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Scripting is a feature allowing JavaScript code in a web page to interact with the plugin. Various versions of Netscape and then Mozilla supported this feature using different technologies, including LiveConnect, XPConnect, and NPRuntime.", "LiveConnect is a feature of Web browsers that allows Java and JavaScript software to intercommunicate within a Web page. From the Java side it allows an applet to invoke the embedded scripts of a page, or to access the built-in JavaScript environment, much as scripts can. Conversely, from the JavaScript side, it allows a script to invoke applet methods, or to access Java runtime libraries, much as applets can. LiveConnect was used in Netscape 4 to implement scriptability of NPAPI plugins. The Open Java Interface-dependent implementation of LiveConnect was removed from the Mozilla source code tree in late June 2009 as part of the Mozilla 2 cleanup effort. It is no longer needed with the release of a redesigned Java Runtime Environment from Sun Microsystems. However the old implementation was restored for Gecko 1.9.2, as Apple had yet to port the newer JRE over to Mac OS X. The Java–JavaScript functionality supported by the redesigned Java Runtime Environment is still called \"LiveConnect\", despite the Open Java Interface-specific approach having been abandoned. With Netscape 4, NPAPI was extended to allow plugins to be scripted. This extension is called LiveConnect. A plugin could implement a Java class and expose an instance of it. The class could be called from JavaScript and from Java applets running within the page. The disadvantage of LiveConnect is, that it is heavily tied to the version of Java embedded within the Netscape browser. This prevented the browser from using other Java runtimes, and added bloat to the browser download size, since it required Java to script plugins. Additionally, LiveConnect is tricky to program: The developer has to define a Java class for the plugin, run it through a specialized Java header compiler, and implement native methods. Handling strings, exceptions, and other Java objects from C++ is non-obvious. In addition, LiveConnect uses an earlier and now obsolete application programming interface (API) for invoking native C++ calls from Java, called JRI. The JRI technology has long since been supplanted by JNI.", "XPConnect (Cross Platform Connect) is a technology which enables simple interoperation between XPCOM and JavaScript.", "XPConnect allows JavaScript objects to transparently access and manipulate XPCOM objects. It also enables JavaScript objects to present XPCOM compliant interfaces to be called by XPCOM objects. A main goal is that objects communicating from either side of an XPCOM style interface should not generally need to know or care about the implementation language of the object on the other side of the interface. XPConnect's primary reason for existence is to replace handwritten code used in places where native code needs to interact with JavaScript code. An example is the DOM module.", "Full privileges are only granted by default to chrome scripts, i.e. scripts that are part of the application or of an extension. For remote HTML/XHTML/XUL documents, most XPCOM objects are not accessible by the scripts as they have limited privileges due to security reasons. Even if they are accessible (e.g. the XMLHttpRequest object), the usual security restrictions can also be found (e.g. cannot open URLs of other domains). Mozilla was already using XPCOM to define the interfaces to many objects implemented in C++. Each interface was defined by an IDL file, and run through an IDL compiler that produced header files and a language-neutral type library that was a binary representation of the interface. This binary described the interface, the methods, the parameters, the data structures and enumerations. XPConnect uses the type library information to marshal calls between different thread contexts and between JavaScript and natively compiled C++. XPConnect is used extensively throughout Mozilla. Starting with Netscape 6.1 and Mozilla 0.9.2, NPAPI was extended, so that a plugin could return a scriptable interface to itself and XPConnect would marshal calls to it from JavaScript and the C++ implementation. XPConnect has no Java dependency. However, the technology is based on XPCOM. Thus the plugin developer must be familiar with reference counting, interfaces and IDL to implement scripting. The dependency on XPCOM led to certain dynamic linking issues (e.g. the fragile base class problem) which had to be solved before the plugin would work correctly with different browsers. XPCOM has since been changed to supply a statically linked version to address such issues. This approach also requires an.xpt file to be installed next to the dynamic-link library (DLL); otherwise the plugin appears to work, but the scripting does not, causing confusion.", "At the end of 2004, all major browser companies using NPAPI agreed on NPRuntime as an extension to the original NPAPI to supply scripting, via an API that is similar in style to the old C-style NPAPI and is independent of other browser technologies like Java or XPCOM. It is only supported by Firefox ESR (Extended Support Release) and Safari.", "Because of the age of the API, security issues, and adoption of alternative technologies such as HTML5, software vendors began to phase out NPAPI support in 2013. The following list of web browsers support all NPAPI plugins:", "", "Internet Explorer and browsers based on Internet Explorer use ActiveX controls, ActiveX documents and ActiveX scripting to offer in-page extensibility on par with NPAPI. Although commonly associated with Internet Explorer, ActiveX is integration technology that allows any computer program to integrate parts of other computer programs that support such integration. Internet Explorer, however, is discontinued and its replacement, Microsoft Edge, does not support ActiveX.", "On 12 August 2009 a page on Google Code introduced a new project called Pepper, with the associated Pepper Plugin API (PPAPI); PPAPI is a derivative of NPAPI aimed to make plugins more portable and more secure. This extension is designed specifically to ease the implementation of out-of-process plugin execution. PPAPI was initially only supported by Google Chrome and Chromium. Later, other Chromium-based browsers such as Opera and Vivaldi added PPAPI plugin support. In February 2012 Adobe Systems announced that future Linux versions of Adobe Flash Player would be provided only via PPAPI. The previous release, Flash Player 11.2, with NPAPI support, would receive security updates for five years. In August 2016 Adobe announced that, contrary to their previous statement, it would again support the NPAPI Flash Player on Linux and keep releasing new versions of it. In January 2020, Google announced that support for PPAPI would be removed from Google Chrome and Chromium in June 2021." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Geography.", "History." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "According to Ptolemy (2.9), Germania Inferior included the Rhine from its mouth up to the mouth of the \"Obringa\", a river identified with either the Aar or the Moselle. The territory included modern Luxembourg, the southern Netherlands, part of Belgium, and part of North Rhine-Westphalia in Germany, west of the Rhine. The principal settlements of the province were Castra Vetera and Colonia Ulpia Traiana (both near Xanten), Coriovallum (Heerlen), Albaniana (Alphen aan den Rijn), Lugdunum Batavorum (Katwijk), Forum Hadriani (Voorburg), Ulpia Noviomagus Batavorum (Nijmegen), Traiectum (Utrecht), Atuatuca Tungrorum (Tongeren), Bona (Bonn), and Colonia Agrippinensis (Cologne), the capital of Germania Inferior.", "The army of Germania Inferior, typically shown on inscriptions as EX.GER.INF. (\"Exercitus Germaniae Inferioris\"), included several legions at various times: of these, Legions I \"Minervia\" and XXX \"Ulpia Victrix\" were the most permanent. The Roman Navy's Classis Germanica (Germanic fleet), charged with patrolling the Rhine and the North Sea coast, was based at Castra Vetera and later at Colonia Agrippinensis. The first confrontations between a Roman army and the peoples of Germania Inferior occurred during Julius Caesar's Gallic Wars. Caesar invaded the region in 57 BC and in the next three years annihilated several tribes, including the Eburones and the Menapii, whom Caesar called \"Germanic\" but who probably were Celtic or at least mixed Celtic-Germanic. Germanic influence (mainly through the Tungri) increased during Roman times, leading to the assimilation of all Celtic peoples in the area. Germania Inferior had Roman settlements since around 50 BC and was at first part of Gallia Belgica. Although it had been occupied since the reign of Augustus, it wasn't formally established as a Roman province until around AD 85, with its capital at Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium (modern Cologne). It later became an imperial province. It lay north of Germania Superior; these two together made up Lesser Germania. The adjective \"Inferior\" refers to its downstream position. As attested in the early 5th century \"Notitia Dignitatum\", the province was renamed Germania Secunda (Germania II) in the 4th century. It was administered by a \"consularis\" and formed part of the Diocese of Gaul. Up to the end of Roman control, it was an intensely garrisoned province that was inhabited by Romans and Ripuarian Franks in the 5th century. Its capital remained at Colonia Claudia Ara Agrippinensium, which also became the seat of a Christian bishopric, in charge of an ecclesiastical province that survived the fall of the Western Roman Empire. After the final abandonment of the province it became the core of the Frankish Kingdom." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Description.", "Ecology.", "Cultivation and uses.", "Maple syrup.", "Timber.", "Urban planting.", "Use by Native Americans.", "Big trees.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "\"Acer saccharum\" is a deciduous tree normally reaching heights of, and exceptionally up to. A 10-year-old tree is typically about tall. Although heights of 120 feet are possible, few sugar maples exceed 70 feet. As with most trees, forest-grown sugar maples form a much taller trunk and narrower canopy than open-growth ones. The leaves are deciduous, up to long and wide, palmate, with five lobes and borne in opposite pairs. The basal lobes are relatively small, while the upper lobes are larger and deeply notched. In contrast with the angular notching of the silver maple, however, the notches tend to be rounded at their interior. The fall color is often spectacular, ranging from bright yellow on some trees through orange to fluorescent red-orange on others. Sugar maples also have a tendency to color unevenly in fall. In some trees, all colors above can be seen at the same time. They also share a tendency with red maples for certain parts of a mature tree to change color weeks ahead of or behind the remainder of the tree. The leaf buds are pointy and brown-colored. The recent year's growth twigs are green, and turn dark brown. The flowers are in panicles of five to 10 together, yellow-green and without petals; flowering occurs in early spring after 30–55 growing degree days. The sugar maple will generally begin flowering when it is between 10 and 200 years old. The fruit is a pair of samaras (winged seeds). The seeds are globose, in diameter, the wing long. The seeds fall from the tree in autumn, where they must be exposed to 45 days of temperatures below to break their coating down. Germination of \"A. saccharum\" is slow, not taking place until the following spring when the soil has warmed and all frost danger is past. It is closely related to the black maple, which is sometimes included in this species, but sometimes separated as \"Acer nigrum\". The western American bigtooth maple (\"Acer grandidentatum\") is also treated as a variety or subspecies of sugar maple by some botanists. The sugar maple can be confused with the Norway maple, which is not native to America but is commonly planted in cities and suburbs, and they are not closely related within the genus. The sugar maple is most easily identified by clear sap in the leaf petiole (the Norway maple has white sap), brown, sharp-tipped buds (the Norway maple has blunt, green or reddish-purple buds), and shaggy bark on older trees (the Norway maple bark has small grooves). Also, the leaf lobes of the sugar maple have a more triangular shape, in contrast to the squarish lobes of the Norway maple. Although many people think a red sugar maple leaf is featured on the flag of Canada, the official maple leaf does not belong to any particular maple species; although it perhaps most closely resembles a sugar maple leaf of all the maple species in Canada, the leaf on the flag was specially designed to be as identifiable as possible on a flag waving in the wind without regard to whether it resembled a particular species' foliage.", "The sugar maple is an extremely important species to the ecology of many forests in the northern United States and Canada. Pure stands are common, and it is a major component of the northern and Midwestern U.S. hardwood forests. Due to its need for cold winters, sugar maple is mostly found north of the 42nd parallel in USDA growing zones 3–5. It is less common in the southern part of its range (USDA Zone 6) where summers are hot and humid; there sugar maple is confined to ravines and moist flatlands. In the east, from Maryland southward, it is limited to the Appalachians. In the west, Tennessee represents the southern limit of its range. Collection of sap for sugar is also not possible in the southern part of sugar maple's range as winter temperatures do not become cold enough. The minimum seed-bearing age of sugar maple is about 30 years. The tree is long-lived, typically 200 years and occasionally as much as 300. Sugar maple is native to areas with cooler climates and requires a hard freeze each winter for proper dormancy. In northern parts of its range, January temperatures average about and July temperatures about ; in southern parts, January temperatures average about and July temperatures average almost. Seed germination also requires extremely low temperatures, the optimal being just slightly above freezing, and no other known tree species has this property. Germination of sugar maple seed in temperatures above is rare to nonexistent. \"Acer saccharum\" is among the most shade tolerant of large deciduous trees. Its shade tolerance is exceeded only by the striped maple, a smaller tree. Like other maples, its shade tolerance is manifested in its ability to germinate and persist under a closed canopy as an understory plant, and respond with rapid growth to the increased light formed by a gap in the canopy. Sugar maple can tolerate virtually any soil type short of pure sand, but does not tolerate xeric or swampy conditions. Sugar maples are deeper-rooted than most maples and engage in hydraulic lift, drawing water from lower soil layers and exuding that water into upper, drier soil layers. This not only benefits the tree itself, but also many other plants growing around it. Human influences have contributed to the decline of the sugar maple in many regions. Its role as a species of mature forests has led it to be replaced by more opportunistic species in areas where forests are cut over. Climate change has contributed to the decline of the sugar maple by pushing the suitable habitat range for the trees further north, where temperatures are cooler. This has resulted in a gradual northward migration of the species. The sugar maple also exhibits a greater susceptibility to pollution than other species of maple. Acid rain and soil acidification are some of the primary contributing factors to maple decline. Also, the increased use of salt over the last several decades on streets and roads for deicing purposes has decimated the sugar maple's role as a street tree. The mushroom \"Pholiota squarrosoides\" is known to decay the logs of the tree. In some parts of New England, particularly near urbanized areas, the sugar maple is being displaced by the Norway maple. The Norway maple is also highly shade tolerant, but is considerably more tolerant of urban conditions, resulting in the sugar maple's replacement in those areas. In addition, Norway maple produces much larger crops of seeds, allowing it to out-compete native species.", "", "The sugar maple is one of the most important Canadian trees, being, with the black maple, the major source of sap for making maple syrup. Other maple species can be used as a sap source for maple syrup, but some have lower sugar contents and/or produce more cloudy syrup than these two. In maple syrup production from \"Acer saccharum\", the sap is extracted from the trees using a tap placed into a hole drilled through the phloem, just inside the bark. The collected sap is then boiled. As the sap boils, the water is evaporated off and the syrup left behind. Forty gallons of maple sap are required to be boiled to produce only 1 gallon of pure syrup. Syrup production is dependent on the tree growing in cooler climates; as such, sugar maples in the southern part of its range produce little sap.", "The sapwood can be white, and smaller logs may have a higher proportion of this desirable wood. Bowling alleys and bowling pins are both commonly manufactured from sugar maple. Trees with wavy woodgrain, which can occur in curly, quilted, and \"birdseye maple\" forms, are especially valued. Maple is also the wood used for basketball courts, including the floors used by the NBA, and it is a popular wood for baseball bats, along with white ash. In recent years, because white ash has become threatened by emerald ash borer, sugar maple wood has increasingly displaced it for baseball bat production. It is also widely used in the manufacture of musical instruments, such as the members of the violin family (sides and back), guitars (neck), and drum shells. It is also often used in the manufacture of sporting goods. Canadian maple, often referred to as \"Canadian hardrock maple\", is prized for pool cues, especially the shafts. Some production-line cues will use lower-quality maple wood with cosmetic issues, such as \"sugar marks\", which are most often light brown discolorations caused by sap in the wood. The best shaft wood has a very consistent grain, with no marks or discoloration. Sugar marks usually do not affect how the cue plays, but are not as high quality as those without it. The wood is also used in gunstocks and flooring for its strength. Canadian hardrock maple is also used in the manufacture of electric guitar necks due to its high torsional stability and the bright, crisp resonant tone it produces. If the grain is curly, with flame or quilt patterns, it's usually reserved for more expensive instruments. In high-end guitars this wood is sometimes Torrefied to cook out the Lignin resins, allowing the greater stability to climate & environmental changes, and to enhance its tonal characteristics as the instrument's resonance is more evenly distributed across the cellulose structure of the wood without the lignin.", "Sugar maple was a favorite street and park tree during the 19th century because it was easy to propagate and transplant, is fairly fast-growing, and has beautiful fall color. As noted above, however, it proved too delicate to continue in that role after the rise of automobile-induced pollution and was replaced by Norway maple and other hardier species. The shade and the shallow, fibrous roots may interfere with grass growing under the trees. Deep, well-drained loam is the best rooting medium, although sugar maples can grow well on sandy soil which has a good buildup of humus. Light (or loose) clay soils are also well known to support sugar maple growth. Poorly drained areas are unsuitable, and the species is especially short-lived on flood-prone clay flats. Its salt tolerance is low and it is very sensitive to boron. The species is also subject to defoliation when there are dense populations of larvae of Lepidoptera species like the rosy maple moth (\"Dryocampa rubicunda\").", "The Mohegan use the inner bark as a cough remedy, and the sap as a sweetening agent and to make maple syrup.", "The national champion for \"Acer saccharum\" is located in Charlemont, Massachusetts. In 2007, the year it was submitted, it had a circumference of 5.92 m (233 inches, 19.4 ft) at 1.3 meters above the ground's surface, and thus a diameter at breast height of about 1.88 m (6.18 ft). At that time the tree was (34.1 m (112 ft) tall with an average crown spread of 27.7 m (91 ft). Using the scoring system of circumference in inches plus height in feet plus 25% of crown spread in feet resulted in a total number of 368 points at the National Register of Big Trees. A tree in Lyme, Connecticut, measured in 2012, had a circumference of 18.25 feet (5.56 m), or an average diameter at breast height of about 5.8 feet (1.77 m). This tree had been 123 ft (37.5 m) tall with a crown spread of 86 ft (26.2 m), counting for a total number of 364 points.", "The sugar maple is the state tree of the US states of New York, Vermont, West Virginia, and Wisconsin. It is depicted on the state quarter of Vermont, issued in 2001." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Career." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Born in Prague, Bienert came from a family of magistrates clerks from that city and after he finished law studies at Prague University he also entered the state service. Some of his ancestors were of German-Bohemian ethnic descent and had assimilated into Czech society. From 1906 he worked as a police official for police in Prague and in January 1918 he even became a clerk in the Presidium of the Police in Prague. During World War I Bienert cooperated closely with the Czech resistance movement and after the proclamation of Czechoslovak independence in October 1918 he was rewarded with an appointment to the position of Prague Police Director. Later in the 1930s he also became the Provincial President in the Land of Bohemia. After the German occupation of Czechoslovakia in 1939, he was briefly arrested by the Germans but soon released in exchange for a pledge of loyalty. In 1942, after prime minister Eliáš got arrested by Heydrich, Bienert was appointed to minister of interior under the new prime minister Jaroslav Krejčí. In 1945 Bienert replaced Krejčí in this position and at the same time also served as the substitute for seriously ill president Hácha. In an agreement with state secretary Frank, Bienert tried to broadcast the statement on the dissolution of the Protectorate (which should be replaced by Czech puppet state still controlled by Germans) on 5 May 1945. However the same morning the Prague uprising broke out and Bienert was captured by insurgents in the broadcasting room of City Hall. After the end of World War II, Bienert was tried for treason and collaboration with the Nazis, but because of many mitigating circumstances he was sentenced to only three years in prison. Due to poor health, he was released prematurely in 1947, and died in Prague two years later." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and career.", "Diadochi.", "Later years.", "Marriages and children." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Lysimachus was born in circa 360 BC, to a family of Thessalian Greek stock. He was the second son of Agathocles and his wife; there is some indication in the historical sources that this wife was perhaps named Arsinoe, and that Lysimachus' paternal grandfather may have been called Alcimachus. His father was a nobleman of high rank who was an intimate friend of Philip II of Macedon, who shared in Philip II’s councils and became a favourite in the Argead court. Lysimachus and his brothers grew up with the status of Macedonians; all these brothers enjoyed with Lysimachus prominent positions in Alexander’s circle and, like him, were educated at the Macedonian court in Pella. The historian Justin relates the story that Lysimachus smuggled poison to a person Alexander had condemned to a slow death and was himself thrown to a lion as punishment, but overcame the beast with his bare hands and became one of Alexander's favorites.. Pausanias writes that Lysimachus was one of Alexander's body-guards, whom Alexander once in anger shut up in a chamber with a lion but he won the lion and after that Alexander treated him with respect, and honored him as much as the noblest Macedonians. Some coins issued during Lysimachus's appointment had his image on one side and a lion on the other. He was probably appointed \"Somatophylax\" during the reign of Philip II. During Alexander's Persian campaigns, in 328 BC he was one of his immediate bodyguards. In 324 BC, in Susa, he was crowned in recognition for his actions in India. After Alexander's death in 323 BC, he was appointed to the government of Thrace as \"strategos\" although he faced some difficulties from the Thracian king Seuthes.", "In 315 BC, Lysimachus joined Cassander, Ptolemy and Seleucus against Antigonus, who, however, diverted his attention by stirring up Thracian and Scythian tribes against him. However, he managed to consolidate his power in the east of his territories, suppressing a revolt of the cities on the Black Sea coast. In 309 BC, he founded Lysimachia in a commanding situation on the neck connecting the Chersonese with the mainland, forming a bulwark against the Odrysians. In 306/305 BC, Lysimachus followed the example of Antigonus and assumed the royal title. In 302 BC, when the second alliance between Cassander, Ptolemy and Seleucus was made, Lysimachus, reinforced by troops from Cassander, entered Asia Minor, where he met with little resistance. On the approach of Antigonus he retired into winter quarters near Heraclea, marrying its widowed queen Amastris, a Persian princess. Seleucus joined him in 301 BC, and at the Battle of Ipsus Antigonus was defeated and slain. Antigonus' dominions were divided among the victors. Lysimachus' share was Lydia, Ionia, Phrygia and the north coast of Asia Minor. Feeling that Seleucus was becoming dangerously powerful, Lysimachus now allied himself with Ptolemy, marrying his daughter Arsinoe II of Egypt. Amastris, who had divorced herself from him, returned to Heraclea. When Antigonus' son Demetrius I renewed hostilities (297 BC), during his absence in Greece, Lysimachus seized his towns in Asia Minor, but in 294 BC concluded a peace whereby Demetrius was recognized as ruler of Macedonia. He tried to carry his power beyond the Danube, but was defeated and taken prisoner by the Getae king Dromichaetes (or Dromihete), who, however, set him free in 292 BC on amicable terms in return for Lysimachus surrendering the Danubian lands he had captured. Demetrius subsequently threatened Thrace, but had to retire due to a sudden uprising in Boeotia and an attack from King Pyrrhus of Epirus. In 287 BC, Lysimachus and Pyrrhus in turn invaded Macedonia and drove Demetrius out of the country. Lysimachus left Pyrrhus in possession of Macedonia with the title of king for around seven months before Lysimachus invaded. For a short while the two ruled jointly but in 285 BC Lysimachus expelled Pyrrhus, seizing complete control for himself.", "Domestic troubles embittered the last years of Lysimachus’ life. Amastris had been murdered by her two sons; Lysimachus treacherously put them to death. On his return, Arsinoe II asked the gift of Heraclea, and he granted her request, though he had promised to free the city. In 284 BC Arsinoe, desirous of gaining the succession for her sons in preference to Lysimachus’ first child, Agathocles, intrigued against him with the help of Arsinoe's paternal half-brother Ptolemy Keraunos; they accused him of conspiring with Seleucus to seize the throne, and Agathocles was put to death. This atrocious deed by Lysimachus aroused great indignation. Many of the cities of Asia Minor revolted, and his most trusted friends deserted him. The widow of Agathocles and their children fled to Seleucus, who at once invaded the territory of Lysimachus in Asia Minor. In 281 BC, Lysimachus crossed the Hellespont into Lydia and at the decisive Battle of Corupedium was killed. After some days his body was found on the field, protected from birds of prey by his faithful dog. Lysimachus' body was given over to another son, Alexander, by whom it was interred at Lysimachia.", "Lysimachus was married three times and his wives were: Nicaea most probably died by 302 BC. From an Odrysian concubine he had a son borne to him called Alexander." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Exemplary literature.", "Three examples of exempla.", "\"The Two City Dwellers and the Country Man\".", "\"The King And His Wife\".", "\"The Cursed Dancers of Colbeck\"." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "This genre sprang from the above, in classical, medieval and Renaissance literature, consisting of lives of famous figures, and using these (by emphasizing good or bad character traits) to make a moral point. Collections of Exempla helped medieval preachers to adorn their sermons, to emphasize moral conclusions or illustrate a point of doctrine. The subject matter could be taken from fables, folktales, legends, real history, or natural history. Jacques de Vitry's book of exempla, c. 1200, Nicholas Bozon's \"Les contes moralisés\" (after 1320), and Odo of Cheriton's \"Parabolae\" (after 1225) were famous medieval collections aimed particularly at preachers. Geoffrey Chaucer's \"The Miller's Prologue and Tale\" became a vivid satire on this genre. There were also notable lay writers of moral tales, such as the 13th century Der Stricker and the 14th century Juan Manuel, Prince of Villena (Tales of Count Lucanor). Examples dealing with historical figures include:", "\"The Norton Anthology of Western Literature\" includes three exempla (singular, \"exemplum\"), stories that illustrate a general principle or underscore a moral lesson: \"The Two City Dwellers and the Country Man\" and \"The King's Tailor's Apprentice\" (both from \"The Scholar's Guide\") and \"The Cursed Dancers of Colbeck.\"", "In \"The Two City Dwellers and the Country Man,\" told by the father, the three traveling companions of the tale's title are on a pilgrimage to Mecca. Near their destination, their provisions are nearly depleted, and the two city dwellers attempt to cheat the country man by telling him that whoever of them dreams the most extraordinary dream shall get the last of their bread. As the city dwellers sleep, the country man, alert to their intended deception, eats the half-baked bread before retiring. The city dwellers relate their made-up dreams. One says he was taken to heaven and led before God by angels. The other says that angels escorted him to hell. The country man says he dreamed the same things that his companions dreamed and, believing them to be forever lost, one to heaven and the other to hell, ate the bread. The son tells his father the moral of the story: \"As it says in the proverb, ‘He who wanted all, lost all.’\" He says that the two city dwellers got their just comeuppance. The story says that he wishes they’d been whipped, as the antagonist in another story he has heard, was beaten for his chicanery. His comment is a transition to the next tale, causing the father to ask his son to tell him this story. Thus, the roles of the father and his son are reversed, as the father, who was the storyteller, becomes the listener, and the son, who was his father's audience, becomes the narrator.", "The son's story recounts the story of a king's tailor's assistant, a youth by the name of Nedui. One day while he is away, his master gives the other apprentices bread and honey, but does not save any for Nedui, telling them that Nedui \"would not eat honey even if he were here.\" Upon learning that he has been left out, Nedui avenges himself upon his master by telling the eunuch whom the king has set over the apprentices as their supervisor that the tailor is subject to seizures of madness, during which he becomes violent and dangerous. In fact, Nedui claims, he has killed those who have happened to be near him when he is in the grip of such a fit. To protect himself, Nedui says, he binds and beats the tailor when such a fit comes over him. He also tells the eunuch what to look for: \"When you see him looking all around and feeling the floor with his hands and getting up from his seat and picking up the chair on which he is seated, then you will know that he is mad, and if you do not protect yourself and your servants, he will beat you on the head with a club.\" The next day, Nedui hides the tailor's shears, and, when the master, hunting for them, behaves as Nedui mentioned to the eunuch, the eunuch orders his servants to bind the tailor and beats him himself with a club. His servants also beat him until he is unconscious and \"half dead.\" When he regains consciousness, the tailor asks the eunuch what crime he has committed to have deserved such a beating, and the eunuch tells him what Nedui told him about the tailor's seizures. \"Friend, when have you ever seen me crazy?\" the master asks his apprentice, to which question he receives, from Nedui, the rejoinder: \"When have you ever seen me refuse to eat honey?\" The father tells the son the moral of the story: \"The tailor deserved his punishment because if he had kept the precept of Moses, to love his brother as himself, this would not have happened to him.\" By having the listener tell the narrator the moral of the story, the storyteller shows that the narrative has successfully served its purpose as an exemplum, as the listener, hearing the story, shows that he is able to ascertain the moral that the tale is intended to express.", "The third exemplum, \"The Cursed Dancers of Colbeck,\" is a prose, rather than a poetic, narrative. Like a mini-sermon, it preaches against wrong conduct—in this case, sacrilegious behavior. This tale has an identifiable author, Robert Mannyng, who set down the story in the early fourteenth century. \"The Norton Anthology\"'s version is translated by Lee Patterson from the Middle English \"Handlyng Synne\". A prose version of it appears in the early 12th century \"Gesta Regum Anglorum\" by William of Malmesbury, which in turn was probably taken from the \"Translatio Sanctae Edithae\" by Goscelin under the literary influence of the nunnery at Wilton Abbey. To bolster his listener's belief that \"most of\" his tale is \"the gospel truth,\" the narrator names the culprits and their victims and cites Pope Leo as one who knows (and wrote a version of) the narrative and points out that the story is \"known in the court at Rome\" and has appeared widely in many chronicles, including those \"beyond the sea.\" However, after the telling of the tale, the storyteller admits that some doubt its veracity. The story starts by identifying several activities that are not allowed in church or in the churchyard: \"carols, wrestling, or summer games.\" In addition, \"interludes or singing, beating the tabor [a small drum], or piping.... while the priest is conducting mass\" are \"forbidden\" and sacrilegious, and \"good priests\" will not tolerate them. It is also improper to dance in church, as the story that the narrator is about to tell demonstrates. When \"twelve fools\" in Colbeck (or, as the editors’ note explains, \"Kolbigk, in Saxony, an area in eastern Germany, just north of the present-day Czech border) decided, one Christmas Eve, to make \"a carol--madly, as a kind of challenge,\" and persisted in singing and dancing in the churchyard while the priest was trying to conduct Mass, despite his entreaties to them to stop, the priest calls upon God to curse them. The singers’ carol contains three lines, the last of which appears to become the basis of their curse, as they are unable to leave the churchyard or to quit singing or dancing for a year after God curses them for their sacrilegious behavior: As a result of the curse, the dancers cannot stop singing and dancing; neither can they let go of one another's hands. The priest, too late, sends his son, Ayone, to rescue his daughter, Ave, who is one of the \"twelve fools\" involved in the dancing. However, due to the curse, when Ayone takes his sister's arm to separate her from the other carolers, it detaches from her body. Miraculously, her wound does not bleed, nor does she die from it. Ayone takes the arm to his father. The priest tries, three times unsuccessfully, to bury the limb, but the grave casts it back, so the priest displays it inside the church. Everyone, including the emperor, comes to see the cursed dancers, who, despite no rest, food, drink, or sleep, dance non-stop, night and day, regardless of the temperature or the weather. Several times, the emperor orders a covering to be built to protect the dancers from storms, but it is reduced to rubble overnight each time it is built or rebuilt. After the year has ended, the curse is lifted, and the dancers fall down upon the ground, as if dead. Three days later, they arise—except for Ave, who has died. Soon after, the priest also dies. The emperor installs the container in the church as a receptacle for the dead girl's arm, and it becomes a holy relic commemorating the miracle of the curse. The other dancers cannot get together again, ever, and must skip, instead of walking, wherever they go. Living mementoes of God's curse against sacrilegious behavior, they bear permanent physical changes to their clothing and their bodies: \"Their clothes didn’t rot nor their nails grow; their hair didn’t lengthen nor their complexion change. Nor did they ever have relief...\" Although some believe and others doubt the authenticity of the tale he's told, the narrator says he recounted the story so that his listeners, taking heed, may be \"afraid to carol in a church or churchyard, especially against the priest's will,\" as \"jangling is a form of sacrilege.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography." ], "section_level": [ "1" ], "content": [ "Zbyněk Berka z Dubé was born in Dřevěnice in 1551, the son of Zedenék Berka z Dubé and his wife Katharina z Haugwitz. Being born into the House of Berka z Dubé, he was a member of the Bohemian nobility. He was educated with the Jesuits at Prague and Olomouc. He then attended the University of Cracow, where he received a licentiate in theology. Next, he studied at the University of Ingolstadt, receiving a doctorate in theology. He was ordained as a priest in Prague in 1574. Shortly thereafter, he became a canon of Salzburg Cathedral, St. Vitus Cathedral, Stará Boleslav Cathedral, Olomouc Cathedral, Litoměřice Cathedral, Regensburg Cathedral, and Oetting Cathedral. In 1574, he became provost of the Basilica of St Peter and St Paul, and later became provost of Saint Wenceslas Cathedral (1577), Oetting Cathedral (1581), Regensburg Cathedral (1582), and Litoměřice (1587). In 1578, Pope Gregory XIII named him chamberlain to the pope and a protonotary apostolic. He served as the Apostolic Administrator of the Diocese of Regensburg from 1582 to 1587. He became grand master of the Knights of the Cross with the Red Star in 1590, holding this position until his death. The cathedral chapter of St. Vitus Cathedral elected Berka z Dubé to be Archbishop of Prague on June 21, 1593. On October 10, 1593, he was consecrated as a bishop by Cesare Speciano, Bishop of Cremona. On June 15, 1603, Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor granted him the title of prince of the Holy Roman Empire. In 1606, Pope Paul V announced his intention to make Berka z Dubé a cardinal, but Berka z Dubé died before his elevation could take place. He died in Prague on March 6, 1606, and is buried in St. Vitus Cathedral." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "King of Macedonia.", "Family.", "Literary references.", "Plutarch.", "Hegel.", "Others." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "At the age of twenty-two he was left by his father to defend Syria against Ptolemy the son of Lagus. He was defeated at the Battle of Gaza, but soon partially repaired his loss by a victory in the neighbourhood of Myus. In the spring of 310, he was soundly defeated when he tried to expel Seleucus I Nicator from Babylon; his father was defeated in the autumn. As a result of this Babylonian War, Antigonus lost almost two thirds of his empire: all eastern satrapies fell to Seleucus. After several campaigns against Ptolemy on the coasts of Cilicia and Cyprus, Demetrius sailed with a fleet of 250 ships to Athens. He freed the city from the power of Cassander and Ptolemy, expelled the garrison which had been stationed there under Demetrius of Phalerum, and besieged and took Munychia (307 BC). After these victories he was worshipped by the Athenians as a tutelary deity under the title of \"Soter\" (Σωτήρ) (\"Saviour\"). At this time Demetrius married Eurydike, an Athenian noblewoman who was reputed to be descendant from Miltiades; she was the widow of Ophellas, Ptolemy's governor of Cyrene. Antigonus sent Demetrius instructions to sail to Cyprus and attack Ptolemy's positions there. Demetrius sailed from Athens in the spring of 306 BC and in accordance with his father's orders he first went to Karia where he summoned the Rhodians to support his naval campaign. The Rhodians refused, a decision which would have dire consequences. In the campaign of 306 BC, he defeated Ptolemy and Menelaus, Ptolemy's brother, in the naval Battle of Salamis, completely destroying the naval power of Ptolemaic Egypt. Demetrius conquered Cyprus in 306 BC, capturing one of Ptolemy's sons. Following the victory, Antigonus assumed the title \"king\" and bestowed the same upon his son Demetrius. In 305 BC, he endeavoured to punish the Rhodians for having deserted his cause; his ingenuity in devising new siege engines in his (ultimately unsuccessful) attempt to reduce the capital gained him the title of Poliorcetes. Among his creations were a battering ram long, requiring 1000 men to operate it; and a wheeled siege tower named \"Helepolis\" (or \"Taker of Cities\") which stood tall and wide, weighing 360,000 pounds. In 302 BC, he returned a second time to Greece as liberator, and reinstated the Corinthian League, but his licentiousness and extravagance made the Athenians long for the government of Cassander. Among his outrages was his courtship of a young boy named Democles the Handsome. The youth kept on refusing his attention but one day found himself cornered at the baths. Having no way out and being unable to physically resist his suitor, he took the lid off the hot water cauldron and jumped in. His death was seen as a mark of honor for himself and his country. In another instance, Demetrius waived a fine of 50 talents imposed on a citizen in exchange for the favors of Cleaenetus, that man's son. He also sought the attention of Lamia, a Greek courtesan. He demanded 250 talents from the Athenians, which he then gave to Lamia and other courtesans to buy soap and cosmetics. He also roused the jealousy of Alexander's Diadochi; Seleucus, Cassander and Lysimachus united to destroy him and his father. The hostile armies met at the Battle of Ipsus in Phrygia (301 BC). Antigonus was killed, and Demetrius, after sustaining severe losses, retired to Ephesus. This reversal of fortune stirred up many enemies against him—the Athenians refused even to admit him into their city. But he soon afterwards ravaged the territory of Lysimachus and effected a reconciliation with Seleucus, to whom he gave his daughter Stratonice in marriage. Athens was at this time oppressed by the tyranny of Lachares—a popular leader who made himself supreme in Athens in 296 BC—but Demetrius, after a protracted blockade, gained possession of the city (294 BC) and pardoned the inhabitants for their misconduct in 301 BC. After Athens' capitulation, Demetrius formed a new government which espoused a major dislocation of traditional democratic forms, which anti Macedonian democrats would have called oligarchy. The cyclical rotation of the secretaries of the Council and the election of archons by allotment, were both abolished. In 293/3 - 293/2 B.C., two of the most prominent men in Athens were designated by the Macedonian king, Olympiordoros and Phillipides of Paiania. The royal appointing is implied by Plutarch who says that \"he established the archons which were most acceptable to the Demos.\"", "In 294 BC, he established himself on the throne of Macedonia by murdering Alexander V, the son of Cassander. He faced rebellion from the Boeotians but secured the region after capturing Thebes in 291 BC. That year he married Lanassa, the former wife of Pyrrhus, but his new position as ruler of Macedonia was continually threatened by Pyrrhus, who took advantage of his occasional absence to ravage the defenceless part of his kingdom (Plutarch, \"Pyrrhus\", 7 ff.); at length, the combined forces of Pyrrhus, Ptolemy and Lysimachus, assisted by the disaffected among his own subjects, obliged him to leave Macedonia in 288 BC. After besieging Athens without success he passed into Asia and attacked some of the provinces of Lysimachus with varying success. Famine and pestilence destroyed the greater part of his army, and he solicited Seleucus' support and assistance. However, before he reached Syria hostilities broke out, and after he had gained some advantages over his son-in-law, Demetrius was totally forsaken by his troops on the field of battle and surrendered to Seleucus. His son Antigonus offered all his possessions, and even his own person, in order to procure his father's liberty, but all proved unavailing, and Demetrius died after a confinement of three years (283 BC). His remains were given to Antigonus and honoured with a splendid funeral at Corinth. His descendants remained in possession of the Macedonian throne until the time of Perseus, when Macedon was conquered by the Romans in 168 BC.", "Demetrius was married five times: He also had an affair with a celebrated courtesan called Lamia of Athens, by whom he had a daughter called Phila.", "", "Plutarch wrote a biography of Demetrius.", "Hegel, in the \"Lectures on the History of Philosophy\", says of another Demetrius, Demetrius Phalereus, that \"Demetrius Phalereus and others were thus soon after [Alexander] honoured and worshipped in Athens as God.\" What the exact source was for Hegel's claim is unclear. Diogenes Laërtius in his short biography of Demetrius Phalereus does not mention this. Apparently Hegel's error comes from a misreading of Plutarch's \"Life of Demetrius\" which is about Demetrius Poliorcetes and not Demetrius of Phalereus. Plutarch describes in the work how Demetrius Poliorcetes conquered Demetrius Phalereus at Athens. Then, in chapter 12 of the work, Plutarch describes how Demetrius Poliorcetes was given honors due to the god Dionysus. This account by Plutarch was confusing not only for Hegel, but for others as well.", "Plutarch's account of Demetrius' departure from Macedonia in 288 BC inspired Constantine Cavafy to write \"King Demetrius\" (ὁ βασιλεὺς Δημήτριος) in 1906, his earliest surviving poem on an historical theme. Demetrius is the main character of the opera Demetrio a Rodi (Turin, 1789) with libretto by Giandomenico Boggio and Giuseppe Banti. The music is set by Gaetano Pugnani (1731-1798). Demetrius appears (under the Greek form of his name, Demetrios) in L. Sprague de Camp's historical novel,\" The Bronze God of Rhodes\", which largely concerns itself with his siege of Rhodes. Alfred Duggan's novel \"Elephants and Castles\" provides a lively fictionalised account of his life." ] }

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{ "title": [ "User interface.", "Dockers.", "Stroke and fill.", "Tools.", "Shape properties.", "Toolbars.", "Tools.", "Shape handling tool.", "Connect shapes tool.", "Create path tool." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Dockers are Qwidgets that you may attach to the main window or float freely. You may attach them one over another, resulting in tabs.", "Stroke and fill allows you to set the outline or stroke colour, and the fill colour.", "The tools Docker allows you to select which tool you want. Not all tools are always available. Example: the path editing tool is only available when a shape is selected.", "The use of the Shape Properties docker is Unknown.", "Toolbars allow you to display option otherwise some were in drop down menus. they may be edited by left clicking and selecting configure toolbars. The same option is under Settings. You may toggle which toolbars are visible by going to Settings, Shown toolbars and ticking them from there.", "", "The Shape Handling tool allows you to select shapes. Once selected you may move, resize, pull, and rotate the shape. To resize a shape move your cursor to one of the corners of the selection box. Two arrows pointing in conflicting directions will appear. Then click and drag to resize the shape. If you want to resized it proportionally, hold down shift when Clicking and dragging. To move a shape around the canvas, click within the selected shapes selection box. Then hold your click and drag. This will move the shape.", "The Connect Shapes tool allows you to visually link shapes with auto updating black lines. This is more geared to flow charts.", "The Create Path Tool allows you to draw vector lines and connect then to make shapes with the use of Bézier curve. If you are coming from using Adobe Illustrator it may help to think of the Create Path Tool as Illustrato's Pen Tool. Karbon's create Path Tool differs from its Freehand Drawing Tool which does not allow you to edit the curves and points while drawing." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Name.", "History.", "Design and features.", "User experience design.", "Painting tools.", "Animation tools.", "Vector tools.", "Layers and masks.", "Customisation.", "Display.", "Filters.", "File formats supported.", "Mascot.", "Sprint events." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The project's current name \"Krita\" has multi-cultural references. In Swedish, \"krita\" means \"crayon\" and \"rita\" means \"to draw\". In the ancient Indian epic Mahabharata, the name \"krita\" is used in a context where it can be translated into \"perfect\".", "Early development of the project can be tracked back to 1998 when Matthias Ettrich, founder of KDE, showcased a Qt GUI hack for GIMP at Linux Kongress. The idea of building a Qt-based image editor was later passed to KImage, maintained by Michael Koch, as a part of KOffice suite. In 1999, Matthias Elter proposed the idea of building the software using Corba around ImageMagick. To avoid existing trademarks on the market, the project underwent numerous name changes: KImageShop, Krayon, until it was finally settled with \"Krita\" in 2002. The first public version of Krita was released with KOffice 1.4 in 2004. In years between 2004 and 2009, Krita was developed as a generic image manipulation software like Photoshop and GIMP. Change of direction happened to the project in 2009, with a new goal of becoming a digital painting software like Corel Painter and SAI. Also from that point, the project began to experiment with various ways of funding its development, including Google Summer of Code and funded jobs for students. As a result, the development gained speed and resulted in better performance and stability. The Krita Foundation was created in 2013 to provide support for Krita's development. It collaborated with Intel to create Krita Sketch as a marketing campaign and Krita Studio with KO GmbH as commercially supported version for movie and VFX studios. Kickstarter campaigns have been used to crowdfund Krita's development since 2014.", "The current version of Krita is developed with Qt 5 and KDE Frameworks 5. It is designed primarily for concept artists, illustrators, matte and texture artists, and the VFX industry. It has the following key features", "The most prominent feature of Krita is arguably its UX design with graphics tablet users in mind. It uses a combination of pen buttons, keyboard modifiers and an icon-based HUD to ensure frequently-used functions can be accessed by fewer clicks, without the need to search through text-based menus. Most-used drawing commands can be blindly accessed by combining keyboard modifiers with pen/mouse buttons and gestures: Pop-up Palette is Krita's right click HUD. It enables instant access to the following functions:", "Krita's core digital painting tools include:", "Krita's animation tools are designed for frame-by-frame raster animation. They have the following features:", "Krita uses vector tools for non-destructive editing of the following objects:", "Krita's layer and mask features include:", "Krita's resource manager allows each brush or texture preset to be tagged by a user and quickly searched, filtered and loaded as a group. A collection of user-made presets can be packaged as \"bundles\" and loaded as a whole. Krita provides many such brush set and texture bundles on its official website. Customisable tool panels are known as Dockers in Krita. Actions include: Workspaces allow UI customizations for different workflows to be saved and loaded on demand.", "OpenGL accelerated canvas is used to speed up Krita's performance. It provides the following benefits: Full colour management is supported in Krita with the following capabilities:", "Krita has a collection of built-in filters and supports G'MIC filters. It has realtime filter preview support. Filters included in a default installation: levels, colour adjustment curves, brightness/contrast curve, desaturate, invert, auto contrast, HSV adjustment, pixelise, raindrops, oil paint, gaussian blur, motion blur, blur, lens blur, colour to alpha, color transfer, minimise channel, maximise channel, top/left/bottom/right edge detection, sobel, sharpen, mean removal, unsharp mask, gaussian noise removal, wavelet noise reducer, emboss horizontal only/in all directions/(laplacian)/vertical only/with variable depth/horizontal and vertical, small tiles, round corners, phong bumpmap.", "Krita's native document format is Krita Document (.kra). It can also save to many other file formats including PSD.", "Krita's mascot is Kiki the Cyber Squirrel, a robotic, anthropomorphic squirrel character created by Tyson Tan. The community collectively decided the mascot to be a squirrel. The first version of Kiki was posted to the KDE forum in 2012 and was used in Krita version 2.6's introduction booklet. Kiki has been used as Krita's startup splash screen since Krita version 2.8. So far, each new version of Krita has come with a new version of Kiki. Kiki has been used for Krita's merchandise shop items and Krita's Steam project artworks.", "Krita sprints are events during which Krita developers and artists get together for a few days, exchange ideas and do programming face-to-face, in order to speedup development and improve relationships between members." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Frederick Banting and the discovery of insulin.", "Later years.", "Works.", "Awards and honours.", "Nobel Prize." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "Macleod was born in Clunie, near Dunkeld in central Scotland. Soon after he was born, his father Robert Macleod, a clergyman, was transferred to Aberdeen, where John attended Aberdeen Grammar School and enrolled in the study of medicine at the University of Aberdeen. At the University of Aberdeen, one of MacLeod's principal teachers was the young professor John Alexander MacWilliam. He obtained a PhD in medicine in 1898 and then spent a year studying biochemistry at the University of Leipzig, Germany, on a travelling scholarship. After returning to Britain, he became a demonstrator at the London Hospital Medical School, where in 1902 he was appointed lecturer in biochemistry. In the same year, he was awarded a doctorate in public health from Cambridge University. Around that time he published his first research article, a paper on phosphorus content in muscles. In 1903, Macleod emigrated to the United States and became a lecturer in physiology at the Western Reserve University (today's Case Western Reserve University) in Cleveland, Ohio, where he remained for 15 years. During World War I, he performed various war-time duties and served as a physiology lecturer for part of the 1916 winter semester at the McGill University in Montreal, Canada. After the war, he went on to teach physiology at the University of Toronto, where he became director of the physiology lab and an assistant to the dean of the medical faculty. He researched various topics in physiology and biochemistry, among which were the chemism of \"Mycobacterium tuberculosis\", electroshocks, creatinine metabolism and blood circulation in the brain. In 1905 he became interested in carbohydrate metabolism and diabetes, publishing a series of scientific papers and several monographs on the subject from then on. Additionally, Macleod was a popular lecturer and an influential contributor to the development of the six-year course in medicine at the University of Toronto.", "At the end of 1920, Macleod was approached by Frederick Grant Banting, a young Canadian physician who had the idea of curing diabetes using an extract from a pancreas whose functioning had been disrupted. Macleod was not enthusiastic, because (unlike Banting) he knew about unsuccessful experiments in this direction by other researchers. He thought it more likely that the nervous system had a crucial role in regulating blood glucose concentration. Even though Banting had virtually no experience of physiology, he managed to convince Macleod to lend him laboratory space during a vacation in Scotland that summer. In addition to the laboratory, Macleod provided experimental animals and his student Charles Herbert Best, who worked as a demonstrator. Macleod also advised on project planning and the use of analytical techniques, and assisted with the operation on the first dog. While Macleod was away, Banting and Best achieved a breakthrough: they isolated an internal secretion of the pancreas and succeeded in reducing the blood sugar level of another dog, whose pancreas had been surgically removed. On his return, Macleod was surprised and expressed doubt about the results. Banting took this as an attack on his integrity. They argued bitterly, but Banting finally accepted Macleod's instruction that further experiments were needed, and he even convinced Macleod to provide better working conditions and to give him and Best a salary. Further experiments were successful and the three started to present their work at meetings. Macleod was a far better orator, and Banting came to believe that he wanted to take all the credit. Their discovery was first published in the February 1922 issue of \"The Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine\". Macleod declined co-authorship because he considered it Banting's and Best's work. Despite their success, there remained the issue of how to get enough pancreas extract to continue the experiments. Together, the three researchers developed alcohol extraction, which proved to be far more efficient than other methods. This convinced Macleod to divert the whole laboratory to insulin research and to bring in the biochemist James Collip to help with purifying the extract. The first human clinical trial was unsuccessful. Banting was insufficiently qualified to participate and felt sidelined. By the winter of 1922, he was certain that all Macleod's colleagues were conspiring against him. Collip threatened to leave because of the strained atmosphere, but the encouragement of others who saw the potential of their research prevented escalation of the conflict. In January 1922, the team performed the first successful clinical trial, on 14-year-old Leonard Thompson, and it was soon followed by others. Although all the team members were listed as co-authors of their publications, Banting still felt overlooked, because Macleod took over the coordination of clinical trials and the acquisition of larger amounts of extract. Macleod's presentation at a meeting of the Association of American Physicians in Washington, D.C., on 3 May 1922 received a standing ovation, but Banting and Best refused to participate in protest. At that time, demonstrations of the method's efficiency drew huge public interest, because the effect on patients, especially children, who until then were bound to die, seemed almost miraculous. The pharmaceutical company Eli Lilly & Co. took over mass production, but without an exclusive license, as the patent was transferred to the British Medical Research Council to prevent exploitation. In the summer of 1923 Macleod resumed other research. He took interest in teleost fish, which have separate regions of islet and acinar tissue in their pancreas. Working at the Marine Biological Station in St. Andrews, New Brunswick, he made extracts from each of those parts separately and proved that insulin is derived from the insular and not the acinar tissue of the pancreas. Meanwhile, Banting remained in Toronto and started to change the story to his own benefit. Relationships soon deteriorated again because of conflicting press accounts. Banting eventually started to claim that he deserved all the credit and that Macleod had only hindered him the whole time and had made no contribution other than to leave the keys to the laboratory when he went on vacation.", "Macleod returned to Scotland in 1928 to become Regius Professor of Physiology at Aberdeen University (in succession to his former teacher, John Alexander MacWilliam who retired in 1927) and later Dean of the University of Aberdeen Medical Faculty. Between 1929 and 1933 he was also a member of the Medical Research Council. He wrote a report on the discovery in 1922 to explain his side of the story, but otherwise refrained from active involvement in controversy about credit. Banting hated him passionately, and the two never spoke again. Macleod did not continue to work on insulin, but he remained active as a researcher, lecturer and author. His last major contribution was a proof that the central nervous system does have an important role in maintaining carbohydrate metabolism balance, as was his original hypothesis. His theory about conversion of fats into carbohydrates remained unproven, despite his provision of several indirect proofs. He devoted his spare time to golf, motorcycling and painting. He was married to Mary W. McWalter, but they never had children. He died in 1935 in Aberdeen after several years of suffering from arthritis, despite which he remained active almost until his death. In 1933 he made a lecture tour of the US, and in 1934 he published the 7th edition of his book \"Physiology and Biochemistry in Modern Medicine\". After Banting's death in a plane crash in 1941, Best, with the help of his friends, continued to spread Banting's account of the discovery and tried to \"write out\" Macleod and Collip from the history books. Only in 1950 was the first independent revision of all sides of the story made, and it gave credit to all four members of the team. However, Macleod's public image remained tainted for decades after that. The 1973 British television drama \"Comets Among the Stars\", for example, portrayed him as dark and repulsive. The second dramatization of the discovery, \"Glory Enough for All\" (1988), at last portrayed him more objectively. By then it was commonly accepted that Banting's and Best's story was distorted, since more documentation had been made publicly available, and it made a precise reconstruction of the events possible. Until Best died, this documentation had been kept secret for over 50 years by the University of Toronto, whose administration wanted to avoid fueling the controversy.", "Macleod was a prolific writer. His first academic article was a paper on phosphorus content in muscles published in 1899. During his career he authored or co-authored over 200 papers and eleven books. Among them are:", "John Macleod was a distinguished physiologist even before the discovery of insulin. He was elected a member of the Royal Society of Canada in 1919 and president of American Physiological Society in 1921. In 1923, Banting was awarded the Cameron Prize for Therapeutics of the University of Edinburgh. Among the recognitions he received after 1923 were memberships of the Royal Society and the Royal Society of Edinburgh, corresponding membership of the German Academy of Sciences Leopoldina and honorary membership of the Regia Accademia Medica. His reputation in Canada remained under the influence of Banting's story for decades, so Macleod was not esteemed there. His contribution to science is now recognized by the broad public, even in Canada. The auditorium of the Toronto University Medical Research Center was named in his honor, as was Diabetes UK's award for patients who survive for 70 years with diabetes. In 2012, he was inducted into the Canadian Medical Hall of Fame.", "The Nobel Committee reacted almost immediately to the first successful clinical trials. In the autumn of 1923, Banting and Macleod received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, even though the long-term importance of the discovery was not yet apparent. They were nominated by the Danish physiologist and Nobel laureate August Krogh, who had a diabetic wife and had visited Macleod's laboratory and taken the method back to Denmark. The committee judged that Macleod's work in interpreting the data, managing the clinical trials and providing a high level of public presentation were crucial for success, so they awarded the Nobel prize to both. Banting was furious, as he was convinced that Best should have received the other half, and he even thought of rejecting the prize. He was finally persuaded to accept it but gave half of his prize money to Best. Macleod in turn gave half of his to Collip. In 1972 the Nobel Foundation officially conceded that omitting Best was a mistake. A second controversial aspect of the award was the fact that eight months before Banting's and Best's paper, the Romanian physiologist Nicolae Paulescu had reported the discovery of a pancreas extract that he dubbed \"pancrein\", which lowered blood glucose concentration. Banting and Best even cited him in their paper, but misinterpreted his findings, purportedly because of an error in translation from French. Best publicly apologized for that mistake many years later." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Features.", "Experimental features." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Kexi development started in 2002. OpenOffice Polska (currently OpenOffice Software) contributed to it largely between 2003 and 2008. Although Kexi was a KOffice project since the beginning, the first release was independent of KOffice. The first public beta release of Kexi was version 0.1 beta 2 on. The first stable release was 0.9 – made available on. A Kexi version with a lower version number – 0.8 – was shipped afterward with KOffice 1.4 on. Further stable versions of Kexi were released with KOffice 1.5 and 1.6 in 2006. From 2004 until 2007 OpenOffice Polska made commercial Kexi releases using release years as version numbers. The first release was \"Kexi 2004 LT\" on based on Kexi 0.1. The commercial releases concluded with \"Kexi 2007.1\" in March 2007 based on Kexi 1.1.2/1.1.3. The porting process to KDE Platform 4 took rather long and was finished with the release of KOffice 2.2 in May 2010. Among its new features was a new Report Designer plug-in to replace the KOffice 1.6 stand-alone reporting application Kugar. Kexi 2.3 was released with KOffice 2.3 on with – among other features – a reworked Project Navigator pane. After the KOffice 2.3 release, Kexi moved into Calligra Suite and both were released as version 2.4 on. The most user-visible change was a redone main user interface dubbed Modern Menu. Since version 3.1 Kexi again officially supports Microsoft Windows.", "Kexi users can choose from various database engines that can be utilized for data and design storage. By default built-in SQLite 3 database engine is used that eliminates a need for installation and maintenance of a database server. For more advanced use Kexi can use database servers such as MySQL/MariaDB, PostgreSQL and Microsoft SQL Server/Sybase. Database servers have to be accessible to user on the same or any other computer. All database objects – tables, queries, forms, etc. – are stored in tables of a single database (either file or server), making it easy to share data and design. Resulting database can be to certain extent manipulated using dedicated database tools. In Kexi, such data and definition of objects is known as \"project\". Kexi Table designer allows users to design tables, which can then be created and opened for data entry, sorting and searching. Standard data types are available common to supported database engines. Among them is \"Object\" data type allowing to store images of many types. Queries can be designed visually or in built-in dedicated SQL editor, then they can be executed. There is support for parametrized queries and searching through the data. The scope of the SQL supported is limited compared to raw database engines (MySQL and even SQLite) but the SQL dialect supported by Kexi is (by design) common to all supported database engines. This can simplify switching between engines. Forms can be created to provide a custom interface to data. There is a designer, and a previewer capable of data entry. Wide range of graphical elements can be used including web browser and world map viewer. Simple actions can be assigned to form buttons. Kexi 2.2 – the first release of the second generation – introduced full-featured report designer, generator and previewer. Simple formulas can be assigned to report elements. The application can also import data (tables) from external data sources (MySQL, PostgreSQL, Microsoft Access files, dBASE files) and export data to MySQL or PostgreSQL servers. There is rich support for importing and exporting CSV files. The same CSV format can be used for copying and pasting clipboard data so the data can be easily transferred to/from applications like spreadsheets or word processors. In a special \"User Mode\" Kexi allows users to switch off all commands related to editing project's design.", "Kexi offered experimental scripting support using Python and Ruby in version 2. Scripting since version 3 is planned to be based on JavaScript. Handling Oracle databases was available in versions 1.x but is disabled in versions 2.x." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Later years.", "Nobel prize.", "Sex treatment for psychosis.", "Retirement.", "Nazi ideology and affiliation." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Julius Wagner-Jauregg was born Julius Wagner on 7 March 1857 in Wels, Upper Austria, the son of Adolph Johann Wagner and Ludovika Jauernigg Ranzoni. His family name was changed to \"Wagner von Jauregg\" when his father was given the title of \"Ritter von Jauregg\" (a hereditary title of nobility) in 1883 by the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Hence he retained the name Julius Wagner Ritter von Jauregg until 1918 when the empire was dissolved, and nobility was abolished. The family name was then contracted to \"Wagner-Jauregg\". He attended the Schottengymnasium in Vienna before going on to study Medicine at the University of Vienna from 1874 to 1880, where he also studied with Salomon Stricker in the Institute of General and Experimental Pathology. He obtained his doctorate in 1880 with the thesis \"L'origine et la fonction du cœur accéléré.\" He left the institute in 1882.", "After leaving the clinic, he conducted laboratory experiments with animals, which was practiced very little at this time. From 1883 to 1887 he worked with Maximilian Leidesdorf in the Psychiatric Clinic, although his original training was not in the pathology of the nervous system. In 1889 he succeeded the famous Richard von Krafft-Ebing at the Neuro-Psychiatric Clinic of the University of Graz, and started his research on Goitre, cretinism and iodine. In 1893 he became Extraordinary Professor of Psychiatry and Nervous Diseases, and Director of the Clinic for Psychiatry and Nervous Diseases in Vienna, as successor to Theodor Meynert. A student and assistant of Wagner-Jauregg during this time was Constantin von Economo. Ten years later, in 1902, Wagner-Jauregg moved to the psychiatric clinic at the General Hospital and in 1911 he returned to his former post. In 1935, he was awarded the Cameron Prize for Therapeutics of the University of Edinburgh.", "The main work pursued by Wagner-Jauregg throughout his life was related to the treatment of mental disease by inducing a fever, an approach known as pyrotherapy. In 1887 he investigated the effects of febrile diseases on psychoses, making use of erisipela and tuberculin (discovered in 1890 by Robert Koch). Since these methods of treatment did not work very well, he tried in 1917 the inoculation of malaria parasites, which proved to be very successful in the case of dementia paralytica (also called general paresis of the insane), caused by neurosyphilis, at that time a terminal disease. It had been observed that some who develop high fevers could be cured of syphilis. Thus, from 1917 to the mid 1940s, malaria induced by the least aggressive parasite, Plasmodium vivax, was used as treatment for tertiary syphilis because it produced prolonged and high fevers (a form of pyrotherapy). This was considered an acceptable risk because the malaria could later be treated with quinine, which was available at that time. This discovery earned him the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1927. His main publication was a book titled \"Verhütung und Behandlung der progressiven Paralyse durch Impfmalaria\" (Prevention and treatment of progressive paralysis by malaria inoculation) in the Memorial Volume of the Handbuch der experimentellen Therapie, (1931). The technique was known as malariotherapy; however, it was dangerous, killing about 15% of patients, so it is no longer in use.", "Wagner-Jauregg administered thyroid and ovarian preparations to young psychotic patients who had experienced delayed puberty, which led to the development of their secondary sexual characteristics and diminished psychosis. Other patients were deemed schizophrenic because of excessive masturbation, where Wagner-Jauregg sterilized them, resulting in an \"improved\" condition.", "In 1928, Wagner-Jauregg retired from his post but remained active and in good health until his death on 27 September 1940. In his retirement he published nearly 80 scientific papers. Many schools, roads and hospitals are named after him in Austria.", "Towards his last days Wagner-Jauregg was influenced by Hitler's German nationalism, and became an anti-Semite and sympathizer of Nazism. Documentary evidence indicates that he supported the Nazi party shortly after the invasion of Austria in 1938 by Germany. However, a denazification commission in Austria found that his application for NSDAP membership had been refused \"...on grounds of race\", as his first wife Balbine Frumkin was Jewish. Wagner-Jauregg advocated a racial hygiene ideology called eugenics, influencing students such as Alexander Pilcz, who went on to author a standard handbook on racial psychiatry critical of Jews for being prone to mental illness. He was also an advocate of forced sterilization of the mentally ill and criminal, having endorsed the concept in 1935 while a member of the Austrian Anthropological Society. He was President of the Austrian League for Racial Regeneration and Heredity, which advocated sterilization for those of inferior genetics." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Club career.", "Henan Jianye.", "Loan to Philadelphia Union.", "Return to Sparta.", "International career." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "3", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Dočkal began his football career in Poděbrady. The midfielder moved to Slavia Praha at the age of 10. Dočkal went through all the youth teams of Slavia and made his debut on the first team against SK Kladno. He scored his first goal for Slavia in his third match against FK Teplice. Dočkal was sent on a loan to Czech First League side Slovan Liberec in winter 2008, where he signed a contract several months later. Dočkal went on a one-year loan to Turkish Super League side Konyaspor in July 2010. In August 2011 Dočkal signed a long-term contract with Norwegian side Rosenborg. He contributed with one assist in his first game, where Rosenborg won 3–1 over rivals Molde. During the UEFA Europa League 2012–13, he scored 7 goals in 12 matches (6 goals in 7 games over the course of the preliminary stages), including a dramatic last-minute goal against Kazakh club FC Ordabasy on 26 July 2012, to propel 9-man Rosenborg to a 4–3 aggregate win. After two years with Rosenborg, during which he scored 14 goals in 55 league-matches, Dočkal returned to the Czech Republic in August 2013 signing a three-year contract with Sparta Prague.", "In February 2017, Dočkal secured a transfer from Sparta Prague to Henan Jianye competing in the Chinese Super League. The transfer was reported in the range of €8.5 million, among the highest recorded for the Czech top division. Dočkal made 23 starts and scored four goals during the 2017 season.", "In February 2018, Dočkal signed a loan move with the Philadelphia Union in Major League Soccer as the team's third designated player. After a few matches with his new team, Dočkal's first goal was a game-winner for the Union against D.C. United. Dočkal proved to be successful in Philadelphia, earning the Union's most valuable player for the season and setting the record for most assists for a season, and lead Major League Soccer in assists for the 2018 season.", "In February 2019, he returned again to Sparta Prague.", "Dočkal was the captain and one of the key players in the Czech U-21 team. He represented the team at the 2011 UEFA European Under-21 Football Championship. Dočkal is the current captain of the Czech Republic national football team." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Use.", "Inversions.", "Function.", "Voice leading.", "In blues progressions.", "Related chords.", "Guitar chord diagrams." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Renaissance composers conceived of harmony in terms of intervals rather than chords, \"however, certain dissonant sonorities suggest that the dominant seventh chord occurred with some frequency.\" Monteverdi (usually credited as the first to use the V chord without preparation) and other early Baroque composers begin to treat the V as a chord as part of the introduction of functional harmony. An excerpt from Monteverdi's \"Lasciatemi Morire\", \"Lamento d'Arianna\" (1608) is shown below. In it, a dominant seventh chord (in red) is handled conservatively, \"prepared and resolved as a suspension, clearly indicating its dissonant status.\" </score> The V was in constant use during the Classical period, with similar treatment to that of the Baroque. In the Romantic period, freer voice-leading was gradually developed, leading to the waning of functional use in the post-Romantic and Impressionistic periods including more dissonant dominant chords through higher extensions and lessened use of the major minor chord's dominant function. Twentieth-century classical music either consciously used functional harmony or was entirely free of V chords while jazz and popular musics continued to use functional harmony including V chords. An excerpt from Chopin's Mazurka in F minor (1849), Op. 68, No. 4, mm. 1–4 is shown below with dominant sevenths in red: \"the seventh factor had by this time achieved nearly consonant status.\" </score>", "", "The opening bars of Mozart’s Piano Sonata in C, K545 features dominant seventh chords in both second and first inversions:The concluding cadence of the same movement features the chord in root position:A striking use of inversions of the dominant seventh can be found in this passage from the first movement of Beethoven’s String Quartet Op. 127. Here, the second and third inversions contribute to the \"magnificently rich harmony\" :", "The function of the dominant seventh chord is to resolve to the tonic note or chord. This dominant seventh chord is useful to composers because it contains both a major triad and the interval of a tritone. The major triad confers a very \"strong\" sound. The tritone is created by the co-occurrence of the third degree and seventh degree (e.g., in the G chord, the interval between B and F is a tritone). In a diatonic context, the third of the chord is the leading-tone of the scale, which has a strong tendency to pull towards the tonic of the key (e.g., in C, the third of G, B, is the leading tone of the key of C). The seventh of the chord acts as an upper leading-tone to the third of the scale (in C: the seventh of G, F, is a half-step above and leads down to E). This, in combination with the strength of root movement by fifth, and the natural resolution of the dominant triad to the tonic triad (e.g., from GBD to CEG in the key of C major), creates a resolution with which to end a piece or a section, often in a cadence. </score> Because of this original usage, it also quickly became an easy way to trick the listener's ear with a deceptive cadence. The dominant seventh may work as part of a circle progression, preceded by the supertonic chord, ii. Importantly, non-diatonic dominant seventh chords (sometimes called a \"chromatic\" seventh), borrowed from another key, can allow the composer to modulate to that other key. This technique is extremely common, particularly since the Classical period, and has led to further innovative uses of the dominant seventh chord such as secondary dominant (V/V, shown below), extended dominant (V/V/V), and substitute dominant (V/V) chords. </score>", "For common practice voice leading or \"strict resolution\" of the dominant seventh chord: \\new PianoStaff « </score> \\new PianoStaff « </score> \\new Staff « </score> According to Heinrich Schenker, \"The dissonance is always passing, \"never a chord member\" (\"Zusammenklang\"),'\" and often (though by no means always) the voice leading suggests either a passing note: or resolution of a (hypothetical) suspension:", "In rock and popular music songs following the blues progression, the IV and V chords are \"almost always\" dominant seventh chords (sometimes with extensions) with the tonic chord most often being a major triad. Examples include Bill Haley and the Comets' \"Rock Around the Clock\" and Buster Brown's \"Fanny Mae\", while in Chuck Berry's \"Back in the U.S.A.\" and Loggins and Messina's \"Your Mama Don't Dance\" the tonic chord is also a dominant seventh. Used mostly in the first fifteen years of the rock era and now sounding somewhat \"retrospective\" (e.g., Oasis' \"Roll With It\"), other examples of tonic dominant seventh chords include Little Richard's \"Lucille\", The Beatles' \"I Saw Her Standing There\", Nilsson's \"Coconut\", Jim Croce's \"You Don't Mess Around With Jim\", and The Drifters' \"On Broadway\". Chuck Berry's \"Rock and Roll Music\" uses the dominant seventh on I, IV, and V.", "The dominant seventh is enharmonically equivalent to the German sixth. For example, the German sixth A–C–E–F (which typically resolves to G) is equivalent to the dominant seventh A–C–E–G (which typically resolves to D): </score> The dominant seventh chord is frequently used to approximate a harmonic seventh chord, which is one possible just tuning, in the ratios 4:5:6:7, for the dominant seventh. Others include 20:25:30:36, found on I, and 36:45:54:64, found on V, used in 5-limit just tunings and scales. Today, the dominant seventh chord enjoys particular prominence in the music of barbershop quartets, with the Barbershop Harmony Society describing the chord as, \"signature,\" of the barbershop sound, a song may use the chord type (built on any scale degree, not just ) for up to 30 percent of its duration. As barbershop singers strive to harmonize in just intonation to maximize the audibility of harmonic overtones, the practical sonority of the chord tends to be that of a harmonic seventh chord. This chord type has become so ingrained into the fabric of the artform that it is often referred to as the \"barbershop seventh chord\" by those who practice it.", "In standard tuning, the left is the low E string. x means mute the string. Dominant 7 Dominant 7 Sus2 Dominant 7 Sus4" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Roman triumvirates.", "Biblical triumvirates.", "Chinese triumvirates.", "Hinduism.", "Tamil Triumvirate (in South India).", "Modern triumvirates.", "Ottoman Empire.", "Early-modern and modern France.", "Pre-Independent India.", "People's Republic of China.", "Modern Italy.", "European Union.", "Business slang.", "Other triumvirates." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Originally, \"triumviri\" were special commissions of three men appointed for specific administrative tasks apart from the regular duties of Roman magistrates. The \"triumviri capitales\", for instance, oversaw prisons and executions, along with other functions that, as Andrew Lintott notes, show them to have been \"a mixture of police superintendents and justices of the peace.\" The \"capitales\" were first established around 290–287 BCE. They were supervised by the \"praetor urbanus\". These \"triumviri\", or the \"tresviri nocturni\", may also have taken some responsibility for fire control. The triumviri monetalis (\"triumviri of the temple of Juno the Advisor\" or \"monetary triumvirs\") supervised the issuing of Roman coins. Three-man commissions were also appointed for purposes such as establishing colonies (\"triumviri coloniae deducendae\") or distributing land. \"Triumviri mensarii\" served as public bankers; the full range of their financial functions in 216 BCE, when the commission included two men of consular rank, has been the subject of debate. Another form of three-man commission was the \"tresviri epulones\", who were in charge of organizing public feasts on holidays. This commission was created in 196 BCE by a tribunician law on behalf of the people, and their number was later increased to seven (\"septemviri epulones\"). The term is most commonly used by historians to refer to the First Triumvirate of Julius Caesar, Marcus Licinius Crassus, and Pompey the Great, and the Second Triumvirate of Octavianus (later Caesar Augustus), Mark Antony, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus.", "In the Bible triumvirates occurred at some notable events in both the Old Testament and New Testament. In the Book of Exodus Moses, his brother Aaron and, according to some views their nephew or brother-in-law, Hur acted this way during Battle of Rephidim against the Amalekites. In the Gospels as a leading trio among the Twelve Apostles at three particular occasions during public ministry of Jesus acted Peter, James, son of Zebedee and his brother John. They were the only apostles present at the Raising of Jairus' daughter, Transfiguration of Jesus and Agony in the Garden of Gethsemane. Later, at the time of the Early Christian Church this triumvirate of the leading apostles changed slightly after the former James’s death, as it became composed of Peter, John and James, brother of Jesus.", "One of the most notable triumvirates formed in the history of China was by the Han Dynasty (202 BCE – 220 CE) statesmen Huo Guang (d. 68 BCE), Jin Midi (d. 86 BCE), and Shangguan Jie 上官桀 (d. 80 BCE), following the death of Emperor Wu of Han (r. 141–87 BCE) and the installation of the child emperor Zhao. Despite the Three Excellencies—including the Chancellor, Imperial Secretary, and irregularly the Grand Commandant—representing the most senior ministerial positions of state, this triumvirate was supported by the economic technocrat and Imperial Secretary Sang Hongyang (d. 80 BCE), their political lackey. The acting Chancellor Tian Qianqiu was also easily swayed by the decisions of the triumvirate. The Three Excellencies existed in Western Han (202 BCE – 9 CE) as the Chancellor, Imperial Secretary, and Grand Commandant, but the Chancellor was viewed as senior to the Imperial Secretary while the post of Grand Commandant was vacant for most of the dynasty. After Emperor Guangwu established the Eastern Han (25–220 CE), the Grand Commandant was made a permanent official while the Minister over the Masses replaced the Chancellor and the Minister of Works replaced the Imperial Secretary. Unlike the three high officials in Western Han when the Chancellor was senior to all, these new three senior officials had equal censorial and advisory powers. When a young or weak-minded emperor ascended to the throne, these Three Excellencies could dominate the affairs of state. There were also other types of triumvirates during the Eastern Han; for example, at the onset of the reign of Emperor Ling of Han (r. 168–189), the General-in-Chief Dou Wu (d. 168), the Grand Tutor Chen Fan (d. 168), and another prominent statesman Hu Guang (91–172) formed a triumvirate nominally in charge of the Privy Secretariat, when in fact it was a regent triumvirate that was overseeing the affairs of state and Emperor Ling.", "In Hinduism, the gods Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva form the triumvirate \"Trimurti\" \"in which the cosmic functions of creation, maintenance, and destruction are personified\" respectively by those gods..\"", "Tamil Triumvirate refers to the triumvirate of Chola, Chera, and Pandya who dominated the politics of the ancient Tamil country.", "The title was revived a few times for (short-lived) three-headed political'magistratures' in post-feudal times.", "The Three Pashas also known as \"Ottoman Triumvirate\" effectively ruled the Ottoman Empire during World War I: Mehmed Talaat Pasha (1874–1921), the Grand Vizier (prime minister) and Minister of the Interior; Ismail Enver Pasha (1881–1922), the Minister of War; and Ahmed Djemal Pasha (1872–1922), the Minister of the Navy.", "While French Huguenots had derisively bestowed the name Triumvirate on the alliance formed in 1561 between Catholic Francis, Duke of Guise, Anne de Montmorency, and Jacques Dalbon, Seigneur de Saint Andre during the French Wars of Religion, in later years the term would be used to describe other arrangements within France. At the end of the 1700s, when the French revolutionaries turned to several Roman Magistrature names for their new institutions, the three-headed collective Head of State was named \"Consulat\", a term in use for two-headed magistratures since Antiquity; furthermore it included a \"First Consul\" who was not an equal, but the de facto solo head of state and government – a position Napoleon Bonaparte chose to convert openly into the First French Empire. Prior to Napoleon and during the Terror Robespierre, Louis de Saint-Just, and Couthon, as members of the governing Committee of Public Safety, were purported by some to have formed an unofficial triumvirate. Although officially all members of the committee shared equal power the three men's friendship and close ideological base led their detractors to declaim them as \"triumvirs\" which was used against them in the coup of \"9 Thermidor\".", "In the early days of the national struggle and before Gandhi, the Indian National Congress was known to be under Lal-Bal-Pal i.e. Lala Lajpat Rai, Bipin Chandra Pal and the leader of the three Balgangadhar Tilak often dubbed Lokmanya Tilak.", "Mao Zedong, Zhou Enlai, and Liu Shaoqi had the biggest contribution to the foundation of the People's Republic of China in 1949 and are regarded as the three most influential members of the first generation of the Chinese communist leaders. Mao and Zhou died in 1976 while holding the highest party and state offices Chairman of the CPC Central Committee (Mao), Premier of the State Council (Zhou). Liu was the Chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress and President of the People's Republic of China, nominal \"de jure\" head of state, until 1968 when he was purged in the cultural revolution. He died in late 1969 under harsh treatment.", "In the Roman Republic (1849), the title of two sets of three joint chiefs of state in the year 1849:", "After the Lisbon Treaty came into force from 1 December 2009:", "Eric Schmidt, CEO of Google has referred to himself, along with founders Larry Page and Sergey Brin as part of a triumvirate, stating, \"This triumvirate has made an informal deal to stick together for at least 20 years\".", "The word has been used as a term of convenience, though not an official title, for other groups of three in a similar position:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History and etymology.", "Production.", "Chemical reactions.", "Metabolism.", "Biosynthesis.", "Degradation.", "Physiological function.", "As a biosynthetic intermediate.", "As a neurotransmitter.", "Uses.", "Animal and human foods.", "Chemical feedstock.", "Laboratory research.", "Presence in space." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Glycine was discovered in 1820 by the French chemist Henri Braconnot when he hydrolyzed gelatin by boiling it with sulfuric acid. He originally called it \"sugar of gelatin\", but the French chemist Jean-Baptiste Boussingault showed that it contained nitrogen. The American scientist Eben Norton Horsford, then a student of the German chemist Justus von Liebig, proposed the name \"glycocoll\"; however, the Swedish chemist Berzelius suggested the simpler name \"glycine\". The name comes from the Greek word γλυκύς \"sweet tasting\" (which is also related to the prefixes \"glyco-\" and \"gluco-\", as in \"glycoprotein\" and \"glucose\"). In 1858, the French chemist Auguste Cahours determined that glycine was an amine of acetic acid.", "Although glycine can be isolated from hydrolyzed protein, this is not used for industrial production, as it can be manufactured more conveniently by chemical synthesis. The two main processes are amination of chloroacetic acid with ammonia, giving glycine and ammonium chloride, and the Strecker amino acid synthesis, which is the main synthetic method in the United States and Japan. About 15 thousand tonnes are produced annually in this way. Glycine is also cogenerated as an impurity in the synthesis of EDTA, arising from reactions of the ammonia coproduct.<ref name=\"Ullmann/Roger\"></ref>", "Its acid–base properties are most important. In aqueous solution, glycine itself is amphoteric: at low pH the molecule can be protonated with a p\"K\" of about 2.4 and at high pH it loses a proton with a p\"K\" of about 9.6 (precise values of p\"K\" depend on temperature and ionic strength). Glycine functions as a bidentate ligand for many metal ions. A typical complex is Cu(glycinate), i.e. Cu(HNCHCO), which exists both in cis and trans isomers. As a bifunctional molecule, glycine reacts with many reagents. These can be classified into N-centered and carboxylate-center reactions. The amine undergoes the expected reactions. With acid chlorides, one obtains the amidocarboxylic acid, such as hippuric acid and acetylglycine. With nitrous acid, one obtains glycolic acid (van Slyke determination). With methyl iodide, the amine becomes quaternized to give betaine, a natural product: Glycine condenses with itself to give peptides, beginning with the formation of glycylglycine: Pyrolysis of glycine or glycylglycine gives 2,5-diketopiperazine, the cyclic diamide.", "", "Glycine is not essential to the human diet, as it is biosynthesized in the body from the amino acid serine, which is in turn derived from 3-phosphoglycerate, but the metabolic capacity for glycine biosynthesis does not satisfy the need for collagen synthesis. In most organisms, the enzyme serine hydroxymethyltransferase catalyses this transformation via the cofactor pyridoxal phosphate: In the liver of vertebrates, glycine synthesis is catalyzed by glycine synthase (also called glycine cleavage enzyme). This conversion is readily reversible:", "Glycine is degraded via three pathways. The predominant pathway in animals and plants is the reverse of the glycine synthase pathway mentioned above. In this context, the enzyme system involved is usually called the glycine cleavage system: In the second pathway, glycine is degraded in two steps. The first step is the reverse of glycine biosynthesis from serine with serine hydroxymethyl transferase. Serine is then converted to pyruvate by serine dehydratase. In the third pathway of its degradation, glycine is converted to glyoxylate by D-amino acid oxidase. Glyoxylate is then oxidized by hepatic lactate dehydrogenase to oxalate in an NAD-dependent reaction. The half-life of glycine and its elimination from the body varies significantly based on dose. In one study, the half-life varied between 0.5 and 4.0 hours. Glycine is extremely sensitive to antibiotics which target folate, and blood Glycine levels drop severely within a minute of antibiotic injections. Some antibiotics can deplete more than 90% of Glycine within a few minutes of being administered.", "The principal function of glycine is as a precursor to proteins. Most proteins incorporate only small quantities of glycine, a notable exception being collagen, which contains about 35% glycine due to its periodically repeated role in the formation of collagen's helix structure in conjunction with hydroxyproline. In the genetic code, glycine is coded by all codons starting with GG, namely GGU, GGC, GGA and GGG.", "In higher eukaryotes, δ-aminolevulinic acid, the key precursor to porphyrins, is biosynthesized from glycine and succinyl-CoA by the enzyme ALA synthase. Glycine provides the central CN subunit of all purines.", "Glycine is an inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system, especially in the spinal cord, brainstem, and retina. When glycine receptors are activated, chloride enters the neuron via ionotropic receptors, causing an inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP). Strychnine is a strong antagonist at ionotropic glycine receptors, whereas bicuculline is a weak one. Glycine is a required co-agonist along with glutamate for NMDA receptors. In contrast to the inhibitory role of glycine in the spinal cord, this behaviour is facilitated at the (NMDA) glutamatergic receptors which are excitatory. The of glycine is 7930 mg/kg in rats (oral), and it usually causes death by hyperexcitability.", "In the US, glycine is typically sold in two grades: United States Pharmacopeia (“USP”), and technical grade. USP grade sales account for approximately 80 to 85 percent of the U.S. market for glycine. If purity greater than the USP standard is needed, for example for intravenous injections, a more expensive pharmaceutical grade glycine can be used. Technical grade glycine, which may or may not meet USP grade standards, is sold at a lower price for use in industrial applications, e.g., as an agent in metal complexing and finishing.", "Glycine is not widely used in foods for its nutrional value, except in infusions. Instead glycine's role in food chemistry is as a flavorant. It is mildly sweet, and it counters the aftertaste of saccharine. It also has preservative properties, perhaps owing to its complexation to metal ions. Metal glycinate complexes, e.g. copper(II) glycinate are used as supplements for animal feeds.", "Glycine is an intermediate in the synthesis of a variety of chemical products. It is used in the manufacture of the herbicides glyphosate, iprodione, glyphosine, imiprothrin, and eglinazine. It is used as an intermediate of the medicine such as thiamphenicol.", "Glycine is a significant component of some solutions used in the SDS-PAGE method of protein analysis. It serves as a buffering agent, maintaining pH and preventing sample damage during electrophoresis. Glycine is also used to remove protein-labeling antibodies from Western blot membranes to enable the probing of numerous proteins of interest from SDS-PAGE gel. This allows more data to be drawn from the same specimen, increasing the reliability of the data, reducing the amount of sample processing, and number of samples required. This process is known as stripping.", "The presence of glycine outside the earth was confirmed in 2009, based on the analysis of samples that had been taken in 2004 by the NASA spacecraft Stardust from comet Wild 2 and subsequently returned to earth. Glycine had previously been identified in the Murchison meteorite in 1970. The discovery of cometary glycine bolstered the theory of panspermia, which claims that the \"building blocks\" of life are widespread throughout the Universe. In 2016, detection of glycine within Comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko by the Rosetta spacecraft was announced. The detection of glycine outside the solar system in the interstellar medium has been debated. In 2008, the Max Planck Institute for Radio Astronomy discovered the spectral lines of a glycine-like molecule aminoacetonitrile in the Large Molecule Heimat, a giant gas cloud near the galactic center in the constellation Sagittarius." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Ore deposits.", "Classification.", "Extraction.", "Trade." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "An ore deposit is an accumulation of ore. This is distinct from a mineral resource as defined by the mineral resource classification criteria. An ore deposit is one occurrence of a particular ore type. Most ore deposits are named according to their location (for example, the Witwatersrand, South Africa), or after a discoverer (e.g. the Kambalda nickel shoots are named after drillers), or after some whimsy, a historical figure, a prominent person, something from mythology (phoenix, kraken, serepentleopard, etc.) or the code name of the resource company which found it (e.g. MKD-5 was the in-house name for the Mount Keith nickel sulphide deposit).", "Ore deposits are classified according to various criteria developed via the study of economic geology, or ore genesis. The classifications below are typical.", "The basic extraction of ore deposits follows these steps:", "Ores (metals) are traded internationally and comprise a sizeable portion of international trade in raw materials both in value and volume. This is because the worldwide distribution of ores is unequal and dislocated from locations of peak demand and from smelting infrastructure. Most base metals (copper, lead, zinc, nickel) are traded internationally on the London Metal Exchange, with smaller stockpiles and metals exchanges monitored by the COMEX and NYMEX exchanges in the United States and the Shanghai Futures Exchange in China. Iron ore is traded between customer and producer, though various benchmark prices are set quarterly between the major mining conglomerates and the major consumers, and this sets the stage for smaller participants. Other, lesser, commodities do not have international clearing houses and benchmark prices, with most prices negotiated between suppliers and customers one-on-one. This generally makes determining the price of ores of this nature opaque and difficult. Such metals include lithium, niobium-tantalum, bismuth, antimony and rare earths. Most of these commodities are also dominated by one or two major suppliers with >60% of the world's reserves. The London Metal Exchange aims to add uranium to its list of metals on warrant. The World Bank reports that China was the top importer of ores and metals in 2005 followed by the US and Japan." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Development.", "Origins.", "Initial production.", "Further development.", "Design.", "Operational history.", "Czechoslovakia.", "Bulgaria.", "Other operators.", "Survivors." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "", "During 1932, the Czechoslovak aircraft company Avia flew the first prototype of a single-engined fighter biplane, the Avia B-34, designed by aeronautical engineer František Novotný. After modification, the Czechoslovak Ministry of Defence placed an order for B-34s. A second prototype, the Avia B-34/2, was built, which was intended to be powered by a Avia Rr 29 radial engine instead of the Hispano-Suiza 12N V12 engine of the first prototype and the initial production series. This engine proved prone to overheating and vibration, however, and it was decided to re-engine the B.34/2 before it flew, fitting it with a Hispano-Suiza 12Ybrs V12 engine. The Avia B-34/2 made its maiden flight on 25 May 1933. The prototype was sent for testing in September and was redesignated B-534.1. On 10 September, the B-534 was displayed to the public for the first time at an Army Air Day. It was to compete against the Praga E-44 and Letov Š-231. A second prototype, the B-534/2 was completed in September 1933. It differed from the first prototype by having an enclosed cockpit, and a revised tail and undercarriage. On 14 April 1934, the second prototype, while flown by test pilot Václav Kočí, successfully attained a Czechoslovak national speed record of.", "More testing followed and an initial order for 34 aircraft for the Czechoslovak Air Force, soon increasing to 147, was placed on 17 July 1934. At that time, the B-534 was well ahead of its contemporaries. The United Kingdom was still dependent on Hawker Furies, with the first Gloster Gladiators being produced at this time. The Soviet Union was placing its hope on its Polikarpov aircraft designs. The United States was still using descendants of the Curtiss Hawk series, with the Seversky P-35 and Curtiss P-36 about to fly as prototypes. The B-534 was designed as a single-engine biplane fighter with a license-built Hispano-Suiza inline powerplant, and fixed landing gear. The air forces of the 1930s were reluctant to abandon the maneuverability and climb rates of biplanes for the speed of monoplanes, even in the face of new and better technology. The success of Soviet pilots with biplanes may have contributed to this reluctance; they were known to strip their aircraft of sliding canopies, preferring to have the wind in their faces. Aircraft with two fabric-covered wings and fixed landing gear were also less expensive to manufacture. First deliveries of the B-534 to the Czechoslovak air force began in October 1935, and 568 had been completed by 1939. The first 100 of these were of the first series. The second prototype was the blueprint for the I series, although it was built with an open cockpit. These early series aircraft were initially armed with four 7.92mm vz.28 guns. Two were located in the nose on either side of the engine in a similar manner to the Avia B-34 and two were fitted in the wings. At an early stage of production, it was however recognised that the wing-mounted guns were troublesome. Aircraft from serial number B-534.47 were completed without the wing guns, which were also removed from the earlier aircraft. The first to fourth series aircraft were fitted with the Avia licence-built version of the Hispano-Suiza 12Ydrs engine. This was a liquid-cooled V12-cylinder engine with a capacity of 36.05 litres. On the ground its normal power rating was 650 hp, it could deliver 750 hp for two minutes. At an operational height of 3,000 m (9,842 ft), it could deliver 850 hp for 30 minutes. At an operational height of 4,000 m (13,123 ft), it could reach 860 hp. Total fuel was 347 litres (76 gal) which was held in two fuselage fuel tanks of 90 and 257 litres.", "The II series completed the remainder of the first order from the Czechoslovak Government, These were 45 aircraft numbered B-534.102 to 147. Like the I series these carried four guns. However the solution to the problems with the wing-mounted guns was to move these guns, now upgraded to the vz.30 to the fuselage with the others. The four 7.92 mm (0.312 in) machine guns were located on the sides of the fuselage, firing through the propeller. One very modern innovation was a bubble canopy; this had been tested on a small number of the early series aircraft, although it certainly was not a standard fit. During 1936, a second order for 46 aircraft were issued by the government. The first 25 of these were the B-534/III version serial numbers B-534: 148–173. Production took place in the second half of 1936. It entered service between March and April 1937. The III series had aerodynamic refinements which saw the streamlining of the front carburator air intake. Mudguard spats were also often added at the factory to the main gear. The remainder of the second order from 534.174 to 534.193 were the IV series. With later orders the fourth series would occupy the serial numbers.174 and 445 and was therefore the most numerous of the types. The most important change to the earlier series was the enclosed cockpit. The IV series also enjoyed a metal light alloy Letov (Hochfeld) Hd-43 propeller. The various refinements allowed the IV series to have an increased speed of over 200 mph, and this placed it on par with the best of its contemporary biplanes. A common alteration to the IV series was the replacement of the tailskid with a tailwheel. Operational experiences had shown that the spat on the main landing gear could become clogged with mud on grassy airfields and cause takeoff and landing problems. The spats were then often removed. During 1937, the superb performance of the B-534 was demonstrated at a flying exhibition. The aircraft was tested against the best in the world at the IV International Air Meeting at Zurich's Dübendorf airport. The B-534 entered three of the competitions. The first of these tested climbing and diving. A GermanBf 109 took first place and a Henschel Hs 123 pilot pushed his biplane to claim second. The B-534 took the next three positions. The 534 outflew every other fighter participating, bar the Messerschmitt Bf 109 – and even then, the Avia was only 11 km/h slower than the German aircraft. Four subtypes were produced during the B-534's production run, all with mostly minor improvements. Allegedly, problems were encountered with the redesign effort to adapt to installation of a newly installed cannon. These were not resolved in the summer of 1938; by this point, Czechoslovakia, sensing rising political tension amongst German claims to Czech-held territory, was eager to get more aircraft in the air, Avia decided to use a third machine gun in the nose. Judging by the size of the gun magazine, the nose machine gun was matched with an increased supply of ammunition. For the nation, time was running out and drew to Munich Diktat, at which point Germany commenced its occupation of the Sudetenland (the western border area of Czechoslovakia). Two series were produced Bk-534, cn's 501 – 554, and cn's 555 – 620. Only three of the second batch were completed for the Czechoslovak air force, and the remaining 63 aeroplanes from this production block were finished for the Germans, after the German invasion of the remainder of Czechoslovakia on 15 March 1939.", "The Avia B-534 was a single-seat unequal-span biplane fighter aircraft. The fuselage used a rectangular structure composed of steel tubes, which were attached together using a mixture of bolts and rivets and braced together using streamline wires. The wing, which had a riveted steel structure and fabric covering, was attached to the fuselage using \"N\" struts; similar struts were present in the outer section of the wings attaching the wings together. The forward section of the fuselage was covered with detachable metal panels, while the rear section had a fabric covering. Production aircraft were exclusively powered by the Hispano-Suiza 12Y 12-cylinder water-cooled engine, rated to produce a maximum of 850 hp, which was built under license by Avia. The total fuel capacity was 70 gallons (320 litres); a combined cooler and oil tank was installed beneath the fuselage, while a water-based radiator was also set below the engine. Engine ignition was provided via the cockpit, along with automated fire-fighting equipment. Other cockpit equipment included a radio set, oxygen provision, and an adjustable seat and cockpit cover. Early-built aircraft featured an open cockpit, while later-built examples were furnished with an enclosed cockpit. The B-534 was furnished with a monoplane tailplane, composed of steel and covered by fabric; similar construction methods were used for the fin and rudder. Both the rudder and the elevator were statically and aerodynamically balanced. The undercarriage was of a split-type configuration, being oleo-sprung and equipped with Dunlop-built wheels. The wheels, which were housed within streamlined fairings, were fitted with brakes; for conducting operations under winter conditions, skis could also be fitted to the undercarriage. According to reports from pilots who flew the B-534, it possessed excellent handling characteristics for the era. The Bk-534 was designed to carry one 20 mm (0.79 in) Oerlikon FFS-20 cannon firing through the nose, along with a pair of 7.92 mm (0.312 in) machine guns to the sides of the fuselage. By the summer of 1938, Czechoslovakia, sensing rising political tension caused by German claims to Czechoslovak border territory, was eager to get more aircraft in the service, thus Avia decided to use a third machine gun in the nose. However, there have been claims that the company had encountered substantial difficulties in adapting the aircraft to accommodate the additional weapon and these were not quickly resolved. Judging by the size of the gun magazine, the nose machine gun was matched with an increased supply of ammunition. Consequently however, the fuel load was decreased", "", "Upon its introduction to squadron service with the Czechoslovak Air Force during the latter half of 1935, the B-534 was put to use in the interceptor role. Initially, the responsibility for pursuit and aerial combat was shared with several other aircraft, including the Avia BA-33L and the Letov Š-31; however, by 1938, the B-534 was the sole type of aircraft in Czech service to be tasked with this role. By 10 November 1938, a total of 370 B-534 and Bk-534 aircraft in service; additionally, 53 aircraft had been written off as a result of accidents. On 1 September 1938, less than a month before the Munich Agreement would cause Czechoslovakia to lose 30 per cent of its territory and 34 per cent of its population, 328 B-534s and Bk-534s equipped 21 fighter squadrons of the Czechoslovak Air Force, while other aircraft were assigned to reserve and training squadrons, and deliveries continuing of the final batch of fighters. On 14 March 1939, Germany forced the partition of Czechoslovakia, with Slovakia being declared as the nominally independent Slovak Republic with Germany annexing the remaining \"Czech\" part of Czechoslovakia as the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia the next day. The abrupt partition of Czechoslovakia during 1939 prevented any actual combat operations of the B-534 to be conducted by the nation that had produced it. By then, high performance monoplanes such as the Bf 109 and Britain's leading models – the Hawker Hurricane and Supermarine Spitfire – were raising the bar of fighter/interceptor standards. The \"Slovenské vzdušné zbrane\" (Slovak Air Force) was organised out of the units of the Czechoslovak Air Force that were based in Slovakia at the time of partition, and inherited about 71 B-534s and Bk-534s. Slovakia had to quickly make use of its newly formed air force, weakened by the departure of many Czech pilots, to defend itself when neighbouring Hungary launched an invasion on 23 March 1939. During the ensuing combat, a pair of B-534s were shot down by Hungarian anti-aircraft fire while a further four were claimed to have been shot down by Hungarian Fiat CR-32 fighters. Another Avia was compelled to perform a forced landing behind Hungarian lines and was captured. During September 1939, Slovakia participated in the German Invasion of Poland; the nation held the aim of regaining territories which had been previously lost to Poland at Munich. A pair of squadrons of B-534s were assigned to support the invasion. In the theatre, these were typically used to escort \"Luftwaffe\" aircraft, such as the Junkers Ju 87 dive-bomber, on eight missions, during which a pair of B-534s were lost while the downing of a single Polish RWD-8 liaison aircraft was claimed. The same squadrons fought alongside the elements of the German military in the area of Ukraine during summer 1941. According to aviation author Josef Krybus, on this front, moral amongst the Slovak pilots was low and no significant victories were achieved during their deployment. During 1942, one of these squadrons was redeployed to Slovakia to conduct anti-partisan operations. Over time, a combination of obsolescence, the lack of spare components and the old Czechoslovak air force's proprietary fuel mixture (BiBoLi, or some other mix of ethanol, benzol and petrol) finally relegated the surviving B-534s to performing the trainer role and other secondary duties during 1943. The training role would have been the last operational service of the B-534s in Slovak colors if not for the Slovak National Uprising of September–October 1944. The rest of the Slovak air assets did not turn-coat as expected and the leaders of the uprising were faced with using a rag-tag collection of leftover aircraft, including several B-534s stationed at Tri Duby airfield. On 2 September 1944, Master Sergeant František Cyprich, just after testing a repaired B-534, downed a Junkers Ju 52 transport under Hungarian colors on its way to a base in occupied Poland. This was at once the first aerial victory for the Uprising and the last recorded biplane fighter air-to-air victory. As the Slovak National Uprising was desperate for available aircraft, Sergeant Cyprich was derided by his colonel for not trying to force the Junkers Ju 52 to land and be captured instead. The last pair of B-534s at Tri Duby were burned as the base was evacuated on 25 October 1944.", "During 1939, Bulgaria opted to procure a batch of 78 B-534s, well after the enactment of the Czech partition, from Germany, who had captured a large number of the type. The last batch of these aircraft were delivered from Czechoslovakia during March 1942. On 1 August 1943, seven of these aircraft were able to make two passes at American Consolidated B-24 Liberator bombers returning from the raid on Ploieşti. Hits were scored but no B-24s were shot down and some of the B-534s that received damage in the combat, cracked up on landing. The B-534s saw little use as frontline aircraft as Bulgaria had also procured the more capable Bf 109E and the French-built Dewoitine D.520 monoplane fighters. After the anti-German coup of 9 September 1944, Bulgaria switched sides overnight. As such its B-534s were quickly pressed into use to conduct ground attacks against German units. On 10 September 1944, a flight of six B-534s were involved in a brief melee with six German Bf 109s at low altitude. One B-534 was lost, but the Germans quickly broke off, wary of both the low altitude and the B-534's manoeuvrability.", "During 1937, a batch of 14 B-534s was supplied to Yugoslavia; some of these aircraft were still in service when Germany launched the Invasion of Yugoslavia in early 1941. During 1937, a handful of fighters were delivered from Czechoslovakia to Greece, additional Greek B-534s appear to have been acquired from Yugoslavia as well. During 1940–1941, these fighters were later used during the Greco-Italian War as part of efforts by Greece to resist the invading Axis forces. Following Germany's forced annexation of the remaining \"Czech\" part of Czechoslovakia as the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia on 15 March 1939, large numbers of captured B-534s were impressed into the \"Luftwaffe\". In German service, the type was heavily used as a fighter-trainer at several fighter pilot training schools; another major use was as a glider-tug and target tug, which involved those B-534s involved being outfitted with cables and release-gear. Germany was also took interest in potentially using the B-534 as a carrier-based aircraft. In order to evaluate its suitability for such a role, three aircraft were equipped with tailhook and underwent structural strengthening before the commencement of a flight test programme; however, none of Germany's aircraft carriers, the \"Graf Zeppelin\"-class, were ever completed. The B-534 also featured in the German propaganda movie Kampfgeschwader Luetzow in which the type was used as a stand-in for Polish PZL P.11, being painted in Polish Air Force markings. Germany also sold a number of the captured B-534s to its allies, reportedly at 40 per cent of their original cost. Following the German occupation of Yugoslavia in 1941, the Axis-aligned Croatian Air Force was created and supplied with B-534s by Germany, as well as the integration of remaining examples from Yugoslavia's own B-534s ordered prior to the outbreak of the conflict.", "There are no real surviving airframes, but a B-534-IV replica is on display in the Prague Aviation Museum, Kbely, Czech Republic. A second replica (Bk-534), using (like the Kbely example) some original parts, is displayed at the Slovak Technical Museum at Košice International Airport, Slovakia." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life and career.", "Research.", "Hematological staining.", "Serum research.", "Friendship with Robert Koch.", "First work on immunity.", "Work with Behring on a diphtheria serum.", "The valency of serums.", "Ehrlich’s side-chain theory.", "Cancer research.", "Chemotherapy.", "In vivo staining.", "Methylene blue.", "The search for a \"chemotherapia specifica\".", "Magic bullet.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Born 14 March 1854 in Strehlen in Silesia in what is now south-west Poland, Paul Ehrlich was the second child of Rosa (Weigert) and Ismar Ehrlich. His nephew was Fritz Weigert and his cousin was Karl Weigert. His father was an innkeeper and distiller of liqueurs and the royal lottery collector in Strehelen, a town of some 5,000 inhabitants in the province of Lower Silesia, now in Poland. His grandfather, Heymann Ehrlich, had been a fairly successful distiller and tavern manager. Ismar Ehrlich was the leader of the local Jewish community. After elementary school, Paul attended the time-honored secondary school Maria-Magdalenen-Gymnasium in Breslau, where he met Albert Neisser, who later became a professional colleague. As a schoolboy (inspired by his cousin Karl Weigert who owned one of the first microtomes), he became fascinated by the process of staining microscopic tissue substances. He retained that interest during his subsequent medical studies at the universities of Breslau, Strasbourg, Freiburg im Breisgau and Leipzig. After obtaining his doctorate in 1882, he worked at the Charité in Berlin as an assistant medical director under Theodor Frerichs, the founder of experimental clinical medicine, focusing on histology, hematology and color chemistry (dyes). He married Hedwig Pinkus (1864–1948) in 1883 in the synagogue in Neustadt. The couple had two daughters, Stephanie and Marianne. Hedwig was a sister of Max Pinkus, who was an owner of the textile factory in Neustadt (later known as ZPB \"Frotex\"). After completing his clinical education and habilitation at the prominent Charité medical school and teaching hospital in Berlin in 1886, Ehrlich traveled to Egypt and other countries in 1888 and 1889, in part to cure a case of tuberculosis which he had contracted in the laboratory. Upon his return he established a private medical practice and small laboratory in Berlin-Steglitz. In 1891, Robert Koch invited Ehrlich to join the staff at his Berlin Institute of Infectious Diseases, where in 1896 a new branch, the Institute for Serum Research and Testing (\"Institut für Serumforschung und Serumprüfung\"), was established for Ehrlich's specialization. Ehrlich was named its founding director. In 1899 his institute moved to Frankfurt am Main and was renamed the Institute of Experimental Therapy (\"Institut für experimentelle Therapie\"). One of his important collaborators there was Max Neisser. In 1904, Ehrlich received a full position of honorary professor from the University of Göttingen. In 1906 Ehrlich became the director of the Georg Speyer House in Frankfurt, a private research foundation affiliated with his institute. Here he discovered in 1909 the first drug to be targeted against a specific pathogen: Salvarsan, a treatment for syphilis, which was at that time one of the most lethal and infectious diseases in Europe. In 1914, Ehrlich was awar Among the foreign guest scientists working with Ehrlich were two Nobel Prize winners, Henry Hallett Dale and Paul Karrer. The institute was renamed Paul Ehrlich Institute in Ehrlich's honour in 1947. In 1914, Ehrlich signed the Manifesto of the Ninety-Three which was a defense of Germany's World War I politics and militarism. On 17 August 1915 Ehrlich suffered a heart attack and died on 20 August in Bad Homburg vor der Höhe. Wilhelm II the German emperor, wrote in a telegram of condolence, “I, along with the entire civilized world, mourn the death of this meritorious researcher for his great service to medical science and suffering humanity; his life’s work ensures undying fame and the gratitude of both his contemporaries and posterity”. Paul Ehrlich was buried at the Old Jewish Cemetery, Frankfurt (Block 114 N).", "", "In the early 1870s, Ehrlich's cousin Karl Weigert was the first person to stain bacteria with dyes and to introduce aniline pigments for histological studies and bacterial diagnostics. During his studies in Strassburg under the anatomist Heinrich Wilhelm Waldeyer, Ehrlich continued the research started by his cousin in pigments and staining tissues for microscopic study. He spent his eighth university semester in Freiburg im Breisgau investigating primarily the red dye dahlia (monophenylrosanilin), giving rise to his first publication. In 1878 he followed his dissertation supervisor Julius Friedrich Cohnheim to Leipzig, and that year obtained a doctorate with a dissertation entitled \"Contributions to the Theory and Practice of Histological Staining\" (\"Beiträge zur Theorie und Praxis der histologischen Färbung\"). One of the most outstanding results of his dissertation investigations was the discovery of a new cell type. Ehrlich discovered in the protoplasm of supposed plasma cells a granulate which could be made visible with the help of an alkaline dye. He thought this granulate was a sign of good nourishment, and accordingly named these cells mast cells, (from the German word for an animal-fattening feed, \"Mast\"). This focus on chemistry was unusual for a medical dissertation. In it, Ehrlich presented the entire spectrum of known staining techniques and the chemistry of the pigments employed. While he was at the Charité, Ehrlich elaborated upon the differentiation of white blood cells according to their different granules. A precondition was a dry specimen technique, which he also developed. A drop of blood placed between two glass slides and heated over a Bunsen burner fixed the blood cells while still allowing them to be stained. Ehrlich used both alkaline and acid dyes, and also created new “neutral” dyes. For the first time this made it possible to differentiate the lymphocytes among the leucocytes (white blood cells). By studying their granulation he could distinguish between nongranular lymphocytes, mono- and poly-nuclear leucocytes, eosinophil granulocytes, and mast cells. Starting in 1880, Ehrlich also studied red blood cells. He demonstrated the existence of nucleated red blood cells, which he subdivided into normoblasts, megaloblasts, microblasts and poikiloblasts; he had discovered the precursors of erythrocytes. Ehrlich thus also laid the basis for the analysis of anemias, after he had created the basis for systematizing leukemias with his investigation of white blood cells. His duties at the Charité included analyzing patients’ blood and urine specimens. In 1881 he published a new urine test which could be used to distinguish various types of typhoid from simple cases of diarrhea. The intensity of staining made possible a disease prognosis. The pigment solution he used is known today as Ehrlich's reagent. Ehrlich's great achievement, but also a source of problems during his further career, was that he had initiated a new field of study interrelating chemistry, biology and medicine. Much of his work was rejected by the medical profession, which lacked the requisite chemical knowledge. It also meant that there was no suitable professorship in sight for Ehrlich.", "", "When a student in Breslau, Ehrlich was given an opportunity by the pathologist Julius Friedrich Cohnheim to conduct extensive research and was also introduced to Robert Koch, who was at the time a district physician in Wollstein, Posen Province. In his spare time, Koch had clarified the life cycle of the anthrax pathogen and had contacted Ferdinand Cohn, who was quickly convinced by Koch's work and introduced him to his Breslau colleagues. From 30 April to 2 May 1876, Koch presented his investigations in Breslau, which the student Paul Ehrlich was able to attend. On 24 March 1882, Ehrlich was present when Robert Koch, working since 1880 at the Imperial Public Health Office (\"Kaiserliches Gesundheitsamt\") in Berlin, presented the lecture in which he reported how he was able to identify the tuberculosis pathogen. Ehrlich later described this lecture as his “greatest experience in science.” The day after Koch's lecture, Ehrlich had already made an improvement to Koch's staining method, which Koch unreservedly welcomed. From this date on, the two men were bound in friendship. In 1887 Ehrlich became an unsalaried lecturer in internal medicine (\"Privatdozent für Innere Medizin\") at Berlin University, and in 1890 took over the tuberculosis station at a public hospital in Berlin-Moabit at Koch's request. This was where Koch's hoped-for tuberculosis therapeutic agent tuberculin was under study; and Ehrlich had even injected himself with it. In the ensuing tuberculin scandal, Ehrlich tried to support Koch and stressed the value of tuberculin for diagnostic purposes. In 1891 Koch invited Ehrlich to work at the newly founded Institute of Infectious Diseases (\"Institut für Infektionskrankheiten\" – now the Robert Koch Institute) at \"Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität\" (now Humboldt University) in Berlin. Koch was unable to give him any remuneration, but did offer him full access to laboratory staff, patients, chemicals and laboratory animals, which Ehrlich always remembered with gratitude.", "Ehrlich had started his first experiments on immunization already in his private laboratory. He accustomed mice to the poisons ricin and abrin. After feeding them with small but increasing dosages of ricin he ascertained that they had become \"ricin-proof.\" Ehrlich interpreted this as immunization and observed that it was abruptly initiated after a few days and was still in existence after several months, but mice immunized against ricin were just as sensitive to abrin as untreated animals. This was followed by investigations on the \"inheritance\" of acquired immunity. It was already known that in some cases after a smallpox or syphilis infection, specific immunity was transmitted from the parents to their offspring. Ehrlich rejected inheritance in the genetic sense because the offspring of a male mouse immunized against abrin and an untreated female mouse were not immune to abrin. He concluded that the fetus was supplied with antibodies via the pulmonary circulation of the mother. This idea was supported by the fact that this “inherited immunity” decreased after a few months. In another experiment he exchanged the offspring of treated and untreated female mice. The mice which were nursed by the treated females were protected from the poison, providing the proof that antibodies can also be conveyed in milk. Ehrlich also researched autoimmunity, but he specifically rejected the possibility that an organism's immune system could attack the organism's own tissue calling it \"horror autotoxicus.\" Ironically it was Ehrlich's student, Ernest Witebsky, who demonstrated that autoimmunity could cause disease in humans.", "Emil Behring had worked at the Berlin Institute of Infectious Diseases until 1893 on developing an antiserum for treating diphtheria and tetanus but with inconsistent results. Koch suggested that Behring and Ehrlich cooperate on the project. This joint work was successful to the extent that Ehrlich was quickly able to increase the level of immunity of the laboratory animals based on his experience with mice. Clinical tests with diphtheria serum early in 1894 were successful and in August the chemical company Hoechst started to market Behring's “Diphtheria Remedy synthesized by Behring-Ehrlich.” The two discoverers had originally agreed to share any profits after the Hoechst share had been subtracted. Their contract was changed several times and finally Ehrlich was eventually pressured into accepting a profit share of only eight percent. Ehrlich resented what he considered as unfair treatment, and his relationship with Behring was thereafter problematic, a situation which later escalated over the issue of the valency of tetanus serum. Ehrlich recognized that the principle of serum therapy had been developed by Behring and Kitasato. But he was of the opinion that he had been the first to develop a serum which could also be used on humans, and that his role in developing the diphtheria serum had been insufficiently acknowledged. Behring, for his part, schemed against Ehrlich at the Prussian Ministry of Culture, and from 1900 on Ehrlich refused to collaborate with him. von Behring was the sole recipient of the first Nobel Prize in Medicine, in 1901, for contributions to research on diphtheria.", "Since antiserums were an entirely new type of medicine whose quality was highly variable, a government system was established to guarantee their safety and effectiveness. Beginning 1 April 1895, only government-approved serum could be sold in the German Reich. The testing station for diphtheria serum was provisionally housed at the Institute of Infectious Diseases. At the initiative of Friedrich Althoff, an Institute of Serum Research and Testing (\"Institut für Serumforschung und Serumprüfung\") was established in 1896 in Berlin-Steglitz, with Paul Ehrlich as director (which required him to cancel all his contracts with Hoechst). In this function and as honorary professor at Berliner University he had annual earnings of 6,000 marks, approximately the salary of a university professor. In addition to a testing department the institute also had a research department. In order to determine the effectiveness of diphtheria antiserum, a stable concentration of diphtheria toxin was required. Ehrlich discovered that the toxin being used was perishable, in contrast to what had been assumed, which for him led to two consequences: He did not use the toxin as a standard, but instead a serum powder developed by Behring, which had to be dissolved in liquid shortly before use. The strength of a test toxin was first determined in comparison with this standard. The test toxin could then be used as a reference for testing other serums. For the test itself, toxin and serum were mixed in a ratio so that their effects just cancelled each other when injected into a guinea pig. But since there was a large margin in determining whether symptoms of illness were present, Ehrlich established an unambiguous target: the death of the animal. The mixture was to be such that the test animal would die after four days. If it died earlier, the serum was too weak and was rejected. Ehrlich claimed to have made the determination of the valency of serum as accurate as it would be with chemical titration. This again demonstrates his tendency to quantify the life sciences. Influenced by the mayor of Frankfurt am Main, Franz Adickes, who endeavored to establish science institutions in Frankfurt in preparation of the founding of a university, Ehrlich's institute moved to Frankfurt In 1899 and was renamed the Royal Prussian Institute of Experimental Therapy (\"Königlich Preußisches Institut für Experimentelle Therapie\"). The German quality-control methodology was copied by government serum institutes all over the world, and they also obtained the standard serum from Frankfurt. After diphtheria antiserum, tetanus serum and various bactericide serums for use in veterinary medicine were developed in rapid sequence. These were also evaluated at the institute, as was tuberculin and later on various vaccines. Ehrlich's most important colleague at the institute was the Jewish doctor and biologist Julius Morgenroth.", "He postulated that cell protoplasm contains special structures which have chemical \"side chains\" (today's term is macromolecules) to which the toxin binds, affecting function. If the organism survives the effects of the toxin, the blocked side-chains are replaced by new ones. This regeneration can be trained, the name for this phenomenon being \"immunization.\" If the cell produces a surplus of side chains, these might also be released into the blood as antibodies. In the following years Ehrlich expanded his side chain theory using concepts (“amboceptors,” “receptors of the first, second and third order,” etc.) which are no longer customary. Between the antigen and the antibody he assumed there was an additional immune molecule, which he called an “additive” or a “complement.” For him, the side chain contained at least two functional groups. For providing a theoretical basis for immunology as well as for his work on serum valency, Ehrlich was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1908 together with Élie Metchnikoff. Metchnikoff, who had researched the cellular branch of immunity, Phagocytosis, at the Pasteur Institute had previously sharply attacked Ehrlich.", "In 1901, the Prussian Ministry of Finance criticized Ehrlich for exceeding his budget and as a consequence reduced his income. In this situation Althoff arranged a contact with Georg Speyer, a Jewish philanthropist and joint owner of the bank house Lazard Speyer-Ellissen. The cancerous disease of Princess Victoria, the widow of the German Emperor Friedrich II, had received much public attention and prompted a collection among wealthy Frankfurt citizens, including Speyer, in support of cancer research. Ehrlich had also received from the German Emperor Wilhelm II a personal request to devote all his energy to cancer research. Such efforts led to the founding of a department for cancer research affiliated with the Institute of Experimental Therapy. The chemist Gustav Embden, among others, worked there. Ehrlich informed his sponsors that cancer research meant basic research, and that a cure could not be expected soon. Among the results achieved by Ehrlich and his research colleagues was the insight that when tumors are cultivated by transplanting tumor cells, their malignancy increases from generation to generation. If the primary tumor is removed, then metastasis precipitously increases. Ehrlich applied bacteriological methods to cancer research. In analogy to vaccination, he attempted to generate immunity to cancer by injecting weakened cancer cells. Both in cancer research and chemotherapy research (see below) he introduced the methodologies of Big Science.", "", "In 1885 Ehrlich‘s monograph \"The Need of the Organism for Oxygen,\" (\"Das Sauerstoffbedürfnis des Organismus- Eine farbenanalytische Studie\") appeared, which he also submitted as a habilitation thesis. In it he introduced the new technology of in vivo staining. One of his findings was that pigments can only be easily assimilated by living organisms if they are in granular form. He injected the dyes alizarin blue and indophenol blue into laboratory animals and established after their death that various organs had been colored to different degrees. In organs with high oxygen saturation, indophenol was retained; in organs with medium saturation, indophenol was reduced, but not alizarin blue. And in areas with low oxygen saturation, both pigments were reduced. With this work, Ehrlich also formulated the conviction which guided his research: that all life processes can be traced to processes of physical chemistry occurring in the cell.", "In the course of his investigations Ehrlich came across methylene blue, which he regarded as particularly suitable for staining bacteria. Later, Robert Koch also used methylene blue as a dye in his research on the tuberculosis pathogen. In Ehrlich's view, an added benefit was that methylene blue also stained the long appendages of nerve cells, the axons. He initiated a doctoral dissertation on the subject, but did not follow up the topic himself. It was the opinion of the neurologist Ludwig Edinger that Ehrlich had thereby opened up a major new topic in the field of neurology. After mid-1889, when Ehrlich was unemployed, he privately continued his research on methylene blue. His work on in vivo staining gave him the idea of using it therapeutically. Since the parasite family of \"Plasmodiidae\" – which includes the malaria pathogen – can be stained with methylene blue, he thought it could possibly be used in the treatment of malaria. In the case of two patients so treated at the city hospital in Berlin-Moabit, their fever indeed subsided and the malaria plasmodia disappeared from their blood. Ehrlich obtained methylene blue from the company Meister Lucius & Brüning AG (later renamed Hoechst AG), which started a long collaboration with this company.", "Before the Institute of Experimental Therapy had moved to Frankfurt, Ehrlich had already resumed work on methylene blue. After the death of Georg Speyer, his widow Franziska Speyer endowed the Georg-Speyer House in his memory which was erected next door to Ehrlich's institute. As director of the Georg-Speyer House, Ehrlich transferred his chemotherapeutic research there. He was looking for an agent which was as effective as methylene blue, but without its side effects. His model was on the one hand the impact of quinine on malaria, and on the other hand, in analogy to serum therapy, he thought there must also be chemical pharmaceuticals which would have just as specific an effect on individual diseases. His goal was to find a \"Therapia sterilisans magna,\" in other words a treatment that could kill all disease pathogens. As a model for experimental therapy Ehrlich used a guinea pig disease trypanosoma and tested out various chemical substances on laboratory animals. The trypanosomes could indeed be successfully killed with the dye trypan red. Beginning in 1906, he intensively investigated atoxyl and had it tested by Robert Koch along with other arsenic compounds during Koch's sleeping sickness expedition of 1906/07. Although the name literally means “nonpoisonous,” atoxyl does cause damage, especially to the optic nerve. Ehrlich elaborated the systematic testing of chemical compounds in the sense of screening as now practiced in the pharmaceutical industry. He discovered that Compound 418 - Arsenophenylglycine - had an impressive therapeutic effect and had it tested in Africa. With the support of his assistant Sahachiro Hata Ehrlich discovered in 1909 that Compound 606, Arsphenamine, effectively combatted \"spirillum\" spirochaetes bacteria, one of whose subspecies causes syphilis. The compound proved to have few side effects in human trials, and the spirochetes disappeared in seven syphilis patients after this treatment. After extensive clinical testing (all the research participants had the negative example of tuberculin in mind) the Hoechst company began to market the compound toward the end of 1910 under the name Salvarsan. This was the first agent with a specific therapeutic effect to be created on the basis of theoretical considerations. Salvarsan proved to be amazingly effective, particularly when compared with the conventional therapy of mercury salts. Manufactured by Hoechst AG, Salvarsan became the most widely prescribed drug in the world. It was the most effective drug for treating syphilis until penicillin became available in the 1940s. Salvarsan required improvement as to side effects and solubility and was replaced in 1911 with Neosalvarsan. Ehrlich's work illuminated the existence of the blood-brain barrier, although he himself never believed in such a barrier, with Lina Stern later coining the phrase. The medication triggered the so-called \"Salvarsan war.\" On one side there was hostility on the part of those who feared a resulting moral breakdown of sexual inhibitions. Ehrlich was also accused, with clearly anti-Semitic undertones, of excessively enriching himself. In addition, Ehrlich's associate, Paul Uhlenhuth claimed priority in discovering the drug. Because some people died during the clinical testing, Ehrlich was accused of \"stopping at nothing.\" In 1914, one of the most prominent accusers was convicted of criminal libel at a trial for which Ehrlich was called to testify. Though Ehrlich was thereby exonerated, the ordeal threw him into a depression from which he never fully recovered.", "Ehrlich reasoned that if a compound could be made that selectively targeted a disease-causing organism, then a toxin for that organism could be delivered along with the agent of selectivity. Hence, a \"magic bullet\" (\"Zauberkugel\", his term for an ideal therapeutic agent) would be created that killed only the organism targeted. The concept of a \"magic bullet\" has to some extent been realized by the development of antibody-drug conjugates (a monoclonal antibody linked to a cytotoxic biologically active drug), as they enable cytotoxic drugs to be selectively delivered to their designated targets (e.g. cancer cells).", "In 1910, a street was named after Ehrlich in Frankfurt-Sachsenhausen. During the Third Reich, Ehrlich's achievements were ignored while Emil Adolf von Behring was stylized as the ideal Aryan scientist, and the street named after Ehrlich was given another name. Shortly after the end of the war the name Paul-Ehrlich-Strasse was reinstated, and today numerous German cities have streets named after Paul Ehrlich. West Germany issued a postage stamp in 1954 on the 100th anniversary of the births of Paul Ehrlich (14 March 1854) and Emil von Behring (15 March 1854). A 200 Deutsche Mark bank note featured Paul Ehrlich. The German Paul Ehrlich Institute, the successor to the Steglitz Institute for Serum Research and Serum Testing and the Frankfurt Royal Institute for Experimental Therapy, was named in 1947 after its first director, Paul Ehrlich. His name is also borne by many schools and pharmacies, by the Paul-Ehrlich-Gesellschaft für Chemotherapie e. V. (PEG) in Frankfurt am Main, and the Paul-Ehrlich-Klinik in Bad Homburg vor der Höhe. The Paul Ehrlich and Ludwig Darmstaedter Prize is the most distinguished German award for biomedical research. A European network of PhD studies in Medicinal Chemistry has been named after him (Paul Ehrlich MedChem Euro PhD Network). The Anti-Defamation League awards a Paul Ehrlich–Günther K. Schwerin Human Rights Prize. A crater of the moon was named after Paul Ehrlich in 1970. Ehrlich's life and work was featured in the 1940 U.S. film \"Dr. Ehrlich's Magic Bullet\" with Edward G. Robinson in the title role. It focused on Salvarsan (arsphenamine, \"compound 606\"), his cure for syphilis. Since the Nazi government was opposed to this tribute to a Jewish scientist, attempts were made to keep the film a secret in Germany." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Major works." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1" ], "content": [ "He studied drama theory at the Academy of Performing Arts in Bratislava (VŠMU). He started his acting career alongside Milan Lasica in 1959, with whom he formed a comic duo. They performed in the \"Divadlo na Korze\" theatre (presently \"Astorka Korzo 90 ́\") until the late 1960s. After 1968 (see Prague Spring, Normalization (Czechoslovakia)), the duo was partly banned from working in the Slovak part of Czechoslovakia and performed for two years in a cabaret in the Czech city of Brno. Between 1972 and 1978, Satinský was a member of the musical ensemble of the Nová scéna theatre and between 1978 and 1980 he was a member of the drama company of this theatre and of the Korzo 90 theatre in Bratislava. When they were allowed to appear on stage again in 1982, they moved to the newly established \"Štúdio S\" theatre, of which Lasica was director. Satinský was not only known as an actor and comedian but also as a radio and TV host, a lecturer who travelled around Slovakia to discuss questions about democracy and civil society and as an author of memoirs about his childhood and student years in Bratislava as well as of feuilletons. Along with Milan Lasica he sang on several music albums, the most successful being \"Bolo nás jedenásť (There used to be eleven of us)\" with music by Jaroslav Filip. On 2 January 2002, he received the state award Pribina Cross of the First Class for his lifetime contribution to Slovak art and support for civil society.", "Sketches: Films: Humorous feuilletons: Dramatic works: Prose:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Origin.", "Popularization.", "Manufacture.", "Nutrition.", "Consumption." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "", "A popular story on the origin of cheese was taken from Homer's \"Odyssey\", in which the poet describes how the Cyclops Polyphemus made cheese by storing milk in animal stomachs. The enzymes from the stomach would have induced a coagulation process separating the curds from the milk. Cheese is thought to have originated in the Middle East around 5,000 BC. Evidence of cheese can be found in a band of carvings on the walls of an ancient Mesopotamian temple that date back to 3,000 BC. The ancient carvings show the process in which the civilization created a cheese-like substance, using salt and milk to create a salty sour curd mixture believed to be somewhat similar to today's cottage cheese. As Rome expanded its empire, they spread the knowledge of cheese, discovering many new forms of it. The Spanish brought cows and the knowledge of how to craft cheese to the Americas by 1493.", "In late 19th century Minnesota, when milk went sour, farmers sometimes made something they called \"Dutch cheese\", which is said to have been similar to modern industrial cottage cheese, in order not to waste the bad milk. In the early 20th century farmers in northeastern British Columbia made something they called \"homesteader's cheese\", which is said to have been similar to modern industrial cottage cheese (a \"Dutch cheese\" also existed there at the time, but this was something else). The term \"cottage cheese\" first began to be used for such simple home-made cheese in America in the mid-19th century. The first American cheese factory opened in 1868, beginning the wholesale cheese industry. Popularity in the United States of industrial cheese in general increased greatly at the end of the 19th century; by the turn of the century, farm production of cheese had become insignificant. Cottage cheese was widely promoted in America during the First World War, along with other dairy products, to save meat for infantry rations. This promotion was shown in many war posters, including one which claimed that one pound of cottage cheese contains more protein than a pound of lamb, pork, beef, or chicken. After the First World War, cottage cheese quickly became more popular. Thirty million pounds of cottage cheese was produced in 1919 (out of 418 million pounds of cheese in general in 1920), but by 1928 87 million pounds was manufactured. Consumption peaked in the United States in the 1970s when dieting became popular and some $1.3 billion of it was sold per year, but in the 1980s yogurt became more popular and sales dropped considerably further in the 2000s. In 2016, a Wall Street Journal article theorized that cottage cheese might be ready for a resurgence following the popularity of Greek yogurt due to its high levels of protein and low levels of sugar.", "Since the 1930s, industrial cottage cheese has been manufactured using pasteurized skim milk, or in more modern processes using concentrated nonfat milk or reconstituted nonfat dry milk. A bacterial culture that produces lactic acid (\"Lactococcus lactis\" ssp. \"lactis\" or \"L. lactis\" ssp. \"cremoris\" strains such as are usually used) or a food-grade acid such as vinegar is added to the milk, which allows the milk to curdle and parts to solidify, and it is heated until the liquid reaches, after which it is cooled to. The solids, known as curd, form a gelatinous skin over the liquid (known as whey) in the vat, which is cut into cubes with wires, allowing more whey to drain from the curds. The curds are then reheated to for one or two hours. In Iowa in the early 1930s, hot water was poured into the vat, which further firms the curds. Once the curds have been drained and are mostly dry the mass is pressed to further dry the curds. The curds are then rinsed in water. Finally, salt and a \"dressing\" of cream is added, and the final product is packaged and shipped for consumption. Some modern manufactures add starches and gums to stabilize the product. Some smaller modern luxury creameries omit the first heating step but allow the milk to curdle much longer with bacteria to produce the curds, or use crème fraîche as dressing. Cottage cheese made with a food-grade acid must be labelled as \"Direct Acid set\". Usually, a small amount of low -producing citrate-fermenting lactococci or leuconostoc bacterial strains are added to the starter mix for the production of diacetyl for added buttery or creamy flavors. Producers must be careful that the final product contains approximately 2 ppm diacetyl, and that the ratio of diacetyl to acetaldehyde is 3–5 to 1, to achieve the typical cottage cheese flavor. Too small a ratio and the product tastes grassy, too much and the taste becomes harsh. Cottage cheese is naturally a yellow colour due to the cream dressing, but to increase consumer acceptance and appeal of the final product titanium dioxide is usually added to the dressing to make it a brilliant white colour and enhance marketability of the finished product. In the United States the FDA allows the additive in many dairy products (not whole milk) up to 1% of total volume by weight, but it must be labelled in the ingredient list. It may also be used in Canada and the European Union. Relatively recently producers have added this ingredient in nanoparticle form. In the USA the FDA does not restrict nanoparticle technology usage in food, but in Europe it must be first submitted for approval as a food ingredient. According to the Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies it is found in hundreds of products, not always labelled as such, including many organic products, however a number of large US producers have denied using it. Cottage cheese may be marketed as a small-curd (<4 mm diameter) or large-curd (>8 mm diameter).", "Cottage cheese is popular among dieters and some health food devotees. According to one person it is popular among bodybuilders and athletes for its high content of casein protein while being relatively low in fat. Pregnant women are advised that cottage cheese is safe to eat, in contrast to some cheese products that are not recommended during pregnancy. The sour taste of the product is due to lactic acid, which is present at 124–452 mg/kg. Formic, acetic, propionic and butyric acid contribute to the aroma.", "In the United States, cottage cheese is popular in many culinary dishes. It can be combined with fruit and sugar, salt and pepper, fruit purée, tomatoes, or granola and cinnamon. It can be eaten on toast, in salads, as a chip dip, as a replacement for mayonnaise in tuna salad, and as an ingredient in recipes such as jello salad and various desserts. Cottage cheese is also popular with fruit, such as pears, peaches, or mandarin oranges. Cottage cheese is sometimes used as a substitute for meat because it has high levels of protein, but fewer total calories and less fat than meats contain. Many recipes such as lasagne can use cottage cheese." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Types.", "Technique.", "History.", "The pre-Andreyev period.", "The Andreyev period.", "Balalaika orchestra.", "Solo instrument.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The earliest mention of the term \"balalaika\" dates back to a 1688 Russian document. Another appearance of the word is registered in a document from Verkhotursky district of Russia, dated October 1700. It also mentioned in a document signed by Peter the Great dated 1714 regarding wedding celebrations of N.M. Zotov in Saint Petersburg. In Ukrainian language the word was first documented in the 18th century as \"balabaika\", this form is also present in South Russian dialects and Belorussian language, as well in Siberian Russia. It made its way to literature and first appeared in \"Elysei\", a 1771 poem by V. Maykov. \"Balalaika\" also appears in Nikolai Gogol's \"Dead Souls\", written between 1837 and 1842.", "The most common solo instrument is the prima, which is tuned E–E–A (thus the two lower strings are tuned to the same pitch). Sometimes the balalaika is tuned \"guitar style\" by folk musicians to G–B–D (mimicking the three highest strings of the Russian guitar), whereby it is easier to play for Russian guitar players, although classically trained balalaika purists avoid this tuning. It can also be tuned to E–A–D, like its cousin, the domra, to make it easier for those trained on the domra to play the instrument, and still have a balalaika sound. The folk (pre-Andreev) tunings D–F–A and C–E–G were very popular, as this makes it easier to play certain riffs. The balalaika has been made the following sizes: Factory-made six-string prima balalaikas with three sets of double courses are also common. These have three double courses similar to the stringing of the mandolin and often use a \"guitar\" tuning. Four string alto balalaikas are also encountered and are used in the orchestra of the Piatnistky Folk Choir. The piccolo, prima, d secunda balalaikas were originally strung with gut with the thinnest melody string made of stainless steel. Today, nylon strings are commonly used in place of gut. Amateur and/or souvenir-style prima balalaikas usually have a total of 16 frets, while in professional orchestra-like ones that number raises to 24.", "An important part of balalaika technique is the use of the left thumb to fret notes on the lower string, particularly on the prima, where it is used to form chords. Traditionally, the side of the index finger of the right hand is used to sound notes on the prima, while a plectrum is used on the larger sizes. Because of the large size of the contrabass's strings, it is not uncommon to see players using plectra made from a leather shoe or boot heel. The bass balalaika and contrabass balalaika rest on the ground, on a wooden or metal pin that is drilled into one of its corners.", "It is possible that the emergence and evolutionary of balalaika was a product of interaction with Asian-Oriental cultures too. In addition to European culture, early Russian states, also called Rus' or Rusi, were also influenced by Oriental-Asian cultures. Some theories say that the instrument descended from the domra, an instrument from the East Slavs. In the Caucasus, similar instruments such as the Mongolian topshur, used in Kalmykia, and the Panduri used in Georgia are played. It is also similar to the Kazakh dombra, which has two strings", "Early representations of the balalaika show it with anywhere from two to six strings, which resembles certain Central Asian instruments. Similarly, frets on earlier balalaikas were made of animal gut and tied to the neck so that they could be moved around by the player at will (as is the case with the modern saz, which allows for the playing distinctive to Turkish and Central Asian music). The first known document mentioning the instrument dates back to 1688. A guard's logbook from the Moscow Kremlin records that two commoners were stopped from playing the Balalaika whilst drunk. Further documents from 1700 and 1714 also mention the instrument. In the early 18th century the term appeared in Ukrainian documents, where it sounded like \"Balabaika\". Balalaika appeared in \"Elysei\", a 1771 poem by V. Maikov. In the 19th century, the balalaika evolved into a triangular instrument with a neck that was substantially shorter than that of its Asian counterparts. It was popular as a village instrument for centuries, particularly with the \"skomorokhs\", sort of free-lance musical jesters whose tunes ridiculed the Tsar, the Russian Orthodox Church, and Russian society in general.", "In the 1880s, Vasily Vasilievich Andreyev, who was then a professional violinist in the music salons of St Petersburg, developed what became the standardized balalaika, with the assistance of violin maker V. Ivanov. The instrument began to be used in his concert performances. A few years later, St. Petersburg craftsman Paserbsky further refined the instruments by adding a fully chromatic set of frets and also a number of balalaikas in orchestral sizes with the tunings now found in modern instruments. One of the reasons why the instruments were not standardised, was because people in the outlying areas built their own instruments, because there was so little communication for them. There were no roads and weather conditions were generally bad. Andreyev patented the design and arranged numerous traditional Russian folk melodies for the orchestra. He also composed a body of concert pieces for the instrument.", "The end result of Andreyev's labours was the establishment of an orchestral folk tradition in Tsarist Russia, which later grew into a movement within the Soviet Union. The balalaika orchestra in its full form consists of balalaikas, domras, gusli, bayan, Vladimir Shepherd's Horns, garmoshkas and several types of percussion instruments. With the establishment of the Soviet system and the entrenchment of a proletarian cultural direction, the culture of the working classes (which included that of village labourers) was actively supported by the Soviet establishment. The concept of the balalaika orchestra was adopted wholeheartedly by the Soviet government as something distinctively proletarian (that is, from the working classes) and was also deemed progressive. Significant amounts of energy and time were devoted to support and foster formal study of the balalaika, from which highly skilled ensemble groups such as the Osipov State Russian Folk Orchestra emerged. Balalaika virtuosi such as Boris Feoktistov and Pavel Necheporenko became stars both inside and outside the Soviet Union. The movement was so powerful that even the renowned Red Army Choir, which initially used a normal symphonic orchestra, changed its instrumentation, replacing violins, violas, and violoncellos with orchestral balalaikas and domras.", "Often musicians perform solo on the balalaika. In particular, Alexey Arkhipovsky is well known for his solo performances. In particular, he was invited to play at the opening ceremony of the second semi final of the Eurovision Song Contest 2009 in Moscow because the organizers wanted to give a \"more Russian appearance\" to the contest.", "Through the 20th century, interest in Russian folk instruments grew outside of Russia, likely as a result of western tours by Andreyev and other balalaika virtuosi early in the century. Significant balalaika associations are found in Washington, D.C., Los Angeles, New York, Atlanta and Seattle." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Middle years.", "Heredity and eugenics.", "Model for population stability.", "Empirical test of pangenesis and Lamarckism.", "Anthropometric Laboratory at the 1884 International Health Exhibition.", "Innovations in statistics and psychological theory.", "Historiometry.", "The lexical hypothesis.", "The questionnaire.", "Variance and standard deviation.", "Experimental derivation of the normal distribution.", "Bivariate normal distribution.", "Correlation and regression.", "Regression toward the mean.", "Theories of perception.", "Differential psychology.", "Composite photography.", "Fingerprints.", "Final years.", "Personal life and character.", "Awards and influence." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Galton was born at \"The Larches\", a large house in the Sparkbrook area of Birmingham, England, built on the site of \"Fair Hill\", the former home of Joseph Priestley, which the botanist William Withering had renamed. He was Charles Darwin's half-cousin, sharing the common grandparent Erasmus Darwin. His father was Samuel Tertius Galton, son of Samuel \"John\" Galton. The Galtons were Quaker gun-manufacturers and bankers, while the Darwins were involved in medicine and science. He was cousin of Douglas Strutt Galton and half-cousin of Charles Darwin. Both families had Fellows of the Royal Society and members who loved to invent in their spare time. Both Erasmus Darwin and Samuel Galton were founding members of the Lunar Society of Birmingham, which included Boulton, Watt, Wedgwood, Priestley, Edgeworth. Both families were known for their literary talent. Erasmus Darwin composed lengthy technical treatises in verse. Galton's aunt Mary Anne Galton wrote on aesthetics and religion, and her autobiography detailed the environment of her childhood populated by Lunar Society members. Galton was a child prodigy – he was reading by the age of two; at age five he knew some Greek, Latin and long division, and by the age of six he had moved on to adult books, including Shakespeare for pleasure, and poetry, which he quoted at length. Galton attended King Edward's School, Birmingham, but chafed at the narrow classical curriculum and left at 16. His parents pressed him to enter the medical profession, and", "Galton was a polymath who made important contributions in many fields of science, including meteorology (the anti-cyclone and the first popular weather maps), statistics (regression and correlation), psychology (synaesthesia), biology (the nature and mechanism of heredity), and criminology (fingerprints). Much of this was influenced by his penchant for counting and measuring. Galton prepared the first weather map published in \"The Times\" (1 April 1875, showing the weather from the previous day, 31 March), now a standard feature in newspapers worldwide. He became very active in the British Association for the Advancement of Science, presenting many papers on a wide variety of topics at its meetings from 1858 to 1899. He was the general secretary from 1863 to 1867, president of the Geographical", "The publication by his cousin Charles Darwin of \"The Origin of Species\" in 1859 was an event that changed Galton's life. He came to be gripped by the work, especially the first chapter on \"Variation under Domestication\", concerning animal breeding. Galton devoted much of the rest of his life to exploring variation in human populations and its implications, at which Darwin had only hinted. In doing so, he established a research program which embraced multiple aspects of human variation, from mental characteristics to height; from facial images to fingerprint patterns. This required inventing novel measures of traits, devising large-scale collection of data using those measures, and in the end, the discovery of new statistical techniques for describing and understanding the data. Galton was interested at first in the question of whether human ability was hereditary, and proposed to count the number of the relatives of various degrees of eminent men. If the qualities were hereditary, he reasoned, there should be more eminent men among the relatives than among the general population. To test this, he invented the methods of historiometry. Galton obtained extensive data from a broad range of biographical sources which he tabulated and compared in various ways. This pioneering work was described in detail in his book \"Hereditary Genius\" in 1869. Here he showed, among other things, that the numbers of eminent relatives dropped off when going from the first degree to the second degree relatives, and from the second degree to", "Galton's formulation of regression and its link to the bivariate normal distribution can be traced to his attempts at developing a mathematical model for population stability. Although Galton's first attempt to study Darwinian questions, \"Hereditary Genius\", generated little enthusiasm at the time, the text led to his further studies in the 1870s concerning the inheritance of physical traits. This text contains some crude notions of the concept of regression, described in a qualitative matter. For example, he wrote of dogs: \"If a man breeds from strong, well-shaped dogs, but of mixed pedigree, the puppies will be sometimes, but rarely, the equals of their parents. they will commonly be of a mongrel, nondescript type, because ancestral peculiarities are apt to crop out in the offspring.\" This notion created a problem for Galton, as he could not reconcile the tendency of a population to maintain a normal distribution of traits from generation to generation with the notion of inheritance. It seemed that a large number of factors operated independently on offspring, leading to the normal distribution of a trait in each generation. However, this provided no explanation as to how a parent can have a significant impact on his offspring, which was the basis of inheritance. Galton's solution to this problem was presented in his Presidential Address at the September 1885 meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, as he was serving at the time as President of Section H: Anthropology. The address was published in \"Nature,\" and Galton further developed the theory in \"Regression toward mediocrity in hereditary stature\" and \"Hereditary Stature.\" An elaboration of this theory was published in 1889 in \"Natural Inheritance.\" There were three key developments that helped Galton develop this theory: the development of the law of error in 1874–1875, the formulation of an empirical law of reversion in 1877, and the development of a mathematical framework encompassing regression using human population data during 1885. Galton's development of the law of regression to the mean, or reversion, was due to", "Galton conducted wide-ranging inquiries into heredity which led him to challenge Charles Darwin's hypothesis of pangenesis. Darwin had proposed as part of this model that certain particles, which he called \"gemmules\" moved throughout the body and were also responsible for the inheritance of acquired characteristics. Galton, in consultation with Darwin, set out to see if they were transported in the blood. In a long series of experiments in 1869 to 1871, he transfused the blood between dissimilar breeds of rabbits, and examined the features of their offspring. He found no evidence of characters transmitted in the transfused blood. Darwin challenged the validity of Galton's experiment, giving his reasons in an article published in", "In 1884, London hosted the International Health Exhibition. This exhibition placed much emphasis on highlighting Victorian developments in sanitation and public health, and allowed the nation to display its advanced public health outreach, compared to other countries at the time. Francis Galton took advantage of this opportunity to set up his anthropometric laboratory. He stated that the purpose of this laboratory was to \"show the public the simplicity of the instruments and methods by which the chief physical characteristics of man may be measured and recorded.\" The laboratory was an interactive walk-through in which physical characteristics such as height, weight, and eyesight, would be measured for each subject after payment of an admission fee. Upon entering the laboratory, a subject would visit the following stations in order. First, they would fill out a form with personal and family history (age, birthplace, marital status, residence, and occupation), then visit stations that recorded hair and eye color, followed by the keenness, color-sense, and depth perception of sight. Next, they would examine the keenness, or relative acuteness, of hearing and highest audible note of their hearing followed by an examination of their sense of touch. However, because the surrounding area was noisy, the apparatus intended to measure hearing was rendered ineffective by the noise and echoes in the building. Their breathing capacity would also be measured, as well as their ability to throw a punch. The next stations would examine strength of both pulling and squeezing with both hands. Lastly, subjects' heights in various positions (sitting, standing, etc.) as well as arm span and weight would be measured. One excluded characteristic of interest was the size of the head. Galton notes in his analysis that this omission was mostly", "", "The method used in \"Hereditary Genius\" has been described as the first example of historiometry. To bolster these results, and to attempt to make a distinction between 'nature' and 'nurture' (he was the first to apply this phrase to the topic), he devised a questionnaire that he sent out to 190 Fellows of the Royal", "Sir Francis was the first scientist to recognise what is now known as the lexical hypothesis. This is the idea that the most", "Galton's inquiries into the mind involved detailed recording of people's subjective accounts of whether and how their minds dealt with phenomena such as mental imagery. To better elicit this information, he pioneered the", "Core to any statistical analysis is the concept that measurements vary: they have both a central tendency, or mean, and a spread around this central value, or variance. In the late 1860s, Galton conceived of a measure to quantify normal variation: the standard deviation. Galton was a keen observer. In 1906, visiting a livestock fair, he stumbled upon an intriguing contest. An ox was on display, and the villagers were invited to guess the animal's weight after it was slaughtered and dressed. Nearly 800 participated, and Galton was able to study their individual entries after the event. Galton stated that \"the middlemost estimate expresses the \"vox populi\", every other estimate being condemned as", "Studying variation, Galton invented the quincunx, a pachinko-like device also known", "He also discovered the properties of", "In 1846, the French physicist Auguste Bravais (1811–1863) first developed what would become the correlation coefficient. After examining forearm and height measurements, Galton independently rediscovered the concept of correlation in 1888 and demonstrated its application in the study of heredity, anthropology, and psychology. Galton's later statistical study of the probability of extinction of surnames led to the concept of Galton–Watson stochastic processes. This", "Galton was the first to describe and explain the common phenomenon of regression toward the mean, which he first observed in his experiments on the size of the seeds of successive generations of sweet peas. The conditions under which regression toward the mean occurs depend on the", "Galton went beyond measurement and summary to attempt to explain the phenomena he observed. Among such developments, he proposed an early theory of ranges of sound and hearing,", "Galton's study of human abilities ultimately led to the foundation of differential psychology and the formulation of the first mental tests. He was interested in measuring humans in every way possible. This included measuring their ability to make sensory discrimination which he assumed was linked to intellectual prowess.", "Galton also devised a technique called \"composite portraiture\" (produced by superimposing multiple photographic portraits of individuals' faces registered on their eyes) to create an average face (see averageness). In the 1990s, a hundred years after his discovery, much psychological research has examined the attractiveness of these faces, an aspect that Galton had remarked on in his original lecture. Others, including Sigmund Freud in his work on dreams, picked up Galton's suggestion that these composites might represent a useful metaphor for an Ideal type or a concept of a \"natural kind\" (see Eleanor Rosch)—such as Jewish men,", "In a Royal Institution paper in 1888 and three books (\"Finger Prints\", 1892; \"Decipherment of Blurred Finger Prints\", 1893; and \"Fingerprint Directories\", 1895), Galton estimated the probability of two persons having the same fingerprint and studied the heritability and racial differences in fingerprints. He wrote about the technique (inadvertently sparking a controversy between Herschel and Faulds that was to last until 1917), identifying common pattern in fingerprints and devising a classification system that survives to this day. The method of identifying criminals by their", "In an effort to reach a wider audience, Galton worked on a novel entitled \"Kantsaywhere\" from May until December 1910. The novel described a utopia organised by a eugenic religion, designed to breed fitter and smarter humans. His unpublished notebooks show that this was an expansion of material he had been composing since", "In January 1853, Galton met Louisa Jane Butler (1822–1897) at his neighbour's home and they were married on 1 August 1853. The union of", "Over the course of his career Galton received many awards, including the Copley Medal of the Royal Society (1910). He received in 1853 the Founder's Medal, the highest award of the Royal Geographical Society, for his explorations and map-making of southwest Africa. He was elected a member of the Athenaeum Club in 1855 and made a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1860. His autobiography also lists: Galton was knighted in 1909. His statistical heir Karl Pearson, first holder of the Galton Chair of Eugenics at University College, London (now Galton Chair of Genetics), wrote a three-volume biography of Galton, in four parts, after his death. The flowering plant genus \"Galtonia\" was named after Galton. University College London has in the twenty-first century been involved in a historical inquiry into its role as the institutional birthplace of eugenics. Galton established a laboratory at UCL in 1904. Some students and staff have called on the university to rename its Galton lecture theatre. \"Galton's seductive promise was of a bold new world filled only with beautiful, intelligent, productive people. The scientists in its thrall claimed this could be achieved by controlling reproduction, policing borders to prevent certain types of immigrants, and locking away \"undesirables\", including disabled people.\"" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Definitions.", "Equivalences.", "Examples and non-examples.", "Properties.", "Preregularity versus regularity.", "Variants.", "Algebra of functions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Points formula_1 and formula_2 in a topological space formula_3 can be \"separated by neighbourhoods\" if there exists a neighbourhood formula_4 of formula_1 and a neighbourhood formula_6 of formula_2 such that formula_4 and formula_6 are disjoint (formula_10). formula_3 is a Hausdorff space if all distinct points in formula_3 are pairwise neighbourhood-separable. This condition is the third separation axiom (after formula_13), which is why Hausdorff spaces are also called formula_14 spaces. The name \"separated space\" is also used. A related, but weaker, notion is that of a preregular space. formula_3 is a preregular space if any two topologically distinguishable points can be separated by disjoint neighbourhoods. Preregular spaces are also called \"formula_16 spaces\". The relationship between these two conditions is as follows. A topological space is Hausdorff if and only if it is both preregular (i.e. topologically distinguishable points are separated by neighbourhoods) and Kolmogorov (i.e. distinct points are topologically distinguishable). A topological space is preregular if and only if its Kolmogorov quotient is Hausdorff.", "For a topological space \"X\", the following are equivalent:", "Almost all spaces encountered in analysis are Hausdorff; most importantly, the real numbers (under the standard metric topology on real numbers) are a Hausdorff space. More generally, all metric spaces are Hausdorff. In fact, many spaces of use in analysis, such as topological groups and topological manifolds, have the Hausdorff condition explicitly stated in their definitions. A simple example of a topology that is T but is not Hausdorff is the cofinite topology defined on an infinite set. Pseudometric spaces typically are not Hausdorff, but they are preregular, and their use in analysis is usually only in the construction of Hausdorff gauge spaces. Indeed, when analysts run across a non-Hausdorff space, it is still probably at least preregular, and then they simply replace it with its Kolmogorov quotient, which is Hausdorff. In contrast, non-preregular spaces are encountered much more frequently in abstract algebra and algebraic geometry, in particular as the Zariski topology on an algebraic variety or the spectrum of a ring. They also arise in the model theory of intuitionistic logic: every complete Heyting algebra is the algebra of open sets of some topological space, but this space need not be preregular, much less Hausdorff, and in fact usually is neither. The related concept of Scott domain also consists of non-preregular spaces. While the existence of unique limits for convergent nets and filters implies that a space is Hausdorff, there are non-Hausdorff T spaces in which every convergent sequence has a unique limit.", "Subspaces and products of Hausdorff spaces are Hausdorff, but quotient spaces of Hausdorff spaces need not be Hausdorff. In fact, \"every\" topological space can be realized as the quotient of some Hausdorff space. Hausdorff spaces are T, meaning that all singletons are closed. Similarly, preregular spaces are R. Another nice property of Hausdorff spaces is that compact sets are always closed. This may fail in non-Hausdorff spaces such as the Sierpiński space. The definition of a Hausdorff space says that points can be separated by neighborhoods. It turns out that this implies something which is seemingly stronger: in a Hausdorff space every pair of disjoint compact sets can also be separated by neighborhoods, in other words there is a neighborhood of one set and a neighborhood of the other, such that the two neighborhoods are disjoint. This is an example of the general rule that compact sets often behave like points. Compactness conditions together with preregularity often imply stronger separation axioms. For example, any locally compact preregular space is completely regular. Compact preregular spaces are normal, meaning that they satisfy Urysohn's lemma and the Tietze extension theorem and have partitions of unity subordinate to locally finite open covers. The Hausdorff versions of these statements are: every locally compact Hausdorff space is Tychonoff, and every compact Hausdorff space is normal Hausdorff. The following results are some technical properties regarding maps (continuous and otherwise) to and from Hausdorff spaces. Let \"f\" : \"X\" → \"Y\" be a continuous function and suppose \"Y\" is Hausdorff. Then the graph of \"f\", formula_17, is a closed subset of \"X\" × \"Y\". Let \"f\" : \"X\" → \"Y\" be a function and let formula_18 be its kernel regarded as a subspace of \"X\" × \"X\". If \"f,g\" : \"X\" → \"Y\" are continuous maps and \"Y\" is Hausdorff then the equalizer formula_19 is closed in \"X\". It follows that if \"Y\" is Hausdorff and \"f\" and \"g\" agree on a dense subset of \"X\" then \"f\" = \"g\". In other words, continuous functions into Hausdorff spaces are determined by their values on dense subsets. Let \"f\" : \"X\" → \"Y\" be a closed surjection such that \"f\"(\"y\") is compact for all \"y\" ∈ \"Y\". Then if \"X\" is Hausdorff so is \"Y\". Let \"f\" : \"X\" → \"Y\" be a quotient map with \"X\" a compact Hausdorff space. Then the following are equivalent:", "All regular spaces are preregular, as are all Hausdorff spaces. There are many results for topological spaces that hold for both regular and Hausdorff spaces. Most of the time, these results hold for all preregular spaces; they were listed for regular and Hausdorff spaces separately because the idea of preregular spaces came later. On the other hand, those results that are truly about regularity generally do not also apply to nonregular Hausdorff spaces. There are many situations where another condition of topological spaces (such as paracompactness or local compactness) will imply regularity if preregularity is satisfied. Such conditions often come in two versions: a regular version and a Hausdorff version. Although Hausdorff spaces are not, in general, regular, a Hausdorff space that is also (say) locally compact will be regular, because any Hausdorff space is preregular. Thus from a certain point of view, it is really preregularity, rather than regularity, that matters in these situations. However, definitions are usually still phrased in terms of regularity, since this condition is better known than preregularity. See History of the separation axioms for more on this issue.", "The terms \"Hausdorff\", \"separated\", and \"preregular\" can also be applied to such variants on topological spaces as uniform spaces, Cauchy spaces, and convergence spaces. The characteristic that unites the concept in all of these examples is that limits of nets and filters (when they exist) are unique (for separated spaces) or unique up to topological indistinguishability (for preregular spaces). As it turns out, uniform spaces, and more generally Cauchy spaces, are always preregular, so the Hausdorff condition in these cases reduces to the T condition. These are also the spaces in which completeness makes sense, and Hausdorffness is a natural companion to completeness in these cases. Specifically, a space is complete if and only if every Cauchy net has at \"least\" one limit, while a space is Hausdorff if and only if every Cauchy net has at \"most\" one limit (since only Cauchy nets can have limits in the first place).", "The algebra of continuous (real or complex) functions on a compact Hausdorff space is a commutative C*-algebra, and conversely by the Banach–Stone theorem one can recover the topology of the space from the algebraic properties of its algebra of continuous functions. This leads to noncommutative geometry, where one considers noncommutative C*-algebras as representing algebras of functions on a noncommutative space." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Life.", "Works.", "Subsequent influence and veneration." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Ivo of Chartres was born in or near Chartres circa 1040 to a family of relatively low social status. He is claimed to have studied first in Paris, then in Abbey of Bec in Normandy where, according to the often unreliable Robert of Torigni, he studied under Lanfranc along with Anselm of Canterbury. Not much is known of him until some time after he was admitted to the Roman Catholic clergy. His first benefice was at Nesle in Picardy. In 1067 Bishop Gui asked him to become the abbot of the new Augustinian house of St. Quentin at Beauvais. Ivo was skeptical of religious excess and always stressed moderation in practice. He remained at St. Quentin for twenty years and established himself as one of the best teachers in France. St. Quentin came to be known as a great school of theology. His knowledge of canon law, both as a lawyer and cleric, most probably earned him in 1090 the office of Bishop of Chartres, France. His predecessor, Geoffrey, had been removed from office by Pope Urban II. Geoffrey's relatives and supporters initially opposed Ivo's appointment, but with the backing of Pope Urban, King Philip, and the influential Stephen, Count of Blois, Ivo was eventually grudgingly accepted. In light of the events preceding his appointment to the office, his strong opposition to the practice of simony may have been the impetus to his episcopal elevation. His strong faith, piety, and principles led to some troubles for him during his twenty-five year episcopacy at Chartres. Circa 1092, King Philip I of France was married to Bertha of Holland, but wished to be rid of her so he could marry Bertrade of Anjou. Upholding the sanctity of marriage, relations between Ivo and the king became strained. Local baron Hugh Le Puiset took advantage of the situation to seize episcopal lands and imprison the bishop for a short time. The Gregorian reforms were not well realized until Ivo's episcopacy. He was an acquaintance of Countess Adele of Blois, who helped him reform the Abbey of St. Jean-en-Vallée. In addition, on several occasions he defended her decisions, most notably during the events regarding Rotrou III of Perche, when he refused to assert ecclesiastical sanctions against him. During his episcopacy he wrote the majority of his extant works, for which he later became famous and considered among the greatest scholars of the mediaeval era. Salutati recognized him as an eloquent writer despite his affirmation that all the literature outside of Italy lacked eloquence.", "Ivo was a prolific writer but is most known for his canonical works: the \"Decretum\" of seventeen books; the \"Tripartita\", of very substantial material, divided in three parts, and attributed to him; and the \"Panormia\" of eight books attributed to him. All three are primarily works of canon law and center on the principle of \"caritas\", that is, the Catholic theological virtue of charity, as taught by Paul of Tarsus. His works are replete with treatments of charity and dispensation in a pastoral manner regarding the Holy See. He thought that \"caritas\" was the solution for sin, and not harsh punishment without contrition. This theme is most evident in his Prologus, which is most often compared to the teachings of the Church Fathers than those of the scholars of his day. Paul's message of loving one's fellow man as one would himself is particularly prevalent in Ivo's works: \"He was called to teach. His lesson was love. It was all that mattered.\". However, Ivo is also famous for his 288 letters of correspondence. These letters often dealt with liturgical, canonical, and dogmatic questions and, much like his major works, are from the perspective of \"caritas\". Several of his extant sermons, totaling 25, treat of the same topics as his other writings and letters. It has also been suggested that his doctrines influenced the final agreement of the Concordat of Worms in 1122.", "Ivo's influence on the religious scholars following him was great. Most notably among them were Hugh of St. Victor, Landolfo Colonna, and Alger of Liège, who often quoted or cited the Prologus of his works. Many continued his emphasis of \"caritas\" and canonical thought. His influence on Peter Abelard’s \"Sic et Non\" and Gratian’s \"Concordia Discordantium Canonum\" (commonly denominated \"Decretum Gratiani\") is obvious. Although it is not known when he was canonized, 23 May is his present liturgical memorial. Before 1570 it was observed on 20 May." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "The uprising.", "January revolt.", "Preparations.", "Main revolt.", "Casualties.", "Aftermath.", "Opposing forces.", "Jewish.", "Polish.", "German.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "In 1939, German authorities began to concentrate Poland's population of over three million Jews into a number of extremely crowded ghettos located in large Polish cities. The largest of these, the Warsaw Ghetto, concentrated approximately 300,000–400,000 people into a densely packed, 3.3 km central area of Warsaw. Thousands of Jews died due to rampant disease and starvation under SS-und-Polizeiführer Odilo Globocnik and SS-Standartenführer Ludwig Hahn, even before the mass deportations from the ghetto to the Treblinka extermination camp began. The SS conducted many of the deportations during the operation code-named \"Grossaktion Warschau\", between 23 July and 21 September 1942. Just before the operation began, the German \"Resettlement Commissioner\" SS-Sturmbannführer Hermann Höfle called a meeting of the Ghetto Jewish Council Judenrat and informed its leader, Adam Czerniaków, that he would require 7,000 Jews a day for the \"resettlement to the East\". Czerniaków committed suicide once he became aware of the true goal of the \"resettlement\" plan. Approximately 254,000–300,000 ghetto residents met their deaths at Treblinka during the two-month-long operation. The \"Grossaktion\" was directed by SS-Oberführer Ferdinand von Sammern-Frankenegg, the SS and police commander of the Warsaw area since 1941. He was relieved of duty by SS-und-Polizeiführer Jürgen Stroop, sent to Warsaw by Heinrich Himmler on 17 April 1943. Stroop took over from von Sammern-Frankenegg following the failure of the latter to pacify the ghetto resistance. When the deportations first began, members of the Jewish resistance movement met and decided not to fight the SS directives, believing that the Jews were being sent to labour camps and not to their deaths. By the end of 1942, ghetto inhabitants learned that the deportations were part of an extermination process. Many of the remaining Jews decided to revolt. The first armed resistance in the ghetto occurred in January 1943. On 19 April 1943, Passover eve, the Germans entered the ghetto. The remaining Jews knew that the Germans would murder them and they decided to resist to the last. While the uprising was underway, the Bermuda Conference was held from 19–29 April 1943 to discuss the Jewish refugee problem. Discussions included the question of Jewish refugees who had been liberated by Allied forces and those who still remained within German-occupied Europe.", "", "On 18 January 1943, the Germans began their second deportation of the Jews, which led to the first instance of armed insurgency within the ghetto. While Jewish families hid in their so-called \"bunkers\", fighters of the ŻZW, joined by elements of the ŻOB, resisted, engaging the Germans in direct clashes. Though the ŻZW and ŻOB suffered heavy losses (including some of their leaders), the Germans also took casualties, and the deportation was halted within a few days. Only 5,000 Jews were removed, instead of the 8,000 planned by Globocnik. Hundreds of people in the Warsaw Ghetto were ready to fight, adults and children, sparsely armed with handguns, gasoline bottles, and a few other weapons that had been smuggled into the ghetto by resistance fighters. Most of the Jewish fighters did not view their actions as an effective measure by which to save themselves, but rather as a battle for the honour of the Jewish people, and a protest against the world's silence.", "Two resistance organizations, the ŻZW and ŻOB, took control of the ghetto. They built dozens of fighting posts and executed a number of Nazi collaborators, including Jewish Ghetto Police officers, members of the fake (German-sponsored and controlled) resistance organization Żagiew, as well as Gestapo and Abwehr agents (such as Judenrat member Dr Alfred Nossig, executed on 22 February 1943). The ŻOB established a prison to hold and execute traitors and collaborators. Józef Szeryński, former head of the Jewish Ghetto Police, committed suicide.", "On 19 April 1943, on the eve of Passover, the police and SS auxiliary forces entered the ghetto. They were planning to complete the deportation action within three days, but were ambushed by Jewish insurgents firing and tossing Molotov cocktails and hand grenades from alleyways, sewers, and windows. The Germans suffered 59 casualties and their advance bogged down. Two of their combat vehicles (an armed conversion of a French-made Lorraine 37L light armored vehicle and an armored car) were set on fire by the insurgents's petrol bombs. Following von Sammern-Frankenegg's failure to contain the revolt, he lost his post as the SS and police commander of Warsaw. He was replaced by SS-Brigadeführer Jürgen Stroop, who rejected von Sammern-Frankenegg's proposal to call in bomber aircraft from Kraków and proceeded to lead a better-organized and reinforced ground attack. The longest-lasting defense of a position took place around the ŻZW stronghold at Muranowski Square, where the ŻZW chief leader, Dawid Moryc Apfelbaum, was killed in combat. On the afternoon of 19 April, a symbolic event took place when two boys climbed up on the roof of a building on the square and raised two flags, the red-and-white Polish flag and the blue-and-white banner of the ŻZW. These flags remained there, highly visible from the Warsaw streets, for four days. During this fight on 22 April, SS officer Hans Dehmke was killed when gunfire detonated a hand grenade he was holding. When Stroop's ultimatum to surrender was rejected by the defenders, his forces resorted to systematically burning houses block by block using flamethrowers and fire bottles, and blowing up basements and sewers. \"We were beaten by the flames, not the Germans,\" Edelman said in 2007. In 2003, he recalled: \"The sea of flames flooded houses and courtyards.... There was no air, only black, choking smoke and heavy burning heat radiating from the red-hot walls, from the glowing stone stairs.\" The \"bunker wars\" lasted an entire month, during which German progress was slowed. While the battle continued inside the ghetto, Polish resistance groups AK and GL engaged the Germans between 19 and 23 April at six different locations outside the ghetto walls, firing at German sentries and positions. In one attack, three units of the AK under the command of Captain Józef Pszenny (\"Chwacki\") joined up in a failed attempt to breach the ghetto walls with explosives. Eventually, the ŻZW lost all of its commanders and, on 29 April, the remaining fighters from the organization escaped the ghetto through the Muranowski tunnel and relocated to the Michalin forest. This event marked the end of significant fighting. At this point, organized defense collapsed. Surviving fighters and thousands of remaining Jewish civilians took cover in the sewer system and in the many dugout hiding places hidden among the ruins of the ghetto, referred to as \"bunkers\" by Germans and Jews alike. The Germans used dogs to look for such hideouts, then usually dropped smoke bombs down to force people out. Sometimes they flooded these so-called bunkers or destroyed them with explosives. On occasions, shootouts occurred. A number of captured fighters lobbed hidden grenades or fired concealed handguns after surrendering. There were also clashes between small groups of insurgents and German patrols at night. On 8 May, the Germans discovered a large dugout located at Miła 18 Street, which served as ŻOB's main command post. Most of the organization's remaining leadership and dozens of others committed mass suicide by ingesting cyanide, including the chief commander of ŻOB, Mordechaj Anielewicz. His deputy Marek Edelman escaped the ghetto through the sewers with a handful of comrades two days later. On 10 May, a Bundist member of the Polish government in exile, Szmul Zygielbojm, committed suicide in London to protest the lack of reaction from the Allied governments. In his farewell note, he wrote: Besides claiming an estimated 56,065 Jews accounted for (although his own figures showed the number to be 57,065) and noting that \"The number of destroyed dug-outs amounts to 631.\" in his official report 24 May 1943, Stroop listed the following as captured booty: Sporadic resistance continued and the last skirmish took place on 5 June 1943 between Germans and a holdout group of armed Jews without connections to the resistance organizations.", "13,000 Jews were killed in the ghetto during the uprising (some 6,000 among them were burnt alive or died from smoke inhalation). Of the remaining 50,000 residents, almost all were captured and shipped to Majdanek and Treblinka. Jürgen Stroop's internal SS daily report for Friedrich Krüger, written on 16 May 1943, stated: According to the casualty lists in Stroop's report, German forces suffered a total of 110 casualties – 17 dead (of whom 16 were killed in action) and 93 injured – of whom 101 are listed by name, including over 60 members of the Waffen-SS. These figures did not include Jewish collaborators, but did include the \"Trawniki men\" and Polish police under his command. The real number of German losses, however, may be well higher (the Germans suffered about 300 casualties by Edelman's estimate). For propaganda purposes, the official announcement claimed the German casualties to be only a few wounded, while propaganda bulletins of the Polish Underground State announced that hundreds of occupiers had been killed in the fighting. German daily losses of killed/wounded and the official figures for killed or captured Jews and \"bandits\", according to the Stroop report: According to Raul Hilberg, \"the number cited by Stroop (16 dead, 85 wounded) cannot be rejected out of hand, but it is likely that his list was neither complete, free of errors, nor indicative of the German losses throughout the entire period of resistance, until the absolute liquidation of Jewish life in the ghetto. All the same, the German casualty figures cited by the various Jewish sources are probably highly exaggerated.\" Other historians such as Raul Hilberg and French L. MacLean endorse the accuracy of official German casualty figures. On the other hand, Stroop report vastly exaggerated actual losses (and strength) of the resistance. The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising was the largest single revolt by Jews during World War II.", "After the uprising was over, most of the incinerated houses were razed, and the Warsaw concentration camp complex was established in their place. Thousands of people died in the camp or were executed in the ruins of the ghetto. At the same time, the SS were hunting down the remaining Jews still hiding in the ruins. On 19 April 1943, the first day of the most significant period of the resistance, 7,000 Jews were transported from the Warsaw Ghetto to Treblinka extermination camp, where, purportedly, they developed again into resistance groups, and then helped to plan and execute the revolt and mass escape of 2 August 1943. From May 1943 to August 1944, Executions in the ruins of the ghetto were carried out by: Both open and secret executions carried out in Warsaw were repeatedly led by SS-Obersturmführer Norbert Bergh-Trips, SS-Haupturmführer Paul Werner and SS-Obersturmführer Walter Witossek. The latter often presided over the police \"trio\" signing mass death sentences for Polish political prisoners, which were later pronounced by the ad hoc court of the security police In October 1943, Bürkl was tried and condemned to death \"in absentia\" by the Polish Resistance's Special Courts, and shot dead by the AK in Warsaw, a part of Operation Heads targeting notorious SS officers. That same month, von Sammern-Frankenegg was killed by Yugoslav Partisans in an ambush in Croatia. Himmler, Globocnik and Krüger all committed suicide at the end of the war in Europe in May 1945. The General Government Governor of Warsaw at the time of the Uprising, Dr. Ludwig Fischer, was tried and executed in 1947. Stroop was captured by Americans in Germany, convicted of war crimes in two different trials (U.S. military and Polish) and executed by hanging in Poland in 1952 along with Warsaw Ghetto SS administrator Franz Konrad. Stroop's aide, Erich Steidtmann, was exonerated for \"minimal involvement\"; he died in 2010 while under investigation for war crimes. Sturmbannführer Hermann Höfle who helped carry out the July 1942 Grossaktion Warsaw committed suicide after being arrested in 1962. Walter Bellwidt, who commanded a Waffen-SS battalion among Stroop forces, died on 13 October 1965. Hahn went into hiding until 1975, when he was apprehended and sentenced to life for crimes against humanity; he served eight years and died in 1986. SS Oberführer Arpad Wigand who served with von Sammern-Frankenberg as SS and Police Leader in Warsaw from 4 August 1941 to 23 April 1943 was tried for war crimes in Hamburg Germany in 1981 and sentenced to 12.5 years in prison; died 26 July 1983. Walter Reder reportedly served in the SS Panzer Grenadier Training Battalion III; he served a jail sentence in Italy from 1951 to 1985 for war crimes committed in 1944 in Italy, and died in 1991. Josef Blösche was tried for war crimes and executed in 1969. Heinrich Klaustermeyer was tried for war crimes in 1965 and died in 1976. The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising of 1943 took place over a year before the Warsaw Uprising of 1944. The ghetto had been totally destroyed by the time of the general uprising in the city, which was part of the Operation Tempest, a nationwide insurrection plan. During the Warsaw Uprising, the Polish Home Army's Battalion Zośka was able to rescue 380 Jewish prisoners (mostly foreign) held in the concentration camp \"Gęsiówka\" set up by the Germans in an area adjacent to the ruins of former ghetto. These prisoners had been brought from Auschwitz and forced to clear the remains of the ghetto. A few small groups of ghetto residents also managed to survive in the undetected \"bunkers\" and to eventually reach the \"Aryan side\". In all, several hundred survivors from the first uprising took part in the later uprising (mostly in non-combat roles such as logistics and maintenance, due to their physical state and general shortage of arms), joining the ranks of the Polish Home Army and the Armia Ludowa. According to Samuel Krakowski from the Jewish Historical Institute, \"The Warsaw Ghetto Uprising had a real influence... in encouraging the activity of the Polish underground.\" A number of survivors of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, known as the \"Ghetto Fighters\", went on to found the kibbutz Lohamei HaGeta'ot (literally: \"Ghetto Fighters'\"), which is located north of Acre, Israel. The founding members of the kibbutz include Yitzhak Zuckerman (Icchak Cukierman), who represented the ŻOB on the 'Aryan' side, and his wife Zivia Lubetkin, who commanded a fighting unit. In 1984, members of the kibbutz published \"Daphei Edut\" (\"Testimonies of Survival\"), four volumes of personal testimonies from 96 kibbutz members. The settlement features a museum and archives dedicated to remembering the Holocaust. Yad Mordechai, a kibbutz just north of the Gaza Strip, was named after Mordechaj Anielewicz. In 2008, Israel Defense Forces Chief of Staff Gabi Ashkenazi led a group of Israeli officials to the site of the uprising and spoke about the event's \"importance for IDF combat soldiers\". In 1968, the 25th anniversary of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, Zuckerman was asked what military lessons could be learned from the uprising. He replied: On 7 December 1970, West German Chancellor Willy Brandt spontaneously knelt while visiting the Monument to the Ghetto Heroes memorial in the People's Republic of Poland. At the time, the action surprised many and was the focus of controversy, but it has since been credited with helping improve relations between the NATO and Warsaw Pact countries. Many people from the United States and Israel came for the 1983 commemoration. The last surviving Jewish resistance fighter, Simcha Rotem, died in Jerusalem on 22 December 2018, at age 94.", "", "Two Jewish underground organisations fought in the Warsaw Uprising: the left wing Żydowska Organizacja Bojowa (ŻOB) founded in July 1942 by Zionist Jewish youth groups within the Warsaw Ghetto; and the right wing Żydowski Związek Wojskowy (ŻZW), or Jewish Military Union, a national organization founded in 1939 by former Polish military officers of Jewish background which had strong ties to the Polish Home Army, and cells in almost every major town across Poland. However both organisations were officially incorporated into the Polish Home Army and its command structure in exchange for weapons and training. Marek Edelman, who was the only surviving uprising commander from the left-wing ŻOB, stated that the ŻOB had 220 fighters and each was armed with a handgun, grenades, and Molotov cocktails. His organization had three rifles in each area, as well as two land mines and one submachine gun. Due to its socialist leanings, the Soviets promoted the actions of ŻOB as the dominant or only party in the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, a view often adopted by secondary sources in the West. The right-wing faction ŻZW, which was founded by former Polish officers, was larger, more established and had closer ties with the Polish resistance, making it better equipped. Zimmerman describes the arms supplies for the uprising as \"limited but real\". Specifically, Jewish fighters of the ŻZW received from the Polish Home Army: 2 heavy machine guns, 4 light machine guns, 21 submachine guns, 30 rifles, 50 pistols, and over 400 grenades for the uprising. During the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising, ŻZW is reported to have had about 400 well-armed fighters grouped in 11 units, with 4 units including fighters from the Polish Home Army. Due to the ŻZW's anti-socialist stand and close ties with the Polish Home Army (which was subsequently outlawed by the Soviets), the Soviets suppressed publication of books and articles on ŻZW after the war and downplayed its role in the uprising, in favour of the more socialist ŻOB. More weapons were supplied throughout the uprising, and some were captured from the Germans. Some weapons were handmade by the resistance; sometimes such weapons worked, other times they jammed repeatedly. Shortly before the uprising, Polish-Jewish historian Emanuel Ringelblum (who managed to escape from the Warsaw Ghetto, but was later discovered and executed in 1944) visited a ŻZW armoury hidden in the basement at 7 Muranowska Street. In his notes, which form part of Oneg Shabbat archives, he reported: They were armed with revolvers stuck in their belts. Different kinds of weapons were hung in the large rooms: light machine guns, rifles, revolvers of different kinds, hand grenades, bags of ammunition, German uniforms, etc., all of which were utilized to the full in the April \"action\". (...) While I was there, a purchase of arms was made from a former Polish Army officer, amounting to a quarter of a million złoty; a sum of 50,000 złoty was paid on account. Two machine guns were bought at 40,000 złoty each, and a large amount of hand grenades and bombs. Due to the nature of the conflict and that it took place within the confines of German-guarded Warsaw Ghetto, the role of the Polish Home Army was primarily one of ancillary support; namely, the provision of arms, ammunition and training. Although the Home Army's stocks were meager, and general provision of arms limited, the right-wing ŻZW received significant quantities of armaments, including some heavy and light machine guns, submachine guns, rifles, pistols and grenades.", "The Polish Home Army also disseminated information and appeals to help the Jews in the ghetto, both in Poland and by way of radio transmissions to the Allies, which fell largely on deaf ears. During the uprising, the Polish Resistance units from the Polish Home Army and the communist Gwardia Ludowa attacked German units near the ghetto walls and attempted to smuggle weapons, ammunition, supplies, and instructions into the ghetto. The failure to break through German defences limited supplies to the ghetto, which was otherwise cut off from the outside world by a German-ordered blockade. The command of the Home Army ordered its sabotage units, Kedyw, to carry a series of actions around the walls against the German units under the code name Ghetto Action. Between 19 and 23 April 1943, the Polish resistance engaged the Germans at six different locations outside the ghetto walls, shooting at German sentries and positions and in one case attempting to blow up a gate. The Polish Home Army fought in 4 units with the ŻZW in Muranowska Street having climbed into the ghetto via secret tunnels dug by the ŻZW. A National Security Corps unit commanded by Henryk Iwański (\"Bystry\") reportedly fought inside the ghetto along with ŻZW and subsequently both groups retreated together (including 34 Jewish fighters) to the so-called Aryan side. Several ŻOB commanders and fighters also later escaped through the tunnels with assistance from the Poles and joined the Polish underground (Home Army). On the other hand, despite Polish fighters joining the struggle, some survivors criticized gentile Poles for not providing sufficient support. In her book \"On Both Sides of the Wall\", Vladka Meed, who was a member of the left-wing ŻOB, devoted a chapter to the insufficient support from the Polish resistance. Indeed, records confirm that the leftist ŻOB received less weaponry and no fighters from the Polish Home Army, unlike the right-wing ŻZW with whom the Home Army had close ties and ideological similarities.", "Ultimately, the efforts of the Jewish resistance fighters proved insufficient against the German occupation system. According to Hanna Krall, the German task force dispatched to put down the revolt and complete the deportation action numbered 2,090 men armed with a number of minethrowers and other light and medium artillery pieces, several armored vehicles, and more than 200 machine and submachine guns. Its backbone consisted of 821 Waffen-SS paramilitary soldiers from five SS Panzergrenadier reserve and training battalions and one SS cavalry reserve and training battalion. The other forces were drawn from the Ordnungspolizei (Orpo) order police (battalions from the 22nd and 23rd regiments), Warsaw personnel of the Gestapo and the Sicherheitsdienst (SD) intelligence service, one battalion each from two Wehrmacht (Heer) railroad combat engineers regiments, a Wehrmacht battery of anti-aircraft artillery, a detachment of multinational (commonly but inaccurately referred to by the Germans and Jews alike as \"Ukrainians\") ex-Soviet POW \"Trawniki-Männer\" auxiliary camp guards trained by the SS-Totenkopfverbände at Trawniki concentration camp, and technical emergency corps. Several Gestapo jailers from the nearby political prison Pawiak, led by Franz Bürkl, volunteered to join the \"hunt\" for the Jews. A force of 363 officers from the Polish Police of the General Government (so-called Blue Police) was ordered by the Germans to cordon the walls of the ghetto. Warsaw fire department personnel were also forced to help in the operation. Jewish policemen were used in the first phase of the ghetto's liquidation and subsequently summarily executed by the Gestapo. Stroop later remarked: I had two battalions of Waffen-SS, one hundred army men, units of Order Police, and seventy-five to a hundred Security Police people. The Security Police had been active in the Warsaw Ghetto for some time, and during this program it was their function to accompany SS units in groups of six or eight, as guides and experts in ghetto matters. By his own words, Stroop reported that after he took command on 19 April 1943 the forces at his disposal totaled 31 officers and 1,262 men: Stroop's report listed ultimate forces at his disposal as 36 officers and 2,054 men: His casualty lists also include members of four other Waffen-SS training and reserve units (1st SS Panzer Grenadier; 2nd SS Panzer Grenadier; 4th SS Panzer Grenadier; 5th SS Panzer Grenadier Training Battalions). Polish police came from the Kommissariarts 1st, 7th and 8th. There is also evidence that German Police of the SSPF of Lubin took part in the liquidation of the Warsaw Ghetto Jews as did the I Battalion of the 17th SS Police Regiment.", "The uprising is the subject of numerous works, in multiple media, such as Aleksander Ford's film \"Border Street\" (1948), John Hersey's novel \"The Wall\" (1950), Leon Uris' novel \"Mila 18\" (1961), Jack P. Eisner's autobiography \"The Survivor\" (1980), Andrzej Wajda's films \"A Generation\" (1955), \"Samson\" (1961), \"Holy Week\" (1995) and Jon Avnet's film \"Uprising\" (2001). The photograph of a boy surrendering outside a bunker became one of the best-known photographs of World War II and the Holocaust, and he is said to represent all 6 million Jewish Holocaust victims." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Methods.", "Sketching.", "Manual or by instrument.", "Computer aided design.", "Applications.", "Architecture.", "Engineering.", "Related fields.", "Technical illustration.", "Cutaway drawing.", "Technical drawings.", "Types.", "Two-dimensional representation.", "Three-dimensional representation.", "Views.", "Multiview.", "Section.", "Auxiliary.", "Pattern.", "Exploded.", "Standards and conventions.", "Basic drafting paper sizes.", "Patent drawing.", "Sets of technical drawings.", "Working drawings for production.", "Assembly drawings.", "As-fitted drawings." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "3", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "3", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3" ], "content": [ "", "A sketch is a quickly executed, freehand drawing that is usually not intended as a finished work. In general, sketching is a quick way to record an idea for later use. Architect's sketches primarily serve as a way to try out different ideas and establish a composition before a more finished work, especially when the finished work is expensive and time-consuming. Architectural sketches, for example, are a kind of diagrams. These sketches, like metaphors, are used by architects as a means of communication in aiding design collaboration. This tool helps architects to abstract attributes of hypothetical provisional design solutions and summarize their complex patterns, hereby enhancing the design process.", "The basic drafting procedure is to place a piece of paper (or other material) on a smooth surface with right-angle corners and straight sides—typically a drawing board. A sliding straightedge known as a T-square is then placed on one of the sides, allowing it to be slid across the side of the table, and over the surface of the paper. \"Parallel lines\" can be drawn simply by moving the T-square and running a pencil or technical pen along the T-square's edge. The T-square is used to hold other devices such as set squares or triangles. In this case, the drafter places one or more triangles of known angles on the T-square—which is itself at right angles to the edge of the table—and can then draw lines at any chosen angle to others on the page. Modern drafting tables come equipped with a drafting machine that is supported on both sides of the table to slide over a large piece of paper. Because it is secured on both sides, lines drawn along the edge are guaranteed to be parallel. In addition, the drafter uses several technical drawing tools to draw curves and circles. Primary among these are the compasses, used for drawing simple arcs and circles, and the French curve, for drawing curves. A spline is a rubber coated articulated metal that can be manually bent to most curves. Drafting templates assist the drafter with creating recurring objects in a drawing without having to reproduce the object from scratch every time. This is especially useful when using common symbols; i.e. in the context of stagecraft, a lighting designer will draw from the USITT standard library of lighting fixture symbols to indicate the position of a common fixture across multiple positions. Templates are sold commercially by a number of vendors, usually customized to a specific task, but it is also not uncommon for a drafter to create his own templates. This basic drafting system requires an accurate table and constant attention to the positioning of the tools. A common error is to allow the triangles to push the top of the T-square down slightly, thereby throwing off all angles. Even tasks as simple as drawing two angled lines meeting at a point require a number of moves of the T-square and triangles, and in general, drafting can be a time-consuming process. A solution to these problems was the introduction of the mechanical \"drafting machine\", an application of the pantograph (sometimes referred to incorrectly as a \"pentagraph\" in these situations) which allowed the drafter to have an accurate right angle at any point on the page quite quickly. These machines often included the ability to change the angle, thereby removing the need for the triangles as well. In addition to the mastery of the mechanics of drawing lines, arcs and circles (and text) onto a piece of paper—with respect to the detailing of physical objects—the drafting effort requires a thorough understanding of geometry, trigonometry and spatial comprehension, and in all cases demands precision and accuracy, and attention to detail of high order. Although drafting is sometimes accomplished by a project engineer, architect, or shop personnel (such as a machinist), skilled drafters (and/or designers) usually accomplish the task, and are always in demand to some degree.", "Today, the mechanics of the drafting task have largely been automated and accelerated through the use of computer-aided design systems (CAD). There are two types of computer-aided design systems used for the production of technical drawings: two dimensions (\"2D\") and three dimensions (\"3D\"). 2D CAD systems such as AutoCAD or MicroStation replace the paper drawing discipline. The lines, circles, arcs, and curves are created within the software. It is down to the technical drawing skill of the user to produce the drawing. There is still much scope for error in the drawing when producing first and third angle orthographic projections, auxiliary projections and cross-section views. A 2D CAD system is merely an electronic drawing board. Its greatest strength over direct to paper technical drawing is in the making of revisions. Whereas in a conventional hand drawn technical drawing, if a mistake is found, or a modification is required, a new drawing must be made from scratch, the 2D CAD system allows a copy of the original to be modified, saving considerable time. 2D CAD systems can be used to create plans for large projects such as buildings and aircraft but provide no way to check the various components will fit together. A 3D CAD system (such as KeyCreator, Autodesk Inventor, or SolidWorks) first produces the geometry of the part; the technical drawing comes from user defined views of that geometry. Any orthographic, projected or sectioned view is created by the software. There is no scope for error in the production of these views. The main scope for error comes in setting the parameter of first or third angle projection and displaying the relevant symbol on the technical drawing. 3D CAD allows individual parts to be assembled together to represent the final product. Buildings, aircraft, ships, and cars are modeled, assembled, and checked in 3D before technical drawings are released for manufacture. Both 2D and 3D CAD systems can be used to produce technical drawings for any discipline. The various disciplines (electrical, electronic, pneumatic, hydraulic, etc.) have industry recognized symbols to represent common components. BS and ISO produce standards to show recommended practices but it is up to individuals to produce the drawings to a standard. There is no definitive standard for layout or style. The only standard across engineering workshop drawings is in the creation of orthographic projections and cross-section views. In representing complex, three-dimensional objects in two-dimensional drawings, the objects can be described by at least one view plus material thickness note, 2, 3 or as many views and sections that are required to show all features of object.", "", "The art and design that goes into making buildings is known as architecture. To communicate all aspects of the shape or design, detail drawings are used. In this field, the term \"plan\" is often used when referring to the full section view of these drawings as viewed from three feet above finished floor to show the locations of doorways, windows, stairwells, etc. Architectural drawings describe and document an architect's design.", "Engineering can be a very broad term. It stems from the Latin \"ingenerare\", meaning \"to create\". Because this could apply to everything that humans create, it is given a narrower definition in the context of technical drawing. Engineering drawings generally deal with mechanical engineered items, such as manufactured parts and equipment. Engineering drawings are usually created in accordance with standardized conventions for layout, nomenclature, interpretation, appearance (such as typefaces and line styles), size, etc. Its purpose is to accurately and unambiguously capture all the geometric features of a product or a component. The end goal of an engineering drawing is to convey all the required information that will allow a manufacturer to produce that component.", "", "\"Technical illustration\" is the use of illustration to visually communicate information of a technical nature. Technical illustrations can be component technical drawings or diagrams. The aim of technical illustration is \"to generate expressive images that effectively convey certain information via the visual channel to the human observer\". The main purpose of technical illustration is to describe or explain these items to a more or less nontechnical audience. The visual image should be accurate in terms of dimensions and proportions, and should provide \"an overall impression of what an object is or does, to enhance the viewer’s interest and understanding\". According to Viola (2005), \"illustrative techniques are often designed in a way that even a person with no technical understanding clearly understands the piece of art. The use of varying line widths to emphasize mass, proximity, and scale helped to make a simple line drawing more understandable to the lay person. Cross hatching, stippling, and other low abstraction techniques gave greater depth and dimension to the subject matter\".", "A \"cutaway drawing\" is a technical illustration, in which part of the surface of a three-dimensional model is removed in order to show some of the model's interior in relation to its exterior. The purpose of a cutaway drawing is to \"allow the viewer to have a look into an otherwise solid opaque object. Instead of letting the inner object shine through the surrounding surface, parts of outside object are simply removed. This produces a visual appearance as if someone had cutout a piece of the object or sliced it into parts. Cutaway illustrations avoid ambiguities with respect to spatial ordering, provide a sharp contrast between foreground and background objects, and facilitate a good understanding of spatial ordering\".", "", "The two types of technical drawings are based on graphical projection. This is used to create an image of a three-dimensional object onto a two-dimensional surface.", "Two-dimensional representation uses orthographic projection to create an image where only two of the three dimensions of the object are seen.", "In a three-dimensional representation, also referred to as a pictorial, all three dimensions of an object are visible.", "", "Multiview is a type of orthographic projection. There are two conventions for using multiview, first-angle and third-angle. In both cases, the front or main side of the object is the same. First-angle is drawing the object sides based on where they land. Example, looking at the front side, rotate the object 90 degrees to the right. What is seen will be drawn to the right of the front side. Third-angle is drawing the object sides based on where they are. Example, looking at the front side, rotate the object 90 degrees to the right. What is seen is actually the left side of the object and will be drawn to the left of the front side.", "While multiview relates to external surfaces of an object, section views show an imaginary plane cut through an object. This is often useful to show voids in an object.", "Auxiliary views utilize an additional projection plane other than the common planes in a multiview. Since the features of an object need to show the true shape and size of the object, the projection plane must be parallel to the object surface. Therefore, any surface that is not in line with the three major axis needs its own projection plane to show the features correctly.", "Patterns, sometimes called developments, show the size and shape of a flat piece of material needed for later bending or folding into a three-dimensional shape.", "An \"exploded-view drawing\" is a technical drawing of an object that shows the relationship or order of assembly of the various parts. It shows the components of an object slightly separated by distance or suspended in surrounding space in the case of a three-dimensional exploded diagram. An object is represented as if there had been a small controlled explosion emanating from the middle of the object, causing the object's parts to be separated relative distances away from their original locations. An exploded view drawing (EVD) can show the intended assembly of mechanical or other parts. In mechanical systems usually the component closest to the center is assembled first or is the main part in which the other parts get assembled. This drawing can also help to represent disassembly of parts, where the parts on the outside normally get removed first.", "", "There have been many standard sizes of paper at different times and in different countries, but today most of the world uses the international standard (A4 and its siblings). North America uses its own sizes.", "The applicant for a patent will be required by law to furnish a drawing of the invention if or when the nature of the case requires a drawing to understand the invention with the job. This drawing must be filed with the application. This includes practically all inventions except compositions of matter or processes, but a drawing may also be useful in the case of many processes. The drawing must show every feature of the invention specified in the claims and is required by the patent office rules to be in a particular form. The Office specifies the size of the sheet on which the drawing is made, the type of paper, the margins, and other details relating to the making of the drawing. The reason for specifying the standards in detail is that the drawings are printed and published in a uniform style when the patent issues and the drawings must also be such that they can be readily understood by persons using the patent descriptions.", "", "Working drawings are the set of technical drawings used during the manufacturing phase of a product. In architecture, these include civil drawings, architectural drawings, structural drawings, mechanical systems drawings, electrical drawings, and plumbing drawings.", "Assembly drawings show how different parts go together, identify those parts by number, and have a parts list, often referred to as a bill of materials. In a technical service manual, this type of drawing may be referred to as an exploded view drawing or diagram. These parts may be used in engineering.", "Also called \"As-Built drawings\" or \"As-made drawings\". As-fitted drawings represent a record of the completed works, literally 'as fitted'. These are based upon the \"working drawings\" and updated to reflect any changes or alterations undertaken during construction or manufacture." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "New building.", "Permanent galleries.", "Battleground: Wars on Our Soil, from earliest times to 1885.", "For Crown and Country: The South African and First World Wars, 1885–1931.", "Forged in Fire: The Second World War, 1931–1945.", "A Violent Peace: The Cold War, Peacekeeping and Recent Conflicts, 1945 to the present.", "The Royal Canadian Legion Hall of Honour.", "LeBreton Gallery.", "Regeneration Hall.", "Memorial Hall.", "Barney Danson Theatre.", "War Art Collection.", "Military History Research Centre." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The Museum originated in 1880 as a collection of military artifacts in the possession of the Canadian federal government, organized by militia officers of the Ottawa garrison. Its first facility was a series of rooms in the Cartier Square Drill Hall. The collection was later adopted by the Public Archives of Canada. The Canadian War Museum was officially established in 1942. The collection of war artifacts gained its own dedicated facility in 1967 when it moved to the former Public Archives building on Sussex Drive in Ottawa (currently the Global Centre for Pluralism). That location was too small for the Museum's growing post-war collection, most of which was eventually stored at a west-end Ottawa warehouse known as Vimy House.", "In the 1990s, the federal government made plans to relocate the War Museum to a new site east of central Ottawa, near the Canada Aviation Museum. The proposed site was criticized for its distance from the downtown core, and a more prominent location on the Ottawa River was later selected on LeBreton Flats, just west of Parliament Hill. The new location also allowed for ceremonial processions between the National War Memorial and the new War Museum, and was situated in an urban space soon to begin redevelopment. The new facility, designed by a joint venture of Moriyama & Teshima Architects of Toronto and Griffiths Rankin Cook Architects of Ottawa, opened on 8 May 2005, the 60th anniversary of the end of the Second World War in Europe, or V-E Day, with new permanent exhibitions designed by Ottawa's Origin Studios and England's Haley Sharpe Associates. The new, modern building emerges from the ground just west of Booth Street and rises progressively higher at its eastern end, closest to Parliament Hill. Its textured concrete walls and roof are somewhat reminiscent of a bunker, while a partially grass-covered roof is consistent with the Museum's theme of regeneration and its environmentally friendly design. The building rises in the east to a large fin, clad in copper that matches the rooftops of other prominent public buildings in the national capital. The small windows on the fin spell out in Morse code \"Lest we forget\" and its French equivalent, \"\"N'oublions jamais\"\". The copper used on the interior of the building was recovered from the Library of Parliament during refurbishment of the Library's roof in 2004. On May 6 2005, Canada Post issued a 50¢ stamp, designed by Tiit Telmet and Marko Barac, honouring the opening of the new museum. In its first year of operation the museum attracted 500,000 visitors and in 2010 there were 470,000 visitors.", "The Canadian War Museum contains several permanent galleries and other important display spaces.", "This gallery explores the history of war on Canadian soil and the way in which armed conflict affected the evolution of the country and its peoples. It includes First Peoples warfare, the alliances and conflicts that marked the relationship between First Peoples and Europeans, and the imperial rivalries that marked most of North America's early history. Content includes the Seven Years' War, the American Revolution, the War of 1812, and conflicts in the Canadian West in 1870 and 1885.", "Canadian forces went abroad in 1899 and again in 1914 to fight in wars as part of the British Empire. This gallery covers the South African War and the First World War, and ends with the Statute of Westminster (1931), which granted Canada and the other dominions political autonomy within the Empire. The gallery covers the battles and campaigns of both wars, but especially the trench warfare in France and Belgium from 1915 to 1918, and battles such as the Somme, Vimy, Passchendaele, and the Hundred Days. It also covers the home front, air and naval warfare, military medicine, artillery, the plight of enemy aliens, and strategy and tactics.", "This gallery starts with the rise of aggressive dictatorships in Germany, Italy, and Japan in the 1930s and follows Canada's role in the ensuing world war until it ended in 1945. Early displays cover Adolf Hitler and the rise of fascism including an infamous Mercedes-Benz 770 limousine used by Hitler at Nazi rallies. The main exhibits cover Canada's initial land, sea and air responses to the fighting in Europe, the costly Battle of the Atlantic, and the gradual mobilization of the Canadian home front for a total war effort. Later displays include Dieppe, the air war, the fighting in Italy, Normandy, and the Netherlands, and the eventual surrender of the Axis powers and the cost of war. Homecoming is the final exhibit in the gallery. A Second-World War era Sherman tank nicknamed \"Forceful III\", is dedicated to the memory of the members of the Governor General's Foot Guards killed during the Second World War while operating as an armoured regiment. The Canadian War Museum erected the Thomas Fuller memorial passage: \"The name of this passageway honours the late Captain Thomas G. Fuller, D.S.C.**, M.I.D., R.C.N.V.R., whose operational exploits on loan to the Royal Navy during the Second World War, serving in and commanding flotillas of Motor Torpedo Boats and Gun Boats, earned him great distinction as \"The Pirate of the Adriatic\". His \"Nelson-like\" tactics of thwarting, sinking, boarding and capturing enemy shipping revolutionized coastal forces small boat warfare, insufficiently recognized as R.C.N.V.R. operations that deserve a better place in Canadian military history. Acknowledged by Marshal Tito as an \"Hon. Commandant National Army of Liberation\" for his strategic support of the Partisans in liberation of Yugoslavia, Thomas George Fuller is fondly remembered as a genuine Canadian hero, a wonderful husband and father, \"master builder\" and philanthropist.\"", "This gallery covers the period from the immediate onset of the Cold War following the end of the Second World War to the present, detailing Canadian defence efforts at home and abroad, including those in NATO, NORAD, and the United Nations; wars in Korea, the Persian Gulf, Kosovo, and Afghanistan; espionage, domestic security, civil liberties, and popular culture; and Canadian involvement in wars since the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989. The material in this gallery ranges from Cold War comic books and board games to peace signs and the story of Nobel Prize winner Lester Pearson, and includes an interactive space for visitors to leave their own reflections on war, peace, and remembrance.", "The RCL Hall of Honour chronicles Canada's history of remembrance with a multi-media display of objects and stories from First Nations oral traditions to contemporary anniversaries and personal commemorative websites. It includes military honours, certificates of service, war art, Remembrance Day poppies, and other material used by Canadians to remember and commemorate their military past and to honour those who have served. Among the highlights is the original plaster model for the National War Memorial in downtown Ottawa, site of the annual national Remembrance Day service.", "The multi-purpose LeBreton Gallery is a massive display area of large objects and a busy space for public programs, special events and private rentals. The artifacts on display include artillery, aircraft, armoured and non-armoured vehicles, and naval weapons. Among the gallery's objects are: a CF-101 Voodoo jet; an M109 self-propelled howitzer; an East German BMP infantry fighting vehicle; tracked artillery from the First World War; a Chieftain tank; a Jagdpanzer IV tank destroyer; an M3 Lee; a fully restored Panzer V Panther tank; a Panzer II; a Leopard C1 tank; searchlights; rare motorcycles; Field Marshal Alexander's staff car; a Canadian Iltis jeep and other vehicles with service in the Balkans during the 1990s; a Molch midget submarine; underwater mines; a T-34; a Valentine tank recovered from a bog in 1990[5]; an Italian L3/35 tankette; and Weather Station Kurt, an automated weather station planted by a German U-boat on the coast of Labrador in 1943.", "This narrow, soaring hall with angled walls and a narrow triangular window that frames the Peace Tower on Parliament Hill is \"a physical representation of hope for a better future.\" High narrow windows spell out in the dots and dashes of Morse Code \"Lest We Forget\" and \"\"N'oublions jamais\"\". The ground floor features plaster casts (maquettes) used by sculptor Walter Allward in the design of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial in Vimy, France. The Peace Tower on Parliament Hill is visible from the mezzanine level and is perfectly framed between two window mullions. The copper used to clad the interior surface of the tower (seen from the LeBreton Gallery) was reclaimed from the Library of Parliament after a roof renovation.", "Located outside the ticketed exhibition area in the Museum's spacious foyer, Memorial Hall is a space for quiet remembrance and personal contemplation. The hall contains a single artifact: the headstone of Canada's Unknown Soldier from the First World War. Sunlight through the Hall's only window directly illuminates the headstone every Remembrance Day, 11 November, at precisely 11 a.m., the moment the Great War ended in 1918. The hall is also aligned on one axis with the Peace Tower of the Parliament Buildings.", "A theatre in the Canadian War Museum is named for Barney Danson in honour of his service and to his four closest war-time friends killed in action; Sgt Fred B. Harris-Queen's, Lt Gerald Rayner, Lt Earl R. Stoll, and Lt Harlan David Keely. The former defence minister under Pierre Trudeau chaired the advisory committee that resulted in the War Museum being opened in 2005.", "The Canadian War Museum includes a large collection of war art. The collection of over 13,000 works of art from World War I to the present day was begun in 1916 by Max Aiken (Lord Beaverbrook). It was transferred to the War Museum from the National Gallery of Canada in 1971. Select works are displayed at the museum within the individual permanent galleries as well as in approaches to the Lebreton Gallery and the entrance lobby.", "The Military History Research Centre (MHRC) houses the George Metcalf Archival Collection and the Hartland Molson Library. These extensive national collections of primary and secondary research material document Canada's military history from the pre-contact period to the present. The Archival Collection contains original letters, diaries, scrapbooks, maps, blueprints, sound recordings, oral history tapes and 65,000 photographic materials in a variety of formats. The Library Collection includes regimental histories, personal memoirs, wartime pamphlets, and military and technical field manuals." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Plot.", "Cast.", "Production.", "Development.", "Filming.", "Soundtracks.", "Release.", "Home media.", "Marketing.", "Reception.", "Box office.", "Critical response.", "Accolades.", "Possible sequel.", "Related media." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Halloween Town is a fantasy world filled with various monsters and supernatural beings associated with the holiday. Jack Skellington, the \"Pumpkin King\" and leader of the town, leads them in organizing the annual Halloween celebrations. However, privately Jack has grown weary of the same routine year after year and wants something new. Wandering in the woods the morning after Halloween, he stumbles across seven trees containing doors leading to towns representing various holidays, and opens a portal to Christmas Town. Awed by the unfamiliar holiday, Jack returns to Halloween Town to show the residents his findings, but they fail to grasp the idea of Christmas and compare everything to their ideas of Halloween, although they do relate to one Christmas Town character; a red lobster-like king who flies at night named \"Sandy Claws\". Jack sequesters himself in his tower to study Christmas and find a way to rationally explain it, but cannot. He ultimately decides that it's unfair for Christmas Town alone to enjoy the holiday and announces that he and the citizens of Halloween Town will take over Christmas this year. Jack assigns the citizens of Halloween Town Christmas-themed jobs, including singing carols, making presents, and building a sleigh to be pulled by skeletal reindeer. Sally, a beautiful rag doll woman that is secretly in love with Jack, experiences a vision that their efforts will end in disaster, but Jack dismisses this and assigns her the task of sewing him a red coat to wear. He also tasks Lock, Shock and Barrel, a trio of mischievous trick-or-treating children, to abduct Santa Claus and bring him back to Halloween Town. Jack tells Santa he will be bringing Christmas to the world in his place this year. Jack orders the trio to keep Santa safe, but the children instead deliver Santa to Oogie Boogie, a gambling-addicted bogeyman, who plots to play a game with Santa's life at stake. Sally attempts to rescue Santa so he can stop Jack, but Oogie captures her as well. Jack departs to deliver presents to the world, but the Halloween-styled gifts terrify and attack the populace. While the entire media sends word via radio about the Santa-impostor, the military takes action and shoots down Jack, causing him to crash in a cemetery. While the devastated residents of Halloween Town think he's been blown up and killed, Jack has survived, and while he bemoans the disaster he has made of Christmas, he finds he enjoyed the experience of scaring the children nonetheless, reigniting his love of Halloween. But first, he realizes he must take action to fix his mess. Jack returns to Halloween Town and finds Oogie's lair. Oogie tries to kill Jack, but Jack pulls apart the thread holding his cloth form together, revealing a massive pile of bugs that fall into Oogie's cauldron, killing him. Jack apologizes to Santa for his actions, and Santa, while still angry at Jack, assures him that he can fix things and returns to Christmas Town. As Santa replaces the Halloween-style presents with genuine ones, the townspeople of Halloween Town celebrate Jack's survival and return. Santa then visits Halloween Town and brings them a snowfall for the residents to play with, which in a way, fulfills Jack's original dream. As he flies away, Santa shouts out, \"Happy Halloween!\" and Jack replies by shouting, \"Merry Christmas!\". In the graveyard, Jack and Sally declare their love for each other.", "The cast also features Kerry Katz, Carmen Twillie, Randy Crenshaw, Debi Durst, Glenn Walters, Sherwood Ball, John Morris and Greg Proops voicing various characters. Patrick Stewart recorded narration for a prologue and epilogue. While not used in the final scene of the film, the narration is included on the soundtrack album.", "", "As writer Tim Burton's upbringing in Burbank, California was associated with the feeling of solitude, the filmmaker was largely fascinated by holidays during his childhood. \"Anytime there was Christmas or Halloween, [...] it was great. It gave you some sort of texture all of a sudden that wasn't there before\", Burton would later recall. After completing his short film \"Vincent\" in 1982, Burton, who was then employed at Walt Disney Feature Animation, wrote a three-page poem titled \"The Nightmare Before Christmas\", drawing inspiration from television specials of \"Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer\", \"How the Grinch Stole Christmas!\" and the poem \"A Visit from St. Nicholas\". Burton intended to adapt the poem into a television special with the narration spoken by his favorite actor, Vincent Price, but also considered other options such as a children's book. He created concept art and storyboards for the project in collaboration with Rick Heinrichs, who also sculpted character models; Burton later showed his and Heinrichs' works-in-progress to Henry Selick, also a Disney animator at the time. After the success of \"Vincent\" in 1982, Disney started to consider developing \"The Nightmare Before Christmas\" as either a short film or 30-minute holiday television special. However, the project's development eventually stalled, as its tone seemed \"too weird\" to the company. As Disney was unable to \"offer his nocturnal loners enough scope\", Burton was fired from the studio in 1984, and went on to direct the commercially successful films \"Beetlejuice\" and \"Batman\". Over the years, Burton regularly thought about the project. In 1990, Burton found out that Disney still owned the film rights. He and Selick committed to produce a full-length film with the latter as director. Burton's own success with live-action films piqued the interest of Walt Disney Studios chairman Jeffrey Katzenberg, who saw the film as an opportunity to continue the studio's streak of recent successes in feature animation. Disney was looking forward to \"Nightmare\" \"to show capabilities of technical and storytelling achievements that were present in \"Who Framed Roger Rabbit\".\" Walt Disney Pictures president David Hoberman believed the film would prove to be a creative achievement for Disney's image, elaborating \"we can think outside the envelope. We can do different and unusual things.\" \"Nightmare\" marked Burton's third consecutive film with a Christmas setting. Burton could not direct because of his commitment to \"Batman Returns\", and he did not want to be involved with \"the painstakingly slow process of stop motion\". To adapt his poem into a screenplay, Burton approached Michael McDowell, his collaborator on \"Beetlejuice\". McDowell and Burton experienced creative differences, which convinced Burton to make the film as a musical with lyrics and compositions by frequent collaborator Danny Elfman. Elfman and Burton created a rough storyline and two-thirds of the film's songs. Elfman found writing \"Nightmare\"s eleven songs as \"one of the easiest jobs I've ever had. I had a lot in common with Jack Skellington.\" Caroline Thompson had yet to be hired to write the screenplay. With Thompson's screenplay, Selick stated, \"there are very few lines of dialogue that are Caroline's. She became busy on other films and we were constantly rewriting, re-configuring and developing the film visually.\"", "Selick and his team of animators began production in July 1991 in San Francisco, California with a crew of over 120 workers, utilizing 20 sound stages for filming. Joe Ranft was hired from Disney as a storyboard supervisor, while Eric Leighton was hired to supervise animation. At the peak of production, 20 individual stages were simultaneously being used for filming. In total, there were 109,440 frames taken for the film. The work of Ray Harryhausen, Ladislas Starevich, Edward Gorey, Étienne Delessert, Gahan Wilson, Charles Addams, Jan Lenica, Francis Bacon, and Wassily Kandinsky influenced the filmmakers. Selick described the production design as akin to a pop-up book. In addition, Selick stated, \"When we reach Halloween Town, it's entirely German Expressionism. When Jack enters Christmas Town, it's an outrageous Dr. Seuss-esque setpiece. Finally, when Jack is delivering presents in the 'Real World', everything is plain, simple and perfectly aligned.\" Vincent Price, Don Ameche, and James Earl Jones were considered to provide the narration for the film's prologue; however, all proved difficult to cast, and the producers instead hired local voice artist Ed Ivory. Patrick Stewart provided the prologue narration for the film's soundtrack. On the direction of the film, Selick reflected, \"It's as though he [Burton] laid the egg, and I sat on it and hatched it. He wasn't involved in a hands-on way, but his hand is in it. It was my job to make it look like 'a Tim Burton film', which is not so different from my own films.\" When asked about Burton's involvement, Selick claimed, \"I don't want to take away from Tim, but he was not in San Francisco when we made it. He came up five times over two years, and spent no more than eight or ten days in total.\" Walt Disney Feature Animation contributed with some second-layering traditional animation. Burton found production somewhat difficult because he was directing \"Batman Returns\" and was in pre-production of \"Ed Wood\". The filmmakers constructed 227 puppets to represent the characters in the movie, with Jack Skellington having \"around four hundred heads\", allowing the expression of every possible emotion. Sally's mouth movements \"were animated through the replacement method. During the animation process, [...] only Sally's face'mask' was removed in order to preserve the order of her long, red hair. Sally had ten types of faces, each made with a series of eleven expressions (e.g. eyes open and closed, and various facial poses) and synchronized mouth movements.\" The stop-motion figurine of Jack was reused in \"James and the Giant Peach\" (also directed by Selick) as Captain Jack.", "The film's soundtrack album was released in 1993 on Walt Disney Records. For the film's 2006 re-release in Disney Digital 3-D, a special edition of the soundtrack was released, featuring a bonus disc that contained covers of five of the film's songs by Fall Out Boy, Panic! at the Disco, Marilyn Manson, Fiona Apple, and She Wants Revenge. Four original demo tracks by Elfman were also included. On September 30, 2008, Disney released the cover album \"Nightmare Revisited\", featuring artists such as Amy Lee, Flyleaf, Korn, Rise Against, Plain White T's, The All-American Rejects, and many more. American gothic rock band London After Midnight featured a cover of \"Sally's Song\" on their 1998 album \"Oddities\". LiLi Roquelin performed a French cover of \"Sally's Song\" on her album \"Will you hate the rest of the world or will you renew your life?\" in 2010. Pentatonix released a cover of \"Making Christmas\" for their 2018 Christmas album \"Christmas Is Here!\". In 2003, the Disneyland \"Haunted Mansion Holiday\" soundtrack CD was released. Although most of the album's songs are not original ones from the film, one song is a medley of \"Making Christmas\", \"What's This?\", and \"Kidnap the Sandy Claws\". Other songs included are original holiday songs changed to incorporate the theme of the film. However, the last song is the soundtrack for the Disneyland Haunted Mansion Holiday ride.", "The movie was originally going to be released under Walt Disney Pictures, but Disney decided to release the film under its adult film label Touchstone Pictures because they thought the film would be \"too dark and scary for kids,\" Selick remembered. \"Their biggest fear, and why it was kind of a stepchild project, [was] they were afraid of their core audience hating the film and not coming.\" To convey Burton's involvement and attract a wider audience, Disney marketed the film as \"Tim Burton's The Nightmare Before Christmas.\" Burton explained that,\"...it turned more into more of a brand-name thing, it turned into something else, which I'm not quite sure about.\" The film premiered at the New York Film Festival on October 9, 1993, and was given a limited release on October 13, 1993, before its wide theatrical release on October 29, 1993. \"The Nightmare Before Christmas\" was reissued under the Walt Disney Pictures label and re-released on October 20, 2006, with conversion to Disney Digital 3-D. Industrial Light & Magic assisted in the process. The film subsequently received three re-releases in October 2007, 2008, and 2009. The El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood, California has been showing the film in 4-D screenings annually in October, ending on Halloween, since 2010. The reissues have led to a reemergence of 3-D films and advances in RealD Cinema.", "With years of successful home video sales, \"Nightmare\" later achieved the ranks of a cult film. Touchstone Home Video first released the film on VHS on September 30, 1994, and on DVD on December 2, 1997. The DVD release contained no special features. \"Nightmare\" was released a second time on October 3, 2000 as a special edition. The release included an audio commentary by Selick and cinematographer Pete Kozachik, a 28-minute making-of documentary, a gallery of concept art, storyboards, test footage and deleted scenes. Burton's \"Vincent\" and \"Frankenweenie\" were also included. Both DVDs were non-anamorphic widescreen releases. Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released the film on DVD again (this time with an anamorphic transfer) and on Blu-ray Disc (for the first time) on August 26, 2008 as a two-disc digitally remastered \"collector's edition\", but still containing the same special features. Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released \"The Nightmare Before Christmas\" on Blu-ray 3D on August 30, 2011. The release included a Blu-ray 3D disc, Blu-ray disc and a DVD that includes both a DVD and digital copy of the film. In 2018, Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment issued a singalong version of the film, accompanied by the theatrical cut and a Movies Anywhere copy, as a single-disc version for the film's 25th anniversary.", "Disney has extensively marketed the film and its characters across many forms of media. Since 2001, Disneyland has given its Haunted Mansion Holiday attraction a \"Nightmare Before Christmas\" theme for the holiday season. It features characters, decorations and music from the film. In addition to Mickey's Not-So-Scary Halloween Party and Mickey's Halloween Party featuring the film's characters, Jack Skellington, Sally, Pajama Jack, and the Mayor have been made into bendable figures, while Jack and Sally even appear in fine art. Sally has been made into an action figure and a Halloween costume. A Jack Skellington figurine is available for the \"Disney Infinity\" video game, allowing the character to be playable in the game's \"Toy Box Mode\". Jack is the titular character in the short story \"\"Tim Burton's The Nightmare Before Christmas\": Jack's Story\", and also appeared in HalloWishes and Halloween Screams fireworks at Magic Kingdom (where the host is Ghost Host) and Disneyland (where the host is Jack himself). \"Nightmare\" has inspired video game spin-offs, including \"\" and \"\", and is among the many Disney-owned franchises that contribute to the mythology of the \"Kingdom Hearts\" series. A trading card game is also available.", "", "Around the release of the film, Disney executive David Hoberman was quoted, \"I hope \"Nightmare\" goes out and makes a fortune. If it does, great. If it doesn't, that doesn't negate the validity of the process. The budget was less than any Disney blockbuster so it doesn't have to earn \"Aladdin\"-sized grosses to satisfy us.\" The film earned $50 million in the United States on its first theatrical run and was regarded as a moderate \"sleeper hit\". \"The Nightmare Before Christmas\" made a further $8.7 million in box office gross in its 2006 reissue. The 2007, 2008 and 2009 reissues earned $14.5 million and $1.1 million, respectively, increasing the film's total box office gross to $75 million.", "The film initially received positive reviews from critics and it has since gone on to receive widespread critical acclaim, with critics and audiences praising the originality and creativity on the visual and storytelling elements, soundtrack, characters and innovating use of stop-motion animation (particularly most of the effects). On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds a rating of 95%, based on 95 reviews, with an average rating of 8.27/10. The site's consensus reads, \"\"The Nightmare Before Christmas\" is a stunningly original and visually delightful work of stop-motion animation.\" On Metacritic the film has a score of 82 out of 100, based on 30 critics, indicating \"universal acclaim\". Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade B+ on scale of A to F. Roger Ebert gave a highly positive review for \"Nightmare\". Ebert believed the film's visual effects were as revolutionary as \"Star Wars\", taking into account that \"Nightmare\" was \"filled with imagination that carries us into a new world\". Peter Travers of \"Rolling Stone\" called it a restoration of \"originality and daring to the Halloween genre. This dazzling mix of fun and fright also explodes the notion that animation is kid stuff.... It's 74 minutes of timeless movie magic.\" James Berardinelli stated \"\"The Nightmare Before Christmas\" has something to offer just about everyone. For the kids, it's a fantasy celebrating two holidays. For the adults, it's an opportunity to experience some light entertainment while marveling at how adept Hollywood has become at these techniques. There are songs, laughs, and a little romance. In short, \"The Nightmare Before Christmas\" does what it intends to: entertain.\" Desson Thomson of \"The Washington Post\" enjoyed the film's similarities to the writings of Oscar Wilde and the Brothers Grimm, as well as \"The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari\" and other German Expressionist films. Michael A. Morrison discusses the influence of Dr. Seuss' \"How the Grinch Stole Christmas!\" on the film, writing that Jack parallels the Grinch and Zero parallels Max, the Grinch's dog. Philip Nel writes that the film \"challenges the wisdom of adults through its trickster characters\", contrasting Jack as a \"good trickster\" with Oogie Boogie, whom he also compares with Seuss' Dr. Terwilliker as a bad trickster. \"Entertainment Weekly\" reports that fan reception of these characters borders on obsession, profiling Laurie and Myk Rudnick, a couple whose \"degree of obsession with [the] film is so great that... they named their son after the real-life person that a character in the film is based on.\" This enthusiasm for the characters has also been profiled as having spread beyond North America to Japan. Yvonne Tasker notes \"the complex characterization seen in \"The Nightmare Before Christmas\"\". Danny Elfman was worried the characterization of Oogie Boogie would be considered racist by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). Elfman's predictions came true; however, director Henry Selick stated the character was inspired by the Betty Boop cartoon \"The Old Man of the Mountain\". \"Cab Calloway would dance his inimitable jazz dance and sing 'Minnie the Moocher' or 'Old Man of the Mountain', and they would rotoscope him, trace him, turn him into a cartoon character, often transforming him into an animal, like a walrus,\" Selick continued. \"I think those are some of the most inventive moments in cartoon history, in no way racist, even though he was sometimes a villain. We went with Ken Page, who is a black singer, and he had no problem with it\".", "The film was nominated for both the Academy Award for Best Visual Effects and the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation. \"Nightmare\" won the Saturn Award for Best Fantasy Film, while Elfman won Best Music. Selick and the animators were also nominated for their work. Elfman was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score. Most recently, the film ranked #1 on Rotten Tomatoes' \"Top 25 Best Christmas Movies\" list.", "In 2001, Disney began to consider producing a sequel, but rather than using stop motion, Disney wanted to use computer animation. Burton convinced Disney to drop the idea. \"I was always very protective of \"Nightmare\" not to do sequels or things of that kind,\" Burton explained. \"You know, Jack visits Thanksgiving world or other kinds of things just because I felt the movie had a purity to it and the people that like it, because it's a mass-market kind of thing, it was important to kind of keep that purity of it.\" The 2004 video game \"\" did serve as a sequel of the film, with Capcom's crew of developers going after Burton for advice and having the collaboration of the film's art director, Deane Taylor. In 2009, Selick said he would do a film sequel if he and Burton could create a good story for it. In February 2019, it was reported that a new \"Nightmare Before Christmas\" film was in the works, with Disney considering either a stop-motion sequel or live-action remake. In October 2019, Chris Sarandon expressed interest on reprising his role as Jack Skellington if a sequel film ever materializes.", "A collectible card game based on the film called \"The Nightmare Before Christmas TCG\" was released in 2005 by NECA. The game was designed by Quixotic Games founder Andrew Parks and Kez Shlasnger. It consists of a Premiere set and 4 Starter Decks based on four characters, Jack Skellington, the Mayor, Oogie Boogie, and Doctor Finklestein. Each Starter Deck contains a rule book, a Pumpkin King card, a Pumpkin Points card, and a 48-card deck. The game has four card types: Characters, Locales, Creations, and Surprises. The Cards' rarities are separated into four categories: Common, Uncommon, Rare, Ultra Rare. Quixotic Games also developed \"The Nightmare Before Christmas Party Game\" that was released in 2007 by NECA. A collector's edition \"The Nightmare Before Christmas\"-themed Jenga game was issued with orange, purple and black blocks with Jack Skellington heads on them. The set comes in a coffin-shaped box instead of the normal rectangular box. A 168-card \"Munchkin Tim Burton's The Nightmare Before Christmas\"-themed \"Munchkin\" was developed by USAopoly featuring the citizens of Halloween Town such as Jack Skellington, Oogie Boogie, Doctor Finklestein, and Lock, Shock and Barrel. The game comes with a custom die similar to the ones used by Oogie Boogie in the film. A live concert, produced by Disney Concerts, was held at the Hollywood Bowl in October 2015, and was followed by subsequent performances in 2016 and 2018. The shows featured Elfman, O'Hara, and Page reprising their roles from the film. In December 2019 this show came to Europe with dates in Edinburgh, Glasgow, London and Dublin." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life.", "Political career.", "United Nations career.", "After the United Nations.", "Personal life and death.", "Awards.", "Legacy." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Lie was born in Kristiania (now Oslo) on 16 July 1896. His father, carpenter Martin Lie, left the family to emigrate to the United States in 1902, and was never heard from again. Trygve grew up under poor conditions together with his mother Hulda and a sister who was six at the time. His mother ran a boarding house and café in Grorud in Oslo. Lie joined the Labour Party in 1911 and was named as the party's national secretary soon after receiving his law degree from the University of Oslo in 1919. Lie was editor-in-chief for \"Det 20de Aarhundre\" ('The 20th Century') from 1919 to 1921. From 1922 to 1935 he was a legal consultant for the Workers' National Trade Union (named Norwegian Confederation of Trade Unions from 1957). He chaired the Norwegian Workers' Confederation of Sports from 1931 to 1935.", "In local politics he served as a member of the executive committee of Aker municipality council from 1922 to 1931. He was elected to the Norwegian Parliament from Akershus in 1937. He was appointed Minister of Justice when a Labour Party government was formed by Johan Nygaardsvold in 1935. Lie was later appointed Minister of Trade (July to October 1939) and Minister of Supplies (October 1939 to 1941). A socialist from an early age, Lie once met Vladimir Lenin while on a Labour Party visit to Moscow and gave permission for Leon Trotsky to settle in Norway after he was exiled from the Soviet Union. However, because of pressure from Joseph Stalin, he forced Trotsky to leave the country. In 1940 when Norway was invaded by Nazi Germany, Lie ordered all Norwegian ships to sail to Allied ports. In 1941 Lie was named as Foreign Minister of the Norwegian government-in-exile, and he remained in this position till 1946.", "Lie led the Norwegian delegation to the United Nations conference in San Francisco in 1945 and was a leader in drafting the provisions of the United Nations Security Council. He was the leader of the Norwegian delegation to the United Nations General Assembly in 1946. On 1 February 1946, he was elected as the first Secretary-General of the United Nations as a result of a compromise between the major powers, having missed being elected President of the first General Assembly by only a small margin. As Secretary-General, Lie supported the foundations of Israel and Indonesia. His passionate support for Israel included passing secret military and diplomatic information to Israeli officials. He sent 50 members of the United Nations guard force from Lake Success to assist the Mediator in supervising the Truce in the former British Mandate of Palestine in 1948 and the \"UNTSO\", the first peacekeeping operation was established by the United Nations. He worked for the withdrawal of Soviet forces in Iran and a ceasefire to fighting in Kashmir. He attracted the ire of the Soviet Union when he helped gather support for the defence of South Korea after it was invaded in 1950 and later worked to end the Soviet boycott of UN meetings, though his involvement had little to do with the eventual return of the Soviet Union to the UN. He was opposed to Spain's entry into the United Nations because of his opposition to Francisco Franco's government. He also sought to have the People's Republic of China recognized by the United Nations after the Nationalist government was exiled to Taiwan, arguing that the People's Republic was the only government that could fulfill the membership obligations in full. He has been criticized for his failures to facilitate negotiation in the Berlin Blockade, as well as his failure to bring about a swifter end to the Korean War. His critics argue that he was under the influence of a select few in the UN Secretariat. He has also been criticized for his arrogance and stubbornness. On 1 November 1950, over objections from the Soviet Union, the UN General Assembly voted by 46 votes to 5 (and 8 abstentions) to extend Lie's term of office. The vote was a consequence of an impasse in the Security Council in which the Soviet Union refused to consider Lie due to his involvement in the Korean War, while the US refused to accept any candidate except Lie. The Soviet Union subsequently refused to acknowledge Lie as Secretary-General and, having been accused by Joseph McCarthy of hiring \"disloyal\" Americansan allegation that he attributed to the pressing need for civil servants following the establishment of the UNLie resigned on 10 November 1952. The UN came under US official scrutiny after the conviction of Alger Hiss, who had served as acting Secretary General at the first convening of the UN in San Francisco (in 1945). A State Department report dated 17 January 1951, states: \"Subject: McCarran Act—Possible Conflict with Headquarters Agreement\"In conversation with Abe Feller in New York recently he expressed the view that the regulations which have been issued under the McCarran Act make it fairly clear to him that there is likely to be some conflict between that Act and the way in which it is being interpreted and the Headquarters Agreement. He expressed the view that in the event of such conflict the UN secretariat would be forced to resort to the arbitration procedure under the Agreement. He stated he thought this would be very unfortunate and wondered whether any consideration was being given to a general amendment to the McCarran Act which would waive its provisions so far as it conflicted with international obligations or international agreements. I told him I did not know whether any amendments were under consideration but that I would bring his view to your attention. Abraham Feller, General Counsel and Principal Director, Legal Department, United Nations Secretariat, was \"reportedly\" a \"close friend\" of Alger Hiss. On 14 November 1952, just days after Lie's resignation from the UN, Feller committed suicide by jumping out of the window of his apartment in New York City.", "Lie remained active in Norwegian politics after his resignation from the UN. He was the County Governor of Oslo and Akershus, Chairman of the Board of Energy, Minister of Industry, and Minister of Trade and Shipping. He wrote a number of books, including \"In the Cause of Peace\", an account of his years at the UN.", "Lie married Hjørdis Jørgensen (1898–1960) in 1921. The couple had three daughters; Sissel, Guri, and Mette. Lie died on 30 December 1968 of a heart attack in Geilo, Norway. He was 72 years old.", "Trygve Lie was awarded a large number of Norwegian and foreign orders. Among these, the Norwegian highest civilian award Medal for Outstanding Civic Service (\"Medaljen for borgerdåd)\" (1966), the Grand Cross of the Order of Dannebrog (1954) and Grand Cross of the Order of St. Olav (1953), Czechoslovak OWL (1948). He was awarded numerous honorary doctorates by universities throughout the U.S. and Europe. Trygve Lie was the holder of a number of other orders, decorations and other honors.", "Some scholars rank him at the bottom of all UN secretaries-general; one who \"presided over a long list of diplomatic failures, tarnished the UN, and accomplished very little\". On the other hand, it can be argued that Trygve Lie built the United Nations organisation from nothing, including establishing a physical presence in a huge office building in New York, after having started in a sort of \"gypsy camp\" on Long Island. In addition to this he had to deal with a number of post-World War II conflicts and conflicts with roots in the creation of the Iron Curtain. \"Trygve Lie′s Square\" is located in Furuset center in Oslo. In the square stands the bronze statue of Trygve Lie, which was created by the Norwegian artist Nicolaus Widerberg and erected in 1994. Trygve Lie Gallery and Trygve Lie Plaza are both located in New York City. Source:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Methods & Principles.", "Skimming and scanning.", "Meta guiding.", "Types of reading.", "Effect on comprehension.", "Software.", "Controversies in speed reading." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "It was not until the late 1950s that a portable, reliable, and convenient device was developed as a tool for increasing reading speed. Evelyn Wood, a researcher and schoolteacher, was committed to understanding why some people were naturally faster at reading and tried to force herself to read very quickly. In 1958, while brushing off the pages of a book she had thrown down in despair, she discovered that the sweeping motion of her hand across the page caught the attention of her eyes, and helped them move more smoothly across the page. She then used the hand as a pacer. Wood first taught the method at the University of Utah, before launching it to the public as Evelyn Wood's Reading Dynamics in Washington, D.C. in 1959.", "", "Skimming is a process of speed reading that involves visually searching the sentences of a page for clues to the main idea or when reading an essay, it can mean reading the beginning and ending for summary information, then optionally the first sentence of each paragraph to quickly determine whether to seek still more detail, as determined by the questions or purpose of the reading. For some people, this comes naturally, but is usually acquired by practice. Skimming is usually seen more in adults than in children. It is conducted at a higher rate (700 words per minute and above) than normal reading for comprehension (around 200–230 wpm), and results in lower comprehension rates, especially with information-rich reading material. Scanning is the process where one actively looks for information using a mind-map (organizing information in a visually hierarchical manner that showcases the interrelatedness of the information for better retrievability) formed from skimming. These techniques are used by meta-guiding your eyes. Scanning includes the main point as well as headings and important information.", "Meta guiding is the visual guiding of the eye using a finger or pointer, such as a pen, in order for the eye to move faster along the length of a passage of text. It involves drawing invisible shapes on a page of text in order to broaden the visual span for speed reading. For example, an audience of customers at a speed reading seminar will be instructed to use a finger or pen to make these shapes on a page and told that this will speed up their visual cortex, increase their visual span to take in the whole line, and even imprint the information into their subconscious for later retrieval. It has also been claimed to reduce subvocalization (saying words in your head rather than grasping the idea), thereby speeding up reading. Because this encourages the eye to skim over the text, it can reduce comprehension and memory, and lead to missing important details of the text. An emphasis on viewing each word, albeit briefly without regression (Regression is an unconscious process where the eyes go forward two or three “stops” and then go back.) is required for this method to be effective. E.g. S movement and Z movement Speed reading is a skill honed through practice. Reading a text involves comprehension of the material. In speed reading practice this is done through multiple reading processes: preview, overview, read, review and recite; and by read and recall (recording through writing a short summary or a mental outline) exercises. Another important method for better comprehension is the SQ3R process. These processes help an individual to retain most of the presented ideas from a reading material. A better focus in comprehension is attained through a better reading process with good understanding of the topic.", "There are three types of reading Mental readers generally read at approximately 250 words per minute. Auditory readers read at approximately 450 words per minute. Visual readers read at approximately 700 words per minute. Proficient readers are able to read 280 - 310 wpm without compromising comprehension.", "Skimming is mainly used for researching and getting an overall idea of a text, especially when time is limited. Duggan & Payne (2009) compared skimming with reading normally, given only enough time to read normally through half of a text. They found that the main points of the full text were better understood after skimming (which could view the full text) than after normal reading (which only read half the text). There was no difference between the groups in their understanding of less important information from the text. Skimming or skipping over text can also aid in comprehension when layered reading, a process of strategic rereading, is employed. Further findings suggest that trained speed readers have a slight advantage in both comprehension and speed to untrained skimmers. It is thus suggested by experts that speed-reading is most useful to those who need \"to skim a large amount of material or need to improve their study skills\" and less useful to those who read \"highly technical material that requires careful study of each sentence\"", "Computer programs are available to help instruct speed reading students. Some programs present the data as a serial stream, since the brain handles text more efficiently by breaking it into such a stream before parsing and interpreting it. The 2000 National Reading Panel (NRP) report (p. 3-1) seems to support such a mechanism. To increase speed, some older programs required readers to view the center of the screen while the lines of text around it grew longer. They also presented several objects (instead of text) moving line by line or bouncing around the screen; users had to follow the object(s) with only their eyes. A number of researchers criticize using objects instead of words as an effective training method, claiming that the only way to read faster is to read actual text. Many of the newer speed reading programs use built-in text, and they primarily guide users through the lines of an on-screen book at defined speeds. Often the text is highlighted to indicate where users should focus their eyes; they are not expected to read by pronouncing the words, but instead to read by viewing the words as complete images. The exercises are also intended to train readers to eliminate subvocalization, though it has not been proven that this will increase reading speed.", "Common controversies in speed reading are between its intent and nature with traditional concepts like comprehension vs speed; reading vs skimming; popular psychology vs evidence-based psychology. Much of the controversy is raised over these points. This is mainly because a reading comprehension level of 50% is deemed unusable by some educationalists (Carver 1992). Speed reading advocates claim that it is a great success and even state that it is a demonstration of good comprehension for many purposes (Buzan 2000). The trade-off between \"speed\" and comprehension must be analyzed with respect to the type of reading that is being done, the risks associated with mis-understanding due to low comprehension, and the benefits associated with getting through the material quickly and gaining information at the actual rate is to be obtained. Mark Seidenberg considers claims like 25,000 words per minute \"cannot be true given basic facts about eyes and texts\" and comments that \"people are as likely to read thousands of words per minute as they are to run faster than the speed of light\". Similarly, in evaluating a claim that a similar reading strategy known as PhotoReading could increase reading rates to 25,000 words per minute, McNamara published a preliminary analysis funded by NASA to evaluate whether this strategy could improve reading speed, comprehension, and information gathering efficiency. When identical versions of five reading samples and accompanying reading comprehension tests were administered to a trainee and an expert in this reading strategy, there was no advantage in overall reading time or comprehension. This strategy may also cause overestimation of one's knowledge, as demonstrated by the following case in McNamara's preliminary analysis, showing evidence of the Dunning-Kruger effect: In a 2016 article published in the journal of 'Psychological Science in the Public Interest', the authors conclude there is no'magic bullet' for reading more quickly while maintaining comprehension other than to practice reading and to become a more skilled language user (e.g. through increased vocabulary). The authors proceed with debunking common speed reading techniques such as eliminating sub-vocalization, reading more than one word at a time a.k.a. grouping, using RSVP (Rapid Serial Visual Presentation), increasing peripheral vision, alternating colors for each line of text. U.S. President John F. Kennedy was a proponent of speed reading, encouraging his staff to take lessons, and he suggested in an interview that he had a reading speed of 1,200 words per minute. U.S. President Jimmy Carter, and his wife Rosalynn, were both avid readers and enrolled in a speed-reading course at the White House, along with several staff members. Ronald Carver, a professor of education research and psychology, claims that the fastest college graduate readers can read only about 600 words per minute, at most twice as fast as their slowest counterparts, and suggests that Kennedy's claimed reading speed was more a measure of how fast he could skim a piece of text. Other critics have suggested that speed reading is actually skimming, not reading. The World Championship Speed Reading Competition stresses reading comprehension as critical. The top contestants typically read around 1,000 to 2,000 words per minute with approximately 50% comprehension or above. The six time world champion Anne Jones is recorded for 4200wpm with previous exposure to the material and 67% comprehension. The recorded number of words the eye can see in single fixation is three words. \"Speed Reading World Record\" claims have been controversial. Howard Stephen Berg from the United States has claimed to be the Guinness World Record holder for fast reading with a speed of 25,000 words per minute, and Maria Teresa Calderon from the Philippines claims to have earned the Guinness World Record for World's Fastest Reader at 80,000 words per minute reading speed and 100% comprehension. Critics point out that it is possible to beat some speed reading world records by reading a pre-read or pre-memorized text, flipping the pages as fast as possible without reading it. The Guinness Speed Reading World Record Standards are not known and they have terminated adding speed readers to its honor list. In 2015, \"Memoriad\", the World Mental Sports Federation, set the rules for \"Speed Reading World Record Standards\" in order to prevent unclear claims." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and career.", "Personal life.", "Head of the NKVD.", "Fall from power.", "Final days.", "Arrest.", "Trial.", "Execution.", "Legacy.", "Honors and awards." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Yezhov was born either in Saint Petersburg, according to his official Soviet biography, or in southwest Lithuania (probably Veiveriai, Marijampolė or Kaunas), however, Petersburg is given as his official place of birth. In a form filled out in 1921, Yezhov claimed some ability to speak Polish and Lithuanian. He completed only his elementary education. From 1909 to 1915, he worked as a tailor's assistant and factory worker. From 1915 until 1917, Yezhov served in the Imperial Russian Army. He joined the Bolsheviks on 5 May 1917, in Vitebsk, six months before the October Revolution. During the Russian Civil War (1917–1922), he fought in the Red Army. After February 1922, he worked in the political system, mostly as a secretary of various regional committees of the Communist Party. In 1927, he was transferred to the Accounting and Distribution Department of the Party where he worked as an instructor and acting head of the department. From 1929 to 1930, he was the Deputy People's Commissar for Agriculture. In November 1930, he was appointed to the Head of several departments of the Communist Party: department of special affairs, department of personnel and department of industry. In 1934, he was elected to the Central Committee of the Communist Party; in the next year he became a secretary of the Central Committee. From February 1935 to March 1939, he was also the Chairman of the Central Commission for Party Control. In the \"Letter of an Old Bolshevik\" (1936), written by Boris Nicolaevsky, there is Bukharin's description of Yezhov: Nadezhda Mandelstam, in contrast, who met Yezhov at Sukhum in the early thirties, did not perceive anything ominous in his manner or appearance; her impression of him was that of a \"modest and rather agreeable person\". Yezhov was short, standing, and that, combined with his perceived sadistic personality, led to his nickname \"The Poison Dwarf\" or \"The Bloody Dwarf\".", "Yezhov married Marxist Antonia Titova in 1919, but he later divorced her and married Yevgenia Feigenburg (Khayutina-Yezhova), a Soviet publishing worker and Chief Editor of \"USSR in Construction\" magazine who was known for her friendship with many Soviet writers and actors. Yezhov and Feigenburg had an adopted daughter, Natalia, an orphan from a children's home. After Yevgenia's and Yezhov's deaths in late 1938, Natalia was sent back to a local orphanage and was forced to relinquish the Yezhov surname. Subsequently, she was known by the name Natalia Khayutina.", "A turning point for Yezhov came with Stalin's response to the 1934 murder of the Bolshevik chief of Leningrad, Sergey Kirov. Stalin used the murder as a pretext for further purges and he chose Yezhov to carry out the task. Yezhov oversaw falsified accusations in the Kirov murder case against opposition leaders Kamenev, Zinoviev and their supporters. Yezhov's success in this task led to his further promotion and ultimately to his appointment as head of the NKVD. He became People's Commissar for Internal Affairs (head of the NKVD) and a member of the Central Committee on 26 September 1936, following the dismissal of Genrikh Yagoda. This appointment did not at first seem to suggest an intensification of the purge: \"Unlike Yagoda, Yezhov did not come out of the 'organs', which was considered an advantage\". Party leadership revocation and executions of those found guilty during the Moscow Trials was not a problem for Yezhov. Seeming to be a devout admirer of Stalin and not a member of the organs of state security, Yezhov was just the man Stalin needed to lead the NKVD and rid the government of potential opponents. Yezhov's first task from Stalin was to personally investigate and conduct the prosecution of his long-time Chekist mentor Yagoda, which he did with remorseless zeal. Ordered by Stalin to create a suitably grandiose plot for Yagoda's show trial, Yezhov ordered the NKVD to sprinkle mercury on the curtains of his office so that the physical evidence could be collected and used to support the charge that Yagoda was a German spy, sent to assassinate Yezhov and Stalin with poison and restore capitalism. It is also claimed that he personally tortured both Yagoda and Marshal Mikhail Tukhachevsky to extract their confessions. Yagoda was but the first of many to die by Yezhov's orders. Under Yezhov, the Great Purge reached its height during 1937–1938. 50–75% of the members of the Supreme Soviet and officers of the Soviet military were stripped of their positions and imprisoned, exiled to the Gulag's camps in Siberia or executed. In addition, a much greater number of ordinary Soviet citizens were accused (usually on flimsy or nonexistent evidence) of disloyalty or \"wrecking\" by local Chekist troikas and similarly punished to fill Stalin and Yezhov's arbitrary quotas for arrests and executions. Yezhov also conducted a thorough purge of the security organs, both NKVD and GRU, removing and executing not only many officials who had been appointed by his predecessors Yagoda and Menzhinsky, but even his own appointees as well. He admitted that innocents were being falsely accused, but dismissed their lives as unimportant so long as the purge was successful: In 1937 and 1938 alone, at least 1.3 million were arrested and 681,692 were shot for 'crimes against the state'. The Gulag population swelled by 685,201 under Yezhov, nearly tripling in size in just two years, with at least 140,000 of these prisoners (and likely many more) dying of malnutrition, exhaustion and the elements in the camps (or during transport to them).", "Yezhov was appointed People's Commissar for Water Transport on 6 April 1938. During the Great Purge, acting on the orders from Stalin, he had accomplished the liquidation of Old Bolsheviks and other potentially \"disloyal elements\" or \"fifth columnists\" within the Soviet military and government prior to the onset of war with Germany. From Stalin's perspective, Yezhov (like Yagoda) had served his purpose but had seen too much and wielded too much power to be allowed to live. The defection to Japan of the Far Eastern NKVD chief, Genrikh Lyushkov on 13 June 1938, rightly worried Yezhov, who had protected Lyushkov from the purges and feared he would be blamed.", "On 22 August 1938, NKVD leader Lavrenty Beria was named as Yezhov's deputy. Beria had managed to survive the Great Purge and the \"Yezhovshchina\" during the years 1936–1938, even though he had almost become one of its victims. Earlier in 1938, Yezhov had even ordered the arrest of Beria, who was party chief in Georgia. However, Georgian NKVD chief Sergei Goglidze warned Beria, who immediately flew to Moscow to see Stalin personally. Beria convinced Stalin to spare his life and reminded Stalin how efficiently he had carried out party orders in Georgia and Transcaucasia. In a twist of fate, it was Yezhov who eventually fell in the struggle for power, and Beria who became the new NKVD chief. Over the following months, Beria (with Stalin's approval) began increasingly to usurp Yezhov's governance of the Commissariat for Internal Affairs. As early as 8 September, Mikhail Frinovsky, Yezhov's first deputy, was relocated from under his command into the Navy. Stalin's penchant for periodically executing and replacing his primary lieutenants was well known to Yezhov, as he had previously been the man most directly responsible for orchestrating such actions. Well acquainted with the typical Stalinist bureaucratic precursors to eventual dismissal and arrest, Yezhov recognized Beria's increasing influence with Stalin as a sign that his downfall was imminent, and he plunged headlong into alcoholism and despair. Already a heavy drinker, in the last weeks of his service, he reportedly was disconsolate, slovenly, and drunk nearly all of his waking hours, rarely bothering to show up to work. As anticipated, Stalin and Vyacheslav Molotov, in a report dated November 11, sharply criticised the work and methods of the NKVD during Yezhov's tenure as chief, thus creating the bureaucratic pretense necessary to remove him from power. On 14 November, another of Yezhov’s protégés, the Ukrainian NKVD chief Alexander Uspensky, disappeared after being warned by Yezhov that he was in trouble. Stalin suspected that Yezhov was involved in the disappearance and told Beria, not Yezhov, that Uspensky must be caught (he was arrested on 14 April 1939). Yezhov had told his wife, Yevgenia, on 18 September that he wanted a divorce, and she had begun writing increasingly despairing letters to Stalin, none of which were answered. She was particularly vulnerable because of her many lovers, and people close to her were being arrested for months. On 19 November 1938, Yevgenia committed suicide by taking an overdose of sleeping pills. At his own request, Yezhov was officially relieved of his post as the People's Commissar for Internal Affairs on 25 November, succeeded by Beria, who had been in complete control of the NKVD since the departure of Frinovsky on 8 September. He attended his last Politburo meeting on 29 January 1939. Stalin was evidently content to ignore Yezhov for several months, finally ordering Beria to denounce him at the annual Presidium of the Supreme Soviet. On 3 March 1939, Yezhov was relieved of all his posts in the Central Committee, but retained his post as People's Commissar of Water Transportation. His last working day was 9 April at which time the \"People’s Commissariat was simply abolished by splitting it into two, the People’s Commissariats of the River Fleet and the Sea Fleet, with two new People’s Commissars, Z. A. Shashkov and S. S. Dukel’skii.\"", "On 10 April, Yezhov was arrested and imprisoned at the Sukhanovka prison; the \"arrest was painstakingly concealed, not only from the general public but also from most NKVD officers... It would not do to make a fuss about the arrest of 'the leader’s favourite,' and Stalin had no desire to arouse public interest in NKVD activity and the circumstances of the conduct of the Great Terror.\" Yezhov confessed to the standard litany of state crimes necessary to mark him as an \"enemy of the people\" prior to execution, including \"wrecking\", official incompetence, theft of government funds, and treasonous collaboration with German spies and saboteurs, none of which were likely or supported by evidence. Apart from these political crimes, he was also accused of and confessed to a humiliating history of sexual promiscuity, including homosexuality, that was later corroborated by witness reports and deemed true in some post-Soviet examinations of the case.", "On 2 February 1940, Yezhov was tried by the Military Collegium chaired by Soviet judge Vasili Ulrikh behind closed doors. Yezhov, like his predecessor Yagoda, maintained to the end his love for Stalin. Yezhov denied being a spy, a terrorist, or a conspirator, stating that he preferred \"death to telling lies\". He maintained that his previous confession had been obtained under torture, admitted that he purged 14,000 of his fellow Chekists, but said that he was surrounded by \"enemies of the people\". He also said that he would die with the name of Stalin on his lips. After the secret trial, Yezhov was allowed to return to his cell; half an hour later, he was called back and told that he had been condemned to death. On hearing the verdict, Yezhov became faint and began to collapse, but the guards caught him and removed him from the room. An immediate appeal for clemency was denied, and Yezhov became hysterical and wept. He soon had to be dragged out of the room, struggling with the guards and screaming.", "On 4 February 1940, Yezhov was shot by the future KGB chairman Ivan Serov (or by Blokhin, in the presence of N. P. Afanasev, according to one book source) in the basement of a small NKVD station on Varsonofevskii Lane (Varsonofyevskiy pereulok) in Moscow. The basement had a sloping floor so that it could be hosed down after executions, and had been built according to Yezhov's own specifications near the Lubyanka. The main NKVD execution chamber in the basement of the Lubyanka was deliberately avoided to ensure total secrecy. Yezhov's body was immediately cremated and his ashes dumped in a common grave at Moscow's Donskoi Cemetery. The execution remained secret and as late as 1948, \"Time\" reported: \"Some think he is still in an insane asylum\".", "In Russia, Yezhov remains mostly known as the person who was responsible for atrocities of the Great Purge that he conducted on Stalin's orders. Among art historians, he also has the nickname \"The Vanishing Commissar\" because after his execution, his likeness was retouched out of an official press photo; he is among the best-known examples of the Soviet press making someone who had fallen out of favor \"disappear\". Due to his role in the Great Purge, Yezhov has not been officially rehabilitated by the Soviet and Russian authorities.", "A decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet on 24 January 1941 deprived Yezhov of all state and special awards." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Ottoman rule.", "Old Yishuv.", "Beginning of modern Aliyah.", "During the British Mandate.", "Women's rights.", "History.", "White papers.", "The 1936–39 Arab revolt.", "White Paper of 1939.", "During World War II.", "The Biltmore declaration.", "Mandatory Palestine post World War II.", "Evacuations and expulsions of Jews under the British Mandate.", "Parliamentary representation.", "Paramilitary forces." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "4", "3", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The Old Yishuv were the Jewish communities of southern Ottoman Syria in the Ottoman Empire, up to the onset of Zionist aliyah and the consolidation of the New Yishuv by the end of World War I in 1918 and the establishment of the British Mandate of Palestine. The Old Yishuv had continuously resided in or had come to \"Eretz Yisrael\" (Land of Israel) in the earlier centuries and were largely ultra-orthodox Jews dependent on external donations (Halukka) for living, as opposed to the later Zionist aliyah and the New Yishuv, who more socialist and secular emphasizing labor and self-sufficiency. The Old Yishuv developed after a period of severe decline in Jewish communities of the Southern Levant during the early Middle Ages, and was composed of three clusters. The oldest group consisted of the Ladino-speaking Sephardic Jewish communities in Galilee and the Judeo-Arabic speaking Musta'arabi Jews who settled in Eretz Yisrael in the Ottoman and late Mamluk period. A second group was composed of Ashkenazi and Hassidic Jews who had emigrated from Europe in the 18th and early 19th centuries. A third wave was constituted by Yishuv members who arrived in the late 19th century. The Old Yishuv was thus generally divided into two independent communities – the Sephardi Jews (including Musta'arabim), mainly constituting the remains of Jewish communities of Galilee and the Four Holy Cities of Judaism, which had flourished in the 16th and 17th centuries; and the Ashkenazi Jews, whose immigration from Europe was primarily since the 18th century. The \"Old Yishuv\" term was coined by members of the 'New Yishuv' in the late 19th century to distinguish themselves from the economically dependent and generally earlier Jewish communities, who mainly resided in the four holy cities, and unlike the New Yishuv, had not embraced land ownership and agriculture. Apart from the Old Yishuv centres in the four holy cities of Judaism, namely Jerusalem, Hebron, Tiberias and Safed, smaller communities also existed in Jaffa, Haifa, Peki'in, Acre, Nablus and Shfaram. Petah Tikva, although established in 1878 by the Old Yishuv, nevertheless was also supported by the arriving Zionists. Rishon LeZion, the first settlement founded by the Hovevei Zion in 1882, could be considered the true beginning of the \"New Yishuv\".", "The Ottoman government was not supportive of the new settlers from the First and Second Aliyah, as the Ottoman government officially restricted Jewish immigration. The Yishuv relied on money from abroad to support their settlements. In 1908 the Zionist Organization founded the Palestine Office, under Arthur Ruppin, for land acquisition, agricultural settlement and training, and later for urban expansion. The first Hebrew high schools were opened in Palestine as well as the Technion, the first institution for higher learning. Hashomer, a Zionist self-defence group, was created to protect the Jewish settlements. Labor organizations were created along with health and cultural services, all later coordinated by the Jewish National Council. By 1914, the old Yishuv was a minority and the new Yishuv began to express itself and its Zionist goals. The Zionist movement tried to find work for the new immigrants who arrived in the Second Aliyah. However, most were middle class and were not physically fit or knowledgeable in agricultural work. The Jewish plantation owners had previously hired Arab workers who accepted low wages and were very familiar with agriculture. The leaders of the Zionist movement insisted that plantation owners (those who arrived in the First Aliyah) only hire Jewish workers and grant higher wages. The conquest of labor was a major Zionist goal. However, this caused some turmoil in the Yishuv for there were those who felt that they were discriminating against the Arabs just as they had been discriminated against in Russia. The Arabs became bitter from the discrimination despite the small number of Arabs that were affected by this. The First Aliyah was the very beginning of the creation of the New Yishuv. More than 25,000 Jews immigrated to Palestine. The immigrants were inspired by the notion of creating a national home for Jews. Most of the Jewish immigrants came from Russia, escaping the pogroms, while some arrived from Yemen. Many of the immigrants were affiliated with Hovevei Zion. Hovevei Tzion purchased land from Arabs and other Ottoman subjects and created various settlements such as Yesud HaMa'ala, Rosh Pinna, Gedera, Rishon LeZion, Nes Tziona and Rechovot. These agricultural settlements were supported by philanthropists from abroad, chiefly Edmond James de Rothschild. and Alphonse James de Rothschild. Eliezer Ben-Yehuda also immigrated during the first Aliyah. Ben-Yehuda took it upon himself to revive the Hebrew language, and along with Nissim Bechar started a school for teaching Hebrew, later on founding the first Hebrew newspaper. During the Second Aliyah, between 1903 and 1914, there were 35,000 new immigrants, primarily from Russia. During World War I, the conditions for the Jews in the Ottoman Empire worsened. All those Jews who were of an enemy nationality were exiled and others were drafted into the Ottoman army. Many of those exiled fled to Egypt and the United States. Those who remained in the Ottoman ruled Palestine faced hard economic times. There was disagreement whether to support the British or the Turks. A clandestine group, Nili, was established to pass information to the British in the hope of defeating the Ottomans and ending their rule over Palestine. The purpose and members of the Nili were discovered. All involved were executed by the Ottomans except its founder, Aaron Aaronsohn, who escaped to Egypt. During World War I, the Jewish population in Palestine diminished by a third due to deportations, immigration, economic trouble and disease. During World War I, there were two British battalions of Jews, called the Zion Mule Corps, who were to fight on the front of Palestine. They helped in the British capture of Ottoman Syria (including Palestine), leading to the Turkish surrender. The members of the Zion Mule Corps later made up the Yishuv's defence groups that would fight against the British.", "World War I ended, along with the Ottoman Empire. Britain gained control of Palestine through the Sykes–Picot Agreement, which partitioned Ottoman Syria into French-ruled Syria and Lebanon and British-controlled Palestine and Transjordan. There was a hope that British control would allow the creation of a Jewish national homeland as promised in the Balfour Declaration. The British Mandate was formalized in 1922 based on the Balfour Declaration. The British were supposed to help the Jews build a national home and promote the creation of self-governing institutions. The mandate provided for an agency in which the Jews could represent Jewish interests and promote Jewish immigration. It was called the Jewish Agency for Palestine, and was only created ten years later, serving as the de facto government of the Yishuv. Along with a Jewish agency there was to be a general self-governing institution created in Palestine including Jews and Arabs. The Yishuv feared such an institution due to the Arab majority, but none was created in the end due to the Arabs' refusal to cooperate with the Jews or British. The optimism that existed in the beginning of the British mandate soon diminished due to continued hardships in the Yishuv. Most of the European funds that supported the Jewish settlements before World War I ended. The Arabs, opposed to the Balfour Declaration and the Mandate, instigated riots against the Jews. The British limited immigration through yearly quotas; only those who received \"certificates\" could make Aliyah.", "Many women who immigrated to Israel came out of national Zionist motives who wanted the same rights as men and wanted to rebuild their land. In 1919 the first nationwide women's party in the New Yishuv (the Union of Hebrew Women for Equal Rights in Eretz Israel) was created, and Rosa Welt-Straus, who had immigrated there that year, was appointed its leader, as which she continued until her death. The constituent assembly was voted upon in 1920 and 14 women were elected out of the three hundred and fourteen delegates. As well as the increase in the number of women filling public positions, the rate of women participating in the labor force increased steadily during the British mandate period in the Yishuv. With that being said, the employment opportunities at the beginning of the mandate period were very low and women were mainly limited to typical female occupations because the only other option would be to work in construction, which only pioneer women committed to as part of their feminist-nationalist outlook because those roles were considered inappropriate for women. Women were consistently more unemployed when compared to their male counterparts, regardless of cyclical fluctuations.The wages for working women were constantly lower than the wages of their male counterparts, and throughout the Yishuv period, the average wage for women were 50 to 70 percent of male's wage. Not only were non-religious women fighting for equality, but so were religious women. Female religious Zionists were faced with double the amount of barriers than a non-religious female Zionist because they were rejected from religious society because of their gender and they were rejected from secular society because of their religiosity In 1926 the haredim, who preferred not to face the possibility of a plebiscite, left the yishuv's Assembly of Representatives, and that year an official declaration was made (ratified by the mandate government in 1927) confirming \"equal rights to women in all aspects of life in the yishuv – civil, political, and economic.\" In 1935, the establishment of the national organization of religious pioneer women emerged. Its main goal was to improve the material status and spiritual welfare of the religious women workers and gain admittance to the Ha-Po'el ha-Mizrachi. This organization grew from eight-hundred members in 1935 to six-thousand members in 1948. Women gained rights with the establishment of the religious kibbutz movement by participating in Torah studies with men and by taking part in the co-ed activities that the Kibbutz offered.", "There were Arab riots throughout 1920–21 in opposition to the Balfour Declaration. The Arabs tried to show the British the instability of Palestine and that a Jewish homeland was ungovernable. Riots increased in 1929 after the fourth Aliyah – 133 Jews were killed by Arab mobs during the 1929 riots. The Arabs claimed that Jewish immigration and land purchases were displacing them and taking their jobs away. These riots were also instigated by false rumours that the Jews were planning on building a synagogue near the Western Wall. These riots led to the evacuation of Hebron's indigenous – largely non-Zionist – Jewish population.", "The British responded to the Arab riots with the White Paper of 1939. It was based on the Hope Simpson Report, which stated that Palestine after economic development could support only 20,000 more immigrant families without infringing on the Arab population's placement and employment. It therefore attempted to curtail immigration to Palestine. Upon Jewish criticism of this policy, it was clarified that immigration would not be stopped entirely but would be restricted by quotas. There were many Jewish immigrants that arrived throughout the 1930s in the fifth Aliyah, despite the immigration quotas. Many who came were fleeing persecution in Eastern Europe. Those that came from Nazi Germany were able to come because of the Haavara Agreement. This allowed Jews to escape from Germany to Palestine in return for paying a ransom to the Reich. By then, the Yishuv had a population of about 400,000.", "The increasing numbers of Jewish immigrants and land purchases, unchallenged by the British Mandate, angered and radicalized many Arabs. In April 1936, Arabs attacked a Jewish bus, leading to a series of incidents that escalated into a major Arab rebellion. The British were caught by surprise and were unable to prevent the deaths of thousands of Arabs and hundreds of Jews in the revolt. The Haganah protected the Yishuv's settlements while the Irgun, a more radical group, attacked Arab settlements. A coalition of recently formed Arab political parties formed the Arab Higher Committee (AHC). It declared a national strike in support of three basic demands: cessation of Jewish immigration, an end to all further land sales to the Jews, and the establishment of an Arab national government. The Arabs threatened that if the British didn't comply with their demands then they would join the adversaries of the British. This concerned the British for World War II was just beginning and they knew they would need Middle Eastern oil. The British worked with their Arab allies to bring a halt to the AHC riots. The Peel Commission reported, in July 1937, that the British obligations to the Arabs and Zionists were irreconcilable and the mandate unworkable. It suggested the partition of Palestine into Arab and Jewish states, with the British mandate governing over Nazareth, Bethlehem, and Jerusalem along with a corridor from Jerusalem to the coast. The Jews accepted the general principle of a partition while the Arabs refused any partition plan. The British government sent a technical team called the Woodhead Commission to detail the plan. The Woodhead Commission considered three different plans, one of which was based on the Peel plan. Reporting in 1938, the Commission rejected the Peel plan primarily on the grounds that it could not be implemented without a massive forced transfer of Arabs (an option that the British government had already ruled out). With dissent from some of its members, the Commission instead recommended a plan that would leave the Galilee under British mandate, but emphasised serious problems with it that included a lack of financial self-sufficiency of the proposed Arab State. The British Government accompanied the publication of the Woodhead Report by a statement of policy rejecting partition as impracticable due to \"political, administrative and financial difficulties\". The Arab Revolt broke out again in the autumn of 1937. The British ended the revolt using harsh measures, deporting many Palestinian Arab leaders and shutting down the AHC. In the Yishuv, the Arab Revolt reinforced the already firm belief in the need for a strong Jewish defence network. Finally, the Arab agricultural boycott that began in 1936 forced the Jewish economy into even greater self-sufficiency. The Haganah during this period changed from being a small clandestine militia to a large military force. The British security forces at this time cooperated with the Haganah to respond to the Arabs. In 1938 Captain Orde Wingate created the Special Night Squads (SNS) that were composed mostly of Haganah members. SNS used the element of surprise in night raids to protect the Jewish settlements and attack the Arabs.", "The British suppressed the Arab revolt and published the White Paper of 1939. It allowed for a total of only 75,000 Jews to enter Palestine over a five-year period. During this time the Yishuv entered a period of relative peace with the Arabs.", "The Yishuv wanted to help their fellow Jews, who were being murdered by the Nazis in Europe. Many Jews from Europe were prevented from fleeing to Mandatory Palestine by strict immigration quotas established by the white papers. The Jewish Agency organized illegal immigration from 1939 through 1942 with the help of the Haganah. Those who arrived illegally to Israel during this time were part of the Aliyah Bet. This was a dangerous operation, for these illegal immigrants arrived by boat and had to be careful not to be caught by the British or Nazis. Many of these ships sank or were caught, such as the \"Patria\", \"Struma\" and. Compared with the number of attempts, few ships actually arrived successfully to Mandatory Palestine, but tens of thousands of Jews were saved by the illegal immigration. The Yishuv also wanted to help on the front lines in Europe to try to save Jews from the Nazi atrocities. In 1942 the Jewish agency turned to the British to offer their assistance by sending Jewish volunteers to Europe as emissaries of the Yishuv to organize local resistance and rescue operations among the Jewish communities. The British accepted the proposal but on a much smaller scale than the Jewish agency had hoped. They only took Jewish parachutists who were recent immigrants from certain targeted countries that they wanted to infiltrate. The British Special Forces and military intelligence both consented to the volunteers' dual role as British agents and Jewish emissaries. 110 Yishuv members were trained; however only 32 were deployed. Many of them succeeded in helping the POWs and uprisings in the Jewish communities, while others were caught. There were two periods during the war when the Yishuv faced a direct threat from Nazi forces. The first occurred following Germany's conquest of France in 1940, since the pro-Nazi Vichy regime controlled the northern Levant, from which an invasion of Palestine could take place. However, in 1941 British forces successfully fought Vichy forces for control of Syria and Lebanon, thus removing the threat of invasion from the north, at least as long as German armies in Eastern Europe could be held back by the Red Army and thus unable to easily advance towards the Near East from the north. In 1942 however, as Erwin Rommel's Afrika Korps swept across North Africa with the intent of capturing the Suez Canal, the likelihood of a German invasion from the south became a real possibility, causing great anxiety in the Yishuv and prompting plans to be drawn for its defense. Knowing that Nazi control of Palestine meant certain annihilation of the Yishuv, a debate raged among Yishuv leadership whether, in the event Nazi occupation was to take place, the inhabitants of the Yishuv should evacuate together with British forces eastwards towards British possessions in Iraq and India or undertake a Masada-like last stand in Palestine, likely doing so in a fortified zone to be hastily constructed around the Carmel Mountains. This military operation was officially named Palestine Final Fortress. Fortunately for the Yishuv, the advance of German forces eastwards in Egypt was halted during the Second Battle of El Alamein, thus lifting the threat of invasion from the south. The anxious time leading to the Nazi loss at El Alamein became known as the 200 days of dread.", "Despite the reports of Nazi atrocities and the desperation of Jews needing a safe haven the British kept the gates of Palestine almost closed to Jewish immigration. The Zionist leaders met at the Biltmore Hotel in New York in May 1942 and called for unrestricted Jewish immigration and the establishment of a Jewish commonwealth.", "Hundreds of thousands of Holocaust survivors were being held in Displaced Persons Camp (DP Camps) aching to go to Mandatory Palestine. The British received much international pressure, specifically from U.S. president Harry Truman, to change their policy on immigration. Despite Britain's dependence on American economic aid, the British refused, claiming that they were experiencing too much resistance from the Arabs and Jews already in Palestine and feared what would happen if more were allowed to enter. The refusal to remove the white paper policy angered and radicalized the Yishuv. The Yishuv's militia groups set out to sabotage the British infrastructure in Palestine and continue in their illegal immigration efforts. In 1946, the British responded to the Yishuv's efforts and began a two-week search for Jews suspected of anti-British activities, arresting many of the Haganah's leaders. While the British were busy looking for the Haganah, the Irgun and Lehi carried out attacks on British forces. The most famous of their attacks was on the King David Hotel, the site of the British military command and the British Criminal Investigation Division. This location was chosen because a few weeks before a large quantity of documents was confiscated from the Haganah and brought there. Despite being warned by the Yishuv and told to evacuate the building the British officials decided not to cave in to the pressure. The Yishuv attacked anyway, resulting in 91 deaths, 28 of who were British and 17 who were Palestinian Jews. By 1947 the British had 100,000 troops in Palestine trying to maintain order and protect themselves. The British mandate was a major expense to the Exchequer, forcing them to present the Palestine problem to the United Nations on May 15, 1947. The United Nations proposed a partition of the British Mandate for Palestine into 2 states—Arab and Jewish (UN Resolution 181). The Jews accepted it, while the Arabs stated that they would do everything in their power to prevent it. The AHC, determined to prevent Resolution 181 from coming into effect, began to attack and besiege the Jews. The British sided with the Arabs in an attempt to prevent the Yishuv from arming themselves. Jerusalem was held under a siege with no access to weapons, food or water. The Provisional Government seemed helpless until it received a large shipment of arms from Czechoslovakia. The Haganah started fighting offensively from April through May. The Haganah mounted a full-scale military plan, Operation Nachson. After much fighting and the crucial construction of a new road from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem, the siege of Jerusalem was broken, allowing supplies to be brought into the city. This operation's success helped Harry S. Truman recognize that the Jews would be able to protect themselves. The United States decided therefore, it would support the establishment of a Jewish state. On May 14, 1948 the Jews proclaimed the independent state of Israel and the British withdrew from Palestine.", "The 1920 Nabi Musa riots left four Arabs and five Jews killed, with 216 Jews and 23 Arabs wounded. The majority of the victims were members of the old Yishuv. About 300 Jews from the Old City were evacuated following the riots. During the Jaffa riots in 1921, thousands of Jewish residents of Jaffa fled for Tel Aviv and were temporarily housed in tent camps on the beach. Tel Aviv, which had previously been lobbying for independent status, became a separate city due in part to the riots. However Tel Aviv was still dependent on Jaffa, which supplied it with food and services, and was the place of employment for most residents of the new city. Following the 1929 Palestine riots, which left 133 Jews dead, the Jewish community members of Gaza and Hebron were ordered to evacuate by the British forces, in fear of their security. During the Arab revolt of 1936–1939, the Jewish residents of Akko were ousted from the city by local Arab residents. The same fate was forced on the ancient Jewish community of Peki'in.", "The Assembly of Representatives was the elected parliamentary assembly of the Jewish community in Mandatory Palestine. It was established on 19 April 1920, and functioned until 13 February 1949, the day before the first Knesset, elected on 25 January, was sworn in. The Assembly met once a year to elect the executive body, the Jewish National Council, which was responsible for education, local government, welfare, security and defense. It also voted on the budgets proposed by the Jewish National Council and the Rabbinical Council.", "The most notable Jewish paramilitaries in the British Mandate of Palestine were the Haganah, the Irgun and Lehi. In October, 1945, during the Jewish insurgency in Mandatory Palestine, those organizations joined to form the Jewish Resistance Movement. It was established by the Jewish Agency and activated for some ten months, until August, 1946. The alliance coordinated acts of sabotage and attacks against British authorities." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Synopsis.", "Act One.", "Act Two.", "Act Three.", "Alternative ending.", "Composition and publication.", "Real-life inspiration.", "Composition.", "Publication.", "Production history.", "Analysis and criticism.", "Adaptations.", "Film." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The play opens at Christmas time as Nora Helmer enters her home carrying many packages. Nora's husband Torvald is working in his study when she arrives. He playfully rebukes her for spending so much money on Christmas gifts, calling her his \"little squirrel.\" He teases her about how the previous year she had spent weeks making gifts and ornaments by hand because money was scarce. This year Torvald is due a promotion at the bank where he works, so Nora feels that they can let themselves go a little. The maid announces two visitors: Mrs. Kristine Linde, an old friend of Nora's, who has come seeking employment; and Dr. Rank, a close friend of the family, who is let into the study. Kristine has had a difficult few years, ever since her husband died leaving her with no money or children. Nora says that things have not been easy for them either: Torvald became sick, and they had to travel to Italy so he could recover. Kristine explains that when her mother was ill she had to take care of her brothers, but now that they are grown she feels her life is \"unspeakably empty.\" Nora promises to talk to Torvald about finding her a job. Kristine gently tells Nora that she is like a child. Nora is offended, so she teases the idea that she got money from \"some admirer,\" so they could travel to Italy to improve Torvald's health. She told Torvald that her father gave her the money, but in fact she managed to illegally borrow it without his knowledge because women couldn't do anything economical like signing checks without their husband. Over the years, she has been secretly working and saving up to pay it off. Krogstad, a lower-level employee at Torvald's bank, arrives and goes into the study. Nora is clearly uneasy when she sees him. Dr. Rank leaves the study and mentions that he feels wretched, though like everyone he wants to go on living. In contrast to his physical illness, he says that the man in the study, Krogstad, is \"morally diseased.\" After the meeting with Krogstad, Torvald comes out of the study. Nora asks him if he can give Kristine a position at the bank and Torvald is very positive, saying that this is a fortunate moment, as a position has just become available. Torvald, Kristine, and Dr. Rank leave the house, leaving Nora alone. The nanny returns with the children and Nora plays with them for a while until Krogstad creeps through the ajar door, into the living room, and surprises her. Krogstad tells Nora that Torvald intends to fire him at the bank and asks her to intercede with Torvald to allow him to keep his job. She refuses, and Krogstad threatens to blackmail her about the loan she took out for the trip to Italy; he knows that she obtained this loan by forging her father's signature after his death. Krogstad leaves and when Torvald returns, Nora tries to convince him not to fire Krogstad. Torvald refuses to hear her pleas, explaining that Krogstad is a liar and a hypocrite and that years before he had committed a crime: he forged other people’s signatures. Torvald feels physically ill in the presence of a man \"poisoning his own children with lies and dissimulation.\"", "Kristine arrives to help Nora repair a dress for a costume function that she and Torvald plan to attend the next day. Torvald returns from the bank, and Nora pleads with him to reinstate Krogstad, claiming she is worried Krogstad will publish libelous articles about Torvald and ruin his career. Torvald dismisses her fears and explains that, although Krogstad is a good worker and seems to have turned his life around, he must be fired because he is too familial around Torvald in front of other bank personnel. Torvald then retires to his study to work. Dr. Rank, the family friend, arrives. Nora asks him for a favor, but Rank responds by revealing that he has entered the terminal stage of his disease and that he has always been secretly in love with her. Nora tries to deny the first revelation and make light of it but is more disturbed by his declaration of love. She then clumsily attempts to tell him that she is not in love with him, but loves him dearly as a friend. Having been fired by Torvald, Krogstad arrives at the house. Nora convinces Dr. Rank to go into Torvald's study so he will not see Krogstad. When Krogstad confronts Nora, he declares that he no longer cares about the remaining balance of Nora's loan, but that he will instead preserve the associated bond to blackmail Torvald into not only keeping him employed but also promoting him. Nora explains that she has done her best to persuade her husband, but he refuses to change his mind. Krogstad informs Nora that he has written a letter detailing her crime (forging her father's signature of surety on the bond) and put it in Torvald's mailbox, which is locked. Nora tells Kristine of her difficult situation. She gives her Krogstad's card with his address, and asks her to try to convince him to relent. Torvald enters and tries to retrieve his mail, but Nora distracts him by begging him to help her with the dance she has been rehearsing for the costume party, feigning anxiety about performing. She dances so badly and acts so childishly that Torvald agrees to spend the whole evening coaching her. When the others go to dinner, Nora stays behind for a few minutes and contemplates killing herself.", "Kristine tells Krogstad that she only married her husband because she had no other means to support her sick mother and young siblings and that she has returned to offer him her love again. She believes that he would not have stooped to unethical behavior if he had not been devastated by her abandonment and been in dire financial straits. Krogstad changes his mind and offers to take back his letter from Torvald. However, Kristine decides that Torvald should know the truth for the sake of his and Nora's marriage. After Torvald literally dragging Nora home from the party, Dr. Rank follows them. They chat for a while, with Dr. Rank conveying obliquely to Nora that this is a final goodbye, as he has determined that his death is near. Dr. Rank leaves, and Torvald retrieves his letters. As he reads them, Nora prepares to run away for good, but Torvald confronts her with Krogstad's letter. Enraged, he declares that he is now completely in Krogstad's power; he must yield to Krogstad's demands and keep quiet about the whole affair. He berates Nora, calling her a dishonest and immoral woman and telling her that she is unfit to raise their children. He says that from now on their marriage will be only a matter of appearances. A maid enters, delivering a letter to Nora. The letter is from Krogstad, yet Torvald demands to read the letter and takes it from Nora. Torvald exults that he is saved, as Krogstad has returned the incriminating bond, which Torvald immediately burns along with Krogstad's letters. He takes back his harsh words to his wife and tells her that he forgives her. Nora realizes that her husband is not the strong and gallant man she thought he was, and that he truly loves himself more than he does Nora. Torvald explains that when a man has forgiven his wife, it makes him love her all the more since it reminds him that she is totally dependent on him, like a child. He preserves his peace of mind by thinking of the incident as a mere mistake that she made owing to her foolishness, one of her most endearing feminine traits. Nora tells Torvald that she is leaving him, and in a confrontational scene expresses her sense of betrayal and disillusionment. She says he has never loved her, they have become strangers to each other. She feels betrayed by his response to the scandal involving Krogstad, and she says she must get away to understand herself. She says that she has been treated like a doll to play with for her whole life, first by her father and then by him. Torvald insists that she fulfill her duty as a wife and mother, but Nora says that she has duties to herself that are just as important, and that she cannot be a good mother or wife without learning to be more than a plaything. She reveals that she had expected that he would want to sacrifice his reputation for hers and that she had planned to kill herself to prevent him from doing so. She now realizes that Torvald is not at all the kind of person she had believed him to be and that their marriage has been based on mutual fantasies and misunderstandings. Nora leaves her keys and wedding ring; Torvald breaks down and begins to cry, baffled by what has happened. After Nora leaves the room, Torvald, for one second, still has a sense of hope, and exclaims to himself \"The most wonderful thing of all--?\", just before the door downstairs is heard closing.", "Ibsen's German agent felt that the original ending would not play well in German theatres. In addition, copyright laws of the time would not preserve Ibsen's original work. Therefore, for it to be considered acceptable, and prevent the translator from altering his work, Ibsen was forced to write an alternative ending for the German premiere. In this ending, Nora is led to her children after having argued with Torvald. Seeing them, she collapses, and as the curtain is brought down, it is implied that she stays. Ibsen later called the ending a disgrace to the original play and referred to it as a \"barbaric outrage\". Virtually all productions today use the original ending, as do nearly all of the film versions of the play.", "", "\"A Doll's House\" was based on the life of Laura Kieler (maiden name Laura Smith Petersen), a good friend of Ibsen. Much that happened between Nora and Torvald happened to Laura and her husband, Victor. Similar to the events in the play, Laura signed an illegal loan to save her husband. She wanted the money to find a cure for her husband's tuberculosis. She wrote to Ibsen, asking for his recommendation of her work to his publisher, thinking that the sales of her book would repay her debt. At his refusal, she forged a check for the money. At this point she was found out. In real life, when Victor discovered about Laura's secret loan, he divorced her and had her committed to an asylum. Two years later, she returned to her husband and children at his urging, and she went on to become a well-known Danish author, living to the age of 83. Ibsen wrote \"A Doll's House\" at the point when Laura Kieler had been committed to the asylum, and the fate of this friend of the family shook him deeply, perhaps also because Laura had asked him to intervene at a crucial point in the scandal, which he did not feel able or willing to do. Instead, he turned this life situation into an aesthetically shaped, successful drama. In the play, Nora leaves Torvald with head held high, though facing an uncertain future given the limitations single women faced in the society of the time. Kieler eventually rebounded from the shame of the scandal and had her own successful writing career while remaining discontented with sole recognition as \"Ibsen's Nora\" years afterwards.", "Ibsen started thinking about the play around May 1878, although he did not begin its first draft until a year later, having reflected on the themes and characters in the intervening period (he visualised its protagonist, Nora, for instance, as having approached him one day wearing \"a blue woolen dress\"). He outlined his conception of the play as a \"modern tragedy\" in a note written in Rome on 19 October 1878. \"A woman cannot be herself in modern society,\" he argues, since it is \"an exclusively male society, with laws made by men and with prosecutors and judges who assess feminine conduct from a masculine standpoint!\"", "Ibsen sent a fair copy of the completed play to his publisher on 15 September 1879. It was first published in Copenhagen on 4 December 1879, in an edition of 8,000 copies that sold out within a month; a second edition of 3,000 copies followed on 4 January 1880, and a third edition of 2,500 was issued on 8 March.", "\"A Doll's House\" received its world premiere on 21 December 1879 at the Royal Theatre in Copenhagen, with Betty Hennings as Nora, Emil Poulsen as Torvald, and Peter Jerndorff as Dr. Rank. Writing for the Norwegian newspaper \"Folkets Avis\", the critic Erik Bøgh admired Ibsen's originality and technical mastery: \"Not a single declamatory phrase, no high dramatics, no drop of blood, not even a tear.\" Every performance of its run was sold out. Another production opened at the Royal Theatre in Stockholm, on 8 January 1880, while productions in Christiania (with Johanne Juell as Nora and Arnoldus Reimers as Torvald) and Bergen followed shortly after. In Germany, the actress Hedwig Niemann-Raabe refused to perform the play as written, declaring, \"\"I\" would never leave \"my\" children!\" Since the playwright's wishes were not protected by copyright, Ibsen decided to avoid the danger of being rewritten by a lesser dramatist by committing what he called a \"barbaric outrage\" on his play himself and giving it an alternative ending in which Nora did not leave. A production of this version opened in Flensburg in February 1880. This version was also played in Hamburg, Dresden, Hanover, and Berlin, although, in the wake of protests and a lack of success, Niemann-Raabe eventually restored the original ending. Another production of the original version, some rehearsals of which Ibsen attended, opened on 3 March 1880 at the Residenz Theatre in Munich. In Great Britain, the only way in which the play was initially allowed to be given in London was in an adaptation by Henry Arthur Jones and Henry Herman called \"Breaking a Butterfly\". This adaptation was produced at the Princess Theatre, 3 March 1884. Writing in 1896 in his book \"The Foundations of a National Drama\", Jones says: \"A rough translation from the German version of A Doll's House was put into my hands, and I was told that if it could be turned into a sympathetic play, a ready opening would be found for it on the London boards. I knew nothing of Ibsen, but I knew a great deal of Robertson and H. J. Byron. From these circumstances came the adaptation called \"Breaking a Butterfly\".\" H. L. Mencken writes that it was \"A Doll's House\" \"denaturized and dephlogisticated.... Toward the middle of the action Ibsen was thrown to the fishes, and Nora was saved from suicide, rebellion, flight and immortality by making a faithful old clerk steal her fateful promissory note from Krogstad's desk.... The curtain fell upon a happy home.\" Before 1899 there were two private productions of the play in London (in its original form as Ibsen wrote it) — one featured George Bernard Shaw in the role of Krogstad. The first public British production of the play in its regular form opened on 7 June 1889 at the Novelty Theatre, starring Janet Achurch as Nora and Charles Charrington as Torvald. Achurch played Nora again for a 7-day run in 1897. Soon after its London premiere, Achurch brought the play to Australia in 1889. The play was first seen in America in 1883 in Louisville, Kentucky; Helena Modjeska acted Nora. The play made its Broadway premiere at the Palmer's Theatre on 21 December 1889, starring Beatrice Cameron as Nora Helmer. It was first performed in France in 1894. Other productions in the United States include one in 1902 starring Minnie Maddern Fiske, a 1937 adaptation with acting script by Thornton Wilder and starring Ruth Gordon, and a 1971 production starring Claire Bloom. A new translation by Zinnie Harris at the Donmar Warehouse, starring Gillian Anderson, Toby Stephens, Anton Lesser, Tara FitzGerald and Christopher Eccleston opened in May 2009. The play was performed by in March 2011, one of their early performances following their December 2010 lower Manhattan launch. In August 2013, Young Vic, London, Great Britain, produced a new adaptation of \"A Doll's House\" directed by Carrie Cracknell based on the English language version by Simon Stephens. In September 2014, in partnership with Brisbane Festival, La Boite located in Brisbane, Australia, hosted an adaptation of \"A Doll's House\" written by Lally Katz and directed by Stephen Mitchell Wright. In June 2015, Space Arts Centre in London staged an adaptation of \"A Doll's House\" featuring the discarded alternate ending. 'Manaveli' Toronto staged a Tamil version of \"A Doll's House\" (ஒரு பொம்மையின் வீடு)on 30 June 2018,Translated and Directed by Mr P Wikneswaran. The drama was very well received by the Tamil Community in Toronto and was staged again in few months later. The same stage play was filmed at the beginning of 2019 and screened in Toronto on 4 May 2019. The film was received with very good reviews and the artists were hailed for their performance. Now, arrangements are being made to screen the film, ஒரு பொம்மையின் வீடு, in London, at Safari Cinema Harrow, on 7 July 2019; From September 2019 to October 2019 the Lyric Hammersmith in London hosted a new adaptation of the play by Tanika Gupta who moved the setting of the play to colonial India. Though the plot largely remained unchanged, the protagonists were renamed Tom and Niru Helmer and a conversation was added regarding the British oppression of the Indian public. One significant shift was the lack of a slamming door at the end of the play. They also published a pack of teaching materials which includes extracts from the adapted play script. A production of \"A Doll's House\" by The Jamie Lloyd Company starring Jessica Chastain was initially scheduled to play at the Playhouse Theatre in London in the summer of 2020. Due to the coronavirus pandemic, the play is now postponed with no set date.", "\"A Doll's House\" questions the traditional roles of men and women in 19th-century marriage. To many 19th-century Europeans, this was scandalous. The covenant of marriage was considered holy, and to portray it as Ibsen did was controversial. However, the Irish playwright George Bernard Shaw found Ibsen's willingness to examine society without prejudice exhilarating. The Swedish playwright August Strindberg criticised the play in his volume of essays and short stories \"Getting Married\" (1884). Strindberg questioned Nora's walking out and leaving her children behind with a man that she herself disapproved of so much that she would not remain with him. Strindberg also considers that Nora's involvement with an illegal financial fraud that involved Nora forging a signature, all done behind her husband's back, and then Nora's lying to her husband regarding Krogstad's blackmail, are serious crimes that should raise questions at the end of the play, when Nora is moralistically judging her husband. And Strindberg points out that Nora's complaint that she and Torvald \"have never exchanged one serious word about serious things,\" is contradicted by the discussions that occur in act one and two. The reasons Nora leaves her husband are complex, and various details are hinted at throughout the play. In the last scene, she tells her husband she has been \"greatly wronged\" by his disparaging and condescending treatment of her, and his attitude towards her in their marriage – as though she were his \"doll wife\" — and the children in turn have become her \"dolls,\" leading her to doubt her own qualifications to raise her children. She is troubled by her husband's behavior in regard to the scandal of the loaned money. She does not love her husband, she feels they are strangers, she feels completely confused, and suggests that her issues are shared by many women. George Bernard Shaw suggests that she left to begin \"a journey in search of self-respect and apprenticeship to life,\" and that her revolt is \"the end of a chapter of human history.\" Ibsen was inspired by the belief that \"a woman cannot be herself in modern society,\" since it is \"an exclusively male society, with laws made by men and with prosecutors and judges who assess feminine conduct from a masculine standpoint.\" Its ideas can also be seen as having a wider application: Michael Meyer argued that the play's theme is not women's rights, but rather \"the need of every individual to find out the kind of person he or she really is and to strive to become that person.\" In a speech given to the Norwegian Association for Women's Rights in 1898, Ibsen insisted that he \"must disclaim the honor of having consciously worked for the women's rights movement,\" since he wrote \"without any conscious thought of making propaganda,\" his task having been \"the \"description of humanity\".\" Because of the departure from traditional behavior and theatrical convention involved in Nora's leaving home, her act of slamming the door as she leaves has come to represent the play itself. In \"Iconoclasts\" (1905), James Huneker noted \"That slammed door reverberated across the roof of the world.\"", "", "\"A Doll's House\" has been adapted for the cinema on many occasions, including:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "GDP growth.", "Foreign investments.", "Services.", "Industry.", "Agriculture.", "IT.", "R&D.", "Labour.", "Statistics." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Since the establishment of the Slovak Republic in January 1993, Slovakia has undergone a transition from a centrally planned economy to a free market economy, a process which some observers were to believe was slowed in the 1994–98 period due to the crony capitalism and other fiscal policies of Prime Minister Vladimír Mečiar's government. While economic growth and other fundamentals improved steadily during Mečiar's term, public and private debt and trade deficits also rose, and privatization was uneven. Real annual GDP growth peaked at 6.5% in 1995 but declined to 1.3% in 1999. Two governments of the \"liberal-conservative\" Prime Minister Mikuláš Dzurinda (1998–2006) pursued policies of macroeconomic stabilization and market-oriented structural reforms. Nearly the entire economy has now been privatized, and foreign investment has picked up. Economic growth exceeded expectations in the early 2000s, despite recession in key export markets. In 2001 policies of macroeconomic stabilization and structural reform led to spiraling unemployment. Unemployment peaked at 19.2% (Eurostat regional indicators) in 2001, and though it has fallen to (depending on the methodology) 9.8%( or 13.5% as of September 2006, it remains a problem. Solid domestic demand boosted economic growth to 4.1% in 2002. Strong export growth, in turn, pushed economic growth to a still-strong 4.2% in 2003 and 5.4% in 2004, despite a downturn in household consumption. Multiple reasons entailed a GDP growth of 6% in 2005. Headline consumer price inflation dropped from 26% in 1993 to an average rate of 7.5% in 2004, though this was boosted by hikes in subsidized utilities prices ahead of Slovakia's accession to the European Union. In July 2005, the inflation rate dropped to 2.0% and is projected at less than 3% in 2005 and 2.5% in 2006. In 2006, Slovakia reached the highest economic growth (8.9%) among the members of OECD and the third highest in the EU (just behind Estonia and Latvia). The country has had difficulties addressing regional imbalances in wealth and employment. GDP per capita ranges from 188% of EU average in Bratislava to only 54% in Eastern Slovakia.", "The development of Slovakia's GDP according to the World Bank: In 2007, Slovakia obtained the highest GDP growth among the members of OECD and the EU, with the record level of 14.3% in the fourth quarter. In 2014, GDP growth was 2.4% and in 2015 and 2016 Slovakia's economy grew 3.6% and 3.3% respectively. For year 2018, National Bank of Slovakia predicts raise of GDP by 4%.", "Foreign direct investment (FDI) in Slovakia has increased dramatically. Cheap and skilled labor, a 19% flat tax rate for both businesses and individuals, no dividend taxes, a weak labor code, and a favorable geographical location are Slovakia's main advantages for foreign investors. FDI inflow grew more than 600% from 2000 and cumulatively reached an all-time high of, US$17.3 billion in 2006, or around $18,000 per capita by the end of 2006. The total inflow of FDI in 2006 was $2.54 billion. In October 2005 new investment stimuli introduced – more favorable conditions to IT and research centers, especially to be located in the east part of the country (where there is more unemployment), to bring more added value and not to be logistically demanding. Origin of foreign investment 1996–2005 – the Netherlands 24.3%; Germany 19.4%, Austria 14.1%; Italy 7.5%, United States (8th largest investor) 4.0%. Top investors by companies: Deutsche Telekom (Germany), Neusiedler (Austria), Gaz de France (France), Gazprom (Russia), U.S.Steel (U.S.), MOL (Hungary), ENEL (Italy), E.ON (Germany)... Foreign investment sectors – industry 38.4%; banking and insurance 22.2%; wholesale and retail trade 13.1%; production of electricity, gas and water 10.5%; transport and telecommunications 9.2%. Foreign direct investment \"\" on green field\"\"", "Slovak service sector grew rapidly during the last 10 years and now employs about 69% of the population and contributes with over 61% to GDP. Slovakia's tourism has been rising in recent years, income has doubled from US$640 million in 2001 to US$1.2 billion in 2005.", "Slovakia became industrialized mostly in the second half of the 20th century. Heavy industry (including coal mining and the production of machinery and steel) was built for strategic reasons because Slovakia was less exposed to the military threat than the western parts of Czechoslovakia. After the end of the Cold War, the importance of industry, and especially of heavy industry, declined. In 2010, industry (including construction) accounted for 35.6% of GDP, compared with 49% in 1990. Nowadays, building on a long-standing tradition and a highly skilled labor force, main industries with potential of growth are following sectors: Automotive, Electronics, Mechanical engineering, Chemical engineering, Information technology. The automotive sector is among the fastest growing sectors in Slovakia due to the recent large investments of Volkswagen (Bratislava), Peugeot (Trnava), Kia Motors (Žilina) and since 2018 also Jaguar Land Rover in Nitra. Passenger car production was 1,040,000 units in 2016, what makes Slovakia the largest automobile producer in produced cars per capita. Other big industrial companies include U.S. Steel (metallurgy), Slovnaft (oil industry), Samsung Electronics (electronics), Foxconn (electronics), Mondi SCP (paper), Slovalco (aluminum production), Hyundai Mobis (automotive), Continental Matador (automotive) and Whirlpool Corporation. In 2006, machinery accounted for more than a half of Slovakia's export.", "In 2016, agriculture accounted for 3.6% of GDP (compared to 6.9% in 1993) and occupied about 3.9% of the labor force (down from 10.2% in 1994). Over 40% of the land in Slovakia is cultivated. The southern part of Slovakia (bordering with Hungary) is known for its rich farmland. Growing wheat, rye, corn, potatoes, sugar beets, grains, fruits and sunflowers. Vineyards are concentrated in Little Carpathians, Tokaj, and other southern regions. The breeding of livestock, including pigs, cattle, sheep, and poultry is also important.", "In recent years, service and high-tech-oriented businesses have prospered in Slovakia. Many global companies, including IBM, Dell, Lenovo, AT&T, SAP, Amazon, Johnson Controls, Swiss Re and Accenture, have built outsourcing and service centres in Bratislava and Košice (T-Systems, Cisco Systems, Ness, Deloitte ). Slovak IT companies included ESET, Sygic and Pixel Federation have headquarters in Bratislava.", "According to a recent report by the European Commission, Slovakia (along with some other Central and Eastern European economies) is low on the list of EU states in terms of innovation (Slovakia ranks 22nd). Within the EU, it ranks next to last on knowledge creation and last for innovation and entrepreneurship. In the process of transition to a knowledge economy, it particularly lacks investment into education and a broader application of IT. The World Bank urges Slovakia to upgrade information infrastructure and reform the education system. The OECD states that a stronger product market competition would help. In March 2006, the Slovak government introduced new measures to implement the Action Plan for R&D and Innovation. The program covers the period from 2006 to 2010. The RDA is expected to launch at least one call for the expression of interests related to this program each year. The annual budget for the program will be set by the RDA. The overall amount available for the program depends on annual national budget resources and is likely to vary from year to year. Following an increase of around 50% in budget resources, the RDA disposes of a total budget of €19.31 million in 2006.", "The minimum wage in Slovakia is set at 520 € per month, the average salary for 2017 was 1052 € per month, in the Bratislava region in 2017 the average salary was €1527 per month. As of February 2018 the unemployment rate stood at 5.88%.", "Currency switch to the euro Slovakia switched its currency from the Slovak crown (SK-slovenská koruna) to the Euro on 1 January 2009, at a rate of 30.1260 korunas to the euro. Foreign trade" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Formation.", "Coup d'état.", "The Garbai Government.", "Communist policies.", "Foreign policy scandal and downfall." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "As the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy collapsed in 1918, an independent Hungarian People's Republic was formed after the Aster Revolution. The official proclamation of the republic was on 16 November 1918 and Count Mihály Károlyi became its president. Károlyi struggled to establish the government's authority and to control the country. During the rule of Károlyi's pacifist cabinet, Hungary lost the control over approx. 75% of its former pre-WW1 territories (325 411 km2) without armed resistance and was subject to foreign occupation. An initial nucleus of a Hungarian communist party had been organized in a hotel on 4 November 1918, when a group of Hungarian prisoners of war and other communist proponents formed a Central Committee in Moscow. Led by Béla Kun, the inner circle of the freshly established party returned to Budapest from Moscow on 16 November, 1918. On 24 November they created the Party of Communists from Hungary (Hungarian: Kommunisták Magyarországi Pártja). The name was chosen instead of \"The Hungarian Communist Party\" because the vast majority of supporters were from the urban industrial working class in Hungary which at the time was largely made up of people from non-Hungarian ethnic backgrounds, with ethnic Hungarians only a minority in the new party itself. The party recruited members while propagating its ideas, radicalising many members of the Social Democratic Party of Hungary in the process. By February 1919, the party numbered 30,000 to 40,000 members, including many unemployed ex-soldiers, young intellectuals and ethnic minorities. Kun founded a newspaper, called \"Vörös Újság\" (\"Red News\") and concentrated on attacking Károlyi's liberal government. The party became popular among the Budapest proletariat, it also promised that Hungary would be able to defend its territory even without conscription. Kun promised military help and intervention of the Soviet Red Army, which never came, against non-communist Romanian, Czechoslovak, French and Yugoslav forces. During the following months, the Communist Party's power-base rapidly expanded. Its supporters began to stage aggressive demonstrations against the media and against the Social Democratic Party. The Communists considered the Social Democrats as their main rivals, because the Social Democrats recruited their political supporters from the same social class: the industrial working class of the cities. In one crucial incident, a demonstration turned violent on 20 February and the protesters attacked the editorial office of the Social Democratic Party of Hungary' official paper, \"Népszava\" (\"People's Word\"). In the ensuing chaos, seven people, some policemen, were killed. The government arrested the leaders of the Communist Party, banned \"Vörös Újság\" and closed down the party's buildings. The arrests were particularly violent, with police officers openly beating the communists. This resulted in a wave of public sympathy for the party among the masses of Budapester proletariat. On 1 March, \"Vörös Újság\" was given permission to publish again, and the Communist Party's premises were re-opened. The leaders were permitted to receive guests in prison, which allowed them to keep up with political affairs.", "On 20 March, president Mihály Károlyi announced that the Dénes Berinkey government would resign. The Berinkey government had been placed in an impossible position when it received a note from Paris ordering Hungarian troops to withdraw further their lines. It was widely assumed that the new military lines would be the postwar boundaries. Károlyi and Berinkley concluded that while accepting the note would endanger Hungary's territorial integrity, they were not in a position to reject it either. On 21 March, Károlyi informed the Council of Ministers that only Social Democrats could form a new government, as they were the party with the highest public support in the largest cities and especially in Budapest. In order to form a governing coalition, Social Democrats started secret negotiations with the Communist leaders – who were still imprisoned – and decided to merge their two parties under the name of the Hungarian Socialist Party. President Károlyi, who was an outspoken anti-Communist, was not informed about the fusion of the Communist and Social Democrat parties. Thus, while believing that he had appointed a Social Democratic government, he found himself faced with one dominated by Communists. Mihály Károlyi resigned on 21 March. Béla Kun and his communist friends were released from the Margit Ring prison on the night of 20 March 1919. For the Social Democrats, an alliance with the KMP not only increased their standing with the industrial working class, but also gave them a potential link to the increasingly powerful Russian Communist Party, as Kun had strong ties with prominent Russian Bolsheviks. Following Lenin's model, but without the direct participation of the workers' councils (soviets) from which it took its name, the newly united Socialist Party created a government called the Revolutionary Governing Council, which proclaimed the Hungarian Soviet Republic and dismissed President Károlyi on 21 March. The liberal president Károlyi was arrested by the new Communist government on the first day; in July 1919 he managed to make his escape and flee to Paris. On 23 March, Lenin gave an order to Béla Kun that Social Democrats must be removed from power, so that Hungary could be transformed into a true communist state ruled by a \"dictatorship of the proletariat\". Accordingly, the Communists started to purge the Social Democrats from the government on the next day.", "Sándor Garbai, Béla Kun, Vilmos Böhm, Tibor Szamuely, György Nyisztor, Jenő Varga, Zsigmond Kunfi, Dezső Bokányi, József Pogány, Béla Vágó, Zoltán Rónai, Károly Vantus, Jenő Landler, Béla Szántó, Sándor Szabados, György Lukács, Jenő Hamburger, Gyula Hevesi, Antal Dovcsák, and Gyula Lengyel. In a radio dispatch to the Russian SFSR, Kun informed Lenin that a \"dictatorship of the proletariat\" had been established in Hungary and asked for a treaty of alliance with the Russian SFSR. The Russian SFSR refused because it was itself tied down in the Russian Civil War. The government was formally led by Sándor Garbai, but Kun, as Commissar of Foreign Affairs, held the real power, because only Kun had the acquaintance and friendship with Lenin. (He was the only person in the government who met and talked to Lenin during the Russian Revolution) and Kun kept the contact with the Kremlin via radio communication. The ministries often rotated among the various members of the government. After the declaration of the constitution changes took place in the commissariat. The new ministries:", "This government consisted of a coalition of socialists and communists, but with the exception of Kun, all commissars were former social democrats. Under the rule of Kun, the new government, which had adopted in full the program of the Communists, decreed the abolition of aristocratic titles and privileges; the separation of church and state; codified freedom of speech and assembly; and implemented free education and language and cultural rights to minorities. The Communist government also nationalized industrial and commercial enterprises and socialized housing, transport, banking, medicine, cultural institutions, and all landholdings of more than 40 hectares. Public support for Communists was also heavily dependent on their promise of restoring Hungary's former borders. The government took steps toward normalizing foreign relations with the Triple Entente powers in an effort to gain back some of the lands that Hungary was set to lose in the post-war negotiations. The Communists remained bitterly unpopular in the Hungarian countryside, where the authority of that government was often nonexistent. The communist party and communist policies only had real popular support among the proletarian masses of large industrial centers – especially in Budapest – where the working class represented a high proportion of the inhabitants. The Hungarian government was thus left on its own, and a Red Guard was established under the command of Mátyás Rákosi. In addition, a group of 200 armed men – known as the Lenin Boys – formed a mobile detachment under the leadership of József Cserny. This detachment was deployed at various locations around the country where counter-revolutionary movements were suspected to operate. The Lenin Boys, as well as other similar groups and agitators, killed and terrorised many people (e.g. armed with hand grenades and using their rifles' butts they disbanded religious ceremonies). They executed victims without trial. This caused a number of conflicts with the local population, some of which turned violent. The situation of the Hungarian Communists began to deteriorate in the capital city Budapest after a failed coup by the Social Democrats on 24 June, the newly composed Communist government of Sándor Garbai resorted to large-scale reprisals. Revolutionary tribunals ordered executions of people who were suspected of having been involved in the attempted coup. This became known as the \"Red Terror\", and greatly reduced domestic support for the government even among the working classes of the highly industrialized suburb districts and metropolitan area of Budapest.", "In late May, after the Entente military representative demanded more territorial concessions from Hungary, Kun attempted to \"fulfill\" his promise to adhere to Hungary's historical borders. The men of the Hungarian Red Army were recruited from the volunteers of the Budapest proletariat. In June, the Hungarian Red Army invaded the eastern part of the newly-forming Czechoslovak state (today's Slovakia), the former so-called \"Upper Hungary\". The Hungarian Red Army achieved some military success early on: under the leadership of Colonel Aurél Stromfeld, it ousted Czech troops from the north, and planned to march against the Romanian army in the east. Despite promises for the restoration of the former borders of Hungary, the communists declared the establishment of the Slovak Soviet Republic in Prešov on 16 June 1919. After the proclamation of the Slovak Soviet Republic, the Hungarian nationalists and patriots soon realized that the new communist government had no intentions to recapture the lost territories, only to spread communist ideology and establish other communist states in Europe, thus sacrificing Hungarian national interests. The Hungarian patriots in the Red Army and the professional military officers saw this as a betrayal, and their support for the government began to erode (the communists and their government supported the establishment of the Slovak Communist state, while the Hungarian patriots wanted to keep the reoccupied territories for Hungary). Despite a series of military victories against the Czechoslovak army, the Hungarian Red Army started to disintegrate due to tension between nationalists and communists during the establishment of the Slovak Soviet Republic. The concession eroded support of the communist government among professional military officers and nationalists in the Hungarian Red Army; even the chief of the general staff Aurél Stromfeld, resigned his post in protest. When the French promised the Hungarian government that Romanian forces would withdraw from the Tiszántúl, Kun withdrew his remaining military units who had remained loyal after the political fiasco in Upper Hungary. However, following the Red Army's retreat from the north, the Romanian forces were not pulled back. Kun then unsuccessfully tried to turn the remaining units of the demoralized Hungarian Red Army on the Romanians. The Hungarian Soviet found it increasingly difficult to fight Romania with its small force of communist volunteers from Budapest, and support for both the war and the Communist Party was waning at home. After the demoralizing retreat from \"Northern Hungary\" (later part of Czechoslovakia), only the most dedicated Hungarian Communists volunteered for combat, and the Romanian army broke through the weak lines of the Hungarian Red Army on 30 July. Béla Kun, together with other high-ranking Communists, fled to Vienna on 1 August with only a minority, including György Lukács, the former Commissar for Culture and noted Marxist philosopher, remaining to organise an underground Communist Party. The Budapest Workers' Soviet elected a new government, headed by Gyula Peidl, which only lasted a few days before Romanian forces entered Budapest on 6 August. In the power vacuum created by the fall of the Soviet Republic and the presence of the Romanian Army, semi-regular detachments (technically under Horthy's command, but mostly independent in practice) initiated a campaign of violence against Communists, leftists, and Jews, known as the White Terror. Many supporters of the Hungarian Soviet Republic were executed without trial; others, including Péter Ágoston, Ferenc Bajáki, Dezső Bokányi, Antal Dovcsák, József Haubrich, Kalmár Henrik, Kelen József, György Nyisztor, Sándor Szabados, and Károly Vántus, were imprisoned by trial (\"comissar suits\"). Actor Bela Lugosi, the founder of the country's National Trade Union of Actors (the world's first film actor's union), managed to escape. Most were later released to the Soviet Union by amnesty during the reign of Horthy, after a prisoner exchange agreement between Hungary and the Russian Soviet government in 1921. In all, about 415 prisoners were released as a result of this agreement. Kun himself (along with an unknown number of other Hungarian communists) was executed during Joseph Stalin's Great Purge of the late 1930s in the Soviet Union, to which they had fled in the 1920s." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "Geography.", "Vegetation.", "History.", "Initial settlement.", "Northeast Occupation.", "Land dispute.", "Diplomatic intervention.", "Development from territory to statehood.", "Demographics.", "Indigenous population.", "Economy.", "Education.", "Sports.", "Stadiums.", "Flag.", "Statistical and legal subdivisions." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The name, which passed from the river to the territory in 1904, and to the state in 1962, perhaps originates from the Tupi word \"a'kir ü\" \"green river\" or from the form \"a'kir\", of the Tupi word \"ker\", \"to sleep, to rest\"; but it is almost certain to be a deformation of \"Aquiri\", the spelling which explorers of the region utilized to express \"Umákürü\", or \"Uakiry\", a term from the Ipurinã dialect. There is also a hypothesis that Acquiri derives from \"Yasi'ri\", or \"Ysi'ri\", meaning \"flowing or swift water\". On the voyage which he made on the Purús River in 1878, the colonizer, João Gabriel de Carvalho Melo, wrote from there to the merchant, Viscount of Santo Elias (from Pará), asking him for goods to be sent to the \"mouth of the Aquiri River\". Since in Belém the proprietor of the commercial establishment and the employees were not able to understand João Gabriel's handwriting, or because he had hastily written \"Acri\" or \"Aqri\", instead of \"Aquiri\", the goods and the invoice arrived to the colonizer as having been sent to the Acre River. Acre possesses some nicknames: the End of Brazil, The Rubber Tree State, the Latex State and the Western End. The native inhabitants of Acre are called \"acrianos, in the singular \"acriano. Until the entry in force of the Orthographic Agreement of 1990, the correct spelling was \"acreano in the singular and in the plural \"acreanos. In 2009, with the new orthographic agreement, the change generated controversy between the Academy of Letters of Acre (Academia Acreana de Letras) and the Brazilian Academy of Letters (Academia Brasileira de Letras), alleging that the change would mean the denial of the state's historical and cultural roots, changing the last letter of the toponym from \"E\" to \"I\".", "The state of Acre occupies an area of 152,581 km (58,911 mi) in the extreme west of Brazil. It is located at 70o west longitude and at 9o south latitude. In Brazil, the state is part of the North Region, forming borders with the states of Amazonas and Rondônia, and with two countries: Peru and Bolivia. Practically all of the terrain of the state of Acre is part of the low sandstone plateau, or terra firme, morphological unit which dominates most of the Brazilian Amazon. These terranes rise, in Acre, from the southeast to the northeast, with very tabular topography in general. In the extreme west is found the Serra da Contamana or Serra do Divisor, along the western border, with the highest altitudes in the state (). About 63% of the state's surface lies between in height; 16% between 300 and 609 (984 and 1,998 ft); and 21% between 200 and 135 (656 and 443 ft). The climate is hot and very humid, of the \"Am\" type in the Köppen climate classification system, and the monthly average temperatures vary between, being the lowest average of the North Region. The rainfall reaches an annual total of, with a clear dry season in the months of June, July, and August. The Amazon Rainforest covers all of the state territory. Very rich in rubber trees of the most valuable species (\"Hevea brasiliensis\") and Brazil nut trees (\"Bertholletia excelsa\"), the forest guarantees that Acre is the greatest national producer of rubber and nuts. Acre's principal rivers, mostly navigable during the wet season (the Juruá, Tarauacá, Envira, Purús, Iaco, and Acre), cross the state with almost parallel courses which will only converge outside of its territory. The largest recorded Black Caiman, measured at and weighing, was shot in Acre in 1965.", "The Amazon represents over half of the planet's remaining rainforests and comprises the largest and most species-rich tract of tropical rainforest in the world. Wet tropical forests are the most species-rich biome, and tropical forests in the Americas are consistently more species-rich than the wet forests in Africa and Asia. As the largest tract of tropical rainforest in the Americas, the Amazonian rainforests have unparalleled biodiversity. More than 1/3 of all species in the world live in the Amazon Rainforest.", "The region of present-day Acre is thought to have been inhabited by Pre-Columbian civilizations since at least 2,100 years ago. Evidence includes complex geoglyphs of this age found in the area, which also suggest that the natives who crafted them had a relatively advanced knowledge on this technology. Since at least the early 15th century, the region has been inhabited by peoples who spoke Panoan languages; their territory was geographically close to the Incas. In the mid-18th century, the region was colonized by the Spanish and became part of the Viceroyalty of Peru. Following the Peruvian and Bolivian wars of independence, which ended in 1826, the region and large portions around it became part of Bolivia. It was a territory of the short-lived Peru–Bolivian Confederation (1836–1839), until the two countries separated again and the region returned to Bolivian control. The discovery of rubber tree groves in the region in the mid-19th century attracted more immigration, including particularly Brazilian exploiters. Despite the increased numbers of Brazilians, the Treaty of Ayacucho (1867) determined that the region belonged to Bolivia. By 1877, Acre's population was composed almost entirely of Brazilians coming from the Northeast. In 1899, Brazilian settlers from Acre created an independent state in the region called the Republic of Acre. Bolivians tried to gain control of the area, but Brazilians revolted and there were border confrontations, generating the episode which became known as the Acre War. On November 17, 1903, with the signing over and sale in the Treaty of Petrópolis, Brazil received final possession of the region. Acre was then integrated into Brazil as a territory divided into three departments. The territory passed under Brazilian sovereignty in exchange for the payment of two million pounds sterling, land taken from Mato Grosso and in accordance with the construction of the Madeira-Mamoré railway. Having been united in 1920, on June 15, 1962, it was elevated to the category of state, being the first to be governed by a woman, the teacher Iolanda Fleming. During the Second World War, the rubber tree groves of Malaya were taken by the Japanese, and Acre thus left a great mark on western and world history, helping to change the course of the war in favour of the allies. This was thanks to the Rubber Soldiers, natives mostly of the Ceará plantation. It was perhaps due to Acre and its decisive contribution to the allied victory, that Brazil received North American resources to form the National Steel Company (Companhia Siderúrgica Nacional), and thus aid in the industrialization of the Central-south, which was until such time mostly stagnant, and which did not yet possess basic heavy industries. On April 4, 2008, Acre won a judicial debate with the state of Amazonas in relation to the dispute surrounding the Cunha Gomes Line, which culminated in the annexation of part of the municipalities of Envira, Guajará, Boca do Acre, Pauini, Eirunepé and Ipixuna. The territorial redefinition consolidated the incorporation of 1.2 million hectares of the Liberdade, Gregório, and Mogno forest complex to the territory of Acre, which corresponds to 11,583.87 km.", "Since the 1970s, numerous geoglyphs have been discovered on deforested land in Acre dating between 0–1250 AD, leading to claims about Pre-Columbian civilizations. The BBC's \"Unnatural Histories\" claimed that the Amazon rainforest, rather than being a pristine wilderness, has been shaped by man for at least 11,000 years through practices such as forest gardening. Ondemar Dias is accredited with first discovering the geoglyphs in 1977 and Alceu Ranzi with furthering their discovery after flying over Acre. During the 17th century, Portuguese penetrations had already reached many of the maximum ends of Brazil. The expansion of the geographic horizon to the west was an inevitable consequence, reaching lands of Spanish possession; a fact which became a topic of the Treaties of Madrid (1750) and San Ildefonso (1777). Both of the treaties, based on the explorations of Portuguese \"bandeirante\" Manoel Félix de Lima of the Guaporé and Madeira River drainage basins, established the riverbeds of the Mamoré and Guaporé to their maximum western limits on the left bank of the Javari as a dividing line between the respective areas in question. The settlement of the zone, stimulated by the creation of the new royal captaincy of Mato Grosso (1751), occurred in the direction of the frontier, causing several important centers to emerge: Vila Bela (1752) on the banks of the Guaporé, Vila Maria (1778) on the Paraguay River, and Casalvasco (1783). Until the mid-19th century, a systematic settling of the area was not thought of. At that time, the great virgin source of rubber found there would attract commercial interest, provoking its colonization. The economic politics of the empire, directed towards agricultural exportation activities based on coffee, did not permit the utilization and incorporation of the territories of the extreme west. From this negligence it happened that in Cândido Mendes de Almeida's \"Atlas of the Empire of Brazil\" (1868), a model of its time, the Acre River and its principal tributaries did not appear, being completely unknown to geographers. Notwithstanding such politics, some few armed bands of Brazilian explorers exploited the rural and unpopulated region, not knowing whether they pertained to Brazil, Peru, or Bolivia. Hence, still in the mid 19th century, fed by the drive which the search for rubber occasioned, solicited as it was on the international market, various expeditions searched out the area seeking to facilitate the installation of colonists. At that time, João Rodrigues Cametá initiated the conquest of the Purús River; Manuel Urbano da Encarnação, an Indian with an extensive knowledge of the region, reached the Acre River, traveling up it as far as the vicinity of the Xapuri; and João da Cunha Correia reached the drainage basin of the upper Tarauacá. All this clearing took place, for the most part, on Bolivian land. Exploitative activities, the industrial importance of the rubber reserves, and the penetration of Brazilian colonists in the region raised the attention of Bolivia, which solicited a better fixation of boundaries. After much failed negotiation, in 1867 the Treaty of Ayacucho was signed, which recognized the colonial uti possidetis. A border was established parallel to the confluence of the Beni and Mamoré Rivers running eastward to the headwaters of the Javari River, even though the source of this river was not yet known.", "As the price of rubber rose in the market, the demand for it grew, and the race to the Amazon increased. Plantations multiplied in this manner in the valleys of the Acre, Purús, and farther west, the Tarauacá: in one year (1873–1874), in the drainage basin of the Purús, the population rose from around one thousand to four thousand inhabitants. On the other hand, the imperial government, already sensitive to the resulting offerings of rubber, considered the entire valley of the Purús to be Brazilian. Also, in the second half of the 19th century, disturbances were registered in the demographic and geo-economic balance of the empire, with the coffee boom in the south channeling financial resources and workers, in detriment to the northeast. The growing impoverishment of that region stimulated migratory waves to the states of Rio de Janeiro, Minas Gerais, and São Paulo. The movement of population became particularly active during the prolonged drought of the northeastern interior, from 1877 to 1880, expelling hundreds of Cearenses, who headed for the rubber plantations in search of work. The advance of Cearense migration proceeded to the banks of the Juruá and accelerated the occupation of land which Bolivia would later reclaim. The great fluvial river beds and their tributary systems were then intensely trafficked by small ship fleets of varied transport, transporting colonists, goods, and supply material to the most isolated nuclei. The governments of Amazonas and Pará quickly instituted the establishment of \"supply houses\", which financed various types of operations, guaranteed credit, and promoted the commercial incentive of the rubber tree groves. The rubber race assumed proportions similar to those of the search for gold veins in the 18th century. The results were equal. The situation drew the attention of the government to the economic utilization of an almost completely unknown area, besides permitting -as in a colony- the patrimonial incorporation of new regions, on the basis of penetration movements by private enterprise.", "In 1890, a Bolivian official, José Manuel Pando, alerted his government to the fact that in the drainage basin of the Juruá there were more than three hundred rubber plantations, with the occupation by Brazilians taking root more and more rapidly on Bolivian soil. The Brazilian penetration had advanced in depth west from the 64th meridian to beyond the 72nd, in an extension of one thousand kilometers, even though the borders had already been fixed above the confluence of the Beni and Mamoré Rivers according to the Treaty of 1867. In 1895 a new commission for the settlement of demarcation was created. The Brazilian representative, Gregório Taumaturgo de Azevedo, resigned after verifying that the ratification of the Treaty of 1867 would harm the rubber gatherers which were installed there. In 1899, the Bolivians established an administrative post in Puerto Alonso, exacting taxes and customs duties upon Brazilian activities. The following year, Brazil accepted the sovereignty of Bolivia in the zone, when it officially recognized the old boundaries at the confluence of the Beni and Mamoré. The rubber gatherers, distant from the diplomatic process, judged their interests to have been cheated, and initiated insurrection movements. In the same year that Bolivia implanted administration in Puerto Alonso (1899), two serious contestations occurred. In April, a Cearense lawyer, José Carvalho, led an armed movement, which culminated in the expulsion of the Bolivian authorities. Shortly thereafter, Bolivia began negotiations with an Anglo-American trust, the \"Bolivian Syndicate\", in order to promote, with exceptional force (exacting of taxes, armed force), the political and economic incorporation of Acre into its territory. The governor of Amazonas, Ramalho Júnior, informed of the agreement by a functionary of the Bolivian consulate in Belém, Luis Gálvez Rodríguez de Arias, sent military contingents forward to occupy Puerto Alonso. Gálvez proclaimed the independence of Acre, in the form of a republic, becoming its president with the acquiescence of the rubber gatherers. Under protests from Bolivia, President Campos Sales abolished the ephemeral republic (March 1900). Bolivians, reinstated in the region, suffered, still in 1900, the assault of the so-called Floriano Peixoto expedition or \"expedition of the poets\", thus called, for being constituted for the most part of intellectual bohemians from Manaus. The conflict did not have great consequences, since, following brief fighting in the area surrounding Puerto Alonso, the expedition was completely scattered. Ultimately, the Bolivian government signed a contract with the \"Bolivian Syndicate\" (July 1901). The Brazilian congress, shocked by the arbitrariness of the act, took measures, canceling commercial accords and navigation between the two countries, and suspending the right of travel to Bolivia. At the same time, Brazilians organized an armed assault of great size on the conflicted area. The operations were led by a former student of the Military School of Rio Grande do Sul (Escola Militar do Rio Grande do Sul), José Plácido de Castro. The rubber gatherers occupied the village of Xapuri in Alto Acre (August 1902), apprehending the Bolivian authorities. Finally, Plácido de Castro's forces besieged Puerto Alonso, proclaiming the Independent State of Acre, after the capitulation of Bolivian troops (February 1903).", "To José Plácido de Castro, proclaimed governor of the new Independent State of Acre, it was left to discuss the question of borders in the diplomatic sphere. The Baron of Rio Branco, who had just assumed the role of Minister of External Relations, immediately opened channels which were meant to have put an end to the question. The simplest problem, with the \"Bolivian Syndicate\", was resolved by means of the compensation of one hundred and ten thousand pounds to renounce the contract (February 1903). Next, commercial relations were reestablished with Bolivia, while a part of the territory on the upper Purús and Juruá, militarily occupied (March 1903) was declared litigious. From the subsequent talks, it followed that Bolivia would cede an area of 142,800 km, in exchange for two million pounds sterling, paid in two installments. Brazil committed to the construction of a Madeira-Mamoré Railway, connecting Porto Velho to Guajará-Mirim, at the confluence of the Beni and Madeira rivers. Such were the principal stipulations of the Treaty of Petrópolis (November 17, 1903), through which Brazil acquired the future territory, now state of Acre. There remained the question of Peru, which also claimed sovereignty over the entire territory of Acre and part of the state of Amazonas, in light of colonial titles. After armed conflicts between Brazilians and Peruvians on the upper Purús and Juruá, a joint administration was established in those regions (1904). The studies for the fixation of borders proceeded until the end of 1909, when a treaty was signed which completed the political integration of Acre into Brazilian territory.", "The evolution of Acre appears to be a typical phenomenon of modern penetration in the history of Brazil, accompanied by important contributions to the economic projection of the country. Exercising a prominent role in national exports until 1913, when rubber was introduced to European and North American markets, Acre enjoyed a period of great prosperity: at the start of the 20th century, in a period of less than ten years, it boasted more than 50,000 inhabitants. It may be asserted that all the endeavors towards the integration of Acre into Brazilian life correspond to the parallel efforts of the federal government, from 1946 on, to the effect of recuperating the economy of the Amazon, including it in regional development projects. Attending to the judicial arrangements of the Treaty of Petrópolis, President Rodrigues Alves sanctioned the law which created the Territory of Acre (1904), further dividing it into three departments: Alto Acre, Alto Purús, and Alto Juruá, the latter being separated to form Alto Tarauacá (1912). The departmental administration was exercised until 1921 by mayors appointed by the President of Brazil. At that time the arrangements were altered, passing the administration to a governor. The second Constitution of Brazil (1934) conceded to Acre the right to elect representatives to the National Congress of Brazil. During the Estado Novo (New State) political ideas involving the valorization of the interior took hold, with the intention of promoting the articulation of more isolated areas. Thereafter, the vote of 1946 commended the channeling of budgetary resources from the Union to the Amazon, determining that the Territory of Acre would be elevated to the condition of state as soon as its revenue reached the equivalent of the lowest state tax exaction. In the 1960s, the second cycle of efforts to accelerate the progress of the Amazon area was begun with the Superintendency of the Development of the Amazon (Superintendência do Desenvolvimento da Amazônia or SUDAM, 1966). Better networking of regional sub-sectors within the state was sought out, thus connecting the branch lines of the Transamazônica, which connected Rio Branco and Brasiléia, on the upper course of the Acre River, and Cruzeiro do Sul, on the banks of the Juruá, crossing the valleys of the Purús and the Tarauacá. Planning politics developed, therefore, destined to correct the demographic, economic, and political distortions of national integration.", "According to the IBGE of 2007, there were 664,000 people residing in the state. The population density was 4.5 inh./km. Urbanization: 69.6% (2006); Population growth: 3.3% (1991–2000); Houses: 162,000 (2006). The last PNAD (National Research for Sample of Domiciles) census revealed the following numbers: 441,000 Brown (Multiracial) people (66.5%), 172,000 White (26.0%), 45,000 Black (6.8%), 4,000 Asian or Amerindian people (0.7%).", "Acre is inhabited by various indigenous groups of the Panoan language family, including Kashinawa, Jaminawa and Xanenawa. There are also three groups of other language families, Madiha (Kulina) of the Arawan family as well as Yine (Manchineri) and Ashaninka (Kampa) of the Arawakan family.", "The service sector is the largest component of GDP at 66%, followed by the industrial sector at 28.1%. Agriculture represents 5.9%, of GDP (2004). Acre exports: wood 85.6%, poultry (chicken and wild turkey) 4.7%, wood products 1.7% (2002). Share of the Brazilian economy: 0.2% (2005).", "Portuguese is the official national language, and thus the primary language taught in schools. English and Spanish are also part of the official high school curriculum. Rio Branco International Airport is located in a rural zone of the municipality of Rio Branco, in the state of Acre. It was opened on November 2, 1999, with a unique characteristic: it moved 22 kilometers away from the previous airport site. Rio Branco Airport serves domestic and international flights (by scheduled carriers and air taxi firms) along with general and military aviation. The terminal can receive 270 thousand passengers a year and serves an average of 14 daily operations. Cruzeiro do Sul International Airport is located 18 kilometers away from the city center, which helps access to the Alto Juruá region. It was opened on October 28, 1970, and absorbed by Infraero on March 31, 1980. The airport infrastructure was built in 1976 by the municipal government. In 1994 the runway was totally renovated.", "Rio Branco provides visitors and residents with various sport activities.", "The Arena da Floresta stadium in Rio Branco was one of the 18 candidates to host games in the 2014 FIFA World Cup, which was held in Brazil, but did not make it to the final 12 chosen.", "The flag was adopted on March 15, 1921. It is a variation of the flags used by the secessionist state of Acre, with the yellow and green parts exchanged and mirrored. The yellow color symbolizes peace, green hope, and the star symbolizes the light which guided those who worked to make Acre a state of Brazil.", "Acre is divided into twenty-two municipalities, five microregions and two mesoregions:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life and legal career.", "Political rise.", "Start in Virginia politics.", "War of 1812.", "U.S. House of Representatives.", "Return to state politics.", "U.S. Senate.", "Democratic maverick.", "Break with the party.", "1836 presidential election.", "National political figure.", "1840 presidential election.", "Adding Tyler to the ticket.", "General election.", "Vice presidency.", "Presidency (1841–1845).", "Family and personal life.", "Post-presidency and death.", "Prelude to the American Civil War.", "Death.", "Legacy.", "Bibliography." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "John Tyler was born on March 29, 1790; like his future running mate, William Henry Harrison, Tyler hailed from Charles City County, Virginia, and was descended from aristocratic and politically entrenched families of English ancestry. The Tyler family traced its lineage to colonial Williamsburg in the 17th century. John Tyler Sr., commonly known as Judge Tyler, was a friend and college roommate of Thomas Jefferson and served in the Virginia House of Delegates alongside Benjamin Harrison V, father of William. The elder Tyler served four years as Speaker of the House of Delegates before becoming a state court judge. He subsequently served as governor and as a judge on the U.S. District Court at Richmond. His wife, Mary Marot (Armistead), was the daughter of a prominent plantation owner, Robert Booth Armistead. She died of a stroke when her son John was seven years old. With two brothers and five sisters,", "", "In 1811, at age 21, Tyler was elected to represent Charles City County in the House of Delegates. He served five successive one-year terms and sat on the Courts and Justice committee. The young politician's defining positions were on display", "Tyler, like most Americans of his day, was anti-British, and at the onset of the War of 1812 he urged support for military action in a speech to the House of Delegates. After the British capture of Hampton, Virginia, in the summer of 1813, Tyler eagerly organized a militia company, the Charles City", "The death of U.S. Representative John Clopton in September 1816 created a vacancy in Virginia's 23rd congressional district. Tyler sought the seat, as did his friend and political ally Andrew Stevenson. Since the two men were politically alike, the race was for the most part a popularity contest. Tyler's political connections and campaigning skills narrowly won him the election. He was sworn into the Fourteenth Congress on December 17, 1816, to serve as a Democratic-Republican, the major political party in the Era of", "Restless and bored after two years at home practicing law, Tyler sought election to the House of Delegates in 1823. Neither member from Charles City County was seeking re-election, and Tyler was elected easily that April, finishing first among the three candidates seeking the two seats. At the term's start in December, he found the chamber in debate over the impending presidential election of 1824. The congressional nominating caucus, an early system for choosing presidential candidates, was still used despite its growing unpopularity. Tyler tried to convince the lower house to endorse the caucus system and choose William H. Crawford as the Democratic-Republican candidate. Crawford captured the legislature's support, but Tyler's proposal was defeated. His most enduring effort in this second legislative tenure was saving the College of William and Mary, which risked closure from waning enrollment. Rather than move it from rural Williamsburg to the populous capital of Richmond, as some suggested, Tyler proposed that a series of administrative and financial reforms be enacted. These were passed into law", "In January 1827, the General Assembly considered whether to elect U.S. Senator John Randolph for a full six-year term. Randolph was a contentious figure; although he shared the staunch states' rights views held by most of the Virginia legislature, he had a reputation for fiery rhetoric and erratic behavior on the Senate floor, which put his allies in an awkward position. Furthermore, he had made enemies by fiercely opposing President John Quincy Adams and Kentucky Senator Henry Clay. The nationalists of the Democratic-Republican Party, who supported Adams and", "By the time of Tyler's senatorial election, the 1828 campaign for president was in progress. Adams, the incumbent president, was challenged by Gen. Andrew Jackson. The Democratic-Republicans had splintered into Adams' National Republicans and Jackson's Democrats. Tyler disliked both candidates for their willingness to increase the power of the federal government, but he was increasingly drawn to Jackson, hoping that he would not seek to spend as much federal money on internal improvements as Adams. Of Jackson he wrote, \"Turning to him I may at least indulge in hope; looking on Adams I must despair.\" When the Twentieth Congress began in December 1827, Tyler served alongside his Virginia colleague and friend Littleton Waller Tazewell, who shared his strict constructionist views and uneasy support of Jackson. Throughout his tenure, Sen. Tyler vigorously opposed national infrastructure bills, feeling these were matters for individual states to decide. He and his Southern colleagues unsuccessfully opposed the protectionist Tariff of 1828, known to its detractors as the \"Tariff of Abominations\". Tyler suggested", "Tyler's uneasy relationship with his party came to a head during the 22nd Congress, as the Nullification Crisis of 1832–33 began. South Carolina, threatening secession, passed the Ordinance of Nullification in November 1832, declaring the \"Tariff of Abominations\" null and void within its borders. This raised the constitutional question of whether states could nullify federal laws. President Jackson, who denied such a right, prepared to sign a Force Bill allowing the federal government to use military action to enforce the tariff. Tyler, who sympathized with South Carolina's reasons for nullification, rejected Jackson's use of military force against a state and gave a speech in February 1833 outlining his views. He supported Clay's Compromise Tariff, enacted that year, to gradually reduce the tariff over ten years, alleviating tensions between the states and the federal government. In voting against the Force Bill, Tyler knew he would permanently alienate the pro-Jackson faction of the Virginia legislature, even those who had tolerated his irregularity up to this point. This jeopardized his re-election in February 1833, in which he faced the pro-administration Democrat James McDowell; however, with Clay's endorsement, Tyler was re-elected by a margin of 12 votes. Jackson further offended Tyler by moving", "While Tyler wished to attend to his private life and family, he was soon occupied with the 1836 presidential election. He had been suggested as a vice presidential candidate since early 1835, and the same day the Virginia Democrats issued the expunging instruction, the Virginia Whigs nominated him as their candidate. The new Whig Party was not organized enough to hold a national convention and name a single ticket against Van Buren, Jackson's chosen successor. Instead, Whigs in various regions put forth their own preferred tickets, reflecting the party's tenuous coalition: the Massachusetts Whigs nominated Daniel Webster and Francis Granger, the Anti-Masons of the Northern and border states backed William Henry Harrison and Granger, and the states' rights advocates of the middle and lower", "Tyler had been drawn into Virginia politics as a U.S. Senator. From October 1829 to January 1830, he served as a member of the state constitutional convention, a role which he had been reluctant to accept. The original Virginia Constitution gave outsize influence to the state's more conservative eastern counties, as it allocated an equal number of legislators to each county (regardless of population) and only granted suffrage to property owners. The convention gave the more populous and liberal counties of western Virginia an opportunity to expand their influence. Tyler, a slaveowner from eastern Virginia, supported the existing system. He largely remained on the sidelines during the debate, however, not wishing to alienate any of the state's political factions. He was focused on his Senate career, which required a broad base of support, and gave speeches during the convention promoting compromise", "", "When the 1839 Whig National Convention convened in Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, to choose the party's ticket, the United States was in the third year of a serious recession following the Panic of 1837. President Van Buren's ineffective efforts to deal with the situation cost him public support. With the Democratic Party torn into factions, the head of the Whig ticket would likely be the next president. Harrison, Clay, and General Winfield Scott all sought the nomination. Tyler attended the convention and was with the Virginia delegation, although he had no official status. Because of bitterness over the unresolved Senate election, the Virginia delegation refused to make Tyler its favorite son candidate for vice president. Tyler himself did nothing to aid his chances. If his favored candidate for the presidential nomination, Clay, were successful, he would likely not be chosen for the second place on the ticket, which would probably go to a Northerner to assure geographic balance. The convention deadlocked among the three main candidates, with Virginia's votes going to Clay. Many Northern Whigs opposed Clay, and some, including Pennsylvania's Thaddeus Stevens, showed the Virginians a", "There was no Whig platform—the party leaders decided that trying to put one together would tear the party apart. So the Whigs ran on their opposition to Van Buren, blaming him and his Democrats for the recession. In campaign materials, Tyler was praised for integrity in resigning over the state legislature's instructions. The Whigs initially hoped to muzzle Harrison and Tyler, lest they make policy statements that alienated segments of the party. But after Tyler's Democratic rival, Vice President Johnson, made a successful speaking tour, Tyler was called upon to", "As vice president-elect, Tyler remained quietly at his home in Williamsburg. He privately expressed hopes that Harrison would prove decisive and not allow intrigue in the Cabinet, especially in the first days of the administration. Tyler did not participate in selecting the Cabinet, and did not recommend anyone for federal office in the new Whig administration. Harrison, beset by office seekers and the demands of Senator Clay, twice sent letters to Tyler asking his advice as to whether a Van Buren appointee should be dismissed. In both cases, Tyler recommended against, and Harrison wrote, \"Mr. Tyler says they ought not to be removed, and I will not remove them.\" The two men met briefly in Richmond in February, and reviewed a parade together, though they did not discuss politics. Tyler was sworn in on March 4, 1841, in the Senate chamber, and delivered a three-minute speech about states' rights before swearing in the new senators and then attending Harrison's inauguration. Following the new president's", "Harrison's death in office was an unprecedented event that caused considerable uncertainty regarding presidential succession. Article II, Section 1, Clause 6 of the United States Constitution, which governed intra-term presidential succession at the time (now superseded by the Twenty-fifth Amendment), states that: Interpreting this Constitutional prescription led to the question of whether the actual office of president devolved upon Vice President Tyler, or merely its powers and duties. The Cabinet met within an hour of Harrison's death and, according to a later account, determined that Tyler would be \"vice-president acting president\". However, Tyler firmly and decisively asserted that the Constitution gave him full and unqualified powers of office and had himself sworn in immediately as president, setting a critical precedent for an orderly transfer of power following a president's death. The presidential oath was administered by Judge William Cranch in Tyler's hotel room. He considered the oath redundant to his oath as vice president, but wished to quell any doubt over his accession. When he took office, Tyler, at 51, became the youngest president to that point. His record was in turn surpassed by his immediate successor James Polk, who was inaugurated in 1845 at the age of 49. \"Fearing that he would alienate Harrison's supporters, Tyler decided to keep Harrison's entire cabinet even though several members were openly hostile to him and resented his assumption of the office.\" At his first cabinet meeting, Webster informed him of Harrison's practice of making policy by a majority vote. (This was a dubious assertion, since Harrison had held few cabinet meetings and had baldly asserted his authority over the cabinet in at least one.) The Cabinet fully expected the new president to continue this practice. Tyler was astounded and immediately corrected them: Tyler delivered an inaugural address before the Congress on April 9, in which he reasserted his belief in fundamental tenets of Jeffersonian democracy and limited federal power. Tyler's claim to be president was not immediately accepted by opposition members of Congress such as John Quincy Adams, who felt that Tyler should be a caretaker under the title of \"acting president\", or remain vice president in name. Among those who questioned Tyler's authority was Clay, who had planned to be \"the real power behind a fumbling throne\" while Harrison was alive, and intended the same for Tyler. Clay saw Tyler as the \"vice-president\" and his presidency as a mere \"regency\". Ratification of the decision by Congress came through the customary notification that it makes to the president, that it is in session and available to receive messages. In both houses, unsuccessful amendments were offered to strike the word \"president\" in favor of language including the term \"vice president\" to refer to Tyler. Mississippi Senator Robert J. Walker, in opposition, stated that the idea that Tyler was still vice president and could preside over the Senate was absurd. Tyler's opponents never fully accepted him as president. He was referred to by many mocking nicknames, including \"His Accidency\". However, Tyler never wavered from his conviction that he was the rightful president; when his political opponents sent correspondence to the White House addressed to the \"vice president\" or \"acting president\", Tyler had it returned unopened.", "Tyler fathered more children than any other American president. His first wife was Letitia Christian (November 12, 1790 – September 10, 1842), with whom he had eight children: Mary (1815–1847), Robert (1816–1877), John (1819–1896), Letitia (1821–1907), Elizabeth (1823–1850), Anne (1825–1825), Alice (1827–1854) and Tazewell (1830–1874). Although Tyler's family was dear to him, during his political rise he was often away from home for extended periods. When Tyler chose not to seek re-election to the House of Representatives in 1821 because of illness, he wrote that he would soon be called upon to educate his growing family. It was difficult to practice law while away in Washington part of the year, and his plantation was more profitable when Tyler was available to manage it himself. By the time he entered the Senate in 1827, he had resigned himself to spending", "Tyler retired to a Virginia plantation, originally named Walnut Grove (or \"the Grove\"), located on the James River in Charles City County. He renamed it Sherwood Forest, in a reference to the folk legend Robin Hood, to signify that he had been \"outlawed\" by the Whig Party. He did not take farming lightly and worked hard to maintain large yields. His neighbors, largely Whigs, appointed him to the minor office of overseer of roads in 1847 in an effort to mock him. To their displeasure he treated the job seriously, frequently summoning his neighbors to provide their slaves for road work, and continuing to insist on carrying out his duties even after his neighbors asked him to stop. The former president spent his time in a manner common to Virginia's First Families, with parties, visiting or being visited by other aristocrats, and spending summers at the family's seaside home, \"Villa Margaret\". He withdrew from politics, rarely receiving visits from his former allies, and was not sought out as an adviser. Occasionally requested to deliver a public speech, Tyler spoke during the unveiling of a monument to Henry Clay. He acknowledged their political battles, but spoke highly of his former colleague, whom he had always admired for bringing about the Compromise Tariff of 1833.", "After John Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry ignited fears of an abolitionist attempt to free the slaves, or an actual slave rebellion, several Virginia communities organized militia units, or reenergized existing ones. Tyler's community organized a cavalry troop and a home guard company; Tyler was chosen to command the home guard troops with the rank of captain. On the eve of the Civil War, Tyler re-entered public life as presiding officer of the Virginia Peace Conference held in Washington, D.C., in February 1861 as an effort to devise means to prevent a war. The convention sought a compromise to avoid civil war even as the Confederate Constitution was being drawn up at the Montgomery Convention. Despite his leadership role in the Peace Conference, Tyler opposed its final resolutions. He felt that they were written by the free state delegates, did not protect the rights of slave owners in the territories, and would do little to bring back the lower South", "Throughout his life, Tyler suffered from poor health. As he aged, he suffered more frequently from colds during the winter. On January 12, 1862, after complaining of chills and dizziness, he vomited and collapsed. Despite treatment, his health failed to improve, and he made plans to return to Sherwood Forest by the 18th. As he lay in bed the night before, he began suffocating, and Julia summoned his doctor. Just after midnight, Tyler took a sip of brandy, and told his doctor, \"Doctor, I am going\", to which the doctor replied, \"I hope not, Sir.\" Tyler then said, \"Perhaps it is", "Tyler's presidency has provoked highly divided responses among political commentators. It is generally held in low esteem by historians; Edward P. Crapol began his biography \"John Tyler, the Accidental President\" (2006) by noting: \"Other biographers and historians have argued that John Tyler was a hapless and inept chief executive whose presidency was seriously flawed.\" In \"The Republican Vision of John Tyler\" (2003), Dan Monroe observed that the Tyler presidency \"is generally ranked as one of the least successful\". Seager wrote that Tyler \"was neither a great president nor a great intellectual\", adding that despite a few achievements, \"his administration has been and must be counted an unsuccessful one by any modern measure of accomplishment\". A survey of historians conducted by C-SPAN in 2017 ranked Tyler as 39th of 43 men to hold the office. Tyler's assumption of complete presidential powers \"set a hugely important precedent\", according to a biographical sketch by the University of Virginia's Miller Center of Public Affairs. Tyler's successful insistence that he was president, and not a caretaker or acting president, was a model for the succession of seven other presidents over the 19th and 20th centuries. The propriety of Tyler's action in assuming both the title of the presidency and its full powers was legally affirmed in 1967, when it was codified in the Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution. Some scholars in recent years have praised Tyler's foreign policy. Monroe credits him with \"achievements like the Webster–Ashburton treaty which heralded", "Books Articles Archival collections" ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Controversy and publicity.", "United States.", "Australia.", "Germany.", "Russia.", "Responses to critics.", "Band members." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1" ], "content": [ "Members from earlier Buffalo-area death metal bands Beyond Death (Alex Webster, Jack Owen), Tirant Sin (Paul Mazurkiewicz, Chris Barnes, Bob Rusay), and Leviathan (Barnes) established the band in December 1988. The band played its first show at Buffalo's River Rock Cafe in May 1989, shortly after recording a five-song thrash metal demo tape, \"Cannibal Corpse\". Within a year of the first gig, the band was signed to Metal Blade Records, apparently after the label had heard the demo tape that the manager of the record store at which Barnes was working sent in. Their full-length death metal debut album, \"Eaten Back to Life\", was released in August 1990. The band has had several lineup changes. In February 1993, founding member and guitarist Bob Rusay was dismissed from the group (after which he became a golf instructor) and was ultimately replaced by Malevolent Creation guitarist Rob Barrett. In 1995, during recording sessions for a new album, singer Chris Barnes was dismissed because of personal differences with the rest of the band and was replaced by Monstrosity singer George \"Corpsegrinder\" Fisher. Barnes went on to perform with the band Six Feet Under and, later, Torture Killer. In 1997, Barrett, who had replaced Rusay on guitar, left Cannibal Corpse to rejoin his previous bands Malevolent Creation and Solstice. Pat O'Brien, who first appeared on Cannibal Corpse's 1998 release \"Gallery of Suicide\", replaced Barrett. Founding member and guitarist Jack Owen left Cannibal Corpse in 2004 to spend more time on his second band, Adrift. He joined Deicide in late 2004. Jeremy Turner of Origin briefly replaced him as guitarist on 2004's Tour of \"The Wretched Spawn\". Barrett rejoined the band in 2005. Writing for the follow-up to \"Kill\" (2006) began in November 2007, as indicated in an interview with bassist Alex Webster. \"Evisceration Plague\", Cannibal Corpse's eleventh studio album was released February 3, 2009, to a highly positive response from fans. They also released a live DVD in 2011 entitled \"Global Evisceration\". Cannibal Corpse released its twelfth studio album, \"Torture\", in March 2012. In February 2014, Cannibal Corpse announced that they had begun recording their thirteenth album, \"A Skeletal Domain\", which was released on September 16. \"Sadistic Embodiment\" was released as a single in July, and all of the names of the songs on the forthcoming album were announced the same day. The same month, Metal Blade announced the publication of the band's authorized biography \"Bible Of Butchery\", written by the British author Joel McIver. In an August 2016 interview, drummer Paul Mazurkiewicz stated that Cannibal Corpse would likely begin recording a new album in 2017. In September 2017, the band announced their fourteenth studio album \"Red Before Black\", which was released on November 3. On December 10, 2018, guitarist Pat O'Brien was arrested for assault and battery; his bail was set at $50,000. On the eve of the news of his arrest, Cannibal Corpse was announced as one of the supporting acts for Slayer's final North American tour, which would take place in the spring of 2019 and also be supported by Lamb of God and Amon Amarth. On January 18, 2019, Cannibal Corpse announced that Hate Eternal frontman and former Morbid Angel guitarist Erik Rutan would fill-in for O'Brien on their future tours. In October 2019, it was stated that the band would start work on a new album after their current tour had concluded.", "", "In May 1995, then-US Senator Bob Dole accused Cannibal Corpse—along with hip hop acts including the Geto Boys and 2 Live Crew—of undermining the national character of the United States. A year later, the band came under fire again, this time as part of a campaign by conservative activist William Bennett, Senator Joe Lieberman, then-Senator Sam Nunn, and National Congress of Black Women chair C. Delores Tucker to get major record labels—including Time Warner, Sony, Thorn-EMI, PolyGram and Bertelsmann—to \"dump 20 recording groups...responsible for the most offensive lyrics\". Cannibal Corpse also had a brief cameo appearance in the 1994 Jim Carrey film \"\", performing an abridged version of their song \"Hammer Smashed Face\".", "As of October 23, 1996, the sale of any Cannibal Corpse audio recording then available was banned in Australia and all copies of such had been removed from music shops. At the time, the Australian Recording Industry Association and the Australian Music Retailers Association were implementing a system for identifying potentially offensive records, known as the \"labelling code of practice.\" All ten of Cannibal Corpse's albums, the live album \"Live Cannibalism\", the boxed set \"15 Year Killing Spree\", the EP \"Worm Infested\", and the single \"Hammer Smashed Face\" were re-released in Australia between 2006 and 2007, finally classified by ARIA and allowed for sale in Australia. However, they are all \"restricted\" and only sold to those over 18 years of age. Some are sold in \"censored\" and \"uncensored\" editions, which denotes the change of cover art. Despite this, when displayed in some stores, even the \"uncensored\" editions are censored manually. After discussion of banning them from touring, Australian comedy act The Chaser did a lounge music version of their song \"Rancid Amputation\" on their show \"The Chaser's War on Everything\", claiming that the music, and not the lyrics, was the problem, by performing a lounge music version.", "All Cannibal Corpse albums up to and including \"Tomb of the Mutilated\" were banned upon release from being sold or displayed in Germany due to their graphic cover art and disturbing lyrics; the band was also forbidden to play any songs from those albums while touring in Germany. This prohibition was not lifted until June 2006. In a 2004 interview, George Fisher attempted to recall what originally provoked the ban:", "Six of the eight planned shows from the band's 2014 Russian tour were canceled after protests from local Orthodox activists. A month before the tour, religious activist Dimitry Tsorionov said Cannibal Corpse's music was punishable under the Russian law because it \"incites religious division.\" He commented unfavorably on the lyrics, saying they promoted \"death, violence, as well as various kinds of sexual perversion.\" The gig in Nizhny Novgorod was stopped halfway through the set, after police conducted a search for drugs at the venue. The concert in Saint Petersburg was canceled at the last minute because of unspecified \"technical reasons.\" Fans began rioting, and eighteen of them were arrested. Band members stated that Russian authorities threatened to detain them if the band performed because they did not have the correct visas.", "Cannibal Corpse's lyrics and album/T-shirt artwork frequently feature transgressive and macabre imagery, including depictions of extreme violence and gore; the band has always defended this as artistic expression that is clearly fictional. In an interview for the documentary \"\", George Fisher expresses the opinion that death metal is best understood \"as art,\" and claims that far more violent art can be found at the Vatican, pointing out that such depictions are arguably more transgressive because they actually happened. Some examples of Cannibal Corpse's most controversial song titles include \"I Cum Blood,\" \"Meat Hook Sodomy,\" \"Entrails Ripped from a Virgin's Cunt,\" \"Necropedophile,\" \"Stripped, Raped, and Strangled,\" and \"Fucked with a Knife.\" On the same topic, George \"Corpsegrinder\" Fisher once said in an interview: In response to accusations that his band's lyrics desensitize people to violence, Alex Webster argued death metal fans enjoy the music only because they know the violence depicted in its lyrics is not real: He also believes the violent lyrics can have positive value: \"It's good to have anger music as a release.\" George Fisher explained the content of their songs: \"There's nothing ever serious. We're not thinking of anybody in particular that we're trying to kill, or harm or anything.\"", "Current members Former members Touring members" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Early life, education and career.", "Re-emergence in politics.", "Honours." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In 1946 he was sent to the Soviet Union as a student. In 1948 he graduated from the military engineering school in Saint Petersburg (then Leningrad). He served in Tirana as a platoon-commander at the United Officers' School (1948–1949) and as a teacher at the Military Academy (1949–1951). From 1952 to 1958 he attended the Academy of Military Engineering in Moscow. Back in Albania, Moisiu continued his military career in the engineers' department of the Ministry of Defense. From 1967 to 1968 he attended the higher courses of general staff at the Defense Academy of Tirana. At the same time he commanded a pontoon brigade in Kavajë (1966–1971). In 1971 he became the chief of the Bureau of Engineering and Fortifications of the Ministry of Defense (under Enver Hoxha, when thousands of concrete casements were built as defense against states held to be hostile). In 1979, Moisiu received a PhD in military science. From 1981 he was Deputy Minister of Defense. Under the ministers Beqir Balluku, Mehmet Shehu and Kadri Hasbiu he held this post until October 1982 (Shehu died violently in December 1981). He was appointed by Enver Hoxha to fill Albania with bunkers. Hoxha]] sent Moisiu to Burrel, where he served as the commander of an engineers' company from 1982 to 1984. Moisiu left active service as a general. He returned to public life in December 1991 when he was appointed Minister of Defense in Vilson Ahmeti's technocratic government. He held that post until April 1992 when the first Government of the Democratic Party, led by Aleksander Meksi, was formed. The new executive invited Moisiu to work as a counselor to the Minister of Defense. In 1994, Safet Zhulali appointed him the deputy minister charged with elaborating the defence politics of Albania. Moisiu's advice was to concentrate efforts on the reconstruction of the armed forces, which were in bad condition, and to start preparations for joining the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO). In 1994 he founded the Albanian North Atlantic Association and was elected as its president. On January 24, 1995, he signed an individual association treaty binding Albania with NATO's Partnership for Peace project. From 1995, Moisiu attended to the VIPs' courses of the NATO College in Rome. When the Albanian Socialist Party came to power in 1997, Moisiu lost his post in the Ministry. In the following years, he took an active part in extra-governmental activity, organizing international and all-Albanian conferences where issues of security and defense in South East Europe, armament control and collecting arms from civil persons were discussed. Moisiu speaks Russian, Italian, and English. He has written articles and research papers on military science, and defense and security issues. His book \"Kosovo: Between War and Peace\" was published in English in 2005.", "In 2002, under pressure from international organizations, Moisiu was chosen by Sali Berisha and Fatos Nano as a consensus candidate for the presidency after the end of Rexhep Meidani's term. Moisiu was elected by the People's Assembly by a vote of 97 to 19 (with 14 abstentions) and he was sworn in for a five-year term as president on July 24, 2002. After the constitutional reform of November 1998, politics is mainly the task of the government. Moisiu promised to contribute to the strengthening of parliamentary democracy, the stabilization of the judiciary system and the integration of Albania into Euro-Atlantic structures. The day after the beginning of Moisiu's presidency, Socialist Prime Minister Pandeli Majko resigned, and the president appointed Fatos Nano, the leader of the Socialist Party, the new Prime Minister of Albania.", "Moisiu has been appointed as a" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology and usage.", "Varieties and regional variations.", "Poland.", "Hungary.", "United States.", "Canada.", "Ukraine.", "Elsewhere." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "The word entered English directly from Polish ', meaning \"sausage\". Etymological sources state that originally, the word comes from Turkic \"kol basa\", literally \"hand-pressed\", or \"kül basa\", literally \"ash-pressed\" (cognate with modern Turkish dish '), or possibly from the Hebrew \"kol basar\" (), literally meaning \"all kinds of meat;\" however, other origins are also possible. The terms entered English simultaneously from different sources, which accounts for the different spellings. Usage varies between cultural groups and countries, but overall there is a distinction between American and Canadian usage. In New Jersey, Pennsylvania and most areas of Greater New York City, a plural Polish transitional form is used, \"\" (). Canadians also use the word \"kubasa\" ( or ), a purified version of the Ukrainian \"kovbasa\" (), and Albertans even abbreviate it as \"kubie\" to refer to the sausage eaten on a hot dog bun.", "", "Sausage is a staple of Polish cuisine and comes in dozens of varieties, smoked or fresh, made with pork, beef, turkey, lamb, chicken or veal with every region having its own speciality. Of these, the \"kiełbasa lisiecka\", produced in Małopolskie, has had PGI protection since late 2010 There are official Polish government guides and classifications of sausages based on size, meat, ready-to-eat or uncooked varieties. Originally made at home in rural areas, there are a wide variety of recipes for kielbasa preparation at home and for holidays. Kielbasa is also one of the most traditional foods served at Polish weddings. Popular varieties include: The most popular kiełbasa is also called \"Kiełbasa Polska\" (\"Polish Sausage\") or \"Kiełbasa Starowiejska\" (\"Old Countryside Sausage\"). This one comes closest to what is generally known in America as \"kiełbasa\" (a Polish sausage). Nowadays, many major meat packers across America offer a product called \"kiełbasa,\" usually somewhat different from the original. In Poland, kiełbasa is often served garnished with fried onions, and – in the form of cut pieces – smoked kiełbasa can be served cold, hot, boiled, baked or grilled. It can be cooked in soups such as \"żurek\" (sour rye soup), \"kapuśniak\" (cabbage soup), or \"grochówka\" (pea soup), baked or cooked with sauerkraut, or added to bean dishes, stews (notably \"bigos\", a Polish national dish), and casseroles. Kiełbasa is also very popular served cold as cold cuts on a platter, usually for an appetizer at traditional Polish parties. It is also a common snack (\"zagrycha\") served with beer or plain vodka. A less widely encountered but equally popular variety of kiełbasa is the White Fresh (\"biała\" - i.e. \"white\"). It is mainly used as a soup meat, and is therefore sold uncooked and unsmoked. When used, it is prepared by boiling, frying or boiling in soup in place of raw meat. This kiełbasa's taste is similar to a white Thuringian sausage. Traditionally served with \"barszcz biały\".", "Kolbász is the Hungarian word for sausage. Hungarian cuisine produces a vast number of types of sausages. The most common smoked Hungarian sausages are Gyulai Kolbász, Csabai Kolbász, Csemege Kolbász, Házi Kolbász, Cserkész Kolbász, lightly smoked, like Debreceni Kolbász (or Debreciner) and Lecsókolbász, a spicy sausage made specifically for serving as part of the dish Lecsó, a vegetable stew with peppers and tomatoes. Hungarian boiled sausage types are called \"hurka\": either liver sausage, \"májas\", or blood sausage, \"véres\". All three types of blood sausages must be ingested within 6 hours of preparation to ensure a healthy pre and post-consumption experience per Hungarian regulations. It is considered rude not to reach completion of the whole sausage in a timely fashion, though it is not considered a crime. The main ingredient is liver and rice, or blood and rice. Salt, pepper, and spices are optionally added. Butter is not.", "In the United States, kielbasa which may also be referred to as \"Polish sausage\" in some areas, is widely available in grocery stores and speciality import markets. While the smoked variety is more commonly found, the uncured variety is often available, particularly in areas with large Polish populations. Several sandwiches featuring the sausage as a main ingredient have become iconic in local cuisines including Chicago's Maxwell Street Polish, Cleveland's Polish Boy, and several offerings from Primanti Brothers in Pittsburgh.", "In Canada, varieties typical of Poland, Hungary, Slovakia, Czechia, western Ukraine, and elsewhere are available in supermarkets, and more specific varieties can be found in specialty shops. This type of sausage is particularly associated with the Prairie Provinces, where the Slavic cultural presence is particularly strong. The world's largest display model of a Ukrainian sausage is a roadside attraction in Mundare, Alberta, the home of Stawnichy's Meat Processing.", "In Ukraine the word \"kielbasa\" is pronounced \"kovbasa\" (ковбаса) with the accent being on the last syllable. However, it is sometimes pronounced with a silent v, \"kobasa\". It is a general term and is used to describe a variety of sausages including \"domashnia\" (homemade kovbasa), \"pechinky\" (liver kovbasa), \"krovianka\" (kovbasa filled with blood and buckwheat) and \"vudzhena\" (smoked kovbasa). It is predominantly eaten in the Western areas of Ukraine such as Halychyna (Galicia), Volhynia and Bukovyna (Carpathian region). It is served in a variety of ways such as fried with onions atop varenyky, sliced on rye bread, eaten with an egg and mustard sauce, or in \"Yayechnia z Kovbosoyu i yarnoyu\" a dish of fried kovbasa with red capsicum and scrambled eggs. In Ukraine kovbasa is roasted in an oven on both sides and stored in ceramic pots with lard. The sausage is often made at home; however it has become increasingly brought at markets and even supermarkets. Kovbasa also tends to accompany \"pysanka\" (dyed and decorated eggs) as well as the eastern Slavic bread, paska in Ukrainian baskets at Easter time and is blessed by the priest with holy water before being consumed.", "In Russia it is known as \"kolbasa\" (колбаса ), mentioned as early as in 12th century in Birch bark manuscript number 842. In the Russian language the word \"kolbasa\" refers to all sausage-like meat products including salami and bologna. Similar sausages are found in other Slavic nations as well, notably the Czech Republic (spelled \"klobása\", or regionally \"klobás\"), Slovakia (spelled \"klobása\"), and Slovenia (spelled \"klobása\"). In Croatia, as well as in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, and Serbia, this sausage is called \"kobasica\" or \"kobasa\", while in Bulgaria and Macedonia it is called \"kolbas\". In Azerbaijan it is called \"Kolbasa\" (; borrowed from Russian). In Austria it is called \"Klobassa\" (similar to the neighbouring Slavic countries). In South Africa, this type of sausage is known as the \"Russian\" sausage; often deep fried, and served with chips, as fast food." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Background.", "Battle.", "Aftermath." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "In April 1917 the British Army began an offensive at Arras, planned in conjunction with the French High Command, who were simultaneously embarking on a massive attack (the \"Nivelle Offensive\") about to the south. The Royal Flying Corps (RFC) supported British operations by offering close air support, aerial reconnaissance and strategic bombing of German targets. The RFC's commanding officer, Hugh Trenchard believed in the offensive use of air power and pushed for operations over German-controlled territory. It was expected the large numbers of aircraft assembled over the frontlines in the spring of 1917 would fulfil this purpose. However, the aircraft were, for the most part, inferior to German fighter aircraft. Crucially, British pilot training was not only poorly organised and inconsistent, it had to be drastically abbreviated to keep squadrons suffering heavy casualties up to strength. This was self-perpetuating, as it resulted in most new pilots lacking sufficient practical flight experience before reaching the front. German pilot training was, at that time, more thorough and less hurried than the British programmes. After the heavy losses and failures against the French over Verdun in 1916 and against the British at the Somme, they had reorganised their air forces into the \"Luftstreitkräfte\" by October 1916, which now included specialised fighter units. These units were led by highly experienced pilots, some of them survivors of the Fokker Scourge period. and had been working up with the first mass-produced twin-gunned German fighters, the Albatros D.I and D.II, comprising a total of nearly 350 aircraft between the two types. Paradoxically, the one sided nature of the casualty lists during Bloody April was partly a result of German numerical inferiority. The German air forces mostly confined themselves to operating over friendly territory, thus reducing the possibility of losing pilots to capture and increasing the amount of time they could stay in the air. Moreover, they could choose when and how to engage in combat.", "The Battle of Arras began on 9 April 1917. The Allies launched a joint ground offensive, with the British attacking near Arras in Artois, northern France, while the French offensive was launched on the Aisne. In support of the British army, the RFC deployed 25 squadrons, totalling 365 aircraft, about one-third of which were fighters (or \"scouts\" as they were called at the time). There were initially only five German \"Jastas\" (fighter squadrons) in the region, but this rose to eight as the battle progressed (some 80 or so operational fighter aircraft in total). Since late 1916, the Germans had held the upper hand in the contest for air supremacy on the Western Front, with the twin-lMG 08 machine gun-armed Albatros D.II and D.III outclassing the fighters charged with protecting the vulnerable B.E.2c, F.E.2b and Sopwith 11⁄2 Strutter two-seater reconnaissance and bomber machines. The Allies' fighter squadrons were equipped with obsolete \"pushers\" such as the Airco DH.2 and F.E.8 – and other outclassed types such as the Nieuport 17 and Sopwith Pup. Only the SPAD S.VII and Sopwith Triplane could compete on more or less equal terms with the Albatros; but these were few in number and spread along the front. All four of the aforementioned Allied designs depended on just one synchronized Vickers machine gun apiece, given cooling louvers on the cooling jackets for aviation use, for their armament on their airframe. The new generation of Allied fighters were not yet ready for service, although No. 56 Squadron RFC with the S.E.5 was working up to operational status in France, intended to use both the synchronized Vickers gun, and an overwing-mount Lewis machine gun firing above the propeller arc for a twin-gun offensive punch. The Bristol F2A also made its debut with No. 48 Squadron during April, but lost heavily on its very first patrol, with four out of six shot down in an encounter with five Albatros D.IIIs of \"Jasta 11\", led by Manfred von Richthofen (popularly known as the Red Baron). The new R.E.8 two-seaters, which were eventually to prove less vulnerable than the B.E.2e, also suffered heavy casualties in their early sorties. During April 1917, the British lost 245 aircraft, 211 aircrew killed or missing and 108 as prisoners of war. The German Air Services recorded the loss of 66 aircraft during the same period. As a comparison, in the five months of the Battle of the Somme of 1916 the RFC had suffered 576 casualties. Under Richthofen's leadership, \"Jasta 11\" scored 89 victories during April, over a third of the British losses. In casualties suffered, the month marked the nadir of the RFC's fortunes. However, despite the losses inflicted, the German Air Service failed to stop the RFC carrying out its prime objectives. The RFC continued to support the army throughout the Arras offensive with up-to-date aerial photographs, reconnaissance information, effective contact patrolling during British advances and harassing bombing raids. In particular the artillery spotting aircraft rendered valuable reconnaissance to the British artillery, who were able to maintain their superiority throughout the battle. In spite of their ascendancy in air combat, the German fighter squadrons continued to be used defensively, flying for the most part behind their own lines. Thus the \"Jastas\" established \"air superiority\", but certainly not the air supremacy sometimes claimed.", "Within a couple of months the new technologically advanced generation of fighter (the SE.5, Sopwith Camel, and SPAD S.XIII) had entered service in numbers and quickly gained ascendancy over the over-worked \"Jastas\". As the British fighter squadrons became once more able to adequately protect the slower reconnaissance and artillery observation machines, RFC losses fell and German losses rose. The RFC learned from their mistakes, instituting new policies on the improvement of training and tactical organisation. By mid-1917 better aircraft designs were reaching the front. By the late summer of 1917 the British achieved a greater measure of air superiority than they had held for almost a year. The casualties in the air campaigns through the remainder of the war were never so one-sided again. In fact, this was essentially the last time that the Germans possessed real air superiority for the rest of the war – although the degree of allied dominance in the air certainly varied, the final all-out efforts of September 1918 causing even greater Allied losses." ] }

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{ "title": [ "History.", "Air quality.", "Demographics.", "In popular culture." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The settlement was originally named for its founder, Landis Clark, who incorporated the town in June 2000 and served as its first mayor. In exchange for renaming the town to DISH, all residents received free basic television service for ten years and a free digital video recorder from Dish Network. There was no formal opposition to renaming Clark; twelve citizens attended the council meeting to support the measure.", "In 2005, energy companies began drilling natural gas wells at DISH. Town residents complained of foul smells, and of health issues they linked to the petroleum emissions from the wells. The town spent $15,000 on an air quality test, which found elevated levels of several chemicals including benzene. Following that, the energy companies made changes. In response to concerns about the town's air quality, the Texas Department of State Health Services conducted air quality tests, and in May 2010, released its results for DISH, including tests of blood and urine samples from 28 DISH residents that were tested for volatile organic compounds (VOCs). The agency concluded that: The information obtained from this investigation did not indicate that community-wide exposures from gas wells or compressor stations were occurring in the sample population. This conclusion was based on the pattern of VOC values found in the samples. Other sources of exposure such as cigarette smoking, the presence of disinfectant by-products in drinking water, and consumer or occupational/hobby related products could explain many of the findings. The state installed an air quality monitoring station at DISH, which showed that, as of 2012, air pollutants were generally within government limits. An article about the air quality in DISH by NPR in 2012 stated that \"better studies are needed\" to test for the health effects of drilling emissions, and also that the installation of gas wells in populated places \"is way out ahead of public health evaluations of any kind to date\".", "The population in 2010 was 201, and the estimated population for 2015 was 387.", "In the January 10, 2006, episode of Comedy Central's \"The Daily Show\", correspondent Ed Helms produced a segment about DISH. Household Name, a podcast by Business Insider, produced an episode on DISH, \"A Town Called DISH\", that aired on June 12, 2019." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Etymology.", "History.", "Rashidun Caliphate (632–661).", "Umayyad Caliphate (661–750).", "Sufyanids (661–684).", "ʿAbd al-Malik (685–705).", "Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258).", "Buyid Dynasty (945–1055).", "Seljuq Dynasty (1055–1194).", "Islamic Golden Age.", "Period thereafter.", "Portuguese empire.", "Ottoman Empire.", "World Wars.", "Post 1945.", "1999: Second revolt.", "2003–07: Iraq War and occupation.", "2008.", "2014.", "2018.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Demographics.", "Religion.", "Economy.", "Sports.", "Twin towns and sister cities." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "1", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "The city was called by many names throughout its history, Basrah being the most common. In Arabic the word \"baṣrah\" means \"the overwatcher,\" which might have been an allusion to the city's origin as an Arab military base against the Sassanids. Others have argued that the name is derived from the Aramaic word \"basratha\", meaning \"place of huts, settlement.\"", "", "The city was founded at the beginning of the Islamic era in 636 and began as a garrison encampment for Arab tribesmen constituting the armies of the Rashid Caliph Umar. A tell a few kilometres south of the present city, still marks the original site which was a military site. While defeating the forces of the Sassanid Empire there, the Muslim commander Utbah ibn Ghazwan erected his camp on the site of an old Persian military settlement called \"Vaheštābād Ardašīr\", which was destroyed by the Arabs. The name Al-Basrah, which in Arabic means \"the over watching\" or \"the seeing everything,\" was given to it because of its role as a military base against the Sassanid Empire. However, other sources claim the name originates from the Persian word Bas-rāh or Bassorāh meaning \"where many ways come together.\" In 639 Umar established this encampment as a city with five districts, and appointed Abu Musa al-Ash'ari as its first governor. The city was built in a circular plan according to the Partho-Sasanian architecture. Abu Musa led the conquest of Khuzestan from 639 to 642 and was ordered by Umar to aid Uthman ibn Abi al-As, then fighting Iran from a new, more easterly \"miṣr\" at Tawwaj. In 650, the Rashidun Caliph Uthman reorganised the Persian frontier, installed ʿAbdullah ibn Amir as Basra's governor, and put the military's southern wing under Basra's control. Ibn Amir led his forces to their final victory over Yazdegerd III, the Sassanid King of Kings. In 656, Uthman was murdered and Ali was appointed Caliph. Ali first installed Uthman ibn Hanif as Basra's governor, who was followed by ʿAbdullah ibn ʿAbbas. These men held the city for Ali until the latter's death in 661.", "", "The Sufyanids held Basra until Yazid I's death in 683. The Sufyanids' first governor was Umayyad ʿAbdullah, a renowned military leader, commanding fealty and financial demands from Karballah, but poor governor. In 664, Muʿawiyah I replaced him with Ziyad ibn Abi Sufyan, often called \"ibn Abihi\" (\"son of his own father\"), who became infamous for his draconian rules regarding public order. On Ziyad's death in 673, his son ʿUbaydullah ibn Ziyad became governor. In 680, Yazid I ordered ʿUbaydullah to keep order in Kufa as a reaction to Hussein ibn Ali's popularity as the grandson of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad. ʿUbaydullah took over the control of Kufa. Hussein sent his cousin as an ambassador to the people of Kufa, but ʿUbaydullah executed Hussein's cousin Muslim ibn Aqeel amid fears of an uprising. ʿUbaydullah amassed an army of thousands of soldiers and fought Hussein's army of approximately 70 in a place called Karbala near Kufa. ʿUbaydullah's army was victorious; Hussein and his followers were killed and their heads were sent to Yazid as proof. Ibn al-Harith spent his year in office trying to put down Nafi' ibn al-Azraq's Kharijite uprising in Khuzestan. In 685, Ibn al-Zubayr, requiring a practical ruler, appointed Umar ibn Ubayd Allah ibn Ma'mar Finally, Ibn al-Zubayr appointed his own brother Mus'ab. In 686, the revolutionary al-Mukhtar led an insurrection at Kufa, and put an end to ʿUbaydullah ibn Ziyad near Mosul. In 687, Musʿab defeated al-Mukhtar with the help of Kufans who Mukhtar exiled.", "Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan reconquered Basra in 691, and Basra remained loyal to his governor al-Hajjaj during Ibn Ashʿath's mutiny (699–702). However, Basra did support the rebellion of Yazid ibn al-Muhallab against Yazid II during the 720s.", "In the 740s, Basra fell to as-Saffah of the Abbasid Caliphate. During the time of the Abbasids, Basra became an intellectual centre and home to the elite Basra School of Grammar, the rival and sister school of the Kufa School of Grammar. Several outstanding intellectuals of the age were Basrans; Arab polymath Ibn al-Haytham, the Arab literary giant al-Jahiz, and the Sufi mystic Rabia Basri. The Zanj Rebellion by the agricultural slaves of the lowlands affected the area. In 871, the Zanj sacked Basra. In 923, the Qarmatians, an extremist Muslim sect, invaded and devastated Basra.", "From 945 to 1055, a Buyid dynasty ruled Baghdad and most of Iraq. Abu al Qasim al-Baridis, who still controlled Basra and Wasit, were defeated and their lands taken by the Buyids in 947. Adud al-Dawla and his sons Diya' al-Dawla and Samsam al-Dawla were the Buyid rulers of Basra during the 970s, 980s and 990s. Sanad al-Dawla al-Habashi (ca.921–977), the brother of the Emir of Iraq Izz al-Dawla, was governor of Basra and built a library of 15,000 books.", "The Oghuz Turk Tughril Beg was the leader of the Seljuks, who expelled the Shiite Buyid dynasty. He was the first Seljuk ruler to style himself Sultan and Protector of the Abbasid Caliphate.", "The Great Friday Mosque was constructed in Basra. In 1122, Imad ad-Din Zengi received Basra as a fief. In 1126, Zengi suppressed a revolt and in 1129, Dabis looted the Basra state treasury. A 1200 map \"on the eve of the Mongol invasions\" shows the Abbasid Caliphate as ruling lower Iraq and, presumably, Basra. The Assassin Rashid-ad-Din-Sinan was born in Basra on or between 1131 and 1135. In 1258, the Mongols under Hulegu Khan sacked Baghdad and ended Abbasid rule. By some accounts, Basra capitulated to the Mongols to avoid a massacre. The Mamluk Bahri dynasty map (1250–1382) shows Basra as being under their area of control, and the Mongol Dominions map (1300–1405) shows Basra as being under \"their\" control. In 1290 fighting erupted at the Persian Gulf port of Basra among the Genoese, between the Guelph and the Ghibelline factions. Ibn Battuta visited Basra in the 14th century, noting it \"was renowned throughout the whole world, spacious in area and elegant in its courts, remarkable for its numerous fruit-gardens and its choice fruits, since it is the meeting place of the two seas, the salt and the fresh.\" Ibn Battuta also noted that Basra consisted of three quarters: the Hudayl quarter, the Banu Haram quarter, and the Iranian quarter (\"mahallat al-Ajam\"). Fred Donner adds: \"If the first two reveal that Basra was still predominantly an Arab town, the existence of an Iranian quarter clearly reveals the legacy of long centuries of intimate contact between Basra and the Iranian plateau.\"", "The Arab Al-Mughamis tribe established control over Basra in the early fifteenth century, however, they quickly fell under influence of the Kara Koyunlu and Ak Koyunlu, successively. The Al-Mughamis' control of Basra had become nominal by 1436; \"de facto\" control of Basra from 1436 to 1508 was in the hands of the Moshasha. In the latter year, during the reign of King (\"Shah\") Ismail I (1501–1524), the first Safavid ruler, Basra and the Moshasha became part of the Safavid Empire. This was the first time Basra had come under Safavid suzerainty. In 1524, following Ismail I's death, the local ruling dynasty of Basra, the Al-Mughamis, resumed effective control over the city. Twelve years later, in 1536, during the Ottoman-Safavid War of 1532-1555, the Bedouin ruler of Basra, Rashid ibn Mughamis, acknowledged Suleiman the Magnificent as his suzerain who in turn confirmed him as governor of Basra. The Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire exercised a great deal of independence, and they even often raised their own troops. Though Basra had submitted to the Ottomans, the Ottoman hold over Basra was tenuous at the time. This changed a decade later; in 1546, following a tribal struggle involving the Moshasha and the local ruler of Zakiya (near Basra), the Ottomans sent a force to Basra. This resulted in tighter (but still, nominal) Ottoman control over Basra.", "In 1523, the Portuguese under the command of António Tenreiro crossed from Aleppo to Basra. In 1550, the local Kingdom of Basra and tribal rulers trusted the Portuguese against the Ottomans, from then on the Portuguese threatened Basra several times to conquer it. From 1595 the portuguese acted as military protectors of the Basra, and in 1624 the Portuguese assisted Basra Pasha in repelling a Persian invasion. The Portuguese were granted a share of customs and freedom from tolls. From about 1625 until 1668, Basra and the Delta marshlands were in the hands of local chieftains independent of the Ottoman administration at Baghdad.", "Basra was, for a long time, a flourishing commercial and cultural centre. It was captured by the Ottoman Empire in 1668. It was fought over by Turks and Persians and was the scene of repeated attempts at resistance. From 1697 to 1701, Basra was once again under Safavid control. The Zand Dynasty under Karim Khan Zand briefly occupied Basra after a long siege in 1775–9. The Zands attempted at introducing Usuli form of Shiism on a basically Akhbari Shia Basrans. The shortness of the Zand rule rendered this untenable. In 1911, the \"Encyclopaedia Britannica\" reported \"about 4000 Jews and perhaps 6000 Christians\" living in Basra, but no Turks other than Ottoman officials. In 1884 the Ottomans responded to local pressure from the Shi'as of the south by detaching the southern districts of the Baghdad vilayet and creating a new vilayet of Basra.", "After the Battle of Basra (1914) during World War I, the occupying British modernized the port (works designed by Sir George Buchanan); these British commercial interests made it one of the most important ports in the Persian Gulf \"with shipping and trade links to the Far East. During World War II it was an important port through which flowed much of the equipment and supplies sent to Russia by the other allies. At the end of the Second World War, the population was some 93,000 people.", "The population of Basra was 101,535 in 1947, and reached 219,167 in 1957. The University of Basrah was founded in 1964. By 1977, the population had risen to a peak population of some 1.5 million. The population declined during the Iran–Iraq War, being under 900,000 in the late 1980s, possibly reaching a low point of just over 400,000 during the worst of the war. The city was repeatedly shelled by Iran and was the site of many fierce battles, such as Operation Ramadan and Operation Karbala 5. After the war, Saddam erected 99 memorial statues to Iraqi generals and commanders killed during the war along the bank of the Shatt-al-arab river, all pointing their fingers towards Iran. After the first Persian Gulf War, which the US called Operation Desert Storm, in 1991, a rebellion struck Basra. The widespread revolt was against Saddam Hussein who violently put down the rebellion, with much death and destruction inflicted on Basra.", "On 25 January 1999, Basra was the scene of scores of civilian casualties when a missile fired by a US warplane was dropped in a civilian area. Eleven persons were killed and fifty-nine injured. General Anthony Zinni, then commander of US forces in the Persian Gulf, acknowledged that it was possible that \"a missile may have been errant.\" While such casualty numbers pale in comparison to later events, the bombing occurred one day after Arab foreign ministers, meeting in Egypt, refused to condemn four days of air strikes against Iraq in December 1998. This was described by Iraqi information minister Human Abdel-Khaliq as giving the United States and Britain \"an Arab green card\" to attack Iraq. A second revolt in 1999 led to mass executions in and around Basra. Subsequently, the Iraqi government deliberately neglected the city, and much commerce was diverted to Umm Qasr. These alleged abuses are to feature amongst the charges against the former regime to be considered by the Iraq Special Tribunal set up by the Iraq Interim Government following the 2003 invasion. Workers in Basra's oil industry have been involved in extensive organization and labour conflict. They held a two-day strike in August 2003, and formed the nucleus of the independent General Union of Oil Employees (GUOE) in June 2004. The union held a one-day strike in July 2005, and publicly opposes plans for privatizing the industry.", "In March through to May 2003, the outskirts of Basra were the scene of some of the heaviest fighting in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. British forces, led by the 7th Armoured Brigade, took the city on 6 April 2003. This city was the first stop for the United States and the United Kingdom during the 2003 invasion of Iraq. On 21 April 2004, a series of bomb blasts ripped through the city, killing 74 people. The Multi-National Division (South-East), under British Command, was engaged in Security and Stabilization missions in Basra Governorate and surrounding areas during this time. Political groups centred in Basra were reported to have close links with political parties already in power in the Iraqi government, despite opposition from Iraqi Sunnis and the more secular Kurds. January 2005 elections saw several radical politicians gain office, supported by religious parties. American journalist Steven Vincent, who had been researching and reporting on corruption and militia activity in the city, was kidnapped and killed on 2 August 2005. On 19 September 2005, two undercover British SAS soldiers disguised in Arab civilian clothes and headdresses opened fire on Iraqi police officers after having been stopped at a roadblock, killing at least one. After the two soldiers were arrested, the British Army raided the jail they were being held in to rescue them, killing several people from among their nominal allies – the Iraqi security forces. British troops transferred control of Basra province to the Iraqi authorities in 2007, four-and-a-half years after the invasion. A BBC survey of local residents found that 86% thought the presence of British troops since 2003 had had an overall negative effect on the province. Major-General Abdul Jalil Khalaf was appointed Police Chief by the central government with the task of taking on the militias. He was outspoken against the targeting of women by the militias. Talking to the BBC, he said that his determination to tackle the militia had led to almost daily assassination attempts. This was taken as sign that he was serious in opposing the militias.", "In March 2008, the Iraqi Army launched a major offensive, code-named Saulat al-Fursan (Charge of the White Knights), aimed at forcing the Mahdi Army out of Basra. The assault was planned by General Mohan Furaiji and approved by Iraqi Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki. In April 2008, following the failure to disarm militant groups, both Major-General Abdul Jalil Khalaf and General Mohan Furaiji were removed from their positions in Basra.", "Basra was scheduled to host the 22nd Arabian Gulf Cup tournament in Basra Sports City, a newly built multi-use sports complex. The tournament was shifted to Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, after concerns over preparations and security. Iraq was also due to host the 2013 tournament, but that was moved to Bahrain.", "At least 10 demonstrators died as they protested against the lack of clean drinking water and electrical power in the city during the height of summer in 2018. Some protesters stormed the Iranian consulate in the city.", "Basra is located on the Shatt-Al-Arab waterway, downstream of which is the Persian Gulf. The Shatt-Al-Arab and Basra waterways define the eastern and western borders of Basra, respectively. The city is penetrated by a complex network of canals and streams, vital for irrigation and other agricultural use. These canals were once used to transport goods and people throughout the city, but during the last two decades, pollution and a continuous drop in water levels have made river navigation impossible in the canals. Basra is roughly from the Persian Gulf.", "Basra has a hot desert climate (Köppen climate classification \"BWh\"), like the rest of the surrounding region, though it receives slightly more precipitation than inland locations due to its location near the coast. During the summer months, from June to August, Basra is consistently one of the hottest cities on the planet, with temperatures regularly exceeding in July and August. In winter Basra experiences mild weather with average high temperatures around. On some winter nights, minimum temperatures are below. High humidity – sometimes exceeding 90% – is common due to the proximity to the marshy Persian Gulf. An all-time high temperature was recorded on July 22, 2016, when daytime readings soared to. This is one of the hottest temperatures ever measured on the planet. The following night, the night time low temperature was, which was one of the highest minimum temperatures on any given day, only outshone by Khasab, Oman and Death Valley, California, USA. The lowest temperature ever recorded in Basra was on January 22, 1964.", "In Basra the vast majority of the population are ethnic Arabs of the Adnanite or the Qahtanite tribes. The tribes located in Basra include Al-Emarah, Bani Mansour, Dulaim, Shammar, Jubur, Bani Tamim, Bani Malik, Zubaid, Al-shwelat, Suwa'id, Al-bo Mohammed, Al-Badr, Al-Ubadi, Ruba'ah Sayyid tribes (descendants of the Islamic prophet Muhammed) and other Arab tribes. In addition to the Arabs, there is also a community of Afro-Iraqi peoples, known as Zanj. The Zanj are a Muslim Ethnic group living in Iraq and are a mix of African peoples taken from the coast of the area of modern-day Kenya as slaves in the 900s. They now number around 200,000 in Iraq.", "Basra is a major Shia city, with the old Akhbari Shiism progressively being overwhelmed by the Usuli Shiism. The Sunni population is tiny and dropping in their percentage as more Iraqi Shias move into Basra for various job or welfare opportunities. The satellite town of Az Zubayr in the direction of Kuwait was a Sunni town, but the burgeoning population of Basra has spilled over into Zubair, turning it into an extension of Basra with a slight Shia majority as well. Assyrians were recorded in the Ottoman census as early as 1911, and a small number of them live in Basra. However, a significant number of the modern community are refugees fleeing persecution from ISIS in the Nineveh Plains, Mosul, and northern Iraq. But ever since the liberation of ISIS in Iraq many Christians have returned to their Homeland in the Nineveh plains. In 2018 there are about a few thousand Christians in Basra. One of the largest communities of pre-Islamic Mandaeans live in the city, whose headquarters was in the area formerly called Suk esh-Sheikh.", "The city is located along the Shatt al-Arab waterway, from the Persian Gulf and from Baghdad, Iraq's capital and largest city. Its economy is largely dependent on the oil industry. Iraq has the world's 4th largest oil reserves estimated to be more. Some of Iraq's largest oil fields are located in the province, and most of Iraq's oil exports leave from Al Basrah Oil Terminal. The South Oil Company has its headquarters in the city. Substantial economic activity in Basra is centred around the petrochemical industry, which includes the Southern Fertilizer Company and The State Company for Petrochemical Industries (SCPI). The Southern Fertilizer Company produces ammonia solution, urea and nitrogen gas, while the SCPI focus on such products as ethylene, caustic/chlorine, vinyl chloride monomer (VCM), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), low-density polyethylene, and high-density polyethylene. Basra is in a fertile agricultural region, with major products including rice, maize corn, barley, pearl millet, wheat, dates, and livestock. For a long time, Basra was known for the superior quality of its dates. Basra was known in the 1960s for its sugar market, a fact that figured heavily in the English contract law remoteness of damages case The Heron II [1969] 1 AC 350. Shipping, logistics and transport are also major industries in Basra. Basra is home to all of Iraq's six ports; Umm Qasr is the main deep-water port with 22 platforms, some of which are dedicated to specific goods (such as sulphur, seeds, lubricant oil, etc.) The other five ports are smaller in scale and more narrowly specialized. Fishing was an important business before the oil boom. The city also has an international airport, with service into Baghdad with Iraqi Airways—the national airline.", "The city is home to the sports team Al-Mina'a. Its basketball division is among the Arab elite teams that compete at the Arab Club Basketball Championship.", "Basra is twinned with:" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Biography.", "Politics.", "Sexual assault allegations.", "Awards and recognitions.", "Philosophical work.", "Speech acts.", "Intentionality and the background.", "Consciousness.", "Ontological subjectivity.", "Artificial intelligence.", "Social reality.", "Searle–Lawson debate.", "Rationality.", "Searle–Derrida debate." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "2", "3", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "Searle's father, G. W. Searle, an electrical engineer, was employed by AT&T Corporation; his mother, Hester Beck Searle, was a physician. Searle began his college education at the University of Wisconsin–Madison and in his junior year became a Rhodes Scholar at the University of Oxford, where he obtained all his university degrees, BA, MA, and DPhil. Searle was Willis S. and Marion Slusser Professor Emeritus of the Philosophy of Mind and Language and Professor of the Graduate School at the University of California, Berkeley, but in June 2019 this was revoked.", "While an undergraduate at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, Searle became the secretary of \"Students against Joseph McCarthy\". (McCarthy at that time served as the junior senator from Wisconsin.) In 1959 Searle began teaching at Berkeley, and he was the first tenured professor to join the 1964–65 Free Speech Movement. In 1969, while serving as chairman of the Academic Freedom Committee of the Academic Senate of the University of California, he supported the university in its dispute with students over the People's Park. In \"The Campus War: A Sympathetic Look at the University in Agony\" (1971), Searle investigates the causes behind the campus protests of the era. In it he declares: \"I have been attacked by both the House Un-American Activities Committee and... several radical polemicists... Stylistically, the attacks are interestingly similar. Both rely heavily on insinuation and innuendo, and both display a hatredone might almost say terrorof close analysis and dissection of argument.\" He asserts that \"My wife was threatened that I (and other members of the administration) would be assassinated or violently attacked.\"", "In March 2017, Searle became the subject of sexual assault allegations. The \"Los Angeles Times\" reported: \"A new lawsuit alleges that university officials failed to properly respond to complaints that John Searle, an 84-year-old renowned philosophy professor, sexually assaulted his 24-year-old research associate last July and cut her pay when she rejected his advances.\" The case brought to light several earlier complaints against Searle, on which Berkeley allegedly had failed to act. The lawsuit, filed in a California court on March 21, 2017, sought damages both", "Searle has five honorary-doctorate degrees from four different countries and is an honorary visiting professor at Tsing Hua University", "", "Searle's early work, which did a great deal to establish his reputation, was on speech acts. He attempted to synthesize ideas from many colleaguesincluding J. L. Austin (the \"illocutionary act\", from \"How To Do Things with Words\"), Ludwig Wittgenstein and G.C.J. Midgley (the distinction between regulative and constitutive rules)with his own thesis that such acts are constituted by the rules of language. He also drew on the work of Paul Grice (the analysis of meaning as an attempt at being understood), Hare and Stenius (the distinction, concerning meaning, between illocutionary force and propositional content), P. F. Strawson, John Rawls and William Alston, who maintained that sentence meaning consists in sets of regulative rules requiring the speaker to perform the illocutionary act indicated by the sentence and that such acts involve the utterance of a sentence which (a) indicates that one performs the act; (b) means what one says; and (c) addresses an audience in the vicinity. In his 1969 book \"Speech Acts\", Searle sets out to combine all these elements to give his account of illocutionary acts. There he provides an analysis of what he considers the prototypical illocutionary act of promising and offers sets of semantical rules intended to represent the linguistic meaning of devices indicating further illocutionary act types. Among the", "In \"Intentionality: An Essay in the Philosophy of Mind\" (1983), Searle applies the principles of his account(s) of illocutionary acts to the investigation of intentionality, which is central to Searle's \"Philosophy of Mind\". (Searle is at pains to emphasize that 'intentionality', (the capacity of mental states to be \"about\" worldly objects) is not to be confused with 'intensionality', the referential opacity of contexts that fail tests for 'extensionality'.) For Searle, intentionality is exclusively mental, being the power of minds to represent or symbolize over, things, properties and states of affairs in the external world. Causal covariance, about-ness and the like are not enough: maps, for instance, only have a 'derived' intentionality, a mere after-image of the real thing. Searle also introduces a technical term \"the Background\", which, according to him, has been the source of much philosophical discussion (\"though I have been arguing for this thesis for almost twenty years,\" Searle writes, \"many people whose opinions I respect still disagree with me about it\"). He calls \"Background\" the set of abilities, capacities, tendencies, and dispositions that humans have that are not themselves intentional states but that generate appropriate such states on demand. Thus, when someone asks us to \"cut the cake\" we know to use a knife and when someone asks us to \"cut the grass\" we know to use a lawnmower (and not vice versa), even though the request did not mention this. Beginning with the possibility of reversing these two, an endless series of sceptical, anti-real or science-fiction interpretations could be imagined. \"I wish to say that there is a \"radical\" underdetermination of", "Building upon his views about intentionality, Searle presents a view concerning consciousness in his book \"The Rediscovery of the Mind\" (1992). He argues that, starting with behaviorism (an early but influential scientific view, succeeded by many later accounts that Searle also dismisses), much of modern philosophy has tried to deny the existence of consciousness, with little success. In \"Intentionality\", he parodies several alternative theories of consciousness by replacing their accounts of intentionality with comparable accounts of the hand: Searle argues that philosophy has been trapped by a false dichotomy: that, on the one hand, the world consists of nothing but objective particles in fields of force, but that yet, on the other hand, consciousness is clearly a subjective first-person experience. Searle says simply that both are true: consciousness is a real subjective experience, caused by the physical processes of the brain. (A view which he suggests might be called \"biological naturalism\".)", "Searle has argued that critics like Daniel Dennett, who (he claims) insist that discussing subjectivity is unscientific because science presupposes objectivity, are making a category error. Perhaps the goal of science is to establish and validate statements which are \"epistemically\" objective, (i.e., whose truth can be discovered and evaluated by any interested party), but are not necessarily \"ontologically\" objective. Searle calls any value judgment epistemically \"subjective\". Thus, \"McKinley is prettier than Everest\" is \"epistemically subjective\", whereas \"McKinley is higher than Everest\" is \"epistemically objective.\" In other words, the latter statement is evaluable (in fact, falsifiable) by an understood ('background') criterion for mountain height, like 'the summit is so many meters above sea level'.", "A consequence of biological naturalism is that if we want to create a conscious being, we will have to duplicate whatever physical processes the brain goes through to cause consciousness. Searle thereby means to contradict what he calls \"Strong AI\", defined by the assumption that as soon as a certain kind of software is running on a computer, a conscious being is thereby created. In 1980, Searle presented the \"Chinese room\" argument, which purports to prove the falsity of strong AI. Assume you do not speak Chinese and imagine yourself in a room with two slits, a book, and some scratch paper. Someone slides you some Chinese characters through the first slit, you follow the instructions in the book, transcribing characters as instructed onto the scratch paper, and slide the resulting sheet out the second slit. To people on the outside world, it appears the room speaks Chinese—they slide Chinese statements in one slit and get valid responses in return—yet you do not understand a word of Chinese. This suggests, according to Searle, that no computer can ever understand Chinese or English, because, as the thought experiment suggests, being able", "Searle extended his inquiries into observer-relative phenomena by trying to understand social reality. Searle begins by arguing collective intentionality (e.g. \"we're going for a walk\") is a distinct form of intentionality, not simply reducible to individual intentionality (e.g. \"I'm going for a walk with him and I think he thinks he's going for a walk with me and he thinks I think I'm going for a walk with him and...\") In \"The Construction of Social Reality\" (1995), Searle addresses the mystery of how social constructs like \"baseball\" or \"money\" can exist in a world consisting only of physical particles in fields of force. Adapting an idea by Elizabeth Anscombe in \"On Brute Facts,\" Searle distinguishes between \"brute facts\", like the height of a mountain, and \"institutional facts\", like the score of a baseball game. Aiming at an explanation of social phenomena in terms of Anscombe's notion, he argues that society can be explained in terms of institutional facts, and institutional facts arise out of collective intentionality through constitutive rules with the logical form \"X counts as Y in C\". Thus, for instance, filling out a ballot counts as a vote in a polling place, getting so many votes counts as a victory in an election, getting a victory counts as being elected president in the presidential race, etc. Many sociologists, however, do not see Searle's contributions to social theory as very significant. Neil Gross, for example, argues that Searle's views on society are more or less a reconstitution of the sociologist Émile Durkheim's theories of social facts, social institutions, collective representations, and the like. Searle's ideas are thus open to the same criticisms as Durkheim's. Searle responded that Durkheim's work was worse than he had originally believed and, admitting he had not read much of Durkheim's work, said that, \"Because Durkheim's account seemed so impoverished I did not read any further in his work.\" Steven Lukes, however, responded to Searle's response to Gross and argued point by point against the allegations that Searle makes against Durkheim, essentially upholding Gross' argument that Searle's work bears great resemblance to Durkheim's. Lukes attributes Searle's miscomprehension of Durkheim's work to the fact that Searle never read Durkheim.", "In recent years, Searle's main interlocutor on issues of social ontology has been Tony Lawson. Although their accounts of social reality are similar, there are important differences. Lawson places emphasis on the notion of social totality whereas Searle prefers to refer to institutional facts. Furthermore, Searle believes that emergence implies causal reduction whereas Lawson argues that social totalities cannot be completely explained by the causal powers of their components. Searle also places language at the foundation of the construction of social reality while Lawson believes that community formation necessarily precedes the development of language and therefore there must be the possibility for non-linguistic social structure formation. The debate is ongoing and takes place additionally through regular meetings of the Centre for Social Ontology at the University of California, Berkeley and the Cambridge Social Ontology Group at the University of Cambridge.", "In \"Rationality in Action\" (2001), Searle argues that standard notions of rationality are badly flawed. According to what he calls the Classical Model, rationality is seen as something like a train track: you get on at one point with your beliefs and desires and the rules of rationality compel you all the way to a conclusion. Searle doubts this picture of rationality holds generally. Searle briefly critiques one particular set of these rules: those of mathematical decision theory. He points out that its axioms require that anyone who valued a quarter and their life would, at some odds, bet their life for a quarter. Searle insists he would never take such a bet and believes that this stance is perfectly rational. Most of his attack is directed against the common conception of rationality, which he believes is badly flawed. First, he argues that reasons don't cause you to do anything, because having sufficient reason \"wills\" (but doesn't \"force\") you to do that thing. So in any decision situation we experience a gap between our reasons and our actions. For example, when we decide to vote, we do not simply determine that we care most about economic policy and that we prefer candidate Jones's economic policy. We also have to make an effort to cast our vote. Similarly, every time a guilty smoker lights a cigarette they are aware of succumbing to their craving, not merely of acting automatically as they do when they exhale. It is this gap that makes us think we have \"freedom of the will\". Searle thinks whether we really have free will or not is an open question, but", "In the early 1970s, Searle had a brief exchange with Jacques Derrida regarding speech-act theory. The exchange was characterized by a degree of mutual hostility between the philosophers, each of whom accused the other of having misunderstood his basic points. Searle was particularly hostile to Derrida's deconstructionist framework and much later refused to let his response to Derrida be printed along with Derrida's papers in the 1988 collection \"Limited Inc\". Searle did not consider Derrida's approach to be legitimate philosophy or even intelligible writing and argued that he did not want to legitimize the deconstructionist point of view by dedicating any attention to it. Consequently, some critics have considered the exchange to be a series of elaborate misunderstandings rather than a debate, while others have seen either Derrida or Searle gaining the upper hand. The level of hostility can be seen from Searle's statement that \"It would be a mistake to regard Derrida's discussion of Austin as a confrontation between two prominent philosophical traditions\", to which Derrida replied that that sentence was \"the only sentence of the'reply' to which I can subscribe\". Commentators have frequently interpreted the exchange as a prominent example of a confrontation between analytical and continental philosophy. The Searle–Derrida debate began in 1972, when, in his paper \"Signature Event Context\", Derrida analyzed J. L. Austin's theory of the illocutionary act. While sympathetic to Austin's departure from a purely denotational account of language to one that includes \"force\", Derrida was sceptical of the framework of normativity employed by Austin. He argued that Austin had missed the fact that any speech event is framed by a \"structure of absence\" (the words that are left unsaid due to contextual constraints) and by \"iterability\" (the repeatability of linguistic elements outside of their context). Derrida argued that the focus on intentionality in speech-act theory was misguided because intentionality is restricted to that which is already established as a possible intention. He also took issue with the way Austin had excluded the study of fiction, non-serious or \"parasitic\" speech, wondering whether this exclusion was because Austin had considered these speech genres governed by different structures of meaning, or simply due to a lack of interest. In his brief reply to Derrida, \"Reiterating the Differences: A Reply to Derrida\", Searle argued that Derrida's critique was unwarranted because it assumed that Austin's theory attempted to give" ] }

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{ "title": [ "Explanation.", "History.", "Animation methods.", "Modeling.", "Equipment.", "Facial animation.", "Realism.", "Films.", "Animation studios.", "Web animations.", "Detailed examples and pseudocode.", "Computer-assisted vs. computer-generated." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "To trick the eye and the brain into thinking they are seeing a smoothly moving object, the pictures should be drawn at around 12 frames per second or faster. (A frame is one complete image.) With rates above 75-120 frames per second, no improvement in realism or smoothness is perceivable due to the way the eye and the brain both process images. At rates below 12 frames per second, most people can detect jerkiness associated with the drawing of new images that detracts from the illusion of realistic movement. Conventional hand-drawn cartoon animation often uses 15 frames per second in order to save on the number of drawings needed, but this is usually accepted because of the stylized nature of cartoons. To produce more realistic imagery, computer animation demands higher frame rates. Films seen in theaters in the United States run at 24 frames per second, which is sufficient to create the illusion of continuous movement. For high resolution, adapters are used.", "Early digital computer animation was developed at Bell Telephone Laboratories in the 1960s by Edward E. Zajac, Frank W. Sinden, Kenneth C. Knowlton, and A. Michael Noll. Other digital animation was also practiced at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. In 1967, a computer animation named \"Hummingbird\" was created by Charles Csuri and James Shaffer. In 1968, a computer animation called \"\" was created with BESM-4 by Nikolai Konstantinov, depicting a cat moving around. In 1971, a computer animation called \"Metadata\" was created, showing various shapes. An early step in the history of computer animation was the sequel to the 1973 film \"Westworld,\" a science-fiction film about a society in which robots live and work among humans. The sequel, \"Futureworld\" (1976), used the 3D wire-frame imagery, which featured a computer-animated hand and face both created by University of Utah graduates Edwin Catmull and Fred Parke. This imagery originally appeared in their student film \"A Computer Animated Hand\", which they completed in 1972. Developments in CGI technologies are reported each year at SIGGRAPH, an annual conference on computer graphics and interactive techniques that is attended by thousands of computer professionals each year. Developers of computer games and 3D video cards strive to achieve the same visual quality on personal computers in real-time as is possible for CGI films and animation. With the rapid advancement of real-time rendering quality, artists began to use game engines to render non-interactive movies, which led to the art form Machinima. The very first full length computer animated television series was \"ReBoot\", which debuted in September 1994; the series followed the adventures of characters who lived inside a computer. The first feature-length computer animated film was \"Toy Story\" (1995), which was made by Pixar. It followed an adventure centered around toys and their owners. This groundbreaking film was also the first of many fully computer-animated movies.", "In most 3D computer animation systems, an animator creates a simplified representation of a character's anatomy, which is analogous to a skeleton or stick figure. They are arranged into a default position known as a bind pose, or T-Pose. The position of each segment of the skeletal model is defined by animation variables, or Avars for short. In human and animal characters, many parts of the skeletal model correspond to the actual bones, but skeletal animation is also used to animate other things, with facial features (though other methods for facial animation exist). The character \"Woody\" in \"Toy Story\", for example, uses 700 Avars (100 in the face alone). The computer doesn't usually render the skeletal model directly (it is invisible), but it does use the skeletal model to compute the exact position and orientation of that certain character, which is eventually rendered into an image. Thus by changing the values of Avars over time, the animator creates motion by making the character move from frame to frame. There are several methods for generating the Avar values to obtain realistic motion. Traditionally, animators manipulate the Avars directly. Rather than set Avars for every frame, they usually set Avars at strategic points (frames) in time and let the computer interpolate or tween between them in a process called \"keyframing\". Keyframing puts control in the hands of the animator and has roots in hand-drawn traditional animation. In contrast, a newer method called \"motion capture\" makes use of live action footage. When computer animation is driven by motion capture, a real performer acts out the scene as if they were the character to be animated. His/her motion is recorded to a computer using video cameras and markers and that performance is then applied to the animated character. Each method has its advantages and as of 2007, games and films are using either or both of these methods in productions. Keyframe animation can produce motions that would be difficult or impossible to act out, while motion capture can reproduce the subtleties of a particular actor. For example, in the 2006 film \"\", Bill Nighy provided the performance for the character Davy Jones. Even though Nighy doesn't appear in the movie himself, the movie benefited from his performance by recording the nuances of his body language, posture, facial expressions, etc. Thus motion capture is appropriate in situations where believable, realistic behavior and action is required, but the types of characters required exceed what can be done throughout the conventional costuming.", "3D computer animation combines 3D models of objects and programmed or hand \"keyframed\" movement. These models are constructed out of geometrical vertices, faces, and edges in a 3D coordinate system. Objects are sculpted much like real clay or plaster, working from general forms to specific details with various sculpting tools. Unless a 3D model is intended to be a solid color, it must be painted with \"textures\" for realism. A bone/joint animation system is set up to deform the CGI model (e.g., to make a humanoid model walk). In a process known as \"rigging\", the virtual marionette is given various controllers and handles for controlling movement. Animation data can be created using motion capture, or keyframing by a human animator, or a combination of the two. 3D models rigged for animation may contain thousands of control points — for example, \"Woody\" from \"Toy Story\" uses 700 specialized animation controllers. Rhythm and Hues Studios labored for two years to create Aslan in the movie \"\", which had about 1,851 controllers (742 in the face alone). In the 2004 film \"The Day After Tomorrow\", designers had to design forces of extreme weather with the help of video references and accurate meteorological facts. For the 2005 remake of \"King Kong\", actor Andy Serkis was used to help designers pinpoint the gorilla's prime location in the shots and used his expressions to model \"human\" characteristics onto the creature. Serkis had earlier provided the voice and performance for Gollum in J. R. R. Tolkien's \"The Lord of the Rings\" trilogy.", "Computer animation can be created with a computer and an animation software. Some impressive animation can be achieved even with basic programs; however, the rendering can require much time on an ordinary home computer. Professional animators of movies, television and video games could make photorealistic animation with high detail. This level of quality for movie animation would take hundreds of years to create on a home computer. Instead, many powerful workstation computers are used. Graphics workstation computers use two to four processors, and they are a lot more powerful than an actual home computer and are specialized for rendering. Many workstations (known as a \"\"render farm\"\") are networked together to effectively act as a giant computer, resulting in a computer-animated movie that can be completed in about one to five years (however, this process is not composed solely of rendering). A workstation typically costs $2,000-16,000 with the more expensive stations being able to render much faster due to the more technologically-advanced hardware that they contain. Professionals also use digital movie cameras, motion/performance capture, bluescreens, film editing software, props, and other tools used for movie animation. Programs like Blender allow for people who can't afford expensive animation and rendering software to be able to work in a similar manner to those who use the commercial grade equipment.", "The realistic modeling of human facial features is both one of the most challenging and sought after elements in computer-generated imagery. Computer facial animation is a highly complex field where models typically include a very large number of animation variables. Historically speaking, the first SIGGRAPH tutorials on \"State of the art in Facial Animation\" in 1989 and 1990 proved to be a turning point in the field by bringing together and consolidating multiple research elements and sparked interest among a number of researchers. The Facial Action Coding System (with 46 \"action units\", \"lip bite\" or \"squint\"), which had been developed in 1976, became a popular basis for many systems. As early as 2001, MPEG-4 included 68 Face Animation Parameters (FAPs) for lips, jaws, etc., and the field has made significant progress since then and the use of facial microexpression has increased. In some cases, an affective space, the PAD emotional state model, can be used to assign specific emotions to the faces of avatars. In this approach, the PAD model is used as a high level emotional space and the lower level space is the MPEG-4 Facial Animation Parameters (FAP). A mid-level Partial Expression Parameters (PEP) space is then used to in a two-level structure – the PAD-PEP mapping and the PEP-FAP translation model.", "Realism in computer animation can mean making each frame look photorealistic, in the sense that the scene is rendered to resemble a photograph or make the characters' animation believable and lifelike. Computer animation can also be realistic with or without the photorealistic rendering. One of the greatest challenges in computer animation has been creating human characters that look and move with the highest degree of realism. Part of the difficulty in making pleasing, realistic human characters is the uncanny valley, the concept where the human audience (up to a point) tends to have an increasingly negative, emotional response as a human replica looks and acts more and more human. Films that have attempted photorealistic human characters, such as \"The Polar Express\", \"Beowulf\", and \"A Christmas Carol\" have been criticized as \"creepy\" and \"disconcerting\". The goal of computer animation is not always to emulate live action as closely as possible, so many animated films instead feature characters who are anthropomorphic animals, legendary creatures and characters, superheroes, or otherwise have non-realistic, cartoon-like proportions. Computer animation can also be tailored to mimic or substitute for other kinds of animation, like traditional stop-motion animation (as shown in \"Flushed Away\" or \"The Lego Movie\"). Some of the long-standing basic principles of animation, like squash & stretch, call for movement that is not strictly realistic, and such principles still see widespread application in computer animation.", "CGI short films have been produced as independent animation since 1976. An early example of an animated feature film to incorporate CGI animation was the 1983 Japanese anime film \"\". The popularity of computer animation (especially in the field of special effects) skyrocketed during the modern era of U.S. animation. The first completely computer-animated movie was \"Toy Story\" (1995), but \"VeggieTales\" is the first American fully 3D computer animated series sold directly (made in 1993); its success inspired other animation series, such as \"ReBoot\" in 1994. While films like \"Avatar\" and \"The Jungle Book\" use CGI for the majority of the movie runtime, they still incorporate human actors into the mix.", "Some notable producers of computer-animated feature films include:", "The popularity of websites that allow members to upload their own movies for others to view has created a growing community of amateur computer animators. With utilities and programs often included free with modern operating systems, many users can make their own animated movies and shorts. Several free and open-source animation software applications exist as well. The ease at which these animations can be distributed has attracted professional animation talent also. Companies such as PowToon and GoAnimate attempt to bridged the gap by giving amateurs access to professional animations as clip art. The oldest (most backward compatible) web-based animations are in the animated GIF format, which can be uploaded and seen on the web easily. However, the raster graphics format of GIF animations slows the download and frame rate, especially with larger screen sizes. The growing demand for higher quality web-based animations was met by a vector graphics alternative that relied on the use of a plugin. For decades, Flash animations were the most popular format, until the web development community abandoned support for the Flash player plugin. Web browsers on mobile devices and mobile operating systems never fully supported the Flash plugin. By this time, internet bandwidth and download speeds increased, making raster graphic animations more convenient. Some of the more complex vector graphic animations had a slower frame rate due to complex rendering than some of the raster graphic alternatives. Many of the GIF and Flash animations were already converted to digital video formats, which were compatible with mobile devices and reduced file sizes via video compression technology. However, compatibility was still problematic as some of the popular video formats such as Apple's QuickTime and Microsoft Silverlight required plugins. YouTube, the most popular video viewing website, was also relying on the Flash plugin to deliver digital video in the Flash Video format. The latest alternatives are HTML5 compatible animations. Technologies such as JavaScript and CSS animations made sequencing the movement of images in HTML5 web pages more convenient. SVG animations offered a vector graphic alternative to the original Flash graphic format, SmartSketch. YouTube offers an HTML5 alternative for digital video. APNG (Animated PNG) offered a raster graphic alternative to animated GIF files that enables multi-level transparency not available in GIFs", "In 2D computer animation, moving objects are often referred to as \"sprites.\" A sprite is an image that has a location associated with it. The location of the sprite is changed slightly, between each displayed frame, to make the sprite appear to move. The following pseudocode makes a sprite move from left to right: Computer animation uses different techniques to produce animations. Most frequently, sophisticated mathematics is used to manipulate complex three-dimensional polygons, apply \"textures\", lighting and other effects to the polygons and finally rendering the complete image. A sophisticated graphical user interface may be used to create the animation and arrange its choreography. Another technique called constructive solid geometry defines objects by conducting boolean operations on regular shapes, and has the advantage that animations may be accurately produced at any resolution.", "\"To animate means, figuratively, to \"give life to\". There are two basic methods that animators commonly use to accomplish this.\" Computer-assisted animation is usually classed as two-dimensional (2D) animation. Drawings are either hand drawn (pencil to paper) or interactively drawn (on the computer) using different assisting appliances and are positioned into specific software packages. Within the software package, the creator places drawings into different key frames which fundamentally create an outline of the most important movements. The computer then fills in the \"in-between frames\", a process commonly known as Tweening. Computer-assisted animation employs new technologies to produce content faster than is possible with traditional animation, while still retaining the stylistic elements of traditionally drawn characters or objects. Examples of films produced using computer-assisted animation are \"The Little Mermaid\", \"The Rescuers Down Under\", \"Beauty and the Beast\", \"Aladdin\", \"The Lion King\", \"Pocahontas\", \"The Hunchback of Notre Dame\", \"Hercules\", \"Mulan\", \"The Road to El Dorado\" and \"Tarzan\". Computer-generated animation is known as three-dimensional (3D) animation. Creators design an object or character with an X, a Y and a Z axis. No pencil-to-paper drawings create the way computer-generated animation works. The object or character created will then be taken into a software. Key-framing and tweening are also carried out in computer-generated animation but so are many techniques unrelated to traditional animation. Animators can break physical laws by using mathematical algorithms to cheat mass, force and gravity rulings. Fundamentally, time scale and quality could be said to be a preferred way to produce animation as they are major aspects enhanced by using computer-generated animation. Another positive aspect of CGA is the fact one can create a flock of creatures to act independently when created as a group. An animal's fur can be programmed to wave in the wind and lie flat when it rains instead of separately programming each strand of hair. A few examples of computer-generated animation movies are \"Toy Story\", \"Frozen\", and \"Shrek\"." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Names.", "History.", "Administrative divisions.", "Geography.", "Climate.", "Cityscape and environment.", "Classical Gardens of Suzhou.", "Canals and historic districts.", "Resorts and natural reserves.", "Skyscrapers.", "Pan Gate.", "Baodai Bridge.", "Tiger Hill.", "Pagodas.", "Museums.", "Hospitals.", "Demographics.", "Economy.", "Development zones.", "Suzhou Industrial Park.", "Suzhou Industrial Park Export Processing Zone.", "Suzhou New District.", "Sports.", "Transportation.", "Railway.", "Highways.", "Air transport.", "Water transport.", "Metro.", "Tram.", "Bus." ], "section_level": [ "1", "1", "1", "1", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "1", "2", "3", "3", "3", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "During the Zhou, a settlement known as Gusu after nearby Mount Gusu () became the capital of the state of Wu. From this role, it also came to be called Wu as well. In 514BC, King Helü of Wu established a new capital nearby at Helü City and this grew into the modern city. During the Warring States period, Helü City continued to serve as the local seat of government. From the areas it administered, it became known as Wuxian (. \"Wu County\") and Wujun (\"Wu Commandery\"). Under the Qin, it was known as Kuaiji after its greatly enlarged commandery, which was named for the reputed resting place of Yu the Great near modern Shaoxing in Zhejiang. The name Suzhou was first officially used for the city in AD 589 during the Sui dynasty. The \"sū\" ( or ) in its name is a contraction of the old name Gusu. It refers to the mint perilla (\"shiso\"). The \"zhou\" originally meant something like a province or county (cf. Guizhou), but often came to be used metonymously for the capital of such a region (cf. Guangzhou, Hangzhou, etc.). Suzhou is the Hanyu Pinyin spelling of the Putonghua pronunciation of the name. Prior to the adoption of pinyin, it was variously romanized as Soo-chow, Suchow, or Su-chow.", "Suzhou, the cradle of Wu culture, is one of the oldest towns in the Yangtze Basin. By the Spring and Autumn period of the Zhou, local tribes named the Gou Wu are recorded living in the area which would become the modern city of Suzhou. These tribes formed villages on the edges of the hills above the wetlands surrounding Lake Tai. Sima Qian's \"Records of the Grand Historian\" records traditional accounts that the Zhou lord Taibo established the state of Wu at nearby Wuxi during the 11th centuryBC, civilizing the local people and improving their agriculture and mastery of irrigation. The Wu court later moved to Gusu within the area of modern Suzhou. In 514BC, King Helü of Wu relocated his court nearby and called the settlement Helü City after himself. His minister Wu Zixu was closely involved with its planning and it was this site that grew into present-day Suzhou. The height of his tower on Gusu Hill (\"Gusutai\") passed into Chinese legend. In 496BC, King Helü was buried at Tiger Hill. In 473BC, Wu was defeated and annexed by Yue, a kingdom to its southeast; Yue was annexed in turn by Chu in 306BC. Remnants of the ancient kingdom include pieces of its 2,500-year-old city wall and the gate through it at Pan Gate. The city was originally laid out according to a symbolic three-by-three grid of nine squares, with the royal palace occupying the central position. During the Warring States period, Suzhou was the seat of Wu County and Commandery. Following the Qin Empire's conquest of the area in 222BC, it was made the capital of Kuaiji Commandery, including lands stretching from the south bank of the Yangtze to the unconquered interior of Minyue in southern Zhejiang. Amid the collapse of the Qin, Kuaiji's governor Yin Tong attempted to organize his own rebellion only to be betrayed and executed by Xiang Liang and his nephew Xiang Yu, who launched their own rebellion from the city. When the Grand Canal was completed, Suzhou found itself strategically located on a major trade route. In the course of the history of China, it has been a metropolis of industry and commerce on the southeastern coast of China. During the Tang dynasty, the great poet Bai Juyi constructed the Shantang Canal (better known as \"Shantang Street\") to connect the city with Tiger Hill for tourists. In AD1035, the Suzhou Confucian Temple was founded by famed poet and writer Fan Zhongyan. It became a venue for the imperial civil examinations and then developed into the modern Suzhou High School in the 1910s. In February 1130, the advancing Jin army from the north ransacked the city. This was followed by the Mongol invasion in 1275. In 1356, Suzhou became the capital of Zhang Shicheng, one of the leaders of the Red Turban Rebellion against the Yuan dynasty and the self-proclaimed King of Wu. In 1367, Zhang's Nanjing-based rival Zhu Yuanzhang took the city after a 10-month siege. Zhu who was soon to proclaim himself the first emperor of the Ming Dynasty demolished the royal city in the center of Suzhou's walled city and imposed crushing taxes on the city and prefecture's powerful families. Despite the heavy taxation and the resettlement of some of Suzhou's prominent citizens' to the area of Hongwu's capital at Nanjing, Suzhou was soon prosperous again. During the early Ming, Suzhou Prefecture supervised the Yangtze shoals which later became Shanghai's Chongming Island. For centuries the city, with its surroundings as an economic base, represented an extraordinary source of tax revenue. When the shipwrecked Korean official Choe Bu had a chance to see much of Eastern China from Zhejiang to Liaoning on his way home in 1488, he described Suzhou in his travel report as exceeding every other city. Many of the area's private gardens were constructed by the gentry of the Ming and Qing dynasties. The Taipings captured the city in 1860, however, and many of its former buildings and gardens were \"almost... a heap of ruins\" by the time of their recovery by Charles Gordon's Ever-Victorious Army in November 1863. Nonetheless, by 1880, its population was estimated to have recovered to about 500,000, which remained stable for the next few decades. In the late 19th century, the town was particularly known for its wide range of silks and its Chinese-language publishing industry. The town was first opened to direct foreign trades by the Treaty of Shimonoseki ending the First Sino-Japanese War and by the most favored nation clauses of earlier unequal treaties with the Great Powers. The new expatriates opened a European-and-Chinese school in 1900 and the Suzhou railway station, connecting it with Shanghai, opened on July 16, 1906. Just prior to the World War I, there were 7000 silk looms in operation, as well as a cotton mill and a large trade in rice. As late as the early 20th century, much of the city consisted of islands connected by rivers, creeks, and canals to the surrounding countryside. Prior to their demolition, the city walls ran in a circuit of about with four large suburbs lying outside. The Japanese invaded in 1937, and many gardens were again devastated by the end of the war. In the early 1950s, restoration was done on the Humble Administrator's Garden and the Lingering Garden.", "The urban core of Suzhou is informally called the \"Old Town\". It is Gusu District. Suzhou Industrial Park is to the east of the old town, and Suzhou High & New Technology Development Zone is to the west. In 2000, the original Wu County was divided into two districts including Xiangcheng and Wuzhong. They now form the northern and southern parts of the city of Suzhou.In 2012, the original Wujiang City became Wujiang District of Suzhou City. Suzhou is one of the most prosperous cities in China. Its development has a direct correlation with the growth of its satellite cities, including Kunshan, Taicang, Changshu, and Zhangjiagang, which together with the city of Suzhou form the Suzhou prefecture. The Suzhou prefecture is home to many high-tech enterprises.", "Suzhou is on the Lake Tai Plain south of the Yangtze River, about to the west of Shanghai and just over east of Nanjing.", "Suzhou has a four-season humid subtropical climate with hot, humid summers and cool, cloudy, damp winters with occasional snowfall (Köppen climate classification \"Cfa\"). Northwesterly winds blowing from Siberia during winter can cause temperatures to fall below freezing at night, while southerly or southwesterly winds during the summer can push temperatures above. The hottest temperature recorded since 1951 was at on 7 August 2013, and the lowest at on 16 January 1958.", "", "Suzhou is famous for its over 60 Classical Gardens, collectively a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The city has the Most UNESCO-recognized gardens in the world. The Humble Administrator's Garden and Lingering Garden are among the four most famous classical gardens in China. The Canglang Pavilion, Lion Grove Garden, Humble Administrator's Garden and Lingering Garden, respectively representing the garden styles of the Song, Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties, are called the four most famous gardens in Suzhou. Other gardens inscribed on the World Heritage List include the Couple's Retreat Garden, the Garden of Cultivation, and the Retreat and Reflection Garden.", "The Suzhou section of the Jiangnan Canal, Grand Canal (China), includes ten city gates and over 20 stone bridges of traditional design and historic areas that have been well preserved, as well as temples and pavilions. In 2015, both 800-year-old Pingjiang Road Historical Block () and 1,200-year-old Shantang Street Scenic Area () were added to the list of China's \"National Historic and Cultural Streets\". Pingjiang Road runs parallel to the Pingjiang River for 1.5 kilometers and is lined with homes and some teahouses. Shantang Street, over twice as long at 3.8 km, is described by the BBC as retaining \"the alluring qualities of an old canal-side street: whitewashed buildings are completed by red-tasselled lanterns that swing softly in the breeze, adding to the charm of the river bank\". Boat tours are offered on the waterways of this city that was dubbed the \"Venice of the East\" by Marco Polo because of its criss-crossing canals and stone bridges. The Grand Canal (from Beijing to Zhejiang province) is a UNESCO World Heritage site.", "Suzhou Taihu National Tourism and Vacation Zone () is in the western part of Suzhou, from the city center.", "Gate to the East is a 301.8 meter, 74-story skyscraper in Suzhou's central business district, built in 2015 at a cost of 700 million USD and is currently the tallest building in Suzhou.", "Pan Gate is on the southwest corner of the Main Canal or encircling canal of Suzhou. Originally built during the Warring States Period in the state of Wu, historians estimate it to be around 2,500 years old. It is now part of the \"Pan Gate Scenic Area\". It is known for the \"three landmarks of Pan Gate\". They are the Ruiguang Pagoda, the earliest pagoda in Suzhou built in 247BC, the \"Wu Gate Bridge\", the entrance to the gate at that time over the water passage and the highest bridge in Suzhou at the time, and the \"Pan Gate\". The Ruigang Pagoda is constructed of brick with wooden platforms and has Buddhist carvings at its base.", "Baodai Bridge stretches across the Tantai Lake in the suburbs of Suzhou. To raise money to finance the bridge, the magistrate donated his expensive belt, hence the name. The bridge was first built in 806 A.D. in the Tang Dynasty and has 53 arches with a length of 317 meters. It was made out of stone from Jinshan Mountain and is the longest standing bridge of its kind in China. The bridge was included on the list of national monuments (resolution 5-285) in 2001.", "The Tiger Hill is known for its natural environment and historical sites. The hill is so named because it is said to look like a crouching tiger. Another legend states that a white tiger appeared on the hill to guard it following the burial The hill has been a tourist destination for hundreds, if not thousands, of years, as is evident from the poetry and calligraphy carved into rocks on the hill. The Song Dynasty poet, Su Shi said, \"It is a lifelong pity if having visited Suzhou you did not visit Tiger Hill.\"", "Yunyan Pagoda (or Huqiu Tower) built in 961 is a Chinese pagoda built on Tiger Hill in Suzhou. It has several other names, including the \"Leaning Tower of China\" (as referred to by historian O.G. Ingles) and the Yunyan Temple Tower. The tower rises to a height of 47 m (154 ft). It is a seven-story octagonal building built with blue bricks. In more than a thousand years the tower has gradually slanted due to forces of nature. Now the top and bottom of the tower vary by 2.32 meters. The entire structure weighs some, supported by internal brick columns. However, the tower leans roughly 3 degrees due to the cracking of two supporting columns. Beisi Pagoda or North Temple Pagoda is a Chinese pagoda at Bao'en Temple in Suzhou. It rises nine stories in a height of. It is the tallest Chinese pagoda south of the Yangtze river. Twin Pagodas () lie in the Dinghui Temple Lane in the southeastern corner of the city proper of Suzhou. They are artistic and natural as they are close at hand. One of them is called Clarity-Dispensing Pagoda and the other Beneficence Pagoda and they are in the same form of building. There are many legends about the one-thousand-year-old pagodas. It is charming that the exquisite and straight Twin Pagoda look like two inserted writing brushes. There was originally a single-storey house with three rooms just like a writing brush holder with the shadows of the two pagodas reclining on its roof at sunset. To the east of the pagoda is a square five-storeyed bell building built in the Ming Dynasty which is exactly like a thick ink stick. So there is a saying that \"the Twin Pagodas are as writing brushes while the bell building as ink stick\".", "The city's major museums include the Suzhou Museum (designed by I. M. Pei), Suzhou Silk Museum, and Suzhou Museum of Opera and Theatre.", "As a result of its recent rapid population increase, healthcare demand in Suzhou is increasing rapidly. In July 2019, Washington University School of Medicine announced a collaboration with Huici Health Management Co., and the Xiangcheng District, to open the new Huici Medical Center, which will include a 1,000-bed hospital for adult and pediatric patients. Once the hospital is unveiled, Washington University doctors in St. Louis will be able to provide long-distance health-care services to patients in China through a telemedicine program.", "The population of Suzhou is predominantly Han Chinese. The official language of broadcast, instruction, etc. is Mandarin Chinese, although many speak a local dialect known as Suzhounese, a member of the Wu language family. In addition to American and European expatriates, there is a large Korean community in Suzhou. The Industrial Bank of Korea (IBK) estimated that there were 15,000 Koreans in the municipality in 2014. That year 850 Korean companies operated in Suzhou, and the Koreans made up the largest number of students at the Suzhou Singapore International School.", "Suzhou's economy is based primarily on its large manufacturing sector—China's second largest—including iron and steel, IT and electronic equipment, and textile products. The city's service sector is notably well-developed, primarily owing to tourism, which brought in a total of RMB 152 billion of revenue in 2013. Suzhou's overall GDP exceeded RMB 1.3 trillion in 2013 (up 9.6 percent from the year previous). The city is also one of China's foremost destinations for foreign investment, based on its relative proximity to Shanghai and comparatively low operating costs. The municipal government has enacted various measures to encourage FDI in a number of manufacturing (e.g. pharmaceutical, electronic goods, automobile) and service (e.g. banking, logistics, research services) sectors. Included among these measures is a preferential tax policy for limited partnership venture capital enterprises in the Suzhou Industrial Park.", "", "The Suzhou Industrial Park (SIP) is the largest cooperative project between the Chinese and Singaporean governments. It is beside Jinji Lake, which lies to the east of the Suzhou Old City. On 26 February 1994, Vice Premier Li Lanqing and Senior Minister Lee Kuan Yew represented China and Singapore respectively in signing the Agreement to jointly develop Suzhou Industrial Park (originally called the Singapore Industrial Park). The project officially commenced on 12 May in the same year. SIP has a jurisdiction area of, of which, the China-Singapore cooperation area covers with a planned residential population of 1.2 million. SIP is home to the Suzhou Dushu Lake Science and Education Innovation District, an area of universities and higher education institutions, including Soochow University and Xi'an Jiaotong-Liverpool University. Suzhou Industrial Park is also a popular residential district for many foreigners who work and live in Suzhou, as well as 'new Suzhou' residents who migrated to the area in search of work opportunities.", "The Suzhou Industrial Park Export Processing Zone was approved to be established by the government in April 2000, with a planning area of. It is in Suzhou Industrial Park set up by China and Singapore. Inside the Export Processing Zone, all the infrastructures are of high standard.", "The Suzhou New District was established in 1990. In November 1992, the zone was approved to be the national-level hi-tech industrial zone. By the end of 2007, foreign-invested companies had a registered capital worth of US$13 billion, of which US$6.8 billion was paid in. SND hosts now more than 1,500 foreign companies. Some 40 Fortune 500 companies set up 67 projects in the district.", "Suzhou Dongwu currently play in China League Two, the third division of Chinese football. The 13,000 seat Suzhou Industrial Park Sports Arena will be one of the venues for the 2019 FIBA Basketball World Cup.", "", "Suzhou is on the Shanghai-Nanjing corridor which carries three parallel railways. Suzhou railway station, near the city center, is among the busiest passenger stations in China. It is served by the Beijing–Shanghai railway (mostly \"conventional\" trains to points throughout China) and the Shanghai-Nanjing intercity railway (high-speed D- and G-series trains providing frequent service primarily between Shanghai and Nanjing). It takes only 25 minutes to reach Shanghai railway station on the fastest G-series trains and less than 1 hour to Nanjing. The Suzhou North railway station, a few kilometers to the north, is on the Beijing–Shanghai high-speed railway (opened 2011), served by high-speed trains to Beijing, Qingdao, etc. Other stations on the Beijing–Shanghai railway and the Shanghai–Nanjing intercity railway serve other points in the same corridor within Suzhou Prefecture-level city, such as Kunshan. In and between Suzhou and Kunshan South railway station, Suzhou Industrial Park railway station now also becomes an important station for people visiting and living in the areas. The northern part of the city, including such county-level cities as Zhangjiagang, Changshu and Taicang, presently has no rail service. However, plans exist for a cross-Yangtze railway from Nantong to the Shanghai metropolitan area (the Shanghai–Nantong railway), which will run through most of these county-level cities. Construction work is expected to start in 2013 and to take five and a half years.", "The Nanjing-Shanghai Expressway connects Suzhou with Shanghai, alternatively, there is the Yangtze Riverine Expressway and the Suzhou-Jiaxing-Hangzhou Expressway. In 2005, the Suzhou Outer Ring was completed, linking the peripheral county-level cities of Taicang, Kunshan, and Changshu. China National Highway 312 also passes through Suzhou.", "Suzhou is served by three airports, Sunan Shuofang International Airport (co-owned by Wuxi and Suzhou), Shanghai Hongqiao International Airport ( one hour drive ), Shanghai Pudong International Airport ( two hours drive ).", "Port of Suzhou, on the right bank of the Yangtze River, dealt with 428 million tons of cargo and 5.86 million TEU containers in 2012, which made it the busiest inland river port in the world by annual cargo tonnage and container volume.", "The Suzhou Rail Transit currently has four lines in operation and five other lines under construction. The masterplan consists of nine independent lines. Line 1 started operation on April 28, 2012, Line 2 started operation on December 28, 2013, and Line 4 started operation in 2017. As of March 2020, Line 5, Line 6, Line 7 and Line 8 and Line S1 are under construction at the same time.", "Suzhou Tram system has two routes in the Suzhou New District.", "Suzhou has public bus routes that run into all parts of the city. Fares are flat rated, usually 1 Yuan for a non-air-conditioned bus and 2 Yuan for an air-conditioned one. The Suzhou BRT, a bus rapid transit system opened in 2008, operates 5 lines using elevated busways and bus-only lanes throughout the city." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Enlightenment deism.", "Origin of the word \"deism\".", "Overview of Enlightenment deism.", "Herbert of Cherbury and early English deism.", "The flowering of deism, 1696–1801.", "Aspects of Enlightenment deism.", "The origins of religion.", "Immortality of the soul.", "Prayer and worship.", "Miracles and divine providence.", "Freedom and necessity.", "David Hume.", "Deism in the United States.", "Deism in France and continental Europe.", "Decline of Enlightenment deism.", "Contemporary deism.", "Recent philosophical discussions of deism.", "Deism in contemporary America.", "World Union of Deists.", "Positive deism.", "Church of Deism." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "3", "3", "3", "3", "3", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "The words \"deism\" and \"theism\" are both derived from words meaning \"god\": Latin \"deus\" and Greek \"theos\" (θεός). The word \"déiste\" first appears in French in 1564 in a work by a Swiss Calvinist named Pierre Viret but was generally unknown in France until the 1690s when Pierre Bayle published his famous Dictionary, which contained an article on Viret. In English the words \"deist\" and \"theist\" were originally synonymous, but by the 17th century the terms started to diverge in meaning. The term \"deist\" with its current meaning first appears in English in Robert Burton's \"The Anatomy of Melancholy\" (1621).", "At least since Thomas Aquinas, Christian thought had recognized two valid sources of religious knowledge: divine revelation and natural reason (\"natural theology\"). During the Enlightenment, some thinkers continued to accept reason, along with features of the natural world, as a valid source of religious knowledge, but they rejected the validity of revelation. These thinkers were the \"deists\" and the word \"deism\" refers to their collective attack on the idea of divine revelation. In effect, deist authors carried out an intellectual war against the idea of revelation. It was a guerilla war in the sense that deist authors operated independently and each author carried out his attacks in his own unique way. Some deist authors attacked with calm logic, while others furiously attacked with moral indignation; some appealed to the facts of history while others wielded pointed humor and sarcasm. These authors exhibited a similarly wide variety of opinions when it came to matters of natural theology. Some believed in the immortality of the soul, posthumous punishment for the wicked, and posthumous rewards for the virtuous; others did not; some were undecided. After Newton published his discoveries, some regarded God as a watch-maker; a distant Creator and First Mover who wound up the universe, set it in motion, and then stepped away; it was pointless to pray to such a God who surely wasn't listening. Others felt a closer connection to God and believed that God heard and responded to their prayers. Those who believed in a watch-maker God rejected the possibility of miracles— after having established natural laws and set the great cosmos in motion, God didn't need to keep tinkering with his creation. Others accepted the possibility of miracles; God after all was all-powerful and could do anything at all, including temporarily bypassing his own natural laws. The deists were also animated by a variety of different motives (which at least partially explains the diversity of their concerns and conclusions). This was the age of the Scientific Revolution; some were animated by a new-found respect for science (\"natural philosophy\") accompanied by a repugnance for superstition, irrationality, and nonsense. Some were saddened and repulsed by the savage religious wars that had been ravaging Europe for decades; their goal was to find a way to stop the fighting. Others were pushing back against the crushing political power possessed by the organized Churches in their respective countries, churches that forbade them from thinking freely, censored them if they tried to publish their thoughts, and (if they could be caught) punished them when they succeeded in publishing. Details of the deist war on revelation can be found in the article on Deism in England and France in the 18th century. Here we will look at only a few representative deists, in order to show how they illustrate the many personal facets of deism.", "The first major statement of deism in English is Lord Herbert of Cherbury's book \"De Veritate\" (1624). Herbert, like his contemporary Descartes, searched for the foundations of knowledge. The first two-thirds of his book \"De Veritate\" (\"On Truth, as It Is Distinguished from Revelation, the Probable, the Possible, and the False\") are devoted to an exposition of Herbert's theory of knowledge. Herbert distinguished truths obtained through experience and reasoning about experience, from innate truths and from revealed truths. Innate truths are imprinted on our minds, and the evidence that they are so imprinted is that they are universally accepted. Herbert's term for universally accepted truths was \"notitiae communes\"Common Notions. When it came to religion, Herbert believed that there were five Common Notions. Herbert himself had relatively few followers, and it was not until the 1680s that Herbert found a true successor in Charles Blount (1654–1693).", "The appearance of John Locke's \"Essay Concerning Human Understanding\" (1690) marks an important turning point, and a new phase, in the history of English deism. Herbert's epistemology was based on the idea of \"common notions\", in effect, on innate ideas. Locke's famous attack on innate ideas in the \"Essay\" effectively destroyed that foundation. After Locke, deists could no longer appeal to innate ideas as Herbert had done. Instead, deists were forced to turn to arguments based on experience and nature. Under the influence of Newton they turned to the argument from design as the principal argument for the existence of God. Peter Gay identifies John Toland's \"Christianity not Mysterious\" (1696), and the \"vehement response\" it provoked as the beginning of post-Locke deism. Among the notable figures, Gay describes Toland and Matthew Tindal as the best known, but Gay considered them to be talented publicists rather than philosophers or scholars. He regards Middleton and Anthony Collins as contributing more to the substance of debate; in contrast with fringe writers such as Thomas Chubb and Thomas Woolston. Other British deists prominent during the period include William Wollaston, Charles Blount, Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke, and, in the latter part, Peter Annet, Thomas Chubb and Thomas Morgan. Anthony Ashley-Cooper, Third Earl of Shaftesbury was also influential. Though not presenting himself as a deist, he shared many of the deists' key attitudes and is now usually regarded as a deist. Especially noteworthy is Matthew Tindal's \"Christianity as Old as the Creation\" (1730), which \"became, very soon after its publication, the focal center of the deist controversy. Because almost every argument, quotation, and issue raised for decades can be found here, the work is often termed 'the deist's Bible'.\" Following Locke's successful attack on innate ideas, Tindal's 'Bible' redefined the foundation of deist epistemology as knowledge based on experience or human reason. This effectively widened the gap between traditional Christians and what he called \"Christian Deists\", since this new foundation required that \"revealed\" truth be validated through human reason.", "Enlightenment deism consisted of two philosophical assertions: (a) reason, along with features of the natural world, is a valid source of religious knowledge, and (b) revelation is not a valid source of religious knowledge. Different deist authors expanded on these two assertions to create what Leslie Stephen later termed the \"constructive\" and \"critical\" aspects of deism. \"Constructive\" assertions— assertions that deist writers felt were justified by appeals to reason and features of the natural world (or perhaps were intuitively obvious) — included: \"Critical\" assertions— assertions that followed from the denial of revelation as a valid source of religious knowledge— were much more numerous. They included:", "A central premise of deism was that the religions of their day were corruptions of an original religion that was pure, natural, simple, and rational. Humanity lost this original religion when it was subsequently corrupted by \"priests\" who manipulated it for personal gain and for the class interests of the priesthood, and encrusted it with superstitions and \"mysteries\"irrational theological doctrines. Deists referred to this manipulation of religious doctrine as \"priestcraft,\" an intensely derogatory term. In the eyes of deists, this corruption of natural religion was designed to keep laymen baffled by \"mysteries\" and dependent on the priesthood for information about the requirements for salvation– this gave the priesthood a great deal power, which the priesthood naturally worked to maintain and increase. Deists saw it as their mission to strip away \"priestcraft\" and \"mysteries\". Tindal, perhaps the most prominent deist writer, claimed that this was the proper original role of the Christian Church. One implication of this premise was that current-day primitive societies, or societies that existed in the distant past, should have religious beliefs less encrusted with superstitions and closer to those of natural theology. This position became less and less plausible as thinkers such as David Hume began studying the natural history of religion and suggested that the origins of religion lay not in reason but in emotions such as the fear of the unknown.", "Different deists had different beliefs about the immortality of the soul, about the existence of Hell and damnation to punish the wicked, and the existence of Heaven to reward the virtuous. Anthony Collins, Bolingbroke, Thomas Chubb, and Peter Annet were materialists and either denied or doubted the immortality of the soul. Benjamin Franklin believed in reincarnation or resurrection. Lord Herbert of Cherbury and William Wollaston, held that souls exist, survive death, and in the afterlife are rewarded or punished by God for their behavior in life. Thomas Paine believed in the \"probability\" of immortality of the soul.", "Influenced by Newton's cosmology, many deists regarded God as a distant Creator who wound up the universe, set it in motion, and then stepped away. These deists naturally considered it to be pointless to pray to or worship a God who surely wasn't listening. Others, however, felt a closer connection to God and believed that God heard and responded to their prayers.", "The most natural position for deists was to reject all forms of supernaturalism, including the miracle stories in the Bible. The problem was that the rejection of miracles also seemed to entail the rejection of divine providence (of God taking a hand in human affairs), something that many deists were inclined to accept. Those who believed in a watch-maker God rejected the possibility of miracles and divine providence. They believed that God, after establishing natural laws and setting the cosmos in motion, stepped away. He didn't need to keep tinkering with his creation, and the suggestion that he did was insulting. Others, however, firmly believed in divine providence and so were reluctantly forced to accept at least the possibility of miracle. God was, after all, all-powerful, and He could do whatever he wanted, including temporarily suspending his own natural laws.", "Enlightenment thinkers, under the influence of Newtonian science, tended to view the universe as a vast machine, created and set in motion by a creator being, that continues to operate according to natural law, without any divine intervention. This view naturally led to what was then called necessitarianism (the modern term is determinism): the view that everything in the universe – including human behavior – is completely causally determined by antecedent circumstances and natural law. (See, for example, La Mettrie's \"L'Homme machine\".) As a consequence, debates about freedom versus \"necessity\" were a regular feature of Enlightenment religious and philosophical discussions. Reflecting the intellectual climate of the time, there were differences among deists about freedom and determinism. Some, such as Anthony Collins, actually were necessitarians.", "Views differ on whether David Hume was a deist, an atheist, or something else. Like the deists, he had no truck with revelation, and his famous essay \"On Miracles\" provided a powerful argument against belief in miracles. On the other hand, he had no truck with the idea that an appeal to Reason could provide any justification for religion. In \"Natural History of Religion\" (1757) he contends that polytheism, not monotheism, was \"the first and most ancient religion of mankind\" and that the psychological basis of religion is not reason, but fear of the unknown. Hume's account of ignorance and fear as the motivations for primitive religious belief was a severe blow to the deist's rosy picture of prelapsarian humanity basking in priestcraft-free innocence. In Waring's words", "Until 1776 the (now) United States were colonies of the British empire and Americans, as British subjects, were influenced by and participated in the intellectual life of England and Great Britain. English deism was an important influence on the thinking of Thomas Jefferson and the principles of religious freedom asserted in the First Amendment to the United States Constitution. Other \"Founding Fathers\" who were influenced to various degrees by deism were Ethan Allen, Benjamin Franklin, Cornelius Harnett, Gouverneur Morris, Hugh Williamson, James Madison, and possibly Alexander Hamilton. In the United States, where the Culture Wars still rage, there is a great deal of controversy over whether the Founding Fathers were Christians, deists, or something in between. Particularly heated is the debate over the beliefs of Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, and George Washington. In his \"Autobiography\" Franklin wrote that as a young man \"\"Some books against Deism fell into my hands; they were said to be the substance of sermons preached at Boyle's lectures. It happened that they wrought an effect on me quite contrary to what was intended by them; for the arguments of the Deists, which were quoted to be refuted, appeared to me much stronger than the refutations; in short, I soon became a thorough Deist.\"\" Like some other deists, Franklin believed that, \"The Deity sometimes interferes by his particular Providence, and sets aside the Events which would otherwise have been produc'd in the Course of Nature, or by the Free Agency of Man,\" and stated at the Constitutional Convention that \"the longer I live, the more convincing proofs I see of this truth— that God governs in the affairs of men.\" Thomas Jefferson is perhaps the Founding Father who most clearly exhibits deist tendencies, although he generally referred to himself as a Unitarian rather than a deist. His excerpts of the Biblical gospels, for example, now commonly known as the \"Jefferson Bible\", strips away all supernatural and dogmatic references from the Christ story. Like Franklin, Jefferson believed in God's continuing activity in human affairs. Thomas Paine is especially noteworthy both for his contributions to the cause of the American revolution and to the cause of deism. His \"The Age of Reason\" (Parts I and II in 1794 and 1795) was short, readable, and is probably the only deist tract that continues to be read, and to be influential, today. The last contributor to American deism was Elihu Palmer (1764–1806), who wrote the \"Bible of American deism\", \"Principles of Nature\", in 1801. Palmer is noteworthy for attempting to bring some organization to deism by founding the \"Deistical Society of New York\" and other deistic societies from Maine to Georgia.", "France had its own tradition of religious skepticism and natural theology in the works of Montaigne, Bayle, and Montesquieu. The most famous of the French deists was Voltaire, who was exposed to Newtonian science and English deism during his two-year period of exile in England (1726-8). When he returned to France he brought both back with him, and exposed the French reading public (i.e. the aristocracy) to them in a number of books. French deists also included Maximilien Robespierre and Rousseau. During the French Revolution the deistic Cult of the Supreme Being, a direct expression of Robespierre's theological views, was established briefly - just under three months - as the new state religion of France, replacing the deposed Catholic Church and rival atheistic Cult of Reason. Deism in Germany is not well documented. We know from his correspondence with Voltaire that Frederick the Great was a deist. Immanuel Kant's identification with deism is controversial.", "Gay describes Enlightenment deism as entering slow decline, as a recognisable movement, in the 1730s. A number of reasons have been suggested for this decline. It is correct to say that deism declined, in the sense that use of the word \"deism\" declined. But it would be incorrect, or at least misleading, to say that deism died— deist ideas and influences lived on. One of the major activities of the deists, biblical criticism, evolved into its own highly technical discipline. Deist rejection of revealed religion evolved into, and contributed to, 19th-century liberal British theology and the rise of Unitarianism.", "Contemporary deism attempts to integrate classical deism with modern philosophy and the current state of scientific knowledge. This attempt has produced a wide variety of personal beliefs under the broad classification of belief of \"deism.\" There are a number of subcategories of modern deism, including monodeism (this being the default standard concept of deism), pandeism, spiritual deism, process deism, Christian deism, polydeism, scientific deism, and humanistic deism. Some deists see design in nature and purpose in the universe and in their lives. Others see God and the universe in a co-creative process. Some deists view God in classical terms and see God as observing humanity but not directly intervening in our lives, while others see God as a subtle and persuasive spirit who created the world and then stepped back to observe. Most contemporary deists do not believe in divine intervention, but some still find value in prayer as a form of meditation, self-cleansing, and spiritual renewal.", "In the 1960s, theologian Charles Hartshorne scrupulously examined and rejected both deism and pandeism (as well as pantheism) in favor of a conception of God whose characteristics included \"absolute perfection in some respects, relative perfection in all others\" or \"AR\", writing that this theory \"is able consistently to embrace all that is positive in either deism or pandeism\", concluding that \"panentheistic doctrine contains all of deism and pandeism except their arbitrary negations\". Charles Taylor, in his 2007 book \"A Secular Age\", showed the historical role of deism, leading to what he calls an exclusive humanism. This humanism invokes a moral order, whose ontic commitment is wholly intra-human, with no reference to transcendence. One of the special achievements of such deism-based humanism is that it discloses new, anthropocentric moral sources by which human beings are motivated and empowered to accomplish acts of mutual benefit. This is the province of a buffered, disengaged self, which is the locus of dignity, freedom and discipline, and is endowed with a sense of human capability. According to Taylor, by the early 19th century this deism-mediated exclusive humanism developed as an alternative to Christian faith in a personal God and an order of miracles and mystery. Some critics of deism have accused adherents of facilitating the rise of nihilism.", "The 2001 American Religious Identification Survey (ARIS) survey estimated that between 1990 and 2001 the number of self-identifying deists grew from 6,000 to 49,000, representing about 0.02% of the US population at the time. The 2008 ARIS survey found, based on their stated beliefs rather than their religious identification, that 70% of Americans believe in a personal God, roughly 12% are atheist or agnostic, and 12% believe in \"a deist or paganistic concept of the Divine as a higher power\" rather than a personal God. The term \"ceremonial deism\" was coined in 1962 and has been used since 1984 by the Supreme Court of the United States to assess exemptions from the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, thought to be expressions of cultural tradition and not earnest invocations of a deity. It has been noted that the term does not describe any school of thought within deism itself.", "In 1993, Bob Johnson created the World Union of Deists (WUD) which offered a monthly paper publication \"THINK!\" and two online deist publications, \"THINKonline!\" and \"Deistic Thought & Action!\" In 1996 WUD launched its web site deism.com. In 1998 the Virginia/Tennessee affiliate of WUD created the Sullivan-County.com web site to promote more traditional deist views.", "The positive deism movement began in 2004. Historically and to the present day, deists have been very critical of the revealed religions as well as trying to be constructive. Positive Deists focus their efforts solely on being constructive and avoid criticism of other faiths. In 2009 Chuck Clendenen, one of its adherents, published a book entitled \"Deist: so that's what I am!\". The aim of the book was to educate those who believed similarly but were unfamiliar with the words \"deism\" and \"deist\".", "In 2010, the Church of Deism (not affiliated with the World Union of Deists) was formed in an effort to extend the legal rights and privileges of more traditional religions to Deists while maintaining an absence of established dogma and ritual." ] }

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{ "title": [ "Projects.", "Turris Omnia.", "Project: Turris.", "DNSSEC.", "Háčkyčárky.cz.", "FRED.", "BIRD.", "mojeID.", "Knot DNS.", "National security team CSIRT.CZ.", "Academy.", "Laboratories.", "Domain history.", "Origin.", "Commercial Registrars.", "A new generation Decentralized System of Domains." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "2" ], "content": [ "", "Turris Omnia is a powerful and extensible open-source router. It features an open Linux based operating system with automatic updates and extra security measures. Besides being a router, Turris Omnia is powerful enough to serve as small home server. Turris Omnia was crowdfunded through a campaign on Indiegogo.", "The Turris project is a service that helps users to protect their home networks by using a special router. In addition to normal home router functions, it is also able to analyze traffic between the Internet and a home network and identify suspicious data streams. If such data stream is detected, the router alerts the Turris central of a possible attack like a watchtower (that is what Turris means in Latin). The system central is capable to compare data from many connected Turris routers and evaluate the detected threat. If an attack is detected, updates are created and distributed throughout the Turris network to help protect all other users.", "In early 2008, CZ.NIC started trial operation of the DNSSEC security technology; it was definitely launched in the.cz domain area in the fall of 2008. Czech Republic was the fifth country to introduce this security technology. At present, the Czech national domain with 35% of its domains being secured is among the gTLDs with the highest use of DNSSEC.", "Since 2004, the association pays attention to IDN, the system of domain names with diacritics. In connection with this, CZ.NIC operates the project “Háčkyčárky.cz” (“Acutescarons”), where Internet users can test whether their browsers and systems are compatible with the internationalized domains.", "FRED (Free Registry for ENUM and Domain) is a registration system for domain administration, developed by employees of CZ.NIC as open source. It was first implemented in 2006 for the Czech ENUM domain administration; the following year, FRED started to be used for.cz domains. More information, including installation packages can be found at http://fred.nic.cz. The software can be freely used, modified and redistributed under the conditions laid down by the appropriate licenses. Since September 2008, the FRED registration system has been used by Angola; in 2009 it was followed by Tanzania and a year later by the Faroe Islands, Costa Rica and Estonia. At the beginning of 2014, they were joined by Albania and Macedonia. It is running in a test mode in several other countries.", "An open source routing daemon BIRD was developed at the Faculty of Mathematics and Physics, Charles University, Prague, as a school project of three students (including Ondřej Filip, the current CEO of CZ.NIC). Important development of the project came about in 2009, when BIRD became one of the first object of activities of the CZ.NIC Laboratories. The routing daemon is one of the most used solutions for peering centers around the world; its abilities are utilized by the American PAIX, the Moscow MSK-IX, the Frankfurt DE-CIX, or the London LINX. The representatives of the latter routing node honored BIRD with LINX Award 2010.", "MojeID is a service that allows users of the Czech Internet to use single login data (username and password) for logging into different websites and web services. It eliminates the need for repetitive registration. MojeID can be used for all services that support specifically the mojeID service or at least the OpenID technology. MojeID also allows storing the user data in one secure place while keeping it up to date. Compared to OpenID, mojeID has a major advantage, which is different stages of identity verification. The first stage verifies that the user actually has access to the email box and mobile phone entered during registration. In the second stage, the user can request a further verification code to be sent to their postal address. The highest degree of verification is called validation, at which the user authentication is based on a personal visit to a CZ.NIC office, a valid electronic signature, or an officially certified written request. Within the.cz domain zone, mojeID is used by a large number of e-shops, news sites and even some municipalities that use the authentication system, for example, during quick surveys or polls among residents.", "Knot DNS is a powerful authoritative DNS server supporting all major DNS protocol functions including zone transfers, dynamic updates and DNSSEC extension. Main advantages of this open source solution are performance, scalability, speed and the ability to add or remove zones on the fly without server downtime. Knot DNS was presented to the Czech and international public in November 2011. Four months later, CZ.NIC released its first final version.", "Based on the agreement between the Czech Ministry of the Interior and CZ.NIC, from January 2011 the.cz domain administrator coordinates the national security team CSIRT.CZ. It participates in resolving incidents related to cyber security in networks operating in the Czech Republic.", "Specialized Learning Centre offers professional training in the field of Internet and web technologies. The lecturers of the CZ.NIC Academy are employees of the association, university professors and practitioners. CZ.NIC Academy operates two training centers - in Prague and Brno.", "CZ.NIC Laboratories is a development and research institute of the CZ.NIC association that is engaged in research on the Internet, Internet protocols, network operation analysis, passive and active monitoring and design of prototypes for further development within CZ.NIC. The work of CZ.NIC Laboratories is focused on the benefit of the local Internet community; however, the scope of its work is international.", "Domains have been registered in the Czech Republic since 1991. Back then, those were the now non-existent.cs domains for the former Czechoslovakia. The computing center at Institute of Chemical Technology in Prague was in charge of the registration. Today’s.cz Czech domain appeared with the disintegration of Czechoslovakia in 1993. The original rules for allocation of domains were relatively strict, as was usual at these times. The domain administrator also covered the costs of operation of the registration system and the registration, and the use of second-level domain names was free of charge. The importance of the Internet in the Czech Republic has been gradually growing, together with the number of applications for registration of new domain names. This development logically brought along the pressure to relax the allocation rules. The first major breakthrough in this respect occurred in 1997 — since then, registering domain names has been possible for natural person as well. Furthermore, the relationship of the applicant to the registered domain name has stopped to be questioned.", "With the increasing number of domain names, stronger position of the Internet in the commercial sector and the increasing costs of operating the system, it was necessary to institutionalize the registration process. Therefore, in 1998, the major ISPs represented in the NIX.CZ association founded an association of legal persons CZ.NIC. In September 1999, CZ.NIC officially took over the administration of the.cz domain. At the same time, the registration of second-level domain names became chargeable. In the period from September 1999 to 2003, there were further modifications and relaxation of the rules of domain registration. For example, a system of so-called special requests was established as a defense against speculators and in 2002, registration of domains without working name servers was allowed. The domain names identical to the endings of other top-level domains that had been blocked until then were released.", "At first, CZ.NIC had fulfilled the role of both registry administrator and the registrar. A fundamental change in this respect occurred in 2002, when there was a transition to more efficient decentralized domain administration. Thanks to this transition, other entities could enter the domain registration process. The aim of this measure was to separate the technical aspects of the operation of the registration system from the operation by domain names’ end holders and to introduce competitive environment, which would bring better services and lower prices, into the registration process. The decentralized domain administration system started its operation in autumn of 2003 and was immediately entered by first commercial registrars. Apart from commercial environment and price decrease, the decentralized system has brought other intriguing changes. The users have been enabled to register domains for a period longer than one year (up to 10 years), and the system have been further secured, in particular with respect to domain holder’s rights. Due to the decentralization and making domains accessible to public, domain disputes have become a frequent occurrence. That is why the association introduced an arbitration clause into the Registration Rules in 2004. This clause allows for resolving disputes through Arbitration Court attached to the Chamber of Commerce and the Agricultural Chamber of the Czech Republic. The registration now includes accepting the commitment to respect the decisions of the Arbitration Court, which has simplified and accelerated the dispute resolution.", "In 2005, the CZ.NIC association decided that it would operate system of registration and domain administration on its own. Until then the system administration had been outsourced. The aim of this change was to ensure greater flexibility in changes in the system and to reduce the cost of its operation. A new generation Decentralized System of Domains (DSDng) was launched on October 1, 2007. It brought an abrupt drop in wholesale prices, simplification of rules for.CZ domain registration and a significant increase in the number of registered domains. After half a year, there were 400,000 domains on the Czech Internet and the growth rate doubled compared to the previous year. DSDng runs on the basis of the FRED software, developed by employees of CZ.NIC as open source. In September 2008, the system was implemented by Angola, in 2009 it was followed by Tanzania and a year later by the Faroe Islands, Costa Rica and Estonia." ] }

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{ "title": [ "General information.", "Name.", "Coat of arms.", "Churches.", "Government.", "Municipal council.", "Mayor.", "Geography.", "Buildings and structures.", "Sister cities/Twin towns." ], "section_level": [ "1", "2", "2", "2", "1", "2", "2", "1", "1", "1" ], "content": [ "Leikanger was established as a municipality on 1 January 1838 (see formannskapsdistrikt law). The original municipality was large and it was identical to the old Leikanger parish \"(prestegjeld)\" with the six sub-parishes () of Leikanger, Fresvik, Rinde, Vangsnes, Tjugum, and Mundal. In 1849, the sub-parishes of Vangsnes, Tjugum, and Mundal were transferred into the newly created Balestrand parish \"(prestegjeld)\". The new parish was separated from Leikanger municipality in 1850 to form the new Balestrand Municipality. This split left Leikanger with 2,368 residents. During the 1960s, there were many municipal mergers across Norway due to the work of the Schei Committee. On 1 January 1964, the Hella-Eitorn area (population: 31) was transferred from Balestrand back to Leikanger. Also, the Tingstad area (population: 5) was transferred to neighboring Sogndal municipality. These changes left Leikanger with 2,680 residents. On 1 January 1992, the sub-parishes of Leikanger lying south of the Sognefjorden, including Feios and Fresvik (total population: 572) were transferred to the municipality of Vik. This move left Leikanger with only one sub-parish: Leikanger. On 1 January 2020, Leikanger was merged with the neighboring municipalities of Balestrand and Sogndal to form a much larger municipality called Sogndal.", "The municipality (originally the parish) is named after the old farm \"Leikanger\" (), since the first Leikanger Church was built there. The first element is \"leikr\" which means \"sports\" or \"athletics\" and the last element is the plural form of \"vangr\" which means \"meadow\". Prior to 1889, the name was written \"Lekanger\".", "The coat of arms was granted on 5 September 1963. The arms are green with a yellow-colored apple tree branch with two apples and three leaves attached. The apple tree branch is a symbol for the many orchards in the municipality and thus for the local economy. The three leaves symbolised the three parishes that used to make up the municipality (before two of them were transferred to Vik in 1992).", "The Church of Norway had one parish () within the municipality of Leikanger. It was part of the Sogn prosti (deanery) in the Diocese of Bjørgvin.", "All municipalities in Norway, including Leikanger, are responsible for primary education (through 10th grade), outpatient health services, senior citizen services, unemployment and other social services, zoning, economic development, and municipal roads. The municipality is governed by a municipal council of elected representatives, which in turn elect a mayor. The municipality falls under the Sogn og Fjordane District Court and the Gulating Court of Appeal.", "The municipal council of Leikanger was made up of 17 representatives that were elected to four year terms. The party breakdown of the final municipal council was as follows:", "The mayor \"(ordførar)\" of a municipality in Norway is a representative of the municipal council who is elected either by the majority of the council. Jon Håkon Odd of the Labour Party was elected mayor for the 2015-2019 term.", "Leikanger is located on the north side of the Sognefjorden and to the east of the Fjærlandsfjorden. It is bordered on the north and east by the municipality of Sogndal, on the west by Balestrand, and on the south (across the Sognefjorden) by Vik.", "East of Leikanger, there are the Sognefjord Spans, three powerline spans with length over, which are currently the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th longest spans in the world. In 1955, the first Sognefjord Span was built near Leikanger. It was the longest span in the world from 1955 until 1997.", "Leikanger has sister city agreements with the following places:" ] }